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Demographics of El Salvador
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This is a demography of the population of El Salvador including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
El Salvador's population numbers 6.03 million. Ethnically, 86.3% of Salvadorans are mixed (mixed Native Salvadoran and European (mostly Spanish) origin). Another 12.7% is of pure European descent, 1% are of pure indigenous descent, 0.16% are black and others are 0.64%.
==Population size and structure==
El Salvador's population was in , compared to 2,200,000 in 1950. In 2010 the percentage of the population below the age of 15 was 32.1%, 61% were between 15 and 65 years of age, while 6.9% were 65 years or older.
=== Structure of the population ===
{{Hidden begin
|title= Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2011) (Estimates based on the 2007 Population Census) :
The number of indigenous people in El Salvador have been criticized by indigenous organizations and academics as too small and accuse the government of denying the existence of indigenous Salvadorans in the country. According to the National Salvadoran Indigenous Coordination Council (CCNIS) and CONCULTURA (National Council for Art and Culture at the Ministry of Education ), approximately 70,000 or 1 per cent of Salvadorian peoples are indigenous. Nonetheless, very few Amerindians have retained their customs and traditions, having over time assimilated into the dominant Mestizo/Spanish culture. The low numbers of indigenous people may be partly explained by historically high rates of old-world diseases, absorption into the Mestizo population, as well as mass murder during the 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising (or La Matanza) which saw (estimates of) up to 30,000 peasants killed in a short period of time. Many authors note that since La Matanza the indigenous in El Salvador have been very reluctant to describe themselves as such (in census declarations for example) or to wear indigenous dress or be seen to be taking part in any cultural activities or customs that might be understood as indigenous. Departments and cities in the country with notable indigenous populations include Sonsonate (especially Izalco, Nahuizalco, Cuisnahuat, San Antonio del Monte, and Santo Domingo), Cacaopera, San Simón and Panchimalco, in the department of San Salvador. Historical evidence and census supports the explanation of "strong sexual asymmetry", as a result of a strong bias favoring matings between European males and Native Salvadoran females, and to statistically significant indigenous male mortality during the Conquest. The genetics thus suggests the native men were sharply reduced in numbers due to the war and disease. Large numbers of Spaniard men settled in the region and had children with the local women. The Natives were forced to adopt Spanish names, language, and religion, and in this way, the Lencas and Pipil women and children were Westernised. A vast majority over 90% of Salvadorans are Mestizo/Native Salvadoran.
===European Salvadorans===
====Spanish Salvadorans====
FamiliaespañoladeGalicia.png|A Galician Spanish family in the Chalatenango Department of El Salvador
Salarue y su madre.jpg|Salarrué and his mother. Salarrué was an important Salvadoran writer, poet, and painter. Of Spanish descent, his father Alejandro Arrué Jimenez came to El Salvador from the Basque Country
Pedro de Alvarado (Tomás Povedano).jpg|Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado and his army first entered territories of what is now El Salvador in 1524, founding the city of San Salvador in 1525.
File:Manuel José Arce de El Salvador.jpg|General Manuel José Arce; decorated Salvadoran General and president of the Federal Republic of Central America from 1825 to 1829
Spaniards began to settle in El Salvador in the mid-1520s. Some 12.7% of Salvadorans are white. This population is made up of those of Spanish origin, while there are also Salvadorans of French, German, Swiss, English, Irish, and Italian descent. A majority of Central European settlers in El Salvador arrived during World War II as refugees from the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Switzerland with many settling in the region that is now Chalatenango in the late 18th century. In 1789, Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet was named governor of El Salvador. Because the local indigenous population working in the indigo industry had declined greatly, Carondolet recruited Spanish laborers from northern Spain to settle in El Salvador. In 1790, de Carondelet, ordered families from the north of Spain (Galicia, Asturias, the Basque Country, Cantabria and Navarra) to settle in the area to compensate for the lack of indigenous people to work the land; Important settlements of these Spaniards were the Northern and Center parts of El Salvador. Their descendants are among the blonde and fair-skinned people of today's Chalatenango Department.
During 1880 to 1920, El Salvador had its Migratory Peak of Immigrants from Europe, as well as immigrants from nearby countries, Asians and other North Americans, when more than 120,000 arrived in El Salvador, the demographic weight was unprecedented, in 1880 the Population was of 480,000 inhabitants and by 1920 it was already 1,170,000. the main groups were the Spanish, Italians, Germans and some French, Polish and British
====French Salvadorans====
Francesafamiliasv.png|French family in San Salvador, circa 1910–1915.
Salvador y familia Salvador Llort.jpg|Salvador Llort Choussy and his family. Salvador Llort and his brother Fernando Llort were artists, painters and sculpturists who are noted for their contribution in modern Salvadoran art often dubbed "El Salvador's National Artist"
The French Immigration to the Republic of El Salvador was an important movement that the country received between the 19th century and the middle of the 20th century. Between 1850 and 1870, the French formed the largest foreign group in El Salvador. Later in 1940 to 1950, they formed one of the largest groups in the country, only surpassed by the Spanish and Italians. Between 1850 and 1870, El Salvador was the main recipient of French in Central America, most were merchants and businessmen together with their families.
It is estimated that between 1850 and 1950, more than 7,000 French emigrated to El Salvador, the majority came from Aquitaine, Occitania and the Alps. Between 1850 and 1870, 2,000 French arrived in El Salvador; between 1911 and 1937, 2,000 French entered the country, and finally in 1938 to 1945, 2,500 French entered the country. French immigration at that time greatly influenced the economy and education.
Since the colonial period there is a record of French in Salvadoran territory, in which several French corsairs and French pirates stand out In 1850. Several French businessmen and merchants left for El Salvador to work in different types of jobs such as commerce, planting of sugar cane, industry and cultivation of coffee. During that time 2,000 French arrived in the territory, most were wealthy families and merchants. Most of the French who would arrive between 1880 and 1910 were merchants and professionals, but from 1911 to 1937, immigration would begin to shine again for various reasons. Many businessmen and merchants arrived in Salvadoran territory, at that time French investment in El Salvador was equal to that of the United States. During that period of time 2,000 French entered El Salvador. According to historical records, the French were the third largest group of foreigners in the country, only surpassed by the Spanish and Italians.
The majority of the French who arrived in the national territory first came from Corsica later in 1850 to 1950, the majority of the French who arrived in the territory were from Aquitaine, Occitanie and Rhône-Alpes but also Paris and other parts of the Alps, most of the French settled in San Salvador, however the City of Santa Tecla in the La Libertad Department (El Salvador) historically received large numbers of French Immigrants, other places with significant numbers are Santa Ana and Antiguo Cuscatlán.
====German Salvadorans====
Germans in Berlin El Salvador.png|German Salvadoran immigrants in Berlín, Usulután, German settlement in El Salvador
German Family in El Salvador 1930-1940.png|German family in Santa Tecla, El Salvador, circa 1930–1940
German immigration to El Salvador was a migratory movement that began between 1880 and 1940, when the largest influx of Germans is recorded. The first Germans in El Salvador joined their mostly wealthy families in 1870 establishing coffee shops. At that time El Salvador had implemented the liberal reforms that attracted thousands of immigrants from Europe, Middle East and Asia, as well as the German immigration in the country, more families migrated to El Salvador and the agricultural land was also distributed. The main settlements of these families were the coffee-growing areas and also large cities like Nueva San Salvador now known as Santa Tecla, San Salvador, Chalatenango, Cuscatlan, Usulután and other areas where German immigrants saw economic opportunities in the country, they excelled in industry, commerce and farming.
By 1890, Germans were one of the country's largest immigrant groups and were able to settle and stand out from the crowd of other European immigrants. Germans numbers in El Salvador later increased, their descendants were much more than the number of German immigrants living in El Salvador. There were cities founded by German families, like Berlín, Usulután which is a very clear example of a settlement founded by a German. Later other Germans families came to the area. North of El Salvador, specifically what is now north of Metapan and Chalatenango, existed German settlements.
The Usulutan department was the area with the greatest presence of Germans in El Salvador. The Germans started arriving in the early 1900s and settled down to produce coffee.
The book, “The Population of El Salvador”, by Rodolfo Barón Castro, published in 1942, shows one of the first Statistical Census published by the Central Office of Migration in 1937; there it indicated that the four largest groups of immigrants in El Salvador, at that time, were made up of Spaniards, Palestinians, Italians and Germans. Germans arrived in the country in the early 1900s and, along with Italians, French and other Europeans, helped develop roads and build the Port of El Triunfo.
In addition, from the municipality of Berlín, Usulután there was a direct route to reach Puerto El Triunfo; an ideal route to transport the merchandise they produced and to obtain work materials.
It was the meeting point where German descendants and those close to Germany met to do their business because the farms were somewhat distant. They found in this part of El Salvador a center of excellence to live or develop, but they also needed to have a place to meet on weekends, to go and talk, which is typical of the cultures of these peoples: to have a meeting point.
The settlement was also agricultural. In 1958, the German Embassy in El Salvador founded the "Círculo Cultural Salvadoreño-Alemán", (German-Salvadoran cultural circle) to promote cultural exchange between Germany and El Salvador. The German School was dedicated on March 3, 1965, the Salvadoran German Cultural Forum has been celebrating every second Friday in November since 2006 Gardens of the Hilton Princess Hotel Oktoberfest. More than 700 people/families take part participate in a typically German dinner, German music and a typically German parade enjoy costumes. The traditional "Beer Festival" will continue thanks to the sponsorship of La Constancia and organized by German companies. The city of San Salvador, since 2011 in the third October week the Oktoberfest Pilsener celebrated in the exhibition and congress center. More than 27,000 people attended the 2013 edition, which became the largest Octoberfest in Central America. Over four days of festivities, participants enjoy traditional German cuisine and music, as well as a large selection of beers, some of which are made exclusively for the event.
Germany is one of the main European Union trading partners of El Salvador and is the largest importer of Salvadoran coffee. The Chamber of Commerce German-Salvadoran consists of around 85 companies. In addition to a German school in San Salvador.
====Italian Salvadorans====
Italianosenelsalvadorpng.png|Massive documentation of Italian immigrants in San Salvador, during the 20th century
Juan Aberle.JPG|Juan Aberle, Italian-Salvadoran who composed the National Anthem of El Salvador
Alfredo Cristiani.jpg|Alfredo Cristiani, former president of El Salvador, descendant of Italian immigrants
Italian Immigration in El Salvador refers to the movement of Italians to the Republic of El Salvador and one of the most historically important movements in El Salvador. The Italo-Salvadorans are one of the largest European communities in the country, and one of the largest in Central America and the Caribbean, as well as one of those with the greatest social and cultural weight in America.
During the mid-nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century, waves of Italian immigrants from all regions of Italy were registered and arrived, mainly from northern Italy and southern Italy, the first Italians who arrived in the country were mainly from the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, and also from the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which include several Italians from different cities and provinces, since 1880, there has been a flow from all Italian regions but mainly from the south of the peninsula. highlighting regions such as Campania, Basilicata, Apulia and Sicily.
There is a record of Italians residing and arriving in the country since 1850, who came from the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, several intellectuals, merchants and other lower-middle class Italians stand out, during those years several boats arrived to the country mainly from important port cities of Italy, which include Naples, Genoa and Palermo, most of these Italians entered through the port of La Libertad and in the East of the country, during that time the Italians in the country did not exceed 2,000, however in the following years the number of arrivals would grow more.
By 1870, more boats arrived from Naples and Genoa, ranging from 30 to 60 Italian immigrants, but many merchants also entered the country every day. During that period of time, the country created very free immigration reforms, which attracted more immigrants from the world, many Italians arrived between 1876 and 1879, several boats to the country stand out, mainly from Campania and Liguria, between 1870 and 1879, it is estimated that more than 2,500 Italians entered the country, at that time El Salvador was the main receiver of Italians in Central America, mainly attracted by various agricultural opportunities. In 1880 to 1889, more than 2,000 Italians arrived in the country mainly from Campania and Piedmont, many boats of more than 100 Italian immigrants arrived at the Salvadoran coasts, these boats sailed from Naples and Liguria, this time was highlighted by arrivals of lower-class Italians and some professionals, however, also there were nuns and priests who came to the country to found several churches, schools and important organizations. In 1890, Italian immigration grew exponentially, it is estimated that between 1890 and 1899, more than 6,500 Italians arrived in the country, the vast majority arrived at the port of La Libertad, several architects and other Italian professionals arrived, such as those who built the Santa Ana Theater.
In 1890, many Salesians arrived in the country from Turin, they set sail on ships full of Italian immigrants and arrived at the port of La Libertad Department (El Salvador), many stayed in the city of Santa Tecla, El Salvador, where they founded various organizations and schools such as the Colegio Santa Cecilia, which It was founded in 1899 by Italians.
In 1898, the first Italian organization was founded in El Salvador and the first in Central America, the Sociedad de Asistencia y Beneficencia entre Italianos en El Salvador, better known as the Italian Assistenza, the objective of this organization is to help newly arrived Italians to get a job and help them financially while they got it.
=====Twentieth century=====
The time was characterized by the massive entry of Italians into the country, between 1900 and 1909 more than 10,000 Italians arrived in the country from all Italian regions, at that time, El Salvador was the second largest recipient of Italian immigrants in Central America, many seeking better opportunities for their businesses and improve their quality of life, where several merchants and Italians entering the country stand out, many standing out in areas such as Education, Music, Agriculture, Industry, Commerce and infrastructure.
Between 1910 and 1919, other thousands of Italians enter as they register more than 6,000 arrivals in the country, the Italians easily adapted to the country and more Italians arrived in the country every day, El Salvador at that time managed to reach the main recipient of Italians in Central America, between 1920 and 1929, several Italian merchants and professionals arrived, but also lower-class Italians, many set up their businesses, in 1930, Italian immigration was paralyzed for various reasons, between 1930 and 1939, it is estimated that more than 1,000 Italians They arrived in the country and many set up their businesses.
In 1940, due to the Second World War, a large migratory wave of thousands of Italians emigrating to the country begins, where several merchants and Italians who wanted to improve their quality of life stand out, this time was characterized by the entry of several refugees, and Italians, most of whom came from northern Italy.
Between 1960 and 1980, several Franciscans arrived in the country, many founded schools and organizations to help the Salvadoran people, and also to reactivate the Italian culture in the country.
In 1989 a son of Italians, Alfredo Cristiani, was elected President of El Salvador. After five difficult years, his term ended in 1994, leaving his nation stabilized from the civil war that had plagued it for 20 years.
Italian immigration to El Salvador was a very large movement that the country received, from 1850 to 1929, it is estimated that more than 32,000 Italians arrived in the small country, looking for job opportunities and improvements in their quality of life, but the migratory peak It was between 1880 and 1930, when thousands of Italians from all regions arrived in El Salvador, the main recipients of Italians in America were the United States, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and other countries in the region, although El Salvador received large amounts of Italian immigrants and at the American level is one that has had more weight socially and culturally.
=====Italian immigrants occupations and age=====
The Italians who arrived in the mid-nineteenth century were mostly middle class or poor, many were farmers and workers who came to the country to look for work, several merchants also arrived, according to some records, the Italians who arrived in the country between 1850 and 1870, were many families, who on average were between 22 and 26 years old, more 60% of immigrants who arrived in the country were men and 40% were women.
From 1870 to 1879, 2,5000 Italians arrived in the country, 63.5% were men, the average age was around 20 to 30 years and the majority were merchants, workers and farmers, between 1880 and 1889, they emigrated to the country around 2,000 Italians, 64% men and 44% women, age ranged widely, from 2 years to 50 years old, most were merchants, laborers and farmers, with increasing arrivals of priests, nuns and preachers. Between 1890 and 1891, the second highest peak was recorded, when 6,500 Italians entered El Salvador, the average age was around 20 to 30 years, and the most numerous occupations were merchants, workers, farmers, priests, nuns, teachers. and architects. The highest peak of Italian immigration in the country occurred between 1900 and 1909, when 10,000 Italians emigrated to the country looking for a better future, 60% were men and 40% women, and the average age was around 20 years. 30 years of age, the most numerous occupations were workers, merchants and some teachers, for 1910 to 1919, more than 6,000 Italians entered El Salvador, this year is distinguished by a growth of immigrants who are women with around 43% and 57% are men, the age varies between 3 years and 50 years, later, between 1920 and 1930, the majority who arrived in the country were engaged in commerce, agriculture and other businesses and activities.
=====Italian settlements in El Salvador=====
The first Italians who entered the country settled in Santa Ana and San Miguel. Others settled mainly in the east of the country, in San Miguel, Usulután and La Unión. In the north of the country, in Chalatenango, several groups of Italians also settled.
The southern Italians settled mainly in San Miguel, Santa Ana, San Salvador and other departments of the country, where several cities stand out. Santa Tecla was the one that received the greatest demographic weight due to Italian immigration, since it became the capital, they arrived various Italian communities.
The Lucanians, Campanians, Sicilians and Pulleses, had their main destinations in San Salvador, Santa Ana and San Miguel Department (El Salvador), while the northern Italians: the Piedmontese, Venetians, Ligurians and Lombards settled mainly in La Libertad, San Salvador, Chalatenango, Santa Ana and San Miguel. Several Italians settled in the department of Sonsonate, particularly from Castelnuovo di Conza in the Campania region, and Usulután received several Italian farmers from northern Italy, also in La Unión where several southerners and northerners settled, mainly Piedmontese and Calabrian. In the other departments of the country, minority but visible groups of Italians settled. succeeding in trade and agriculture.
===Afro-Salvadorans===
US Navy 090628-N-6259S-001 Capt. Amber Heller examines a Salvadoran child's teeth during a Continuing Promise 2009 medical community service project in Loma Larga, El Salvador.jpg|Salvadoran boy in La Unión, El Salvador
Inauguración paso multinivel Naciones Unidas 17 (25563138010).jpg|Salvadoran girl in San Salvador
Afro-Salvadorans, called Pardo and sometimes Afro-Mestizos in the colonial period, are the descendants of the African population that were enslaved and shipped to El Salvador to work in mines in specific regions of El Salvador. They have mixed into and were naturally bred out by the general Mestizo population, which is a combination of a Mestizo majority and the minority of African descendants, both of whom are racially mixed populations. Thus, there remains no significant extremes of African physiognomy among Salvadorans like there is in the other countries of Central America. A total of only 10,000 African slaves were brought to El Salvador over the span of 75 years, starting around 1548, about 25 years after El Salvador's colonization. El Salvador is the only country in Central America that does not have English Antillean (West Indian) or Garifuna populations of the Caribbean, but instead had older colonial African slaves that came straight from Africa. This is the reason why El Salvador is the only country in Central America not to have a caribbeanized culture, and instead preserved its classical Central America culture.
===Jewish Salvadorans===
El Salvador nationality documents to Jews.png|Representation of documents that were given to a Jewish family from Central Europe. Most of the Jews that came to El Salvador were from Germany, Poland, Hungary and Switzerland. 40,000 people were saved with Salvadoran citizenship documents like these, given by José Castellanos Contreras and José Gustavo Guerrero
There is a small community of Jews who came to El Salvador from France, Germany, Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey. Some Jews also arrived as World War II refugees.
Since colonial times, there is a record of Jews in Latin America, in El Salvador there is a record of several Jewish immigrations from Portugal, after the independence of El Salvador, it is believed that the first Jewish immigrant was Bernardo Haas, born in Alsace. Subsequently, the first documented German Jew arrived in the country in 1888, according to scholar Jessica Alpert. France and Central Europe were the main countries of origin of this contemporary Jewish migration, the majority were Ashkenazi and Sephardic, they stayed permanently in El Salvador.
The immigration laws of El Salvador were very free between 1821 and 1930, however they changed after 1930, but these strict laws culminated in 1940, during the Second World War several Ashkenazi Jewish refugees arrived mainly from Hungary, Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Slovakia and France, giving them several documents of Salvadoran nationality.
At present the Jewish community in El Salvador is quite small, however there are a considerable number of descendants and they have stood out in society, as are several businessmen and politicians of Jewish origin, such as Ernesto Muyshondt, Gabriela Rodríguez de Bukele and Bernard Lewinsky.
===Gypsies in El Salvador===
Flag of the Romani people.svg|Romani people
The Gypsy caravans in El Salvador in the 20th century. The city of Santa Tecla, El Salvador was one of the places where there were Gypsy camps in El Salvador in the first decades of the 20th century. On May 7, 1926, newspapers from the city of San Miguel, El Salvador reported that within its urban area there was a nomadic community of Gypsies, who were also called Hungarians or Magyars (for Magyar or Hungary, an area from which they then belonged) believed that they were originally from), Gypsies or "peroleros", a designation due to the huge pots or pans that they always carried in their wagons and with which they prepared community meals between huge wood-fired stoves.
In 1929, the writer Francisco Miranda Ruano would remember "The tired Gypsies of that day" from his distant childhood and whose adventures opened his vocation as a writer. The propagation of theosophical, fascist and national socialist ideas among soldiers and civilians in El Salvador in the 1920s and 1930s created an adverse environment for the periodic arrival of the Gypsy people in El Salvador. The maximum expression of this mental and cultural closure occurred during the dictatorial government of Brigadier Maximiliano Hernández Martínez, issued the Law of Migration that prohibited the entry of Blacks, Arabs, Turks, Chinese and Gypsies into the country. This cause Gypsies in El Salvador to hide their identity.
The Romani Holocaust in Nazi Europe from 1935 to 1945, killed thousands of Gypsy people. Some of them were able to save themselves from that sad fate, thanks to the thousands of Salvadoran nationality certificates issued, in a clandestine operation, by the Salvadoran consul in Geneva, Colonel José Castellanos Contreras, José Gustavo Guerrero and his Transylvanian-Jewish secretary George Mandel-Mantello.
In the 1980s, the writer Claribel Alegría included the character "The Gypsy" in her novel Alice in the Land of Reality, which functioned as a rebellious and feminist conscience within the literary structure of the work. At the same time, it turned out be a tribute to the Gypsy caravans that once passed through Santa Ana, Sonsonate, Nahulingo, Usulután, Santiago de María, Chalatenango, San Miguel, La Unión and many towns, streets, cities and other local territories of El Salvador.
More than eight decades after such terrible racist legislation, the Romani language is no longer heard in Salvadoran territory. In the Romani language, the father of the family is called "Shero Rom", and it is theorized that it could be the origin of the Salvadoran word “Chero” to designate a friend.
===Arab Salvadorans===
Arabelsalvador.png|Arab Salvadorans include Palestinian Salvadoran, Lebanese Salvadoran, Syrian Salvadoran and Egyptian Salvadoran.
File:Palestinian family in El Salvador 1910.png|Manzue family from Bethlehem Palestine, arrived to El Salvador in 1910
File:Palestinos Salvdoreños 1920-1925.png|Khader (Cader) family migrated from Palestine to El Salvador, circa 1925
File:Palestinos en El Salvador 1952.png|Palestinian family in Usulután El Salvador 1952
Palestian free- palestian children in El Salvador.png|Palestinian children refugees in El Salvador
Palestian day in salvadoran club arabe.png|Children of Palestinian ancestry celebrating (Palestinian Day) at the Club Arabe Salvadoreño "Arab-Salvadoran Club"
El Salvador apoya Palestina como Estado Legitomo XDDDDDD ISRAEL JUDIA NO ES UN ESTADO XDDDD ISRAEL MULTIRELIGIOSA SI LO ES.png|Descendants of Palestinians take a picture beside a bust of Yasir Arafat, San Salvador
There is a significant Arab population (of about 100,000); mostly from Palestine (especially from the area of Bethlehem), but also from Lebanon. Salvadorans of Palestinian descent numbered around 70,000 individuals, while Salvadorans of Lebanese descent is around 25,000.
The history of the Arabs in El Salvador dates back to the end of the 19th century, when religious clashes in the Ottoman Empire induced many Palestinians, Lebanese, Egyptians, Tunisians, Algerians, Iraqis, Omani, Saudis and Syrians to leave the land where they were born and travel to El Salvador in search of a place where they could live in relative peace. For similar reasons Turkish people and Persian Christians from Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan also arrived to El Salvador around the same time. There were also economic factors that contributed to immigration from the Middle East; many immigrants felt they could achieve success abroad on a level they couldn't in their native lands.
The first wave of Arab migration to El Salvador began between 1880 and 1920, amidst a large scale influx of immigrants to the country. These Arabs settled in the cities of San Salvador, San Miguel, Santa Ana, Santa Tecla, Usulutan and La Union. The population of El Salvador increased from 482,400 in 1879 to 1,168,000 in 1920, with immigration, including immigration from the late Ottoman Empire, substantially driving growth.
Arab immigration in El Salvador began at the end of the 19th century in the wake of the repressive policies applied by the Ottoman Empire against Maronite Catholics. Several of the destinations that the Lebanese chose at that time were in countries of the Americas, including El Salvador. This resulted in the Arab diaspora residents being characterized by forging in devoutly Christian families and very attached to their beliefs, because in these countries they can exercise their faith without fear of persecution, which resulted in the rise of Lebanese-Salvadoran, Syrian-Salvadoran and Palestinian-Salvadoran communities in El Salvador.
Currently, the Palestinian community forms the largest Arab diaspora population in El Salvador, with 70,000 direct descendants, followed by the Lebanese community with more than 27,000 direct descendants. Both are almost entirely composed of Catholic and Orthodox Christians. The slaughter of Lebanese and Palestinian Arab Christians at the hands of Muslims initiated the first Arab migrations to El Salvador.
Inter-ethnic marriage in the Lebanese community with Salvadorans, regardless of religious affiliation, is very high; most have only one father with Lebanese nationality and mother of Salvadoran nationality. As a result, some of them speak Arabic fluently. But most, especially among younger generations, speak Spanish as a first language and Arabic as a second.
During the war between Israel and Lebanon in 1948 and during the Six-Day War, thousands of Lebanese left their country and went to El Salvador. Many arrived at La Libertad, where they comprised half of the economic activity of immigrants.
Lebanon had been an iqta of the Ottoman Empire. Although the imperial administration, whose official religion was Islam, guaranteed freedom of worship for non-Muslim communities, and Lebanon in particular had a semi-autonomous status, the situation for practitioners of the Maronite Catholic Church was complicated, since they had to cancel exaggerated taxes and suffered limitations for their culture. These tensions were expressed in a rebellion in 1821 and a war against the Druze in 1860. The hostile climate caused many Lebanese to sell their property and take ships in the ports of Sidon, Beirut and Tripoli heading for the Americas.
Arab-Salvadoreans and their descendants have traditionally played an outsized role in El Salvador's economic and political life, with many becoming business leaders and noteworthyt political figures.
In 1939, the Arab community based in San Salvador organized and founded the "Arab Youth Union Society"
==Emigration==
The migration rate accelerated during the period of 1979 to 1981, this marked the beginning of the civil unrest and the spread of political killings. The total impact of civil wars, dictatorships and socioeconomics drove over a million Salvadorans (both as immigrants and refugees) into the United States; Guatemala is the second country that hosts more Salvadorans behind the United States, approximately 110,000 Salvadorans according to the national census of 2010. in addition small Salvadoran communities sprung up in Canada, Australia, Belize, Panama, Costa Rica, Italy, Taiwan and Sweden since the migration trend began in the early 1970s. The 2010 U.S. census counted 1,648,968 Salvadorans in the United States, up from 655,165 in 2000.
|
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"southern Italians",
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9,360 |
Politics of El Salvador
|
Politics of El Salvador takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of El Salvador is both head of state and head of government, and of an executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. El Salvador was ranked 5th least electoral democratic country in Latin America and the Caribbean according to V-Dem Democracy indices in 2023 with a score of 0.378 out of 1.
== Political culture ==
El Salvador has a multi-party system. Three political parties Nuevas Ideas (NI), the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) have tended to dominate elections since the end of the civil war. ARENA candidates won four consecutive presidential elections until the election of Mauricio Funes of the FMLN in March 2009. In 2014, he was followed by another FMLN president, Salvador Sánchez Cerén.
The 2019 election was won by Nayib Bukele as the candidate of the center-right Grand Alliance for National Unity (GANA) party. In February 2021, El Salvador's legislative election was an important breakthrough. The new party, founded by President Bukele, Nuevas Ideas (NI), won around two-thirds of votes with its allies (NI–GANA). His party won a supermajority of 56 seats in the 84-seat legislature. Bukele became the country's most powerful leader in three decades.
On 4 February 2024, President Nayib Bukele, won re-election with 83% of the vote in general election. His party Nuevas Ideas (New Ideas) won 58 of the El Salvador parliament's 60 seats.
Before the Bukele era, the departments of the central region, especially the capital and the coastal regions, known as departamentos rojos, or red departments, were mostly left-wing while the departamentos azules, or blue departments, in the east, western and highland regions were generally conservative.
==Executive branch ==
| rowspan="2" | President
| Nayib Bukele
| Nuevas Ideas
| 1 June 2019
|}
El Salvador elects its head of state, the President of El Salvador, directly through a fixed-date general election whose winner is decided by absolute majority. If an absolute majority is not achieved by any candidate in the first round of a presidential election, then a run-off pool election is conducted 30 days later between the two candidates who obtained the most votes in the first round. The president serves a five-year term. He is barred from immediately succeeding himself, though previously elected presidents may run for a second, non-consecutive term.
In September 2021, El Salvador's Supreme Court decided to allow President Nayib Bukele to run for a second term in the 2024 election, despite the Constitution prohibiting the president from serving two consecutive terms in office. The decision was made by judges appointed to the court by President Bukele. On 1 June 2024, President Nayib Bukele was sworn in for the second five-year term.
==Legislative branch==
Salvadorans also elect a single-chamber, unicameral national legislature, the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador, of 60 members (deputies) elected by open-list proportional representation for three-year terms, with the possibility of immediate re-election.
==Judicial branch==
The Judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court, is composed of 15 judges, one of them being elected as President of the Judiciary.
== Foreign relations ==
El Salvador is a member of the United Nations and several of its specialized agencies, the Organization of American States (OAS), the Central American Common Market (CACM), the Central American Parliament (PARLACEN), and the Central American Integration System (SICA). It actively participates in the Central American Security Commission (CASC), which seeks to promote regional arms control.
El Salvador also is a member of the World Trade Organization and is pursuing regional free trade agreements. An active participant in the Summit of the Americas process, El Salvador chairs a working group on market access under the Free Trade Area of the Americas initiative.
|
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9,361 |
Economy of El Salvador
|
{{Infobox economy
| country = El Salvador
| image = World Trade Center San Salvador.jpg
| caption = Headquarters of World Trade Center San Salvador
| currency =
| year = calendar year
| organs = WTO, CAFTA-DR, SICA
| group =
| population = 6.83 million (2021 est.)
| gdp =
The economy of El Salvador has experienced relatively low rates of GDP growth, in comparison to other developing countries. Rates have not risen above the low single digits in nearly two decades – part of a broader environment of macroeconomic instability which the integration of the United States dollar has done little to improve. One problem that the Salvadoran economy faces is the inequality in the distribution of income. In 2011, El Salvador had a Gini coefficient of .485, which although similar to that of the United States, leaves 37.8% of the population below the poverty line, due to lower aggregate income. The richest 10% of the population receives approximately 15 times the income of the poorest 40%.
Having this hard currency buffer to work with, the Salvadoran government undertook a monetary integration plan beginning 1 January 2001, by which the U.S. dollar became legal tender alongside the colón, and all formal accounting was undertaken in U.S. dollars. This way, the government has formally limited its possibility of implementing open market monetary policies to influence short term variables in the economy. Since 2004, the colón stopped circulating and is now never used in the country for any type of transaction; however some stores still have prices in both colons and U.S. dollars. In general, people were unhappy with the shift from the colón to the U.S. dollar, because wages are still the same but the price of everything increased. Some economists claim this rise in prices would have been caused by inflation regardless, even had the shift not been made. Some economists also contend that now, according to Gresham's law, a reversion to the colón would be disastrous to the economy. The change to the dollar also precipitated a trend toward lower interest rates in El Salvador, helping many to secure credit in order to buy a house or a car. Over time, displeasure with the change has largely disappeared, though the issue resurfaces as a political tool when elections are on the horizon.
In June 2021, president Nayib Bukele said he would introduce legislation to make Bitcoin legal tender in El Salvador. The Bitcoin Law was passed by the Legislative Assembly on 9 June 2021, with a majority vote of 62 out of 84. Bitcoin officially became legal tender ninety days after the publication of the law in the official gazette. As part of the law, foreigners can gain permanent residence in El Salvador if they invest 3 Bitcoin into the country. In January 2022, The International Monetary Fund (IMF) urged El Salvador to reverse its decision to make cryptocurrency Bitcoin legal tender. Bitcoin had rapidly lost about half of its value, meaning economic difficulties for El Salvador. President Bukele had announced his plans to build a Bitcoin city at the base of a volcano in El Salvador. In the first 18 months of Bitcoin adoption, the cryptocurrency was rarely used by the local population or tourists, leaving USD the de facto standard for transactions.
In 2021, El Salvador received a $40 million loan for small enterprises and projects for climate action, from the European Investment Bank to the country's development bank, Banco de Desarollo de el Salvador. $20 million will be used to assist investments in renewable energy projects, specifically photovoltaics, biogas, and micro hydro projects. Up to 50% of the loan line will be used to assist small and medium-sized enterprises who were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.
== Public sector ==
File:Departments of El Salvador named.svg|Departments of El Salvador
File:Office Buildings San Salvador.JPG|Centro Financiero Gigante (CFG) is a full five tower complex of office buildings located in San Salvador
File:Citi san salvador.jpg|Cuscatlan Bank is headquartered at Torre Cuscatlán
File:Edificio-banco-agricola-sv.png|Banco Agrícola headquarter in San Salvador
File:La Gran Via.JPG|Lifestyle Center La Gran Via is one of many giant malls in El Salvador
File:Cajero Bitcoin El Zonte, El Salvador.jpg|An Athena Bitcoin ATM in El Salvador
File:Personas Cajero Bitcoin El Salvador.jpg|Salvadorans using an Athena Bitcoin ATM
Fiscal policy has been one of the biggest challenges for the Salvadoran government. In December 1999, net international reserves equaled US$1.8 billion. Having this hard currency buffer to work with, the Salvadoran government undertook a monetary integration plan beginning in January 2001 by which the U.S. dollar became legal tender alongside the Salvadoran colón, and all formal accounting was done in U.S. dollars. With the adoption of the U.S. dollar, El Salvador lost control over monetary policy. Any counter-cyclical policy response to the downturn must be through fiscal policy, which is constrained by legislative requirements for a two-thirds majority to approve any international financing.
The 1992 peace accords committed the government to heavy expenditures for transition programs and social services. The stability adjustment programs (PAE, for the initials in Spanish) initiated by president Cristiani's administration committed the government to the privatization of banks, the pension system, electric and telephone companies. The total privatization of the pension system has implied a serious burden for the public finances, because the newly created private Pension Association Funds did not absorb coverage of retired pensioners covered in the old system. As a result, in July 2017, the Government of El Salvador wanted to take $500 million from the privatized pension system to cover retired pensioners from the old not privatized system, but the Supreme Court of El Salvador declared this move unconstitutional.
The government lost the revenues from contributors and absorbed completely the costs of coverage of retired pensioners. This has been the main source of fiscal imbalance. ARENA governments have financed this deficit with the emission of bonds, something the leftist party FMLN has opposed. Debates surrounding the emission of bonds have stalled the approval of the national budget for many months on several occasions, reason for which in 2006 the government will finance the deficit by reducing expenditure in other posts. The emission of bonds and the approval of a loans need a qualified majority (3/4 of the votes) in the parliament. If the deficit is not financed through a loan it is enough with a simple majority to approve the budget (50% of the votes plus 1). This would facilitate an otherwise long process in Salvadoran politics.
Despite such challenges to keep public finances in balance, El Salvador still has one of the lowest tax burdens in the American continent (around 11% of GDP). The government has focused on improving the collection of its current revenues with a focus on indirect taxes. Leftist politicians criticize such a structure since indirect taxes (like the value added tax) affect everyone alike, whereas direct taxes can be weighed according to levels of income and are therefore more punitive toward productive people. However, some basic goods are exempt from the indirect taxes. A value-added tax (VAT) of 10%, implemented in September 1992, was raised to 13% in July 1995. The VAT is the biggest source of revenue for the government, accounting for about 52.3% of total tax revenues in 2004.
== Economic sectors ==
=== Remittances ===
Remittances from Salvadorans working in the United States sent to family members are a major source of foreign income and offset the substantial trade deficit of around $2.9 billion. Remittances have increased steadily in the last decade and reached an all-time high of $2.9 billion in 2005—approximately 17.1% of gross national product (GNP).
Remittances have had positive and negative effects on El Salvador. In 2005, the number of people living in extreme poverty in El Salvador was 20%, according to a United Nations Development Program report. While Salvadoran education levels have gone up, wage expectations have risen faster than productivity. This has led to an influx of Hondurans and Nicaraguans who are willing to work for the prevailing wage. Also, the local propensity for consumption has increased. Money from remittances has increased prices for certain commodities such as real estate. With much higher wages, many Salvadorans abroad can afford higher prices for houses in El Salvador and thus push up the prices that all Salvadorans must pay.
=== Agriculture ===
File:Cotton-UsulutanSV.jpg|A cotton field, Usulután Department.
File:Dark roasted espresso blend coffee beans 2.jpg|Dark roasted coffee beans from Coffee production in El Salvador
In 2018, El Salvador produced 7 million tons of sugarcane, being heavily dependent on this product. In addition to sugarcane, the country produced 685 thousand tons of maize, 119 thousand tons of coconut, 109 thousand tons of sorghum, 93 thousand tons of beans, 80 thousand tons of coffee, 64 thousand tons of orange, in addition to smaller yields of other agricultural products such as watermelon, yautia, apple, manioc, mango, banana, rice etc.
The ultimate goal was to develop a rural middle class with a stake in a peaceful and prosperous future for El Salvador. At least 525,000 people—more than 12% of El Salvador's population at the time and perhaps 25% of the rural poor—benefited from agrarian reform, and more than 22% of El Salvador's total farmland was transferred to those who previously worked the land but did not own it. But when agrarian reform ended in 1990, about 150,000 landless families still had not benefited from the reform actions.
The 1992 peace accords made provisions for land transfers to all qualified ex-combatants of both the FMLN and ESAF, as well as to landless peasants living in former conflict areas. The United States undertook to provide $300 million for a national reconstruction plan. This included $60 million for land purchases and $17 million for agricultural credits. USAID remains actively involved in providing technical training, access to credit, and other financial services for many of the land beneficiaries.
===Energy===
File:Central Geotérmica Ahuachapán 02.jpg|Geothermal power plant in Ahuachapan Department
File:Central Geotérmica de Berlín 05.JPG|Geothermal power center in the Usulután Department
File:Rio Lempa Presa Enero 2011.jpg|Central hydroelectricity dam over the Lempa River
El Salvador's energy industry is diversified across fossil fuels, hydro, other renewables (mainly geothermal) for local electricity production, along with a reliance on imports for oil. El Salvador has an installed capacity of 1,983 MW generating 5,830 GWh of electricity per year, 52% of this comes from renewable sources including 29% from geothermal (produced from the country's many volcanoes), 23% from hydro and the rest is from fossil fuels.
According to the National Energy Commission, 94.4% of total injections during January 2021 came from hydroelectric plants (28.5% - 124.43 GWh), geothermal (27.3% - 119.07 GWh), biomass (24.4% 106.43 GWh), photovoltaic solar (10.6% - 46.44 GWh) and wind (3.6% - 15.67 GWh).
===Manufacturing===
El Salvador historically has been the most industrialized state in Central America, though a decade of war eroded this position. In 1999, manufacturing accounted for 22% of GDP. The industrial sector has shifted since 1993 from a primarily domestic orientation to include free zone (maquiladora) manufacturing for export. Maquila exports have led the growth in the export sector and in the last 3 years have made an important contribution to the Salvadoran economy.
=== Mining ===
Mining in El Salvador expanded in scope from artisanal mining to industrial mining at the San Sebastián mine in the 1970s. Chemicals from that mine polluted the San Sebastián River.
Mining ceased during the Salvadoran Civil War. After the war, the country's right-wing government proposed 33 mining zones, issuing exploration licences to American, Australian, and Canadian companies. The plan was met with opposition of many local community and community leaders, who successfully blocked exploration in Chalatenango in 2005. but were denied a license to mine in 2008, following local opposition.
Mining for metal was banned in 2017, although the creation of a mining regulator in 2021
===Telecommunications===
El Salvador has 0.9 million fixed telephone lines, 0.5 million fixed broadband lines and 9.4 million mobile cellular subscriptions. Much of the population is able to access the internet through their smartphones and mobile networks, which liberal government regulation promotes mobile penetration over fixed line including the deployment of 5G coverage (which testing of began in 2020). The industry has since expanded with companies such as Creativa Consultores, Applaudo Studios, and Elaniin providing software and website design services to clients globally while employing thousands of people. Canadian Telus International, a major global IT outsourcing and software development firm, has a significant workforce in the country employing nearly 1,500 people in high tech and customer service roles. The startup scene has also been growing with firms such as HugoApp employing 600 locals and providing delivery and ride sharing services to nearly 1 million users in the Central American/CAFTA region. In 2020, the government announced its "Digital Agenda 2020" a plan to digitize government services, digitize identities, make it easier to start businesses, attract foreign investment and improve the education system.
==Trade==
A challenge in El Salvador has been developing new growth sectors for a more diversified economy. As many other former colonies, for many years El Salvador was considered a mono exporter economy. This means, an economy that depended heavily on one type of export. During colonial times, the Spanish decided that El Salvador would produce and export indigo, but after the invention of synthetic dyes in the 19th century, Salvadoran authorities and the newly created modern state turned to coffee as the main export of the economy.
Since the cultivation of coffee required the highest lands in the country, many of these lands were expropriated from indigenous reserves and given or sold cheaply to those that could cultivate coffee. The government provided little or no compensation to the indigenous peoples. On occasions this compensation implied merely the right to work for seasons in the newly created coffee farms and to be allowed to grow their own food. Such policies provided the basis of conflicts that would shape the political situation of El Salvador in the years to come.
ARENA governments have followed policies that intend to develop other exporting industries in the country as textiles and sea products. Tourism is another industry Salvadoran authorities regard as a possibility for the country. But rampant crime rates, lack of infrastructure and inadequate social capital have prevented these possibilities from being properly exploited. The government is also developing ports and infrastructure in La Unión in the east of the country, in order to use the area as a "dry canal" for transporting goods from Gulf of Fonseca in the Pacific Ocean to Honduras and the Atlantic Ocean in the north. Currently there are fifteen free trade zones in El Salvador. The largest beneficiary has been the maquila industry, which provides 88,700 jobs directly, and consists primarily of cutting and assembling clothes for export to the United States.
El Salvador signed the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), negotiated by the five countries of Central America and the Dominican Republic, with the United States in 2004. In order to take advantage of CAFTA-DR, the Salvadoran government is challenged to conduct policies that guarantee better conditions for entrepreneurs and workers to transfer from declining to growing sectors in the economy. El Salvador has already signed free trade agreements with Mexico, Chile, the Dominican Republic, and Panama, and increased its exports to those countries. El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua also are negotiating a free trade agreement with Canada, and negotiations started on 2006 for a free trade agreement with Colombia.
El Salvador's balance of payments continued to show a net surplus. Exports in 1999 grew 1.9% while imports grew 3%, narrowing El Salvador's trade deficit. As in the previous year, the large trade deficit was offset by foreign aid and family remittances. Remittances are increasing at an annual rate of 6.5%, and an estimated $1.35 billion will enter the national economy during 1999.
Private foreign capital continued to flow in, though mostly as short-term import financing and not at the levels of previous years. The Central American Common Market continued its dynamic reactivation process, now with most regional commerce duty-free. In September 1996, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras opened free trade talks with Mexico. This trade alliance is also known as the Northern Triangle in relation to the Central American economies that are grouped together by proximity and location. Although tariff cuts that were expected in July 1996 were delayed until 1997, the government of El Salvador is committed to a free and open economy.
Total U.S. exports to El Salvador reached $2.1 billion in 1999, while El Salvador exported $1.6 billion to the United States. U.S. support for El Salvador's privatization of the electrical and telecommunications markets has markedly expanded opportunities for U.S. investment in the country. More than 300 U.S. companies have established either a permanent commercial presence in El Salvador or work through representative offices in the country. The Department of State maintains a country commercial guide for U.S. businesses seeking detailed information on business opportunities in El Salvador.
===Official corruption and foreign investment===
In an analysis of ARENA's electoral defeat in 2009, the U.S. Embassy in San Salvador pointed to official corruption under the Saca administration as a significant reason for public rejection of continued ARENA government.
Subsequent policies under Funes administrations improved El Salvador to foreign investment, and the World Bank in 2014 rated El Salvador 109, a little better than Belize (118) and Nicaragua (119) in the World Bank's annual "Ease of doing business" index.
As per Santander Trade, a Spanish think tank in foreign investment, "Foreign investment into El Salvador has been steadily growing during the last few years. In 2013, the influx of FDI increased. Nevertheless, El Salvador receives less FDI than other countries of Central America. The government has made little progress in terms of improving the business climate. In addition to this, the limited size of its domestic market, weak infrastructures and institutions, as well as the high level of criminality have been real obstacles to investors. However, El Salvador is the second most 'business friendly' country in South America in terms of business taxation. It also has a young and skilled labour force and a strategic geographical position. The country's membership in the DR-CAFTA, as well as its reinforced integration to the C4 countries (producers of cotton) should lead to an increase of FDI."
Foreign companies have lately resorted to arbitration in international trade tribunals in total disagreement with Salvadoran government policies. In 2008, El Salvador sought international arbitration against Italy's Enel Green Power, on behalf of Salvadoran state-owned electric companies for a geothermal project Enel had invested in. Four years later, Enel indicated it would seek arbitration against El Salvador, blaming the government for technical problems that prevent it from completing its investment. The government came to its defence claiming that Art 109 of the constitution does not allow any government (regardless of the party they belong), to privatize the resources of the national soil (in this case geothermic energy). The dispute came to an end in December 2014 when both parties came to a settlement, from which no details have been released. The small country had yielded to pressure from the Washington-based powerful ICSID.
A 2008 report by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development indicates that one third of the generation of electricity in El Salvador was publicly owned while two thirds was in American hands and other foreign ownership.
In terms of how people perceived the levels of public corruption in 2014, El Salvador ranks 80 out of 175 countries as per the Corruption Perception Index. El Salvador's rating compares relatively well with Panama (94 of 175) and Costa Rica (47 of 175).
==Natural disasters: Hurricane Mitch (1998) and the earthquakes (2001)==
Hurricane Mitch hit El Salvador in late October 1998, generating extreme rainfall of which caused widespread flooding and landslides. Roughly 650 km2 were flooded, and the Salvadoran Government pronounced 374 people dead or missing. In addition, approximately 55,900 people were rendered homeless. The areas that suffered the most were the low-lying coastal zones, particularly in the floodplain of the Lempa and San Miguel Grande Rivers. Three major bridges that cross the Lempa were swept away, restricting access to the eastern third of the country and forcing the emergency evacuation of many communities. The heavy rainfall, flooding, and mudslides caused by Hurricane Mitch also severely damaged El Salvador's road network. Along with the three major bridges over the Lempa River, 12 other bridges were damaged or destroyed by the Mitch flooding.
The largest single-affected sector was El Salvador's agriculture. Nearly 18% of the total 1998–99 basic grain harvest was lost. Coffee production was hit particularly hard; 3% of the harvest was lost in addition to 8.2% that was lost earlier in the year due to El Niño. Major losses of sugarcane, totaling 9% of the estimated 1998–99 production, were sustained primarily in the coastal regions. Livestock losses amounted to $1 million, including 2,992 head of cattle. In addition to these losses, El Salvador also had to face the threat of disease outbreak. The Ministry of Health recorded a total of 109,038 medical cases related to Hurricane Mitch between 31 October and 18 November 1998; 23% of these cases were respiratory infections, followed by skin ailments, diarrhea, and conjunctivitis.
Reconstruction from Mitch was still underway when, in early 2001, the country experienced a series of devastating earthquakes that left nearly 2,000 people dead or missing, 8,000 injured, and caused severe dislocations across all sectors of Salvadoran society. Nearly 25% of all private homes in the country were either destroyed or badly damaged, and 1.5 million persons were left without housing. Hundreds of public buildings were damaged or destroyed, and sanitation and water systems in many communities put out service. The total cost of the damage was estimated at between $1.5 billion and $2 billion, and the devastation thought to equal or surpass that of the 1986 quake that struck San Salvador. Given the magnitude of the disaster, reconstruction and economic recovery will remain the primary focus of the Salvadoran Government for some time to come.
The Hurricane Mitch disaster prompted a tremendous response from the international community governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and private citizens alike. Sixteen foreign governments—including the U.S., 19 international NGOs, 20 Salvadoran embassies and consulates, and 20 private firms and individuals provided El Salvador with in-kind assistance. The Government of El Salvador reports that 961 tons of goods and food were received. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs estimates that contribution in cash given directly to the Salvadoran Government totaled $4.3 million. The U.S. Government has provided $37.7 million in assistance through USAID and the U.S. Departments of Agriculture and Defense.
Following the 2001 earthquakes, the U.S. embassy assumed a leading role in implementing U.S.-sponsored assistance. The U.S. Government responded immediately to the emergency, with military helicopters active in initial rescue operations, delivering emergency supplies, rescue workers, and damage assessment teams to stricken communities all over the country. USAIDs Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance had a team of experts working with Salvadoran relief authorities immediately after both quakes, and provided assistance totaling more than $14 million. In addition, the Department of Defense provided an initial response valued at more than $11 million. For long-term reconstruction, the international community offered a total aid package of $1.3 billion, over $110 million of it from the United States.
==Macro-economic trend==
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2024. Inflation under 10% is in green.
|
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"List of countries by public debt",
"Watt-hour",
"San Salvador",
"World Bank",
"San Miguel Grande River",
"Developing country",
"List of countries by GDP (nominal)",
"banana",
"macroeconomic",
"Petroleum",
"sorghum",
"call center",
"free trade zone",
"Information Technology",
"Mongabay",
"balance of payments",
"Ease of doing business index",
"International Monetary Fund",
"5G",
"coffee",
"List of countries by GDP (PPP)",
"artisanal mining",
"Watt",
"United States dollar",
"indigo",
"micro hydro",
"List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita",
"Bitcoin City",
"Jacobin (magazine)",
"Orange (fruit)",
"Guatemala",
"Departments of El Salvador",
"Geography of El Salvador",
"revenue",
"Gulf of Fonseca",
"Inter Press Service",
"Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement",
"Corruption in El Salvador",
"electricity",
"Gini coefficient",
"rice"
] |
9,362 |
Telecommunications in El Salvador
|
Telecommunications in El Salvador include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet, centered primarily around the capital, San Salvador.
== Radio and television ==
Radio stations: Hundreds of commercial radio broadcast stations and 1 government-owned radio broadcast station (2007).
Radios: 5.75 million (1997).
Televisions stations: Multiple privately owned national terrestrial TV networks, supplemented by cable TV networks that carry international channels (2007).
The law permits the executive branch to use the emergency broadcasting service to take over all broadcast and cable networks temporarily to televise political programming. The president occasionally uses this law to highlight his accomplishments.
Fixed lines: 1.1 million lines in use, 74th in the world (2012).
Teledensity: Mobile cellular exceeds 135 per 100 persons (2011).
== Internet ==
Top-level domain: .sv
Fixed broadband: 235,403 subscriptions, 81st in the world; 3.9% of the population, 111th in the world (2012).
Wireless broadband: 335,716, 104th in the world; 5.5% of the population, 104th in the world (2012).
Internet hosts: 24,070 hosts (2012).
Internet Service Providers: 11 ISPs (early 2005).
=== IT Industry ===
El Salvador's IT Industry's history started early with several IT outsourcing companies such as Gpremper and an early search engine that predated Google in 1995 called "Buscaniguas". The industry has since expanded with companies such as Creativa Consultores, Applaudo Studios, and Elaniin providing software and website design services to clients globally while employing thousands of people. Canadian Telus International, a major global IT outsourcing and software development firm, has a significant workforce in the country employing nearly 1,500 people in high tech and customer service roles. The startup scene has also been growing with firms such as HugoApp employing 600 locals and providing delivery and ride sharing services to nearly 1 million users in the Central American/CAFTA region. In 2020, the government announced its "Digital Agenda 2020" a plan to digitize government services, digitize identities, make it easier to start businesses, attract foreign investment and improve the education system.
The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights. Individuals criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, and in most cases the government does not interfere with such criticism.
The constitution prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions.
===By gangs===
In March 2012, Carlos Dada, the owner of online newspaper El Faro, received death threats from gang members. The gangs were unhappy with El Faro's reporting on the gang truce. On April 13, the International Press Institute criticized the government for not taking any actions to guarantee the safety of El Faro journalists. According to the Salvadoran Association of Journalists (APES), the media practices self-censorship, especially in their reporting on gangs and narcotics trafficking. APES stated that many members of the media were afraid to report in detail on these subjects due to fear of retaliation from gangs and narcotics trafficking groups.
|
[
"Google",
"Top-level domain",
"Central America",
"search engine",
"List of international call prefixes",
"Radio broadcasting",
"Television set",
"Communications satellite",
"The World Factbook",
"Intelsat",
"2012–2014 Salvadoran gang truce",
".sv",
"Freedom of the press",
"e-mail",
"United States",
"Telecorporación Salvadoreña",
"freedom of speech",
"Internet Service Provider",
"List of countries by number of Internet hosts",
"International Press Institute",
"Central Intelligence Agency",
"El Faro (digital newspaper)",
"microwave radio relay",
"Telus International",
"San Salvador",
"Calling code",
"List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions",
"Bitcoin",
"self-censorship",
"Politics of El Salvador",
"Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement",
"WP:SDNONE",
"Information Technology",
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Mexico",
"El Salvador",
"International Telecommunication Union",
"IPv4",
"cryptocurrency",
"Bitcoin Law",
"chat rooms",
"Receiver (radio)",
"Economy of El Salvador",
"List of countries by number of Internet users",
"Television broadcasting"
] |
9,363 |
Transport in El Salvador
|
El Salvador has transport links by road, rail, sea and air.
El Salvador has over 10,000 km of roads, and one passenger rail service. There are several seaports on the Pacific Ocean, and two international airports.
==Railways==
A weekday passenger service links San Salvador and Apopa, a journey of 40 minutes. Of a total of 602 km narrow-gauge () rail, much is abandoned. In November 2013 the government rail agency FENADESAL announced plans for development of four electrified railways serving San Salvador, Sitio del Niño (La Libertad), El Salvador International Airport, La Unión, and the Honduran frontier.
===Railway links with adjacent countries===
Guatemala gauge both countries, currently closed.
Hondurasnone
==Highways==
total: 10,029 km
paved: 1,986 km (including 327 km of Highways)
unpaved: 8,043 km (1999 est.)
The RN-21 (Bulevar Monseñor Romero) (East–West) was the first freeway to be built in El Salvador and in Central America. The freeway passes through the northern area of the city of Santa Tecla, La Libertad. It has a small portion serving Antiguo Cuscatlan, La Libertad, and merges with the RN-5 (Autopista Comalapa) (East–West, Boulevard de Los Proceres/Autopista del Aeropuerto) in San Salvador.
The total length of the RN-21 is and is currently working as a traffic relief in the metropolitan area. The RN-21 was named in honor of Óscar Romero. The first phase of the highway was completed in 2009, and the second phase in November 2012.
==Ports and harbors==
=== Pacific Ocean ===
Acajutla
Puerto Cutuco
La Libertad
La Unión
Puerto El Triunfo
==Merchant marine==
none (1999 est.)
==Airports==
75 (2006 est.)
===Airportswith paved runways===
total: 4
over 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2006 est.)
===Airportswith unpaved runways===
total: 71
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 14
under 914 m: 56 (2006 est.)
===Heliports===
1 (2006 est.)
===Airports by name===
Airport of the Pacific (under construction)
El Salvador International Airport
Ilopango International Airport
|
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"La Libertad, El Salvador",
"transport",
"Óscar Romero",
"seaports",
"Transport in Honduras",
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"La Libertad Department, El Salvador",
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"Ilopango International Airport",
"El Salvador",
"La Libertad Department (El Salvador)",
"Transport in Guatemala",
"Puerto El Triunfo"
] |
9,364 |
Armed Forces of El Salvador
|
The Armed Forces of El Salvador () are the official governmental military forces of El Salvador. The Forces have three branches: the Salvadoran Army, the Salvadoran Air Force and the Navy of El Salvador.
==History==
===Spanish colonial rule===
In the 19th century, soldiers in El Salvador may have been nominally employed by the governing body. However, if not given their pay, the soldiers would supplement their income as mercenaries and militia for local politicians and landowners. However, these changes in power were fought between networks of rival landowners (coffee barons) and politicians under their patronage rather than between official military and government forces.
===La Matanza===
Military operations in El Salvador continued in a similar way until the early 20th century. The ruling general, Maximiliano Hernández Martínez (1882 1966), responded with force. Under his command, the national army proper, slaughtered up to 40,000 peasants.
===Palm Sunday coup===
Twelve years of autocratic rule followed. Martínez withheld democratic and civil rights. On 2 March 1944, a Palm Sunday, the landowners, intellectuals, students and also some sections of the Salvadoran armed forces rebelled. The First Infantry Regiment and the Second Artillery Regiment of San Salvador joined the rebels as did the Garrison of Santa Ana. Santa Ana was bombed from the air. The rebellion was put down by the remaining loyal sections of the military. Reprisals of torture and execution of those who had joined the rebellion followed. Martial law was put in place. However, in May 1944, non-violent protest leading to a general strike caused Martinez to fall from power.
===Rebellion of 1948===
During the years that followed, young military officers became increasingly dissatisfied with their situation. They saw the generals clinging to senior posts for which they had little training and without making way for the younger officers. They saw the generals failing to prepare for the social and economic changes coming to Central America. They objected to unfair disciplinary measures and unfair surveillance. In 1948, fighting broke out between the younger officers and troops under their command and the senior generals and the police force under their command. The president, Salvador Castaneda Castro (1888 1965) was imprisoned. Senior officers and politicians were dismissed. The new government promoted the formation of a truly national, apolitical and professional army in El Salvador.
===American influence and the Cold War===
From 1947 to 1953, El Salvador held an agreement with the US whereby an American military aviation mission would be sent to El Salvador; El Salvador would seek advice from the US preferentially and purchase arms from the US. Some Salvadoran military officers were trained in North America and the Panama Canal Zone. Nevertheless, the amount of American military aid purchased by El Salvador in the 1950s was small; just enough in munitions and light arms to suppress internal conflict such as communist activity.
===Football War===
In 1969, tensions between El Salvador and Honduras increased. There was dispute concerning the border between the two countries. Approximately 300,000 Salvadorans had moved to Honduras due to population and land pressures in their homeland but Honduras had not renewed the El Salvador – Honduras Bilateral Treaty on Immigration. Honduras and El Salvador were competitors in the Central American Common Market. Honduras' economy was struggling and the Honduran Government started to deport the Salvadorans who they saw as illegal immigrants. Many Salvadorans fled after their Vice Consul was killed. In June 1969, El Salvador played three games against Honduras in the qualifying rounds of the World Cup.
On 14 July 1969, armed hostilities began between El Salvador and Honduras. Due to the war's proximity to the World Cup qualifying games, it was called the "Football War" or the "Soccer War".
At this time, the Salvadoran forces included approximately 8,000 infantrymen with rifles, machine guns, mortars and bazookas, 105 mm cannons and a few armoured personnel carriers. Very few arms were manufactured in El Salvador. Most arms were supplied by the US. Honduras' infantry was smaller and less well equipped.
The Salvadoran Air Force, flying P-51 Mustangs, attacked Honduran targets and vice versa, but each air force had only a few working aeroplanes and was hampered by a lack of spare parts.
As Salvadoran troops approached Tegucigalpa, their supply lines failed, they became exhausted and were slowed by heavy rainfall, and their morale fell. On July 18, 1969, the Organization of American States (OAS) organised a ceasefire. Then as economic sanctions and an arms embargo took effect, both sides. The war lasted for four days and therefore is also called the "one hundred hour war".
Between 1980 and 1983, the Salvadoran armed forces were driven out of territory controlled by large FMLN groups in rural areas. The FMLN membership later increased to over 12,000 when the organisation was able to provide local governance and services.
In late 1981, soldiers of the national armed forces' Atlácatl Battalion, a rapid response troop, killed 900 civilians at El Mozote. This was one of a number of actions including rapes, bashings, torture and killings. Men of this battalion were graduates of the US School of the Americas at Fort Benning, Columbus, Georgia. Another atrocity occurred on 16 November 1989. Army soldiers murdered six Jesuit priests, their housekeeper and her daughter at the Central American University.
In 1989, the armed forces of El Salvador had raised 56,000 fighting men with 63 aeroplanes and 72 helicopters.
In 1990, at the end of the Cold War, the US restricted funding to the Salvadoran military. The US found its rigorous measures against left wing groups were no longer needed. This and the lack of advantage on either side led to the end of the war in 1992.
Under the terms of the Chapultepec Peace Accords which had been signed on 16 January 1992 in Chapultepec, Mexico, the Salvadoran Armed Forces was to be subordinated and removed from the political arena. In 1993, a General Amnesty Law was passed by the Salvadoran government. Victims of human rights violations had no redress. International human rights entities such as the UNHCR made formal objections to the law. Spain found jurisdiction in the matter and indicted twenty retired soldiers who were officers at the time of the killings.
For many reasons, the armed forces resisted the application of the requirement of the Peace Accord. Junior officers who had volunteered to work in security units did not want to be treated as raw army recruits when their units disbanded. Senior officers feared the autonomy of the military's core activities, such as training, would be lost. Military leaders feared that the loss of military units in rural areas would lead to social and political unrest. The civilian population feared that officers purged from military ranks for human rights violations would join right wing paramilitary organisations. The last of the Salvadoran forces withdrew from Iraq in 2009. They were the last Central Americans allies to withdraw from the conflict.
In 2016, a new armed force was raised in El Salvador with the remit of stopping criminal gangs (especially MS-13) and narcotrafficking.
In 2021, the strength of the Salvadoran armed forces was estimated to be 24,500 active personnel. In response, President Bukele asked the Salvadoran parliament to ratify a state of emergency. On 26 March, Bukele also ordered the police and army to initiate mass-arrests against those responsible for the violence.
A day later, Congress approved a state of emergency that gives legal coverage to arrest any citizen suspected to be a gang member even with no proof. In addition, Congress also approved reforms to increase the maximum sentence for gang member from nine to 45 years in prison and punish the dissemination of gang messages, including independent journalism talking about the gang crisis, with up to 15 years in prison.
The law was directed against those who "mark" their territories with acronyms of the gangs, a practice that gang members use to intimidate, and threaten with death those who denounce them to the authorities. The Directorate of Penal Centers began to erase the graffiti that the gangs use to mark the territory in which they operate.
The Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and Barrio 18 gangs, among others, were estimated in 2022 to have around some 70,000 members, and as of August 2023, around 72,000 people have been sent to prison as a part of the government crackdown on the gangs.
==Structure==
The Salvadoran armed forces are a combat force composed of army, navy and air force each led by their Chief of the General Staff. The support units are a military education and doctrine command, a logistics support command, a military health command, a military special security brigade and a directorate general of recruitment and reserves.
The duties of the Salvadoran Armed Force is described in articles 211 and 212 of the Constitution of 1983. It is the duty of the armed forces to defend national territory and sovereignty; maintain public peace, tranquillity, and security; and to support democracy.
Article 212 describes the armed forces as a 'fundamental institution for national security, of a permanent character, apolitical, obedient to established civilian authority, and non-deliberative". It also charges the military with enforcing the no-reelection provision of the country's president; with guaranteeing universal suffrage, human rights;and with working with the executive branch of government in promoting national development
The Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces is the president. Reporting to the president is the Ministry of Defence. Members of the ministry advise the Secretary of State and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The military provides a panel composed of the Chiefs of the General Staff and military experts who provide the ministry with technical advice for policy making and strategic planning. Oversight of the military is provided by the Assistant Inspector General of the Armed Forces.
Within the military leadership are operating units, tactical units and advisory bodies. The operating units build on operational plans. The tactical units include detachments, training centers and forces of the army at the battalion level. The combat recognition and transport groups make up the Air Force tactical unit. The Navy uses transport and hydrographic tactical units.
==Medals==
Among the highest military decorations in the Salvadoran Armed Forces are the Gold Cross of War Heroism in Action; the Silver Cross of Heroism; the gold medal for Courage in Action; and the Silver Medal of Valor. for such actions, there may be a monetary payment in addition to the armed forces pension. There are other honours for field service, distinguished service, and merit.
|
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"Minister of National Defense of El Salvador",
"La Matanza",
"Legislative Assembly of El Salvador",
"Nayib Bukele",
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"FMLN",
"Great Depression",
"junta (governing body)",
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"Football War",
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"universal suffrage",
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"Central American University (San Salvador)",
"Chapultepec",
"Salvador Castaneda Castro",
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"El Mundo (El Salvador)",
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"El Mozote massacre",
"communism",
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"Fort Benning",
"President of El Salvador",
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"San Salvador",
"munition",
"Salvadoran gang crackdown",
"Columbus, Georgia",
"UNHCR",
"Salvadoran Civil War",
"Ocotepeque",
"embargo",
"guerrilla",
"Secretary of State",
"Jesuit",
"London",
"René Merino Monroy",
"Salvadoran Air Force",
"Soccer",
"general strike",
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"hydrography",
"illegal drugs trade",
"18th Street gang",
"ceasefire",
"Chief of the General Staff (El Salvador)",
"World War II",
"Panama Canal Zone",
"Mexico",
"El Salvador",
"Salvadoran Army",
"Multi-National Force – Iraq",
"Julio Adalberto Rivera",
"Routledge",
"state of emergency",
"archbishop"
] |
9,365 |
Foreign relations of El Salvador
|
El Salvador is a member of the United Nations and several of its specialized agencies, the Organization of American States (OAS), the Central American Common Market (CACM), the Central American Parliament (PARLACEN), and the Central American Integration System (SICA). It actively participates in the Central American Security Commission (CASC), which seeks to promote regional arms control.
In November 1950, El Salvador helped the newly empowered 14th Dalai Lama by supporting his Tibetan Government cabinet minister's telegram requesting an appeal before the General Assembly of the United Nations to stop the Communist China's People's Liberation Army's invasion of Tibet.
El Salvador also is a member of the World Trade Organization and is pursuing regional free trade agreements. An active participant in the Summit of the Americas process, El Salvador chairs a working group on market access under the Free Trade Area of the Americas initiative.
El Salvador has joined its six Central American neighbors in signing the Alliance for Sustainable Development, known as the Conjunta Centroamerica-USA or CONCAUSA to promote sustainable economic development in the region.
== Diplomatic relations ==
List of countries which El Salvador maintains diplomatic relations with:
== Bilateral relations ==
===Africa===
===Asia===
===Europe===
===Oceania===
|
[
"Montreal",
"Washington, D.C.",
"Madrid",
"Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office",
"El Salvador–Spain relations",
"Juan Guaidó",
"Toronto",
"Montevideo",
"Iraq War",
"Free Trade Area of the Americas",
"List of Presidents of the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador",
"World Trade Organization",
"Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship",
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"Vancouver",
"Tibet",
"Canberra",
"Havana",
"telegram",
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"El Salvador–Taiwan relations",
"14th Dalai Lama",
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"Caracas",
"Doha",
"Mohamed Abdelaziz (Sahrawi politician)",
"San Luis Potosí",
"Lima",
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"Villahermosa",
"Santo Domingo",
"Ankara",
"El Salvador",
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"Free trade agreements of the United Kingdom",
"Foreign relations of the United Kingdom",
"Monterrey",
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"Acayucan",
"China",
"Palestinian Salvadoran",
"Bethlehem",
"Summit of the Americas",
"El Salvador-Venezuela relations",
"San Salvador",
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"Ottawa",
"China-El Salvador relations",
"List of diplomatic missions of El Salvador",
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"United Nations",
"Seoul",
"International Criminal Court",
"terrorism",
"Oaxaca City",
"Buenos Aires",
"Tijuana",
"El Salvador–Uruguay relations",
"International recognition of Kosovo",
"El Salvador–United Kingdom relations",
"People's Liberation Army",
"Calgary",
"Guadalajara",
"working group",
"gov.uk",
"President of Venezuela",
"judicial",
"Ciudad Juárez",
"UN Trade and Development",
"General Assembly of the United Nations",
"Australia–El Salvador relations",
"Barcelona",
"El Salvador–Peru relations",
"Melbourne",
"Canada–El Salvador relations",
"Paris",
"WP:SDNONE",
"Mexico City",
"Argentina–El Salvador relations",
"Tapachula",
"New Delhi"
] |
9,366 |
Equatorial Guinea
|
Equatorial Guinea, officially the Republic of Equatorial Guinea, is a country on the west coast of Central Africa. It has an area of . Formerly the colony of Spanish Guinea, its post-independence name refers to its location near both the Equator and in the African region of Guinea. , the country had a population of 1,795,834, It has subsequently become the richest country per capita in Africa, and its gross domestic product (GDP) adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP) per capita ranks 43rd in the world; however, the wealth is extremely unevenly distributed, with few people benefiting from the oil riches. The country ranks 144th on the 2019 Human Development Index, with less than half the population having access to clean drinking water and 7.9% of children dying before the age of five. Equatorial Guinea's nominal GDP per capita is $10,982 in 2021 according to OPEC.
Since Equatorial Guinea is a former Spanish colony, Spanish is the main official language. French and () Portuguese have also been made official. It is the only country in Mainland Africa where Spanish is an official language (Spanish is also spoken in the African parts of Spain: the Canary Islands, Ceuta and Melilla). It is also the most widely spoken language; according to the Instituto Cervantes, 87.7% of the population has a good command of Spanish.
Equatorial Guinea's government is authoritarian and sultanist and has one of the worst human rights records in the world, consistently ranking among the "worst of the worst" in Freedom House's annual survey of political and civil rights. Reporters Without Borders ranks Obiang among its "predators" of press freedom. Human trafficking is a significant problem, with the U.S. Trafficking in Persons Report identifying Equatorial Guinea as a source and destination country for forced labour and sex trafficking. The report also noted that Equatorial Guinea "does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking but is making significant efforts to do so." The country is a member of the United Nations, African Union, Francophonie, OPEC, and the CPLP.
== History ==
Pygmies likely once lived in the continental region that is now Equatorial Guinea, but are today found only in isolated pockets in southern Río Muni. Bantu migrations likely started around 2,000 BC from between south-east Nigeria and north-west Cameroon (the Grassfields). They must have settled continental Equatorial Guinea around 500 BC at the latest. The earliest settlements on Bioko Island are dated to AD 530. The Annobón population, originally native to Angola, was introduced by the Portuguese via São Tomé island.
=== First European contact and Portuguese rule (1472–1778) ===
The Portuguese explorer Fernando Pó, seeking a path to India, is credited as being the first European to see the island of Bioko, in 1472. He called it Formosa ("Beautiful"), but it quickly took on the name of its European discoverer. Fernando Pó and Annobón were colonized by Portugal in 1474. The first factories were established on the islands around 1500 as the Portuguese quickly recognized the positives of the islands including volcanic soil and disease-resistant highlands. Despite natural advantages, initial Portuguese efforts in 1507 to establish a sugarcane plantation and town near what is now Concepción on Fernando Pó failed due to Bubi hostility and fever.
=== Early Spanish rule and lease to Britain (1778–1844) ===
In 1778, Queen Maria I of Portugal and King Charles III of Spain signed the Treaty of El Pardo which ceded Bioko, adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the Bight of Biafra between the Niger and Ogoue rivers to Spain in exchange for large areas in South America that are now Western Brazil. Brigadier Felipe José, Count of Arjelejos formally took possession of Bioko from Portugal on 21 October 1778. After sailing for Annobón to take possession, the Count died of disease caught on Bioko and the fever-ridden crew mutinied. The crew landed on São Tomé instead where they were imprisoned by the Portuguese authorities after having lost over 80% of their men to sickness. As a result of this disaster, Spain was thereafter hesitant to invest heavily in its new possession. However, despite the setback Spaniards began to use the island as a base for slave trading on the nearby mainland. Between 1778 and 1810, the territory of what became Equatorial Guinea was administered by the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, based in Buenos Aires.
Unwilling to invest heavily in the development of Fernando Pó, from 1827 to 1843, the Spanish leased a base at Malabo on Bioko to the United Kingdom which it had sought as part of its efforts to suppress the transatlantic slave trade. Without Spanish permission, the British moved the headquarters of the Mixed Commission for the Suppression of Slave Traffic to Fernando Pó in 1827, before moving it back to Sierra Leone under an agreement with Spain in 1843. Spain's decision to abolish slavery in 1817 at British insistence damaged the colony's perceived value to the authorities and so leasing naval bases was an effective revenue earner from an otherwise unprofitable possession.
=== Late 19th century (1844–1900) ===
In 1844, the British returned the island to Spanish control and the area became known as the "Territorios Españoles del Golfo de Guinea". Due to epidemics, Spain did not invest much in the colony, and in 1862, an outbreak of yellow fever killed many of the whites that had settled on the island. Despite this, plantations continued to be established by private citizens through the second half of the 19th century.
The plantations of Fernando Pó were mostly run by a black Creole elite, later known as Fernandinos. The British settled some 2,000 Sierra Leoneans and freed slaves there during their rule, and a trickle of immigration from West Africa and the West Indies continued after the British left. A number of freed Angolan slaves, Portuguese-African creoles and immigrants from Nigeria, and Liberia also began to be settled in the colony, where they quickly began to join the new group. To the local mix were added Cubans, Filipinos, Jews and Spaniards of various colours, many of whom had been deported to Africa for political or other crimes, as well as some settlers backed by the government.
By 1870, the prognosis of whites that lived on the island was much improved after recommendations that they live in the highlands, and by 1884 much of the minimal administrative machinery and key plantations had moved to Basile hundreds of meters above sea level. Henry Morton Stanley had labeled Fernando Pó "a jewel which Spain did not polish" for refusing to enact such a policy. Despite the improved survival chances of Europeans living on the island, Mary Kingsley, who was staying on the island, still described Fernando Pó as "a more uncomfortable form of execution" for Spaniards appointed there.
=== Early 20th century (1900–1945) ===
Spain had not occupied the large area in the Bight of Biafra to which it had right by treaty, and the French had expanded their occupation at the expense of the territory claimed by Spain. Madrid only partly backed the explorations of men like Manuel Iradier who had signed treaties in the interior as far as Gabon and Cameroon, leaving much of the land out of "effective occupation" as demanded by the terms of the 1885 Berlin Conference. Minimal government backing for mainland annexation came as a result of public opinion and a need for labour on Fernando Pó.
The eventual treaty of Paris in 1900 left Spain with the continental enclave of Río Muni, only 26,000 km out of the 300,000km stretching east to the Ubangi river which the Spaniards had initially claimed. The humiliation of the Franco-Spanish negotiations, combined with the disaster in Cuba led to the head of the Spanish negotiating team, Pedro Gover y Tovar, committing suicide on the voyage home on 21 October 1901. Iradier himself died in despair in 1911; decades later, the port of Cogo was renamed Puerto Iradier in his honour.
Land regulations issued in 1904–1905 favoured Spaniards, and most of the later big planters arrived from Spain after that. An agreement was made with Liberia in 1914 to import cheap labor. Due to malpractice however, the Liberian government eventually ended the treaty after revelations about the state of Liberian workers on Fernando Pó in the Christy Report which brought down the country's president Charles D. B. King in 1930.
By the late nineteenth century, the Bubi were protected from the demands of the planters by Spanish Claretian missionaries, who were very influential in the colony and eventually organised the Bubi into little mission theocracies reminiscent of the famous Jesuit reductions in Paraguay. Catholic penetration was furthered by two small insurrections in 1898 and 1910 protesting conscription of forced labour for the plantations. The Bubi were disarmed in 1917, and left dependent on the missionaries. Between 1914 and 1930, an estimated 10,000 Liberians went to Fernando Po under a labour treaty that was stopped altogether in 1930. With Liberian workers no longer available, planters of Fernando Po turned to Río Muni. Campaigns were mounted to subdue the Fang people in the 1920s, at the time that Liberia was beginning to cut back on recruitment. There were garrisons of the colonial guard throughout the enclave by 1926, and the whole colony was considered 'pacified' by 1929.
The Spanish Civil War had a major impact on the colony. A group of 150 Spanish whites, including the Governor-General and Vice-Governor-General of Río Muni, created a socialist party called the Popular Front in the enclave which served to oppose the interests of the Fernando Pó plantation owners. When the War broke out Francisco Franco ordered Nationalist forces based in the Canaries to ensure control over Equatorial Guinea. In September 1936, Nationalist forces backed by Falangists from Fernando Pó took control of Río Muni, which under Governor-General Luiz Sanchez Guerra Saez and his deputy Porcel had backed the Republican government. By November, the Popular Front and its supporters had been defeated and Equatorial Guinea secured for Franco. The commander in charge of the occupation, Juan Fontán Lobé, was appointed Governor-General by Franco and began to exert more Spanish control over the enclave interior.
Río Muni officially had a little over 100,000 people in the 1930s; escape into Cameroun or Gabon was easy. Fernando Pó thus continued to suffer from labour shortages. The French only briefly permitted recruitment in Cameroun, and the main source of labour came to be Igbo smuggled in canoes from Calabar in Nigeria. This resolution led to Fernando Pó becoming one of Africa's most productive agricultural areas after the Second World War.
This "provincial" phase saw the beginnings of nationalism, but chiefly among small groups who had taken refuge from the Caudillos paternal hand in Cameroun and Gabon. They formed two bodies: the Movimiento Nacional de Liberación de la Guinea (MONALIGE), and the Idea Popular de Guinea Ecuatorial (IPGE). By the late 1960s, much of the African continent had been granted independence. Aware of this trend, the Spanish began to increase efforts to prepare the country for independence. The gross national product per capita in 1965 was $466, which was the highest in black Africa; the Spanish constructed an international airport at Santa Isabel, a television station and increased the literacy rate to 89%. In 1967, the number of hospital beds per capita in Equatorial Guinea was higher than Spain itself, with 1637 beds in 16 hospitals. By the end of colonial rule, the number of Africans in higher education was in only the double digits.
A decision of 9 August 1963, approved by a referendum of 15 December 1963, gave the territory a measure of autonomy and the administrative promotion of a 'moderate' group, the (MUNGE). This was unsuccessful, and, with growing pressure for change from the UN, Madrid was gradually forced to give way to the currents of nationalism. Two General Assembly resolutions were passed in 1965 ordering Spain to grant independence to the colony, and in 1966, a UN Commission toured the country before recommending the same thing. In response, the Spanish declared that they would hold a constitutional convention on 27 October 1967 to negotiate a new constitution for an independent Equatorial Guinea. The conference was attended by 41 local delegates and 25 Spaniards. The Africans were principally divided between Fernandinos and Bubi on one side, who feared a loss of privileges and 'swamping' by the Fang majority, and the Río Muni Fang nationalists on the other. At the conference, the leading Fang figure, the later first president Francisco Macías Nguema, gave a controversial speech in which he claimed that Adolf Hitler had "saved Africa". After nine sessions, the conference was suspended due to deadlock between the "unionists" and "separatists" who wanted a separate Fernando Pó. Macías resolved to travel to the UN to bolster international awareness of the issue, and his firebrand speeches in New York contributed to Spain naming a date for both independence and general elections. In July 1968 virtually all Bubi leaders went to the UN in New York to try and raise awareness for their cause, but the world community was uninterested in quibbling over the specifics of colonial independence. The 1960s were a time of great optimism over the future of the former African colonies, and groups that had been close to European rulers, like the Bubi, were not viewed positively.
=== Independence under Macías (1968–1979) ===
Independence from Spain was gained on 12 October 1968, at noon in the capital, Malabo. The new country became the Republic of Equatorial Guinea (the date is celebrated as the country's Independence Day). Macías became president in the country's only free and fair election to date. The Spanish (ruled by Franco) had backed Macías in the election; much of his campaigning involved visiting rural areas of Río Muni and promising that they would have the houses and wives of the Spanish if they voted for him. He had won in the second round of voting.
During the Nigerian Civil War, Fernando Pó was inhabited by many Biafra-supporting Ibo migrant workers and many refugees from the breakaway state fled to the island. The International Committee of the Red Cross began running relief flights out of Equatorial Guinea, but Macías quickly shut the flights down, refusing to allow them to fly diesel fuel for their trucks nor oxygen tanks for medical operations. The Biafran separatists were starved into submission without international backing.
After the Public Prosecutor complained about "excesses and maltreatment" by government officials, Macías had 150 alleged coup-plotters executed in a purge on Christmas Eve 1969, all of whom were political opponents. Macias Nguema further consolidated his totalitarian powers by outlawing opposition political parties in July 1970 and making himself president for life in 1972. He broke off ties with Spain and the West. In spite of his condemnation of Marxism, which he deemed "neo-colonialist", Equatorial Guinea maintained special relations with communist states, notably China, Cuba, East Germany and the USSR. Macias Nguema signed a preferential trade agreement and a shipping treaty with the Soviet Union. The Soviets also made loans to Equatorial Guinea. The shipping agreement gave the Soviets permission for a pilot fishery development project and also a naval base at Luba. In return, the USSR was to supply fish to Equatorial Guinea. China and Cuba also gave different forms of financial, military, and technical assistance to Equatorial Guinea, which got them a measure of influence there. For the USSR, there was an advantage to be gained in the war in Angola from access to Luba base and later on to Malabo International Airport. Apart from allegedly committing genocide against the ethnic minority Bubi people, Macias Nguema ordered the deaths of thousands of suspected opponents, closed down churches and presided over the economy's collapse as skilled citizens and foreigners fled the country.
=== Obiang (1979–present) ===
The nephew of Macías Nguema, Teodoro Obiang deposed his uncle on 3 August 1979, in a bloody coup d'état; over two weeks of civil war ensued until Macías Nguema was captured. He was tried and executed soon afterward, with Obiang succeeding him as a less bloody, but still authoritarian president.
In 1995, Mobil, an American oil company, discovered oil in Equatorial Guinea. The country subsequently experienced rapid economic development, but earnings from the country's oil wealth have not reached the population and the country ranks low on the UN human development index. 7.9% of children die before the age of 5, and more than 50% of the population lacks access to clean drinking water. and his associates. In 2006, Forbes estimated his personal wealth at $600 million.
In 2011, the government announced it was planning a new capital for the country, named Oyala. The city was renamed Ciudad de la Paz ("City of Peace") in 2017.
, Obiang was Africa's second-longest serving dictator after Cameroon's Paul Biya. Equatorial Guinea was elected as a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council 2018–2019. On 7 March 2021, there were munition explosions at a military base near the city of Bata, causing 98 deaths and 600 people being injured and treated at the hospital. In November 2022, Obiang was re-elected in the 2022 Equatorial Guinean general election with 99.7% of the vote amid accusations of fraud by the opposition.
== Government and politics ==
The current president of Equatorial Guinea is Teodoro Obiang. The 1982 constitution of Equatorial Guinea gives him extensive powers, including naming and dismissing members of the cabinet, making laws by decree, dissolving the Chamber of Representatives, negotiating and ratifying treaties and serving as commander in chief of the armed forces. According to Human Rights Watch, the dictatorship of President Obiang used an oil boom to entrench and enrich itself further at the expense of the country's people. Since August 1979, some 12 perceived unsuccessful coup attempts have occurred. According to a March 2004 BBC profile, politics within the country were dominated by tensions with Obiang's son, Teodoro Nguema Obiang Mangue.
In 2004, a planeload of suspected mercenaries was intercepted in Zimbabwe while allegedly on the way to overthrow Obiang. A November 2004 report named Mark Thatcher as a financial backer of the 2004 Equatorial Guinea coup d'état attempt organized by Simon Mann. Various accounts also named the United Kingdom's MI6, the United States' CIA, and Spain as tacit supporters of the coup attempt. Nevertheless, the Amnesty International report released in June 2005 on the ensuing trial of those allegedly involved highlighted the prosecution's failure to produce conclusive evidence that a coup attempt had actually taken place. Simon Mann was released from prison on 3 November 2009 for humanitarian reasons.
Since 2005, Military Professional Resources Inc., a US-based international private military company, has worked in Equatorial Guinea to train police forces in appropriate human rights practices. In 2006, US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice hailed Obiang as a "good friend" despite repeated criticism of his human rights and civil liberties record. The US Agency for International Development entered into a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with Obiang in April 2006 to establish a social development fund in the country, implementing projects in the areas of health, education, women's affairs and the environment.
In 2006, Obiang signed an anti-torture decree banning all forms of abuse and improper treatment in Equatorial Guinea, and commissioned the renovation and modernization of Black Beach prison in 2007 to ensure the humane treatment of prisoners. However, human rights abuses have continued. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International among other non-governmental organizations have documented severe human rights abuses in prisons, including torture, beatings, unexplained deaths and illegal detention. Obiang was re-elected to serve an additional term in 2009 in an election the African Union deemed "in line with electoral law". Obiang re-appointed Prime Minister Ignacio Milam Tang in 2010.
In November 2011, a new constitution was approved. The vote on the constitution was taken, though neither the text nor its content was revealed to the public before the vote. Under the new constitution, the president was limited to a maximum of two seven-year terms and would be both the head of state and head of the government, therefore eliminating the prime minister. The new constitution also introduced the figure of a vice president and called for the creation of a 70-member senate with 55 senators elected by the people and the 15 remaining designated by the president. In the following cabinet reshuffle, it was announced that there would be two vice-presidents in clear violation of the constitution that was just taking effect.
In October 2012, during an interview with Christiane Amanpour on CNN, Obiang was asked whether he would step down at the end of the current term (2009–2016) since the new constitution limited the number of terms to two and he has been reelected at least 4 times. Obiang answered he refused to step aside because the new constitution was not retroactive and the two-term limit would only become applicable from 2016.
The elections on 26 May 2013 combined the senate, lower house and mayoral contests in a single package. Like all previous elections, this was denounced by the opposition, and it too was won by Obiang's PDGE. During the electoral contest, the ruling party hosted internal elections, which were later scrapped. Clara Nsegue Eyi and Natalia Angue Edjodjomo, coordinators of the Movimiento de Protesta Popular (People's Protest Movement), were arrested. They were detained on 13 May. They called for a peaceful protest at the Plaza de la Mujer square on 15 May. Coordinator Enrique Nsolo Nzo was also arrested and taken to Malabo Central Police Station. Nsolo Nzo was released later that day without charge.
Shortly after the elections, opposition party Convergence for Social Democracy (CPDS) announced that they were going to protest peacefully against the 26 May elections on 25 June. Interior minister Clemente Engonga refused to authorise the protest on the grounds that it could "destabilize" the country and CPDS decided to go forward, claiming constitutional right. On the night of 24 June, the CPDS headquarters in Malabo were surrounded by heavily armed police officers to keep those inside from leaving and thus effectively blocking the protest. Several leading members of CPDS were detained in Malabo and others in Bata were kept from boarding several local flights to Malabo.
In 2016, Obiang was reelected for an additional seven-year term in an election that, according to Freedom House, was plagued by police violence, detentions and torture against opposition factions.
Following the 2022 general elections, President Obiang's Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea holds all of the 100 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and all of those in the Senate. The opposition is almost non-existent in the country and is organized from Spain mainly within the social-democratic Convergence for Social Democracy. Most of the media are under state control; the private television channels, those of the Asonga group, belong to the president's family.
In their 2020 publishing, Transparency International awarded Equatorial Guinea a total score of 16 on their Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI). CPI ranks countries by their perceived level of public corruptionwhere zero is very corrupt and 100 is extremely clean. Equatorial Guinea was the 174th lowest scoring nation out of a total of 180 countries. Freedom House, a pro-democracy and human rights NGO, described Obiang as one of the world's "most kleptocratic living autocrats", and complained about the US government welcoming his administration and buying oil from it. According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices, Equatorial Guinea is the 7th least democratic country in Africa.
=== Armed forces ===
The Armed Forces of Equatorial Guinea consists of approximately 2,500 service members. The army has almost 1,400 soldiers, the police 400 paramilitary men, the navy 200 service members, and the air force about 120 members. There is also a gendarmerie, but the number of members is unknown.
According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Equatorial Guinea is the 94th most peaceful country in the world.
== Geography ==
Equatorial Guinea is on the west coast of Central Africa. The country consists of a mainland territory, Río Muni, which is bordered by Cameroon to the north and Gabon to the east and south, and five small islands, Bioko, Corisco, Annobón, Elobey Chico (Small Elobey), and Elobey Grande (Great Elobey). Bioko, the site of the capital, Malabo, lies about off the coast of Cameroon. Annobón Island is about west-south-west of Cape Lopez in Gabon. Corisco and the two Elobey islands are in Corisco Bay, on the border of Río Muni and Gabon.
Equatorial Guinea lies between latitudes 4°N and 2°N, and longitudes 5° and 12°E. Despite its name, no part of the country's territory lies on the equator—it is in the northern hemisphere, except for the insular Annobón Province, which is about south of the equator.
=== Climate ===
Equatorial Guinea has a tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. From June to August, Río Muni is dry and Bioko wet; from December to February, the reverse occurs. In between it, there is a gradual transition. Rain or mist occurs daily on Annobón, where a cloudless day has never been registered. The temperature at Malabo, Bioko, ranges from to , though on the southern Moka Plateau, normal high temperatures are only . In Río Muni, the average temperature is about . Annual rainfall varies from at Malabo to at Ureka, Bioko, but Río Muni is somewhat drier.
=== Ecology ===
Equatorial Guinea spans several ecoregions. Río Muni region lies within the Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests ecoregion except for patches of Central African mangroves on the coast, especially in the Muni River estuary. The Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests ecoregion covers most of Bioko and the adjacent portions of Cameroon and Nigeria on the African mainland, and the Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests ecoregion covers the highlands of Bioko and nearby Mount Cameroon. The São Tomé, Príncipe, and Annobón moist lowland forests ecoregion covers all of Annobón, as well as São Tomé and Príncipe.
The country had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.99/10, ranking it 30th globally out of 172 countries.
File:Annobon Island Equatorial Guinea.jpg|Annobon
File:Islotes Horacio 1.JPG|Islote Horacio
File:Dschungel bei Oyala.JPG|Near Ciudad de la Paz
File:Nationalpark Monte Alén.jpg|Monte Alén National Park
File:The Great Bioko mountain.jpg|Pico Basilé
==== Wildlife ====
Equatorial Guinea is home to gorillas, chimpanzees, various monkeys, leopards, buffalo, antelope, elephants, hippopotamuses, crocodiles, and various snakes, including pythons.
File:Dissotis sp Bioko201310.jpg|Dissotis
File:Soja en Mongomo.png|Soybean
File:Rhampholeon spectrum 63850438.jpg|Spectral pygmy chameleon
File:Yellow-billed Turacos in Equatorial Guinea 2006.jpg|Yellow-billed turaco
File:Gorilla 019.jpg|Western gorilla
=== Administrative divisions ===
Equatorial Guinea is divided into eight provinces. The newest province is Djibloho, created in 2017 with its headquarters at Ciudad de la Paz, the country's future capital. The eight provinces are as follows (numbers correspond to those on the map; provincial capitals appear in parentheses):
== Economy ==
Before the nation's independence from Spain, Equatorial Guinea exported cocoa, coffee and timber, mostly to its colonial ruler, Spain, but also to Germany and the UK. On 1 January 1985, the country became the first non-Francophone African member of the franc zone, adopting the CFA franc as its currency. The national currency, the ekwele, had previously been linked to the Spanish peseta.
The discovery of large oil reserves in 1996 and its subsequent exploitation contributed to a dramatic increase in government revenue. , Equatorial Guinea is the third-largest oil producer in Sub-Saharan Africa. Its oil production has risen to , up from 220,000 only two years earlier. Oil companies operating in Equatorial Guinea include ExxonMobil, Marathon Oil, Kosmos Energy and Chevron.
In July 2004, the United States Senate published an investigation into Riggs Bank, a Washington-based bank into which most of Equatorial Guinea's oil revenues were paid until recently, and which also banked for Chile's Augusto Pinochet. The Senate report showed at least $35 million siphoned off by Obiang, his family and regime senior officials. The president has denied any wrongdoing. Riggs Bank in February 2005 paid $9 million in restitution for Pinochet's banking, no restitution was made with regard to Equatorial Guinea.
Forestry, farming, and fishing are also major components of the country's gross domestic product (GDP). Subsistence farming predominates. Agriculture is the country's main source of employment, providing income for 57% of rural households and employment for 52% of the workforce. From 2000 to 2010, Equatorial Guinea had the highest average annual increase in GDP, 17%.
Equatorial Guinea is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). Equatorial Guinea is also a member of the Central African Monetary and Economic Union (CEMAC), a subregion that comprises more than 50 million people. Equatorial Guinea tried to be validated as an Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI)-compliant country. The country obtained candidate status on 22 February 2008; when Equatorial Guinea applied to extend the deadline for completing EITI's validation, the EITI Board did not agree to the extension.
According to the World Bank, Equatorial Guinea has the highest gross national income (GNI) per capita of any African country, 83 times larger than the GNI per capita of Burundi, the poorest country. However, Equatorial Guinea has extreme poverty brought about by wealth inequality. According to the 2016 United Nations Human Development Report, Equatorial Guinea had a GDP per capita of $21,517, one of the highest levels of wealth in Africa. However, it is one of the most unequal countries in the world according to the Gini index, with 70 per cent of the population living on one dollar a day. The country ranks 145th out of 189 on the United Nations Human Development Index in 2019. In 2022, the country's Gini coefficient was 58.8.
== Transportation ==
Due to the large oil industry in the country, internationally recognized carriers flew to Malabo International Airport, which, in May 2014, had several direct connections to Europe and West Africa. There are three airports in Equatorial Guinea—Malabo International Airport, Bata Airport and the Annobón Airport on the island of Annobón. Malabo International Airport is the only international airport.
Every airline registered in Equatorial Guinea appears on the list of air carriers prohibited in the European Union (EU), which means that they are banned from operating services of any kind within the EU. However, freight carriers provide service from European cities to the capital.
== Demographics ==
The majority of the people of Equatorial Guinea are of Bantu origin. The largest ethnic group, the Fang, is indigenous to the mainland, but substantial migration to Bioko Island since the 20th century means the Fang population exceeds that of the earlier Bubi inhabitants. The Fang constitute 80% of the population and comprise around 67 clans. Those in the northern part of Río Muni speak Fang-Ntumu, while those in the south speak Fang-Okah; the two dialects have differences but are mutually intelligible. Dialects of Fang are also spoken in parts of neighboring Cameroon (Bulu) and Gabon. These dialects, while still intelligible, are more distinct. The Bubi, who constitute 15% of the population, are indigenous to Bioko Island. The traditional demarcation line between Fang and 'Beach' (inland) ethnic groups was the village of Niefang (limit of the Fang), east of Bata.
Coastal ethnic groups, sometimes referred to as Ndowe or "Playeros" (Beach People in Spanish): Combes, Bujebas, Balengues, and Bengas on the mainland and small islands, and Fernandinos, a Krio community on Bioko Island together comprise 5% of the population. Europeans (largely of Spanish or Portuguese descent, some with partial African ancestry) also live in the country, but most ethnic Spaniards left after independence.
A growing number of foreigners from neighboring Cameroon, Nigeria, and Gabon have immigrated to the country. According to the Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations (2002) 7% of Bioko islanders were Igbo. Equatorial Guinea received Asians and native Africans from other countries as workers on cocoa and coffee plantations. Other black Africans came from Liberia, Angola, and Mozambique. Most of the Asian population is Chinese, with small numbers of Indians.
=== Languages ===
Since its independence in 1968, the main official language of Equatorial Guinea has been Spanish (the local variant is Equatoguinean Spanish), which acts as a lingua franca among its different ethnic groups. In 1970, during Macías' rule, Spanish was replaced by Fang, the language of its majority ethnic group, to which Macías belonged. That decision was reverted in 1979 after Macías' fall. Spanish remained as its lone official language until 1998, when French was added as its second one, as it had previously joined the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC), whose founding members are French-speaking nations, two of them (Cameroon and Gabon) surrounding its continental region. Spanish has been an official language since 1844. It is still the language of education and administration. 67.6% of Equatorial Guineans can speak it, especially those living in the capital, Malabo. French was only made official in order to join the Francophonie, and it is not locally spoken, except in some border towns; and Portuguese was only made official in order to join the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, so it too is not locally spoken, although the Annobonese and local Catholics have links to the language.
Aboriginal languages are recognised as integral parts of the "national culture" (Constitutional Law No. 1/1998, 21 January). Indigenous languages (some of them creoles) include Fang, Bube, Benga, Ndowe, Balengue, Bujeba, Bissio, Gumu, Igbo, Pichinglis, Fa d'Ambô and the nearly extinct Baseke. Most African ethnic groups speak Bantu languages.
Fa d'Ambô, a Portuguese creole, is in use in Annobón Province, in Malabo, and on Equatorial Guinea's mainland. Many residents of Bioko can also speak Spanish, particularly in the capital, and the local trade language, Pichinglis, an English-based creole. Spanish is not spoken much in Annobón. In government and education, Spanish is used. Noncreolized Portuguese is used as a liturgical language by local Catholics. The Annobonese ethnic community tried to gain membership in the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP). The government financed an Instituto Internacional da Língua Portuguesa (IILP) sociolinguistic study in Annobón. It documented strong links with the Portuguese creole populations in São Tomé and Príncipe, Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau. It also recognises long historical ties with Portugal and with Portuguese-speaking peoples of Brazil, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Cape Verde.
Some of the motivations for Equatorial Guinea's pursuit of membership in the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) included access to several professional and academic exchange programmes and facilitated cross-border circulation of citizens. The national parliament discussed this law in October 2011.
In February 2012, Equatorial Guinea's foreign minister signed an agreement with the IILP on the promotion of Portuguese in the country. In July 2012, the CPLP refused Equatorial Guinea full membership, primarily because of its continued serious violations of human rights. The government responded by legalising political parties, declaring a moratorium on the death penalty, and starting a dialog with all political factions. Additionally, the IILP secured land from the government for the construction of Portuguese language cultural centres in Bata and Malabo.
=== Religion ===
The principal religion in Equatorial Guinea is Christianity, the faith of 93% of the population. Roman Catholics make up the majority (88%), while a minority are Protestants (5%). Of the population, 2% follows Islam (mainly Sunni). The remaining 5% practise Animism, Baháʼí, and other beliefs, and traditional animist beliefs are often mixed with Catholicism.
=== Health ===
Equatorial Guinea's malaria programs in the early 21st century achieved success in reducing malaria infection and mortality. Their program consists of twice-yearly indoor residual spraying (IRS), the introduction of artemisinin combination treatment (ACTs), the use of intermittent preventive treatment in pregnant women (IPTp), and the introduction of long-lasting insecticide-treated mosquito nets (LLINs). Their efforts resulted in a reduction in all-cause under-five mortality from 152 to 55 deaths per 1,000 live births (down 64%), a drop that coincided with the launch of the program.
In June 2014, four cases of polio were reported, making it the country's first outbreak of that disease.
=== Education ===
Among sub-Saharan African countries, Equatorial Guinea has one of the highest literacy rates. According to the Central Intelligence Agency's World Factbook, , 95.3% of the population age 15 and over were able to read and write in the country. There are now 51 model schools whose active pedagogy will be a national reform.
The country has one university, the Universidad Nacional de Guinea Ecuatorial (UNGE), with a campus in Malabo and a Faculty of Medicine located in Bata on the mainland. In 2009 the university produced the first 110 national doctors. The Bata Medical School is supported principally by the government of Cuba and staffed by Cuban medical educators and physicians.
== Culture ==
In June 1984, the First Hispanic-African Cultural Congress was convened to explore the cultural identity of Equatorial Guinea. The country also has no documented heritage listed in the Memory of the World Programme of UNESCO nor any intangible cultural heritage listed in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List.
Tourist attractions are the colonial quarter in Malabo, the southern part of Bioko where hikers can visit the Iladyi cascades and remote beaches with nesting turtles, Bata with its shoreline Paseo Maritimo and the tower of liberty, Mongomo with its basilica (the second largest Catholic church in Africa) and the new planned and built capital Ciudad de la Paz.
=== Media and communications ===
The principal means of communication within Equatorial Guinea are three state-operated FM radio stations: the BBC World Service, Radio France Internationale and Gabon-based Africa No 1 broadcast on FM in Malabo. There is also an independent radio option called Radio Macuto; it is a web-based radio and news source known for publishing news that calls out Obiang's regime. There are also five shortwave radio stations. Televisión de Guinea Ecuatorial, the television network, is state-operated. The international TV programme RTVGE is available via satellites in Africa, Europe, and the Americas and worldwide via the Internet. There are two newspapers and two magazines.
Equatorial Guinea ranked 161st out of 179 countries in the 2012 Reporters Without Borders press freedom index. The watchdog says the national broadcaster obeys the orders of the information ministry. Most of the media companies practice self-censorship, and are banned by law from criticising public figures. The state-owned media and the main private radio station are under the directorship of the president's son, Teodor Obiang.
Landline telephone penetration is low, with only two lines available per 100 people. , approximately 40% of the population subscribed to mobile telephone services.
=== Music ===
Pan-African styles like soukous and makossa are popular, as are reggaeton, Latin trap, reggae and rock and roll.
=== Cinema ===
In 2014, the South African-Dutch-Equatorial Guinean drama film Where the Road Runs Out was shot in the country. There is also the documentary The Writer from a Country Without Bookstores. It is openly critical of Obiang's regime.
=== Sports ===
Equatorial Guinea was chosen to co-host the 2012 African Cup of Nations in partnership with Gabon, and hosted the 2015 edition. The country was also chosen to host the 2008 Women's African Football Championship, which they won. The women's national team qualified for the 2011 World Cup in Germany. In June 2016, Equatorial Guinea was chosen to host the 12th African Games in 2019.
Equatorial Guinea is famous for the swimmers Eric Moussambani, nicknamed "Eric the Eel", and Paula Barila Bolopa, "Paula the Crawler", who attended the 2000 Summer Olympics.
Basketball has been increasing in popularity.
|
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"Equatorial Guinean presidential election, 2009",
"enclave and exclave",
"Sierra Leone",
"Gini index",
"2012 African Cup of Nations",
"Dissotis",
"Gini coefficient",
"Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests",
"International Committee of the Red Cross",
"Fang people",
"Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata",
"UNESCO World Heritage Site",
"D. L. Claret",
"2008 Women's African Football Championship",
"Freedom in the World",
"Atlantic slave trade",
"oil reserves",
"Igbo people",
"USAID",
"nationalism",
"Angola",
"Spanish Marine Infantry",
"Francoist Spain",
"Calabar",
"Igbo language",
"Adam Roberts (scholar)",
"Annobón Province",
"Mobil",
"Wele-Nzas",
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"Portuguese Empire",
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"Poliomyelitis",
"The Daily Telegraph",
"Senate (Equatorial Guinea)",
"CNN",
"Manuel Osa Nsue Nsua",
"Caminemos pisando las sendas de nuestra inmensa felicidad",
"dictatorship",
"African Development Bank",
"Chile",
"Protestantism",
"Equatorial Guinea women's national football team",
"One-party state",
"Military Professional Resources Inc.",
"Benga language",
"Hess Corporation",
"Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative",
"Portuguese people",
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"Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests",
"12th meridian east",
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"Guinea (region)",
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"Treaty of El Pardo (1778)",
"Capital city",
"The World Factbook",
"Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea",
"List of countries by oil production",
"Christianity",
"Equatoguinean Spanish",
"franc zone",
"yellow fever",
"Bubi people",
"trade agreement",
"African Union",
"Robert Klitgaard",
"WP:MOSNUM",
"Washington DC",
"The Guardian",
"V-Dem Democracy indices",
"Freedom House",
"Max Liniger-Goumaz",
"Bantu languages",
"Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa",
"OPEC",
"Where the Road Runs Out",
"Fernão do Pó",
"African Traditional Religion",
"Islands of Equatorial Guinea",
"plantation",
"Chevron Corporation",
"Djibloho",
"Francisco Franco",
"Monte Alén National Park",
"Buenos Aires",
"Caudillo",
"Combe language",
"African Buffalo",
"East Germany",
"coffee",
"revolutionary terror",
"List of Presidents of Equatorial Guinea",
"2021 Bata explosions",
"2015 Africa Cup of Nations",
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"Sultanism",
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"shortwave",
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"List of countries and dependencies by area",
"fishery",
"Equator",
"Islote Horacio",
"Bube language",
"Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo",
"republic",
"president for life",
"Fernando Pó (island)",
"Global Peace Index",
"Central African Monetary and Economic Union",
"USSR",
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"Mary Kingsley",
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"Basilica of the Immaculate Conception, Mongomo",
"memorandum of understanding",
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"gross domestic product",
"self-censorship",
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"genocide",
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"Transparency International",
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"gorilla",
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"Annobón Airport",
"Memory of the World Programme",
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"Zimbabwe",
"Claretians",
"Charles D. B. King",
"GSM",
"Instituto Cervantes",
"snake",
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"Christiane Amanpour",
"Irreligious",
"drinking water",
"chimpanzee",
"Forbes",
"Agriculture in Equatorial Guinea",
"Combe people",
"Condoleezza Rice",
"leopard",
"Baseke language",
"malaria",
"World Council of Churches",
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"wikt:Francophone",
"hippopotamus",
"Pichinglis",
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"TVGE",
"List of national independence days",
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"reggae",
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"FM radio",
"conscription",
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"oil boom",
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"Nigerian Civil War",
"Bight of Biafra",
"Footscray, Victoria",
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"ekwele",
"rainfall",
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"Simon Mann",
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"Cape Lopez",
"Burundi",
"Kwasio people",
"BBC News",
"Cameroon",
"List of Prime Ministers of Equatorial Guinea",
"Pedro Gover y Tovar",
"Constitution of Equatorial Guinea",
"Spectral pygmy chameleon",
"Francisco Macías Nguema",
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"2016 Equatorial Guinean presidential election",
"1979 Equatorial Guinea coup d'état",
"Elobey Chico",
"United Nations Human Development Index",
"Sunni",
"Parliament of Equatorial Guinea",
"unfree labor",
"Charles III of Spain",
"Corisco",
"Yellow-billed turaco",
"Municipalities of Equatorial Guinea",
"Niefang",
"Eric Moussambani",
"treaty",
"Cultural assimilation",
"Lonely Planet",
"Malabo International Airport",
"Mozambique",
"Reducciones",
"European Union",
"Gulf of Guinea",
"Elobey Grande",
"Kombe language",
"Central African CFA franc",
"Muni River",
"Riggs Bank",
"Ubangi River",
"Bantu people",
"Idea Popular de Guinea Ecuatorial",
"communist state",
"São Tomé island",
"Asians",
".gq",
"Ogoue River",
"2022 Equatorial Guinean general election",
"Malabo",
"authoritarian",
"Cameroun",
"Francisco Macias",
"Paul Biya",
"Radio France Internationale",
"Basketball",
"Marathon Oil",
"democracy in Africa",
"2000 Summer Olympics",
"African Petroleum Producers' Organization",
"ecoregion",
"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland",
"Armed Forces of Equatorial Guinea",
"Pythonidae",
"Ebebiyín",
"Centro Sur",
"Treaty of Paris (1900)",
"Fang language",
"Bioko Sur",
"ExxonMobil",
"Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa",
"Outline of Equatorial Guinea",
"Central Africa",
"Bata, Equatorial Guinea",
"decolonisation",
"Second World War",
"Islam in Equatorial Guinea",
"Human trafficking in Equatorial Guinea",
"Latin trap",
"Organisation internationale de la Francophonie",
"Totalitarianism",
"Orange S.A.",
"Reuters",
"Sierra Leone Krio people",
"Ceuta",
"Annobón"
] |
9,367 |
History of Equatorial Guinea
|
The History of Equatorial Guinea is marked by centuries of colonial domination by the Portuguese, British and Spanish colonial empires, and by the local kingdoms.
==Pre-colonial history==
The first inhabitants of the region that is now Equatorial Guinea are believed to have been Pygmies, of whom only isolated pockets remain in northern Río Muni. Bantu migrations between the 17th and 19th centuries brought the coastal groups and later the Fang. Elements of the latter may have generated the Bubi, who emigrated to Bakugan from Cameroon and Río Muni in several waves and succeeded former Neolithic populations. The Igbo of Nigeria (mostly Aro) slave traders arrived and founded small settlements in Bioko and Rio Muni which expanded the Aro Confederacy in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Annobón population, originally from Angola, were brought by the Portuguese via São Tomé.
==Colonial era==
===Portuguese colonial rule (1472–1778)===
The Portuguese explorer Fernão do Pó, seeking a path to India, is credited as being the first European to discover the island of Bioko in 1472. He called it Formosa ("Beautiful"), but it quickly took on the name of its European discoverer, usually found on maps Hispanized into "Fernando Po". The islands of Fernando Pó and Annobón were colonized by Portugal in 1474.
In 1778, Queen Maria I of Portugal and King Charles III of Spain signed the Treaty of El Pardo which ceded the Bioko, adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the Bight of Biafra between the Niger and Ogoue rivers to Spain. Spain intended to start slave-trading operations on the mainland. Between 1778 and 1810, the territory of Equatorial Guinea was administered by the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, based in Buenos Aires. which was then moved to Sierra Leone upon agreement with Spain in 1843. In 1844, on restoration of Spanish rule, it became known as the "Territorios Españoles del Golfo de Guinea". Spain had neglected to occupy the large area in the Bight of Biafra to which it had treaty rights, and the French had been expanding their occupation at the expense of the area claimed by Spain. The Treaty of Paris in 1900 left Spain with the continental enclave of Rio Muni, a mere 26,000 km2 out of the 300,000 stretching east to the Ubangi River, which the Spaniards had claimed.
===Spanish colonial territory (1778–1968)===
At the beginning of the 20th century, the plantations of Fernando Po were largely in the hands of a black Creole elite, later known as Fernandinos. The British had settled some 2,000 Sierra Leoneans and freed slaves during their brief control of the island in the early 19th century, and a small trickle of immigration from West Africa and the West Indies continued after the departure of the British. To this core of settlers were added Cubans, Filipinos, Spaniards of various colours deported for political or other crimes, and some assisted settlers. There was also a trickle of immigration from the neighbouring Portuguese islands: escaped slaves and prospective planters. Although a few of the Fernandinos were Catholic and Spanish-speaking, about nine-tenths of them were Protestant and English-speaking on the eve of the First World War, and pidgin English was the lingua franca of the island. The Sierra Leoneans were particularly well placed as planters while labour recruitment on the Windward coast continued, for they kept family and other connections there and could easily arrange labour supplies.
During World War I, due to Spain's neutrality, Rio Muni and Fernando Po were host to large numbers of German troops and refugees who fled German Kamerun after the Entente conquered the colony. They were well-treated by the Spanish authorities, largely because the 180-man militia was not large enough to forcibly intern them. Most of the Cameroonian natives stayed in Muni, while the Germans moved to Fernando Po.
From the opening years of the 20th century, the Fernandinos were put on the defensive by a new generation of Spanish immigrants. New land regulations in 1904–5 favoured Spaniards, and most of the big planters of later years arrived in the islands from Spain following these new regulations. The Liberian labour agreement of 1914 favoured wealthy men with ready access to the state, and the shift in labour supplies from Liberia to Rio Muni increased this advantage. In 1940, it was estimated that only 20 per cent of the colony's cocoa production remained in African hands, nearly all of it in the hands of Fernandinos.
The greatest constraint to economic development was a chronic shortage of labour. The indigenous Bubi population of Bioko, pushed into the interior of the island and decimated by alcoholic addiction, venereal disease, smallpox and sleeping sickness, refused to work on plantations. Working their own small cocoa farms gave them a considerable degree of autonomy. Moreover, the Bubi were protected from the demands of the planters from the late 19th century by the Spanish Claretian missionaries, who were very influential in the colony and eventually organised the Bubi into small mission theocracies reminiscent of the famous Jesuit Reductions of Paraguay. Catholic penetration was furthered by two small insurrections protesting the conscription of forced labour for the plantations, in 1898 and 1910, which led to the Bubi being disarmed in 1917 and left them dependent on the missionaries. With the indigenous Bubi population decimated by disease and forced labour, the island's economy came to depend on imported agricultural contract workers. A Labour Treaty was signed with the Republic of Liberia in 1914, the transport of up to 15,000 workers was orchestrated by the German Woermann-Linie. The Liberian labour supply was cut off in 1930 after an International Labour Organization (ILO) commission discovered that contract workers had "been recruited under conditions of criminal compulsion scarcely distinguishable from slave raiding and slave trading".
Between 1926 and 1959 Bioko and Rio Muni were united as the colony of Spanish Guinea. The economy was based on large cacao and coffee plantations and logging concessions, and the workforce was mostly made up of immigrant contract labourers from Liberia, Nigeria, and Cameroon. However, Rio Muni had a small population, officially put at a little over 100,000 in the 1930s, and escape over the frontiers into Cameroon or Gabon was very easy. Moreover, the timber companies needed growing amounts of labour, and the spread of coffee cultivation offered an alternative means of paying taxes. Fernando Po thus continued to suffer from labour shortages. The French only briefly permitted recruitment in Cameroon, and the main source of labour came to be Igbo smuggled in canoes from Calabar and Oron, Nigeria. The persisting labour shortage in the cacao, coffee and logging industries was only overcome by the mushrooming illegal canoe-based smuggling of Igbo and Ibibio workers from the Eastern Provinces of Nigeria. The number of clandestine contract workers on the island of Fernando Po grew to 20,000 in 1942. A labour treaty was signed in the same year, and a continuous stream of workers arrived in Spanish Guinea. It was this treaty which really permitted Fernando Po to become one of Africa's most productive agricultural areas after the Second World War.
===Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)===
At the beginning of the Spanish Civil War the colony remained loyal to the Republican government. On July 24, 1936, the Republican cruiser Méndez Núñez arrived at Santa Isabel; on its way back to Spain the officers planned to join the rebellion, but the Spanish government, knowing this, ordered the ship to go back to the colony; on August 14 the Méndez Núñez was back in Fernando Po, where the sailors took control of her; on September 21 the ship arrived in Málaga (Republican Spain). On September 19 the Colonial Guard and the Civil Guard began the rebellion and took control of the island of Fernando Po, while the rest of the colony remained loyal to the Republic. On September 22 a clash took place between a rebel group from Kogo and a loyal detachment from Bata. Finally, on October 14 a force of 200 rebels arrived in the merchant Ciudad de Mahón and took control of Bata and the rest of the colony.
===Provincialisation and decolonisation===
The post-war political history of the colony can be divided into three fairly distinct phases:
up to 1959, when its status was raised from 'colony' to 'province', taking a leaf out of the approach of the Portuguese Empire;
between 1960 and 1968, when Spain attempted a partial decolonisation which was hoped would conserve the territory as an integral segment of the Spanish system; and
after 1968, when the territory became an independent republic.
The first of these phases consisted of little more than a continuation of previous policies; these closely resembled the policies of Portugal and France, notably in dividing the population into a vast majority governed as 'natives' or non-citizens, and a very small minority (together with whites) admitted to civic status as emancipados, assimilation to the metropolitan culture being the only permissible means of advancement. The first local elections were held in 1959, and the first Equatoguinean representatives were seated in the Cortes Generales (Spanish parliament). Under the Basic Law of December 1963, limited autonomy was authorized under a joint legislative body for the territory's two provinces. A paradoxical effect of this autonomy was that Guineans could choose among several political parties while metropolitan Spaniards were under a single-party regime. The name of the country was changed to Equatorial Guinea. Although Spain's commissioner general had extensive powers, the Equatorial Guinean General Assembly had considerable initiative in formulating laws and regulations.
Nationalism began to emerge during this "provincial" phase, chiefly among small groups who had taken refuge from General Franco's dictatorship in Cameroon and Gabon. They formed two bodies: the Movimiento Nacional de Liberación de la Guinea (MONALIGE), and the Idea Popular de Guinea Ecuatorial (IPGE). Their pressures were weak, but the general trend in West Africa was not. A decision of 9 August 1963, approved by a referendum of 15 December 1963, introduced the territory to a measure of autonomy and the administrative promotion of a 'moderate' grouping, the Movimiento de Unión Nacional de la Guinea Ecuatorial (MUNGE). This proved a feeble instrument, and, with growing pressure for change from the UN, Spain gave way to the currents of nationalism. Independence was conceded on 12 October 1968 and the Republic of Equatorial Guinea came into being with Francisco Macías Nguema elected as president.
==Independence and Macias government (1968–1979)==
In March 1968, under pressure from Equatoguinean nationalists and the United Nations, Spain announced that it would grant independence to Equatorial Guinea. A constitutional convention produced an electoral law and draft constitution. In the presence of a UN observer team, a referendum was held on August 11, 1968, and 63% of the electorate voted in favour of the constitution, which provided for a government with a General Assembly and a Supreme Court with judges appointed by the president.
In September 1968, Francisco Macías Nguema was elected first president of Equatorial Guinea, and independence was granted in October.
At independence, Equatorial Guinea had one of the highest per capita incomes in Africa, although it was also very unevenly distributed as most of the money was in the hands of colonial and elite planters.
In July 1970, Macias created a single-party state and by May 1971, key portions of the constitution were abrogated. In 1972 Macias took complete control of the government and assumed the title of President for Life. The Macias regime was characterized by human rights abuses, totalitarianism and the abandonment of all government functions except internal security, which was accomplished by terror; this led to the death or exile of up to one-third of the country's population. Due to pilferage, ignorance, and neglect, the country's infrastructure—electricity, water, road, transportation, and health—fell into ruin. The private and public sectors of the economy were devastated. Nigerian contract labourers on Bioko, estimated to have been 60,000, left en masse in early 1976. The economy collapsed, and skilled citizens and foreigners left.
Religion was repressed, and education ceased. All schools were ordered closed in 1975, and the country's churches were also closed in 1978. Nguema introduced a campaign of 'authenticity', replacing colonial names with native ones: the capital Santa Isabel became Malabo, the main island of Fernando Po was renamed Masie Nguema Biyogo after himself, and Annobón became Pagalu. As part of the same process, Nguema also ordered the entire population to drop their European names and adopt African ones. His own name underwent several transformations, so that by the end of his rule he was known as Masie Nguema Biyogo Ñegue Ndong. Much of the population residing on the island of Bioko, consisting of Nigerian labourers and traders, were forced to evacuate.
In August 1979 Macias' nephew from Mongomo and former director of the infamous Black Beach prison, Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, led a successful coup d'état; Macias was arrested, tried, and executed. Obiang assumed the presidency in October 1979. The islands were renamed Bioko and Annobón. The new ruler faced the challenge of restoring order in a country that was in shambles—by the end of Macias Nguema's dictatorship, the state coffers were empty and the population had been reduced to only one-third of what it was at independence.
==Obiang government (1979–present)==
Although President Obiang signed a national anti-torture decree in 2006 to ban all forms of abuse and improper treatment in Equatorial Guinea and commissioned the renovation and modernization of Black Beach prison in 2007 to ensure the humane treatment of prisoners, human rights abuses continue. Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International and other non-governmental organizations have documented severe human rights abuses in prisons, including torture, beatings, unexplained deaths and illegal detention.
According to a March 2004 BBC profile, politics within the country are dominated by tensions between Obiang's son, Teodorin, and other close relatives with powerful positions in the security forces. The tension may be rooted in power shifts arising from the dramatic increase in oil production which has occurred since 1997.
The unsuccessful "Wonga Coup" by European and South African mercenaries in 2004 attempted to replace Obiang with a puppet ruler who would open the country's mineral wealth to the plotters. Simon Mann, a former officer in the SAS, led the plot, which also included former members of the South African Army 32 Battalion. Financial backers included Sir Mark Thatcher, son of former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and possibly the novelist Jeffrey Archer. Somewhere between $3 million and $20 million was expended on the failed coup, which has been claimed by some to have had the tacit support of some Western governments and international corporations.
In 2011, the government announced it was planning a new capital for the country, which was to be named Oyala but will be Djibloho – Ciudad de la Paz.
On March 7, 2021, there were munitions explosions at a military base near the city of Bata that resulted in 98 deaths and 600 people were injured and a/tending in hospital.
In November 2022 Teodoro Obiang was re-elected in 2022 Equatorial Guinean general election with 99.7% of the vote amidst accusations of fraud by the opposition.
In 2024 it was published that mercenaries from the Wagner Group (now called “Africa Corps”) had entered in Equatorial Guinea at the request of Teodoro Obiang. According to opponents, the objective of the mercenaries was to help consolidate a hypothetical succession of Obiang's power to his son "Teodorín".
==Footnotes==
|
[
"Spanish Empire",
"Aro Confederacy",
"Spanish Guinea",
"Atlantic slave trade",
"Cogo, Equatorial Guinea",
"Madrid",
"Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo",
"Igbo people",
"Woermann-Linie",
"Teodoro Obiang",
"Simon Mann",
"Oron, Nigeria",
"Cameroon",
"Mark Thatcher",
"Angola",
"1979 Equatorial Guinean coup d'état",
"Constitution of Equatorial Guinea",
"Calabar",
"Francisco Macías Nguema",
"Cocoa bean",
"Teodoro Nguema Obiang Mangue",
"Pygmies",
"Federal state",
"South African 32 Battalion",
"1979 Equatorial Guinea coup d'état",
"logging",
"Human Rights Watch",
"BBC",
"Fernandino peoples",
"Charles III of Spain",
"German Kamerun",
"Portuguese Empire",
"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom",
"World War I",
"Amnesty International",
"Kamerun campaign",
"Jeffrey Archer",
"Reducciones",
"Caminemos pisando las sendas de nuestra inmensa felicidad",
"dictatorship",
"Beti-Pahuin",
"presidential republic",
"International Labour Organization",
"Claretians",
"Fernando Po (island)",
"totalitarianism",
"Liberia",
"president of Equatorial Guinea",
"Annobón",
"Ubangi River",
"human rights abuses",
"Forced labor",
"Equatorial Guinea Constitution of 1973",
"Idea Popular de Guinea Ecuatorial",
"Treaty of El Pardo (1778)",
"Ogoue River",
"Equatorial Guinea",
"2022 Equatorial Guinean general election",
"one-party state",
"Malabo",
"Bubi people",
"Bantu peoples",
"Spanish Civil War",
"Nigeria",
"Macías Nguema",
"1968 Equatorial Guinea constitution",
"President for Life",
"Special Air Service",
"Equatorial Guinean ekwele",
"United Nations",
"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland",
"single-party state",
"Equatorial Guinean peseta",
"Fernão do Pó",
"IPGE",
"Buenos Aires",
"Treaty of Paris (1900)",
"São Tomé",
"Aro people",
"Oyala",
"coffee",
"Maria I of Portugal",
"pidgin English",
"Bioko",
"Bata, Equatorial Guinea",
"Cortes Generales",
"2021 Bata explosions",
"British Empire",
"Niger River",
"colonial empire",
"Margaret Thatcher",
"Authoritarianism",
"Totalitarianism",
"Río Muni",
"Pagalu",
"Unitary state",
"Sierra Leone",
"Indian subcontinent",
"WP:SDNONE",
"List of presidents of Equatorial Guinea",
"Ibibio people",
"cacao plantation",
"Black Beach",
"Fang people",
"Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata"
] |
9,368 |
Geography of Equatorial Guinea
|
The Republic of Equatorial Guinea is located in west central Africa. Bioko Island lies about from Cameroon. Annobón Island lies about southwest of Bioko Island. The larger continental region of Río Muni lies between Cameroon and Gabon on the mainland; it includes the islands of Corisco, Elobey Grande, Elobey Chico, and adjacent islets. The total land area is . It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of .
Bioko Island, called Fernando Po until the 1970s, is the largest island in the Gulf of Guinea — . It is shaped like a boot, with two large volcanic formations separated by a valley that bisects the island at its narrowest point. The coastline is steep and rugged in the south but lower and more accessible in the north, with excellent harbors at Malabo and Luba, and several scenic beaches between those towns.
On the continent, Río Muni covers . The coastal plain gives way to a succession of valleys separated by low hills and spurs of the Crystal Mountains. The Rio Benito (Mbini) which divides Río Muni in half, is unnavigable except for a 20-kilometer stretch at its estuary. Temperatures and humidity in Río Muni are generally lower than on Bioko Island.
Annobon Island, named for its discovery on New Year's Day 1472, is a small volcanic island covering . The coastline is abrupt except in the north; the principal volcanic cone contains a small lake. Most of the estimated 1,900 inhabitants are fisherman specializing in traditional, smallscale tuna fishing and whaling. The climate is tropical—heavy rainfall, high humidity, and frequent seasonal changes with violent windstorms.
Location:
Central Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Cameroon and Gabon.
==Area and boundaries ==
Area:
Total: 28,051 km²
country rank in the world: 141st
Land: 28,051 km²
Water: negligible km²
Equatorial Guinea's land boundaries total 539 km. It borders Cameroon (189 km) in the north and Gabon (350 km) in the east and south.
Area comparative
Australia comparative: approximately the size of Tasmania
Canada comparative: approximately the size of Nova Scotia
United Kingdom comparative: approximately larger than Wales
United States comparative: slightly larger than Massachusetts
EU comparative: slightly smaller than Belgium
Maritime claims:
territorial sea:
Exclusive economic zone:
with
== Terrain ==
Coastal plains rise to interior hills; islands are volcanic.
Total renewable water resources:
26 km3 (2011)
Natural hazards:
violent windstorms, flash floods
Environment — current issues:
tap water is not potable; deforestation
Environment — international agreements:
party to:
Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
Geography note:
insular and continental regions rather widely separated
== Climate ==
The climate of both the continental region and the islands is typically equatorial, with high temperatures, heavy rainfall, and much cloud cover most of the year. Local variations are due to differences in altitude and proximity to the sea. The wet seasons in the continental region are from February to June and from September to December. Rainfall is higher on the coast than inland. In Bata the rainiest months are September, October, and November, with rainfall averaging more than a year. At Calatrava, farther south on the coast, it sometimes reaches . Inland, however, rainfall diminishes; Mikomeseng, for example, receives only about . The average annual temperature is about and is fairly constant throughout the year. The temperature maxima are somewhat lower than in Bioko. The relative humidity, however, is higher than in Bioko. Bioko has a rather debilitating climate. The so-called dry season lasts from November to March, and the rest of the year is rainy. The average annual temperature of about varies little throughout the year. Afternoon temperatures reach the high 80s °F (low 30s °C) and drop to only about at night. Most of the time the sky is cloudy and overcast. Extreme rainfall occurs in the south, with rain brought by monsoon winds amounting to about a year around San Antonio de Ureca.
== Extreme points ==
This is a list of the extreme points of Equatorial Guinea, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
Northernmost point — Punta Europa, Bioko Island
Easternmost point — the entire length of the eastern border with Gabon, which runs in a straight line
Southernmost point — A Dyibó, Annobón Island
Westernmost point — Punta Dyiscoj, Annobón Island
|
[
"Bioko Island",
"Elobey Chico",
"gold",
"Belgium",
"Luba, Equatorial Guinea",
"Law of the Sea",
"Corisco",
"deforestation",
"Deutscher Wetterdienst",
"Bioko",
"uranium",
"Micomeseng",
"Benito River",
"timber",
"Equatorial Guinea",
"Biodiversity",
"Crystal Mountains (Africa)",
"Massachusetts",
"Nova Scotia",
"Punta Europa",
"Pico Basile",
"Malabo",
"Tropics",
"Río Muni",
"petroleum",
"Rio Benito",
"Cameroon",
"European Union",
"Gabon",
"Punta Dyiscoj",
"Wales",
"Gulf of Guinea",
"Exclusive Economic Zone",
"Desertification",
"WP:SDNONE",
"Elobey Grande",
"Africa",
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Bight of Biafra",
"desertification",
"drinking water",
"Tasmania",
"A Dyibó",
"Annobón",
"manganese"
] |
9,369 |
Demographics of Equatorial Guinea
|
Demographic features of the population of Equatorial Guinea include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
== Population ==
According to the 2022 revision of the world factbook the total population was 1,679,172 in 2022. The proportion of children below the age of 14 in 2020 was 38.73%, 57.35% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.92% was 65 years or older.
== Vital statistics ==
Registration of vital events is in Equatorial Guinea not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.
Fertility data as of 2011 (DHS Program):
|-
|1950–1955
|34.48
|-
|1955–1960
| 35.99
|-
|1960–1965
| 37.49
|-
|1965–1970
| 38.99
|-
|1970–1975
| 40.50
|-
|1975–1980
| 42.04
|-
|1980–1985
| 45.54
|-
|1985–1990
| 47.21
|-
|1990–1995
| 49.35
|-
|1995–2000
| 51.75
|-
|2000–2005
| 53.57
|-
|2005–2010
| 54.93
|-
|2010–2015
| 56.84
|}
== Ethnic groups ==
===Native ethnic groups===
The majority of the people of Equatorial Guinea are of Niger-Congo origin. The largest ethnic group, the Fang, are indigenous to the mainland, but substantial migration to Bioko Island has resulted in Fang dominance over the earlier Bubi inhabitants. The Fang constitute 80% of the population and are themselves divided into 67 clans. Those in the northern part of Rio Muni speak Fang-Ntumu, while those in the south speak Fang-Okah; the two dialects are mutually unintelligible. The Bubi, who constitute 15% of the population, are indigenous to Bioko Island.
In addition, there are coastal ethnic groups, collectively referred to as Ndowe or Playeros ("Beach People" in Spanish): Combes, Bujebas, Balengues and Bengas on the mainland and small islands and a Fernandino community of Krio descended people on Bioko. Together, these groups compose 5% of the population.
Two small groups of Pygmies also inhabit the country, the Beyele and the Bokuign, the former being located in the Altos de Nsork region. Their population is dwindling, them being subjected to heavy pressure from their neighbours, who don't even consider them as human.
=== Recently immigrated peoples ===
Some Europeans (largely of Spanish or Portuguese descent) – among them mixed with African ethnicity – also live in the nation. Most Spaniards left after independence. There is a growing number of foreigners from neighboring Cameroon, Nigeria, and Gabon. Equatorial Guinea received Asians and black Africans from other countries as workers on cocoa and coffee plantations. In the late 20th century, Equatorial Guinea became home to more than 80,000 Hispanics from Mexico, Central America, and other Spanish speaking nations in the Americas. 17,000 Spanish people and 5,000 Chinese people also live in Equatorial Guinea. The non-Africans living in Equatorial Guinea represent almost 10% of the nation's total population. Other black Africans came from Liberia, Angola, and Mozambique, and Asians are mostly Chinese with small numbers of Indians. Equatorial Guinea also allowed many fortune-seeking European settlers of other nationalities, including British, French and Germans. After independence, thousands of Equatorial Guineans went to Spain. Another 100,000 Equatorial Guineans went to Cameroon, Gabon, and Nigeria because of dictatorship of Francisco Macías Nguema. Some of its communities also live in Brazil, United States, Spain, Colombia, Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Portugal, and France.
== Languages ==
Spanish, French and Portuguese are the official languages and spoken as second languages. Spanish is the language of education, and for this reason a majority of the population (about 88%) can speak it. Annobonese speak a Portuguese Creole, named Annobonese, as their first language. Asian migrants and descendants of European settlers (mostly Spaniards, Britons and Portuguese) usually speak their ancestral languages along with Spanish. Other Africans usually speak their native languages and their nation's official languages – English and Igbo for Nigerians; English for Cameroonians and Liberians; French for Cameroonians and Gabonese; and Portuguese for Angolans and Mozambicans. The latter was made an official language since July 13, 2007. 82% of first foreign language learners choose the French language and 18% the English language. The Roman Catholic Church has greatly influenced both religion and education.
===Languages of traditional names===
Equatoguineans tend to have both a Spanish first name and an African first and last name. When written, the Spanish and African first names are followed by the father's first name (which becomes the principal surname) and the mother's first name. Thus people may have up to four names, with a different surname for each generation.
==Religion==
Roman Catholic 88%, Protestant 5%, Muslim 2%, other 5% (animist, Baha'i, Jewish) (2015 est.)
Roman Catholic 80%, Protestant 5%, Muslim 2%, other 5% (animist, Baha'i, Jewish) (2010 est.)
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9,370 |
Politics of Equatorial Guinea
|
The politics of Equatorial Guinea take place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President is both the head of state and head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Chamber of People's Representatives
==Political conditions==
A great deal of political party activity ensued when Equatorial Guinea attained autonomy from Spain in 1963. Bubi and Fernandino parties on the island preferred separation from Río Muni or a loose federation. Ethnically based parties in Río Muni favored independence for a united country comprising Bioko and Río Muni, an approach that was adopted. The Movement for the Self-Determination of Bioko Island (MAIB), which advocates independence for the island under Bubi control, is one of the offshoots of the era immediately preceding independence.
Equatorial Guinea became independent from Spain on October 12, 1968. Since then, the country has had two presidents: Francisco Macías Nguema, who had been the mayor of Mongomo under the Spanish colonial government, and Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo Macías's nephew, who has ruled since 1979, when he staged a military coup d'état and executed his uncle. When Macías came to power, political activity largely ceased. Opposition figures among the exile communities in Spain and elsewhere agitated for reforms; some of them had been employed in the Macías and Obiang governments. After political activities in Equatorial Guinea were legalized in the early 1990s, some opposition leaders returned to test the waters, but repressive actions have continued sporadically.
The 1982 Constitution gives Obiang extensive powers, including the right to name, and dismiss, members of the cabinet. The 1982 constitution also give him the power to make laws by decree, dissolve the Chamber of Representatives, negotiate and ratify international treaties, and calling legislative elections. Obiang retained his role as commander-in-chief of the armed forces and minister of defense when he became president and he maintains close supervision of military activity. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and operates under powers designated by the president. The prime minister coordinates government activities in areas other than foreign affairs, national defense and security.
With the prodding of the United Nations, the United States, Spain, and other donor countries, the government undertook an electoral census in 1995 and held freely contested municipal elections, the country's first, in September. Most observers agree that these elections were relatively free and transparent and also that the opposition parties garnered between 2/3 and 3/4 of the total vote. The government delayed announcing the results, then claimed a highly dubious overall 52% victory, and capture of 19 of the 27 municipal councils. The council of Malabo, the capital, went to the opposition however. In early January 1996 Obiang called presidential elections, to be held in six weeks. The campaign was marred by allegations of fraud, and most of the other candidates withdrew in the final week. Obiang claimed re-election with 98% of the vote. International observers agreed the election was neither free nor fair. In an attempt to mollify his critics, Obiang announced a new cabinet, giving minor portfolios to some people identified by the government as opposition figures.
Since President Obiang has been constrained only by a need to maintain a consensus among his advisers and political supporters in the Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea, most of whom are drawn from the Nguema family in Mongomo,
part of the Esangu subclan of the Fang in the eastern part of Río Muni. Alleged coup attempts in 1981 and 1983 raised little sympathy among the populace.
Under Obiang, schools reopened and primary education expanded, public utilities and roads were restored, a favorable contrast with Macías' tyranny and terror, but his administration has been criticized for not implementing genuine democratic reforms. Corruption and a dysfunctional judicial system disrupt development of Equatorial Guinea's economy and society. In March 2001 the President appointed a new Prime Minister, Cándido Muatetema Rivas, and replaced several ministers perceived to be especially corrupt. However, the government budget still does not include all revenues and expenditures. The United Nations Development Programme has proposed a broad governance reform program, but the Equatorial Guinean Government has not moved very rapidly to implement it.
Although Equatorial Guinea lacks a well-established democratic tradition comparable to the developed democracies of the West, it has progressed toward developing a participatory political system out of the anarchic, chaotic, and repressive conditions of the Macías years. In power since 1979, the Obiang government has made little progress in stimulating the economy. Extremely serious health and sanitary conditions persist, and the educational system remains in desperate condition. Although the abuses and atrocities that characterized the Macías years have been eliminated, effective rule of law does not exist. Religious freedom is tolerated.
On December 15, 2002, Equatorial Guinea's four main opposition parties withdrew from the country's presidential election. Obiang won an election widely considered fraudulent by members of the western press.
According to a March 2004 BBC profile, politics within the country are currently dominated by tensions between Obiang's son Teodoro (known by the nickname Teodorín, meaning Little Teodoro), and other close relatives with powerful positions in the security forces. The tension may be rooted in a power shift arising from the dramatic increase since 1997 in oil production.
A November 2004 report named Mark Thatcher as a financial backer of a March 2004 attempt to topple Obiang organized by Simon Mann. Various accounts also name the UK's MI6, the US Central Intelligence Agency, and Spain as having been tacit supporters of the coup attempt. Nevertheless, an Amnesty International report on the ensuing trial highlights the government's failure to demonstrate in court that the alleged coup attempt had ever actually taken place.
==Executive branch==
|President
|Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo
|Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea
|3 August 1979
|-
|Prime Minister
|Manuel Osa Nsue Nsua
|Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea
|16 August 2024
|}
The 1982 constitution of Equatorial Guinea gives the President extensive powers, including naming and dismissing members of the cabinet, making laws by decree, dissolving the Chamber of Representatives, negotiating and ratifying treaties and calling legislative elections. The President retains his role as commander in chief of the armed forces and minister of defense, and he maintains close supervision of military activity. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and operates under powers designated by the President. The Prime Minister coordinates government activities in areas other than foreign affairs, national defense and security.
Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo seized power in a military coup. He is elected by popular vote to a seven-year term.
Another branch of the government is the State Council. The State Council's main function is to serve as caretaker in case of death or physical incapacity of the President. It comprises the following ex-officio members: the President of the Republic, the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defense, the President of the National Assembly and the Chairman of the Social and Economic Council.
==Legislative branch==
The Chamber of People's Representatives (Cámara de Representantes del Pueblo) has 100 members, elected for a five-year term by proportional representation in multi-member constituencies. Equatorial Guinea is a dominant-party state. This means that only one political party, the Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea, is in fact allowed to hold effective power. Although minor parties are allowed, they are required to accept the de facto leadership of the ruling party. The Convergence for Social Democracy is the only true opposition party to operate legally in the county, which holds only a single seat in each house of parliament.
==Political parties and elections==
===Presidential elections===
===Parliamentary elections===
====Chamber of Deputies====
====Senate====
==Judicial branch==
The judicial system follows similar administrative levels. At the top are the President and his judicial advisors (the Supreme Court). In descending rank are the appeals courts, chief judges for the divisions, and local magistrates. Tribal laws and customs are honored in the formal court system when not in conflict with national law. The court system, which often uses customary law, is a combination of traditional, civil, and military justice, and it operates in an ad hoc manner for lack of established procedures and experienced judicial personnel.
As for the legal profession, the Equatorial Guinea Bar Association (Colegio de Abogados de Guinea Ecuatorial) was dissolved by the government in 2002. Although a new bar association was created in 2003, a report issued the same year claimed that " there are few independent lawyers and judges" unless they are "a member of [or sympathetic to] the ruling party." It was reported in 2014 (and later reconfirmed in 2016) that the association does not have an official headquarters.
==Administrative divisions==
Equatorial Guinea is divided in seven provinces (provincias); Annobon, Bioko Norte, Bioko Sur, Centro Sur, Kie-Ntem, Litoral, Wele-Nzas.
The President appoints the governors of the seven provinces. Each province is divided administratively into districts and municipalities. The internal administrative system falls under the Ministry of Territorial Administration; several other ministries are represented at the provincial and district levels.
==Membership in international organizations==
ACCT, Agency for the French-Speaking Community,
ACP, African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group of States,
AfDB, African Development Bank,
BDEAC, Central African States Development Bank,
CEEAC, Economic Community of Central African States,
ECA, Economic Commission for Africa,
FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization,
FZ, Franc Zone,
G-77, Group of 77,
IBRD, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development,
ICAO, International Civil Aviation Organization,
ICRM, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement,
IDA, International Development Association,
IFAD, International Fund for Agricultural Development,
IFC, International Finance Corporation,
IFRCS, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies,
ILO, International Labour Organization,
IMF, International Monetary Fund,
IMO, International Maritime Organization,
Intelsat, International Telecommunications Satellite Organization,
Interpol, International Criminal Police Organization,
IOC, International Olympic Committee,
ITU, International Telecommunication Union,
NAM, Non-Aligned Movement,
OAS; (observer), Organization of American States
OAU, Organization of African Unity,
OIF, International Organisation of La Francophonie,
OPCW, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons,
OPEC, Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries,
UDEAC, Central African Customs and Economic Union,
UN, United Nations,
UNCTAD, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development,
UNESCO, United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization,
UNIDO, United Nations Industrial Development Organization,
UPU, Universal Postal Union,
WHO, World Health Organization,
WIPO, World Intellectual Property Organization,
WToO, World Tourism Organization,
WTrO;(applicant), World Trade Organization
|
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"International Development Association",
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"Heads of government of Equatorial Guinea",
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"Economic Commission for Africa",
"Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons",
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"WP:SDNONE",
"commander-in-chief",
"Universal Postal Union",
"head of state",
"International Telecommunications Satellite Organization",
"Fang people"
] |
9,371 |
Economy of Equatorial Guinea
|
| debt = external: $4.5 billion (2017)
}}
The economy of Equatorial Guinea has traditionally been dependent on commodities such as cocoa and coffee, but is now heavily dependent on petroleum due to the discovery and exploitation of significant oil reserves in the 1980s. In 2017, it graduated from "Least Developed Country" status, one of six Sub-Saharan African nations that managed to do so.
However, despite the economic growth and improving infrastructure, the country has been ranked only 138th out of 188 countries on the United Nations Human Development Index in 2015 and despite its impressive GNI figure, it is still plagued by extreme poverty. After the oil price collapsed in 2014, the economy went into a free fall which put growth in a downward spiral from around 15% to −10%. Only 950,000 of 1.6 million inhabitants are citizens, giving Equatorial Guinea the largest ratio of expatriates to residents in Africa.
==Economy overview==
Pre-independence Equatorial Guinea counted on cocoa production for hard currency earnings. In 1959 it had the highest per capita income of Africa which it still has, after several decades as one of the poorest countries in the world.
The discovery of large oil reserves in 1996 and their subsequent exploitation have contributed to a dramatic increase in government revenue. As of 2004, Equatorial Guinea was the third-largest oil producer in Sub-Saharan Africa. Its oil production had then risen to , up from only two years earlier.
Forestry, farming, and fishing are also major components of GDP. Subsistence farming predominates. Although pre-independence Equatorial Guinea counted on cocoa production for hard currency earnings, the neglect of the rural economy under successive regimes has diminished potential for agriculture-led growth. However, the government has stated its intention to reinvest some oil revenue into agriculture. A number of aid programs sponsored by the World Bank and the IMF have been cut off since 1993 because of corruption and mismanagement. No longer eligible for concessional financing because of large oil revenues, the government has been unsuccessfully trying to agree on a "shadow" fiscal management program with the World Bank and IMF. Businesses, for the most part, are owned by government officials and their family members. Undeveloped natural resources include titanium, iron ore, manganese, uranium, and alluvial gold (Mining in Equatorial Guinea). Growth remained strong in 2005 and 2006, led by oil.
==In greater depth==
Oil and gas exports have increased substantially and will drive the economy for years to come. Real GDP growth reached 23% in 1999, and initial estimates suggested growth of about 15% in 2001, according to IMF 2001 forecast.
In 1995 Mobil (now ExxonMobil) discovered the large Zafiro field, with estimated reserves of . Production began in 1996. The company announced a 3-year U.S.$1bn rapid-development program to boost output to by early 2001.
Equatorial Guinea became a member of OPEC in May 2017.
== Agriculture ==
== Data ==
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.
Investment (gross fixed):
46.3% (2005 est.)
Industries:
Petroleum, fishing, sawmilling, natural gas
Industrial production growth rate:
30% (2002 est.)
Electricity – production:
29.43 GWh (2005)
Electricity – consumption:
27.37 GWh (2005)
Agriculture – products:
Coffee, cocoa, rice, yams, cassava (tapioca), bananas, palm oil nuts; livestock; timber
Exchange rates:
Communauté financière africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 – 480.56 (2005), 528.29 (2004), 581.2 (2003), 696.99 (2002), 733.04 (2001)
|
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9,372 |
Telecommunications in Equatorial Guinea
|
Telecommunications in Equatorial Guinea include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
==Radio and television==
Radio stations:
1 state-owned radio station, and 1 private radio station owned by the president's eldest son; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are accessible (2007);
no AM, 3 FM, and 5 shortwave stations (2001).
Radios: 180,000 (1997).
Television stations:
1 state-owned TV station; satellite TV service is available; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are accessible (2007);
Land lines:
14,900 lines in use, 195th in the world (2012);
==Internet==
Top-level domain: .gq
14,400 users, 200th in the world (2009).
Wireless broadband: Unknown (2012).
Internet hosts: 7 hosts, 227th in the world (2012).
Internet service providers: 9 ISPs (2009).
===Internet censorship and surveillance===
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight. Most overt criticism of the government comes from the country's community in exile, and the Internet has replaced broadcast media as the primary way opposition views were expressed and disseminated.
Although the constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, the law grants authorities extensive powers to restrict media activities, which the government uses to limit these rights. While criticism of government policies is allowed, individuals generally can not criticize the president, his family, other high-ranking officials, or the security forces without fear of reprisal. Libel is a criminal offense, but there were no instances of the government using these laws to suppress criticism during 2012.
The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, but the government often does not respect these prohibitions. Search warrants are required unless the crime is in progress or for reasons of national security. Security forces enter homes without authorization and arrest alleged criminals, foreign nationals, and others, often without required judicial orders. The government reportedly attempts to impede criticism by monitoring the activities of the political opposition, journalists, and others. Journalists are subject to surveillance and practice self-censorship.
|
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] |
9,373 |
Transport in Equatorial Guinea
|
This article lists transport in Equatorial Guinea.
== Railways ==
There are currently no railways in Equatorial Guinea.
== Maps ==
== Highways ==
There are 2,880 km (1,790 mi) of highways in Equatorial Guinea, the majority of which were not paved in 2002. Equatorial Guinea's roads and highways are underdeveloped, but improving. During the rainy season, roads are frequently impassable without four-wheel drive vehicles.
Furthermore, the country has recently built a 175-km long two-lane expressway that runs between Bata and President Obiang Nguema International Airport, and it is expected to soon reach the city of Mongomo, located on the border with Gabon.
== Merchant marine ==
In 2005, the country had one merchant ship of over in service; a cargo vessel of .
== Airports ==
There are seven airports in Equatorial Guinea. Its main airport is Malabo International Airport in Punta Europa, Bioko Island. International flights operate from:
Madrid (Spain): Ceiba Intercontinental (4 flights per week)
Paris (France): Air France (3 flights per week)
Frankfurt (Germany): Lufthansa (3 flights per week)
Casablanca (Morocco): Royal Air Maroc ( 2 flights per week)
Istanbul (Turkey): Turkish Airlines (1 flight per week)
Cotonou (Benin): Cronos Airlines (2 flights per week)
Abidjan (Ivory Coast): Ceiba Intercontinental (3 flights per week)
Accra (Ghana): Ceiba Intercontinental (3 flights per week);
São Tomé (São Tomé and Príncipe): Ceiba Intercontinental (3 flights per week);
Douala (Cameroon) Ethiopian Airlines (3 flights per week); Cronos Airlines (3 flights per week)
Libreville (Gabon): Royal Air Maroc (2 flights per week)
Port Harcourt (Nigeria): Cronos Airlines (2 flights per week)
Addis Abeba (Ethiopia): Ethiopian Airlines (3 flights per week)
From Malabo airport, you can fly to any of the other airports in the country. These airports are located in the region of Annobón, Bata, Mongomoyen, and Corisco.
|
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] |
9,374 |
Armed Forces of Equatorial Guinea
|
The Armed Forces of Equatorial Guinea (; ; ) consists of approximately 2,500 service members. The army has almost 1,400 soldiers, the navy 200 service members, and the air force about 120 members. There is also a gendarmerie, but the number of members is unknown. The Gendarmerie is a new branch of the service in which training and education is being supported by the French Military Cooperation in Equatorial Guinea. Military appointments are all reviewed by President Teodoro Obiang, and few of the native militiamen come from outside of Obiang's Mongomo-based Esangui clan. Obiang was a general when he overthrew his uncle, Francisco Macías Nguema.
==History==
The Armed Forces were reorganized in 1979. In 1988, the United States donated a 68-foot patrol boat to the Equatoguinean navy to patrol its exclusive economic zone. The U.S. patrol boat Isla de Bioko is no longer operational. U.S. military-to-military engagement has been dormant since 1997 (the year of the last Joint Combined Exchange Training exercise). Between 1984 and 1992, service members went regularly to the United States on the International Military Education Training program, after which funding for this program for Equatorial Guinea ceased. The government spent 6.5% of its annual budget on defense in 2000 and 4.5% of its budget on defense in 2001. It recently acquired some Chinese artillery pieces, some Ukrainian patrol boats, and some Ukrainian helicopter gunships. Cooper and Weinert 2010 says that all aircraft are based on the military side of Malabo International Airport.
In 2002, an International Consortium of Investigative Journalists report said:
== Equipment ==
===Armour===
=== Small arms ===
===Aircraft===
The Equatorial Guinea Air Corps was founded in 1979 with mainly French and Spanish air frames. In 2005, 4 Su 25s including 2 Su-25UB combat trainers were delivered to the Equatorial Guinea Air Corps. The current status of the aircraft is unknown. In 2015 two CASA C-295 (one transport and one surveillance) aircraft were ordered for delivery from September 2016.
=== Current inventory ===
{| class="wikitable"
! style="background:#acc;" |Aircraft
! style="background:#acc;" |Origin
! style="background:#acc;" |Type
! style="background:#acc;" |Variant
! style="background:#acc;" |In service
! style="background:#acc;" |Notes
|-
! colspan="7" style="align: center; background: lavender;" |Combat aircraft
|-
|Sukhoi Su-25
|Russia
|attack
|
|4
|
|-
! colspan="7" style="align: center; background: lavender;" |Transport
|-
|Ilyushin Il-76
|Soviet Union
|heavy transport
|
|
|
|-
|Antonov AN-12
|Soviet Union
|heavy transport
|
|1
|
|-
! colspan="7" style="align: center; background: lavender;" |Trainer aircraft
|-
|Aero L-39
|Czech Republic
|jet trainer
|
|2 However, no further news has been announced. On 3 June 2014, the frigate Wele Nzas was commissioned and became the navy's flagship.
| Ukrainian designed - modified locally
|-
| Bata
| Bulgaria
| Corvette
|1
|Ukrainian design
|-
| PV-50
| Ukraine
| Patrol vessel
|2
| Salamandra class
|-
| Daphne
| Denmark
| Patrol boat
|1 In 2018, 28 graduates from the military received diplomas from the Nakhimov Naval Academy in Sevastopol.
|
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"Helicopters",
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] |
9,375 |
Foreign relations of Equatorial Guinea
|
The government's official policy is one of nonalignment. In its search for assistance to meet the goal of national reconstruction, the government of Equatorial Guinea has established diplomatic relations with numerous European and Third World countries. Having achieved independence under UN sponsorship, Equatorial Guinea feels a special kinship with that organization. It became the 126th UN member on November 12, 1968. Equatorial Guinea served as a non-permanent member on the United Nations Security Council from 2017 to 2019.
==Diplomatic relations==
List of countries which Equatorial Guinea maintains diplomatic relations with:
==Bilateral relations==
===Africa===
===Americas===
|
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"Pretoria",
"Limbe, Cameroon",
"Equatorial Guinea–Russia relations"
] |
9,377 |
History of Eritrea
|
Eritrea is an ancient name, associated in the past with its Greek form Erythraia, Ἐρυθραία, and its derived Latin form Erythræa. This name relates to that of the Red Sea, then called the Erythræan Sea, from the Greek for "red", ἐρυθρός, erythros. But earlier Eritrea was called Mdre Bahri. The Italians created the colony of Eritrea in the 19th century around Asmara and named it with its current name. After World War II, Eritrea was annexed to Ethiopia. Following the communist Ethiopian government's defeat in 1991 by the coalition created by armed groups notably the EPLF, Eritrea declared its independence. Eritrea officially celebrated its 1st anniversary of independence on May 24, 1993.
==Prehistory==
At Buya in Eritrea, one of the oldest hominids representing a possible link between Homo erectus and an archaic Homo sapiens was discovered by Eritrean and Italian scientists. Dated to over 1 million years old, it is the oldest skeletal find of its kind and provides a link between hominids and the earliest anatomically modern humans. It is believed that the section of the Danakil Depression in Eritrea was also a major player in terms of human evolution, and may contain other traces of evolution from Homo erectus hominids to anatomically modern humans.
During the last interglacial period, the Red Sea coast of Eritrea was occupied by early anatomically modern humans. It is believed that the area was on the route out of Africa that some scholars suggest was used by early humans to colonize the rest of the Old World. In 1999, the Eritrean Research Project Team composed of Eritrean, Canadian, American, Dutch and French scientists discovered a Paleolithic site with stone and obsidian tools dated to over 125,000 years old near the Bay of Zula south of Massawa, along the Red Sea littoral. The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources like clams and oysters.
According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic era from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in the Nile Valley. Other scholars propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there.
==Antiquity==
===Ona culture===
Excavations at Sembel found evidence of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization in greater Asmara. This Ona urban culture is believed to have been among the earliest pastoral and agricultural communities in the Horn region. Artefacts at the site have been dated to between 800 BC and 400 BC, contemporaneous with other pre-Aksumite settlements in the Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands during the mid-first millennium BC.
Additionally, the Ona culture may have had connections with the ancient Land of Punt. In a tomb in Thebes dated to the reign of Pharaoh Amenophis II (Amenhotep II), long-necked pots similar to those made by the Ona people are depicted as part of the cargo in a ship from Punt.
===Gash Group===
Excavations in and near Agordat in central Eritrea yielded the remains of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization known as the Gash Group. Ceramics were discovered that were related to those of the C-Group (Temehu) pastoral culture, which inhabited the Nile Valley between 2500 and 1500 BC. Sherds akin to those of the Kerma culture, another community that flourished in the Nile Valley around the same period, were also found at other local archaeological sites in the Barka valley belonging to the Gash Group.
===Kingdom of D'mt===
D'mt was a kingdom that encompassed most of Eritrea and the northern fringes of Ethiopia, it existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BC. Given the presence of a massive temple complex, its capital was most likely Yeha. Qohaito, often identified as the town Koloe in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, as well as Matara were important ancient D'mt kingdom cities in southern Eritrea. There are many Ancient cities in Eritrea.
The realm developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms until the rise of one of these polities during the first century, the Kingdom of Aksum, which was able to reunite the area.
===Kingdom of Aksum===
Debre Sina monastery from the 4th century is the first Christian place of worship recorded in Eritrea. It was the site of the first Holy Communion prepared in the Eritrean Orthodox Church, by the 4th-century bishop Aba Salama. It is one of the oldest monasteries in Africa and the world, as it was probably built in the third century.
Debre Bizen monastery was built during 1350s near the town of Nefasit in Eritrea. The Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period c. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD.
The Aksumites established bases on the northern highlands of the Ethiopian Plateau and from there expanded southward. The Persian religious figure Mani listed Axum with Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his time. The origins of the Axumite Kingdom are unclear, although experts have offered their speculations about it. Even whom should be considered the earliest known king is contested: although Carlo Conti Rossini proposed that Zoskales of Axum, mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, should be identified with one Za Haqle mentioned in the Ethiopian King Lists (a view embraced by later historians of Ethiopia such as Yuri M. Kobishchanov and Sergew Hable Sellasie), G.W.B. Huntingford argued that Zoskales was only a sub-king whose authority was limited to Adulis, and that Conti Rossini's identification can not be substantiated.
According to the medieval Liber Axumae (Book of Aksum), Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. Stuart Munro-Hay cites the Muslim historian Abu Ja'far al-Khwarazmi/Kharazmi (who wrote before 833) as stating that the capital of "the kingdom of Habash" was Jarma (hypothetically from Ge'ez girma, "remarkable, revered"). The capital was later moved to Aksum in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the name "Axum" as early as the 4th century.
The Aksumites erected a number of large stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-Christian times. One of these granite columns is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet. Under Ezana (fl. 320–360), Aksum later adopted Christianity. In 615, during the lifetime of Muhammad, the Aksumite King Sahama provided asylum to early Muslims from Mecca fleeing persecution. This journey is known in Islamic history as the First Hijra. The area is also the alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and the purported home of the Queen of Sheba.
Hawulti (Tigrinya: ሓወልቲ) is a pre-Aksumite obelisk located in Matara, Eritrea. The monument bears the oldest known example of the ancient Ge'ez script.
The kingdom is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world. Aksum was at the time ruled by Zoskales, who also governed the port of Adulis. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency.
The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom. Inscriptions have been found in Southern Arabia celebrating victories over one GDRT, described as "nagashi of Habashat [i.e. Abyssinia] and of Axum." Other dated inscriptions are used to determine a floruit for GDRT (interpreted as representing a Ge'ez name such as Gadarat, Gedur, or Gedara) around the beginning of the 3rd century. A bronze scepter or wand has been discovered at Atsbi Dera with in inscription mentioning "GDR of Axum". Coins showing the royal portrait began to be minted under King Endubis toward the end of the 3rd century.
Additionally, expeditions by Ezana into the Kingdom of Kush at Meroe in Sudan may have brought about the latter polity's demise, though there is evidence that the kingdom was experiencing a period of decline beforehand. As a result of Ezana's expansions, Aksum bordered the Roman province of Egypt. The degree of Aksum's control over Yemen is uncertain. Though there is little evidence supporting Aksumite control of the region at that time, his title, which includes king of Saba and Salhen, Himyar and Dhu-Raydan (all in modern-day Yemen), along with gold Aksumite coins with the inscriptions, "king of the Habshat" or "Habashite," indicate that Aksum might have retained some legal or actual footing in the area.
Details of the Aksumite Kingdom, never abundant, become even more scarce after this point. The last king known to mint coins is Armah, whose coinage refers to the Persian conquest of Jerusalem in 614. Stuart Munro-Hay believes that Axum had been abandoned as the capital by Sahama's reign.
==Post-classical period==
===Early developments===
From the late first to early second millennium Eritrea witnessed a period of migrations: Since the late 7th century, so with the decline of Aksum, large parts of Eritrea, including the highlands, were overrun by pagan Beja, who supposedly founded several kingdoms on its soil, like Baqlin, Jarin and Qata. The Beja rule declined in the 13th century. Subsequently, the Beja were expelled from the highlands by Abyssinian settlers from the south. Another people, the Bellou, originated from a similar milieu as the Beja. They appeared first in the 12th century, from then on they dominated parts of northwestern Eritrea until the 16th century. After 1270, with the destruction of the Zagwe Kingdom, many Agaw fled to what is now Eritrea. Most were culturally and linguistically assimilated into the local Tigrinya culture, with the notable exception of the Bilen. Yet another people that arrived after the fall of Aksum were the Cushitic-speaking Saho, who had established themselves in the highlands until the 14th century.
Meanwhile, Eritrea witnessed a very slow, but steady conversion to Islam. Muslims had already reached Eritrea in 613/615, during the First Hijra. In 702, Muslim travelers entered the Dahlak islands. In 1060, a Yemeni dynasty fled to Dahlak and proclaimed the Sultanate of Dahlak, which would last for almost 500 years. This sultanate also had sovereignty over the port town of Massawa.
===12th century to the Italian arrival===
Beginning in the 12th century, however, the Ethiopian Zagwe and Solomonid dynasties held control to a fluctuating extent over the entire plateau and the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. Previously, this area has been known as Ma'ikele Bahr ("between the seas/rivers," i.e. the land between the Red Sea and the Mereb river), but during the reign of emperor Zara Yaqob it was rebranded as the domain of the Bahr Negash, the Medri Bahri ("Sea land" in Tigrinya, although it included some areas like Shire on the other side of the Mereb, today in Ethiopia). With its capital at Debarwa, the state's main provinces were Hamasien, Serae and Akele Guzai.
The Red Sea coast, having its strategic and commercial importance, was contested by many powers. In the 16th century the Ottomans occupied the Dahlak Archipelago and then Massawa. Also in the 16th century, Eritrea was affected by the invasions of Ahmad Gragn, the Muslim leader of the Sultanate of Adal. After the expulsion of the Adalites, the Ottomans occupied even more of Eritrea's coastal area. The Ottoman Empire maintained only tenuous control over much of the territory over the following centuries until 1865, when the Egyptians obtained Massawa from the Ottomans. From there they pushed inland to the plateau, until 1876, when the Egyptians were defeated during the Egyptian-Ethiopian War. In 1734, the Afar leader Kedafu, head of the Mudaito clan, seized power and established the Mudaito dynasty. This marked the start of a new and more sophisticated polity that would last into the colonial period. or ’70, the then ruling Sultan of Raheita sold lands surrounding the Bay of Assab to the Rubattino Shipping Company. The area served as a coaling station along the shipping lanes introduced by the recently completed Suez Canal. It almost became a part of the Ottoman Habesh Eyalet centered in Egypt, though they withdrew from the place after the resistance of the Eritrean people. The first Italian settlers arrived in 1880.
In 1888, the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony. The Eritrean Railway was completed to Saati in 1888, and reached Asmara in the highlands in 1911. The Asmara–Massawa Cableway was the longest of its kind in the world when inaugurated in 1937. It was later dismantled by the British after World War II as war reparations. Besides major infrastructural projects, the colonial authorities invested significantly in the agricultural sector. It also oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa, and employed many Eritreans in public service, particularly in the police and public works departments. Thousands of Eritreans were concurrently enlisted in the army, serving during the Italo-Turkish War in Libya as well as the First and second Italo-Abyssinian Wars.
Additionally, the Italian Eritrea administration opened a number of factories, which produced buttons, cooking oil, pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide and other household commodities. In 1939, there were around 2,198 factories and most of the employees were Eritrean citizens. The establishment of industries also made an increase in the number of both Italians and Eritreans residing in the cities. The number of Italians residing in the territory increased from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years; and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industries, trade and fruit plantation was expanded across the nation, while some of the plantations were owned by Eritreans.
In 1922, Benito Mussolini's rise to power in Italy brought profound changes to the colonial government in Italian Eritrea. After il Duce declared the birth of the Italian Empire in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia's regions) and Italian Somaliland were merged with the just conquered Ethiopia in the new Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana) administrative territory. This Fascist period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a "new Roman Empire". Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa. After the revolutional fight by the Eritreans, the Italians left Eritrea.
The Italians brought to Eritrea a huge development of Catholicism. By 1940, nearly one third of the territory's population was Catholic, mainly in Asmara where some churches were built.
===Asmara development===
Italian Asmara was populated by a large Italian community and the city acquired an Italian architectural look. One of the first building was the Asmara President's Office: this former "Italian government's palace" was built in 1897 by Ferdinando Martini, the first Italian governor of Eritrea. The Italian government wanted to create in Asmara an impressive building, from where the Italian Governors could show the dedication of the Kingdom of Italy to the "colonia primogenita" (first daughter-colony) as was called Eritrea.
Today Asmara is worldwide known for its early twentieth-century Italian buildings, including the Art Deco Cinema Impero, "Cubist" Africa Pension, eclectic Orthodox Cathedral and former Opera House, the futurist Fiat Tagliero Building, the neo-Romanesque Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, Asmara, and the neoclassical Governor's Palace. The city is littered with Italian colonial villas and mansions. Most of central Asmara was built between 1935 and 1941, so effectively the Italians managed to build almost an entire city, in just six years.
The city of Italian Asmara had a population of 98,000, of which 53,000 were Italians according to the Italian census of 1939. This fact made Asmara the main "Italian town" of the Italian empire in Africa.In all Eritrea the Italian Eritreans were 75,000 in that year.
Many industrial investments were done by the Italians in the area of Asmara and Massawa, but the beginning of World War II stopped the blossoming industrialization of Eritrea. During the Allied efforts to capture Eritrea from the Italians in spring 1941, most of the infrastructure and the industrial areas were heavily damaged by the fighting.
The following Italian guerrilla war was supported by many Eritrean colonial troops until the Italian armistice in September 1943. Eritrea was placed under British military administration after the Italian surrender in World War II.
The Italian Eritreans strongly rejected the Ethiopian annexation of Eritrea after the war: the Party of Shara Italy of Dr. Vincenzo Di Meglio was established in Asmara in July 1947, and majority of the members were former Italian soldiers and many Eritrean Ascari (the organization was backed up by the government of Italy). This party ruled by Dr. Di Meglio obtained in 1947 the dismissal of a proposal to divide Eritrea between Sudan and Ethiopia.
The main objective of this italo-Eritrean party was Eritrea freedom, but they had a pre-condition that stated that before independence the country should be governed by Italy for at least 15 years (as with Italian Somalia).
==British administration and federalisation==
British forces defeated the Italian army in Eritrea in 1941 at the Battle of Keren and placed the colony under British military administration until Allied forces could determine its fate. Several Italian-built infrastructure projects and industries were dismantled and removed to Kenya as war reparations.
In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning the status of Eritrea, the British military administration continued for the remainder of World War II until 1950. During the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines, with the Muslim population joining Sudan and the Christians Ethiopia. The Soviet Union, anticipating an Italian Communist Party victory in the Italian polls, initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under trusteeship or as a colony. Soviet diplomats, led by Maxim Litvinov and backed by Ivan Maisky and Vyacheslav Molotov, even attempted to have Eritrea become a trustee of the Soviet Union itself.
Arab states, seeing Eritrea and its large Muslim population as an extension of the Arab world, sought the establishment of an independent state. There are only two main Christian-Muslim conflicts reported in Asmara, Eritrea (the Ethiopians supported by the Unionist Party played a big role in it), one was in 1946 where Sudanese Defence Forces were involved, and the other was in February 1950. This note is about that of 1950.
The UN Commission (UNC) arrived in Eritrea on February 9 and began its months-long inquiry 5 days later. Unionist Shifta activities supported by Ethiopia increased after its arrival, they became daring, better planned, better coordinated and innovative. The main target of the shifta was to disrupt the free movement of the UNC in areas controlled by the independence bloc supporters. The shifta attempted to prevent the rural population that supported independence from having an audience with the UNC. They targeted transportation and communication systems. Telephone lines connecting Asmara with major cities of the predominantly areas pro-independence areas of the western lowlands and Masswa were continuously cut.
An active Muslim League local leader, from Mai Derese, Bashai Nessredin Saeed was killed by the Unionist Shifta while praying, on February 20. According to an account of the incident written by Mufti Sheikh Ibrahim Al Mukhtar, at 07:30 in the evening of a Monday that date 5 shifta came and fired several bullets at him while he was praying. The reason for the killing was that they had asked him to abandon the Muslim League and join the Unionist Party (UP), but he refused. The killing sparked an outrage among Muslims in Asmara. A well organised funeral procession was arranged and attended by youth and Muslim dignitaries. The procession passed through three main streets before they reached the street where the UP Office was located. According to the Mufti, then the UP members started first to throw stones at the procession which was followed by three grenades and then chaos followed. There was open confrontation between both sides and many were killed and injured from both sides. The police intervened by firing live ammunition, but the confrontations continued. Despite all this, the procession continued to the cemetery where the body was buried. The riots then spread to other areas and took a dangerous sectarian form. Many properties were also looted and burned. On Wednesday, the British Military Administration (BMA) declared a curfew, but the riots continued.
On Thursday, the BMA administrator called for a meeting that included the Mufti and Abuna Marcos and asked them to calm the people and ask for reconciliation and both agreed. The wise men from both sides accepted the call, but the looting of properties of Muslim merchants continued for three more days before the riots came to an end.
On Saturday 25 February, the Copts met at the main church and Muslims at the grand mosque and discussed ways to end the violence. Both sides agreed to take an oath to prevent violence against each other. Each side appointed a four-member committee to oversee the agreements. Later 31 members from each side took an oath in front of the eight-member committee. To prevent further violence in other areas, the committee of both sides decided to visit the Muslim and Christian cemeteries and laid flowers on the graveyards of the victims of both sides. More than 62 persons were killed and more than 180 were injured and the damage on the properties was huge. This way the riots, which the Ethiopian Liaison Officer played a big role to ignite, was brought to an end by the wise religious leaders and elders of both sides.
Ethiopian ambition in the Horn was apparent in the expansionist ambition of its monarch when Haile Selassie claimed Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. He made this claim in a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt, at the Paris Peace Conference and at the First Session of the United Nations. In the United Nations the debate over the fate of the former Italian colonies continued. The British and Americans preferred to cede Eritrea to the Ethiopians if possible as a reward for their support during World War II. "The United States and the United Kingdom have (similarly) agreed to support the cession to Ethiopia of all of Eritrea except the Western province. The United States has given assurances to Ethiopia in this regard." The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested from the UN General Assembly that a referendum be held immediately to settle the Eritrean question of sovereignty.
A United Nations (UN) commission was dispatched to the former colony in February 1950 in the absence of Allied agreement and in the face of Eritrean demands for self-determination. It was also at this juncture that the US Ambassador to the UN, John Foster Dulles, said, "From the point of view of justice, the opinions of the Eritrean people must receive consideration. Nevertheless the strategic interest of the United States in the Red Sea basin and the considerations of security and world peace make it necessary that the country has to be linked with our ally Ethiopia." The Ambassador's word choice, along with the estimation of the British Ambassador in Addis Ababa, makes quite clear the fact that the Eritrean aspiration was for independence.
The details of Eritrea's association with Ethiopia were established by the UN General Assembly Resolution 390A (V) of 2 December 1950. It called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the Emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation.
===Provisional Government and People's Front for Democracy and Justice===
The United States played a facilitative role in the peace talks in Washington during the months leading up to the May 1991 fall of the Mengistu regime. In mid-May, Mengistu resigned as head of the Ethiopian Government and went into exile in Zimbabwe, leaving a caretaker government in Addis Ababa. Having defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, EPLF troops took control of their homeland. Later that month, the United States chaired talks in London to formalize the end of the war. These talks were attended by the four major combatant groups, including the EPLF.
Following the collapse of the Mengistu government, Eritrean independence began drawing influential interest and support from the United States. Heritage Foundation Africa expert Michael Johns wrote that "there are some modestly encouraging signs that the front intends to abandon Mengistu's autocratic practices."
A high-level U.S. delegation was also present in Addis Ababa for the July 1–5, 1991 conference that established a transitional government in Ethiopia. The EPLF attended the July conference as an observer and held talks with the new transitional government regarding Eritrea's relationship to Ethiopia. The outcome of those talks was an agreement in which the Ethiopians recognized the right of the Eritreans to hold a referendum on independence.
Although some EPLF cadres at one time espoused a Marxist ideology, Soviet support for Mengistu had cooled their ardor. The fall of communist regimes in the former Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc convinced them it was a failed system. The EPLF expressed its commitment to establishing a democratic form of government and a free-market economy in Eritrea. The United States agreed to provide assistance to both Ethiopia and Eritrea, conditional on continued progress toward democracy and human rights.
In May 1991 the EPLF established the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) to administer Eritrean affairs until a referendum was held on independence and a permanent government established. EPLF leader Afewerki became the head of the PGE, and the EPLF Central Committee served as its legislative body.
Eritreans voted overwhelmingly in favor of independence between 23 and 25 April 1993 in a UN-monitored referendum. The result of the referendum was 99.83% for Eritrea's independence. The Eritrean authorities declared Eritrea an independent state on 27 April 1993. The government was reorganized and the National Assembly was expanded to include both EPLF and non-EPLF members. The assembly chose Isaias Afewerki as president. The EPLF reorganized itself as a political party, the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ).
== After independence ==
The first President of Eritrea, Isaias Afwerki, has been the President of Eritrea since 1993. People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) is the only legal political party.
On October 25, 1994, the president of Eritrea revoked the citizenship of all of Jehovah's Witnesses born there. While Jehovah's Witnesses are politically neutral, peaceful and obey the laws and pay taxes, they are rounded up and imprisoned simply for their Christian faith.
In July 1996 the Constitution of Eritrea was ratified, but it has yet to be implemented.
In 1998 a border dispute with Ethiopia, over the town of Badme, led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War in which thousands of soldiers from both countries died. Eritrea suffered from significant economic and social stress, including massive population displacement, reduced economic development, and one of Africa's most severe land mine problems.
The border war ended in 2000 with the signing of the Algiers Agreement. Amongst the terms of the agreement was the establishment of a UN peacekeeping operation, known as the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE); with over 4,000 UN peacekeepers. The UN established a temporary security zone consisting of a 25-kilometre demilitarized buffer zone within Eritrea, running along the length of the disputed border between the two states and patrolled by UN troops. Ethiopia was to withdraw to positions held before the outbreak of hostilities in May 1998. The Algiers agreement called for a final demarcation of the disputed border area between Eritrea and Ethiopia by the assignment of an independent, UN-associated body known as the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission (EEBC), whose task was to clearly identify the border between the two countries and issue a final and binding ruling. The peace agreement would be completed with the implementation of the Border Commission's ruling, which would also end the task of the peacekeeping mission. After extensive study, the Commission issued a final border ruling in April 2002, which awarded some territory to each side, but Badme (the flash point of the conflict) was awarded to Eritrea. The commission's decision was rejected by Ethiopia. The border question remains in dispute, with Ethiopia refusing to withdraw its military from positions in the disputed areas, including Badme, while a "difficult" peace remains in place.
The UNMEE mission was formally abandoned in July 2008, after experiencing serious difficulties in sustaining its troops after fuel stoppages.
Furthermore, Eritrea's diplomatic relations with Djibouti were briefly severed during the border war with Ethiopia in 1998 due to a dispute over Djibouti's intimate relation with Ethiopia during the war but were restored and normalized in 2000. Relations are again tense due to a renewed border dispute. Similarly, Eritrea and Yemen had a border conflict between 1996 and 1998 over the Hanish Islands and the maritime border, which was resolved in 2000 by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in the Hague.
Eritrea has improved health care, and is on track to meet its Millennium Development Goals (MDG) for health, in particular child health. Life expectancy at birth increased from 39.1 years in 1960 to 59.5 years in 2008; maternal and child mortality rates dropped dramatically and the health infrastructure expanded. HIV prevalence for ages 15 to 49 years exceeds 2%.
In December 2007, an estimated 4000 Eritrean troops remained in the 'demilitarized zone' with a further 120,000 along its side of the border. Ethiopia maintained 100,000 troops along its side.
In September, 2012, the Israeli Haaretz newspaper published an exposé on Eritrea. There are over 40,000 Eritrean refugees in Israel. The NGO Reporters Without Borders has ranked Eritrea in last in freedom of expression since 2007, even lower than North Korea.
The 2013 Eritrean Army mutiny took place on 21 January 2013, when around 100
–200 soldiers of the Eritrean Army in the capital city Asmara briefly seized the headquarters of the state broadcaster, EriTV, and broadcast a message demanding reforms and the release of political prisoners. On 10 February 2013, president Isaias Afwerki commented on the mutiny, describing it as nothing to worry about.
In September 2018, President Isaias Afwerki and Prime Minister of Ethiopia, Abiy Ahmed, signed a historic peace agreement between the two countries.
On 8 July 2017, the entire capital city of Asmara was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, with the inscription taking place during the 41st World Heritage Committee Session.
===Relations with neighbours===
The BBC published on 19 June 2008 a timeline of Eritrea's conflict with Ethiopia to that date and reported that the "Border dispute rumbles on":
2007 September – War could resume between Ethiopia and Eritrea over their border conflict, warns United Nations special envoy to the Horn of Africa, Kjell Magne Bondevik.
2007 November – Eritrea accepts border line demarcated by international boundary commission. Ethiopia rejects it.
2008 January – UN extends mandate of peacekeepers on Ethiopia-Eritrea border for six months. UN Security Council demands Eritrea lift fuel restrictions imposed on UN peacekeepers at the Eritrea-Ethiopia border area. Eritrea declines, saying troops must leave border.
2008 February – UN begins pulling 1,700-strong peacekeeper force out due to lack of fuel supplies following Eritrean government restrictions.
2008 April – UN Secretary-General Ban Ki Moon warns of likelihood of new war between Ethiopia and Eritrea if peacekeeping mission withdraws completely. Outlines options for the future of the UN mission in the two countries.
2008 May – Eritrea calls on UN to terminate peacekeeping mission.
In relation to the Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict:
2008 April — Djibouti accuses Eritrean troops of digging trenches at disputed Ras Doumeira border area and infiltrating Djiboutian territory. Eritrea denies charge.
2008 June – Fighting breaks out between Eritrean and Djiboutian troops.
2009, 23 December — the UN Security Council imposed sanctions on Eritrea for providing support to armed groups undermining peace and reconciliation in Somalia and because it had not withdrawn its forces following clashes with Djibouti in June 2008. The sanctions consisted of an arms embargo, travel restrictions and a freeze on the assets of its political and military leaders. The sanctions were reinforced on 5 December 2011.
2010 June — Djibouti and Eritrea agreed to refer the dispute to Qatar for mediation.
2017 June — Following the 2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis, Qatar withdrew its peacekeeping forces from the disputed territory. Shortly after, Djibouti accused Eritrea of reoccupying the mainland hill and Doumeira Island.
In relation to southern Somalia: In December 2009, the United Nations Security Council imposed sanctions on Eritrea, accusing it of arming and providing financial aid to militia groups in southern Somalia's conflict zones.
On July 16, 2012, a United Nations Monitoring Group reported that "it had found no evidence of direct Eritrean support for militia groups in the past year."
Since November 2020, Eritrea has been involved in the Tigray War (see Eritrean involvement in the Tigray War).
|
[
"John Foster Dulles",
"Iraq",
"Adulis",
"Kingdom of Aksum",
"Isaias Afewerki",
"Qatar",
"Danakil Depression",
"Adwa",
"Washington, DC",
"Ezana of Axum",
"Yemen",
"Gulf of Zula",
"Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church",
"floruit",
"Asseb",
"Zagwe dynasty",
"Yohannes IV of Ethiopia",
"Stele",
"East African Campaign (World War II)",
"Sylvia Pankhurst",
"Marxist",
"First Italo-Ethiopian War",
"Thebes, Egypt",
"Mecca",
"Sudan",
"Chapter XII of the United Nations Charter",
"Ottoman Empire",
"Permanent Peoples' Tribunal",
"People's Front for Democracy and Justice",
"Overseas Development Institute",
"UN Security Council",
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"land mine",
"Aussa Sultanate",
"Saati",
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"United Nations Security Council",
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"iron",
"insurgency in Somalia",
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"Permanent Court of Arbitration",
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"Asmara-Massawa Cableway",
"History of Asmara",
"Governor's Palace (Asmara)",
"Djibouti",
"Greek language",
"neoclassical architecture",
"strongman (political)",
"State Sponsor of Terrorism",
"Bellou (people)",
"GDRT",
"Habesh Eyalet",
"arms embargo",
"measles",
"Iron Age",
"Eritrean People's Liberation Front",
"Eritrean involvement in the Tigray War",
"Shewa",
"Qohaito",
"Soviet Union",
"Migration to Abyssinia",
"Life expectancy",
"Kerma",
"Treaty of Wuchale",
"Afro-Asiatic languages",
"Massawa",
"Egyptian-Ethiopian War",
"Bilen people",
"UN General Assembly",
"Amenhotep II",
"coaling station",
"Agordat",
"child mortality",
"Medri Bahri",
"HIV",
"2013 Eritrean Army mutiny",
"Yeha, Ethiopia",
"Akkele Guzay",
"Oreste Baratieri",
"Cairo",
"Dahlak archipelago",
"anatomically modern humans",
"Ancient cities in Eritrea",
"Yuri M. Kobishchanov",
"Aksumite currency",
"Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)",
"United Nations Security Council Resolution 1907",
"Eritrean Railway",
"Afroasiatic Urheimat",
"United States",
"Ferdinando Martini",
"Vyacheslav Molotov",
"Afroasiatic languages",
"D'mt",
"Atsbi Dera",
"Battle of Gallabat",
"Second Italo-Ethiopian War",
"Vojtech Mastny (historian)",
"Homo erectus",
"Book of Aksum",
"Oxford University Press",
"Kofi Annan",
"Eritrean parliamentary election, 1952",
"Roman Empire",
"Matara, Eritrea",
"The Heritage Foundation",
"Mani (prophet)",
"Abiy Ahmed",
"Beja people",
"Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict",
"Zimbabwe",
"Holy Communion",
"Arabian peninsula",
"Jarma (Aksum)",
"Assab",
"Colonisation",
"Eritrean Army",
"Tigrinya language",
"Stuart Munro-Hay",
"Sahama",
"Sultanate of Dahlak",
"Armah",
"G.W.B. Huntingford",
"Habesha",
"Ethiopian Empire",
"Imamate of Awsa",
"Kedafu",
"Debarwa",
"Ahmad Gragn",
"villa",
"emperor of Ethiopia",
"martial law",
"Menelik II of Ethiopia",
"United Kingdom",
"Cushitic languages",
"Eritrean Ascari",
"Voice of America",
"Italians",
"Sembel",
"Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia",
"Kingdom of Belgin",
"Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia",
"Italian Empire",
"obelisk",
"Ark of the Covenant",
"Muslim",
"Suez Canal",
"Eritrea",
"s:Eleven Letters",
"Kenya Colony",
"Algiers Agreement (2000)",
"Hamasien",
"Scramble for Africa",
"McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology",
"EriTV",
"demilitarized zone",
"Paleolithic",
"Christianity",
"Haile Selassie",
"malaria",
"Harar",
"Al-Ahram",
"Ge'ez script",
"Fascists",
"China",
"Constitution of Eritrea",
"Bogos",
"Cinema Impero",
"female genital mutilation",
"Reporters Without Borders",
"Fiat Tagliero Building",
"Eritrean Orthodox Church",
"Kingdom of Jarin",
"Mareb River",
"Afabet",
"Dahlak Archipelago",
"Adal Sultanate",
"war reparations",
"Benito Mussolini",
"Italian empire",
"Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars",
"Hamid Idris Awate",
"Allies of World War II",
"Southern Arabia",
"Badme",
"Ethiopia",
"Eritrean-Ethiopian War",
"London",
"Syria",
"Agence France Presse",
"Muhammed Jasa",
"Habesha people",
"Malaria",
"United Nations",
"Himyarite Kingdom",
"Emperor of Ethiopia",
"Human",
"World War II",
"Menelik II",
"Isaias Afwerki",
"President of Eritrea",
"Zoskales",
"Abu Ja'far al-Khwarazmi",
"The Economist",
"Muhammad",
"tuberculosis",
"Yohannes IV",
"Asmara President's Office",
"Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, Asmara",
"Sultanate of Adal",
"irrigation",
"Kingdom of Qita'a",
"Mudaito dynasty",
"Afar people",
"Khedivate of Egypt",
"Eritrean Liberation Movement",
"Periplus of the Erythraean Sea",
"Asaita",
"Latin",
"neo-Romanesque architecture",
"Ivan Maisky",
"military dictatorship",
"Eritrean Liberation Front",
"Addis Ababa",
"Millennium Development Goal",
"Edward Ullendorff",
"Queen of Sheba",
"Kingdom of Kush",
"Eritrean independence referendum, 1993",
"Secretary-General of the United Nations",
"2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis",
"Umar Din bin Adam",
"futurist architecture",
"Neolithic",
"Italian Somalia",
"Debre Bizen",
"Mengistu Haile Mariam",
"Somalia",
"Islamic history",
"Baraket Selassie",
"British Empire",
"History of Africa",
"Haaretz",
"Italian Eritreans",
"Battle of Keren",
"Serae",
"Axum",
"Italian Somaliland",
"Agence France-Presse",
"Akele Guzai",
"Nubian C-Group",
"Italian Communist Party",
"Berber languages",
"Nile Valley",
"Ras Doumeira",
"Haile Selassie of Ethiopia",
"Carlo Conti Rossini",
"Italian Eritrea",
"hominid",
"the Hague",
"Aksumite architecture",
"Debre Sina (monastery)",
"Zara Yaqob of Ethiopia",
"Sassanid Empire",
"Dʿmt",
"Shire, Ethiopia",
"il Duce",
"Endubis",
"Italian general election, 1946",
"Italian East Africa",
"Saho people",
"plow",
"Ivory trade",
"Art Deco",
"Aegyptus (Roman province)",
"First Hijra",
"Asmara",
"WP:SDNONE",
"millet",
"Aba Salama",
"Asmara, Eritrea",
"communist",
"United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea",
"Sudan Tribune",
"Italo-Turkish War",
"Derg",
"Eastern Bloc",
"shipping lane",
"Mahdist War",
"Agaw",
"Keren, Eritrea",
"Roman Catholicism in Eritrea",
"UNESCO World Heritage Site"
] |
9,378 |
Geography of Eritrea
|
Eritrea is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered on the northeast and east by the Red Sea, on the west and northwest by Sudan, on the south by Ethiopia, and on the southeast by Djibouti. The country has a high central plateau that varies from above sea level. A coastal plain, western lowlands, and some 350 islands comprise the remainder of Eritrea's land mass.
== Climate ==
The climate of Eritrea is shaped by its diverse topography and its location within the tropics. The diversity in landscape and topography in the highlands and lowlands of Eritrea results in a diverse climate. The highlands have a temperate climate throughout the year, while most lowland zones are arid or semiarid.
The distribution of rainfall and vegetation types varies markedly throughout the country. Eritrean climate varies on the basis of seasonal and altitudinal differences. Based on variations in temperature Eritrea can be broadly divided into three major climate zones: a temperate zone, a subtropical climate zone and a tropical climate zone. According to the Köppen climate classification, most of Eritrea has either a hot semi-arid climate (BSh) or a hot desert climate (BWh), although temperatures are much moderated at the highest elevations.
|source 2 = Meteo Climat (record highs and lows)
|date=January 2012
}}
== Data ==
Location:
Eastern Africa, bordering the Red Sea, between Djibouti and Sudan, also bordering Ethiopia.
Geographic coordinates:
Continent:
Africa
Area:
total: 117,600 km2
country rank in the world: 99th
land: 101,000 km2
water: 16,600 km2
Area — comparative:
slightly smaller than Malawi
Australia comparative: slightly more than half the size of Victoria
Canada comparative: approximately twice the size of Nova Scotia
United Kingdom comparative: slightly less than half the size of the United Kingdom
United States comparative: approximately the size of Ohio
EU comparative: slightly more than twice the size of Croatia
Land boundaries:
total:
border countries:
Djibouti
Ethiopia
Sudan
Note that the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia is disputed.
Coastline:
total
mainland on Red Sea
islands in Red Sea
Maritime claims:
territorial sea:
Terrain:
dominated by extension of Ethiopian north-south trending highlands, descending on the east to a coastal desert plain, on the northwest to hilly terrain and on the southwest to flat-to-rolling plains
Ecoregions:
Most of Eritrea's coast is part of the Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands semi-desert ecoregion. The southern part of the Red Sea coast, along with the Red Sea coast of Djibouti, has been described as the Eritrean coastal desert, a harsh sand and gravel coastal strip covered in dune grasses and shrubs that is important as a channel for the mass migration of birds of prey.
Elevation extremes:
lowest point:
near Lake Kulul within the Afar Depression
highest point:
Amba Soira
Natural resources:
gold, potash, zinc, copper, salt, possibly petroleum and natural gas, fish
Land use:
arable land: 6.83%
permanent crops: 0.02%
other: 93.15% (2012 est.)
Irrigated land:
(2003)
Total renewable water resources:
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):
total: /yr (5%/0%/95%)
per capita: /yr (2004)
Natural hazards:
frequent droughts, rare earthquakes and volcanic activity, and locust storms
Environment — current issues:
deforestation; desertification; soil erosion; overgrazing; loss of infrastructure from civil warfare;
Environment — international agreements:
party to:
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection
Geography — note:
strategic geopolitical position along world's busiest shipping lanes; Eritrea retained the entire coastline of Ethiopia along the Red Sea upon de jure independence from Ethiopia on 24 May 1993.
== Extreme points ==
This is a list of the extreme points of Eritrea, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
Northernmost point - the point at which the border with Sudan enters the Red Sea, Northern Red Sea region
Easternmost point - the point at which the border with Djibouti enters the Red Sea, Southern Red Sea Region
Southernmost point - unnamed location on the border with Djibouti immediately east of the Djiboutian town of Dadda`to, Southern Red Sea Region
Westernmost point - Abu Gamal mountain, Gash-Barka
|
[
"Amba Soira",
"Eritrea",
"Afar Depression",
"gold",
"desertification",
"Malawi",
"Ohio",
"Lake Kulul",
"Denkalia",
"hot semi-arid climate",
"Deutscher Wetterdienst",
"Croatia",
"deforestation",
"Dadda`to",
"natural gas",
"above sea level",
"Köppen climate classification",
"Biodiversity",
"Sudan",
"Nova Scotia",
"Southern Red Sea Region, Eritrea",
"Horn of Africa",
"Eritrea–Ethiopia border",
"salt",
"fish",
"soil erosion",
"Eritrean coastal desert",
"Abu Gamal",
"Red Sea",
"Eritrea–Sudan border",
"petroleum",
"Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands",
"potash",
"European Union",
"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration",
"Northern Red Sea Region, Eritrea",
"Gash-Barka Region, Eritrea",
"Ethiopia",
"locust",
"overgrazing",
"ecoregion",
"Djibouti",
"Desertification",
"Asmara",
"WP:SDNONE",
"copper",
"Africa",
"Victoria (state)",
"hot desert climate",
"Massawa",
"zinc"
] |
9,379 |
Demographics of Eritrea
|
Eritrea's population comprises nine recognized ethnic groups, most of whom speak languages from the Ethiopian Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family.
====Jeberti====
The Jeberti people in Eritrea trace descent from early Muslim adherents. The term Jeberti is also locally sometimes used to generically refer to all Islamic inhabitants of the highlands. The Jeberti in Eritrea speak Arabic and Tigrinya. They account for about 8% of the Tigrinya speakers in the nation.
====Cushitic speakers====
=====Afar=====
According to the CIA, the Afar constitute 4% of the nation's population.
! Christians
! Muslims
! Other
|-
| Maekel Region, ዞባ ማእከል
|
|
|
|-
| Debub region, ዞባ ደቡብ
|
|
|
|-
| Gash-Barka Region, ዞባ ጋሽ ባርካ
|
|
|
|-
| Anseba Region, ዞባ ዓንሰባ
|
|
|
|-
| Northern Red Sea Region,Semienawi Keyih Bahri ዞባ ሰሜናዊ ቀይሕ ባሕሪ
|
|
|
|-
| Southern Red Sea Region,Debubawi Keyih Bahri ዞባ ደቡባዊ ቀይሕ ባሕሪ
|
|
|
|-
|}
|
[
"Fafo Institute for Applied International Studies",
"Dekemhare",
"Adi Quala",
"Islam",
"Sudan",
"fertility rate",
"Nara people",
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"Dahlik language",
"Italian language",
"Djibouti",
"Ge'ez",
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"Roman Catholic",
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"net reproduction rate",
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"Afar language",
"Human Rights Watch",
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"HIV",
"Frontex",
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"Ethiopian Semitic languages",
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Ethiopian Highlands",
"Demographic and Health Surveys",
"Culture of Eritrea",
"census",
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"United States Agency for International Development",
"family planning",
"Eritrean Army",
"Northern Red Sea Region",
"Debub Region",
"Tigrinya language",
"Mendefera",
"ORC Macro",
"Cushitic languages",
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"Eritrea",
"AIDS",
"Roman Catholicism",
"Eastern Catholic",
"Tigrinya people",
"Beni-Amer people",
"Christianity",
"Jeberti people",
"Debubawi Keyih Bahri Region",
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"Protestant",
"Tigre language",
"Hejazi Arabic",
"Pew Research Center",
"Italian people",
"The Guardian",
"contraception",
"Tigray Province",
"Badme",
"Southern Red Sea Region",
"Sunni Islam",
"Ethiopia",
"Kunama language",
"Hedareb",
"ethnic group",
"mother tongue",
"United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs",
"Nara language",
"SAGE Publishing",
"Afar people",
"Traditional African religion",
"Tigray Region",
"Eritreans",
"Anseba Region",
"Adi Keyh",
"Senafe",
"Maekel Region",
"United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees",
"Muslims",
"Gash Barka Region",
"Arabic language",
"Italian Eritreans",
"Eritrean Orthodox",
"Saho people",
"Languages of Eritrea",
"Blin language",
"Asmara",
"The Conversation (website)",
"Fafo Foundation",
"Beja language",
"National Statistics Office (Eritrea)",
"Kunama people",
"Keren, Eritrea",
"Irob people"
] |
9,380 |
Politics of Eritrea
|
The politics of Eritrea and the government of Eritrea take place in the framework of a single-party presidential republic currently under a totalitarian dictatorship. The President officially serves as both head of state and head of government. The People's Front for Democracy and Justice is the only political party legally permitted to exist in Eritrea. The popularly elected National Assembly of 150 seats, formed in 1993 shortly after independence from Ethiopia, elected the current president, Isaias Afwerki. There have been no general elections since its official independence in 1993. A new constitution was drafted in 1993 and ratified in 1997, but has not been implemented. Since the National Assembly last met in January 2002, president Afwerki has exercised the powers of both the executive and legislative branches of government.
Independent local sources of political information on Eritrean domestic politics are scarce; in September 2001 the government closed down all of the nation's privately owned print media, and outspoken critics of the government have been arrested and held without trial, according to domestic and international observers, including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International. In 2004 the U.S. State Department declared Eritrea a Country of Particular Concern (CPC) for its alleged record of religious persecution.
==Executive branch==
|President
|Isaias Afewerki
|PFDJ
|24 May 1991
|}
The President nominates individuals to head the various ministries, authorities, commissions, and offices, and the National Assembly ratifies those nominations. The cabinet is the country's executive branch. It is composed of 18 ministries and chaired by the president. It implements policies, regulations, and laws and is, in theory, accountable to the National Assembly.
The Ministries are:
Agriculture
Ministry of Defence
Education
Energy & Mines
Ministry of Finance
Fisheries & Maritime Resources
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Health
Information
Ministry of Justice
Labour & Human Welfare
Land, Water, & Environment
Local Government
Ministry of National Development (Eritrea)
Public Works
Tourism
Trade & Industry
Transport & Communications
==Legislative branch==
The legislature, the National Assembly appointed in 1993, includes 75 members of the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) and 75 additional 'popularly elected' members. Those elected by the general population must include 11 women and representation of 15 Eritreans not currently living in the state. The National Assembly is the highest legal power in the government until the establishment of a democratic, constitutional government. Within the Eritrean Constitution, the legislature would remain the strongest arm of the government. The legislature sets the internal and external policies of the government, regulates the implementation of those policies, approves the budget, and elects the president of the country. Its membership has not been renewed through national elections, and its latest session was in January 2002.
Lower Regional Assemblies are also in each of Eritrea's six zones. These Assemblies are responsible for setting a local agenda in the case that they are not overruled by the National Assembly. These Regional Assemblies are popularly elected within each region. Unlike the National Assembly, however, the Regional administrator is not selected by the Regional Assembly.
==Political parties and elections==
Eritrea is a single-party state run by the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ). No other political groups are legally allowed to organize. The PFDJ's most recent party congress was held in January 2002, and its members have not met since.
===Eritrean opposition groups in exile===
ምንቅስቓስ ንብሩህ መጻኢ ኤርትራ (Eritrean bright future movement) Dawit Girmay
Global Yiakl Movement
Eritrean Renaissance Party for Justice (ERPJ), Dr. Mohammed Birhan Idris
Eritrean Islamic Jihad (EIJ) ?
Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), Abdullah Muhammed
Eritrean Liberation Front-Revolutionary Council (ELF-RC), Ahmed Nasser (died 26 March 2014)
Eritrean Liberation Front-United Organization (ELF-UO), Mohammed Said Nawd
Eritrean People's Democratic Front (EPDF), Tewelde Ghebreselassie
Eritrean Solidarity Movement for National Salvation (ESMNS) Grassroots Movement led by Tesfu Atsbeha
Democratic Movement for Liberation of Eritrean Kunama (DMLEK) (Kernelewos)
The Agazyan National Front, Mehari Yowhans
===Regional issues===
Eritrea has had rough relations with most of its neighbors in the 1990s and initiated both small-scale and large-scale battles against Sudan, Djibouti, Yemen and Ethiopia. Eritrea invaded the Hanish islands of Yemen, Sudan blamed Eritrea for attacks in Eastern Sudan, UN commission accused Eritrea for invading Ethiopia and Djibouti officials accused Eritrea for shelling towns in Djibouti in 1996.
After this, Eritrea has made efforts to solve relations with Sudan and Djibouti, though relations with Yemen and Ethiopia remain sour. In 2008, an attack on Djibouti led by the Eritrean Army on the tip South end of the country led to several civilians being killed, and further international tensions. Eritrea abandoned the regional bloc IGAD which is membered by the four nations and Kenya. Due to the nature of its environment, many Eritreans risk their lives to flee the country and reach the Mediterranean and Europe.
==Judicial branch==
The judiciary operates independently of both the legislative and executive bodies, with a court system that extends from the village through to the regional and national levels. Such isolation, in fact, can be seen in the judiciary's exclusion from Proclamation no. 86/1996 for the Establishment of Regional Administration (PERA). PERA outlines the responsibilities and discretions of the legislative and executive branches but notably excludes the judiciary branch. In addition to its separation, the constitution also upholds the courts to protect the meselat (rights), rebhatat (rights), and natznetat (freedoms) of government, organizations, associations, and individuals. there is not a bar association in Eritrea. The Legal Committee of the Ministry of Justice oversees the admission and requirements to practice law. Although the source goes on to state that there have been female judges, there is no indication as to how demographic groups, such as women, have fared in the legal field.
=== Court structure ===
The Eritrean judicial system is split into three different courts: the Civil Court, the Military Court, and the Special Court. If a dispute cannot be resolved in the community courts it can be appealed to the next level of judicial administration, the regional courts, natively known as Zoba Courts, which operate on a three-judge bench system.
==== Special Court ====
The Special Court, the third and final element to the Eritrean judicial system, operates on a three-judge bench system and works under three themes: general criminal cases, corruption, and illegal foreign exchange and smuggling. however, judges do not receive training or do not have prior experience in law. Many are military men who form their decision based on conscience and the political values of the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF). After a high-level delegation to the Sudan from the Eritrean Ministry of Foreign Affairs ties are being normalized. While normalization of ties continues, Eritrea has been recognized as a broker for peace between the separate factions of the Sudanese civil war, with Hassan al-Turabi crediting Eritrea in playing a role in the peace agreement between the Southern Sudanese and the government. Additionally, the Sudanese Government and Eastern Front rebels requested that Eritrea mediate their peace talks in 2006.
A dispute with Yemen over the Hanish Islands in 1996 resulted in a brief war. As part of an agreement to cease hostilities the two nations agreed to refer the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague. At the conclusion of the proceedings, both nations acquiesced to the decision. Since 1996 both governments have remained wary of one another but relations are relatively normal.
The undemarcated border with Ethiopia is the primary external issue facing Eritrea. This led to a long and bloody border war between 1998 and 2000. As a result, the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) is occupying a 25 km by 900 km area on the border to help stabilize the region. Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemate punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war. Central to the continuation of the stalemate is Ethiopia's failure to abide by the border delimitation ruling and reneging on its commitment to demarcation. The stalemate has led the President of Eritrea to write his Eleven Letters to the United Nations Security Council, which urges the UN to take action on Ethiopia. Relations between the two countries is further strained by the continued effort of the Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders in supporting each other's opposition.
The 8–9 July 2018 took place the 2018 Eritrea–Ethiopia summit (also 2018 Eritrea–Ethiopia peace summit) in Asmara, Eritrea, between Eritrean President Isaias Afwerki and Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed and officials from the two countries.
The two leaders signed a joint declaration on 9 July, formally ending the border conflict between both countries, restoring full diplomatic relations, and agreeing to open their borders to each other for persons, goods and services. The joint statement was also considered to close all chapters regarding the Eritrean–Ethiopian War (1998–2000) and of the following Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict (2000–2018) with sporadic clashes.
|
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9,381 |
Economy of Eritrea
|
{{Infobox economy
|country = Eritrea
|image = Asmara panorama, Eritrea.jpg
|caption = A view of Asmara
|currency = Eritrean nakfa (ERN)
|year = Calendar year
|organs = AU, COMESA, AfDB
|gdp rank = 156th (nominal) / 156th (PPP)
|gdp =
|per capita =
The economy of Eritrea has undergone extreme changes after the War of Independence.
It experienced considerable growth in recent years, indicated by an improvement in gross domestic product in 2011 of 8.7 percent and in 2012 of 7.5% over 2011, and has a total of $8.090 billion as of 2020. However, worker remittances from abroad are estimated to account for 32 percent of gross domestic product.
Eritrea has an extensive amount of resources such as copper, gold, granite, marble, and potash. As of 2012, 20 mining companies had obtained licenses to prospect and exploit mines.
==Economic history==
Eritrea's recent economic growth has been characterised by considerable volatility, partly due to its dependence on predominantly rainfed agriculture, which accounts for about one-third of the economy. The sector is also affected by distribution services, which account for about 20 per cent of GDP, and mining, which accounts for another 20 per cent of the economy. Real GDP growth is estimated to have recovered to around 12% in 2018, after an average contraction of -2.7% between 2015 and 2018, caused by frequent droughts and lower mining output.
Reported inflation in Eritrea was negative between 2016 and 2018, following the exchange of currency in circulation in November 2015, which led to a contraction in the money supply. Deflation persisted in 2018, as increased trade with Ethiopia exerted additional downward pressure on prices. The growth was due to increased agricultural output and the expansion of the mining industry along with increasing gold prices. Breakdowns of the Eritrean economy by sector have not been readily available; however, according to some estimates, in 2011 services accounted for 55 percent of the GDP, industry for 34 percent, and agriculture for the remaining 11 percent. The growth of the GDP, however, is compromised by the ongoing tensions with the country's borders.
==Industries==
===Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing===
In 2004, agriculture employed nearly 80 percent of the population but accounted for only 12.4 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in Eritrea. The agricultural sector has improved with the use of modern farming equipment and techniques, and dams. Nevertheless, it is compromised by a lack of financial services and investment. Major agricultural products are sorghum, barley, beans, dairy products, lentils, meat, millet, leather, teff, and wheat. The displacement of 1 million Eritreans as a result of the war with Ethiopia, and the widespread presence of land mines have played a role in the declining productivity of the agricultural sector. Almost a quarter of the country's most productive land remains unoccupied because of the lingering effects of the 1998–2000 war with Ethiopia.
Forestry is not a significant economic activity in Eritrea.
Reliable figures on the extent and value of the fishing industry in Eritrea are difficult to obtain. However, Eritrea's long coastline offers the opportunity for significant expansion of the fishing industry from its current, largely artisanal, stage. Eritrea exports fish and sea cucumbers from the Red Sea to markets in Europe and Asia, and there is hope that the construction of a new, jet-capable airport in Massawa, as well as rehabilitation of the port there, may support increased exports of high-value seafood. In 2002, exports were about 14,000 tons, but the maximum stable yield is thought to be nearly 80,000 tons. A fish processing plant was built in 1998 that now exports 150 tons of frozen fish every month to markets in Britain, Germany, and the Netherlands. Tensions with Yemen over fishing rights in the Red Sea flared up in 1995 and again in 2002, and Eritrea's difficult relations with other nations could hamper further development of the industry.
In 2011, the Australian Chalice mining company applied through a 60/40 joint venture for a mining license for 18 years.
Also in 2011, Nevsun Resources completed construction of its Bisha gold mining project. Estimated production was to be 350,000 ounces of gold per year until the gold ore is exhausted, at which point the mine would produce copper and zinc.
As of 2012, nine explorer companies operated in Eritrea from Canada (NGEx Resources), Australia (Chalice Gold Mines, South Boulder Mines, Sunridge Gold Corp), China (Sichuan Road and Bridge Group, Zhong Chang Mining Co, China Africa Huakan Investment Co., Land Energy Group (China) Ltd, Beijing Donia Resources Co.), the UK (London Africa Ltd, Andiamo Exploration Ltd.), the UAE and Barbados.
===Industry and Manufacturing===
During the period of federation, industrial capacity largely shifted to Ethiopia, leaving the Eritrean industrial sector with outmoded capital equipment. In 2003 industry accounted for 25.3 percent of gross domestic product. Major products include processed food and dairy products, alcoholic beverages, glass, leather goods, marble, textiles, and salt.
==Foreign economic relations==
China, India, South Korea, Italy, South Africa, and Germany are aggressively pursuing market opportunities in Eritrea. There is growing interest in U.S. products and services in Eritrea, although U.S. investment in Eritrea is still small.
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] |
9,382 |
Telecommunications in Eritrea
|
Telecommunications in Eritrea are under the authority of the Government of Eritrea.
==Infrastructure==
The Eritrea Telecommunication Services Corporation, more commonly known as EriTel, is the sole operator of both landline and mobile telephone communication infrastructure in Eritrea. However, it is one of several internet service providers in the country.
The domestic telecommunications infrastructure is very inadequate. Most fixed line telephones are located in Asmara, the capital and largest city. Cell phones are in increasing use throughout the country. The government is seeking international tenders to improve the system.
Mobile cellular phones in use: 241,900 lines, 175th in the world (2011).
Fixed broadband: 122 subscriptions, 192nd (last) in the world; 0.0% of the population, 192nd (last) in the world (2012).
Mobile broadband: unknown.
Internet hosts: 701 hosts, 177th in the world (2012).
Country code: ER
Top level domain: .er
===Internet censorship and surveillance===
Listed as Under Surveillance by Reporters Without Borders (RWB) in 2008, 2009, not in 2010, and again from 2011 to 2012.
Eritrea has not set up a widespread automatic Internet filtering system, but it does not hesitate to order blocking of several diaspora websites critical of the regime. Access to these sites is blocked by two of the Internet service providers, Erson and Ewan, as are pornographic websitesand YouTube. Self-censorship is said to be widespread.
|
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] |
9,383 |
Transport in Eritrea
|
Transport in Eritrea includes highways, airports and seaports, in addition to various forms of public and private vehicular, maritime and aerial transportation.
== Railways ==
As of 1999, there was a total of 317 kilometres of (narrow gauge) rail line in Eritrea. The railway links Agordat and Asmara with the port of Massawa; however, it was nonoperational since 1978 except for about a 5 kilometre stretch that was reopened in Massawa in 1994. Rehabilitation of the remainder and of the rolling stock has occurred in recent years. By 2003, the line had been restored from Massawa all the way through to Asmara.
There are no rail links with adjacent countries.
== Highways ==
The Eritrean highway system is named according to the road classification. The three levels of classification are: primary (P), secondary (S), and tertiary (T). The lowest level road is tertiary and serves local interests. Typically they are improved earth roads that are occasionally paved. During the wet seasons these roads typically become impassable. The next higher level road is a secondary road and typically is a single-layered asphalt road that connects district capitals together and those to the regional capitals. Roads that are considered primary roads are those that are fully covered with asphalt (throughout their entire length), and, in general, they carry traffic between all the major towns in Eritrea.
total:
4,010 km
paved:
874 km
unpaved:
3,136 km (1996 est.)
== Seaports and harbours ==
=== Red Sea ===
Asseb (Aseb)
Massawa (Mits'iwa)
== Merchant marine ==
total:
5 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling /
ships by type:
bulk carrier 1, cargo ship 1, liquefied gas 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off ship 1 (1999 est.)
== Airports ==
There are three international airports, one in the capital, Asmara International Airport, and the two others in the coastal cities, Massawa (Massawa International Airport) and Assab (Assab International Airport). The airport in Asmara received all international flights into the country as of March 2007, as well as being the main airport for domestic flights.
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
total:
18
over 3,047 m:
2
2,438 to 3,047 m:
2
1,524 to 2,437 m:
6
914 to 1,523 m:
6
under 914 m:
2 (1999 est.)
==Cableway==
The Asmara-Massawa Cableway, built by Italy in the 1930s, connected the port of Massawa with the city of Asmara. The British later dismantled it during their eleven-year occupation after defeating Italy in World War II.
|
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9,384 |
Eritrean Defence Forces
|
The Eritrean Defence Forces (EDF) ( قوات البحرية الارترية) are the combined military forces of Eritrea composed of three branches: Eritrean Army, Eritrean Air Force and Eritrean Navy. The Army is by far the largest, followed by the Air Force and Navy. The Commander-in-Chief of the EDF is the President of Eritrea. Their military role stems from Eritrea's strategic geographical location, located on the Red Sea with a foothold on the Bab-el-Mandeb strait.
==History==
===Pre-independence===
Military history in Eritrea stretches back for thousands of years; from ancient times to present day, the society of the Eritreans have dealt with both war and peace. During the kingdom of Medri Bahri, the military fought numerous battles against the invading forces of the Abyssinians to the south and the Ottoman Turks at the Red Sea.
During the 16th century, the port of Massawa was used by the Ottomans to protect sea lanes from disruption, while more recently it was used by the Italians during their colonial occupation. The kingdom of Medri Bahri was dissolved and the Colony of Eritrea was founded by the Italians in 1890, shortly after the opening of the Suez Canal. When Italian troops occupied Ethiopia in 1936, Eritrean native soldiers (known as Askaris) supported the invading force. However, this was reversed by British and Ethiopian troops in 1941. The Eritrean infantry battalions and cavalry squadrons of the "Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali" (Royal Colonial Corps) saw extensive service in the various Italian colonial territories between 1888 and 1942.
During the war for Eritrea's independence rebel movements (the ELF and the EPLF) used volunteers. In the final years of the struggle for independence, the EPLF ranks grew to 110,000 volunteers (some 3% of the total population).
===Independence (1991–present)===
During the first two decades of independence, the EDF formally had the power to detain and arrest civilians, and used this power to help police detain and arrest civilians, which systematically happened for arbitrary reasons. Together with police, EPLF members and government officials, the EDF carried out widespread torture of Eritreans.
==Leadership==
The EDF was led from 1991 by Ogbe Abraha, until 2000, when he was dismissed for his participation in the G-15 group of ministers who called for political change in Eritrea. A prison guard stated that Ogbe died in prison in 2002 from asthma. with a reserve force of approximately 130,000. This is outlined in both the Constitution of Eritrea and Proclamation 82 issued by the National Assembly on 1995-10-23. However, the period of enlistment may be extended during times of national crisis and the typical period of national service is considerably longer than the minimum. Since the 1990s, conscription has been effectively open-ended; this draft policy has been likened to "slavery" and has earned international condemnation.
Military training is given at the Sawa Defence Training Centre and Kiloma Military Training Centre. Students, both male and female, are required to attend the Sawa Training Centre to complete the final year of their secondary education, which is integrated with their military service. If a student does not attend this period of training, he or she will not be allowed to attend university - many routes to employment also require proof of military training. However, they may be able to attend a vocational training centre, or to find work in the private sector. At the end of the 1½-year national service, a conscript can elect to stay on and become a career military officer. Conscripts who elect otherwise may, in theory, return to their civilian life but will continue to be reservists. In practice, graduates of military service are often chosen for further national service according to their vocation - for example, teachers may be compulsorily seconded for several years to schools in an unfamiliar region of the country. According to the Government of Eritrea, "The sole objective of the National Service program is thus to cultivate capable, hardworking, and alert individuals."
Eritrean conscripts are used in non-military capacities as well. Soldiers are often used as supplemental manpower in the country's agricultural fields picking crops, though much of the harvested food is used to feed the military rather than the general population.
=== People's Militia ===
In 2012 the government created People's Militia (known natively as the "Hizbawi Serawit"), to provide additional military training to civilians and assist in development work. Many elderly citizens have been forced to join. Its organizational structure is set up by profession and/or geographic. It serves as a form of national service. In 2013, it was led by Brigadier General Teklai Manjus.
== Foreign military relations ==
Since 2019, the Eritrea Defense Force has been helping the reestablishment of the Somali National Army. That year it clandestinely accepted 5,000 recruits for military training. During the Tigray War that began in 2020, Amhara militants involved in the conflict received expert military training from the EDF.
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9,385 |
Foreign relations of Eritrea
|
The foreign relations of Eritrea are the policies of the Eritrean government by which it administers its external relations with other nations. Since its independence, Eritrea's foreign relations have been dominated by conflict and confrontation, both in the regional and international arenas. It has maintained often troubled, and usually violent, relations with its neighbors, including brief armed conflicts with Yemen and Djibouti and a destructive war with its bigger-neighbour, Ethiopia. At present, Eritrea has very tense relations with neighboring Ethiopia and Djibouti. Relations in the international arena also have been strained since the last decade, particularly with major powers. What appeared cordial relations with the US in the 1990s turned acrimonious following the border war with Ethiopia, 1998-2000.
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|28 September 1993
|Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 September 1993 See Denmark–Eritrea relations
|- valign="top"
|||22 May 1993||See Eritrea–Ethiopia relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 May 1993 when first Ambassador of the Transitional Government of Ethiopia's to Eritrea Mr. Awalom Woldu Tuku presented his credentials to President Issaias Afwerki. Diplomatic relations were broken on 12 May 1998 when Ethiopia and Eritrea went to war over the disputed border area of Badme. Diplomatic relations were restored on 8 July 2018
In December 2000, Eritrea and Ethiopia signed a peace treaty ending their war and created a pair of binding judicial commissions, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Border Commission and the Eritrean-Ethiopian Claims Commission, to rule on their disputed border and related claims. In April 2002 The Commission released its decision (with a clarification in 2003). Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemate punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war. Since these decisions Ethiopia has refused to permit the physical demarcation of the border while Eritrea insists the border must be demarcated as defined by the commission. Consequently, the Boundary Commission ruled boundary as virtually demarcated and effective.
Eritrea maintains a military force on its border with Ethiopia roughly equal in size to Ethiopia's force, which has required a general mobilization of a significant portion of the population. Eritrea has viewed this border dispute as an existential threat to itself in particular and the African Union in general, because it deals with the supremacy of colonial boundaries in Africa. Since the border conflict Ethiopia no longer uses Eritrean ports for its trade.
During the border conflict and since, Ethiopia has fostered militants against Eritrea (including ethnic separatists and religiously based organizations). Eritrea has retaliated by hosting militant groups against Ethiopia as well. The United Nations Security Council argues that Eritrea and Ethiopia have expanded their dispute to a second theater, Somalia.
In March 2012, Ethiopia attacked Eritrean army outposts along the border. Addis Ababa said the assault was in retaliation for the training and support given by Asmara to subversives while Eritrea said the U.S. knew of the attacks, an accusation denied by U.S. officials.
In July 2018, leaders both countries signed a peace treaty to put a formal end to a state of war between both nations paving the way for greater economic cooperation and improved ties between them.
Eritrea has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
Ethiopia has an embassy in Asmara.
|- valign="top"
|||28 May 1993||Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 May 1993
|- valign="top"
|
|3 August 1993
|See Eritrea–Germany relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 August 1993
Eritrea developed relations with Israel shortly after gaining its independence in 1993, despite protests among Arab countries. Israeli-Eritrean relations are close. The president of Eritrea has visited Israel for medical treatment. However, Eritrea condemned Israeli military action during the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict. Israeli-Eritrean ties are complicated by Israel's close ties to Ethiopia, who have shared an unfriendly dyad with Eritrea for a long time.
|- valign="top"
|||24 May 1993||See Eritrea–Italy relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 May 1993
Eritrea has an embassy in Rome and a consulate in Milan.
Italy has an embassy in Asmara.
|- valign="top"
|||23 June 1993||Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 June 1993
Eritrea is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
Mexico is accredited to Eritrea from its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.
|-
|
|1993
|Despite Pyongyang's alignment with Ethiopia during the Eritrean War of Independence, Eritrea has maintained diplomatic relations with North Korea since the 1990s. Covert military ties also exist between Eritrea and North Korea.
|-
|
|8 June 1995
|Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 June 1995 when Ambassador of Portugal to Eritrea with residence in Nairobi Mr. José Caetano da Costa Pereira presented his credentials.
|- valign="top"
|||5 July 1993||
During the 2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis, Eritrea refused a request by Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates to cut relations with Qatar, citing its "strong ties with the brother people of Qatar."
|-
|||24 May 1993||See Eritrea–Russia relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 May 1993
|- valign="top"
|||24 May 1993, diplomatic relations were broken from 5 December 1994 to 2 May 1999||
Eritrea broke diplomatic relations with the Sudan in December 1994. This action was taken after a long period of increasing tension between the two countries due to a series of cross-border incidents involving the Eritrean Islamic Jihad (EIJ). Although the attacks did not pose a threat to the stability of the Government of Eritrea (the infiltrators have generally been killed or captured by government forces), the Eritreans believe the National Islamic Front (NIF) in Khartoum supported, trained, and armed the insurgents. After many months of negotiations with the Sudanese to try to end the incursions, the Government of Eritrea concluded that the NIF did not intend to change its policy and broke relations. Subsequently, the Government of Eritrea hosted a conference of Sudanese opposition leaders in June 1995 in an effort to help the opposition unite and to provide a credible alternative to the present government in Khartoum. Eritrea resumed diplomatic relations with Sudan on December 10, 2005. Since then, Sudan has accused Eritrea, along with Chad, of supporting rebels.
The undemarcated border with Sudan previously posed a problem for Eritrean external relations.
After a high-level delegation to the Sudan from the Eritrean Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ties are being normalized. While normalization of ties continues, Eritrea has been recognized as a broker for peace between the separate factions of the Sudanese civil war. "It is known that Eritrea played a role in bringing about the peace agreement [between the Southern Sudanese and Government]," while the Sudanese Government and Eastern Front rebels have requested Eritrea to mediate peace talks.
The Eritrean President, Isaias Afewerki, and his Sudanese counterpart Omar Al-Bashir held talks in Asmara on a number of bilateral issues of mutual concern to the two East African countries. The talks dealt with enhancing bilateral ties and cooperation including making their shared border more open. Sudan and Eritrea agreed to abolish entry visa requirements, opening their common borders for free movement of both nationals. In 2011, Eritrea and Sudan cooperated in the building of the Kassala-Al Lafa Highway linking the two countries.
|- valign="top"
|||19 July 1993||See also Eritrea–Turkey relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 July 1993
The Embassy of Eritrea in Doha is accredited to Turkey.
Turkey has an embassy in Asmara. Human Rights Watch reported that the UAE maintains a detention facility at the Assab base, where it may have transferred high-profile prisoners out of Yemen.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
Eritrea established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 16 November 1993.
Eritrea maintains an embassy in London.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Eritrea through its embassy in Asmara.
The UK administered Eritrea from 1941 to 1952, when Eritrea united with Ethiopia into a federation.
|- valign="top"
|||11 June 1993||See Eritrea–United States relations
Diplomatic relations between the United States and the State of Eritrea were established on June 11, 1993.
Eritrea has an embassy in Washington, D.C.
The United States has an embassy in Asmara.
|- valign="top"
|||24 May 1993
|}
|
[
"Eritrea",
"Milan",
"Eritrea–Turkey relations",
"Osman Saleh Mohammed",
"International Finance Corporation",
"Addis Ababa",
"Algiers Agreement (2000)",
"Qatar",
"History of Eritrea",
"Washington, D.C.",
"2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis",
"Yemen",
"2018 Eritrea–Ethiopia summit",
"Hanish Islands",
"Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen",
"International Criminal Police Organization",
"Somalia",
"Hanish Islands conflict",
"Sudan",
"Doha",
"Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa",
"Khartoum",
"African Union",
"International Bank for Reconstruction and Development",
"Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea",
"Denmark–Eritrea relations",
"Eritrea–Italy relations",
"Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons",
"Assab",
"Arab League",
"Non-Aligned Movement",
"Embassy of Eritrea, London",
"the Hague",
"Arab–Eritrean relations",
"Permanent Court of Arbitration",
"Gaza War (2008–09)",
"Eritrean Islamic Jihad",
"Ethiopia",
"Eritrean-Ethiopian War",
"London",
"Ethiopian Empire",
"Djibouti",
"Government of Eritrea",
"United Nations",
"Foreign relations of Croatia",
"Eritrea–Ethiopia relations",
"Asmara",
"WP:SDNONE",
"Eritrea–Israel relations",
"List of diplomatic missions of Eritrea",
"Eritrea–United States relations",
"Eritrea–Germany relations",
"Houthi insurgency in Yemen",
"National Islamic Front",
"Chad",
"Eritrea–Russia relations",
"United Arab Emirates",
"List of diplomatic missions in Eritrea",
"Foreign relations of the United Kingdom",
"Rome",
"Human Rights Watch",
"Cairo, Egypt",
"World Customs Organization"
] |
9,388 |
Geography of Estonia
|
Between 57.3 and 59.5 latitude and 21.5 and 28.1 longitude, Estonia lies on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea on the level northwestern part of the rising East European Platform. Estonia's continental mainland is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland (part of the Baltic Sea) across from Finland, to the east by Lake Peipus and Russia, and to the south by Latvia. Besides the part of the European continent, Estonian territory also includes the larger islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa, and over 2,200 other islands and islets in the Baltic Sea, off the western and northern shores of the country's mainland.
Average elevation in Estonia reaches .
The climate is maritime, wet, with moderate winters and cool summers. Oil shale and limestone deposits, along with forests which cover 47% of the land, play key economic roles in this generally resource-poor country. Estonia boasts over 1,500 lakes, numerous bogs, and 3,794 kilometers of coastline marked by numerous bays, straits, and inlets.
==Geographic features==
Estonia is a flat country covering , of which internal waters comprise 4.6%. Estonia has a long, shallow coastline () along the Baltic Sea, with 1,520 islands dotting the shore. The two largest islands are Saaremaa (literally, island land), at , and Hiiumaa, at .
Estonia has a temperate climate, with four seasons of near-equal length.
==Fauna==
There live 65 different species of mammals in the Estonian forests. There are an estimated 700 brown bears, over 150 wolves, 400 lynxes, 14,000–16,000 beavers, 3,400 wild boars, 10,000–11,000 moose and 120,000–130,000 deer. There are also red deer and other wild animals.
==Flora==
==Environmental issues==
One of the most burdensome legacies of the 1944–1991 Soviet occupation of Estonia is widespread environmental pollution. The worst offender in this regard was the Soviet army. Across military installations covering more than of Estonian territory, the army dumped hundreds of thousands of tons of jet fuel into the ground, improperly disposed of toxic chemicals, and discarded outdated explosives and weapons in coastal and inland waters. In the 1990s, during the army's withdrawal from Estonia, extensive damage was done to discarded buildings and equipment. In October 1993, the Estonian Ministry of Environment issued a preliminary report summing up part of the degradation it had surveyed thus far. The report described the worst damage as having been done to Estonia's topsoil and underground water supply by the systematic dumping of jet fuel at six Soviet army air bases. At the air base near Tapa, site of the worst damage, officials estimated that of land were covered by a layer of fuel; of underground water were said to be contaminated. The water in the surrounding area was undrinkable, and was sometimes set fire by locals to provide heat during the winter. With Danish help, Estonian crews began cleaning up the site, although they estimated the likely cost to be as much as 4 million EEK. The Ministry of Environment assigned a monetary cost of more than 10 billion EEK to the damage to the country's topsoil and water supply. However, the ministry was able to allocate only 5 million EEK in 1993 for cleanup operations.
In a 1992 government report to the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development, Estonia detailed other major environmental concerns. For instance, for several consecutive years Estonia had led the world in the production of sulfur dioxide per capita. Nearly 75% of Estonia's air pollution was reported to come from two oil shale-based thermal power stations operating near Narva. The mining of oil shale in northeastern Estonia has also left large mounds of limestone tailings dotting the region. Near the town of Sillamäe, site of a former uranium enrichment plant, about 1,200 tons of uranium and about 750 tons of thorium had been dumped into a reservoir on the shore of the Gulf of Finland. This was said to have caused severe health problems among area residents. In the coastal town of Paldiski, the removal of waste left by Soviet army nuclear reactors was also a major concern. The combined cost of environmental cleanup at both towns was put at more than EEK3.5 billion.
Natural hazards: flooding occurs frequently in the spring in certain areas
Environment – current issues: air polluted with sulfur dioxide from oil-shale burning power plants in northeast; however, the amounts of pollutants emitted to the air have fallen dramatically and the pollution load of wastewater at purification plants has decreased substantially due to improved technology and environmental monitoring; Estonia has more than 1,400 natural and manmade lakes, the smaller of which in agricultural areas need to be monitored; coastal seawater is polluted in certain locations.
Environment – international agreements:
party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Heavy Metals, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping-London Protocol, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 2006, Wetlands, Whaling
==Area and boundaries==
Area:
total:
land:
water:
note: includes 1,520 islands in the Baltic Sea
Land boundaries:
total:
border countries: Latvia , Russia
Coastline:
Maritime claims:
territorial sea:
exclusive economic zone: limits as agreed to by Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Sweden, and Russia
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Baltic Sea 0 m
highest point: Suur Munamägi
===Geographical (landscape) areas===
Northern Estonia (roughly equivalent to Põhja-Eesti maastikuvaldkond (:et), which includes the capital city Tallinn)
Southern Estonia
Western Estonia
Eastern Estonia
==Resources and land use==
Natural resources: oil shale (kukersite), peat, rare earth elements, phosphorite, clay, limestone, sand, dolomite, arable land, sea mud
Land use (2018 est.):
agricultural land: 22.2% (14% arable land, 0.1% permanent crops, 7.2% permanent pasture)
forest: 52.1%
other: 25.7%
Irrigated land:
Total renewable water resources: (2017 est.)
|
[
"Fennoscandian Shield",
"clay",
"Anto Raukas",
"Oil shale",
"Extreme points of Estonia",
"latitude",
"exclusive economic zone",
"et:Põhja-Eesti maastikuvaldkond",
"Europe",
"Land borders",
"Central Intelligence Agency",
"East-European Platform",
"Gulf of Finland",
"island",
"bedrock",
"forest",
"lake",
"Kyoto Protocol",
"Desertification",
"Northern Europe",
"kukersite",
"islet",
"Treaty of Tartu (Estonia–Russia)",
"Estonia",
"limestone",
"arable land",
"tailings",
"Estonia-Russia border",
"Paris Agreement",
"Baltic Sea",
"Proterozoic",
"phosphorite",
"sand",
"Latvia",
"Russian SFSR",
"Climate of Estonia",
"Sillamäe",
"Federal Research Division",
"Suur Munamägi",
"Law of the Sea",
"The World Factbook",
"Võrtsjärv",
"Paleozoic",
"Biodiversity",
"Emajõgi",
"gneiss",
"GBIF",
"Rare-earth element",
"Library of Congress",
"Narva Power Plants",
"World War II",
"Võhandu (river)",
"Petseri",
"quaternary",
"Russia",
"East European Platform",
"Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty",
"Tallinn",
"Kaali crater",
"peat",
"Estonian kroon",
"Ida-Viru County",
"Cenozoic",
"gravel",
"Narva River",
"Finland",
"Hiiumaa",
"Lake Peipus",
"crystalline basement",
"sandstone",
"bog",
"coastline",
"granite",
"longitude",
"WP:SDNONE",
"Dolomite (mineral)",
"oil shale",
"stratigraphy",
"Saaremaa",
"Oil shale in Estonia"
] |
9,389 |
Demographics of Estonia
|
The demographics of Estonia in the 21st century result from historical trends over more than a thousand years, as with most European countries, but have been disproportionately influenced by events in the second half of the 20th century. The Soviet occupation (1944–1991), extensive immigration from Russia and other parts of the former USSR, and the eventual restoration of independence of Estonia, have all had a major effect on Estonia's current ethnic makeup.
Languages spoken in Estonia largely reflect the composition of the indigenous and immigrant ethnic groups residing in Estonia, and thus have changed with historical trends affecting the ethnic makeup of the country. Similarly to other northern European peoples, religion plays a rather small part in the lives of most Estonians.
Overall, the quality-of-life indices for Estonia indicate a modern industrial state. The population declined annually from 1991 until 2016, except for a brief pause in 2010.
According to the preliminary data of Statistics Estonia, on 1 January 2025, the population of Estonia was 1,369,285 persons. On 1 January 2024, the population of Estonia was 1,374,687 persons. On 1 January 2023, the population was 1,365,884.
The population increased from 1,351,640 in January 1970 to 1,570,599 in January 1990. After 1990, Estonia lost about 15% of its population (230,000 people). The population decreased to 1,294,455 by December 2011, a figure lower than that recorded in 1970.
1,331,824 (2021 Population and Housing Census)
1,294,455 (2011 Population Count and Housing Census)
1,370,052 (2000 Population Count and Housing Census)
Decreasing population pressures are explained by a higher death than birth rate and periods of an excess of emigrants over immigrants.
Since 2015 the country has experienced population growth. The population mainly increased as a result of net immigration of European Union citizens. Citizens of Russia and Ukraine made up the bulk of non-EU immigration. The increase was detected through methodological changes in data collection. Initially a population decrease had been reported.
===Structure of the population===
In 2008, the largest ethnic groups in Estonia were Estonians 68.7%, Russians 25.6%, Ukrainians 2.1%, Belarusians 1.2%, and Finns 0.8%. These five groups made up 98.4% of Estonia's population.
! colspan="2" | 2011
Estonian and Finnish are closely related, belonging to the same Finnic branch of the Uralic language family. The two languages are only partially mutually intelligible, although learning to comprehend and speak each other's languages is fairly easy for native speakers. Estonian and Finnish are only distantly related to the Hungarian language.
Written with the Latin script, Estonian is the language of the Estonian people and the official language of the country. One-third of the standard vocabulary is derived from adding suffixes to root words. The oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th century chronicles. During the Soviet era, the Russian language was imposed in parallel to, and often instead of, Estonian in official use.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;"
|+ Population of Estonia by command of foreign languages (as not the first language)
! rowspan="2" | Language
! colspan="2" | 2000 census
== Religion ==
According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2010, 18% of Estonian residents responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 50% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 29% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force". This, according to the survey, would have made Estonians the most non-religious people in the then 27-member European Union. A survey conducted in 2006–2008 by Gallup showed that 14% of Estonians answered positively to the question: "Is religion an important part of your daily life?", which was the lowest among 143 countries polled.
In 2000, according to the census, 29.2% of the population considered themselves to be related to any religion, thereof:
13.6% Lutheran Christians
12.8% Orthodox Christians
6,009 Baptists
5,745 Roman Catholics
4,254 Jehovah's Witnesses
2,648 Pentecostals
2,515 Old Believers
1,561 Adventists
1,455 Methodists
1,387 Muslims
5,008 followers of other religions
In 2011, according to the census, 29.31% of the population considered themselves to be related to any religion:
16.15% Orthodox Christians
9.91% Lutheran Christians
0.41% Baptists
0.41% Roman Catholics
0.36% Jehovah's Witnesses
0.24% Old Believers
0.17% Pentecostals
0.14% Muslims
0.11% Adventists
0.10% Methodists
3.25% Other religions
There are also a number of smaller Jewish, and Buddhist groups. The organisation Maavalla Koda (Taaraism) unites adherents of animist traditional religions. The Russian neopagan organisation "Vene Rahvausu Kogudus Eestis" is registered in Tartu.
The irrereligiousity of Estonians is a relic of Soviet occupation, but culturally Estonia still belongs to the Lutheran cultural sphere, like most of Northern Europe.
|
[
"Finnish language",
"French language",
"Eastern Orthodox Church",
"Polish language",
"Armenian language",
"Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church",
"Islam",
"Latvian language",
"Russians",
"Americans",
"Moldovans",
"USSR",
"Jehovah's Witnesses",
"Armenians",
"Eurobarometer",
"Ukrainians",
"Valga, Estonia",
"Finns",
"Governorate of Livonia",
"Estonia",
"Germans",
"Languages of Estonia",
"Polish people",
"Baptists",
"2011 Estonia Census",
"Romanians",
"Estonian language",
"Taaraism",
"Latin script",
"Harju County",
"Aging of Europe",
"Occupation of the Baltic states",
"Estonians",
"Ukrainian language",
"Statistics Estonia",
"Eesti Rahvusringhääling",
"Azerbaijani language",
"European Union",
"Sirp",
"Estonian Swedes",
"Saare County",
"Italians",
"Governorate of Estonia",
"Old Believer",
"Lithuanians",
"Georgians",
"Belarusians",
"Englishmen",
"Lutheranism",
"Russians in Estonia",
"Belarusian language",
"Jews",
"Persians",
"Pentecostalism",
"Tartu",
"Swedish language",
"Hiiu County",
"Narva",
"Võru",
"Maavalla Koda",
"Võro language",
"Hindus",
"Baltic Germans",
"Uralic languages",
"French people",
"Methodist",
"Finnic languages",
"Pärnu",
"Brazilians",
"Lithuanian language",
"neopagan",
"ethnic group",
"English language",
"immigration",
"German language",
"Russia",
"Tallinn",
"Romani people",
"Women in Estonia",
"Ida-Viru County",
"Estonian SSR",
"Arabs",
"Turkish people",
"2022–2023 Ukrainian refugee crisis",
"Adventism",
"The Gallup Organization",
"Russian language",
"Hungarian language",
"Azerbaijanis",
"Judaism",
"Kilingi-Nõmme",
"Spaniards",
"Post-Soviet states",
"Irreligion",
"Võros",
"Buddhism",
"Tatar language",
"Latvians",
"Tatars",
"Chinese people",
"Estonization",
"Occupation of Baltic States",
"Pakistanis",
"mutually intelligible",
"Roman Catholic Church",
"Swedes"
] |
9,390 |
Politics of Estonia
|
Politics in Estonia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Estonia is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Legislative power is vested in the Estonian parliament. Executive power is exercised by the government, which is led by the prime minister. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Estonia is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, and NATO.
==History==
The Estonian Declaration of Independence was issued on 21 February 1918. A parliamentary republic was formed by the Estonian Constituent Assembly and the first Constitution of Estonia was adopted on 15 June 1920. The Parliament of Estonia (State Assembly) elected a Riigivanem who acted both as Head of Government and Head of State. During the Era of Silence, political parties were banned and the parliament was not in session between 1934 and 1938 because the country was ruled by decree of Konstantin Päts, who was elected as the first President of Estonia in 1938. In 1938 a new constitution was passed and the Parliament of Estonia was convened once again, this time bicamerally, consisting of Riigivolikogu (lower house) and Riiginõukogu (upper house), both meaning State Council in direct translation. In 1940, Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union. It was soon followed by the German occupation of 1941–1944. During the course of the two occupations, legal institutions, elected according to the Estonian constitution, were removed from power. In September 1944, after German forces left, legal power was briefly restored, as Otto Tief formed a new government in accordance with the 1938 constitution. The Tief government lasted for only five days, as Estonia was again occupied by the Soviet Union. Estonia declared independence in 1991 as the Republic of Estonia on the basis of continuity of the constitution prior to 1938, putting into motion the transition from a state socialist economy to a capitalist market economy; in 1992, the public approved a new constitution. On 1 May 2004, Estonia was accepted into the European Union.
=== Recent political developments ===
The leader of the Reform Party Andrus Ansip was the Prime Minister of Estonia from 2005 until 2014. By the end of his nine-year tenure he was the longest-serving prime minister in the European Union. In August 2011, President of Estonia Toomas Hendrik Ilves, in office since 2006, was re-elected. In March 2014, after the resignation of Ansip, Taavi Rõivas of the Reform Party became new prime minister. 34-year-old Rõivas was the youngest prime minister in Europe at that time. In March 2015, the ruling Reform party, led by Prime Minister Taavi Rõivas, won the parliamentary election In October 2016, Estonian parliament elected Kersti Kaljulaid as the new President of Estonia. She was the first female president of Estonia. In November 2016, the new chairman of the Centre Party Jüri Ratas became the new Prime Minister of Estonia. He succeeded prime minister Rõivas whose government lost a parliamentary vote of no-confidence.
In the parliamentary election of 2019, five parties gained seats at Riigikogu. The head of the Centre Party, Jüri Ratas, formed the government together with Conservative People's Party and Isamaa, while Reform Party and Social Democratic Party became the opposition. On January 13, 2021, Ratas resigned as prime minister in the wake of a corruption scandal.
On 26 January 2021, Reform Party leader Kaja Kallas became Estonia's first female prime minister, making Estonia the only country in the world to currently be led by both a female President and Prime Minister. The new government was a two-party coalition between country's two biggest political parties Reform Party and Centre Party. However, Alar Karis was sworn in as Estonia's sixth President on October 11, 2021. In July 2022, Prime Minister Kaja Kallas formed a new three-party coalition by her liberal Reform Party, the Social Democrats and the conservative Isamaa party. Her previous government had lost its parliamentary majority after the center-left Center Party left the coalition.
In March 2023, the Reform party, led by Prime Minister Kaja Kallas, won the parliamentary election, taking 31,4% of the vote. Far-right Conservative People's Party came second with 16,1 % and the third was the Centre Party with 15% of the vote. In April 2023, Kallas formed her third government, which included, in addition to Reform Party, also the liberal Estonia 200 and the Social Democratic (SDE) parties. In July 2024, Kristen Michal became Estonia's new prime minister to succeed Kaja Kallas, who resigned as prime minister on July 15 to become the European Union's new High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.
According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Estonia was 2023 the 5th most electoral democratic country in the world.
==Institutions==
The framework for the political institutions of Estonia is provided by the Constitution of Estonia (). The constitution follows the principle of separation of powers. Legislative power is wielded by the Parliament, executive power by the Government and judicial power by the courts. Each institution is further defined by their respective legislative acts.
===Finance and the national budget===
Estonia operates an advanced free-market economy, which is integrated into the wider European economy by being part of the European Union and the Eurozone. The Estonian monetary system is managed by the Estonian Central Bank, the national budget is drafted by the Government of the Republic and approved by the Parliament. The draft must be presented to the Parliament at least three months before the beginning of the budget year. The rules for drafting and passage of the state budget are described in the State Budget Act. Financial supervision is provided by the Financial Supervision Authority. It supervises securities market, banks, insurance providers, insurance mediators, investment associations and management companies.
Drafting of the national budget is annually co-ordinated by the Ministry of Finance and supported by other ministries. The ministries prepare plans for at least the next three years and then negotiate the draft budget with the Ministry of Finance, while the Government of the Republic acts as a mediator. After the draft has been finalized by the Government of the Republic, it is then presented to the Parliament for approval. The implementation of the budget is then organized by the Ministry of Finance. Rearrangement of the budget, so that the total revenues and expenses don't change, is passed as amendments, but changes to the total revenues and expenses have to be made through an additional budget. Revenues and expenses are accounted by the State Treasury.
Estonia has one of the lowest national debts in Europe. Part of the reason is that the State Budget Act requires the structural budget position to be in balance. There has also traditionally been a general political consensus over keeping the budget in balance and holding a decent reserve. The Estonian economy is frequently rated as one of the freest in the world and maintains a stable international credit rating. High efficiency is provided through an advanced internet banking system and e-governance.
===Foreign relations and international treaties===
Foreign relations are managed mainly by the Parliament, the Government of the Republic (including various ministries) and the President of the Republic, who mostly serves a representative role. The government can enter into international agreements and present them to the parliament for ratification. Agreements that are in conflict with the Constitution can not be ratified. One notable example of such a case was when Estonia decided to join the European Union, which required the amendment of the Constitution in order to ratify the Accession Treaty. The mandate for the amendment of the Constitution was gained through a public referendum.
Estonia's main foreign policy goals are to maintain national security and stability of international relations, ensuring the functioning of Estonian economy, protecting citizens abroad, maintaining good influence and reputation, and promoting democracy, human rights, rule of law and economic freedom. To achieve these goals, Estonia has set its priorities on involvement and integration into the European Union and NATO, and forming strong relations with countries that share its values, especially its close Baltic and Nordic neighbours. Baltic and Nordic cooperation is coordinated through such formats as: Baltic Council of Ministers, Baltic Assembly, Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB8), Council of the Baltic Sea States and Nordic Council of Ministers. Estonia is also a member of the UN, OECD, OSCE and WTO, among others.
Treaties can be initiated or concluded by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Other ministries and the State Chancellery can make proposals on treaties to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which then reviews the proposals. If the submission meets requirements, the ministry can then send it to the Government of the Republic for approval. Ratification of treaties is performed by the parliament. The performance of treaties is guaranteed by the Government of the Republic. The procedures pertaining to foreign relations are described in the Foreign Relations Act.
After decades of Soviet occupation, Estonia decided to re-establish its independence in 1991. Because the annexation of Estonia was never recognized, and on the basis of the historical continuity of statehood, the state inherited the full responsibility for the rights and obligations of the Republic of Estonia that existed before the occupation. This means, that multilateral treaties, which were approved before the occupation, were considered to be still in effect. Thus, Estonia has re-assumed its international obligations through the restoration of old treaties.
===National defence===
Estonia's national defence is based on initial self-defence capability and membership in NATO. Estonia's security policy utilizes a broad concept of security, similar to the concept of total defence in several Nordic countries, in which all sectors of society are involved. According to the constitution, all citizens of Estonia have a duty to participate in national defence. Male citizens between the ages of 17-27 must partake in 8-12 month military service, though female citizens are also free to serve. Peace-time and war-time organisation of national defence is determined by the National Defence Act.
The supreme commander of national defence is the President of the Republic. The president is advised by the National Defence Council, which consists of the President of the Parliament, Chairman of the National Defence Committee, Chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee, the Prime Minister with other ministers and the Commander of the Defence Forces. Planning, development and organisation of national defence is coordinated by the Security Committee of the Government of the Republic. Management of defence readiness, state of emergency and state of war are directed by the Prime Minister. Increase of defence readiness needs to be approved by the parliament. Beginning and end of state of war and mobilisation is proposed by the president and declared by the parliament. In case of aggression against the Republic of Estonia, state of war can be declared by the president without a corresponding resolution from the parliament. Use of the Defence forces in international cooperation is decided by the parliament. The activities of the Defence Forces are directed and organised by the Commander of the Estonian Defence Forces.
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] |
9,391 |
Economy of Estonia
|
{{Infobox economy
| country = Estonia
| image = Tallinna südalinna panoraam (2021).jpg
| caption = Central business district of Tallinn
| currency = Euro (EUR, €)
| fixed exchange =
| year = Calendar year
| organs = EU, WTO and OECD
| group =
| population = 1 369 285 (1 January 2021)
| gdp = {{plainlist|
$43.5 billion (nominal, 2024)
$61.6 billion (PPP, 2024) (13th)
| components =
| sectors =
| inflation =
| gini = 31.8 (2023)
| hdi =
| occupations =
| industries = engineering, electronics, wood and articles of wood, textiles, information technology, telecommunications
| average gross salary = €2,269, monthly (December, 2024)
| average net salary = €1,706, monthly (December, 2024)
| exports = €18.2 billion (2023)
| export-goods = Electrical equipment, agricultural products and food, wood and wooden articles, mineral products, transport equipment
| export-partners =
| credit =
| reserves = $345 million (31 December 2017 est.) The economy is heavily influenced by developments in the Finnish and Swedish economies.
After Estonia restored its independence in 1991 and became a market economy, it emerged as a pioneer in the global economy. Estonia styled itself as a bridge between East and West, adopting significant economic reforms and technological innovations. In 1992, the country adopted the Estonian kroon as its currency, this stabilised the economy. In 1994, it became the first country in the world to adopt a flat tax, with a rate of 26% regardless of personal income. Estonia received more foreign investment, per person, in the late 1990s than any other country in Central and Eastern Europe. The country has been catching-up with the EU-15 - the richer European countries. Its GDP per capita grew from 35% of the EU-15 average in 1996 to 65% in 2007, similar to Central European countries.
For Estonia, the 2008 financial crisis was easier to weather, because its budget has consistently been kept balanced, and this meant public debt relative to GDP remained the lowest in Europe. The economy recovered in 2010. USSR's annexation of Estonia in 1940 and destruction during World War II crippled the economy. Post-war Sovietization continued, with the integration of Estonia's economy into the USSR's centrally-planned structure.
===Soviet occupation===
The USSR's forcible annexation of Estonia in 1940 and the ensuing Nazi and Soviet destruction during World War II crippled the Estonian economy. Post-war Soviet occupation and Sovietisation of life continued with the integration of Estonia's economy and industry into the USSR's centrally planned structure. More than 56% of Estonian farms were collectivised in the month of April 1949 alone after mass deportations to Siberia the previous month. Moscow expanded on those Estonian industries which had locally available raw materials, such as oil shale mining and phosphorites.
===Restoration of independence, modernisation and liberalisation===
After Estonia restored its independence in 1991 and became a market economy, it emerged as a pioneer in the global economy. Estonia styled itself as a bridge between East and West, adopting significant economic reforms and technological innovations.
In June 1992, Estonia replaced the ruble with its own freely convertible currency, the kroon. A currency board was created and the new currency was pegged to the German Mark at the rate of 8 Estonian kroons per Deutsche Mark. When Germany introduced the euro the peg was changed to 15.6 kroons per euro.
In 1994, it became the first country in the world to adopt a flat tax, with a rate of 26% regardless of personal income. Between 2005 and 2008, this was reduced to 21% over several steps.
In early 1992, both liquidity problems and structural weakness stemming from the communist era precipitated a banking crisis. As a result, effective bankruptcy legislation was enacted and privately owned; well-managed banks emerged as market leaders. The fully electronic Tallinn Stock Exchange opened in early 1996, and was purchased by Finland's Helsinki Stock Exchange in 2001. Estonia joined the World Trade Organization in 1999.
From the early 2000s to the latter part of that decade, the economy experienced considerable growth. In 2000, Estonian GDP grew by 6.4%. After accession to the European Union in 2004, double-digit growth was soon observed. GDP grew by 8% in 2007 alone. Increases in labor costs, the imposition of tax on tobacco, alcohol, electricity, fuel, gas, and other external pressures (growing prices of oil and food on the global market) inflated prices in 2009.
===2008 financial crisis, response and recovery===
The 2008 financial crisis had a deep effect on the economy, primarily as a result of an investment and consumption slump, that followed the burst of the real estate market bubble that had been building up. In December 2008, Estonia became a donor country to the IMF-led rescue package for Latvia. In response to the crisis, the Ansip government opted for fiscal consolidation and retrenchment by maintaining fiscal discipline and a balanced budget in combination with austerity packages: The government increased taxes, and reduced public spending by slashing expenditures and public salaries across the board.
The government made a supplementary negative budget, which was passed by the Riigikogu. The revenue of the budget was decreased for 2008 by EEK 6.1 billion and the expenditure by EEK 3.2 billion. A current account-deficit was extant, but began to shrink in late 2008. In 2009, the economy further contracted by 15% in the first quarter. The economy's 34% industrial production drop was the sharpest decrease in industrial production in the European Union. Estonia was one of the five worst-performing economies in the world in terms of annual growth, and had one of the hightest rates of unemployment in the EU, which rose from 4% in May 2008 to 16% in May 2009.
In July 2009, the value-added tax was increased from 18% to 20%. The recorded budget deficit for 2009 was just 1.7% of GDP. The result was, that Estonia was one of only five EU countries in 2009 that met the Maastricht criteria for debt and deficit, and had the third-lowest deficit after Luxembourg and Sweden; Estonia did not ask for support from the IMF. Despite the third-largest drop in GDP, the country had the lowest budget deficit and lowest public debt among Central and Eastern European countries. In 2009, the Estonian economy began to rebound, and economic growth resumed in the second half of 2010. The country's unemployment rate dropped significantly to pre-recession levels. To top it off, Estonia was granted permission in 2010 to join the eurozone in 2011. Estonia's journey towards the euro took longer than originally projected, owing to the inflation rate continually being above the required 3% before 2010, which prevented the country from fulfilling the entry criteria. The country originally planned to adopt the euro on 1 January 2007 and officially changed its target date twice: first to 1 January 2008, and later to 1 January 2011.
On 12 May 2010, the European Commission announced that Estonia had met all criteria to join the eurozone. On 8 June 2010, EU finance ministers. In July 2010, Estonia received the final approval from ECOFIN to adopt the euro onwards from 1 January 2011; on that date Estonia became the 17th eurozone member state and circulated alongside the kroon until 14 January 2011. With that, Estonia became one of the first post-Soviet states to join the eurozone. Estonia's GDP growth rate in 2011 was above 8%, despite having negative population growth.
The Estonian economy was hit by the COVID-19 recession before bouncing back with an 8.6% rise in GDP in 2021, this was followed by the economic effect of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 resulting in a fall in GDP of 1.3% in 2022 and high inflation which hit 24% before falling to single digits in 2023.
==The economy today==
"Since reestablishing independence, Estonia has styled itself as the gateway between East and West and pursued economic reform and integration with the West." Estonia's market reforms put it among the economic leaders in the former COMECON area. A balanced budget, almost non-existent public debt, flat-rate income tax, free trade regime, adoption of the euro, competitive commercial banking sector, hospitable environment for foreign investment, innovative e-Services and mobile-based services are hallmarks of Estonia's free-market-based economy.
The privatisation of state-owned firms is virtually complete, with only the port and main power plants remaining in government hands. The constitution requires a balanced budget, and the protection afforded by Estonia's intellectual property laws is similar to that of the EU. Near-ideal conditions for the banking sector exist. Foreigners are not restricted from buying bank shares or acquiring majority holdings.
In 2013, the average monthly gross wage in Estonia was €980 (US$1,330). This figure has grown consistently to €2,065 (US$2,217) as of December 2023.
Estonia offers unique tax conditions for businesses, where the tax on undistributed profits is 0%. This allows companies that reinvest their profits into development to avoid tax obligations and allocate more funds for growth and expansion. In 2024, Estonia holds the first place in the International Tax Competitiveness Index and on a permanent basis is taking top positions in the Economic Freedom Index (8th place) and in the Ease of Doing Business Index (18th place).
==Projections and circular economy==
In 2011, according to projections made by CEPII by 2050, Estonia could become the most productive country in the EU, after Luxembourg, and so join the top five most productive nations in the world.
According to the Ministry of Environment, Estonia committed to developing a circular economy strategic document and action plan by 2021. In March 2020, the Estonian Circular Economy Industries Association, specified that Estonia should consider the new European Green Deal and principles of circular economy when making investments to recover the economy after Covid.
==Employment participation==
Estonia has around 600,000 employees, yet the country has a shortage of skilled labor, and since skill shortages are experienced everywhere in Europe, the government has increased working visa quota for non-EEA citizens, although it has nevertheless been criticized for being inadequate for addressing the shortages.
The late-2000s recession in the world, the near-concurrent local property bust with changes in Estonian legislation to increase labour market flexibility (making it easier for companies to lay off workers) saw Estonia's unemployment rate shoot up to 18.8% throughout the duration of the crisis, then stabilise to 13.8% by summer 2011, as the economy recovered on the basis of strong exports. Internal consumption, and therefore imports, plummeted; and cuts were made in public finances. Some of the reduction in unemployment has been attributed to some Estonians' emigrating for employment to Finland, the UK, Australia, and elsewhere.
After the recession, the unemployment rate went lower, and throughout 2015 and 2016, the rate stayed near the levels that preceded the economic downturn, staying at just above 6%. In 2020-2023 the unemployment rate moved around between 5.2% and 7.7%.
==Sectors==
Tallinn has emerged as the country's financial center. According to Invest in Estonia, advantages of Estonian financial sector are unbureaucratic cooperation between companies and authorities, and relative abundance of educated people although young educated Estonians tend to emigrate to western Europe for greater income. The largest banks are Swedbank, SEB Pank, and Nordea. Several IPOs have been made recently on the Tallinn Stock Exchange, a member OMX system.
The Estonian service sector employs over 60% of workforce. Estonia has a strong information technology (IT) sector, partly due to the Tiigrihüpe project undertaken in mid-1990s, and has been mentioned as the most "wired" and advanced country in Europe in the terms of e-government.
Farming, which had been forcibly collectivized for decades until the transition era of 1990–1992, has become privatized and more efficient, and the total farming area has increased in the period following Estonia's restoration of independence. The share of agriculture in the gross domestic product decreased from 15% to 3.3% during 1991–2000, while employment in agriculture decreased from 15% to 5.2%.
The mining industry makes up 1% of the GDP. Mined commodities include oil shale, peat, and industrial minerals, such as clays, limestone, sand and gravel. Soviets created badly polluting industry in the early 1950s, concentrated in the north-east of the country. Socialist economy and military areas left the country highly polluted, and mainly because of oil shale industry in Ida-Virumaa, sulfur dioxide emissions per person are almost as high as in the Czech Republic. The coastal seawater is polluted in certain locations, mainly the east. The government is looking for ways to reduce pollution further. In 2000, the emissions were 80% smaller than in 1980, and the amount of unpurified wastewater discharged to water bodies was 95% smaller than in 1980.
Estonian productivity is experiencing rapid growth, and consequently wages are also rising quickly, with a rise in private consumption of about 8% in 2005. According to Estonian Institute of Economic Research, the largest contributors to GDP growth in 2005 were processing industry, financial intermediation, retailing and wholesale trade, transport and communications.
===Agriculture===
Estonia produced in 2018:
450 thousand tons of wheat;
347 thousand tons of barley;
113 thousand tons of rapeseed;
88 thousand tons of potato;
78 thousand tons of oat;
53 thousand tons of pea;
29 thousand tons of rye;
In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.
===Largest companies by revenue===
===Largest companies by profit===
Estonia exports electrical equipment (14% of all exports annually), wood and wooden articles (11% of all exports annually), food and agricultural products (11% of all exports annually), mineral products (10% of all exports annually), and transport equipment (10% of all exports annually). Estonia imports electrical and transport equipment (26% of all imports annually, 13% each), mineral products (12% of all imports annually), food and agricultural products (11% of all imports annually), machinery and mechanical appliances (10% of all imports annually).
==Natural resources==
== Data ==
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1993–2018.
Gross domestic product per capita by county.
|
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] |
9,392 |
Telecommunications in Estonia
|
The National Telecommunications act in the second period of Estonian independence granted a monopoly on international and local fixed line telephony to Estonian Telecom (Eesti Telecom). In the process of privatization, a concession was granted to liberalize mobile, CATV and packet-switched telecommunications. This concession was critical for developing a competitive market. Three licensed mobile operators encouraged one of the highest rates of mobile telephony penetration in the world. CATV licenses were granted at a local level, and while it was a more natural monopoly, pirate operators proliferated within populous cities in the 1990s.
Internet penetration blossomed. Beginning with a satellite link and widespread undersea leased line connectivity, Estonia connected with the rest of the world. The concession for packet communications, perhaps against the constraint of limited international telephony competition (with the global exceptions of callback, transit and re-file arbitrage) -- created conditions in which Skype was natively created.
With a population of about 1.3 million, Estonia had in 2012 about 2.07 million cellular telephones and 0.45 million fixed phones. In 2009 it had about 0.97 million internet users.
== Digital Progress ==
Estonia is a nation with a digitally advanced economy. In 2023, about 93% of citizens engage with e-government services, highlighting a citizen-centric governance approach. Access to e-health records is available to 89% of Estonians. In the business realm, 51% of companies have adopted cloud services. Supporting this digital progress, approximately 10.1% of graduates are in Information and Communication Technology (ICT).
|
[
"e-health",
"Internet transit",
"cloud services",
"WP:SDNONE",
"re-file",
"Internet in Estonia",
"Information and communications technology",
"callback (telecommunications)",
"Skype",
"e-government"
] |
9,393 |
Transport in Estonia
|
Transport in Estonia relies mainly on road and rail networks.
== Roads ==
Total: 57,565 km (including 16,465 km of national roads)
Paved: 12,926 km (including 99 km of limited-access roads)
===National roads===
National roads form the core of Estonian road network. Their total length is 16,489 km (or 28% of all roads), 67% of them are paved. They are divided into 4 classes according to importance:
main roads (1,607 km)
basic roads (2,406 km)
secondary roads (12,476 km)
local roads (18,455 km)
===Electric vehicle network===
Estonia is the first country in the EU and in the world to introduce a nationwide, publicly serviced charging system for charging the batteries of electric vehicles. The 165 fast charging stations are equipped with connectors of the CHAdeMO standard. They are located throughout the entire country, including the islands, and have a maximum distance of 40–60 km in between. The charging stations can also be navigated via a smartphone app (currently only for Android). The relatively dense network and 30 minute quick charges are built to enable a country-wide electric vehicle network. The system offers a unitary booking service and several different tariffs, some of which appear attractively low priced. The charging station network puts Estonia at the forefront in Europe even though Norway actually has a higher penetration of electric vehicles. Estonia has a rate of 1 electric vehicle per 1,000 capita, whereas Norway has 4 EVs per 1,000 capita.
==Light rail==
There has been a growing tram network in Tallinn, Estonia since 1888, when traffic was started by horse-powered trams. The first line was electrified on October 28, 1925. The first electric trams were built by Dvigatel, Ltd., in Tallinn before World War II and for some years after that, the last one in 1954. In the 1920s and 1930s gas-powered trams were also used. Since 1955 to 1988 German-built trams were used. In total, there were 20 LOWA T54-B54 trams (in use from February 1955 to March 1977), 11 Gotha T57-B57 (in use from January 1958 to June 1978), 5 Gotha T59E-B59E (in use from June 1960 to February 1980), 14 Gotha T2-62 and B2-62 (in use from 1962 to 1981) and 50 Gotha G4 trams (in use from January 1965 to October 1988) trams. The first Czechoslovakian-built ČKD Tatra T4SU arrived in 1973. The T4SU trams were in use from May 1973 to September 2005 and there were 60 of them. The first KT4SU arrived in Tallinn in 1981 and was first in use on March 10, 1981. In 2007, there are 56 KT4SU, 12 KTNF6 (rebuilt KT4SUs, 10 local, one from Gera and one from Erfurt) and 23 KT4D (12 from Gera, 6 from Cottbus, 1 from Frankfurt (Oder) and 5 from Erfurt) in use. As of 2018, there are four lines: 1 (Kopli-Kadriorg), 2 (Kopli-Ülemiste), 3 (Tondi-Kadriorg) and 4 (Tondi-Lennujaam (Airport)). There have also been lines 5 (Kopli-Vana-Lõuna, shut down in 2004 because of small usage) and 6 (Kopli-Tondi, temporarily used in time of repairs).
== Ports and harbours ==
Estonia has 45 ports in the State Port Register. With a few exceptions, all of them are on the Baltic Sea.
Largest ports are Muuga (near Tallinn), Tallinn (comprises several ports), Paldiski, Kunda, Pärnu and Sillamäe.
== Merchant marine ==
Since 2014, there have been no vessels over 500gt on the Estonian register. About 60 merchant vessels are beneficially owned in Estonia, with most of them registered in Malta. The government has started a drive to bring more of these vessels back into the Estonian register.
== Airports ==
=== Airports – with paved runways ===
total: 13 (2013)
over 3,047 m: 2
2,438 to 3,047 m: 8
1,524 m to 2,437 m : 2
914 to 1,523 m: 1
Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport is the largest airport in Estonia.
== Pipelines ==
Natural gas 859 km (2007)
== Waterways ==
320 km perennially navigable
Currently operating water transport routes:
International:
Tallinn – Helsinki ferry and (seasonal) high-speed craft
Tallinn – Mariehamn (Åland) – Stockholm ferry
Paldiski – Kappelskär (Sweden) ferry
Tallinn – Visby (Gotland) (seasonal cruise) ferry
Domestic:
Western Estonia:
Rohuküla – Sviby (Vormsi Island) ferry
Rohuküla – Heltermaa (Hiiumaa Island) ferry
Sõru (Hiiumaa Island) – Triigi (Saaremaa Island) ferry
Virtsu – Kuivastu (Muhu Island) ferry
Pärnu – Kihnu Island boat-ferry
Munalaid – Kihnu Island boat-ferry
Munalaid – Manilaid Islet boat-ferry and boat
Roomassaare (Saaremaa Island) – Abruka Island boat-ferry and boat
Munalaid – Ruhnu Island (charter) ferry and (seasonal) high-speed craft-ferry
Pärnu – Ruhnu Island (seasonal) high-speed craft-ferry
Roomassaare (Saaremaa Island) – Ruhnu Island (seasonal) high-speed craft-ferry
Rohuküla – Hobulaid Islet (charter) boat
Northern Estonia:
Leppneeme – Prangli Island boat-ferry
Tallinn – Aegna Island (seasonal) boat
Tallinn – Naissaar Island (seasonal) boat
Dirhami – Osmussaar Island (seasonal) boat
Kurkse – Väike-Pakri Island (charter) boat
Lake Peipus and Emajõgi River:
Laaksaare – Piirissaar Island ferry
Kavastu (seasonal) cable ferry across Emajõgi River
|
[
"Ääsmäe",
"Manilaid",
"Norway",
"Lääne-Saare Parish",
"Kappelskär",
"Kavastu, Tartu County",
"Erfurt",
"Vana-Lõuna Street",
"Kopli",
"M/S Estonia",
"Sõmeru",
"Visby",
"Europe",
"Sviby",
"Piirissaar",
"Transport in Latvia",
"Keila",
"island",
"Ülemiste (subdistrict)",
"ČKD Tatra",
"Valga, Estonia",
"high-speed craft",
"Aegna",
"Ikla",
"Kihnu Veeteed",
"Germany",
"Triigi, Saare County",
"Abruka",
"Estonia",
"Saint Petersburg",
"limited-access road",
"Android (operating system)",
"Baltic Sea",
"Hobulaid",
"Estonian national road 1",
"Gotland",
"A3 road (Latvia)",
"Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport",
"Paldiski",
"Kadriorg",
"European Union",
"Kuressaare",
"Port of Muuga",
"Kihnu",
"Vormsi",
"Viljandi",
"Osmussaar",
"Risti, Estonia",
"Paide",
"Haapsalu",
"Stockholm",
"European route E265",
"electric vehicle network",
"Sillamäe",
"Åland",
"Helsinki",
"Kapellskär",
"Plug-in electric vehicles in Estonia",
"Tartu",
"Muhumaa",
"Riga",
"Frankfurt (Oder)",
"Prangli",
"Narva",
"battery (electricity)",
"Muhu",
"Võru",
"Kuivastu",
"Väike-Pakri",
"Cottbus",
"Emajõgi",
"Rakvere",
"Lao, Estonia",
"Pskov",
"CHAdeMO",
"A1 road (Latvia)",
"Ruhnu",
"Transport in Russia",
"Tallinn Airport",
"Estonian national road 7",
"Pärnu",
"Parapalu",
"Rohuküla",
"Kunda, Estonia",
"Naissaar",
"Dirhami",
"Gera",
"Heltermaa",
"Mariehamn",
"World War II",
"Luhamaa",
"mobile app",
"Misso",
"Leppneeme",
"Czechoslovakia",
"Tatra KTNF6",
"Tallinn",
"Virtsu",
"A180 highway (Russia)",
"Tondi, Tallinn",
"cable ferry",
"Jõhvi",
"Uulu",
"electric vehicle",
"Kurkse",
"Kilingi-Nõmme",
"Hiiumaa",
"Lake Peipus",
"Sweden",
"Sõru",
"International E-road network",
"WP:SDNONE",
"TS Laevad",
"Saaremaa",
"Tatra KT4",
"A2 road (Latvia)",
"smartphone"
] |
9,395 |
Foreign relations of Estonia
|
The Republic of Estonia gained its independence from the Russian Empire on 24 February 1918 and established diplomatic relations with many countries via membership of the League of Nations. The forcible incorporation of Estonia into the Soviet Union in 1940 was not generally recognised by the international community and the Estonian diplomatic service continued to operate in some countries. Following the restoration of independence from the Soviet Union, Russia was one of the first nations to re-recognize Estonia's independence (the first country to do so was Iceland on 22 August 1991). Estonia's immediate priority after regaining its independence was the withdrawal of Russian (formerly Soviet) forces from Estonian territory. In August 1994, this was completed. However, relations with Moscow have remained strained primarily because Russia decided not to ratify the border treaty it had signed with Estonia in 1999.
==Trends following re-independence==
Since regaining independence, Estonia has pursued a foreign policy of close cooperation with Western European nations. The two most important policy objectives in this regard have been accession into NATO and the European Union, achieved in March and May 2004 respectively. Estonia's international realignment toward the West has been accompanied by a general deterioration in relations with Russia, most recently demonstrated by the controversy surrounding relocation of the Bronze Soldier WWII memorial in Tallinn. Estonia has become an increasingly strong supporter of deepening European integration. The decision to participate in the preparation of a financial transaction tax in 2012 reflects this shift in Estonia's EU policy.
An important element in Estonia's post-independence reorientation has been closer ties with the Nordic countries, especially Finland and Sweden. Indeed, Estonians consider themselves a Nordic people due to being Finnic people like the Finns rather than Balts, based on their historical ties with Denmark and particularly Finland and Sweden. In December 1999 Estonian foreign minister (and since 2006, president of Estonia) Toomas Hendrik Ilves delivered a speech entitled "Estonia as a Nordic Country" to the Swedish Institute for International Affairs. In 2003, the foreign ministry also hosted an exhibit called "Estonia: Nordic with a Twist". And in 2005, Estonia joined the European Union's Nordic Battle Group. It has also shown continued interest in becoming a full member in the Nordic Council.
Whereas in 1992 Russia accounted for 92% of Estonia's international trade, today there is extensive economic interdependence between Estonia and its Nordic neighbors: three-quarters of foreign investment in Estonia originates in the Nordic countries (principally Finland and Sweden), to which Estonia sends 42% of its exports (as compared to 6.5% going to Russia, 8.8% to Latvia, and 4.7% to Lithuania). On the other hand, the Estonian political system, its flat rate of income tax, and its non-welfare-state model distinguish it from the other Nordic states, and indeed from many other European countries.
Estonia is a party to 181 international organizations, including the BIS, CBSS, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (member since 1 May 2004), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, ITUC, NATO, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNTSO, UPU, WCO, WEU (associate partner), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO.
==International disputes==
===Territorial issues between Estonia and Russia===
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union Estonia had hoped for the return of more than 2,000 square kilometers of territory annexed to Russia after World War II in 1945. The annexed land had been within the borders Estonia approved by Russia in the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty. However, the Boris Yeltsin government disavowed any responsibility for acts committed by the Soviet Union.
After signing the border treaty by the corresponding foreign minister in 2005, it was ratified by the Estonian government and president. The Russian side interpreted the preamble as giving Estonia a possibility for future territorial claim, and Vladimir Putin notified Estonia that Russia will not consider these. Negotiations were reopened in 2012 and the Treaty was signed in February 2014. Ratification is still pending.
== Diplomatic relations ==
List of countries which Estonia maintains diplomatic relations with:
==Bilateral relations==
===Multilateral===
===Africa===
===Americas===
===Asia===
===Europe===
===Oceania===
|
[
"Trondheim",
"Athens",
"International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement",
"International Finance Corporation",
"International Hydrographic Organization",
"Kuala Lumpur",
"Pope John Paul II",
"Elektrooniline Riigi Teataja",
"Estonia–Lithuania relations",
"International Organization for Migration",
"Eesti Ekspress",
"Washington, D.C.",
"Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe",
"Accession of Turkey to the European Union",
"Swedish Institute for International Affairs",
"Warsaw",
"Madrid",
"Singapore",
"Member State of the European Union",
"Estonia–Greece relations",
"International Civil Aviation Organization",
"Joint Expeditionary Force",
"Denmark",
"San Francisco",
"Visby",
"United Nations Truce Supervision Organization",
"Russian Empire",
"Estonia–Spain relations",
"Toulouse",
"Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs",
"George W. Bush",
"Prague",
"Malmö",
"United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo",
"Moscow",
"Budapest",
"Nordic countries",
"Estonia–Russia relations",
"Lille",
"Estonia–Syria relations",
"New York City",
"Sofia",
"Poznań",
"World Trade Organization",
"Estonia–Mexico relations",
"Nordic Battle Group",
"Astana",
"Soviet Union",
"Ulaanbaatar",
"foreign direct investment",
"Embassy of Ukraine, Tallinn",
"Beijing",
"Chile–Estonia relations",
"League of Nations",
"Baltic region",
"José Donoso",
"Canberra",
"Tampico",
"2004 enlargement of the European Union",
"Accession of Ukraine to the European Union",
"Tromsø (city)",
"Szczecin",
"Bulgaria–Estonia relations",
"World Intellectual Property Organization",
"Estonia",
"Union for the Mediterranean",
"NATO",
"Accession of North Macedonia to the European Union",
"UNESCO",
"dissolution of the Soviet Union",
"Partnership for Peace",
"Prime Minister of Estonia",
"Estonia–Hungary relations",
"Axios (website)",
"Estonia–Slovakia relations",
"Cairo",
"List of diplomatic missions in Estonia",
"Euromediterranean Partnership",
"Reykjavík",
"Tel Aviv",
"Estonia–India relations",
"Saint Petersburg",
"Kyiv",
"Estonia–Finland relations",
"The Hague",
"Estonia–Latvia relations",
"Bucharest",
"foreign trade",
"OECD",
"Estonia–Taiwan relations",
"Valletta",
"Soviet coup attempt",
"Estonia–United Kingdom relations",
"International Labour Organization",
"Abu Dhabi",
"Council of Europe",
"European Union",
"International Atomic Energy Agency",
"Oulu",
"Lyon",
"Government of Estonia",
"Republic of Korea",
"Karlskrona",
"Estonia–Germany relations",
"Estonia–Ukraine relations",
"Eskilstuna",
"Visa requirements for Estonian citizens",
"Estonia–New Zealand relations",
"Copenhagen",
"The Finnish Institute of International Affairs",
"International Maritime Organization",
"Ankara",
"Accession of Montenegro to the European Union",
"Western European Union",
"World Meteorological Organization",
"International Telecommunication Union",
"Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs",
"Foreign relations of the United Kingdom",
"Stockholm",
"European Court of Human Rights",
"president of Estonia",
"Nancy, France",
"Accession of Serbia to the European Union",
"IOC",
"Arnold Rüütel",
"financial transaction tax",
"Balts",
"Helsinki",
"Dublin",
"Andrus Ansip",
"Tartu",
"Estonia–Moldova relations",
"Armenia–Estonia relations",
"Armenian diaspora",
"Riga",
"Estonia–United States relations",
"Narva",
"Siam",
"Õhtuleht",
"Estonia–Italy relations",
"United Nations Conference on Trade and Development",
"List of envoys of Estonia",
"Republic of Estonia",
"flat tax",
"World Health Organization",
"International Bank for Reconstruction and Development",
"Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)",
"Turku",
"Pskov",
"Brussels",
"Luxembourg City",
"Estonia–Sweden relations",
"Accession of Moldova to the European Union",
"Australian Census",
"Isabel Allende",
"Food and Agriculture Organization",
"2007 Africa-EU Summit",
"2020 Hong Kong national security law",
"Ottawa",
"Tbilisi",
"Australia–Estonia relations",
"Belarus-Estonia relations",
"Denmark–Estonia relations",
"International Organization for Standardization",
"Boris Yeltsin",
"London",
"Berlin",
"Santiago",
"Accession of Georgia to the European Union",
"United Nations",
"International Trade Union Confederation",
"Seoul",
"Mariehamn",
"World War II",
"Baku",
"Chişinău",
"Gothenburg",
"International Criminal Court",
"Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council",
"Council of the Baltic Sea States",
"Yerevan",
"European Bank for Reconstruction and Development",
"Iceland",
"International reaction to the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence",
"Kraków",
"Dagens Nyheter",
"Russia",
"International Monetary Fund",
"Minsk",
"United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina",
"Tallinn",
"Baltic Finns",
"Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic",
"Addis Ababa",
"Azerbaijan-Estonia relations",
"Interpol (organization)",
"Estonia–Sri Lanka relations",
"Estonian diplomatic service",
"Member state of the European Union",
"Vaasa",
"Kotka",
"Pablo Neruda",
"Ahmed Nazif",
"Oslo",
"Lisbon",
"Bronze Soldier",
"Taipei Mission in the Republic of Latvia",
"United Nations Economic Commission for Europe",
"South America",
"gov.uk",
"North Atlantic Treaty Organization",
"Finland",
"Prime Minister of Egypt",
"Estonia–Poland relations",
"Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons",
"Nordic Council",
"Bank for International Settlements",
"Estonian World",
"List of diplomatic missions of Estonia",
"Embassy of Estonia, London",
"Barcelona",
"Estonia–Turkey relations",
"Sweden",
"List of ambassadors to Estonia",
"Paris",
"Stavanger",
"WP:SDNONE",
"Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Estonia)",
"Universal Postal Union",
"Tampere",
"Toomas Hendrik Ilves",
"French Institute of Estonia",
"Mexico City",
"Tokyo",
"Estonia–Kosovo relations",
"Vladimir Putin",
"Rome",
"New Delhi",
"Vienna",
"World Customs Organization"
] |
9,400 |
Demographics of Ethiopia
|
The demographics of Ethiopia encompass the demographic features of inhabitants in Ethiopia, including ethnicity, languages, population density, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The Official Ethiopian Statistics Services put Ethiopian Population 2024 at. 109 Million around 20 Million less than UN Numbers.
==Population==
Source: Central Statistical Agency (CSA)
Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world. Its total population has grown from 38.1 million in 1983 to 109.5 million in 2018. The population was only about nine million in the 19th century. The 2007 Population and Housing Census results show that the population of Ethiopia grew at an average annual rate of 2.6% between 1994 and 2007, down from 2.8% during the period 1983–1994. As of 2015, the population growth rate is among the top ten countries in the world. According to UN estimations, life expectancy in Ethiopia had improved over time, with male life expectancy reported to be 56 years and for women 60 years.
===UN estimates===
According to , the total population was in , compared to 18,434,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 41.5%, 55.8% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.3% was 65 years or older. The average age was 25.1.
===UN projections===
Below are the UN's medium variant projections:
CBR = crude birth rate (per 1,000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1,000); NC = natural change (per 1,000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1,000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1,000 births
Source: UN World Population Prospects
===Census data on fertility===
As per 2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia
===Demographic and Health Surveys===
Crude Birth Rate (CBR), Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Wanted Fertility Rate (WFR):
Fertility data as of 2016 (DHS Program):
==Ethnic groups==
Ethiopia's population is highly diverse, containing over 80 different ethnic groups, the four largest of which are the Oromo, Amhara, Somali and Tigrayans. According to the Ethiopian national census of 2007, the Oromo are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, at 34.4% of the nation's population. The Amhara represent 27.0% of the country's inhabitants, while Somalis and Tigrayans represent 6.2% and 6.1% of the population respectively. Other prominent ethnic groups are as follows: Sidama 4.0%, Gurage 2.5%, Welayta 2.3%, Afar 1.7%, Hadiya 1.7%, Gamo 1.5% and Others 12.6%. Additionally, Nilo-Saharan-speaking ethnic minorities inhabit the southern regions of the country, particularly in areas of the Gambela Region which borders South Sudan. The largest ethnic groups among these include the Nuer and Anuak. The Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region, being an amalgam of the main homelands of numerous ethnicities, contains over 56 indigenous ethnic groups.
==Languages==
According to the bibliographic database Glottolog, there are 109 languages spoken in Ethiopia; meanwhile, Ethnologue lists 90 individual languages spoken in the country. Most people in the country speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches, including the Oromo language, Somali, Amharic, and Tigrinya. Together, these four groups make up about three-quarters of Ethiopia's population. Other Afroasiatic languages with a significant number of speakers include the Cushitic Sidamo, Afar, Hadiyya and Agaw languages, as well as the Semitic Gurage languages, Harari, Silt'e, and Argobba languages. Arabic, which also belongs to the Afroasiatic family, is likewise spoken in some areas.
The principal Semitic language of the north-west and centre of the country is Amharic, which is the language of the Amhara Region. Moreover, Amharic is also one of the official working languages of Ethiopia.
Oromo serves as one of the official working languages of Ethiopia Harar and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region.
==Religion==
Various religions are adhered to in Ethiopia. Most Christians live in the highlands, whereas Muslims mainly inhabit the lowlands. Adherents of traditional faiths are primarily concentrated in the southern regions.
According to the Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency (2007 census), the national religious composition is Ethiopian Orthodox 43.5%, Protestantism 18.6%, Roman Catholicism 0.7%, Islam 33.9%, traditional 2.6%, and others 0.6%.
|
[
"Afar people",
"Argobba language",
"Protestantism in Ethiopia",
"Oromo language",
"Gurage people",
"Silt'e language",
"Habesha peoples",
"Semitic languages",
"population pyramid",
"Islam in Ethiopia",
"Ethiopians",
"Anuak people",
"Ethnologue",
"Glottolog",
"Gamo people",
"Islam",
"Sidama people",
"Agaw languages",
"Nilo-Saharan languages",
"Somalis",
"Time Europe",
"Harar",
"fertility rate",
"Protestant",
"Traditional African religions",
"Languages of Ethiopia",
"Welayta people",
"Afroasiatic languages",
"Sidamo language",
"Ethiopian highlands",
"Central Statistical Agency (Ethiopia)",
"Amhara people",
"List of countries by population growth rate",
"List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia",
"lowland",
"Roman Catholicism in Ethiopia",
"Christianity in Ethiopia",
"Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region",
"Amhara Region",
"Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church",
"Tigrinya language",
"CIA",
"Hadiya people",
"Gambela Region",
"Ethiopia",
"Oromo people",
"Dire Dawa",
"Oromia Zone",
"Religion in Ethiopia",
"Ethiopian Orthodox",
"Habesha people",
"Harari language",
"Hadiyya language",
"Tigrayans",
"Amharic",
"Roman Catholic",
"Cushitic languages",
"Somali language",
"Urbanization in Ethiopia",
"net reproduction rate",
"Nuer people",
"Gurage languages",
"South Sudan",
"Afar language",
"Arabic"
] |
9,401 |
Politics of Ethiopia
|
The politics of Ethiopia are the activities associated with the governance of Ethiopia. The government is structured as a federal parliamentary republic with both a President and Prime Minister. The legislature is multicameral, with a house of representatives and a council. The term politics of Ethiopia mainly relates to the political activities in Ethiopia after the late 20th century when democratization took place in the nation. The current political structure of Ethiopia was formed after the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF) overthrew dictator President Mengistu Haile Mariam in 1991. A general election was held in June 1994 and Ethiopia has maintained a multiparty political environment until today.
==Government of Ethiopia==
The government of Ethiopia is structured in the form of a federal parliamentary republic, whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the Parliament. The Judiciary is more or less independent of the executive and the legislature. There are 12 ethnically based administrative regions and two self-governing administrations; the capital city Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa.
The president of Ethiopia is elected by the House of Peoples' Representatives for a six-year term. The prime minister is chosen by the parliament. The prime minister is designated by the party in power following legislative elections. The Council of Ministers, according to the 1995 constitution, is comprised by the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime Ministers, various Ministers and other members as determined and approved by the House of Peoples' Representatives. At the current time, this includes the 20 members of Council of Ministers.
The Federal Parliamentary Assembly has two chambers: the House of Peoples' Representatives (Yehizbtewekayoch Mekir Bet) with 547 members, elected for five-year terms in single-seat constituencies; and the Council of the Federation (Yefedereshn Mekir Bet) with 110 members, one for each nationality, and one additional representative for each one million of its population, designated by the regional councils, which may elect them themselves or through popular elections.
The president and vice president of the Federal Supreme Court are recommended by the prime minister and appointed by the House of Peoples' Representatives; for other federal judges, the prime minister submits candidates selected by the Federal Judicial Administrative Council to the People's Representatives for appointment.
==Recent history==
In May 1991, a coalition of rebel forces under the name Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF) overthrew the dictatorship of President Mengistu Haile Mariam. In July 1991, the TPLF, the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), the Ogaden National Liberation Front, Western Somali Liberation Front, Oromo People's Democratic Organization (OPDO), Amhara National Democratic Movement (ANDM) and others established the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE), which consisted of an 87-member Council of Representatives guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution. Since 1991, Ethiopia has established warm relations with the United States and western Europe and has sought substantial economic aid from Western countries and the World Bank.
In June 1992, the OLF withdrew from the government; in March 1993, members of the Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition left the government. The Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), an ally in the fight against the Mengistu regime, assumed control of Eritrea and established a provisional government. Eritrea achieved full independence on May 24, 1993.
President Meles Zenawi and members of the TGE pledged to oversee the formation of a multi-party democracy. The first election for Ethiopia's 547-member constituent assembly was held in June 1994. This assembly adopted the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in December 1994. The elections for Ethiopia's first popularly chosen national parliament and regional legislatures were held in May and June 1995. Most opposition parties chose to boycott these elections. There was a landslide victory for the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). International and non-governmental observers concluded that opposition parties would have been able to participate had they chosen to do so.
The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was installed in August 1995. The first President was Negasso Gidada. The EPRDF-led government of Prime Minister Meles promoted a policy of ethnic federalism, seemingly devolving significant powers to regional, ethnically based authorities. Ethiopia today has nine semi-autonomous Regions of Ethiopia that have the power to raise and spend their own revenues.
In 2004, the government began a resettlement initiative to move more than two million people away from the arid highlands of the east, proposing that these resettlements would reduce food shortages.
The ruling party, EPRDF was declared a winner by the election board in 2000, and then again in 2005 amidst protests and riots that led to the death of many Ethiopians. Hundreds of political leaders–some of whom were elected to parliamentary positions– were arrested in connection with these protests. The incumbent president in 2013 was Mulatu Teshome who resigned in 2018.
Human rights organisations have raised concerns over the well-being of some of these prisoners. However 8,000 prisoners have already been freed.
On 5 August 2016, protests broke out across the country and dozens of protesters were shot and killed by police over the following days. The protesters demanded an end to human rights abuses, the act of land grabbing by the ruling party members and relatives of the higher officials, the master plan intended to expand Addis Ababa onto surrounding zones of the Oromia region including the farm land of oromo people (special zones of oromia around Addis Ababa), the release of political prisoners, a fairer redistribution of the wealth generated by over a decade of economic growth, and a return of Wolqayt District to the Amhara Region. The events were the most violent crackdown against protesters in Sub-Saharan Africa since the Ethiopian regime killed at least 75 people during protests in the Oromia Region in November and December 2015.
In the wake of significant unrest, the TPLF lost control of the EPDRF, with Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn, announcing his resignation as head of the EPDRF in 2018. Abiy Ahmed, who had become Prime Minister after winning the EPDRF leadership elections in April 2018 subsequently dissolved the EPDRF. He replaced it with the Prosperity Party, a coalition which includes all former members of the EPDRF but notably excluded the TPLF. This kickstarted a period of growing tension between the government and the TPLF, which culminated in the Tigray War that began in 2020.
==Political parties and elections==
In the 2015 general election, Opposition parties lost the only seat which they still held in the House of Peoples' Representatives. The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front and its allies won all 547 seats.
Political pressure groups include the Council of Alternative Forces for Peace and Democracy in Ethiopia (CAFPDE) Beyene Petros and the Southern Ethiopia People's Democratic Coalition (SEPDC) [Beyene Petros].
The coalition of opposition parties and some individuals that was established in 2009 to oust at the general election in 2010 the regime of the TPLF, Meles Zenawi's party that has been in power since 1991, published a 65-page manifesto in Addis Ababa on October 10, 2009.
Some of the eight-member parties of this Ethiopian Forum for Democratic Dialogue (FDD or Medrek in Amharic) include the Oromo Federalist Congress (organized by the Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement and the Oromo People's Congress), the Arena Tigray (organized by former members of the ruling party TPLF), the Unity for Democracy and Justice (UDJ, whose leader was imprisoned), and the Coalition of Somali Democratic Forces.
===2005 Ethiopian general elections===
Ethiopia held its third general election in May 2005, which drew a record number of voters, with 90% of the electorate turning out to cast their vote. While the election was deemed by the European Union election observer team to fall short of international standards for fair and free elections, other teams drew different conclusions. The African Union report on September 14 commended "the Ethiopian people's display of genuine commitment to democratic ideals"; on September 15, the US Carter Center concluded that "the majority of the constituency results based on the May 15 polling and tabulation are credible and reflect competitive conditions". Even the EU preliminary statement of 2005 also said "...the polling processes were generally positive. The overall assessment of the process has been rated as good in 64% of the cases, and very good in 24%". The ruling party complained that the main opposition party CUD's AEUP sub party had engaged in intimidation. All allegations were investigated by the National Electoral Board of Ethiopia in cooperation with election monitors, a process which delayed the release of the final results. In June 2005, with the results of the election still unclear, a group of university students protested these alleged discrepancies, encouraged by supporters of the Coalition for Unity opposition party, despite a ban on protests imposed by the government. On June 8, 26 people were killed in Addis Ababa as a result of rioting, which led to the arrest of hundreds of protesters. On September 5, 2005, the National Elections Board of Ethiopia released the final election results, which confirmed that the ruling Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front retained its control of the government, but showed that opposition parties had increased their share of parliamentary seats, from 12 to 176. The Coalition for Unity and Democracy won all the seats in Addis Ababa, both for the Parliament and the City Council.
In February 2006, UK Prime Minister Blair, acknowledging that the EPRDF has won the election, said he wanted to see Ethiopia resolve its internal problems and continue on a democratic path.
With Ethiopia's national election in May 2010 approaching, some opposition groups begun to hint a boycott, accusing the government of stepping up harassment against them. Despite growing claims of "harassment" and "undemocratic actions" perpetrated by the ruling party, the Forum for Democratic Dialogue (FDD), Ethiopia's biggest alliance of opposition political parties declared in October 2009 that it will contest in the scheduled election.
Gebru Asrat, a former ally of PM Meles Zenawi, said that his party's primary efforts were "to engage in negotiation with the government on key election issues" ahead of the election, but he added that the government was reluctant.
FDD insists to engage in a pre-election negotiation on 10 key subjects, among which the issues of access to the media for campaigning, the supremacy of law, the free access of international observers, the establishment of an independent electoral board and a stop to harassment and pressure on opposition members.
===2010 Ethiopian general elections===
The EPRDF won the 2010 elections by a landslide, taking 499 seats, while allied parties took a further 35. Oppositions parties took just two. Both opposition groups say their observers were blocked from entering polling stations during the election on Sunday, May 23, and in some cases the individuals were beaten. The United States and the European Union have both criticized the election as falling short of international standards. Additionally, the EPRDF won all but one of 1,904 council seats in regional elections.
==International organization participation==
ACP, AfDB, ECA, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, United Nations, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO.
Scheye wrote in 2010 that significant donor resources are being invested in security sector reform in Ethiopia because of donor national interest, even though the country's ruling group is ideologically opposed to the core principles of SSR, and showed, at that time, little interest in justice and security sector development.
The Guardian wrote just before the 2015 elections that "..the EPRDF's relations with donors are a crucial factor in maintaining its position. Ethiopia remains structurally dependent on aid, with the country receiving more than $3 billion a year from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. However, all indications are that external support will remain strong, regardless of electoral openness. Ethiopia is a key partner for countries concerned about security in the region, especially the US, UK and the European Union."
==Royalists and government in exile==
A group of Ethiopian royalists continue to operate The Crown Council of Ethiopia as a government in exile.
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9,402 |
Economy of Ethiopia
|
The economy of Ethiopia is a mixed and transition economy with a large public sector. The government of Ethiopia is in the process of privatizing many of the state-owned businesses and moving toward a market economy. The banking, telecommunication and transportation sectors of the economy are dominated by government-owned companies.
Ethiopia has one of the fastest-growing economies in the world and is Africa's second most populous country. Many properties owned by the government during the previous regime have now been privatized or are in the process of privatization and the liberalization of its financial sector in the near future. However, certain sectors such as telecommunications, financial and insurance services, air and land transportation services, and retail, are considered to be strategic sectors and are expected to remain under state control for the foreseeable future.
Almost 50% of Ethiopia's population is under the age of 18. Even though education enrollment at primary and tertiary level has increased significantly, job creation has not caught up with the increased number of secondary and postsecondary educational graduates. The country must create hundreds of thousands of jobs every year just to keep up with population growth.
In 2023, Ethiopia reached an estimated GDP of 156.1 billion nominal dollars and an estimated PPP of 393.85 billion dollars. This mostly comes from a services-based economy with agriculture. In the latest data from 2019 Ethiopia's top trading partners globally included China, the United States, UAE, France, the United Kingdom, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Germany, Japan, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Turkey, India, and Egypt. In 2021, agriculture made up 37.5% of the country's economic output, while services 36.25% and industry made up 21.85% of the economy. Ethiopia's economy is ranked 159th place out of 190 countries in 'Ease of doing business'. Ethiopia is also a part of African Continental Free Trade Area, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, Intergovernmental Authority on Development, and the G24, and has observer status at the World Trade Organization. Ethiopia joined the BRICS economic alliance in January 2024.
While Ethiopia does not currently have a stock exchange, it did have one in the past during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I, called an 'ākisīyoni gebeya.' It now has a commodity exchange in Addis Ababa called the Ethiopia Commodity Exchange, established in 2008.
The Ethiopian economy has a large foreign debt, with an overall external debt of 28 billion US dollars. China owns over 13 billion dollars of its debt. Its debt to GDP ratio is smaller than similar and neighboring countries. Ethiopia currently has 2.4 billion dollars of foreign reserves, representing a decline compared to previous years.
Ethiopia expects to reach a national middle-income status by 2025. Despite this, based on the most recent data from 2019, 68.7% of the population continues to be affected by multidimensional poverty and an additional 18.4% vulnerable to it.
== History ==
Ethiopia's resources have enabled the country—unlike most sub-Saharan African countries—to maintain contacts with the outside world for centuries. Since ancient times, Ethiopian traders exchanged gold, ivory, musk, and wild animal skins for salt and luxury goods, such as silk and velvet. While the process is still ongoing, the reforms have attracted foreign direct investment.
In 2015, Ethiopia has 2,700 millionaires, a number that has more than doubled since 2007. Their fortunes are mainly built-in niches of economic rents (banks, mines, etc.) without investing in structural and strategic sectors (industrial production, infrastructure, etc.) and should in no way promote economic development or represent a source of competition for Western multinationals.
The Ethiopian government is stepping up its efforts to attract foreign investors, particularly in the textile sector. They can now import their machines without customs duties, benefit from a tax exemption for ten years, pay rents much lower than market prices, and use very inexpensive water and electricity. Major brands have established themselves in the country, such as Decathlon, H&M, and Huajian. These companies also benefit from a cheap labor force, with a monthly salary of around 35 euros. Finally, trade agreements between Ethiopia and the European Union allow them to export duty-free.
==Sectors==
=== Agriculture, forestry and fishing ===
, agriculture accounts for almost 40.5% of GDP, 81 percent of exports, and 85 percent of the labour force. Many other economic activities depend on agriculture, including marketing, processing, and export of agricultural products. Production is overwhelmingly of a subsistence nature, and a large part of commodity exports are provided by the small agricultural cash-crop sector. Principal crops include coffee, pulses (e.g., beans), oilseeds, cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, and vegetables. Exports are almost entirely agricultural commodities, with coffee as the largest foreign exchange earner, and its flower industry becoming a new source of revenue: for 2005/2006 (the latest year available) Ethiopia's coffee exports represented 0.9% of the world exports, and oilseeds and flowers each representing 0.5%. Ethiopia is Africa's second biggest maize producer. In 2000, Ethiopia's livestock contributed to 19% of total GDP.
, some countries that import most of their food, such as Saudi Arabia, have begun planning the purchase and development of large tracts of arable land in developing countries such as Ethiopia. This land grabbing has raised fears of food being exported to more prosperous countries while the local population faces its own shortage.
Ethiopia's fisheries are entirely fresh water, as it has no marine coastline. Although total production has been continuously increasing since 2007, the fishing industry is a very small part of the economy. Fishing is predominantly artisanal. In 2014, nearly 45,000 fishermen were employed in the sector with only 30% of them employed full-time.
In 2018, Ethiopia produced the following goods:
7.3 million tons of maize (17th largest producer in the world)
4.9 million tons of sorghum (4th largest producer in the world)
4.2 million tons of wheat
2.1 million tons of barley (17th largest producer in the world)
1.8 million tons of sweet potato (5th largest producer in the world)
1.4 million tons of sugar cane
1.3 million tons of yam (5th largest producer in the world)
988 thousand tons of broad bean
982 thousand tons of millet
743 thousand tons of potato
599 thousand tons of vegetable
515 thousand tons of chick pea (6th largest producer in the world)
508 thousand tons of banana
470 thousand tons of coffee (6th largest producer in the world)
446 thousand tons of cabbage
374 thousand tons of pea (20th largest producer in the world)
322 thousand tons of onion
301 thousand tons of sesame seed (7th largest producer in the world)
294 thousand tons of bell pepper
172 thousand tons of lentil (11th largest producer in the world)
144 thousand tons of rice
143 thousand tons of peanut
140 thousand tons of cotton
124 thousand tons of garlic
102 thousand tons of mango (including mangosteen and guava)
101 thousand tons of linseed (7th largest producer in the world)
=== Textile industry ===
Employees of Ethiopian garment factories, who work for brands such as Guess, H&M or Calvin Klein, receive a monthly salary of 26 dollars per month. These very low wages have led to low productivity, frequent strikes and high turnover. Some factories have replaced all their employees on average every 12 months, according to a 2019 report of the Stern Centre for Business and Human Rights at New York University.
===Minerals and mining===
===Energy===
Waterpower and forests are Ethiopia's main energy sources. The country derives about 90 percent of its electricity needs from hydropower, which means that electricity generation, as with agriculture, is dependent on abundant rainfall. Present installed capacity is rated at about 2000 megawatts, with planned expansion to 10,000 megawatts. In general, Ethiopians rely on forests for nearly all of their energy and construction needs; the result has been deforestation of much of the highlands during the last three decades.
Less than one-half of Ethiopia's towns and cities are connected to the national grid. Petroleum requirements are met via imports of refined products, although some oil is being hauled overland from Sudan. Oil exploration in Ethiopia has been underway for decades, ever since Emperor Haile Selassie I granted a 50-year concession to SOCONY-Vacuum in September 1945.
Recent oil and gas discoveries across East Africa have seen the region emerge as a new player in the global oil and gas industry. As exciting as the huge gas fields of East Africa are, however, the strong decline in oil prices and expectations for an L-shaped recovery with low prices over the coming years are increasingly challenging the economic viability of the industry in this region. The reserves are estimated at , while exploration for gas and oil is underway in the Gambela Region bordering South Sudan. According to BMI estimates, the findings in the last few years are more than that of any other region in the world, and the discoveries are expected to continue for the next few years. However, falling global oil prices are threatening the commercial viability of many of these gas prospects.
===Manufacturing===
A program to privatize state-owned enterprises has been underway since the late 1990s. There has been a large growth of manufacturing in Ethiopia. Several industrial parks have been built with a focus on textiles.
===Transport===
Prior to the outbreak of the 1998–2000 Eritrean–Ethiopian War, landlocked Ethiopia mainly relied on the seaports of Asseb and Massawa in Eritrea for international trade.
, Ethiopia uses the ports of Djibouti, connected to Addis Ababa by the Addis Ababa – Djibouti Railway, and to a lesser extent Port Sudan in Sudan. In May 2005, the Ethiopian government began negotiations to use the port of Berbera in Somaliland.
By 2030, the government expects a $74 billion investment in transportation.
==== Road ====
As of 2016, there are all-weather roads.
==== Air ====
Ethiopian Airlines is Africa's largest and most profitable airline. It serves 132 destinations with a fleet of 141 aircraft.
==== Rail ====
The Ethiopian railway network has been rapidly expanding. In 2015, the first light rail in Africa was opening in Addis Ababa. In 2017, the electric Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway began operations. Presently, two other electric railways are under construction: Awash-Woldiya and Woldiya-Mekelle.
===Telecommunications and technology===
Telecommunications were historically provided by a state-owned monopoly, Ethio Telecom, formerly the Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation. However, on October, 2022, Safaricom Telecommunications Ethiopia launched its telecommunications services, becoming the first private operator in the country.
In 2020, ministers set out a national transformation strategy called Digital Ethiopia 2025. Its aim is to prepare the country for the development of an economy based on digital technology.
===Tourism===
The services sector consists almost entirely of tourism, with additional economic opportunity in wholesale and retail trade, transportation, and communications. Developed in the 1960s, tourism declined greatly during the late 1970s and the 1980s under the military government. Recovery began in the 1990s, but growth has been constrained by the lack of suitable hotels and other infrastructure, the impact of drought, the 1998–2000 war with Eritrea, and the specter of terrorism. In 2002 more than 156,000 tourists entered the country, many of them Ethiopians visiting from abroad, spending more than US$77 million. A decade later, in 2019, Ethiopia registered a record of 812,000 tourists visiting the country, bringing a revenue of $3.55 bn (4.2 percent of the gross national product).
==Macroeconomic trends==
The following table displays the trend of Ethiopia's gross domestic product at market prices, according to estimates by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Ethiopian Birr.
The current GDP (USD) per capita of Ethiopia shrank by 43% in the 1990s. The economy saw continuous real GDP growth of at least 5% since 2004.
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2023. Inflation below 5% is in green.
Ethiopia's economy experienced strong, broad-based growth averaging 9.4% a year from 2010/11 to 2019/20. Ethiopia's real gross domestic product (GDP) growth slowed down to 6.1% in 2019/20 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Industry, mainly construction, and services accounted for most of the growth. Agriculture was not affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and its contribution to growth slightly improved in 2019/20 compared to the previous year. Private consumption and public investment explain demand-side growth, the latter assuming an increasingly important role. Coffee is critical to the Ethiopian economy. More than 15 million people (25% of the population) derive their livelihood from the coffee sector.
Other exports include live animals, leather and leather products, chemicals, gold, pulses, oilseeds, flowers, fruits and vegetables and khat (or qat), a leafy shrub which has psychotropic qualities when chewed. Cross-border trade by pastoralists is often informal and beyond state control and regulation. In East Africa, over 95% of cross-border trade is through unofficial channels and the unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep and goats from Ethiopia sold to Somalia, Kenya and Djibouti generates an estimated total value of between US$250 and US$300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure). This trade helps lower food prices, increase food security, relieve border tensions and promote regional integration.
Ethiopia has already begun exporting electricity to Kenya, South Sudan and Djibouti. Earning from this has generated US$300 million annually. After the completion of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) total generation of exports to neighboring countries is expected to bring in US$1 billion annually to the economy.
The dam, which was completed in 2023, is the largest hydroelectric power plant in Africa as well as among the 20 largest in the world.
===Trade statistics===
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9,403 |
Telecommunications in Ethiopia
|
Telecommunications in Ethiopia is a monopoly in the control of Ethio telecom, formerly the Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation (ETC). As of 2012, 20.524 million cellular phones and 797,500 main line phones were in use.
==Overview==
The telephone system in Ethiopia consists of open wire and microwave radio relay systems adequate for government use. Domestic systems are open wire; microwave radio relay; radio communication in the high frequency, very high frequency, and ultra high frequency; two domestic satellites provide the national trunk service. International systems are open wire to Djibouti and Sudan; microwave radio relay to Djibouti and Kenya; and satellite earth stations are 3 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean). The internet domain in Ethiopia is .et.
==History==
The first telegraph line in Ethiopia was constructed in the years 1897–1899 between the cities of Harar and the capital Addis Ababa. This was extended in 1904 by a line that ran from Addis Ababa through Tigray into Eritrea and to Massawa; and the next year by a line again from Addis Ababa to Gore in the province of Illubabor and Jimma in Kaffa.
The first telephones were brought by Ras Makonnen from Italy in 1890, and connected between the Palace and the Imperial treasury; the sound of disembodied voices frightened the local priests, who thought it was the work of demons. The Emperor Menelik II responded to their protests with disdain, and later used the telephone to give orders to his provincial governors. Emperor Haile Selassie had begun the process of introducing radio transmitters to the country for civilian and military use in the years before the Italian invasion.
==Current status==
According to the ETC, the average rural inhabitant of Ethiopia has to walk 30 kilometers to the nearest phone. The ETC announced 7 September 2006 a program to improve national coverage, and reduce the average distance to 5 kilometers.
Since 2008 CDMA2000 and WCDMA is available in certain areas.
Since 26 September 2017 until end of 2018 it was not possible to buy and use Ethio telecom SIM cards in mobile devices that have not been purchased in Ethiopia or registered with the authorities. Local advice suggests travellers should register their phone in the customs arrival hall at Bole Airport on arrival if they intend to use a local SIM card. For travellers, local prepaid SIMs are available at small shops, Ethio telecom kiosks and hotels. Satellite phones may require letter of permission from the ETC prior to bringing such phones through customs.
Use of voice over IP services such as Skype and Google Talk was prohibited by telecommunications legislation in 2002. Personal use of these services was legalised by the Proclamation on Telecom Fraud Offences of 2012.
Since the changes and upgrade of equipment in the mid-2000 the telecommunication network is frequently out of work or overloaded, callers using both the landlines and mobile network are unable to connect, the situation is made worse by inclement weather. The ETC has not addressed this issue publicly nor admitted that the coverage and service is below par.
Ethio telecom has launched the Fourth Generation (4G) Long-Term Evolution (LTE) service on 21 March 2015 in line with the help of the Chinese company HUAWEI.
Ethio telecom Corporate Compunction Officer, Abdurahim Mohammed, stated that the rural telecom access within 5 km radius service has currently reached 96 per cent. As part of the efforts to expand its service and improve network quality, Ethio telecom had built 725 stations in Addis Ababa alone during the past 20 years. Damages on fiber optic cables and power interruptions are among the challenges the service provider faced in its expansion and network quality improvement efforts.
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9,404 |
Transport in Ethiopia
|
Transport in Ethiopia is overseen by the Ministry of Transport and Communications. Over the last years, the Ethiopian federal authorities have significantly increased funding for rail and road construction to build an infrastructure, that allows better economic development.
== Railways ==
Ethiopia is building a standard gauge railway network, the National Railway Network of Ethiopia, planned to consist of up to 6,000 km of railways in a number of years. The railway network serves a strategic goal to allow Ethiopia a sustainable and stable economic development. By 2030, the Ethiopian government hopes to invest about $65 billion into its transportation. The railway network's primary purpose is then both to connect landlocked Ethiopia to the world market by ensuring a seamless access to one or several sea ports for trade and for transporting most imports and exports. The rail transport of goods appears favorable – if compared to road transport – in terms of volume, costs, safety and speed of transportation for both imports and exports. The primary port for Ethiopia is the Port of Djibouti in Djibouti. More than 95% of Ethiopia's trade passes through Djibouti.
The port of Djibouti is served by one international railway, the electrified standard gauge 756 km long Addis Ababa – Djibouti Railway (of which 656 km run in Ethiopia). This railway has officially been opened in October 2016 but it is in trial service with no regular traffic in 2017. Once operational by the end of 2017 or in 2018, it will allow passenger transport and a travel time from Addis Ababa to Djibouti City in less than twelve hours with a designated speed of 120 km/hour.
Another railway, the Awash – Hara Gebeya Railway will go into trial service over its first 270 km in 2018. This second railway links Addis Ababa and the Addis Ababa – Djibouti Railway with the north of Ethiopia. Once operational over its first 270 km, possibly 2018 or 2019, it will allow both freight and passenger transport. A train ride from Addis Ababa to the twin cities of Kombolcha and Dessie will be possible in around six hours with a designated speed of 120 km/hour.
== Roads ==
Road projects now represent around a quarter of the annual infrastructure budget of the Ethiopian federal government. Additionally, through the Road Sector Development Program (RSDP), the government has earmarked $4 billion to construct, repair and upgrade roads over the next decade.
As the first part of a 10-year to 15 year Road Sector Development Program, between 1997 and 2002 the Ethiopian government began a sustained effort to improve its infrastructure of roads. As a result, as of 2002 Ethiopia has a total (federal and regional) 33,297 km of roads, both paved and gravel. The share of federally managed roads in good quality improved from 14% in 1995 to 31% in 2002 as a result of this program, and to 89% in 2009
The Ethiopian government had begun the second part of the Road Sector Development Program, which was completed in 2007. This had involved the upgrading or construction of over 7,500 km of roads, with the goal of improving the average road density for Ethiopia to 35 km per 1000 km2, and reducing the proportion of the country area that is more than 5 km from an all-weather road from 75% to 70%.
In 2024, the Ministry of Transport and Communications announced that they will ban combustion engined vehicle imports. As of February 2024, the date and details of the ban have not been released.
According to the Government of Ethiopia, it has spent over 600 billion birr (US$50 billion, €30 billion) on infrastructure since 1990.
total (regional and federal): 144,391 km (2009) (89% of the roads in Ethiopia are asphalt)
gravel: 11,023 km
In addition, the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) has undertaken a three-year project to upgrade over 370 km of roads in the country. Contracts have been signed with the Ethiopian Defense Construction, China Railway Engineering, Eney Construction, China Wuyi, Yotek Construction and FAL General Contractor.
===Dangers of vehicular transport===
It is said that Ethiopia has the highest rates of traffic fatalities per vehicle in the world. This is due to many factors. For example, the roads are poorly maintained, lightened and marked; which are major factors in road accidents. Another major factor is the people themselves, who ignore the rules of the road. Their disregard of road safety puts every other driver at risk. Due to this, foreigners are advised to keep a safe distance from the car in front of them because the driving is unpredictable; anything can happen in the blink of an eye. Even the surroundings involving transport can be incredibly dangerous. For example, there are instances when carjackings and robberies occur on highways or streets that are away from the public eye. Due to this, people are forced to be highly alert of their surroundings, such as checking to make sure no one is lurking around their vehicle before entering and avoiding nighttime travel.
== Ports and harbours ==
Ethiopia is landlocked and was by agreement with Eritrea using the ports of Asseb and Massawa until 1997; since the Eritrean-Ethiopian War, Ethiopia has used the port of Djibouti for nearly all of its imports. Ethiopia increasingly relies on inland dry ports for distributing cargo, after cargo arrived from Djibouti. The main Ethiopian dry port is Modjo dry port.
=== Merchant marine ===
The Baro River is the only river used for transport.
Total:
9 ships (with a volume of or over) / (2003 est.)
ships by type:
cargo ship 7; container ship 1; petroleum tanker 1; roll-on/roll-off ship 3 (1999 est.), 1 (2003 est.)
== Airports ==
As of 2021, Ethiopia has 57 airports, of which 17 have paved runways . The Addis Ababa Airport is the largest airport in Ethiopia and one of Africa's biggest and busiest. It is the main hub of Ethiopian Airlines, the national airline that serves destinations in Ethiopia and throughout the African continent, as well as nonstop service to Asia, Europe, North America and South America. The airport is also the base of the Ethiopian Aviation Academy. As of June 2018, nearly 450 flights per day were departing from and arriving at the airport. In 2018, about 12 million passengers were carried on domestic and international flights.
Paved runways
total:
14
over 3,047 m:
3
2,438 to 3,047 m:
5
1,524 to 2,437 m:
5
914 to 1,523 m:
1 (2003 est.)
Unpaved runways
total:
68
over 3,047 m:
3
2,438 to 3,047 m:
2
1,524 to 2,437 m:
13
914 to 1,523 m:
27
under 914 m:
23 (2003 est.)
|
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9,405 |
Ethiopian National Defense Force
|
The Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) () is the combined military force of Ethiopia. ENDF is consisted of 10 command forces which is controlled by the Chief of General Staff.
== Commanders of the Military ==
Supreme Commander – Taye Atske Selassie
Commander in Chief – Abiy Ahmed Ali
Chief of the General Staff – Field Marshal Birhanu Jula Gelelcha
Deputy Chief of the General Staff – General Abebaw Taddese Asres
Notable High Commanders –
General Getachew Gudina Selbana- Chief of the intelligence of the Army
Lieutenant General Alemshet Degife Balcha- Advisor of the CDF and Chief of the Fire Command
Lieutenant General Solomon Etefa Lemu- Chief Commander of South Command
Lieutenant General Mesele Meseret Tegegn- Chief Commander of the Western Command
Lieutenant General Shuma Abdeta Hika- Chief Commander of the Commando and Airborne Command
Lieutenant General Yilma Merdassa Napa- Chief Commander of the Ethiopian Airforce
Lieutenant General Abdurahman Ismael Alo- Commander of Head of Logistics
Lieutenant General Zewdu Belay Malefya- Chief Commander of Central Command
Lieutenant General Birhanu Bekele Bedada- Chief Commander of Northwestern Command
Lieutenant General Hachaalu Sheleme Merga- Commander of Head of Human resource
Lieutenant General Desalegn Teshome Abitew- Inspector General
Lieutenant General Desta Abiche- Commander of Head of Mehandis
Major General Kefyalew Amde- Chief Commander of the Mechanised command
Rear Admiral Kindu Gezu- Chief of the Navy Force
== Highest Award of Ethiopia ==
Ethiopia presents this award for citizens who have a Great achievement in the country.
There are two highest awards presented by President of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the Prime minister of the Federal Democratic republic of Ethiopia. These are
1. The Black Lion Heroes High Medal
2. The Adwa heroes High Medal
The Black Lion award is presented to
- Field Marshal Birhanu Jula Gelelcha
- General Abebaw Taddesse Asres
- General Bacha Debele Buta
- Lieutenant General Alemshet Degife Balcha by the President of Ethiopia and Prime Minister of Ethiopia on Jan 9, 2022
The Adwa Heroes medal is presented to
- General Getachew Gudina Selbana
- Lieutenant General Solomon Etefa Lemu
- Lieutenant General Mesele Meseret Tegegn
- Lieutenant General Yilma Merdassa Napa
- Lieutenant General Abdurahman Ismael Alo
- Lieutenant General Zewdu Belay Malefya
- Lieutenant General Shuma Abdeta Hika
- Lieutenant General Belay Seyoum Akele by the President of Ethiopia and the Prime minister of Ethiopia on Jan 9, 2022
== Equipements of the Army ==
You can see the page "List of Equipment of Ethiopian Army"
== History ==
Ethiopian is the only uncolonized country in Africa. The Ethiopian army's origins and military traditions date back to the earliest history of Ethiopia. Due to Ethiopia's location between the Middle East and Africa, it has long been in the middle of Eastern and Western politics and has been subject to foreign invasion and aggression. In 1579, the Ottoman Empire's attempt to expand from a coastal base at Massawa during the Ottoman conquest of Habesh was defeated. The Army of the Ethiopian Empire was also able to defeat the Egyptians in 1876 at Gura, led by Ethiopian Emperor Yohannes IV. Clapham wrote in the 1980s that the "Abyssinians [had suffered] from a 'superiority complex' which may be traced to Gundet, Gura and Adwa".
Following the order of the emperor of Ethiopia, Nikolay Leontiev directly organized the first battalion of the regular Ethiopian army in February 1899. Leontiev formed the first regular battalion, the kernel of which became the company of volunteers from the former Senegal shooters, which he chose and invited from Western Africa, with the training of the Russian and French officers. The first Ethiopian military band was organized at the same time.
=== Ethiopian Empire ===
====Battle of Adwa====
The Battle of Adwa is the best-known victory of Ethiopian forces over foreign invaders. It maintained Ethiopia's existence as an independent state. Fought on 1 March 1896 against the Kingdom of Italy near the town of Adwa, it was the decisive battle of the First Italo–Ethiopian War. Assisted by all of the major nobles of Ethiopia, including Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, Ras Makonnen, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, Mikael of Wollo, and Menelik II struck a powerful blow against the Italian army.
====Preserving Ethiopian independence====
During the Scramble for Africa, Ethiopia remained the only nation that had not been colonized by European colonial powers, due in part to their defeat of Italy in the First Italo-Ethiopian War. However, with Ethiopia surrounded by European colonies, the necessity of ensuring that the Ethiopian army was well-maintained became apparent to the Ethiopian government. The Ethiopian government trained its troops to a very high degree, with Imperial Russian Army officer Alexander Bulatovich writing thus:
"Many consider the Ethiopian army to be undisciplined. They think that it is not in any condition to withstand a serious fight with a well-organized European army, claiming that the recent war with Italy doesn't prove anything. I will not begin to guess the future and will say only this. Over the course of four months, I watched this army closely. It is unique in the world. And I can bear witness to the fact that it is not quite so chaotic as it seems at first glance, and that on the contrary, it is profoundly disciplined, though in its own unique way. For every Abyssinian, war is normal business, and military skills and rules of army life in the field enter in the flesh and blood of each of them, just as do the main principles of tactics. On the march, each soldier knows how to arrange necessary comforts for himself and to conserve his strength; but on the other hand, when necessary, he shows such endurance and is capable of action in conditions which are difficult even to imagine.
You see remarkable expediency in all the actions and skills of this army, and each soldier has an amazingly intelligent attitude toward managing the mission of the battle.
Despite such qualities, because of its impetuousness, it is much more difficult to control this army than a well-drilled European army, and I can only marvel at and admire the skill of its leaders and chiefs, of which there is no shortage."
In obedience to the agreement with Russia and the order of Menelik II, First Ethiopian officers began to be trained at the First Russian cadet school in 1901. 30 to 40 Ethiopian officers were trained in Russia from 1901 until 1913.
====Under Haile Selassie I====
Under the regency of Tafari Mekonnen, the army was modernized. He created an Imperial Bodyguard, the Kebur Zabagna, in 1917 from the earlier Mahal Safari who had traditionally attended the Ethiopian Emperor. Its elite was trained at the French Saint-Cyr military academy or by Belgian military advisers. He also created his own military school at Holeta in January 1935.
Ethiopian military aviation efforts were initiated in 1929 when Tafari Mekonnen hired two French pilots and purchased four French biplanes. By the time of the Italian invasion of 1935, the air force had four pilots and thirteen aircraft.
However, these efforts were not sufficient nor instituted in enough time to stop the rising tide of Italian fascism. Ethiopia was invaded and occupied by Italy during the Italian invasion of Ethiopia of 1935–36, marked for Ethiopia's first time being occupied by a foreign power. Ethiopia's patriots managed to resist and defeat the fascist Italian force after the 1941 East African Campaign of World War II with the help of British, South African and Nigerian forces. This made Ethiopia the only country in Africa that has never been colonized. After the Italians had been driven from the country, a British Military Mission to Ethiopia (BMME), under Major General Stephen Butler, was established to reorganize the Ethiopian Army. The Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement of 1944 removed the BMME from the jurisdiction of East Africa Command at Nairobi and made it responsible to the Ethiopian Minister of War.
Ethiopia bought twenty AH-IV tankettes from Czechoslovakia in the late 1940s. They were based on the Romanian R-1 variant and arrived in Djibouti on 9 May 1950 after which they were carried by rail to Addis Ababa. They were used until the 1980s when they participated in the fighting against Somalia.
====Korean War====
In keeping with the principle of collective security, for which Haile Selassie was an outspoken proponent, Ethiopia sent a contingent under General Mulugeta Buli, known as the Kagnew Battalion, to take part in the Korean War. It was attached to the American 7th Infantry Division, and fought in several engagements including the Battle of Pork Chop Hill. 3,518 Ethiopian troops served in the war, of which 121 were killed and 536 wounded.
On May 22, 1953, a U.S.-Ethiopian Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement was signed. A U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group was dispatched to Ethiopia and began its work by reorganizing the army into three divisions. On 25 September 1953, Selassie created the Imperial Ministry of National Defense that unified the Army, Air Force, and Navy. By 1956, the First Division had its headquarters at Addis Ababa (First, Second, Third Brigades, 5,300 strong); the Second Division was headquartered at Asmara, with the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, and Twelfth Brigades (4,500 strong); and Third Division Harar (with the Fourth, Ninth, Tenth, and Eleventh Brigades, 6,890 strong) respectively. The three divisions had a total of 16,832 troops. In May 1959, the Emperor established the Imperial Territorial Army as a reserve force that provided military training to civil servants.
In 1960 the U.S. Army Area Handbook for Ethiopia described the very personalized command arrangements then used by the Emperor:
The Emperor is by constitutional provision Commander-in-Chief, and to him are reserved all rights respecting the size of the forces and their organization and command, together with the power to appoint, promote, transfer and dismiss military officers. He seeks the advice and consent of Parliament in declaring war. Traditionally, he assumes personal command of the forces in time of war.'
The Office of the Chief of Staff of the Imperial Ethiopian Armed Forces directed the Commanders of the Army, Air Force, and Navy, and the three army divisions were directly responsible to the Commander of the Army. The three divisions seemingly included the Third Division in the Ogaden, seen as a hardship post. While technically the Imperial Bodyguard (Kebur Zabagna) was responsible to the Army Commander, in reality, its commander received his orders directly from the Emperor.
Balambaras Abebe Aregai was one of the noted patriotic resistance leaders of Shoa (central Ethiopia) that rose to preeminence in the post-liberation period. He became Ras, a general and minister of defense of the Imperial Ethiopian Armed Forces until his death in the 1960 Ethiopian coup attempt.
Ethiopia contributed troops for the United Nations operation in the Congo – the United Nations Operation in the Congo - from July 1960. By 20 July 1960, 3,500 troops for ONUC had arrived in the Congo. The 3,500 consisted of 460 troops from Ethiopia (later to grow into the Tekil Brigade) as well as troops from Ghana, Morocco and Tunisia. Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie raised some 3,000 Imperial Bodyguard personnel- about 10 percent of the Ethiopian army's entire strength at that time-and made it part of the UN peacekeeping force in the Congo, along with an air force squadron. This volunteer battalion from the Imperial Bodyguard were authorized by the Emperor. The Tekil (or "Tekel") Brigade was stationed in Stanleyville.
Aman Mikael Andom commanded the Third Division during the 1964 Ethiopian–Somali Border War. He later became chief of staff of the Armed Forces in July 1974, and then Minister of Defense. He then became chairman of the Derg from September to December 1974.
Emperor Haile Selassie divided the Ethiopian military into separate commands. The US Army Handbook for Ethiopia notes that each service was provided with training and equipped from different foreign countries "to assure reliability and retention of power." The military consisted of the following: Imperial Bodyguard (also known as the "First Division", 8,000 men); three army divisions; services which included the Airborne, Engineers, and Signal Corps; the Territorial Army (5,000 men); and the police (28,000 men).
The Derg, which originally consisted of soldiers at the capital, broadened its membership by including representatives from the 40 units of the Ethiopian Army, Air Force, Navy, Kebur Zabagna (Imperial Guard), Territorial Army and Police: each unit was expected to send three representatives, who were supposed to be privates, NCOs, and junior officers up to the rank of major. According to Bahru Zewde, "senior officers were deemed too compromised by close association to the regime."
The committee elected Major Mengistu Haile Mariam as its chairman and Major Atnafu Abate as its vice-chairman. The Derg was initially supposed to study various military units' grievances, investigate abuses by senior officers and staff, and root out corruption in the military. In the months following its founding, the power of the Derg steadily increased. In July 1974 the Derg obtained key concessions from the Emperor, Haile Selassie, which included the power to arrest not only military officers but government officials at every level. Soon both former Prime Ministers Tsehafi Taezaz Aklilu Habte-Wold, and Endelkachew Makonnen, along with most of their cabinets, most regional governors, many senior military officers, and officials of the Imperial court found themselves imprisoned.
When the Derg gained control of Ethiopia, they lessened their reliance on the West. Instead, they began to draw their equipment and their sources for organizational and training methods from the Soviet Union and other Comecon countries, especially Cuba. During this period, Ethiopian forces were often locked in counter-insurgency campaigns against various guerrilla groups. They honed both conventional and guerrilla tactics during campaigns in Eritrea, and by repelling an invasion launched by Somalia in the 1977–1978 Ogaden War.
The Ethiopian army grew considerably under the Derg (1974–1987), and the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia under Mengistu (1987–1991), especially during the latter regime. The Library of Congress estimated forces underarms in 1974 at 41,000. By July 1975 the International Institute for Strategic Studies was listing a mechanised division in addition to three infantry divisions. Ayele writes that in November 1975, the "Nabalbal" ("Flame") force was created, subdivided into battalion-sized units of 400. Each battalion-sized unit was known as a hayl (force), and 20 were created within sixteen months. The "Nabalbal" units entered combat in 1977. When Ethiopian intelligence sources discovered Somali planning to seize the Ogaden, militia brigades were also created; first 30, then a total of 61 brigades totaling 143,350 by 1977–78. It appears that there were five regular line divisions active by the time of the 1977 Ogaden War, and the Library of Congress estimated the force size at the time as 53,500. With significant Soviet assistance, after that point the army's size grew rapidly; in 1979 it was estimated at 65,000. The 18th and 19th Mountain Infantry Divisions were then established in 1979-80 originally to seize Nakfa, in the Sahel Mountains, one of the remaining strongholds of the Eritrean insurgents. By the beginning of 1981 recruitment for the 21st and 22nd Mountain Infantry Divisions was underway; soon afterward, preparations for the large Operation Red Star were stepping up.
In April 1988 the Derg reorganized the army. The restoration of relations with Somalia meant that forces could be transferred from the First Revolutionary Army in the Ogaden, to the Second and Third Revolutionary Armies, the Third (TRA) being responsible for the provinces of Assab, Tigray, Wello, Gondar, and Gojjam. The very small Fourth Revolutionary Army became responsible for protecting the border with Kenya and those with Somalia and Sudan. In the place of the previous commands, thirteen corps were established instead, distributed amongst the army headquarters. Intensive efforts were made to enlist additional personnel. Total manpower after the reorganization reached a reported 388,000.
In May 1988 the Derg decided that before it could concentrate on destroying the EPLF, it would have to first eliminate the TPLF. Thus Operation Adwa was devised to seize the main TPLF base at Adi Ramets in Gondar Province. The Third Revolutionary Army's 603rd and 604th Corps were to play the main role, while the 605th Corps secured the rear, in Wello. The TRA's command structure was disrupted when Major General Mulatu Negash, the army commander, was supplanted by the arrival of Mengistu's favorite, Captain Lagesse Asfaw.
Cuba provided a significant influx of military advisors and troops over this period, with the largest escalation during the Ogaden War with Somalia, supported by a Soviet airlift:
1977–1978: 17,000 (Ogaden War)
1978: 12,000
1984: 3,000
1989: All forces withdrawn
====1990-91 Order of Battle====
Gebru Tareke listed Ethiopian ground forces in 1990 as comprising four revolutionary armies organized as task forces, eleven corps, twenty-four infantry divisions, and four mountain divisions, reinforced by five mechanized divisions, two airborne divisions, and ninety-five brigades, including four mechanized brigades, three artillery brigades, four tank brigades, twelve special commandos and para commandos brigades – including the Spartakiad, which became operational in 1987 under the preparation and guidance of North Koreans – seven BM-rocket battalions, and ten brigades of paramilitary forces.
Forces underarms were estimated at 230,000 in early 1991. Mengistu's People's Militia had also grown to about 200,000 members. The mechanized forces of the army comprised 1,200 T-54/55, 100 T-62 tanks, and 1,100 armored personnel carriers (APCs), but readiness was estimated to be only about 30 percent operational, because of the withdrawal of financial support, lack of maintenance expertise and parts from the Soviet Union, Cuba, and other nations.
The army commands consisted of the:
First Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Harar, 1988: 601st and 602nd Corps)
Second Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Asmera, 1988: 606th-610th Corps)
Third Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Kombolcha, 1988: 603rd, 604th, 605th Corps)
Fourth Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Nekemte, 1988: 611th, 612th, 614th Corps)
Fifth Revolutionary Army (headquartered at Gondar)
To these armies were assigned the operational forces of the army, comprising:
31 infantry divisions. The 30th and 31st Infantry Divisions were the last formed, circa November–December 1989. There were also the 102nd Airborne Division and 103rd Commando Divisions, which began training in January 1987.
32 tank battalions
40 artillery battalions
12 air defense battalions
8 commando brigades
Ethiopian soldiers have also committed many atrocities in the region of Tigray. They have used food and rape as weapons of war.
===From 1991===
In 1991 Mengistu's government was overcome by the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ, former EPLF), Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) and other opposition factions. After the defeat of the military government, the provisional government disbanded the former national army and relied on its own guerrilla fighters. In 1993, however, the Tigrayan-led government announced plans to create a multi-ethnic defense force. This process entailed the creation of a new professional army and officer class and the demobilization of many of the irregulars who had fought against the military government. With the collapse of the Soviet Union Ethiopia again turned to the Western powers for alliance and assistance. However, many Tigrayan officers remained in command positions. This transformation was still underway when war with Eritrea broke out in 1998, a development that saw the ranks of the armed forces swell along with defense expenditures.
Although the armed forces have significant battlefield experience, their militia orientation has complicated the transition to a structured, integrated military. Although the two countries are now at peace, Ethiopia rejected the results of the international court's decision, and continued to occupy Badme. Most observers agree that Ethiopia's rejection of international law, coupled with the high numbers of soldiers maintained on the border by each side – a debilitatingly high number, particularly for the Eritrean side – means that the two countries are effectively still in conflict.
After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Ethiopian army began to train with the U.S. Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) established in Djibouti. Ethiopia allowed the US to station military advisors at Camp Hurso. Part of the training at Camp Hurso has included U.S. Army elements, including 4th Battalion, 31st Infantry, training the 12th, 13th and 14th Division Reconnaissance Companies, which from July 2003 were being formed into a new Ethiopian anti-terrorism battalion.
====Somalia====
Approximately 50,000 to 60,000 ENDF troops backed by tanks, helicopter gunships and jets were involved in the military offensive against the Islamic Courts Union during December 2006. Colonel Gabre Heard, a senior ENDF officer and Tigrayan Peoples Liberation Front (TPLF) official, was commander-in-chief of Ethiopian troops during the invasion. During 2007 military experts estimated 50,000 Ethiopian troops were occupying parts of Somalia. During the war, US Special Forces, CIA paramilitary units, and Marine units, supported by American AC-130s and helicopter gunships, directly intervened in support of the ENDF. In early 2007, after the military occupation of Mogadishu and Somali insurgency began, Ethiopian troops launched major offensives in Mogadishu. Large scale bombardments were carried out on Mogadishu neighborhoods deemed to be insurgent strongholds. ENDF forces were primarily responsible for the large scale bombardment and significant civilian losses that occurred in the city. Human Rights Watch reported that the Ethiopian army extensively utilized BM-21 Grad rocket shelling to bombard densely populated Mogadishu neighborhoods. The ENDF characterized the violence in this period as being part of a 'final push' against the rebels, but the fierce fighting in Mogadishu during the first half of 2007 failed to quell the growing insurgency.
Urban warfare in Mogadishu proved to be especially difficult for the ENDF and caused heavy losses, which had reached unsustainable levels by the end of 2007. Thousands of Ethiopian troops had been killed during fierce fighting for Mogadishu during 2007. Oxford Analytica observed at the that the Ethiopian military aimed to win a war of attrition against the Somali insurgency. ENDF troops were bogged down and facing a multi front war with no prospect of victory. By Autumn of 2008, the insurgency controlled more than 80% of the territory that had been previously lost in the invasion. As the situation rapidly deteriorated for the military occupation in mid-2008, Ethiopian troops started experiencing desertions. The ENDF began to draw down its forces deployed in Mogadishu and across towns in Somalia. The occupation had a 'corrosive effect' on the ENDF By November 2008, insurgency had effectively won. The majority of south and central Somalia, along with the capital was now under the control of Islamist factions. Ethiopia had redeployed much of its army out of Somalia by the end of the year.
Under the command of Colonel Gabre Heard, nicknamed 'Butcher of Mogadishu', the ENDF routinely bombed civilian areas and killed thousands of civilians. Reports of atrocities by forces under his command have made him infamous in Somalia. In late 2011, Ethiopian troops returned to Somalia (coinciding with Kenya's invasion) in large numbers for the first time since their 2009 withdrawal. In 2014 the Ethiopian troops that deployed to a buffer zone in some parts of southern Somalia were integrated into AMISOM.
Information regarding causalities in Somalia is unknown as the ENDF designates all operations in the country "Top Secret".
==== The Northern War ====
On 8 November 2020, ENDF troops backed by militias from the Amhara and the Eritrean Defence Forces regions were deployed to the Tigray Region in response to a coordinated 'preemptive strike' by TPLF against the Northern Command of ENDF. Since the beginning of the conflict, ENDF personnel has been accused of involvement in alleged war crimes against civilians in the Tigray Region. These mere accusations include rape and other gender based violence, as well as extrajudicial killings in Hagere Selam, Hitsats, Humera, Debre Abbay, and other areas where the conflict is ongoing. The prime minister of Ethiopia, Abiy Ahmed, has publicly acknowledged the possibility of war crimes taking place within the Tigray Region. Abiy did not however link these actions to the Ethiopian military, and instead cited such reports were likely "propaganda of exaggeration" by the Tigray People's Liberation Front, currently opposing federal forces in the northern region.
The Italian weekly magazine Panorama published a graphic video in which Amharic-speaking ENDF soldiers killed a group of 9 people in Humera in August 2021 and then put their bodies on fire. The video also shows torturing of one man by soldiers, then tying him up, preparing to throw him in the river.
The professional army of ENDF took significant casualties during the war, forcing the ENDF to rely on citizen soldiers until it was prepared for a counter-offensive, while it retreated from the northern part of Ethiopia. When the ENDF took high casualties and the need for more manpower arouse, the government started recruiting soldiers en-masse, with The Prime Minister himself leading by example the recruitment effort as well as the war from the frontlines, this happened during the TDF–OLA joint offensive which threatened Addis Abeba. Human wave attacks accusations were made during the war on the ENDF, such tactics are usually very costly in human life. In addition, in the lead-up and early on in the war, tigrayan military officers of the ENDF—which had constituted 80% of the officer corps of the ENDF—had defected to the TPLF. This greatly reducing the amount of capable COs and NCOs. This all indicates that the ENDF is coming out of the war enlarged in size, but with significant leadership/officer shortages that raises questions for the future, as in, can the ENDF control the regional militias that has sprung up and that could pose future threats to Ethiopia. With already signs of tensions arising between the central government and militias, with militias such as Fano, where the government arrested 4,000 militia members due to its "illegal activities". The ENDF has significant challenges coming out of the Northern war, such as coping with potential loss of leadership due to casualties, logistics or equipment losses.
== Size and strength ==
The size of the ENDF has fluctuated significantly since the end of the Ethiopia-Eritrea war in 2000. In 2002 the Ethiopian Defense Forces had a strength of approximately 250,000-350,000 troops. This was roughly the same number maintained during the Derg regime that fell to the rebel forces in 1991. However, that number was later reduced, and in January 2007, during the War in Somalia, Ethiopian forces were said to comprise about 300,000 troops. In 2012, the IISS estimated that the ground forces had 135,000 personnel and the air force 3,000.
As of 2012, the ENDF consists of two separate branches: the Ground Forces and the Ethiopian Air Force.
Modern day Ethiopia, being a landlocked country, has no active navy. Ethiopia reacquired a coastline on the Red Sea in 1950 and created the Ethiopian Navy in 1955. Eritrean independence in 1991 left Ethiopia landlocked again, but the Ethiopian Navy continued to operate from foreign ports until it finally was disbanded in 1996.
In June 2018, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed called for the eventual reconstitution of the Ethiopian Navy as part of a wider program of security sector reforms, saying that "we should build our naval force capacity in the future".
In March 2019, Abiy Ahmed signed defense accords with France's Emmanuel Macron, including on support in establishing a naval component.
The Ethiopian Navy is based in Djibouti, and its headquarters is in Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.
==Peacekeeping==
Ethiopia has served in various United Nations and African Union peacekeeping missions. These have included Ivory Coast, on the Burundi border, and in Rwanda.
Two major previous Ethiopian missions were in Liberia and Darfur. The United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1509, of 19 September 2003, to support the implementation of the ceasefire agreement and the peace process, protect United Nations staff, facilities and civilians, support humanitarian and human rights activities; as well as assist in national security reform, including national police training and formation of a new, restructured military. In November 2007, nearly 1,800 Ethiopian troops serving with the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) were presented with UN Peacekeeping medals for their "invaluable contribution to the peace process." Up to three Ethiopian battalions used to constitute Sector 4 of the UN Mission, covering the southern part of the country. The mission ended in 2018.
Many thousands of Ethiopian peacekeepers were also involved in the hybrid United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) in western Sudan. The Security Council authorized a force of about 26,000 uniformed personnel. The Darfur mission was shut down in 2020–21.
Ethiopia also provides the entire force for the UN's Abyei mission, the United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei. An Ethiopian officer commands the force.
== The National Defense Day ==
The National Defense Day is celebrated annually as the holiday of the ENDF on October 26. The day celebrates the establishment Ethiopian National Defense force for the first time in Ethiopian history, on 26 October 1907. It is celebrated for four days.
|
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9,406 |
Foreign relations of Ethiopia
|
The foreign relations of Ethiopia refers to overall diplomatic relationship of Ethiopia. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs oversees foreign relations and diplomatic missions of the country.
Ethiopia is one of few early African countries admitted to the League of Nations, becoming a member on 28 September 1923, and was one of the founding members of the United Nations. During the Scramble for Africa, Ethiopia had maintained its full sovereignty over European colonial power and fought the First Italo-Ethiopian War in 1895–96. However, the League did not protect in accord with the envisaged "collective security" of the country, resulted Italy's occupation of Ethiopia for 5 years (1936–1941).
From 1950s, Ethiopia participated to UN peacekeeping missions such as in Korean War and Congo Crisis. Virtually, Ethiopia maintains diplomatic relations to most countries, and is non-permanent member of the UN Security Council.
==History==
===Antiquity===
====Land of Punt====
Punt (2500 BCE – 980 BCE) was predominantly a trading centre dominated by Ancient Egypt to Horn of Africa. Trading commodities includes exports of Egypt; one of the most essential was incense, which was mainly used for religious rituals for embalming corpse. Other were ivory, spices, hides and exotic animals that convey route to coast of Ethiopia, thus Ethiopia has been an integral part of Punt. Egyptian expedition to southeastern African region was generally commenced in the second millennium BC, after stabilizing relations with kingdoms of today's Sudan, the Kush, Napata and Meroë.
====South Arabia====
Some theorists hypothesized Ancient South Arabian people migrated out of Africa to the strait Bab-el-Mandeb when its sea level decreased to current status. When their civilization came to appear from 4th millennium BC, onward Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf, adaptation of Semitic language was from end of Mediterranean, though they used Canaanite alphabet developed from Syria or Palestine during second millennium BC. Apparently, these languages similarity compared to Hebrew and Phoenician alphabets, even though lacked scholarly consensus. By 500 BC, it was widely spoken such as the Ge'ez language.
Writing system through inscription on stone often detailed historical rival kingdoms in the region, most notability the Saba, Qataban, Himyar, Hadhramaut, Ma'in and others. In 1959, American archeologists collected numerous artifacts and body of inscriptions in the area, belonging to primary sources. The inscription not only detailed about South Arabia, but also the early Ethiopian history associated with Kingdom of Aksum and its rulers.
====Kingdom of Aksum====
The Kingdom of Aksum has been a great power in classic Africa; once it has been referenced by Persian prophet Mani in the 3rd century and Greco-Roman trading guide Periplus of the Erythraean Sea in first century. Axum maintained well-defined foreign relations with powerful realms in the era. According to Stuart Munro-Hay witness, the Aksumite had several account of ambassadors that had delegation with neighboring powers. Occasionally, Aksumite contact with foreign powers also attested by archaeological or scarce finds.
====Egypt====
Aksumite relations with pre-Roman Egypt was ostensibly uncertain. However, it was considered that Aksumite contact were also existed during the fall of Ptolemaic dynasty with Cleopatra death in 30 BC. Few artifacts were uncovered from Egypt such as cippus of Horus given to Bruce, and illustrated by him, and a few amulet figurines of blue faience Prester John, a fabulous Christian king, spurred the Portuguese to pursue Ethiopia whose kingdom they equates with Garden of Eden. According to the legend, he was born about 1460 and last seen in 1526. There is also speculation about his age where he lived for fifteen or twenty seven years beyond 1526.
Pero da Covilhã profoundly marched overland into the Ethiopian Highlands about the end of 1492 or beginning of 1493, characterized by conquest and superiority. He sent an information to Lisbon a few years later that contributed Vasco da Gama mobilisation to African southern cap into the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese navy almost dominated the coastline of Eastern Hemisphere.
In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since the Aksumite era. Atse Dawit I first made contact with the Republic of Venice by requesting for religious artifacts and craftsmen. A letter from Henry IV of England to the Ethiopian Emperor survives. In 1428, Yeshaq I sent two emissaries to Alfonso V of Aragon, who sent his own emissaries that failed to complete the return trip home to Aragon.
The first continuous relations with a European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Dawit II (Lebna Dengel), who had just inherited the throne from his father. In 1487, King John II of Portugal sent two emissaries to the Orient, Pero da Covilhã and Afonso de Paiva; Afonso would die on this mission. By the end of Middle Ages, the Ethiopian Empire was in a 13 year long war with neighboring Muslim states, and a Portuguese expedition force was sent from Goa, India to aid the Ethiopian Army due to an ongoing rivalry with the Ottoman Empire, who provided logistical support to the Adal Sultanate.
===Early modern period===
====Gondarine period====
Since 16th century, Roman Catholicism and the Jesuits increasingly influenced on state power. Besides, the Oromo migrations had vital role in the northern Ethiopia. Among other Jesuit, Spanish Jesuit Pedro Paez had favorable relations to the Emperors of Ethiopia like Za Dengel and Susenyos I, the latter promulgated that Roman Catholicism state administrative to the Empire in 1622 on behalf of Orthodox Tewahedo Church, resulted in grave conflict for the years.
The reign of Emperor Fasilides in 1632 arranged this status by restoring Orthodox Tewahedo state leadership and expelled Jesuits from his land. After founding Gondar in 1636, Ethiopia then prospered again with the beginning of "Gondarine period" characterized as relatively peaceful governance. However, few Franciscan and Capuchin friars said to be lived during the 18th century such as Franciscan Giuseppe Maria di Gerusalemme, Remedius Prutky (who left credible records to the city).
Architecture of this period was slightly influenced by the remnant Jesuits, but also the presence of Arab, Indians (brought by the Jesuits) as well as Turkish in Ottoman occupied northern area had involvement. One of the example is castles in Fasil Ghebbi.
====Post-Zemene Mesafint====
Emperor Tewodros II reinstated the imperial power and foreign relations. His connection of Queen Victoria and other European leaders unfavorable when he sent unresponsive letter to the Queen, eventually leading to brief war with the British Empire. The British sent 13,000 soldiers, 26,000 men for logistical support and 40,000 animals including war elephants from India during their expedition, resulting in Tewodros suicide at Magdala in 1868. Not only modernized the empire, but he also paved the way of coherence the succession for subsequent emperors. Ethiopia was briefly isolated from world power in the post-Zemene Mesafint period; Emperor Yohannes IV faced Egyptian invasion as they laid linkage of Suez Canal to Massawa, and opening road between Addi Quala and Gundet used to penetrate the Ethiopian Empire. Yohannes IV on other side was reluctant to improve the road from the Ethiopian Highland to the coast of Red Sea. According to British assistant John Kirkham, he "preferred to keep his money hoarded up". Likewise, German traveller Gerhard Rohlfs asserted that he wanted to build churches rather than roads. Road working, on the sides, was completed by Swedish missionaries at Monkulu. British traveller Augustus B. Wylde supposed that Abyssinians were "in fear of foreign invasion" where lastly commented "I suppose they are right".
Wylde noted that the first Ethiopian diaspora took place in mid-1880s, who had been from Massawa to Europe, adapting European trousers. This was strictly outlawed by the Emperor. The empire nonetheless, was surged into modernization by foreign contribution, numerous missionary schools were expanded by Swedish Protestants at Monkulu and the French Lazarist at Keren, the later described by Wylde "a very useful education" with "very well conducted". Ethiopia had received broad European population in the 19th-century: Jean Baraglion of French origin who had lived for over a decade and according to Wylde, he enjoyed monopoly at Adwa. Despite rejoice, Baraglion encountered at least two rivals, a Hungarian named André who made an artificial limbs, and a Greek who have lived to Shewa over several years.
On 2 May 1889, the Treaty of Wuchale was signed between Ethiopia and Italy with respective bilingual version. The treaty was signed after the Italian occupation of Eritrea and aimed to create friendship with both countries. The Amharic and Italian language, however confused by Article 17 in which Menelik denounced in 1893, resulting Italy's threatening over the status of newly formed boundary.
In 1895, the First Italo-Ethiopian War began, ending with Italy's defeat at Battle of Adwa by Ethiopian troops who were assisted logistically by Menelik. By early 1900, European agencies opened legation in Addis Ababa and had huge impact on investment in the country's infrastructure (schools, banks, road, railway etc.).
===Haile Selassie===
During Haile Selassie coronation in 1930, emissaries from the United States, Egypt, Turkey, Sweden, Belgium, and Japan were also presented. Since then, he led the forefront diplomatic relations of Ethiopia with world powers.
In 1930s, Ethiopia faced Italian renewed imperialist design. Together with the failure of the League of Nations envision of Ethiopia's "collective security", Italy invaded Ethiopia again in October 1935, culminating in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. In May 1936, Mussolini declared Ethiopia as part of Italian East Africa by merging with Eritrea and Somaliland. Haile Selassie fled to England's Fairfield House, Bath, and delivered an address that made him a worldwide figure, and the 1935 Time Man of the Year.
On 10 June 1940, Mussolini declared war on France and Britain and attacked British and Commonwealth forces in Egypt, Sudan, Kenya and British Somaliland. In January 1941, the British army together with Arbegnoch ("the Patriots") and Gideon Force occupied Ethiopia. On 5 May, Haile Selassie with auspice of Ethiopian Free Forces entered Addis Ababa and reclaimed his throne while the war continued until November. After their defeat, the Italian began guerrilla offensive in Ethiopia that lasted until the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces in September 1943.
On 31 January 1942, the British and Ethiopia signed Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement which Britain recognized Ethiopian sovereignty, except military occupation of Ogaden with their colony in Somaliland and the former Italian colony of Somaliland, creating a single polity. Ethiopians discontent about the privilege of military administration of some south-eastern region until formal agreement signed on 19 December 1944 that ended British advantage in the Ethiopian regions. The Italian Republic signed peace treaty on 10 February 1947 that recognized Ethiopia's sovereignty with agreement to pay $25,000,000 in reparations.
In 1952, Eritrea federated with Ethiopia with majority vote in the United Nations and this attitude declined by 1961, culminating in the Eritrean War of Independence since armed forces formed such as the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF).
Oppositions against Haile Selassie came to existence with students began marching through 1960s and early 1970s, chanting "land for tiller" and embracing several Marxist–Leninist theme. Haile Selassie deposed on 12 September 1974 by officers of Ethiopian Army led by Aman Andom named Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police and Territorial Army. The committee renamed itself Provisional Military Administrative Council known as the Derg after abolishing the Ethiopian Empire in March 1975.
===The Derg era===
The Derg aligned itself with Soviet bloc—had similar Marxist Leninist policy on Ethiopia. The Derg suffered from internal insurgency and ambivalent relations with neighboring countries such as Eritrea and Somalia. In 1977, the Ogaden War was fought between the Derg supported by Cuba, Soviet Union and South Yemen, and Somalia with the United States and Egypt. Although ending on 15 March 1978, the relations between Ethiopia and Somalia marred with political dispute with involvement of the Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF) in relations of the disputed Ogaden region.
By the 1990, the Derg and Soviet Union relations was deteriorated after Mengistu Haile Mariam banned the Ethiopian media to use the term glasnost and perestroika, defying Mikhail Gorbachev who was believed has not fondness for him. By early 1990, Mengistu helped emigration of the Ethiopian Jews to Israel by which many Jewish organizations and US Congress discerned Mengistu's task in the lobbying effort.
===Federal Democratic Republic era===
After defeating the Derg in 1991, the newly formed coalition the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), led by President and later Prime Minister Meles Zenawi, experienced opposition from factions in Somalia as well as within the country; in May 1991, a pan-Islamist Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya (Islamic Unity) established to consolidate Somalia's power in the Greater Somalia. Relations with Eritrea was somewhat better intensified after its UN-sponsored session from Ethiopia in May 1993.
Later in 1998, their relations was deteriorated after large-scale Eritrean mechanized force penetrated to Badme region, triggering the Eritrean–Ethiopian War. Both countries spent favorable amount of armaments ahead of the war and suffered reportedly 100,000 casualties combined as a direct consequence thereof, excluding indeterminate number of refugees. In December 2000, the two countries government signed Algiers Agreement which finalized the war and created binding judicial commissions, the Eritrea–Ethiopia Border Commission and the Eritrean–Ethiopian Claims Commissions, to oversee the disputed border and related claims. Since then, there was elevated tensions with border conflict and stalemate what is described "war footing" and "no-war-no-peace" with absence of foreign and domestic policy domination. This was ended after Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed came to power in 2018, signed the 2018 Eritrea–Ethiopia summit on 8–9 July.
Meles' government relations with Djibouti was friendly as Djibouti accessed Port of Djibouti to Ethiopia. Ethiopia had 90% imports arrived from Port of Djibouti and 95% of Djiboutian regional exports. In 2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) virtually controlled the whole of southern Somalia and successfully united Mogadishu and imposed Shari'a law. With support of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia, Ethiopia, under UN peacekeeping mission against War on Terrorism, attacked ICU. The ICU's split eventually led to the formation of Al-Shabaab, regrouping to continue the insurgency against TFG and Ethiopian military presence in Somalia.
In May 2010, the Nile Basin Initiative was signed by five upstream countries such as Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, and Rwanda and Burundi as Egypt considerate as breach to the 1929 Anglo-Egyptian treaty that gave its right to share water. On 2 April 2011, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) inaugurated construction expected producing 15,000 megawatts of power within 10 years, spending 12 billion dollars of strategy to improve power generating capabilities. Egypt and Sudan continued objecting the filling of the dam in 2020.
Under Abiy Ahmed premiership since 2018, Ethiopia repleted its relations Somalia and Eritrea. In October 2018, Ethiopia signed peace agreement with the rebel faction ONLF ending 34 year long conflict since 1984. ONLF has clashed with the Ethiopian troops to contain vast oil and gas deposits, where Chinese oil firms developing two gas field in the area. In 2007, ONLF launched deadly attack against Chinese-run oil field which killed 65 Ethiopians and 9 Chinese nationals.
During the Tigray War, Ethiopia was allied to countries such as Turkey, United Arab Emirates and Iran
==Diplomatic relations==
List of countries which Ethiopia maintains diplomatic relations with:
==Africa==
==Asia==
==Oceania==
==Ministry of Foreign Affairs==
Foreign relations are upheld by Ministry of Foreign Affairs with the ability and capacity to marshal strategic partners for the continent and the region; to play a central role in Ethiopia's growth into a democratic developmental state and in the achievement of peace and stability in the Horn of Africa.
==United Nations==
Ethiopia was admitted to the League of Nations on 28 September 1923, becoming one of few African countries to do so due to not colonized by European powers during the 19th century Scramble for Africa. The League envisaged the membership for Ethiopia's "collective security" and protection against external attacks. The League however was unable to maintain Ethiopia's sovereignty as Japan invaded Manchuria, which Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1936.
After its resumption of independence after World War II, Ethiopia was one of the founding members of the United Nations. Since the 1950s, Ethiopia has keeping UN peacekeeping missions toward Korean War and Congo Crisis and some African states like Rwanda and Burundi in 1990s. Ethiopia has now over 80,000 peacekeeping forces that are active.
==European Union==
Ethiopia has strong relations to the European Union while the EU funding financed by the European Development Fund (EDF) with objectives of resilience. Their relations has been defined by Cotonou Agreement article 8 to 13 with strong bilateral partners and dialogue regarding sustainable development on diverse aspect of the country.
In addition, the EU is the second largest trade partner for Ethiopia with total expenditure of 4.1 billion euro; exports representing 12% while Ethiopia exports representing 26% of worldwide exports in 2016. This has been compared to China (8%), Somalia (14%) and Kuwait (13%).
==African Union==
Ethiopia is one of founding African states of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) (now the African Union) on 25 May 1963 under Emperor Haile Selassie, headquartered in Addis Ababa. At the time, the organization evolved up to 54 African states, except Morocco.
The country is driving force of maintaining UN-AU peacekeeping missions, especially in the Horn of Africa region. The AU does not readily aggregate the preference of each member states. Therefore, every AU norms, institution and overlaps as consensus stated in the AU Constitution Act and its various decision and policy making, and implementation organs. As such, the AU offers for member states like Ethiopia to influence and impact on policy internally and regionally. Today, Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa is home of major organizations such as African Union, Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and African Standby Force.
== BRICS ==
In 2023, Ethiopia was invited to join BRICS during the group's 15th Summit and became a member of the organisation in January 2024.
|
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] |
9,407 |
Europa Island
|
Europa Island (, ), in Malagasy Nosy Ampela is a low-lying tropical atoll in the Mozambique Channel, about a third of the way from southern Madagascar to southern Mozambique. The island had never been inhabited until 1820, when the French family of Rosier moved to it. The island officially became a possession of France in 1897, though it is claimed by Madagascar.
The island, garrisoned by a detachment from Réunion, has a weather station and is visited by scientists. Though uninhabited now, it is part of the Scattered Islands of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands administrative region.
Europa Island was the setting of "Search in the Deep", a 1968 episode of The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau, partly focusing on the breeding habits of the green sea turtle.
== Description ==
Europa is in diameter, with a maximum altitude of , and has of coastline. It is surrounded by coral beaches and a fringing reef and encloses a mangrove lagoon of around and open to the sea on one side.
There are no ports or harbours but anchorage is possible offshore. Its exclusive economic zone, contiguous with that of Bassas da India, is . The airstrip is metres long.
===Ecology===
The island is a nature reserve. Its vegetation consists of dry forest, scrub, Euphorbia, the mangrove swamp, and the remains of a sisal plantation. It is one of the world's largest nesting sites for green sea turtles. It is also home to goats introduced by settlers in the late 18th century.
The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it supports a large and diverse population of breeding seabirds and other waterbirds. It is the only known breeding site outside Aldabra and Madagascar for Malagasy pond herons. Seabirds include the second largest colony in the western Indian Ocean of great frigatebirds (with up to 1100 pairs), tropical shearwaters (up to 100 pairs, probably of the subspecies Puffinus bailloni bailloni previously considered endemic to the Mascarene Islands), dimorphic egrets and Caspian terns.
Europa is home to an endemic subspecies of white-tailed tropicbird (Phaethon lepturus europae), three kinds of landbird (including an endemic subspecies of the Malagasy white-eye) and its own species of hissing cockroach.
===Climate===
Europa Island's climate is affected by the Agulhas Current with water temperatures usually above , southeast trade winds during the (austral) winter and occasional cyclones. The climate can be described as a semi-arid and tropical combination with wet summers and dry winters.
== History ==
While the island has probably been sighted by navigators since at least the 16th century, it takes its name from the British ship Europa, which visited it in December 1774. Ruins and graves on Europa island attest to several attempts at settlement from the 1860s to the 1920s. For example, the French Rosiers family moved to the island in 1860, but subsequently abandoned it.
File:Europa Island.jpg|Satellite photo of Europa Island (north at top)
File:Europa Island simplified land cover map-en.svg|Map of Europa Island
File:vue aerienne europa.jpg|Aerial view of the island
File:EuropaDunesNord.jpg|Beaches, north of the island
|
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"Caspian tern",
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"lagoon",
"Gromphadorhinini",
"mangrove",
"Euphorbia",
"Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean"
] |
9,417 |
Euclidean geometry
|
Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, which he described in his textbook on geometry, Elements. Euclid's approach consists in assuming a small set of intuitively appealing axioms (postulates) and deducing many other propositions (theorems) from these. Although many of Euclid's results had been stated earlier, Euclid was the first to organize these propositions into a logical system in which each result is proved from axioms and previously proved theorems.
The Elements begins with plane geometry, still taught in secondary school (high school) as the first axiomatic system and the first examples of mathematical proofs. It goes on to the solid geometry of three dimensions. Much of the Elements states results of what are now called algebra and number theory, explained in geometrical language.
Euclidean geometry is an example of synthetic geometry, in that it proceeds logically from axioms describing basic properties of geometric objects such as points and lines, to propositions about those objects. This is in contrast to analytic geometry, introduced almost 2,000 years later by René Descartes, which uses coordinates to express geometric properties by means of algebraic formulas.
==The Elements==
The Elements is mainly a systematization of earlier knowledge of geometry. Its improvement over earlier treatments was rapidly recognized, with the result that there was little interest in preserving the earlier ones, and they are now nearly all lost.
There are 13 books in the Elements:
Books I–IV and VI discuss plane geometry. Many results about plane figures are proved, for example, "In any triangle, two angles taken together in any manner are less than two right angles." (Book I proposition 17) and the Pythagorean theorem "In right-angled triangles the square on the side subtending the right angle is equal to the squares on the sides containing the right angle." (Book I, proposition 47)
Books V and VII–X deal with number theory, with numbers treated geometrically as lengths of line segments or areas of surface regions. Notions such as prime numbers and rational and irrational numbers are introduced. It is proved that there are infinitely many prime numbers.
Books XI–XIII concern solid geometry. A typical result is the 1:3 ratio between the volume of a cone and a cylinder with the same height and base. The platonic solids are constructed.
===Axioms===
Euclidean geometry is an axiomatic system, in which all theorems ("true statements") are derived from a small number of simple axioms. Until the advent of non-Euclidean geometry, these axioms were considered to be obviously true in the physical world, so that all the theorems would be equally true. However, Euclid's reasoning from assumptions to conclusions remains valid independently from the physical reality.
Near the beginning of the first book of the Elements, Euclid gives five postulates (axioms) for plane geometry, stated in terms of constructions (as translated by Thomas Heath):
Let the following be postulated:
To draw a straight line from any point to any point.
To produce (extend) a finite straight line continuously in a straight line.
To describe a circle with any centre and distance (radius).
That all right angles are equal to one another.
[The parallel postulate]: That, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which the angles are less than two right angles.
Although Euclid explicitly only asserts the existence of the constructed objects, in his reasoning he also implicitly assumes them to be unique.
The Elements also include the following five "":
Things that are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another (the transitive property of a Euclidean relation).
If equals are added to equals, then the wholes are equal (Addition property of equality).
If equals are subtracted from equals, then the differences are equal (subtraction property of equality).
Things that coincide with one another are equal to one another (reflexive property).
The whole is greater than the part.
Modern scholars agree that Euclid's postulates do not provide the complete logical foundation that Euclid required for his presentation. Modern treatments use more extensive and complete sets of axioms.
===Parallel postulate===
To the ancients, the parallel postulate seemed less obvious than the others. They aspired to create a system of absolutely certain propositions, and to them, it seemed as if the parallel line postulate required proof from simpler statements. It is now known that such a proof is impossible since one can construct consistent systems of geometry (obeying the other axioms) in which the parallel postulate is true, and others in which it is false. Euclid himself seems to have considered it as being qualitatively different from the others, as evidenced by the organization of the Elements: his first 28 propositions are those that can be proved without it.
Many alternative axioms can be formulated which are logically equivalent to the parallel postulate (in the context of the other axioms). For example, Playfair's axiom states:
In a plane, through a point not on a given straight line, at most one line can be drawn that never meets the given line.
The "at most" clause is all that is needed since it can be proved from the remaining axioms that at least one parallel line exists.
===Methods of proof===
Euclidean Geometry is constructive. Postulates 1, 2, 3, and 5 assert the existence and uniqueness of certain geometric figures, and these assertions are of a constructive nature: that is, we are not only told that certain things exist, but are also given methods for creating them with no more than a compass and an unmarked straightedge. In this sense, Euclidean geometry is more concrete than many modern axiomatic systems such as set theory, which often assert the existence of objects without saying how to construct them, or even assert the existence of objects that cannot be constructed within the theory. Strictly speaking, the lines on paper are models of the objects defined within the formal system, rather than instances of those objects. For example, a Euclidean straight line has no width, but any real drawn line will have. Though nearly all modern mathematicians consider nonconstructive proofs just as sound as constructive ones, they are often considered less elegant, intuitive, or practically useful. Euclid's constructive proofs often supplanted fallacious nonconstructive ones, e.g. some Pythagorean proofs that assumed all numbers are rational, usually requiring a statement such as "Find the greatest common measure of ..."
Euclid often used proof by contradiction.
==Notation and terminology==
===Naming of points and figures===
Points are customarily named using capital letters of the alphabet. Other figures, such as lines, triangles, or circles, are named by listing a sufficient number of points to pick them out unambiguously from the relevant figure, e.g., triangle ABC would typically be a triangle with vertices at points A, B, and C.
=== Complementary and supplementary angles ===
Angles whose sum is a right angle are called complementary. Complementary angles are formed when a ray shares the same vertex and is pointed in a direction that is in between the two original rays that form the right angle. The number of rays in between the two original rays is infinite.
Angles whose sum is a straight angle are supplementary. Supplementary angles are formed when a ray shares the same vertex and is pointed in a direction that is in between the two original rays that form the straight angle (180 degree angle). The number of rays in between the two original rays is infinite.
=== Modern versions of Euclid's notation ===
In modern terminology, angles would normally be measured in degrees or radians.
Modern school textbooks often define separate figures called lines (infinite), rays (semi-infinite), and line segments (of finite length). Euclid, rather than discussing a ray as an object that extends to infinity in one direction, would normally use locutions such as "if the line is extended to a sufficient length", although he occasionally referred to "infinite lines". A "line" for Euclid could be either straight or curved, and he used the more specific term "straight line" when necessary.
== Some important or well known results ==
File:pons_asinorum_dzmanto.png|The pons asinorum or bridge of asses theorem states that in an isosceles triangle, α = β and γ = δ.
File:Sum_of_angles_of_triangle_dzmanto.png|The triangle angle sum theorem states that the sum of the three angles of any triangle, in this case angles α, β, and γ, will always equal 180 degrees.
File:Pythagorean.svg|The Pythagorean theorem states that the sum of the areas of the two squares on the legs (a and b) of a right triangle equals the area of the square on the hypotenuse (c).
File:Thales' Theorem Simple.svg|Thales' theorem states that if AC is a diameter, then the angle at B is a right angle.
===Pons asinorum===
The pons asinorum (bridge of asses) states that in isosceles triangles the angles at the base equal one another, and, if the equal straight lines are produced further, then the angles under the base equal one another. Its name may be attributed to its frequent role as the first real test in the Elements of the intelligence of the reader and as a bridge to the harder propositions that followed. It might also be so named because of the geometrical figure's resemblance to a steep bridge that only a sure-footed donkey could cross.
===Congruence of triangles===
Triangles are congruent if they have all three sides equal (SSS), two sides and the angle between them equal (SAS), or two angles and a side equal (ASA) (Book I, propositions 4, 8, and 26). Triangles with three equal angles (AAA) are similar, but not necessarily congruent. Also, triangles with two equal sides and an adjacent angle are not necessarily equal or congruent.
===Triangle angle sum===
The sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to a straight angle (180 degrees). This causes an equilateral triangle to have three interior angles of 60 degrees. Also, it causes every triangle to have at least two acute angles and up to one obtuse or right angle.
===Pythagorean theorem===
The celebrated Pythagorean theorem (book I, proposition 47) states that in any right triangle, the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares whose sides are the two legs (the two sides that meet at a right angle).
===Thales' theorem===
Thales' theorem, named after Thales of Miletus states that if A, B, and C are points on a circle where the line AC is a diameter of the circle, then the angle ABC is a right angle. Cantor supposed that Thales proved his theorem by means of Euclid Book I, Prop. 32 after the manner of Euclid Book III, Prop. 31.
===Scaling of area and volume===
In modern terminology, the area of a plane figure is proportional to the square of any of its linear dimensions, A \propto L^2, and the volume of a solid to the cube, V \propto L^3. Euclid proved these results in various special cases such as the area of a circle and the volume of a parallelepipedal solid. Euclid determined some, but not all, of the relevant constants of proportionality. For instance, it was his successor Archimedes who proved that a sphere has 2/3 the volume of the circumscribing cylinder.
==System of measurement and arithmetic==
Euclidean geometry has two fundamental types of measurements: angle and distance. The angle scale is absolute, and Euclid uses the right angle as his basic unit, so that, for example, a 45-degree angle would be referred to as half of a right angle. The distance scale is relative; one arbitrarily picks a line segment with a certain nonzero length as the unit, and other distances are expressed in relation to it. Addition of distances is represented by a construction in which one line segment is copied onto the end of another line segment to extend its length, and similarly for subtraction.
Measurements of area and volume are derived from distances. For example, a rectangle with a width of 3 and a length of 4 has an area that represents the product, 12. Because this geometrical interpretation of multiplication was limited to three dimensions, there was no direct way of interpreting the product of four or more numbers, and Euclid avoided such products, although they are implied, for example in the proof of book IX, proposition 20.
Euclid refers to a pair of lines, or a pair of planar or solid figures, as "equal" (ἴσος) if their lengths, areas, or volumes are equal respectively, and similarly for angles. The stronger term "congruent" refers to the idea that an entire figure is the same size and shape as another figure. Alternatively, two figures are congruent if one can be moved on top of the other so that it matches up with it exactly. (Flipping it over is allowed.) Thus, for example, a 2x6 rectangle and a 3x4 rectangle are equal but not congruent, and the letter R is congruent to its mirror image. Figures that would be congruent except for their differing sizes are referred to as similar. Corresponding angles in a pair of similar shapes are equal and corresponding sides are in proportion to each other.
==In engineering==
===Design and Analysis===
Stress Analysis: Stress Analysis - Euclidean geometry is pivotal in determining stress distribution in mechanical components, which is essential for ensuring structural integrity and durability.
Gear Design: Gear - The design of gears, a crucial element in many mechanical systems, relies heavily on Euclidean geometry to ensure proper tooth shape and engagement for efficient power transmission.
Heat Exchanger Design: Heat exchanger - In thermal engineering, Euclidean geometry is used to design heat exchangers, where the geometric configuration greatly influences thermal efficiency. See shell-and-tube heat exchangers and plate heat exchangers for more details.
Lens Design: Lens - In optical engineering, Euclidean geometry is critical in the design of lenses, where precise geometric shapes determine the focusing properties. Geometric optics analyzes the focusing of light by lenses and mirrors.
=== Dynamics ===
Vibration Analysis: Vibration - Euclidean geometry is essential in analyzing and understanding the vibrations in mechanical systems, aiding in the design of systems that can withstand or utilize these vibrations effectively.
Wing Design: Aircraft Wing Design - The application of Euclidean geometry in aerodynamics is evident in aircraft wing design, airfoils, and hydrofoils where geometric shape directly impacts lift and drag characteristics.
Satellite Orbits: Satellite Orbits - Euclidean geometry helps in calculating and predicting the orbits of satellites, essential for successful space missions and satellite operations. Also see astrodynamics, celestial mechanics, and elliptic orbit.
===CAD Systems===
3D Modeling: In CAD (computer-aided design) systems, Euclidean geometry is fundamental for creating accurate 3D models of mechanical parts. These models are crucial for visualizing and testing designs before manufacturing.
Design and Manufacturing: Much of CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) relies on Euclidean geometry. The design geometry in CAD/CAM typically consists of shapes bounded by planes, cylinders, cones, tori, and other similar Euclidean forms. Today, CAD/CAM is essential in the design of a wide range of products, from cars and airplanes to ships and smartphones.
Evolution of Drafting Practices: Historically, advanced Euclidean geometry, including theorems like Pascal's theorem and Brianchon's theorem, was integral to drafting practices. However, with the advent of modern CAD systems, such in-depth knowledge of these theorems is less necessary in contemporary design and manufacturing processes.
=== Circuit Design ===
PCB Layouts: Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Design utilizes Euclidean geometry for the efficient placement and routing of components, ensuring functionality while optimizing space. Efficient layout of electronic components on PCBs is critical for minimizing signal interference and optimizing circuit performance.
=== Electromagnetic and Fluid Flow Fields ===
Antenna Design: Antenna Design - Euclidean geometry of antennas helps in designing antennas, where the spatial arrangement and dimensions directly affect antenna and array performance in transmitting and receiving electromagnetic waves.
Field Theory: Complex Potential Flow - In the study of inviscid flow fields and electromagnetic fields, Euclidean geometry aids in visualizing and solving potential flow problems. This is essential for understanding fluid velocity field and electromagnetic field interactions in three-dimensional space. The relationship of which is characterized by an irrotational solenoidal field or a conservative vector field.
=== Controls ===
Control System Analysis: Control Systems - The application of Euclidean geometry in control theory helps in the analysis and design of control systems, particularly in understanding and optimizing system stability and response.
Calculation Tools: Jacobian - Euclidean geometry is integral in using Jacobian matrices for transformations and control systems in both mechanical and electrical engineering fields, providing insights into system behavior and properties. The Jacobian serves as a linearized design matrix in statistical regression and curve fitting; see non-linear least squares. The Jacobian is also used in random matrices, moment, statistics, and diagnostics.
==Other general applications==
Because of Euclidean geometry's fundamental status in mathematics, it is impractical to give more than a representative sampling of applications here.
File:us land survey officer.jpg|A surveyor uses a level
File:Ambersweet oranges.jpg|Sphere packing applies to a stack of oranges.
File:Parabola with focus and arbitrary line.svg|A parabolic mirror brings parallel rays of light to a focus.
As suggested by the etymology of the word, one of the earliest reasons for interest in and also one of the most common current uses of geometry is surveying. In addition it has been used in classical mechanics and the cognitive and computational approaches to visual perception of objects. Certain practical results from Euclidean geometry (such as the right-angle property of the 3-4-5 triangle) were used long before they were proved formally. The fundamental types of measurements in Euclidean geometry are distances and angles, both of which can be measured directly by a surveyor. Historically, distances were often measured by chains, such as Gunter's chain, and angles using graduated circles and, later, the theodolite.
An application of Euclidean solid geometry is the determination of packing arrangements, such as the problem of finding the most efficient packing of spheres in n dimensions. This problem has applications in error detection and correction.
File:Damascus Khan asad Pacha cropped.jpg|Geometry is used in art and architecture.
File:Water tower cropped.jpg|The water tower consists of a cone, a cylinder, and a hemisphere. Its volume can be calculated using solid geometry.
File:Origami crane cropped.jpg|Geometry can be used to design origami.
Geometry is used extensively in architecture.
Geometry can be used to design origami. Some classical construction problems of geometry are impossible using compass and straightedge, but can be solved using origami.
==Later history==
===Archimedes and Apollonius===
Archimedes (), a colorful figure about whom many historical anecdotes are recorded, is remembered along with Euclid as one of the greatest of ancient mathematicians. Although the foundations of his work were put in place by Euclid, his work, unlike Euclid's, is believed to have been entirely original. He proved equations for the volumes and areas of various figures in two and three dimensions, and enunciated the Archimedean property of finite numbers.
Apollonius of Perga () is mainly known for his investigation of conic sections.
===17th century: Descartes===
René Descartes (1596–1650) developed analytic geometry, an alternative method for formalizing geometry which focused on turning geometry into algebra.
In this approach, a point on a plane is represented by its Cartesian (x, y) coordinates, a line is represented by its equation, and so on.
In Euclid's original approach, the Pythagorean theorem follows from Euclid's axioms. In the Cartesian approach, the axioms are the axioms of algebra, and the equation expressing the Pythagorean theorem is then a definition of one of the terms in Euclid's axioms, which are now considered theorems.
The equation
|PQ|=\sqrt{(p_x-q_x)^2+(p_y-q_y)^2} \,
defining the distance between two points P = (px, py) and Q = (qx, qy) is then known as the Euclidean metric, and other metrics define non-Euclidean geometries.
In terms of analytic geometry, the restriction of classical geometry to compass and straightedge constructions means a restriction to first- and second-order equations, e.g., y = 2x + 1 (a line), or x2 + y2 = 7 (a circle).
Also in the 17th century, Girard Desargues, motivated by the theory of perspective, introduced the concept of idealized points, lines, and planes at infinity. The result can be considered as a type of generalized geometry, projective geometry, but it can also be used to produce proofs in ordinary Euclidean geometry in which the number of special cases is reduced.
===18th century===
Geometers of the 18th century struggled to define the boundaries of the Euclidean system. Many tried in vain to prove the fifth postulate from the first four. By 1763, at least 28 different proofs had been published, but all were found incorrect.
Leading up to this period, geometers also tried to determine what constructions could be accomplished in Euclidean geometry. For example, the problem of trisecting an angle with a compass and straightedge is one that naturally occurs within the theory, since the axioms refer to constructive operations that can be carried out with those tools. However, centuries of efforts failed to find a solution to this problem, until Pierre Wantzel published a proof in 1837 that such a construction was impossible. Other constructions that were proved impossible include doubling the cube and squaring the circle. In the case of doubling the cube, the impossibility of the construction originates from the fact that the compass and straightedge method involve equations whose order is an integral power of two, while doubling a cube requires the solution of a third-order equation.
Euler discussed a generalization of Euclidean geometry called affine geometry, which retains the fifth postulate unmodified while weakening postulates three and four in a way that eliminates the notions of angle (whence right triangles become meaningless) and of equality of length of line segments in general (whence circles become meaningless) while retaining the notions of parallelism as an equivalence relation between lines, and equality of length of parallel line segments (so line segments continue to have a midpoint).
===19th century===
In the early 19th century, Carnot and Möbius systematically developed the use of signed angles and line segments as a way of simplifying and unifying results.
====Higher dimensions====
In the 1840s William Rowan Hamilton developed the quaternions, and John T. Graves and Arthur Cayley the octonions. These are normed algebras which extend the complex numbers. Later it was understood that the quaternions are also a Euclidean geometric system with four real Cartesian coordinates. Cayley used quaternions to study rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space.
At mid-century Ludwig Schläfli developed the general concept of Euclidean space, extending Euclidean geometry to higher dimensions. He defined polyschemes, later called polytopes, which are the higher-dimensional analogues of polygons and polyhedra. He developed their theory and discovered all the regular polytopes, i.e. the n-dimensional analogues of regular polygons and Platonic solids. He found there are six regular convex polytopes in dimension four, and three in all higher dimensions.
Schläfli performed this work in relative obscurity and it was published in full only posthumously in 1901. It had little influence until it was rediscovered and fully documented in 1948 by H.S.M. Coxeter.
In 1878 William Kingdon Clifford introduced what is now termed geometric algebra, unifying Hamilton's quaternions with Hermann Grassmann's algebra and revealing the geometric nature of these systems, especially in four dimensions. The operations of geometric algebra have the effect of mirroring, rotating, translating, and mapping the geometric objects that are being modeled to new positions. The Clifford torus on the surface of the 3-sphere is the simplest and most symmetric flat embedding of the Cartesian product of two circles (in the same sense that the surface of a cylinder is "flat").
====Non-Euclidean geometry====
The century's most influential development in geometry occurred when, around 1830, János Bolyai and Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky separately published work on non-Euclidean geometry, in which the parallel postulate is not valid. Since non-Euclidean geometry is provably relatively consistent with Euclidean geometry, the parallel postulate cannot be proved from the other postulates.
In the 19th century, it was also realized that Euclid's ten axioms and common notions do not suffice to prove all of the theorems stated in the Elements. For example, Euclid assumed implicitly that any line contains at least two points, but this assumption cannot be proved from the other axioms, and therefore must be an axiom itself. The very first geometric proof in the Elements, shown in the figure above, is that any line segment is part of a triangle; Euclid constructs this in the usual way, by drawing circles around both endpoints and taking their intersection as the third vertex. His axioms, however, do not guarantee that the circles actually intersect, because they do not assert the geometrical property of continuity, which in Cartesian terms is equivalent to the completeness property of the real numbers. Starting with Moritz Pasch in 1882, many improved axiomatic systems for geometry have been proposed, the best known being those of Hilbert, George Birkhoff, and Tarski.
===20th century and relativity===
Einstein's theory of special relativity involves a four-dimensional space-time, the Minkowski space, which is non-Euclidean. This shows that non-Euclidean geometries, which had been introduced a few years earlier for showing that the parallel postulate cannot be proved, are also useful for describing the physical world.
However, the three-dimensional "space part" of the Minkowski space remains the space of Euclidean geometry. This is not the case with general relativity, for which the geometry of the space part of space-time is not Euclidean geometry. For example, if a triangle is constructed out of three rays of light, then in general the interior angles do not add up to 180 degrees due to gravity. A relatively weak gravitational field, such as the Earth's or the Sun's, is represented by a metric that is approximately, but not exactly, Euclidean. Until the 20th century, there was no technology capable of detecting these deviations in rays of light from Euclidean geometry, but Einstein predicted that such deviations would exist. They were later verified by observations such as the slight bending of starlight by the Sun during a solar eclipse in 1919, and such considerations are now an integral part of the software that runs the GPS system.
==As a description of the structure of space==
Euclid believed that his axioms were self-evident statements about physical reality. Euclid's proofs depend upon assumptions perhaps not obvious in Euclid's fundamental axioms, in particular that certain movements of figures do not change their geometrical properties such as the lengths of sides and interior angles, the so-called Euclidean motions, which include translations, reflections and rotations of figures. Taken as a physical description of space, postulate 2 (extending a line) asserts that space does not have holes or boundaries; postulate 4 (equality of right angles) says that space is isotropic and figures may be moved to any location while maintaining congruence; and postulate 5 (the parallel postulate) that space is flat (has no intrinsic curvature).
As discussed above, Albert Einstein's theory of relativity significantly modifies this view.
The ambiguous character of the axioms as originally formulated by Euclid makes it possible for different commentators to disagree about some of their other implications for the structure of space, such as whether or not it is infinite (see below) and what its topology is. Modern, more rigorous reformulations of the system typically aim for a cleaner separation of these issues. Interpreting Euclid's axioms in the spirit of this more modern approach, axioms 1–4 are consistent with either infinite or finite space (as in elliptic geometry), and all five axioms are consistent with a variety of topologies (e.g., a plane, a cylinder, or a torus for two-dimensional Euclidean geometry).
==Treatment of infinity==
===Infinite objects===
Euclid sometimes distinguished explicitly between "finite lines" (e.g., Postulate 2) and "infinite lines" (book I, proposition 12). However, he typically did not make such distinctions unless they were necessary. The postulates do not explicitly refer to infinite lines, although for example some commentators interpret postulate 3, existence of a circle with any radius, as implying that space is infinite.
Later ancient commentators, such as Proclus (410–485 CE), treated many questions about infinity as issues demanding proof and, e.g., Proclus claimed to prove the infinite divisibility of a line, based on a proof by contradiction in which he considered the cases of even and odd numbers of points constituting it.
At the turn of the 20th century, Otto Stolz, Paul du Bois-Reymond, Giuseppe Veronese, and others produced controversial work on non-Archimedean models of Euclidean geometry, in which the distance between two points may be infinite or infinitesimal, in the Newton–Leibniz sense. Fifty years later, Abraham Robinson provided a rigorous logical foundation for Veronese's work.
===Infinite processes===
Ancient geometers may have considered the parallel postulate – that two parallel lines do not ever intersect – less certain than the others because it makes a statement about infinitely remote regions of space, and so cannot be physically verified.
The modern formulation of proof by induction was not developed until the 17th century, but some later commentators consider it implicit in some of Euclid's proofs, e.g., the proof of the infinitude of primes.
Supposed paradoxes involving infinite series, such as Zeno's paradox, predated Euclid. Euclid avoided such discussions, giving, for example, the expression for the partial sums of the geometric series in IX.35 without commenting on the possibility of letting the number of terms become infinite.
==Logical basis==
===Classical logic===
Euclid frequently used the method of proof by contradiction, and therefore the traditional presentation of Euclidean geometry assumes classical logic, in which every proposition is either true or false, i.e., for any proposition P, the proposition "P or not P" is automatically true. The proof by contradiction (or reductio ad absurdum method) rests on two cardinal principles of classical logic: the law of contradiction and the law of the excluded middle. In simple terms, the law of contradiction says that if S is any statement, then S and a contradiction (that is, the denial) of S cannot both hold. And the law of the excluded middle states, that either S or the denial of S must hold (that is, there is no third, or middle, possibility). This method therefore consists of assuming (by way of hypothesis) that a proposition that is to be established is false; if an absurdity follows, one concludes that the hypothesis is untenable and that the original proposition must then be true.
===Modern standards of rigor===
Placing Euclidean geometry on a solid axiomatic basis was a preoccupation of mathematicians for centuries. The role of primitive notions, or undefined concepts, was clearly put forward by Alessandro Padoa of the Peano delegation at the 1900 Paris conference:
That is, mathematics is context-independent knowledge within a hierarchical framework. As said by Bertrand Russell:
===Axiomatic formulations===
Euclid's axioms: In his dissertation to Trinity College, Cambridge, Bertrand Russell summarized the changing role of Euclid's geometry in the minds of philosophers up to that time. It was a conflict between certain knowledge, independent of experiment, and empiricism, requiring experimental input. This issue became clear as it was discovered that the parallel postulate was not necessarily valid and its applicability was an empirical matter, deciding whether the applicable geometry was Euclidean or non-Euclidean.
Hilbert's axioms: Hilbert's axioms had the goal of identifying a simple and complete set of independent axioms from which the most important geometric theorems could be deduced. The outstanding objectives were to make Euclidean geometry rigorous (avoiding hidden assumptions) and to make clear the ramifications of the parallel postulate.
Birkhoff's axioms: Birkhoff proposed four postulates for Euclidean geometry that can be confirmed experimentally with scale and protractor. This system relies heavily on the properties of the real numbers. The notions of angle and distance become primitive concepts.
Tarski's axioms: Alfred Tarski (1902–1983) and his students defined elementary Euclidean geometry as the geometry that can be expressed in first-order logic and does not depend on set theory for its logical basis, in contrast to Hilbert's axioms, which involve point sets. Tarski proved that his axiomatic formulation of elementary Euclidean geometry is consistent and complete in a certain sense: there is an algorithm that, for every proposition, can be shown either true or false.) This is equivalent to the decidability of real closed fields, of which elementary Euclidean geometry is a model.
|
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"Giuseppe Veronese",
"4-dimensional space",
"power transmission",
"mechanical systems",
"general relativity",
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"hydrofoil",
"János Bolyai",
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"Decidability (logic)",
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"plate heat exchanger",
"degree (angle)",
"equivalence relation",
"affine geometry",
"Regular 4-polytopes",
"Lazare Carnot",
"polygon",
"wikt:vertex",
"T. L. Heath",
"classical logic",
"logic",
"coordinates",
"Gear",
"Plane (geometry)",
"Heat exchanger",
"platonic solid",
"cone",
"Clifford torus",
"lift (force)",
"3-sphere",
"Non-constructive proof",
"control systems",
"Proclus",
"Thales' theorem",
"set theory",
"distance",
"Line segment",
"Computer-aided design",
"Sphere packing",
"packing problem",
"Global Positioning System",
"origami",
"Aerodynamics",
"Computer-aided manufacturing",
"method of exhaustion",
"Nine-point circle",
"Euclid",
"torus",
"infinity",
"real numbers",
"satellites",
"aerodynamics",
"celestial mechanics",
"theory of relativity",
"prime numbers",
"Thales of Miletus",
"August Ferdinand Möbius",
"airplane",
"Perspective (graphical)",
"List of interactive geometry software",
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"Incidence geometry",
"heat exchangers",
"Gottfried Leibniz",
"Giuseppe Peano",
"Stress–strain analysis",
"axiom",
"electric circuit",
"conservative vector field",
"polyhedron",
"Ceva's theorem",
"radian",
"William Kingdon Clifford",
"Isaac Newton",
"ship",
"Pierre Wantzel",
"mechanical system",
"Pascal's theorem",
"isotropic",
"Alfred Tarski",
"Angle bisector theorem",
"Albert Einstein",
"synthetic geometry",
"astrodynamics",
"Parallel postulate",
"inviscid flow",
"Stress (mechanics)",
"doubling the cube",
"Regular polytopes (book)",
"intrinsic curvature",
"moment (physics)",
"control theory",
"non-linear least squares",
"thermal efficiency",
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"topology",
"University of New South Wales",
"self-consistent",
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"Alessandro Padoa",
"H.S.M. Coxeter",
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"irrotational",
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] |
9,418 |
Epic poetry
|
An epic is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants.
With regard to oral tradition, epic poems consist of formal speech and are usually learnt word for word, and are contrasted with narratives that consist of everyday speech where the performer has the license to recontextualize the story to a particular audience, often to a younger generation.
== Etymology ==
The English word epic comes from Latin , which itself comes from the Ancient Greek adjective (), from (),
'word, story, poem'.
In Ancient Greek, 'epic' could refer to all poetry in dactylic hexameter (), which included not only Homer but also the wisdom poetry of Hesiod, the utterances of the Delphic oracle, and the strange theological verses attributed to Orpheus. Later tradition, however, has restricted the term 'epic' to heroic epic, as described in this article.
== Overview ==
Originating before the invention of writing, primary epics, such as those of Homer, were composed by bards who used complex rhetorical and metrical schemes by which they could memorize the epic as received in tradition and add to the epic in their performances. Later writers like Virgil, Apollonius of Rhodes, Dante, Camões, and Milton adopted and adapted Homer's style and subject matter, but used devices available only to those who write.
The oldest epic recognized is the Epic of Gilgamesh (), which was recorded in ancient Sumer during the Neo-Sumerian Empire. The poem details the exploits of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk. Although recognized as a historical figure, Gilgamesh, as represented in the epic, is a largely legendary or mythical figure.
The longest written epic from antiquity is the ancient Indian Mahabharata (–3rd century AD), which consists of 100,000 ślokas or over 200,000 verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), as well as long prose passages, so that at ~1.8 million words it is roughly twice the length of Shahnameh, four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa, and roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined.
Famous examples of epic poetry include the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh, the ancient Indian Mahabharata and Rāmāyaṇa in Sanskrit and Silappatikaram and Manimekalai in Tamil, the Persian Shahnameh, the Ancient Greek Odyssey and Iliad, Virgil's Aeneid, the Old English Beowulf, Dante's Divine Comedy, the Finnish Kalevala, the German , the French Song of Roland, the Spanish Cantar de mio Cid, the Portuguese Os Lusíadas, the Armenian Daredevils of Sassoun, the Old Russian The Tale of Igor's Campaign, John Milton's Paradise Lost, The Secret History of the Mongols, the Kyrgyz Manas, and the Malian Sundiata. Epic poems of the modern era include Derek Walcott's Omeros, Mircea Cărtărescu's The Levant and Adam Mickiewicz's Pan Tadeusz. Paterson by William Carlos Williams, published in five volumes from 1946 to 1958, was inspired in part by another modern epic, The Cantos by Ezra Pound.
== Oral epics ==
The first epics were products of preliterate societies and oral history poetic traditions. Oral tradition was used alongside written scriptures to communicate and facilitate the spread of culture.
In these traditions, poetry is transmitted to the audience and from performer to performer by purely oral means. Early 20th-century study of living oral epic traditions in the Balkans by Milman Parry and Albert Lord demonstrated the paratactic model used for composing these poems. What they demonstrated was that oral epics tend to be constructed in short episodes, each of equal status, interest and importance. This facilitates memorization, as the poet is recalling each episode in turn and using the completed episodes to recreate the entire epic as he performs it. Parry and Lord also contend that the most likely source for written texts of the epics of Homer was dictation from an oral performance.
Milman Parry and Albert Lord have argued that the Homeric epics, the earliest works of Western literature, were fundamentally an oral poetic form. These works form the basis of the epic genre in Western literature. Nearly all of Western epic (including Virgil's Aeneid and Dante's Divine Comedy) self-consciously presents itself as a continuation of the tradition begun by these poems.
== Composition and conventions ==
In his work Poetics, Aristotle defines an epic as one of the forms of poetry, contrasted with lyric poetry and drama (in the form of tragedy and comedy).
Epic poetry agrees with Tragedy in so far as it is an imitation in verse of characters of a higher type. They differ in that Epic poetry admits but one kind of meter and is narrative in form. They differ, again, in their length: for Tragedy endeavors, as far as possible, to confine itself to a single revolution of the sun, or but slightly to exceed this limit, whereas the Epic action has no limits of time. This, then, is a second point of difference; though at first the same freedom was admitted in Tragedy as in Epic poetry.
Of their constituent parts some are common to both, some peculiar to Tragedy: whoever, therefore knows what is good or bad Tragedy, knows also about Epic poetry. All the elements of an Epic poem are found in Tragedy, but the elements of a Tragedy are not all found in the Epic poem. – Aristotle, Poetics Part V
Harmon & Holman (1999) define an epic:
Epic: A long narrative poem in elevated style presenting characters of high position in adventures forming an organic whole through their relation to a central heroic figure and through their development of episodes important to the history of a nation or race.
— Harmon & Holman (1999)
Begins in medias res ("in the thick of things").
The setting is vast, covering many nations, the world or the universe.
Begins with an invocation to a muse (epic invocation).
Begins with a statement of the theme.
Includes the use of epithets.
Contains long lists, called an epic catalogue.
Features long and formal speeches.
Shows divine intervention in human affairs.
Features heroes that embody the values of the civilization.
Often features the tragic hero's descent into the underworld or hell.
The hero generally participates in a cyclical journey or quest, faces adversaries that try to defeat them in their journey, and returns home significantly transformed by their journey. The epic hero illustrates traits, performs deeds, and exemplifies certain morals that are valued by the society the epic originates from. Many epic heroes are recurring characters in the legends of their native cultures.
=== Conventions of the Indian Epic ===
In the Indian mahākāvya epic genre, more emphasis was laid on description than on narration. Indeed, the traditional characteristics of a mahākāvya are listed as:
It must take its subject matter from the epics (Ramayana or Mahabharata), or from history,
It must help further the four goals of man (purusharthas),
It must contain descriptions of cities, seas, mountains, moonrise and sunrise, and accounts of merrymaking in gardens, of bathing parties, drinking bouts, and love-making.
It should tell the sorrow of separated lovers and should describe a wedding and the birth of a son.
It should describe a king's council, an embassy, the marching forth of an army, a battle, and the victory of a hero.
=== Themes ===
Classical epic poetry recounts a journey, either physical (as typified by Odysseus in the Odyssey) or mental (as typified by Achilles in the Iliad) or both. Epics also tend to highlight cultural norms and to define or call into question cultural values, particularly as they pertain to heroism.
Example opening lines with invocations:
Sing goddess the baneful wrath of Achilles son of Peleus – Iliad 1.1
Muse, tell me in verse of the man of many wiles – Odyssey 1.1
From the Heliconian Muses let us begin to sing – Hesiod, Theogony 1.1
Beginning with thee, Oh Phoebus, I will recount the famous deeds of men of old – Argonautica 1.1
Muse, remember to me the causes – Aeneid 1.8
Sing Heav'nly Muse, that on the secret top
of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire – Paradise Lost 1.6–7
An alternative or complementary form of proem, found in Virgil and his imitators, opens with the performative verb "I sing". Examples:
I sing arms and the man – Aeneid 1.1
I sing pious arms and their captain – Gerusalemme liberata 1.1
I sing ladies, knights, arms, loves, courtesies, audacious deeds – Orlando Furioso 1.1–2
This Virgilian epic convention is referenced in Walt Whitman's poem title / opening line "I sing the body electric".
Compare the first six lines of the Kalevala:
Mastered by desire impulsive,
By a mighty inward urging,
I am ready now for singing,
Ready to begin the chanting
Of our nation's ancient folk-song
Handed down from by-gone ages.
These conventions are largely restricted to European classical culture and its imitators. The Epic of Gilgamesh, for example, or the Bhagavata Purana do not contain such elements, nor do early medieval Western epics that are not strongly shaped by the classical traditions, such as the Chanson de Roland or the Poem of the Cid.
==== In medias res ====
Narrative opens "in the middle of things", with the hero at his lowest point. Usually flashbacks show earlier portions of the story. For example, the Iliad does not tell the entire story of the Trojan War, starting with the judgment of Paris, but instead opens abruptly on the rage of Achilles and its immediate causes. So too, Orlando Furioso is not a complete biography of Roland, but picks up from the plot of Orlando Innamorato, which in turn presupposes a knowledge of the romance and oral traditions.
==== Enumeratio ====
Epic catalogues and genealogies are given, called enumeratio. These long lists of objects, places, and people place the finite action of the epic within a broader, universal context, such as the catalog of ships. Often, the poet is also paying homage to the ancestors of audience members. Examples:
In The Faerie Queene, the list of trees I.i.8–9.
In Paradise Lost, the list of demons in Book I.
In the Aeneid, the list of enemies the Trojans find in Etruria (Central Italy) in Book VII. Also, the list of ships in Book X.
In the Iliad, the Catalogue of Ships, the most famous epic catalogue, and the Trojan Battle Order
==== Stylistic features ====
In the Homeric and post-Homeric tradition, epic style is typically achieved through the use of the following stylistic features:
Heavy use of repetition or stock phrases: e.g., Homer's "rosy-fingered dawn" and "wine-dark sea".
Epic similes
=== Form ===
Many verse forms have been used in epic poems through the ages, but each language's literature typically gravitates to one form, or at least to a very limited set.
Ancient Sumerian epic poems did not use any kind of poetic meter and lines did not have consistent lengths;
instead, Sumerian poems derived their rhythm solely through constant repetition and parallelism, with subtle variations between lines.
Very early Latin epicists, such Livius Andronicus and Gnaeus Naevius, used Saturnian meter. By the time of Ennius, however, Latin poets had adopted dactylic hexameter.
Dactylic hexameter has been adapted by a few anglophone poets such as Longfellow in "Evangeline", whose first line is as follows:
This is the | forest pri | meval. The | murmuring | pines and the | hemlocks
Old English, German and Norse poems were written in alliterative verse,
usually without rhyme. The alliterative form can be seen in the Old English "Finnsburg Fragment" (alliterated sounds are in bold):
While the above classical and Germanic forms would be considered stichic, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese long poems favored stanzaic forms, usually written in terza rima
or especially ottava rima.
Terza rima is a rhyming verse stanza form that consists of an interlocking three-line rhyme scheme. An example is found in the first lines of the Divine Comedy by Dante, who originated the form:
In ottava rima, each stanza consists of three alternate rhymes and one double rhyme, following the ABABABCC rhyme scheme. Example:
From the 14th century English epic poems were written in heroic couplets,
and rhyme royal,
though in the 16th century the Spenserian stanza
and blank verse
were also introduced. The French alexandrine is currently the heroic line in French literature, though in earlier literature – such as the chanson de geste – the decasyllable grouped in laisses took precedence. In Polish literature, couplets of Polish alexandrines (syllabic lines of 7+6 syllables) prevail.
In Russian, iambic tetrameter verse is the most popular.
In Serbian poetry, the decasyllable is the only form employed.
Balto-Finnic (e.g. Estonian, Finnish, Karelian) folk poetry uses a form of trochaic tetrameter that has been called the Kalevala meter. The Finnish and Estonian national epics, Kalevala and Kalevipoeg, are both written in this meter. The meter is thought to have originated during the Proto-Finnic period.
In Indic epics such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, the shloka form is used.
== Genres and related forms ==
The primary form of epic, especially as discussed in this article, is the heroic epic, including such works as the Iliad and Mahabharata. Ancient sources also recognized didactic epic as a category, represented by such works as Hesiod's Works and Days and Lucretius's De rerum natura.
A related type of poetry is the epyllion (plural: epyllia), a brief narrative poem with a romantic or mythological theme. The term, which means "little epic", came into use in the nineteenth century. It refers primarily to the erudite, shorter hexameter poems of the Hellenistic period and the similar works composed at Rome from the age of the neoterics; to a lesser degree, the term includes some poems of the English Renaissance, particularly those influenced by Ovid.
The most famous example of classical epyllion is perhaps Catullus 64.
Epyllion is to be understood as distinct from mock epic, another light form.
Romantic epic is a term used to designate works such as Morgante, Orlando Innamorato, Orlando Furioso and Gerusalemme Liberata, which freely lift characters, themes, plots and narrative devices from the world of prose chivalric romance.
===Non-European forms===
Long poetic narratives that do not fit the traditional European definition of the heroic epic are sometimes known as folk epics. Indian folk epics have been investigated by Lauri Honko (1998), Brenda Beck (1982) and John Smith, amongst others. Folk epics are an important part of community identities.
====Egypt====
The folk genre known as al-sira relates the saga of the Hilālī tribe and their migrations across the Middle East and north Africa, see Bridget Connelly (1986).
==== India====
In India, folk epics reflect the caste system of Indian society and the life of the lower levels of society, such as cobblers and shepherds, see C.N. Ramachandran, "Ambivalence and Angst: A Note on Indian folk epics," in Lauri Honko (2002. p. 295). Some Indian oral epics feature strong women who actively pursue personal freedom in their choice of a romantic partner (Stuart, Claus, Flueckiger and Wadley, eds, 1989, p. 5).
==== Japan ====
Japanese traditional performed narratives were sung by blind singers. One of the most famous, The Tale of the Heike, deals with historical wars and had a ritual function to placate the souls of the dead (Tokita 2015, p. 7).
====Africa====
A variety of epic forms are found in Africa. Some have a linear, unified style while others have a more cyclical, episodic style (Barber 2007, p. 50). The best known of African epics is Epic of Sundiata from Mali. Some contemporary scholarship presses against the bifurcation of "epic vs. novel".
====China====
People in the rice cultivation zones of south China sang long narrative songs about the origin of rice growing, rebel heroes, and transgressive love affairs (McLaren 2022). The borderland ethnic populations of China sang heroic epics, such as the Epic of King Gesar of the Mongols, and the creation-myth epics of the Yao people of south China.
|
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"Mircea Cărtărescu",
"Elias Lönnrot",
"Rimur",
"heroic couplet",
"Derek Walcott",
"Gerusalemme liberata",
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"Line (poetry)",
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"Leaves of Grass",
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"mahākāvya",
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"hocket",
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"Pan Tadeusz",
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"Chivalric romance",
"Chanson de Roland",
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"laisse",
"epyllion",
"Orlando Innamorato",
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"The Cantos",
"Monomyth",
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"John Milton",
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"Catullus 64",
"oral tradition",
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"Muse",
"Narrative poetry",
"in medias res",
"Trojan Battle Order",
"Epic catalogue",
"judgment of Paris",
"Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey",
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"enumeratio",
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"Albert Lord",
"alliterative verse",
"Virgil",
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign",
"Apollonius of Rhodes",
"muse",
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"śloka",
"Caribbean poetry",
"rhyme",
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"Phoebus",
"Dante Alighieri",
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"rhyme royal",
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"Chanson de geste",
"narrative",
"Calliope",
"Sumer",
"chivalric romance",
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"Neo-Sumerian Empire",
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"epic catalogue",
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"Cantar de mio Cid",
"Epic of King Gesar",
"Silappatikaram",
"recurring character",
"Etruria",
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"hexameter",
"Ezra Pound",
"Elegiac",
"Manimekalai",
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"hell",
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"Works and Days",
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"Hellenistic poetry",
"Aeneid",
"The Secret History of the Mongols",
"chanson de geste",
"Hesiod",
"Nibelungenlied",
"Kalevala",
"Ennius",
"Dante",
"Paradise Lost",
"Paterson (poem)",
"Omeros",
"Romance (love)",
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"Theme (literature)",
"Latin",
"Os Lusíadas",
"Baltic Finns",
"colloquialism",
"High fantasy",
"blank verse",
"Poem of the Cid",
"Beowulf",
"Argonautica",
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"Epithets in Homer",
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"didactic poetry",
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"Livius Andronicus",
"terza rima",
"William Carlos Williams",
"literacy",
"narrative poem",
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"gods",
"Uruk",
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"Longfellow",
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"Daredevils of Sassoun",
"Theogony",
"The Faerie Queene",
"The Levant (poem)",
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"Song of Roland",
"Kalevipoeg",
"De rerum natura",
"Orlando Furioso",
"Alpamysh",
"Epic of Manas",
"shloka",
"Morgante",
"In medias res",
"Torquato Tasso",
"The Tale of the Heike"
] |
9,419 |
Eocene
|
The Eocene ( ) is a geological epoch that lasted from about 56 to 33.9 million years ago (Ma). It is the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era. The name Eocene comes from the Ancient Greek (Ēṓs, 'Dawn') and (kainós, "new") and refers to the "dawn" of modern ('new') fauna that appeared during the epoch.
The Eocene spans the time from the end of the Paleocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch. The start of the Eocene is marked by a brief period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope 12C. The average temperature of Earth at the beginning of the Eocene was about 27 degrees Celsius. The end is set at a major extinction event called the Grande Coupure (the "Great Break" in continuity) or the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event, which may be related to the impact of one or more large bolides in Siberia and in what is now Chesapeake Bay. As with other geologic periods, the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified, though their exact dates are slightly uncertain.
==Etymology==
The term "Eocene" is derived from Ancient Greek (Ēṓs) meaning "Dawn", and kainos meaning "new" or "recent", as the epoch saw the dawn of recent, or modern, life.
Scottish geologist Charles Lyell (ignoring the Quaternary) divided the Tertiary Epoch into the Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene, and New Pliocene (Holocene) Periods in 1833. British geologist John Phillips proposed the Cenozoic in 1840 in place of the Tertiary, and Austrian paleontologist Moritz Hörnes introduced the Paleogene for the Eocene and Neogene for the Miocene and Pliocene in 1853. After decades of inconsistent usage, the newly formed International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), in 1969, standardized stratigraphy based on the prevailing opinions in Europe: the Cenozoic Era subdivided into the Tertiary and Quaternary sub-eras, and the Tertiary subdivided into the Paleogene and Neogene periods. In 1978, the Paleogene was officially defined as the Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene epochs; and the Neogene as the Miocene and Pliocene epochs. In 1989, Tertiary and Quaternary were removed from the time scale due to the arbitrary nature of their boundary, but Quaternary was reinstated in 2009.
==Geology==
===Boundaries===
The Eocene is a dynamic epoch that represents global climatic transitions between two climatic extremes, transitioning from the hot house to the cold house. The beginning of the Eocene is marked by the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, a short period of intense warming and ocean acidification brought about by the release of carbon en masse into the atmosphere and ocean systems, This event happened around 55.8 Ma, and was one of the most significant periods of global change during the Cenozoic.
The middle Eocene was characterized by the shift towards a cooler climate at the end of the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum, around 47.8 Ma, which was briefly interrupted by another warming event, the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum. Lasting for about 400,000 years, the MECO was responsible for a globally uniform 4° to 6°C warming of both the surface and deep oceans, as inferred from foraminiferal stable oxygen isotope records. The resumption of a long-term gradual cooling trend resulted in a glacial maximum at the late Eocene/early Oligocene boundary.
The end of the Eocene was also marked by the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event, also known as the Grande Coupure.
===Stratigraphy===
The Eocene is conventionally divided into early (56–47.8 Ma), middle (47.8–38 Ma), and late (38–33.9 Ma) subdivisions. The corresponding rocks are referred to as lower, middle, and upper Eocene. The Ypresian Stage constitutes the lower, the Priabonian Stage the upper; and the Lutetian and Bartonian stages are united as the middle Eocene.
The Western North American floras of the Eocene were divided into four floral "stages" by Jack Wolfe (1968) based on work with the Puget Group fossils of King County, Washington. The four stages, Franklinian, Fultonian, Ravenian, and Kummerian covered the Early Eocene through early Oligocene, and three of the four were given informal early/late substages. Wolfe tentatively deemed the Franklinian as Early Eocene, the Fultonian as Middle Eocene, the Ravenian as Late, and the Kummerian as Early Oligocene. The beginning of the Kummerian was refined by Gregory Retallack et al (2004) as 40 Mya, with a refined end at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary where the younger Angoonian floral stage starts.
== Palaeogeography and tectonics ==
During the Eocene, the continents continued to drift toward their present positions. At the beginning of the period, Australia and Antarctica remained connected, and warm equatorial currents may have mixed with colder Antarctic waters, distributing the heat around the planet and keeping global temperatures high. When Australia split from the southern continent around 45 Ma, the warm equatorial currents were routed away from Antarctica. An isolated cold water channel developed between the two continents. However, modeling results call into question the thermal isolation model for late Eocene cooling, and decreasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere may have been more important. Once the Antarctic region began to cool down, the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and icefloes north and reinforcing the cooling.
The northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to fragment, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart.
In western North America, the Laramide Orogeny came to an end in the Eocene, and compression was replaced with crustal extension that ultimately gave rise to the Basin and Range Province. The Kishenehn Basin, around 1.5 km in elevation during the Lutetian, was uplifted to an altitude of 2.5 km by the Priabonian. Huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts, resulting in the deposition of the Green River Formation lagerstätte.
At about 35 Ma, an asteroid impact on the eastern coast of North America formed the Chesapeake Bay impact crater.
The Tethys Ocean finally closed with the collision of Africa and Eurasia, while the uplift of the Alps isolated its final remnant, the Mediterranean, and created another shallow sea with island archipelagos to the north. Planktonic foraminifera in the northwestern Peri-Tethys are very similar to those of the Tethys in the middle Lutetian but become completely disparate in the Bartonian, indicating biogeographic separation. Though the North Atlantic was opening, a land connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar.
Eurasia was separated in three different landmasses 50 Ma; Western Europe, Balkanatolia and Asia. About 40 Ma, Balkanatolia and Asia were connected, while Europe was connected 34 Ma. The Fushun Basin contained large, suboxic lakes known as the paleo-Jijuntun Lakes.
India collided with Asia, folding to initiate formation of the Himalayas. The incipient subcontinent collided with the Kohistan–Ladakh Arc around 50.2 Ma and with Karakoram around 40.4 Ma, with the final collision between Asia and India occurring ~40 Ma.
== Climate ==
The Eocene Epoch contained a wide variety of climate conditions that includes the warmest climate in the Cenozoic Era, and arguably the warmest time interval since the Permian-Triassic mass extinction and Early Triassic, and ends in an icehouse climate. The evolution of the Eocene climate began with warming after the end of the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) at 56 Ma to a maximum during the Eocene Optimum at around 49 Ma. During this period of time, little to no ice was present on Earth with a smaller difference in temperature from the equator to the poles. Because of this the maximum sea level was 150 meters higher than current levels. Following the maximum was a descent into an icehouse climate from the Eocene Optimum to the Eocene–Oligocene transition at 34 Ma. During this decrease, ice began to reappear at the poles, and the Eocene–Oligocene transition is the period of time when the Antarctic ice sheet began to rapidly expand.
=== Early Eocene ===
Greenhouse gases, in particular carbon dioxide and methane, played a significant role during the Eocene in controlling the surface temperature. The end of the PETM was met with very large sequestration of carbon dioxide into the forms of methane clathrate, coal, and crude oil at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean, that reduced the atmospheric carbon dioxide. Other proxies such as pedogenic (soil building) carbonate and marine boron isotopes indicate large changes of carbon dioxide of over 2,000 ppm over periods of time of less than 1 million years. Most of the methane released to the atmosphere during this period of time would have been from wetlands, swamps, and forests.
During the warming in the early Eocene between 55 and 52 Ma, there were a series of short-term changes of carbon isotope composition in the ocean. These isotope changes occurred due to the release of carbon from the ocean into the atmosphere that led to a temperature increase of at the surface of the ocean. Recent analysis of and research into these hyperthermals in the early Eocene has led to hypotheses that the hyperthermals are based on orbital parameters, in particular eccentricity and obliquity. The hyperthermals in the early Eocene, notably the Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), the Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 (ETM2), and the Eocene Thermal Maximum 3 (ETM3), were analyzed and found that orbital control may have had a role in triggering the ETM2 and ETM3. An enhancement of the biological pump proved effective at sequestering excess carbon during the recovery phases of these hyperthermals. These hyperthermals led to increased perturbations in planktonic and benthic foraminifera, with a higher rate of fluvial sedimentation as a consequence of the warmer temperatures. Unlike the PETM, the lesser hyperthermals of the Early Eocene had negligible consequences for terrestrial mammals. These Early Eocene hyperthermals produced a sustained period of extremely hot climate known as the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO). During the early and middle EECO, the superabundance of the euryhaline dinocyst Homotryblium in New Zealand indicates elevated ocean salinity in the region.
==== Equable climate problem ====
One of the unique features of the Eocene's climate as mentioned before was the equable and homogeneous climate that existed in the early parts of the Eocene. A multitude of proxies support the presence of a warmer equable climate being present during this period of time. A few of these proxies include the presence of fossils native to warm climates, such as crocodiles, located in the higher latitudes, although clumped isotope analyses point to a maximum low latitude sea surface temperature of ± during the EECO. Relative to present-day values, bottom water temperatures are higher according to isotope proxies. led to stagnant waters and as the azolla sank to the sea floor, they became part of the sediments on the seabed and effectively sequestered the carbon by locking it out of the atmosphere for good. The ability for the azolla to sequester carbon is exceptional, and the enhanced burial of azolla could have had a significant effect on the world atmospheric carbon content and may have been the event to begin the transition into an ice house climate. continued due to continual decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide from organic productivity and weathering from mountain building.
Global cooling continued until there was a major reversal from cooling to warming in the Bartonian. This warming event, signifying a sudden and temporary reversal of the cooling conditions, is known as the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum (MECO). At around 41.5 Ma, stable isotopic analysis of samples from Southern Ocean drilling sites indicated a warming event for 600,000 years. Oxygen isotope analysis showed a large negative change in the proportion of heavier oxygen isotopes to lighter oxygen isotopes, which indicates an increase in global temperatures. The warming is considered to be primarily due to carbon dioxide increases, because carbon isotope signatures rule out major methane release during this short-term warming. The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide has also been hypothesised to have been driven by increased seafloor spreading rates and metamorphic decarbonation reactions between Australia and Antarctica and increased amounts of volcanism in the region. One possible cause of atmospheric carbon dioxide increase could have been a sudden increase due to metamorphic release due to continental drift and collision of India with Asia and the resulting formation of the Himalayas; however, data on the exact timing of metamorphic release of atmospheric carbon dioxide is not well resolved in the data. Yet another explanation hypothesises that MECO warming was caused by the simultaneous occurrence of minima in both the 400 kyr and 2.4 Myr eccentricity cycles. During the MECO, sea surface temperatures in the Tethys Ocean jumped to 32–36 °C, and Tethyan seawater became more dysoxic. A decline in carbonate accumulation at ocean depths of greater than three kilometres took place synchronously with the peak of the MECO, signifying ocean acidification took place in the deep ocean. On top of that, MECO warming caused an increase in the respiration rates of pelagic heterotrophs, leading to a decreased proportion of primary productivity making its way down to the seafloor and causing a corresponding decline in populations of benthic foraminifera. An abrupt decrease in lakewater salinity in western North America occurred during this warming interval. This warming is short lived, as benthic oxygen isotope records indicate a return to cooling at ~40 Ma. The post-MECO cooling brought with it a major aridification trend in Asia, enhanced by retreating seas. A monsoonal climate remained predominant in East Asia. The cooling during the initial stages of the opening of the Drake Passage ~38.5 Ma was not global, as evidenced by an absence of cooling in the North Atlantic. During the cooling period, benthic oxygen isotopes show the possibility of ice creation and ice increase during this later cooling.
==Flora==
During the early-middle Eocene, forests covered most of the Earth including the poles. Tropical forests extended across much of modern Africa, South America, Central America, India, South-east Asia and China. Paratropical forests grew over North America, Europe and Russia, with broad-leafed evergreen and broad-leafed deciduous forests at higher latitudes.
Polar forests were quite extensive. Fossils and even preserved remains of trees such as swamp cypress and dawn redwood from the Eocene have been found on Ellesmere Island in the Arctic. Even at that time, Ellesmere Island was only a few degrees in latitude further south than it is today. Fossils of subtropical and even tropical trees and plants from the Eocene also have been found in Greenland and Alaska. Tropical rainforests grew as far north as northern North America and Europe.
Palm trees were growing as far north as Alaska and northern Europe during the early Eocene, although they became less abundant as the climate cooled. Dawn redwoods were far more extensive as well.
The earliest definitive Eucalyptus fossils were dated from 51.9 Ma, and were found in the Laguna del Hunco deposit in Chubut province in Argentina.
Cooling began mid-period, and by the end of the Eocene continental interiors had begun to dry, with forests thinning considerably in some areas. The newly evolved grasses began to expand during the climatic cooling and drying following the extreme warmth of the EECO, with subhumid savannas being known from South America since the Middle Eocene.
The cooling also brought seasonal changes. Deciduous trees, better able to cope with large temperature changes, began to overtake evergreen tropical species. By the end of the period, deciduous forests covered large parts of the northern continents, including North America, Eurasia and the Arctic, and rainforests held on only in equatorial South America, Africa, India and Australia.
Antarctica began the Eocene fringed with a warm temperate to sub-tropical rainforest. Pollen found in Prydz Bay from the Eocene suggest taiga forest existed there. It became much colder as the period progressed; the heat-loving tropical flora was wiped out, and by the beginning of the Oligocene, the continent hosted deciduous forests and vast stretches of tundra.
File:Nuphar carlquistii seeds 01b.jpg|Nuphar seeds, Nymphaeaceae, Ypresian
File:Iodes sp. seed, Icacinaceae, London Clay pyrite fossil, by Omar Hoftun.png|Iodes tree seed, Icacinaceae, London Clay
File:Mastixia sp. seed, Nyssaceae, London Clay pyrite fossil, by Omar Hoftun.jpg|Mastixia tree seed, Nyssaceae, London Clay
File:Ocotea sp. fruit, Lauraceae, London Clay pyrite fossil, by Omar Hoftun.png|Ocotea tree seed, Lauraceae, London clay
File:Macginitiea wyomingensis Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01946.jpg|Macginitiea leaf, Platanaceae, Clarno Formation, Oregon
File:Eocene fossil flower, Clare Family Florissant Fossil Quarry, Florissant, Colorado, USA - 20100807.jpg|Flower, Florissant Formation, Colorado
== Fauna ==
During the Eocene, plants and marine faunas became quite modern. Many modern bird orders first appeared in the Eocene. The Eocene oceans were warm and teeming with fish and other sea life.
=== Vertebrates ===
==== Mammals ====
The oldest known fossils of most of the modern mammal orders appear within a brief period during the early Eocene. At the beginning of the Eocene, several new mammal groups arrived in North America. These modern mammals, like artiodactyls, perissodactyls, and primates, had features like long, thin legs, feet, and hands capable of grasping, as well as differentiated teeth adapted for chewing. Dwarf forms reigned. All the members of the new mammal orders were small, under 10 kg; based on comparisons of tooth size, Eocene mammals were only 60% of the size of the primitive Palaeocene mammals that preceded them. They were also smaller than the mammals that followed them. It is assumed that the hot Eocene temperatures favored smaller animals that were better able to manage the heat.
Rodents were widespread. East Asian rodent faunas declined in diversity when they shifted from ctenodactyloid-dominant to cricetid–dipodid-dominant after the MECO.
Both groups of modern ungulates (hoofed animals) became prevalent because of a major radiation between Europe and North America, along with carnivorous ungulates like Mesonyx. Early forms of many other modern mammalian orders appeared, including horses (most notably the Eohippus), bats, proboscidians (elephants), primates, and rodents. Older primitive forms of mammals declined in variety and importance. Important Eocene land fauna fossil remains have been found in western North America, Europe, Patagonia, Egypt, and southeast Asia. Marine fauna are best known from South Asia and the southeast United States.
After the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, members of the Equoidea arose in North America and Europe, giving rise to some of the earliest equids such as Sifrhippus and basal European equoids such as the palaeothere Hyracotherium. Some of the later equoids were especially species-rich; Palaeotherium, ranging from small to very large in size, is known from as many as 16 species.
Established large-sized mammals of the Eocene include the Uintatherium, Arsinoitherium, and brontotheres, in which the former two, unlike the latter, did not belong to ungulates but groups that became extinct shortly after their establishments.
Large terrestrial mammalian predators had already existed since the Paleocene, but new forms now arose like Hyaenodon and Daphoenus (the earliest lineage of a once-successful predatory family known as bear dogs). Entelodonts meanwhile established themselves as some of the largest omnivores. The first nimravids, including Dinictis, established themselves as amongst the first feliforms to appear. Their groups became highly successful and continued to live past the Eocene.
Basilosaurus is a well-known Eocene whale, but whales as a group had become very diverse during the Eocene, which is when the major transitions from being terrestrial to fully aquatic in cetaceans occurred. The first sirenians were evolving at this time, and would eventually evolve into the extant manatees and dugongs.
File:Dinoceras mirabile Marsh MNHN.jpg|Cast of skull of Uintatherium anceps, a dinoceratan
File:Andrewsarchus09DB.jpg|Reconstruction of Andrewsarchus, an artiodactyl
File:Basilosaurus isis fossil, Nantes History Museum 03.jpg|Basilosaurus, a whale
File:Pakicetus Canada.jpg|Pakicetus, an amphibious cetacean
File:Moeritherium lyonsi (fossil mammal) (Eocene) (32167459460).jpg|Moeritherium, a basal proboscidean
File:Brontotherium skull IMG 4441.jpg|Megacerops, a brontotheriid
File:Hyracodon nebraskensis.jpg|Hyracodon, a perissodactyl
File:Leptictidium auderiense skeleton.JPG|Leptictidium, a small mammal, likely bipedal
File:Peratherium skull.jpg|Peratherium, a herpetotheriid
File:Hesperocyon skull Smithsonian.jpg|Hesperocyon, a canid
==== Birds ====
Eocene birds include some enigmatic groups with resemblances to modern forms, some of which continued from the Paleocene. Bird taxa of the Eocene include carnivorous psittaciforms, such as Messelasturidae, Halcyornithidae, large flightless forms such as Gastornis and Eleutherornis, long legged falcon Masillaraptor, ancient galliforms such as Gallinuloides, putative rail relatives of the family Songziidae, various pseudotooth birds such as Gigantornis, the ibis relative Rhynchaeites, primitive swifts of the genus Aegialornis, and primitive penguins such as Archaeospheniscus and Inkayacu.
Many Eocene birds in Central Europe evolved tuberculate vertebrae as an adaptation against predation, with flightless birds facing low predation pressure during this time as a result.
File:Primobucco mcgrewi USNM PAL 336284 img1.jpg|Primobucco, an early relative of the roller
File:Pseudocrypturus Smithsonian fossil.jpg|Pseudocrypturus, Early Eocene, Wyoming
File:Diatrymaskeleton.JPG|Gastornis, a flightless bird
==== Fishes ====
Fishes, both Chondrichthyes such as sharks and rays, and Osteichthyes (bony fishes), are abundant in the London Clay.
File:Carcharocles sokolowi teeth.png|Teeth of Otodus sokolovi, an otodontid shark
File:Xiphodolamia.jpg|Teeth of Xiphodolamia. a mackerel shark, London Clay
File:Heliobatis radians with two Knightia eocaena (3bce1f6e-f693-43d1-aa0f-67ba7fc50895).tif|Heliobatis and Knightia
File:FOS655.jpg|Eel, cf. Echelus branchialis, collected by Louis Agassiz
File:FOS794.jpg|Vertebrae of a lamniform shark, London Clay, Isle of Sheppey
==== Reptiles ====
Reptile fossils from this time, such as fossils of pythons and turtles, are abundant.
File:Turtle with crocodile bite marks, Eocene, Green River Formation, Kemmerer, Lincoln County, Wyoming, USA - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC02006.JPG|Hummelichelys with crocodile bite marks
File:Borealosuchus wilsoni (15529256785).jpg|Borealosuchus, a crocodyliform
=== Molluscs ===
File:Cerithium giganteum, snails, Middle Eocene, Verona, Italy - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01968.jpg|Cerithium shells
=== Arthropods ===
Several rich fossil insect faunas are known from the Eocene, notably the Baltic amber found mainly along the south coast of the Baltic Sea, amber from the Paris Basin, France, the Fur Formation, Denmark, and the Bembridge Marls from the Isle of Wight, England. Insects found in Eocene deposits mostly belong to genera that exist today, though their range has often shifted since the Eocene. For instance the bibionid genus Plecia is common in fossil faunas from presently temperate areas, but only lives in the tropics and subtropics today. Platypleurin cicadas diversified during the Eocene. Ostracods flourished in the oceans.
File:Harpactocarinus punctulatus, crab, Eocene, Rialo Formation, Monte Baldo Quarry, Verona, Italy - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01954.JPG|Harpactocarcinus, a crab
File:Palaeoncoderes eocenicus L. PITON et N. THEOBALD 1937 Holotype.jpg|Palaeoncoderes, a beetle
=== Other phyla ===
File:Echinolampas ovalis M Eocene Civrac-en-Médoc France.JPG|Echinolampas, a sea urchin
=== Microbes ===
Calcareous nannoplankton were a prominent feature of Eocene marine ecosystems.
|
[
"Basilosaurus",
"Echelus",
"evergreen",
"Nymphaeaceae",
"primate",
"Messelasturidae",
"Gregory Retallack",
"bat",
"clumped isotopes",
"Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution",
"season",
"International Geology Review",
"Orbital eccentricity",
"Africa",
"Macginitiea",
"Florissant Formation",
"Proceedings of the Royal Society B",
"whale",
"Proxy (climate)",
"carbon dioxide",
"Ocotea",
"ibis",
"equid",
"South Asia",
"Baltic Sea",
"Ancona",
"Flowering plant",
"Hantkenina",
"Gastornis",
"Chondrichthyes",
"azolla",
"rodent",
"Prydz Bay",
"Paleocene",
"Alps",
"ocean gyre",
"grasses",
"Primary production",
"Moeritherium",
"Earth and Planetary Science Letters",
"Sifrhippus",
"plate tectonics",
"Eurasia",
"Arctic",
"Antarctica",
"Neogene",
"perissodactyls",
"Isle of Wight",
"Inkayacu",
"Entelodonts",
"seafloor spreading",
"tundra",
"Geological Society of America Bulletin",
"Uintatherium",
"Hesperocyon",
"weathering",
"Holocene",
"bear dogs",
"Priabonian",
"Chubut province",
"Alaska",
"Australia",
"sirenia",
"methane clathrate",
"sea surface temperature",
"American Journal of Science",
"Lauraceae",
"Geosphere (journal)",
"Systematic Entomology",
"Palaeotherium",
"lagerstätte",
"Tectonics (journal)",
"snakes",
"icefloe",
"Umbria",
"Journal of South American Earth Sciences",
"Atmosphere of Earth",
"Luxor",
"Fur Formation",
"Princeton University Press",
"Central Europe",
"Clarno Formation",
"rock (geology)",
"Indian Plate",
"Palm tree",
"Aegialornis",
"Mediterranean",
"Early Eocene Climatic Optimum",
"Carbon-12",
"International Commission on Stratigraphy",
"geologic period",
"turtle",
"TEX86",
"New York City",
"Wadi El Hitan",
"Metasequoia",
"Uintatherium anceps",
"Geology (journal)",
"southeast United States",
"Paris Basin",
"Charles Lyell",
"crocodile",
"Megacerops",
"Songzia",
"carbon isotope",
"Balkanatolia",
"Geological history of oxygen",
"Rail (bird)",
"Icacinaceae",
"Ancient Greek",
"flora (plants)",
"Otodus sokolovi",
"Oligocene",
"Nature Geoscience",
"Austrian Journal of Earth Sciences",
"palm trees",
"Pakicetus",
"taiga",
"Coraciidae",
"London Clay",
"Himalaya",
"Uintan",
"ocean acidification",
"Gigantornis",
"Baltic amber",
"Earth-Science Reviews",
"Louis Agassiz",
"Tethys Sea",
"Polar regions of Earth",
"Arsinoitherium",
"Osteichthyes",
"Science (journal)",
"Cenozoic",
"1968 in paleontology",
"Oxygen isotope",
"Hyracotherium",
"foraminifera",
"Rhynchaeites",
"Fossil",
"cetacea",
"Bolca",
"Hyaenodon",
"palaeothere",
"North America",
"Moritz Hörnes",
"fauna",
"The Journal of Geology",
"Greenland",
"extinction event",
"Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology",
"pythons",
"nimravids",
"psittaciform",
"Denmark",
"Europe",
"Arctic Ocean",
"azolla event",
"Deciduous",
"Jack A. Wolfe",
"teeth",
"Peratherium",
"Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point",
"Eocene–Oligocene extinction event",
"Tropical rainforest",
"Eleutherornis",
"Borealosuchus",
"euryhaline",
"Cribrohantkenina",
"dugong",
"Eocene Thermal Maximum 2",
"horse",
"Argentina",
"volcanism",
"Mesonyx",
"Palaeoncoderes",
"ungulate",
"Basin and Range Province",
"Nature Communications",
"Pelagornithidae",
"brontotheres",
"Dinictis",
"Geophysical Research Letters",
"Archaeospheniscus",
"Lutetian",
"Drake Passage",
"leg",
"feliforms",
"Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology",
"alkenone",
"subtropical",
"coal",
"Egypt",
"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America",
"dinocyst",
"Bibionidae",
"Laramide Orogeny",
"William Whewell",
"Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution",
"Nuphar",
"hand",
"methane",
"Knightia",
"Chesapeake Bay impact crater",
"geological period",
"fish",
"Pseudocrypturus",
"crude oil",
"greenhouse effect",
"List of fossil sites",
"Miocene",
"obliquity",
"Geobiology (journal)",
"Messel pit",
"Parts-per notation",
"Southern Ocean",
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Popigai impact structure",
"rainforest",
"bioindicator",
"Scientific Reports",
"John Phillips (geologist)",
"South America",
"Antarctic ice sheet",
"Green River Formation",
"global warming potential",
"Global and Planetary Change",
"Eohippus",
"Cerithium",
"Hummelichelys",
"Lamniformes",
"Bartonian",
"Primobucco",
"Antarctic Circumpolar Current",
"bird",
"sulfuric acid",
"fold (geology)",
"Hyracodon",
"PLOS ONE",
"Proboscidea",
"Online Etymology Dictionary",
"precession",
"Isle of Sheppey",
"archipelago",
"Daphoenus",
"Platanaceae",
"sea urchin",
"supercontinent",
"Paleogene",
"Plecia",
"beetle",
"Halcyornithidae",
"Xiphodolamia",
"continent",
"Stratum",
"polar stratospheric cloud",
"bolide",
"Himalayas",
"Delta 13C",
"Cenozoic Era",
"Pliocene",
"Carbon-13",
"Period (geology)",
"Nature (journal)",
"Massignano",
"Opening of the North Atlantic Ocean",
"Patagonia",
"Andrewsarchus",
"Mastixia",
"Leptictidium",
"India",
"Eos",
"Massignano (Ancona)",
"PeerJ",
"Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum",
"Savanna",
"carbon sequestration",
"Masillaraptor",
"mountain building",
"Last appearance datum",
"atmospheric methane",
"Ellesmere Island",
"Equoidea",
"Asia",
"Italy",
"Pelagic zone",
"King County, Washington",
"Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum",
"Gallinuloides",
"Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum",
"Laurasia",
"epoch (geology)",
"Cupressaceae",
"manatee",
"Eucalyptus",
"northern Europe",
"Iodes",
"Journal of the Geological Society",
"Bembridge Marls",
"Azolla Event",
"Heterotroph",
"upwelling",
"Puget Group",
"galliformes",
"Heliobatis",
"Climate of the Past",
"Journal of Anatomy",
"Harpactocarcinus",
"Echinolampas",
"fossil",
"Insular dwarfism",
"Era (geology)",
"southeast Asia",
"Ypresian",
"Nyssaceae",
"artiodactyl"
] |
9,420 |
Eindhoven
|
Eindhoven ( ; ) is a city and municipality of the Netherlands, located in the southern province of North Brabant, of which it is the largest municipality, and is also located in the Dutch part of the natural region the Campine. With a population of 246,443 (1 January 2024) on a territory of 88.92 km2, it is the fifth-largest city of the Netherlands and the largest outside the Randstad conurbation.
Eindhoven was originally located at the confluence of the Dommel and the Gender. A municipality since the 13th century, Eindhoven witnessed rapid growth starting in the 1900s by textile and tobacco industries. Two well-known companies, DAF Trucks and Philips, were founded in the city; Philips would go on to become a major multinational conglomerate while based in Eindhoven. Apart from Philips, Eindhoven also contains the globally famous Design Academy Eindhoven.
Neighbouring cities and towns include Son en Breugel, Nuenen, Geldrop-Mierlo, Helmond, Heeze-Leende, Waalre, Veldhoven, Eersel, Oirschot and Best. The agglomeration has a population of . The metropolitan area consists of inhabitants. The city region has a population of 753,426. The Brabantse Stedenrij combined metropolitan area has about two million inhabitants.
== Etymology ==
The name may derive from the contraction of the regional words eind (meaning "last" or "end") and hove (or hoeve, a section of some 14 hectares of land). Toponymically, eind occurs commonly as a prefix and postfix in local place- and street names. A "hove" comprised a parcel of land which a local lord might lease to private persons (such as farmers). Given that a string of such parcels existed around Woensel, the name Eindhoven may have originated with the meaning literally "last hoves on the land of Woensel" in Dutch language.
Another explanation is that "Eind" is derived from "Gender", the city is located at the end of this little river. Genderhoven phonetically would have changed to Endehoven. 'Ende' is also the old spelling and pronunciation of the word 'eind', which would explain the change from 'Gender' to 'Eind'.
==History==
=== 13th–15th centuries ===
The written history of Eindhoven started in 1232, when Duke Hendrik I of Brabant granted city rights to Eindhoven, then a small town right on the confluence of the Dommel and Gender streams. At the time of granting of its charter, Eindhoven had approximately 170 houses enclosed by a rampart. Just outside the city walls stood a small castle. The city was also granted the right to organize a weekly market and the farmers in nearby villages were obliged to come to Eindhoven to sell their produce. Another factor in its establishment was its location on the trade route from Holland to Liège.
Around 1388, the city's fortifications were strengthened further. And between 1413 and 1420, a new castle was built within the city walls. In 1486, Eindhoven was plundered and burned by troops from Guelders.
=== 16th–18th centuries ===
The reconstruction of Eindhoven was finished in 1502, with a stronger rampart and a new castle. However, in 1543 it fell again, its defense works having been neglected due to poverty.
A big fire in 1554 destroyed 75% of the houses but by 1560 these had been rebuilt with the help of William I of Orange. During the Dutch Revolt, Eindhoven changed hands between the Dutch and the Spanish several times during which it was burned down by renegade Spanish soldiers, until finally in 1583 it was captured once more by Spanish troops and its city walls were demolished.
Eindhoven did not become part of the Netherlands until 1629. During the French occupation, Eindhoven suffered again with many of its houses destroyed by the invading forces. Eindhoven remained a minor city after that until the start of the Industrial Revolution.
=== 19th century ===
The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century provided a major growth impulse. Canals, roads and railroads were constructed. Eindhoven was connected to the major Zuid-Willemsvaart canal through the Eindhovens Kanaal branch in 1843 and was connected by rail to Tilburg, 's-Hertogenbosch, Venlo and Belgium between 1866 and 1870. Industrial activities initially centred around tobacco and textiles and boomed with the rise of lighting and electronics giant Philips, which was founded as a light bulb manufacturing company in Eindhoven in 1891.
Industrialisation brought population growth to Eindhoven. On the establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, Eindhoven had 2,310 inhabitants.
=== 20th century ===
By 1920, the population was 47,946; by 1925 it was 63,870 and in 1935 that had ballooned to 103,030. The explosive growth of industry in the region and the subsequent housing needs of workers called for radical changes in administration, as the City of Eindhoven was still confined to its medieval moat city limits. In 1920, the five neighbouring municipalities of Woensel (to the north), Tongelre (northeast and east), Stratum (southeast), Gestel en Blaarthem (southwest) and Strijp (west), which already bore the brunt of the housing needs and related problems, were incorporated into the new Groot-Eindhoven ("Greater Eindhoven") municipality. The prefix "Groot-" was later dropped.
After the incorporation of 1920, the five former municipalities became districts of the Municipality of Eindhoven, with Eindhoven-Centrum (the City proper) forming the sixth. Since then, an additional seventh district has been formed by dividing the largest district, that of Woensel, into Woensel-Zuid and Woensel-Noord.
The early 20th century saw additions in technical industry with the advent of car and truck manufacturing company Van Doorne's Aanhangwagenfabriek (Trailer factory) (DAF) which was later renamed to Van Doorne's Automobiel Fabriek and the subsequent shift towards electronics and engineering, with the traditional tobacco and textile industries waning and finally disappearing in the 1970s.
A first air raid in World War II was flown by the RAF on 6 December 1942 targeting the Philips factory downtown, in which 148 civilians died, even though the attack was carried out on a Sunday. Large-scale air raids, including the bombing by the Luftwaffe on 19 September 1944 during Operation Market Garden, destroyed large parts of the city and killed 227 civilians while leaving 800 wounded. The reconstruction that followed left very little historical remains and the postwar reconstruction period saw drastic renovation plans in highrise style, some of which were implemented. At the time, there was little regard for historical heritage. During the 1960s, a new city hall was built and its Neo-gothic predecessor (1867) demolished to make way for a planned arterial road that never materialised.
The 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s saw large-scale housing developments in the districts of Woensel-Zuid and Woensel-Noord, making Eindhoven the fifth-largest city in the Netherlands.
=== 21st century ===
At the start of the 21st century, a whole new housing development called Meerhoven was constructed at the site of the old airport of Welschap, west of Eindhoven. The airport itself, now called Eindhoven Airport, had moved earlier to a new location, paving the way for much-needed new houses. Meerhoven is part of the Strijp district and is partially built on lands annexed from the municipality of Veldhoven.
==Geography==
The villages and city that make up modern Eindhoven were originally built on sandy elevations between the Dommel, Gender and Tongelreep rivers. Beginning in the 19th century, the basins of the rivers themselves have also been used as housing land, resulting in occasional flooding in the city centre. Partly to reduce flooding, the bed of the Gender stream, which flowed directly through the city centre, was dammed off and filled up after the War, and the course of the Dommel was regulated. New ecological and socio-historical insights have led to parts of the Dommel's course being restored to their original states, and plans to have the Gender flow through the centre once again.
The large-scale housing developments of the 20th century saw residential areas being built on former agricultural lands and woods, former heaths that had been turned into cultivable lands in the 19th century.
The city is currently divided into seven districts:
===Climate===
Eindhoven has an oceanic climate with slightly warmer summers and colder winters than the coastal parts of the Netherlands. Its all-time record is set on 25 July 2019 and set on 13 January 1968, while winter lows have dipped below during extreme cold snaps. Although frosts are frequent in winter, there is no lasting snow cover in a normal winter due to the mild daytime temperatures.
==Demographics==
===Population===
, the population of Eindhoven consisted of 246,443 people (according to AlleCijfers.nl).
People are classified as being of foreign descent when they were born outside of the Netherlands, or when at least one of their parents was born outside of the Netherlands.
The municipal agglomeration of Eindhoven (an administrative construct which includes only some of the surrounding towns and villages) has 327,245 inhabitants as of 1 January 2010.
The spoken language is a combination of Kempenlands (a Dutch dialect spoken in a large area east and south east of the city, including Arendonk and Lommel in Belgium) and North Meierijs (between the south of Den Bosch and into Eindhoven). Both dialects belong to the East Brabantian dialect group), which is very similar to colloquial Dutch).
===Districts===
Of all Eindhoven districts, the historical centre is by far the smallest in size and population, numbering only 5,419 in 2006. Woensel-Noord is the largest, having been the city's main area of expansion for several decades.
Population figures for all districts, as of 1 January 2008, ranked by size:
Woensel-Noord (65,429)
Woensel-Zuid (35,789)
Stratum (31,778)
Gestel (26,590)
Strijp (25,402)
Tongelre (19,680)
Centrum (5,757)
===Religion===
Eindhoven is located in the southeast of the province of North Brabant. This area is historically Catholic and the population of Eindhoven was similarly mostly Catholic for a very long time until the late 1970s. However, the internationalizing influence of the university, Philips and other companies have created a more mixed population over the last few decades.
The spiritual needs of the Eindhoven population are tended to by a steadily shrinking number of churches, two mosques and one synagogue.
===Crime===
In research by the Dutch newspaper Algemeen Dagblad based on the police's statistical data on crime rates, Eindhoven was found to have the highest crime rate in the Netherlands for 2006, 2007, 2009, and 2010. In 2011, Eindhoven has slipped down the list to number six.
In 2009, in the Eindhoven agglomeration, the following numbers of crimes were recorded:
===Languages===
Standard Dutch
Eindhoven does not have its own, uniform dialect. Varieties of the Brabantian dialect used to be spoken in the former villages of Gestel, Woensel and Stratum, but are now almost extinct. The closest city to Eindhoven in which Brabantian is spoken is Helmond.
This cooperative tradition has also developed into a different direction than the traditional technology research done at the university. Starting in 2002, the university, the Catharina hospital, Philips Medical and the University of Maastricht joined forces and started joint research into biomedical science, technology and engineering. Within Eindhoven, this research has been concentrated in a new university faculty (BioMedical Technology or BMT). This development has also made Eindhoven a biomedical technology hub within the country and its (European) region.
Prime examples of industrial heritage in Eindhoven are the renovated Witte Dame ("White Lady") complex, a former Philips lamp factory; and the Admirant building (informally known as Bruine Heer or "Brown Gentleman" in reference to the Witte Dame across the street), the former Philips main offices. The Witte Dame currently houses the municipal library, the Design Academy and a selection of shops. The Admirant has been renovated into an Office building for small companies. Across the street from the Witte Dame and next to the Admirant is Philips' first light bulb factory (nicknamed Roze Baby, or "Pink Baby", in reference to its pink colour and much smaller size when compared to the "White Lady" and "Brown Gentleman"). The small building now houses the "Centrum Kunstlicht in de Kunst" (centre artificial light in art) and the "Philips Incandescent Lamp Factory of 1891" museum.
===Knowledge economy initiatives===
Due to its high-tech environment, Eindhoven is part of several initiatives to develop, foster and increase a knowledge economy. Chief among these are:
Brainport Top Technology Region, a cooperative initiative of local government, industry and the Eindhoven University of Technology to develop the local knowledge economy of the Eindhoven region.
Brainport Development, an extension of the Top Technology Region, Brainport Development serves as the Eindhoven's regional innovation agency to maintain its position as an innovation hub.
Samenwerkingsverband Regio Eindhoven, a cooperative agreement among the municipalities in the Eindhoven metropolitan area.
The Eindhoven-Leuven-Aachen triangle, a cooperation agreement between the universities and surrounding regions of Eindhoven, Leuven (Belgium) and Aachen (Germany).
The Intelligent Community Forum named the Eindhoven metro region the No. 21 intelligent community in 2008 and the No. 7 intelligent community in 2009 and 2010. In 2011, the ICF named Eindhoven the Intelligent Community of the Year. Since 2012, Eindhoven has vanished from the top 7 of intelligent communities.
===EIT co-location===
Eindhoven is one of the co-location centres of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT). It hosts two Knowledge and Innovation Communities (KICs): Innoenergy (Sustainable Energy) and EIT ICT Labs (Information and Communication Technology). The co-locations are on the High Tech Campus Eindhoven.
==Education==
Eindhoven, being a city with a 240,000+ population, is served by a large number of schools both at primary and secondary education levels. In addition, Eindhoven is a higher-education hub within the southern Netherlands, with several institutes of higher education that serve students from the extended region of North Brabant, Zeeland, Limburg and parts of the surrounding provinces.
===Primary education===
Primary education is provided to the children aged 4 to 12 in Eindhoven through a large number of primary schools:
Special needs primary education:
SALTO school Jan Nieuwenhuizen
SKPO school De Reis van Brandaan
SKPO school Petraschool
SALTO school De Vijfkamp
===Secondary education===
Secondary education is provided to the children aged 12 to 18 in Eindhoven through several highschools:
Special needs secondary education:
Sondervickcollege, Locatie de Stolberg
De Korenaer
Mgr. Bekkers
De Beemden
Mytylschool
Antoon Schellens College
Praktijkschool Eindhoven
VSO Ekkersbeek
Instituut 'St. Marie'
===Higher and adult education===
Eindhoven hosts four different public institutions for higher and adult education, as well as a number of private institutions offering courses and trainings. The public institutions hosted in Eindhoven are:
Design Academy.
Eindhoven University of Technology.
Fontys University of Applied Sciences (Eindhoven branch).
Tio University
The Open University also has a study center in Eindhoven.
Among the private institutions is the Centrum voor Kunsten Eindhoven, which offers art-related courses to adults (including a DJ-education).
== Politics ==
=== Municipal council ===
The municipal council is the legislative council at the municipal level in Eindhoven; its existence is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands. The Eindhoven city council consists of 45 elected representatives from the Eindhoven municipality. These are elected during municipal elections from candidates running in Eindhoven. Eindhoven politics consists of local branches of the national political parties and purely local parties with strictly local interests. The city council reflects this mix in its makeup.
=== Municipal executive ===
==== Alder(wo)men ====
The executive council in Dutch municipalities is called the College of the Mayor and Aldermen (Dutch: College van Burgemeester en Wethouders or College van B&W for short). The mayor is appointed by the monarch, but the council of aldermen is composed as a result of the formation of a local coalition government. This coalition is formed in such a way as to be able to rely on a majority of the votes in the city council.
2014 – 2018
In May 2014, a coalition was formed between PvdA, D66, SP, and GreenLeft. Together they had 26 seats in the city council. The council of alder(wo)men consisted of the following people:
Staf Depla (PvdA): economy, work and income and vocational education
Yasin Torunoglu (PvdA): living, boroughs, space and citizen participation
Marco van Dorst replaced by Wilbert Seuren in July 2015 (both D66): spatial planning and treasury
Mary-Ann Schreurs (D66): innovation and design, sustainability and culture
Bianca van Kaathoven (SP): active city, diversity and permits
Jannie Visscher (SP): youth, education, traffic and transport
Lenie Scholten (GreenLeft): health care and WIJeindhoven
2018 – 2022
In May 2018, a coalition was formed existing of VVD, GreenLeft, PvdA, and CDA. They had 26 seats together. The alder(wo)men were:
Monique List (VVD)
Marcel Oosterveer (VVD)
Renate Richters (GreenLeft)
Jan van der Veer replaced by Rik Thijs in June 2019 (both GreenLeft)
Yasin Torunoglu (PvdA)
Stijn Steenbakkers (CDA)
2022 – 2026
In June 2022, a coalition has been formed existing of GreenLeft, CDA, PvdA, and D66, having 25 seats together. Their alder(wo)men have been:
Saskia Lammers (GreenLeft): well-being, work, poverty, culture and design
Rik Thijs (GreenLeft): climate, energy, soil and greening
Samir Toub (GreenLeft): diversity, care, youth and social support
Maes van Lanschot (CDA): finance, sport, heritage and regional cooperation
Stijn Steenbakkers (CDA): brainport, economy, education, KnoopXL and Eindhoven-Northwest
Mieke Verhees (PvdA): housing, neighbourhoods, space and services
Monique Esselbrugge (D66): higher and vocational education, mobility, city center and Design District
==== Mayor ====
The mayors of the Netherlands are not elected but appointed by the crown. Nevertheless, there has been a movement over the last few years to give the municipalities more say in who will be their mayor, which has resulted in consultative referendums being held in the larger cities to "suggest" a candidate for the post. This was also tried in Eindhoven.
On 23 January 2008, a referendum to elect a mayor was held in Eindhoven. This referendum, the second of its kind in the Netherlands, was attended by 24.6% of the inhabitants. This was less than the required 30% needed to make a referendum binding. Nevertheless, the city council would choose the winner of the referendum as the preferred candidate. The main reason for the low attendance was that the candidates, Leen Verbeek and Rob van Gijzel, were from the same party (PvdA). Rob van Gijzel won the referendum with 61.8% of the votes and was appointed the city's new mayor.
The mayor is the chairman of the Council of B&W. He also has responsibility for a number of specific posts (like the aldermen). For example, in the executive council of 2014-2018 mayor Van Gijzel held responsibility for the post of communication. has a collection of DAF cars and the Philips Gloeilampenfabriekje anno 1891 (across the street from the Kempenland) documents the early lightbulb industry.
The former district court house now houses the Designhuis, a public podium and interaction area for modern design and innovation.
The Eindhoven Museum is an archaeological open-air museum which focuses on the region's Iron Age and Middle Ages. It merged in 2011 with Museum Kempenland which was a regional museum, which documents the history of the Kempenland region in objects, documents, paintings and educational activities. Museum Kempenland's old location, the Steentjeskerk, is closed.
The Inkijkmuseum (the Look-In museum; housed in an old linen factory in the Dommelstraat) is a small but special museum: it offers ever-changing exhibits, which are to be viewed through the building's windows.
The Van Abbemuseum has a collection of modern and contemporary art, including works by Picasso, Kandinsky, Mondriaan and Chagall.
De Ontdekfabriek (Discovery Factory) children's museum at Strijp-S
Eindhoven was home to the Evoluon science museum, sponsored by Philips. The Evoluon building has evolved into a conference centre.
====Open-air art====
The Eindhoven public space contains many forms of artistic expression (a book published by the Eindhoven tourist board records 550 and more have been added since), with high "concentrations" of them in the parks. The Stadswandelpark for instance, contains over 30 works of modern art. There are also several other works of art on permanent display throughout the city, such as Flying Pins (by Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen, who considered the location on the southern stretch of the John F. Kennedylaan to be like a bowling alley) and Swing (a construct on the Karel de Grotelaan, which morphs into different geometric shapes as you move around it). There are also a number of statues of famous city inhabitants, such as Jan van Hooff (by Auke Hettema, 1992) and Frits Philips (by Kees Verkade) on the Market Square. There is a statue of Anton Philips in front of the central railway station.
Eindhoven is also, to some degree, open to forms of impromptu and alternative art. For example, the Berenkuil is a freezone for graffiti artists in the city.
===== Light art =====
Strijp-S is a place for experimentation with LED lighting, which keeps the historic connection with Philips' past. Some light art includes the project Fakkel by Har Hollands. In the underground passage to NatLab artist Daan Roosegaarde installed his project Crystal.
Strijp-S is a regular location for the light festival GLOW.
====Music and theatre====
The Effenaar is a popular music venue and cultural center in Eindhoven, and is located at the Dommelstraat.
In 1992, the Muziekcentrum Frits Philips was opened as a stage for classical and popular music in Eindhoven, reviewed by critics as a concert hall with acoustics that rival the best halls in Europe. Before that, Philips sponsored the POC.
Parktheater Eindhoven is Eindhoven's stage for opera, cabaret, ballet etc. Opened in 1964, it has received over 250,000 visitors every year. With its 1,000 m2 it has one of the largest stages in the Netherlands. With a major renovation ending in 2007, the new Parktheater will receive an estimated 300,000 visitors a year.
Eindhoven's Plaza Futura is now a cinema featuring cultural movies, lectures and special cultural events.
Especially for students, Studium Generale Eindhoven organizes "socially, culturally and intellectually formative events". From within the student body, two Tunas provide entertainment from time to time at university and city events: Tuna Ciudad de Luz (Tuna of the City of Light) and the ladies tuna La Tuniña.
The general music and theatre scene in Eindhoven (in the broadest sense) is supported by a foundation called PopEi. The purpose of this foundation is to support artistic groups with facilities, especially rehearsal stages and areas (housed in the old Philips location of Strijp-S) but also storage facilities. PopEi also provides a working environment for groups (through cafeteria facilities in Strijp-S, so groups can have real working days) and provides some logistical support for organizing events.
===Recreation===
Eindhoven has a lively recreational scene. For going out, there are numerous bars on the Market square, Stratumseind (Stratum's End) which is the largest pub-street in the Netherlands, Dommelstraat, Wilhelmina square and throughout the rest of the city. In addition to the more culturally oriented Plaza Futura, there are three cinemas in the centre of town ("Servicebioscoop Zien", "Vue" and Pathé Eindhoven, which offers THX sound, IMAX screens and 3D movie viewing).
Eindhoven also hosts a large number of cultural and entertainment-oriented festivals. The biggest festivals in Eindhoven are:
ABlive, popfestival (September)
Carnaval, (February)
Koningsdag, National Day (27 April)
Muziek op de Dommel, classical music festival (June)
EDIT, festival (June)
Fiesta del Sol, street- and music acts (June)
UCI ProTour – Eindhoven Team Time Trial, international cycling tour (June)
Virus Festival, alternative music festival (last edition in 2007, inactive at the moment)
Dynamo Metal Fest (July)
Park Hilaria, fun fair (August)
Folkwoods, folk festival (August)
Reggae Sundance, reggae festival (August)
Lichtjesroute, 15-mile-tour of light ornaments, commemorating the liberation of Eindhoven (from 18 September)
Eindhoven Marathon, (October)
Dutch Design Week, international school festival (October)
GLOW Festival Eindhoven
TROMP international music competition & Festival, international classical music competition & festival (15–23 November 2008: String quartet, Nov 2010: Percussion)
STRP Festival, art & technology festival (23–25 November 2007)
===Parks===
Eindhoven contains several parks and a lot of open, green space. Of the five largest cities in the Netherlands, it has the highest percentage of green area (encompassing about ⅓ of all public space). It is also the greenest of the five largest cities in North Brabant. The green area per house is about .
Some of the major parks in Eindhoven are the Stadswandelpark, Genneper Parken, the Philips van Lenneppark, Philips de Jongh Wandelpark and the Henri Dunantpark. There is also a green area surrounding the Karpendonkse Plas (a water area). The combination of park area, water and general atmosphere got the Ooievaarsnest neighborhood elected the "Best large-city neighborhood of the Netherlands" by the NRC Handelsblad in 1997.
===Sport===
The premier sporting club of the city is PSV Eindhoven, the professional football club playing in the Eredivisie. Their home base is the Philips Stadion. PSV won the 1988 European Cup as well as 25 Dutch championships.
FC Eindhoven is another football club based in Eindhoven, currently playing in the Eerste Divisie.
HC Oranje-Rood is the biggest field hockey club in Eindhoven and in fact one of the biggest clubs in the Netherlands. It is a combination of former clubs Oranje Zwart and EMHC. Oranje Zwart's men's team was the reigning Dutch champion for the past 3 years (14/15/16). They also won the EHL in 2015.
Eindhoven Kemphanen is the major ice hockey club in the city. They play in IJssportcentrum Eindhoven and compete in the North Sea Cup.
Eindhoven High Techs are the minor league affiliate of the Eindhoven Kemphanen and play in the Eerste Divisie.
Swimming pool complex De Tongelreep houses various pools for recreation, training and sports research supported by the Eindhoven University of Technology and several top sporting institutions. Its "Pieter van den Hoogenband Swimming Stadium" hosted the 2008 European Championships Swimming, Diving and Synchronised Swimming, the 2010 IPC Swimming World Championships, the 2010 European Short Course Swimming Championships, the 2012 European Championships Waterpolo, Diving and Synchronised Swimming, the 2013 FINA Swimming World Cup, the 2014 IPC European Swimming Championships, the 2017 FINA Swimming World Cup and the 2018 FINA Swimming World Cup.
Eindhoven houses Europe's largest indoor skateboard park Area 51 (skatepark) and is home of a lively skateboard culture.
Eindhoven has two boxing clubs, The Golden Gloves and Muscle Fit.
Eindhoven hosted the 1999 World Table Tennis Championships.
Eindhoven Shamrocks Gaelic Football Club are an amateur sports team. The club was founded in 2013 and is based at Oude Bosschebaan 32, 5624 AA in Eindhoven. The club is affiliated to the European County Board of the Gaelic Athletic Association. The Shamrocks have won the Benelux Shield Competition in 2017.
Eindhoven has a baseball club called PSV, which plays at the stadium which co-hosted the 2005 IBAF Baseball World Cup.
Eindhoven has an American Football team, , which plays at the 1st division in the Dutch American Football League.
Strijp-S is a magnet for urban sports like skateboarding, BMX and bouldering as well as bootcamp classes.
Eindhoven has two Rugby union Clubs a student rugby club associated with the Eindhoven University of Technology and formerly known as RCE/PSV.
===Adult-orientated entertainment===
The centre of town features two casinos (one branch of Holland Casino and the independent Casino4Events). At the A67 a Jack's casino is located.
There is a red light district on the Baekelandplein, as well as four brothels throughout the city. There is also a blue movie theater.
===Strijp-S===
The old Philips factory complex has been transformed into a multi-purpose cultural and residential complex called Strijp-S. This includes conference and event space, space for concerts and events, art of lighting, space for sports such as BMX, bouldering, and more, a walking promenade, etc.
==Media==
Eindhoven features several print media. The local newspaper, called the Eindhovens Dagblad, is a daily newspaper with over 110,000 subscribers in the Samenwerkingsverband Regio Eindhoven region. It has a national and international section, as well as a section dedicated to regional news; the editorial department is located in Eindhoven.
In addition to the newspaper, Eindhoven is served by a number of weekly door-to-door publications. Chief among these is Groot Eindhoven (which carries publications of the city council, as well as other articles and advertisements). Other than that there are de Trompetter, de Weekendkrant and the ZondagsNieuws. The first two are delivered midweek, the last two are weekend publications.
There are several regional and municipal radio stations. The local radio station is Studio040, whereas Omroep Brabant and RoyaalFM provide regional radio.
Local television is provided by Studio040. Omroep Brabant broadcasts regionally from its television studio in Son.
Internet, television and telephone connectivity is available via cable television, optic fiber and ADSL.
==Transport==
===Air traffic===
Eindhoven Airport is the closest airport, located approximately from the town centre. The airport serves as a military air base and a civilian commercial airport. Eindhoven Airport is the second-busiest in the Netherlands (after Schiphol). Ryanair serves London Stansted Airport, Dublin, Kyiv, Rome, Milan, Pisa, Bordeaux, Marseille, Glasgow, Madrid, Valencia, Stockholm, Kaunas, Malta, Sofia and Barcelona. Wizz air serves Belgrade, Brno, Bucharest-Otopeni, Budapest, Cluj-Napoca, Debrecen, Gdańsk, Katowice, Prague, Riga, Sofia, Timișoara, Vilnius, Wrocław. In the summer season, Reykjavík is served with 2 weekly flights operated by Iceland Express. Transavia services Alicante, Antalya, Athens, Bodrum, Corfu, Dalaman, Faro, Gran Canaria, Innsbruck, Málaga, Majorca, Munich, Prague, Rhodes and Salzburg, though some destinations are served only seasonally. Eindhoven Airport served more than 6.2 million passengers in 2018.
=== Rail traffic ===
Eindhoven is a rail transport hub. Eindhoven Centraal railway station is the main station in Eindhoven. It has connections in the directions of:
Tilburg – Breda – Rotterdam – Delft – The Hague
's-Hertogenbosch – Utrecht – Amsterdam – Alkmaar/Enkhuizen
's-Hertogenbosch – Utrecht – Amsterdam Zuid – Schiphol Airport
Eindhoven Centraal is served by both intercity and local services while the smaller station, Eindhoven Strijp-S is only served by local trains. Towards 's-Hertogenbosch, Utrecht and Amsterdam trains run every ten minutes, on every day of the week. Eindhoven Stadion is a small station that serves Philips Stadion in the event of football matches or other special events at the stadium. It is located 900m west of the main station.
Up until World War II, a train service connected Amsterdam to Liège via Eindhoven and Valkenswaard, but the service was discontinued and the line broken up. Recently, talks have resumed to have a service to Neerpelt, Belgium via Weert.
=== Roads and highways ===
The A2/E25 motorway from Amsterdam to Luxembourg passes Eindhoven to the west and south of the city. The A2 connects to the highway A58 to Tilburg and Breda just north of the city. Just south of Eindhoven, the A2 connects to the A67 / E34 between Antwerp and Duisburg. In 2006, the A50 was completed connecting Eindhoven to Nijmegen and Zwolle.
=== Local public transit ===
The public transport of Eindhoven consists of more than 20 city bus lines, which also serve neighbouring villages such as Veldhoven, Geldrop and Nuenen. Nine of these buslines (400–408) are marketed as high quality public transport and run with 43 electric articulated buses. Two specially built separated busways (HOV1 & HOV2) are used by lines 400 to 408. Line 401 to the airport runs almost completely on separated busways. Apart from the city lines there are some 30 regional and rush-hour lines.
===Bicycle infrastructure===
Akin to all large Dutch cities, Eindhoven has an extensive network of bicycle paths. Since 2012, the Eindhoven bicycle path network has incorporated the Hovenring.
==Medical care==
Eindhoven has two hospitals in three locations: the Catharina Hospital and the Máxima Medisch Centrum, which has a branch in Woensel-Zuid (the old Diaconessenhuis) and one in Veldhoven (the old Sint Joseph Hospital). These three have an extensive cooperation and have divided specialties among each other. Emergency medicine, for example, is concentrated in the MMC Veldhoven branch and the Catharina Hospital, the MMC Eindhoven branch has no emergency department. Cardiac procedures are done in the Catharina.
Catharina is also an academic and research hospital and participates in a shared research program with Philips Medical, the Eindhoven University of Technology and the Maastricht University into biomedical science, technology and engineering.
==People==
Kees Bol (1916–2009), painter and art educator
Jan de Bont (born 1943), film director
Pieter Celie (born 1942), artist
Hugo Brandt Corstius (1935–2014), writer
Rene Daniels (born 1950), painter
Lonneke Engel (born 1981), fashion model
Jalila Essaïdi (born 1980), artist and entrepreneur
Jan van Hooff (1755–1816), statesman
Nicole van den Hurk (1980–1995), homicide victim
Ton de Leeuw, (born 1941), organizational theorist
Theo Maassen (born 1966), comedian and actor
Tom van den Nieuwenhuijzen (born 1982), politician
Frits Philips (1905–2005), businessman, son of Anton Philips
Gerard Philips (1858–1942) and Anton Philips (1874–1951), founders of the Philips company
Bas Rutten (born 1965), MMA sportsman, color commentator, actor
Music
Brooks (born 1995), DJ and record producer
Maddix (DJ) (born 1990), DJ and record producer
Patrick van Deurzen (born 1964), composer
Sander van Doorn (born 1979), techno/trance music DJ and producer
Peter Koelewijn (born 1940), musician and record producer
Lenny Kuhr (born 1950), singer-songwriter
Party In Backyard, YouTuber and record producer
Piet Souer (born 1945), record producer
Sport
Peter Aerts (born 1970), kickboxer
Christijan Albers (born 1979), Formula One racing driver
Imke Bartels (born 1977), equestrian
Tineke Bartels (born 1951), equestrian
Arthur Borren (born 1949), field hockey player
Jan Borren (born 1947), field hockey player and coach
Phillip Cocu (born 1970), football player
Coen Dillen, (1926–1990), former PSV Eindhoven footballer
Cody Gakpo (born 1999), football player
Paul Haarhuis (born 1966), tennis player
François van Kruijsdijk (born 1952), medley swimmer
Patrick Lodewijks (born 1967), football goalkeeper
Niels Raaijmakers (born 2000), football player
Rob Reckers (born 1981), (field) hockey player
Rik Smits (born 1966), basketball player
Margje Teeuwen (born 1974), field hockey midfielder
Rick VandenHurk (born 1985), baseball player
Tisha Volleman (born 1999), artistic gymnast
Cor Vriend (born 1949), long-distance runner, currently manager for long-distance runner
Remmert Wielinga (born 1978), professional road bicycle racer
Robert de Wit (born 1962), decathlete and bobsledder
Klaas-Erik Zwering (born 1981), swimmer
==Twin towns – sister cities==
Eindhoven is twinned with:
Bayeux, France
Białystok, Poland
Chinandega, Nicaragua
Kadoma, Japan
Minsk, Belarus
Nanjing, China
|
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"Catholic Church",
"Delft",
"Brandmark",
"Dutch Caribbean",
"burgemeester",
"Nuenen, Gerwen en Nederwetten",
"ASML Holding",
"William I of the Netherlands",
"Incandescent light bulb",
"Catharina Ziekenhuis",
"Iceland Express",
"NXP Semiconductors",
"Nijmegen",
"parks",
"Islam",
"Christiaan Huygens college",
"Groot Eindhoven",
"Jan de Bont",
"2013 FINA Swimming World Cup",
"Prague",
"Algemeen Dagblad",
"Budapest",
"Eindhoven Museum",
"Tineke Bartels",
"Eindhoven Stadion railway station",
"contemporary art",
"Leuven",
"treasury",
"Islam in the Netherlands",
"Brooks (DJ)",
"Cluj-Napoca",
"Maddix (DJ)",
"Berenkuil (Eindhoven)",
"Germany",
"Lorentz Casimir Lyceum",
"Belgium",
"Technisch Weekblad",
"Ton de Leeuw (organizational theorist)",
"Eindhoven Marathon",
"Eerste Divisie (ice hockey)",
"Reykjavík",
"Kyiv",
"Aruba",
"Katowice",
"Tisha Volleman",
"Van Abbemuseum",
"oceanic climate",
"Pathé",
"Dutch Design Week",
"bouldering",
"innovation",
"Piet Mondriaan",
"linen",
"Turkey",
"Christian Union (Netherlands)",
"Effenaar",
"Party for the Animals",
"Exhibition center",
"Zuid-Willemsvaart",
"India",
"Gaelic Athletic Association",
"bowling alley",
"youth",
"Corfu",
"Patrick van Deurzen",
"List of Dutch football champions",
"Woensel",
"Tongelreep (river)",
"Utrecht",
"Paul Haarhuis",
"Pornographic film",
"Johan Frederik Rudolph van Hooff",
"Timișoara",
"Heerlen",
"farmer",
"Philips",
"Jannie Visscher",
"Frits Philips",
"Bayeux",
"La Tuniña",
"Sendcloud",
"Belgian Revolution",
"Postal codes in the Netherlands",
"Cultural heritage",
"Rush hour",
"Kaunas",
"Defensive wall",
"Leen Verbeek",
"Majorca",
"Statistics Netherlands",
"Best, Netherlands",
"confluence",
"Subdivision (land)",
"Niels Raaijmakers",
"Reggae Sundance",
"Margje Teeuwen",
"lighting",
"Signify (company)",
"Allies of World War II",
"Wrocław",
"Philips Medical",
"Karpendonkse Plas",
"Politics of the Netherlands",
"HC Oranje-Rood",
"Brabantse Stedenrij",
"World War II",
"Amsterdam Airport Schiphol",
"casino",
"Socialist Party (Netherlands)",
"North Brabant",
"Remmert Wielinga",
"Muziek op de Dommel",
"Information technology",
"Philips de Jongh Wandelpark",
"Aachen",
"Rhodes (city)",
"baseball",
"François van Kruijsdijk",
"Nanjing",
"Brabantian dialect",
"Claes Oldenburg",
"Central European Summer Time",
"Liège",
"Strijp",
"GLOW Festival Eindhoven",
"Nuenen",
"wethouder",
"Meierij",
"IPS Packaging (Netherlands)",
"Eindhovens Kanaal",
"City and town halls"
] |
9,421 |
Helsingør
|
Helsingør ( , ; ), classically known in English as Elsinore ( ), is a coastal city in northeastern Denmark. Helsingør Municipality had a population of 63,838 on 1 January 2024, making it the 23rd most populated municipality in Denmark. Helsingør is located at the narrowest part of the Øresund strait and together with Helsingborg in Sweden, forms the northern reaches of the Øresund Region, centred on Copenhagen and Malmö. Helsingør is a ferry city with frequent departures with the HH Ferry route which connects Helsingør with Helsingborg, across the Øresund.
Its castle Kronborg was used by William Shakespeare as the setting for his play Hamlet.
== Etymology ==
The first part of the name, Hels, is believed to derive from the word hals 'neck; narrow strait', referring to the narrowest point of the Øresund (Øre Sound) between what is now Helsingør and Helsingborg in Sweden. The word Helsing supposedly means 'person/people who live by the neck' and ør corresponds to old Norse aurr 'gravel beach' and eyrr 'sandy or gravelly shore'. The city was first mentioned as Hælsingør and the people as Helsinger in King Valdemar the Victorious's Liber Census Daniæ from 1231 (not to be confused with the Helsings of Hälsingland in Sweden). Place names show that the Helsinger may have had their main fort at Helsingborg and a fortified landing place at Helsingør, to control the ferry route across the strait. The particularly 19th-century tradition to explain toponymies, place names, with features of the landscape does not necessarily exclude the much older tradition of reading place names as eponymous. Although an obscure legendary character, or several, Helsing is quite abundantly present in traces of lost legends in the Nordic countries.
Although probably not the first Helsing, one of the three sons of Gandalf Alfgeirsson (the antagonist of Halfdan the Black, who was father of King Harald Fairhair, the semi-legendary, historical first king of a feudalist Norway) is called Helsing. He was brother to Hake and Hysing Gandalfson. Also Helsinki in Finland and Hälsingland in Norrland, Sweden, refers to Helsing, as "the Land of the Helsing/Helsinger," which makes the landscape theory of the name of Helsingør less likely.
==History==
The city as it is known today was founded in the 1420s by Danish King Eric of Pomerania. He established the Sound Dues in 1429, which were a toll on the use of the Øresund. Although a former toll had existed prior, the Sound Dues were paid in Helsingør providing immense wealth to the city. With the income, the king built a castle named Krogen or Ørekrog on the extreme northeastern tip of the island of Zealand. The city expanded around the castle and envelops it today. Krogen was rebuilt and expanded in the 1570s by king Frederik II and renamed Kronborg. All ships had to stop in Helsingør to get their cargo taxed and pay a toll to the Danish Crown, which generated a significant trade for the city. In 1672, Helsingør had grown to be the third-largest town in Denmark. Up until the middle of the 19th century, Helsingør was among the largest cities in the country.
The Sound Dues were abolished in 1857 with the Copenhagen Convention in which all seafaring nations agreed to pay a one-time fee. The abolishment was a huge loss for the city; the following decades saw a slow growth in population.
The oldest known fortified building of Helsingør is Flynderborg, an early medieval fortress on a hill just south of the medieval city.
Around 1200, the first church, Saint Olaf's Church, was built.
A number of convents once surrounded the church, but now all that remains is the church building, today the cathedral of the Diocese of Helsingør. The oldest parts of the cathedral of Helsingør date back to the 13th century and show that the fishing village, as Helsingør was then, had grown to a town of importance.
Johan Isaksson Pontanus (Rerum Danicarum Historica, 1631) attributes a long and partially-fictitious history to Helsingør.
During World War II, Helsingør was among the most important transport points for the rescue of Denmark's Jewish population during the Holocaust. Adolf Hitler had ordered that all Danish Jews were to be arrested and deported to the concentration camps on Rosh HaShanah, the Jewish New Year, which fell on 2 October 1943. When Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz, a diplomatic attaché of Nazi Germany to Denmark, received word of the order on 28 September 1943, he shared it with political and Jewish community leaders. Using the name Elsinore Sewing Club (Danish: Helsingør Syklub) as a cover for messages, the Danish population formed an Underground Railroad of sorts that moved Jews away from the closely watched Copenhagen docks to spots further away, especially Helsingør, just two miles across the Øresund to Helsingborg, in neutral Sweden. Hundreds of civilians hid their fellow Danish Jewish citizens in their houses, farm lofts and churches until they could board them onto Danish fishing boats, personal pleasure boats and ferry boats. Over the course of three nights, Danes had smuggled over 7,200 Jews and 680 non-Jews (family members of Jews or political activists) across the Øresund to safety in Helsingborg and Malmö in Sweden.
==Transport==
The car ferry line between Helsingør and Helsingborg, Scania, Sweden is the busiest in the world with more than 70 departures in each direction every day. The route is known as the HH Ferry route and has been sailed by several shipping lines throughout history. The Helsingør ferry terminal is connected to the town's main railway station. From the station, trains depart to Copenhagen every 20 minutes. Trains also depart to Hillerød and Gilleleje. There are another six stations or train stops within the city and connected suburbs. Apart from Helsingør Station and Ferry Terminal also ', ', ' and the train stops on the line to Gilleleje, ', ' and '.
The E47 motorway towards Copenhagen begins just outside the city limits. The town and surrounding areas also have a network of local and regional buses.
==Industrialisation==
For a century the Helsingør Værft or Elsinore shipyard was a prominent landmark, which covered the whole area between the town and Kronborg Castle. It was founded in 1882. At its height in 1957, it had 3,600 employees. The last ship left the shipyard in 1983 and it closed the same year following substantial losses.
The Wiibroe brewery, founded in 1840, was the second brewery in Denmark to ship bottled beer, just three years after Carlsberg. The last beer was brewed at Wiibroe in Helsingør in 1998. Carlsberg continues to brew beer under the Wiibroe Årgangsøl label.
==Post-industrialisation==
After the end of the industrial era, the town of Helsingør had to redefine itself, and came up with an ambitious project: Kulturhavn Kronborg, literally "Culture-harbour of Kronborg". It officially opened on 26 May 2013, intended to appeal to tourists with an interest in culture. The main attraction of Kulturhavn Kronborg is Kronborg Castle, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Besides the historical attractions of the site, William Shakespeare's play Hamlet has been performed annually in its courtyard since 1937. There is a longstanding tradition of performing the play in English, and notable actors in the title role have included Laurence Olivier, John Gielgud, Christopher Plummer, Derek Jacobi, and in 2009 Jude Law. At the heart of Kulturhavn Kronborg lies kulturværftet or The Culture Yard, a new cultural centre and a public library located in the old dockyard. It opened in 2010. The former dry dock now houses the Danish Maritime Museum.
In the centre of the harbour basin stands the polished steel sculpture Han (He) by artist duo Elmgreen and Dragset, commissioned by the City of Helsingør in 2012. It was inaugurated by then Minister of culture, Uffe Elbæk, in June 2012. It is seen as the counterpart (and even little brother) to Edvard Eriksen's world-famous The Little Mermaid statue in Copenhagen, and has caused both praise and protests among locals.
The Swedish city of Helsingborg lies a short distance across the Øresund from Helsingør, approximately . European route E55 joins the two cities; ferries connect the two sides.
==Music==
Dieterich Buxtehude organist and composer of the Baroque period.
He was born Diderich Buxtehude presumably in Helsingborg, he serving as organist from 1660 to 1668 in Helsingør as his father that held the position as organist at St. Olaf's cathedral.
Diderich Buxtehude's compositions and style became of significant influence, among others, on his student Johann Sebastian Bach.
==Architecture==
The new Danish Maritime Museum was designed by Danish prize-winning architects Bjarke Ingels Group (BIG).
Jørn Utzon lived in Helsingør in his youth because his father was an engineer at Helsingør Værft. Utzon designed : His own house (1952), The Kingo Houses (1956–60) and The Hammershøj Care Centre (1962) in the city. The project was completed by Birger Schmidt (1966) after Utzon moved to Sydney to work on the Sydney Opera House.
== Notable people ==
=== Public service ===
Christiern Pedersen (c.1480–1554), canon, humanist scholar, writer and publisher
Johannes Isacius Pontanus (1571–1639), Dutch historiographer.
Niels Claussøn Senning (c.1580–1617), Danish/Norwegian clergyman, Bishop of Oslo
Hans Ulrik Gyldenløve (1615–1645), illegit. son of King Christian IV of Denmark and Navy officer
Jørgen Iversen Dyppel (1638–1683), first governor of the Danish West Indies 1672/1680.
Christian de Meza (1792–1865) commanded the Danish Army in the Second Schleswig War
Robert Cleaver Chapman (1803–1902), pastor, teacher and evangelist, the apostle of Love
Olivia Nielsen (1852–1910), a Danish trade unionist and politician
Hans Wright (1854–1925), city architect in Copenhagen from 1904 to 1925
William Thalbitzer (1873–1958), a philologist and professor of Eskimo studies
Morten Løkkegaard (born 1964), Danish politician and MEP.
=== Arts ===
Pieter Isaacsz (1569–1625), a Danish-born Dutch Golden Age painter.
Bernhard Keil (1624–1687), Danish Baroque painter, became a pupil of Rembrandt.
Johan Frederik Møller (1797–1871), Danish painter and photographer.
Anton Melbye (1818–1875), Vilhelm Melbye (1824–1882) & Fritz Melbye (1826–1869), brothers and Danish marine artists
August Schiøtt (1823–1895), Danish portrait painter.
Peter Elfelt (1866–1931), photographer and cinema pioneer, made early Danish films
Harald Moltke (1871–1960), a painter, author and explorer on four Arctic expeditions
Alfred Lind (1879–1959), cinematographer, screenwriter and silent era film director
Valdemar Andersen (1889–1956), screenwriter and film director for Nordisk Film
Ove Verner Hansen (1932–2016), Danish opera singer and actor
Erik Wedersøe (1938–2011), a Danish actor, director and author
Birte Tove (1945–2016), a Danish actress
Morten Rudå (born 1960), a Norwegian actor
Fredrik Lundin (born 1963), jazz saxophonist and bandleader, brought up in Helsingør
Martin Glyn Murray (born 1966), a Danish-born British actor
Jan Grarup (born 1968 in Kvistgaard), a photojournalist, does war and conflict photography
Helle Fagralid (born 1976), Danish actress of Faroese descent
Vicki Berlin (born 1977), a Danish actress
Susanne Grinder (born 1981), principal dancer with the Royal Danish Ballet
=== Science and business ===
Sophia Brahe (1559–1643), a Danish noble woman and horticulturalist with knowledge of astronomy, chemistry, and medicine; lived in Helsingør from 1616
Stephen Hansen (1701–1770), industrialist, businessman and General War Commissioner
Jean Abraham Grill (1736–1792), merchant, director of the Swedish East India Company.
Hans Christian Amberg (1749–1815), a Danish lexicographer
Hartvig Marcus Frisch (1754–1816), director of the Royal Greenland Trading Department
Sir Edward Knox (1819–1901), Danish-born Australian politician, sugar refiner and banker.
Ludvig Lorenz (1829–1891), physicist and mathematician, named the Lorenz gauge condition
Jens Levin Tvede (1830–1891), a Danish distiller, industrialist and politician; member of Helsingør City Council from 1857 and of the Landstinget
Gordon Norrie (1855–1941), Danish surgeon and ophthalmologist, named Norrie disease
Wilhelm Johannsen (1857–1927), Danish botanist, plant physiologist and geneticist
Simon Spies (1921–1984), Danish tycoon.
Steen Rasmussen (born 1955), a physicist, works on artificial life and complex systems
Mette Blomsterberg (born 1970), Danish pastry chef, restaurateur and cookbook writer
=== Sport ===
Fairfax Fenwick (1852–1920), a New Zealand cricketer
Edgar Aabye (1865–1941), a Danish athlete and journalist, team gold medallist in the tug of war at the 1900 Summer Olympics
August Sørensen (1896–1979), track and field athlete, competed in the 1920 Summer Olympics
Willy Hansen (1906–1978), a Danish track cyclist, silver medallist at the 1924 Summer Olympics and gold and bronze medallist at the 1928 Summer Olympics
Jørn Steffensen (born 1944), a modern pentathlete, competed at the 1968, 1972 and 1976 Summer Olympics
Mads Vibe-Hastrup (born 1978), Danish professional golfer
Tobias Mikkelsen (born 1986), a footballer with over 250 club caps and 8 for Denmark
Mikkel Hansen (born 1987), handball player who won the IHF World Player of the Year 2011, 2015, 2018
==Districts==
Centrum
North: Grønnehave (Green Gardens), Højstrup and Marienlyst, Hellebæk, Ålsgårde and Hornbæk
West: Sundparken, Grøningen, Nøjsomheden, Vapnagård, Gurre, Nygård, Tikøb
South: Skotterup and Snekkersten and Espergærde
==Twin towns – sister cities==
Helsingør practices twinning on the municipal level. For the twin towns, see twin towns of Helsingør Municipality.
==In fiction and popular culture==
William Shakespeare's play Hamlet (whence the English spelling "Elsinore" derives) takes place mostly at Kronborg Castle in Helsingør.
In the 1983 comedy Strange Brew, which is loosely based on Hamlet, the protagonists are given jobs at Elsinore Brewery.
In Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey–Maturin series, Helsingør fires mortar shells at the heroes in book seven, The Surgeon's Mate, as they sail past on their way to a rendezvous in the Baltic.
In the second chapter of Philip Roth's novel Our Gang (1971), Trick E. Dixon in a fictive speech tries to claim Helsingør as US-territory and tries to convince the audience to occupy the area
In Bret Easton Ellis's novel Lunar Park, the street on which the character Bret Easton Ellis lives, with his own haunting father-son issues, is called Helsingør Lane.
Several stories written by the Danish author Karen Blixen (or Isak Dinesen) take place in Helsingør, including "The Supper at Elsinore" in her first published volume of stories, Seven Gothic Tales.
A well-known poem by the Portuguese surrealist poet Mário Cesariny is named "You are welcome to Helsingør".
Children's author Richard Scarry depicted Helsingør as "A Castle in Denmark" in the book Busy, Busy World.
Indie-rock band The Essex Green recorded a song titled "Elsinore" for their 2006 album Cannibal Sea.
In David Brin's novel The Postman, the first chapter features an apparition that appears to protagonist Gordon Krantz. It is described as an "Elsinorian figure" and greets Gordon with "Alas, poor Gordon!", both allusions to Hamlet.
Surrealist artist René Magritte has a painting named after the city, depicting a castle, which might be modelled on Elsinore Castle.
The detective show The Sommerdahl Murders is set in Helsingør
|
[
"team handball",
"William Thalbitzer",
"August Sørensen",
"Scania",
"Gurre, Denmark",
"Diocese of Oslo",
"Jørn Steffensen",
"Tobias Mikkelsen",
"Morten Rudå",
"Steen Rasmussen (physicist)",
"Ove Verner Hansen",
"Helsingør railway station",
"Hans Christian Amberg",
"Jude Law",
"Swedish East India Company",
"Kingo Houses",
"Underground Railroad",
"Detective fiction",
"Edgar Aabye",
"Fairfax Fenwick",
"Our Gang (novel)",
"Denmark",
"Lorenz gauge condition",
"Martin Glyn Murray",
"August Schiøtt",
"Malmö",
"St. Olaf's Church, Helsingør",
"The Little Mermaid (statue)",
"Pieter Isaacsz",
"Ålsgårde",
"General War Commissioner",
"Christopher Plummer",
"Mads Vibe-Hastrup",
"Sister city",
"Elsinore municipality",
"Bernhard Keil",
"Benedikte Kiær",
"Norrie disease",
"Kulturhavn Kronborg",
"ferry",
"Kronborg Castle",
"Mário Cesariny",
"Karen Blixen",
"Vilhelm Melbye",
"Laurence Olivier",
"Nazi Germany",
"Hellebæk",
"Vicki Berlin",
"Niels Claussøn Senning",
"Halfdan the Black",
"Fredrik Lundin",
"Cannibal Sea",
"Frederick II of Denmark",
"William Shakespeare",
"Edward Knox (Australian politician)",
"The Essex Green",
"Faroe Islanders",
"UNESCO",
"Johann Sebastian Bach",
"Peter Elfelt",
"David Brin",
"Wilhelm Johannsen",
"dry dock",
"Landstinget",
"Liber Census Daniæ",
"Valdemar II of Denmark",
"Oxford University Press",
"Christian de Meza",
"Øresund",
"Elmgreen and Dragset",
"Simon Spies",
"Helsingør ferry terminal",
"Marienlyst Castle",
"Richard Scarry",
"Harald Moltke",
"Sound Dues",
"Valdemar Andersen",
"Uffe Elbæk",
"Robert Chapman (Plymouth Brethren)",
"Copenhagen",
"Hamlet",
"Aubrey–Maturin series",
"Mortar (weapon)",
"Hälsingland",
"Lunar Park",
"Bjarke Ingels Group",
"Espergærde",
"Eric of Pomerania",
"Hans Wright",
"Jørn Utzon",
"Danish Army",
"Jewish",
"1976 Summer Olympics",
"Statistics Denmark",
"Municipalities of Denmark",
"Derek Jacobi",
"Hartvig Marcus Frisch (1754–1816)",
"Mette Blomsterberg",
"Christiern Pedersen",
"Helsinki",
"Greenlandic Inuit",
"Helle Fagralid",
"John Gielgud",
"Hillerød",
"The Postman",
"Edvard Eriksen",
"Surrealism",
"Skotterup",
"Morten Løkkegaard",
"Adolf Hitler",
"Jens Levin Tvede",
"marine art",
"1920 Summer Olympics",
"1924 Summer Olympics",
"1968 Summer Olympic Games",
"1928 Summer Olympics",
"Sydney Opera House",
"Hans Ulrik Gyldenløve",
"artificial life",
"Capital Region of Denmark",
"Hornbæk",
"Danish Maritime Museum",
"Christian IV of Denmark",
"Philip Roth",
"Dieterich Buxtehude",
"concentration camps",
"Royal Danish Ballet",
"Gandalf Alfgeirsson",
"Birte Tove",
"Central European Time",
"Jean Abraham Grill",
"Patrick O'Brian",
"Erik Wedersøe",
"complex systems",
"Diocese of Helsingør",
"Holocaust",
"tycoon",
"World War II",
"Ludvig Lorenz",
"Copenhagen Convention of 1857",
"Harald Fairhair",
"Vapnagård",
"Snekkersten",
"Anton Melbye",
"Mikkel Hansen",
"Helsingborg",
"Johan Isaksson Pontanus",
"Stephen Hansen",
"Regions of Denmark",
"Royal Greenland Trading Department",
"HH Ferry route",
"Alfred Lind",
"Johan Frederik Møller",
"Nordisk Film",
"Carmelite Priory, Helsingør",
"Denmark national football team",
"Sophia Brahe",
"Gordon Norrie",
"Willy Hansen",
"da:Helsingør Skibsværft og Maskinbyggeri",
"Zealand (Denmark)",
"Øresund Region",
"Utzon's House in Hellebæk",
"Olivia Nielsen",
"Fritz Melbye",
"Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz",
"Elsinore Sewing Club",
"Jan Grarup",
"Susanne Grinder",
"World Heritage Site",
"Bret Easton Ellis",
"IHF World Player of the Year",
"Strange Brew",
"historiographer",
"kulturværftet",
"Helsingør Municipality",
"European route E55",
"Jørgen Iversen Dyppel",
"Danish West Indies",
"1972 Summer Olympics",
"Carlsberg Group",
"Central European Summer Time",
"René Magritte",
"Tikøb",
"IMDb",
"Tourism in Denmark",
"Sweden",
"Rembrandt",
"Norrland",
"Second Schleswig War",
"da:Wiibroe",
"Lexico",
"wikt:eyrr",
"Dutch Golden Age",
"Rosh HaShanah",
"European route E47",
"Member of the European Parliament",
"Gilleleje",
"1900 Summer Olympics",
"Johannes Isacius Pontanus",
"Kronborg"
] |
9,422 |
European route E4
|
European route E4 passes from north to south through Sweden from the border with Finland, with a total length of . The Finnish part lies entirely within Tornio in northern Finland, and is only long. The Swedish part traverses most of Sweden except the extreme north and the west coast region, and is commonly considered the highway backbone of Sweden, since it passes in the vicinity of many of its largest cities and through the capital Stockholm. In particular, it is the mainline road used by most vehicle traffic, both cars and lorries, between the north (Norrland) and south of Sweden or beyond.
From Haparanda on the Finnish border, it stretches south along the Gulf of Bothnia to Gävle, then on a more inland route southwards. It ends in Helsingborg in Sweden, at the port for the ferry to Helsingør in Denmark. The route intersects with European route E6 just outside Helsingborg, which continues to Trelleborg on the southern coast of Sweden.
== History and naming ==
The International E-road network convention was signed in 1950, with the E4 routed Lisbon-Madrid-Barcelona-Nimes-Geneva-Basel-Frankfurt-Hamburg-Helsingør-Stockholm-Haparanda-Helsinki. The part in Sweden was signposted E4 in 1962. Until 1962, the road Helsingborg–Stockholm was called highway 1, and Stockholm–Haparanda highway 13.
Under the new system of European routes which was decided in 1975, but introduced in Sweden in 1992, it was planned to have been a part of E55, but it retains the pre-1992 designation (E4) within Sweden, because the expenses connected with re-signing this long road portion would be too great. Besides the signs along the road, there are thousands of signs, especially in cities, showing how to reach the E4 road. The road is now fully authorised as E4 by the relevant authority, not as E55.
== Route ==
North of Gävle the road is of mixed standard. Depending on the fashion at the time of construction, it is either a single standard carriageway road, usually wide, or a 2+1 road, a wide road with two lanes in one direction and one in the other with a steel wire barrier in between, or sometimes a motorway with two lanes in each direction. North of Sundsvall, the road passes through several of the larger cities as city streets.
South of Gävle, the road becomes an almost continuous motorway, with the only non-motorway part being a long section past Ljungby, currently a 2+1 limited-access road. Upgrade to motorway standard will start in 2018. Construction was restarted in 2022, with the expectation to finish it in 2024. With the exception of the Ljungby bypass, the final stretch of the motorway to be opened was the road between Uppsala and Mehedeby, which was inaugurated on 17 October 2007. South of Gävle, the speed limit is on 60% and on 30% of the road. North of Gävle there are varying speed limits, with as the most common. The speed limits on the main roads in Sweden were changed on many stretches in October 2008, which saw the introduction of the 120 km/h limit.
The E4 is the fastest road to go from Germany/Denmark to areas north of the Arctic Circle, including places in Norway such as Tromsø or the North Cape.
The route passes through or nearby the cities
Tornio,
Haparanda,
Luleå,
Piteå,
Skellefteå,
Umeå,
Örnsköldsvik,
Härnösand,
Sundsvall,
Hudiksvall,
Söderhamn,
Gävle,
Uppsala,
Stockholm,
Södertälje,
Nyköping,
Norrköping,
Linköping,
Jönköping,
Värnamo,
Ljungby,
and Helsingborg.
E4 landsväg.jpg|E4 near Örnsköldsvik. A common standard between Tornio and Gävle. Some roads of this standard have been converted to 2+1 road with a barrier.
E4Lpb.jpg|E4 near Linköping, Sweden.
Brahehus in Sweden.jpg|E4 180 m above Lake Vättern. Ruins of Brahehus.
== Detailed route ==
|
[
"Sundsvall–Timrå Airport",
"Höganäs",
"Strängnäs",
"Arctic Circle",
"Svartvik",
"Madrid",
"Hargshamn",
"Taberg",
"Gävle–Sandviken Airport",
"Kvissleby",
"Vallvik",
"Järvsö",
"Vrigstad",
"Malmö",
"Åsele",
"Rutvik",
"Kolmården Wildlife Park",
"Jävre",
"Jörn",
"Tromsø (city)",
"Sundbyberg Municipality",
"Geneva",
"Ljungby",
"Burträsk",
"Kiruna",
"Åtvidaberg Municipality",
"Kristianstad",
"Bolmsö",
"Karlskrona",
"Gdańsk",
"Drängsmark",
"Norrahammar",
"Gimo, Sweden",
"Bergnäset",
"Boxholm",
"Vattholma",
"Kramfors",
"Jokkmokk",
"Bodø (town)",
"Mo i Rana",
"Perstorp",
"European route E18",
"Gammelstaden",
"Kalmar",
"Töre",
"Storvreta",
"Vällingby",
"Tingsryd",
"Osby",
"Borlänge",
"Klippan, Scania",
"Utansjö",
"IKEA",
"Enköping",
"Bergshammar",
"Söråker",
"European route E10",
"Karlstad",
"Värnamo",
"Docksta",
"Markaryd",
"Midsommarkransen",
"Norrbotten County",
"Mälarhöjden",
"Dörarp",
"Bergvik",
"Oslo",
"Skänninge",
"Antnäs",
"Niemisel",
"Mellansel",
"Gröndal",
"Haninge Municipality",
"Sävar",
"Hässleholm",
"Njutånger",
"Karlsborg, Kalix Municipality",
"Bergsjö",
"Väderstad",
"Överkalix",
"Bollnäs",
"Stidsvig",
"Skillingaryd",
"Bullmark, Sweden",
"Stavreviken",
"Stockholm County",
"Höör",
"Tornio",
"Värmdö (island)",
"European route E20",
"Stockholm Ring Road",
"Husum, Sweden",
"Älvkarleby",
"Sigtuna",
"Kronoberg County",
"Visby",
"Stöcksjö",
"Sidensjö",
"Alberga, Sweden",
"Byske",
"Falun",
"Kemi",
"Ödeshög",
"Viksjö",
"Dorotea",
"Gävleborg County",
"Lagan, Sweden",
"Råå",
"Linköping",
"Klevshult",
"Östersund",
"Uppsala County",
"Tranås",
"Bensbyn",
"Björna",
"Arnäsvall",
"Eskilstuna",
"Umeå",
"Ostvik",
"Örnsköldsvik Airport",
"Älvsjö",
"Finnish national road 29",
"Gulf of Bothnia",
"Helsingør",
"Stockholm Skavsta Airport",
"Hemmingsmark",
"Kimstad",
"Krokek",
"Brändön",
"Kemi-Tornio sub-region",
"Vetlanda",
"Kapellskär",
"Ilsbo",
"Gnarp",
"Traryd",
"Köpmanholmen",
"Fällfors",
"Arkösund",
"Mehedeby",
"Kalix",
"Oskarshamn",
"Gränna",
"Berg, Linköping",
"Vättern",
"Ockelbo",
"Gideå",
"Vittaryd",
"Ekerö",
"Södertälje",
"Östhammar",
"Björkvik",
"Lidingö",
"Ersnäs",
"Hestra, Gislaved",
"Åby, Växjö Municipality",
"Örnsköldsvik",
"Sikeå",
"Skelleftehamn",
"Halmstad",
"Sätra",
"Långträsk",
"Laholm",
"Hallunda",
"Persön",
"Ölmstad",
"Sandviken",
"Lisbon",
"Haparanda",
"United Nations Economic Commission for Europe",
"Upplands Väsby",
"Karlshamn",
"Bergeforsen",
"Täfteå",
"Växjö",
"Åstorp",
"Bjästa",
"Nynäshamn",
"Luleå Airport",
"Nyköping",
"Hägerstensåsen",
"Aspudden",
"Rotebro",
"Ånäset",
"Hedesunda",
"Östergötland County",
"Kasa, Sweden",
"Borås",
"Bergsviken",
"Edsbro",
"Knivsta",
"Kista",
"Getå",
"Tumba, Sweden",
"Bjuv",
"Tierp",
"Skövde",
"Katrineholm",
"Trelleborg",
"Söderköping",
"Norsholm",
"Övertorneå",
"Skärholmen",
"Iggesund",
"Höga Kusten Airport",
"Vagnhärad",
"Bergby",
"2+1 road",
"Västerås",
"Hedenäset",
"Kåge",
"Skåne County",
"Hägersten",
"Enånger",
"Rundvik",
"Harmånger",
"limited-access road",
"Åby, Norrköping Municipality",
"Fruängen",
"Hassela",
"Vadstena",
"Sörberge",
"Örbyhus",
"Bureå",
"Hudiksvall",
"Stora Essingen",
"Huddinge Municipality",
"Strömsfors",
"Sollefteå",
"Varberg",
"Härnösand",
"Vimmerby",
"Skärblacka",
"Vaggeryd",
"Lapland (Finland)",
"Rönninge",
"Måttsund",
"Älmhult",
"Örebro",
"Ventspils",
"Västerbotten County",
"Uppsala",
"Älvsbyn",
"Timsfors",
"Täby",
"Linghem, Sweden",
"Karolinska University Hospital",
"European route E12",
"Bredbyn",
"Hamburg",
"Sollentuna Municipality",
"Arvidsjaur",
"Bredaryd",
"Frankfurt",
"Rosvalla Nyköping Eventcenter",
"Södermanland County",
"Borås Municipality",
"Örkelljunga",
"Barnarp",
"Gothenburg",
"Klockestrand",
"Stavsjö",
"Oxelösund",
"Västernorrlands Län",
"Helsingborg",
"Hillerstorp",
"Skellefteå",
"Jönköping",
"Ljusdal",
"Vaasa",
"European route E22",
"Lunde, Sweden",
"Märsta",
"Kungsgården",
"Sundsvall",
"Mantorp",
"Solna Municipality",
"Söderhamn Airport",
"Barcelona",
"Umeå Airport",
"Sweden",
"Lövånger",
"Gävle",
"Sörmjöle",
"Nässjö",
"Östra Ljungby",
"Holmöarna",
"Jönköping County",
"Ljusne",
"Söderfors",
"Sveg",
"Gällivare",
"Trondheim",
"Råneå",
"Trosa",
"Tystberga",
"North Cape, Norway",
"Gnesta",
"Norrsundet",
"Aneby",
"Bygdeå",
"Piteå",
"Alnön",
"Vallentuna",
"Stockholm Bromma Airport",
"Rosersberg",
"Brahehus",
"Bjurholm",
"Skånes-Fagerhult",
"Liljeholmen",
"Älandsbro",
"Kallax",
"Sundsbruk",
"Öjebyn",
"Östervåla",
"Norrköping",
"Ängelholm",
"Ljungby, Sweden",
"Nimes",
"Rovaniemi",
"Jönåker",
"Järna, Södertälje Municipality",
"Finspång",
"Fredrika, Sweden",
"Månkarbo",
"Björklinge",
"Norrtälje",
"Västervik",
"Skellefteå Airport",
"Nordmaling",
"Mjölby Municipality",
"European route E16",
"Stockholm Arlanda Airport",
"Danderyd Municipality",
"Luleå",
"Huskvarna",
"Linköping/Saab Airport",
"Basel",
"Paldiski",
"Ullånger",
"Swedish national road 99",
"Copenhagen",
"Strömsnäsbruk",
"Njurundabommen",
"Hyllinge",
"Salem, Sweden",
"Stockholm",
"Kilpisjärvi",
"Morjärv",
"Motala",
"Helsinki",
"Almunge",
"European route E6",
"Jönköping Airport",
"Nordingrå",
"Holmsund",
"Jämtön",
"Trollhättan",
"Ersmark, Skellefteå",
"Eket, Sweden",
"Lögdeå",
"Vännäs Municipality",
"European route E14",
"Bredäng",
"Mariehamn",
"Flemingsberg",
"Sangis",
"Norrköping Airport",
"Matfors",
"Hölö",
"Stockvik",
"Österbybruk",
"Riksdag",
"Finland",
"European route E55",
"Hörnefors",
"Pello",
"Sjulsmark",
"Enstaberga",
"Timrå Municipality",
"Västertorp",
"Visingsö",
"Boden, Sweden",
"Gnosjö",
"International E-road network",
"Norrland",
"European route",
"Karesuando",
"Söderhamn",
"Lycksele",
"Söderala"
] |
9,424 |
Ericsson
|
(), commonly known as Ericsson (), is a Swedish multinational networking and telecommunications company headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden. The company sells infrastructure, software, and services in information and communications technology for telecommunications service providers and enterprises, including, among others, 3G, 4G, and 5G equipment, and Internet Protocol (IP) and optical transport systems. The company employs around 100,000 people and operates in more than 180 countries. Ericsson has over 57,000 granted patents.
Ericsson has been a major contributor to the development of the telecommunications industry and is one of the leaders in 5G.
The company was founded in 1876 by Lars Magnus Ericsson and is jointly controlled by the Wallenberg family through its holding company Investor AB, and the universal bank Handelsbanken through its investment company Industrivärden. The Wallenbergs and the Handelsbanken sphere acquired their voting-strong A-shares, and thus the control of Ericsson, after the fall of the Kreuger empire in the early 1930s.
Ericsson is the inventor of Bluetooth technology.
==History==
===Foundation===
Lars Magnus Ericsson began his association with telephones in his youth as an instrument maker. He worked for a firm that made telegraph equipment for the Swedish government agency Telegrafverket. In 1876, at the age of 30, he started a telegraph repair shop with help from his friend Carl Johan Andersson in central Stockholm and repaired foreign-made telephones. In 1878, Ericsson began making and selling his own telephone equipment. His telephones were not technically innovative. In 1878, he agreed to supply telephones and switchboards to Sweden's first telecommunications operating company, Stockholms Allmänna Telefonaktiebolag.
Despite their successes elsewhere, Ericsson did not make significant sales in the United States. AT&T’s Western Electric Company (via the Bell System), Kellogg and Automatic Electric dominated the market. Ericsson eventually sold its U.S. assets. Sales in Mexico led to inroads into South American countries. South Africa and China were also generating significant sales. With his company now multinational, Lars Ericsson stepped down from the company in 1901.
===Automatic equipment===
Ericsson ignored the growth of automatic telephony in the United States and concentrated on manual exchange designs. Their first dial telephone was produced in 1921, although sales of the early automatic switching systems were slow until the equipment had proven itself on the world's markets. Telephones of this period had a simpler design and finish, and many of the early automatic desk telephones in Ericsson's catalogues were magneto styles with a dial on the front and appropriate changes to the electronics. Elaborate decals decorated the cases.
===Shareholding changes===
The acquisition of other telecommunications companies put pressure on Ericsson's finances; in 1925, Karl Fredric Wincrantz took control of the company by acquiring most of the shares. Wincrantz was partly funded by Ivar Kreuger, an international financier. The company was renamed Telefonaktiebolaget L M Ericsson. Kreuger started showing interest in the company, being a major owner of Wincrantz holding companies. It released one of the world's first hands-free speaker telephones in the 1960s. In 1954, it released the Ericofon. Ericsson crossbar switching equipment was used in telephone administrations in many countries. In 1983 the company introduced the ERIPAX suite of network products and services.
===Emergence of the Internet (1995–2003)===
In the 1990s, during the emergence of the Internet, Ericsson was regarded as slow to realize its potential and falling behind in the area of IP technology. But the company had established an Internet project in 1995 called Infocom Systems to exploit opportunities leading from fixed-line telecom and IT. CEO Lars Ramqvist wrote in the 1996 annual report that in all three of its business areas – Mobile Telephones and Terminals, Mobile Systems, and Infocom Systems – "we will expand our operations as they relate to customer service and Internet Protocol (IP) access (Internet and intranet access)".
The growth of GSM, which became a de facto world standard, combined with Ericsson's other mobile standards, such as D-AMPS and PDC, meant that by the start of 1997, Ericsson had an estimated 40% share of the world's mobile market, with around 54 million subscribers. There were also around 188 million AXE lines in place or on order in 117 countries. when the two companies agreed to pay each other royalties for the use of their respective technologies and Ericsson purchased Qualcomm's wireless infrastructure business and some R&D resources.
Ericsson issued a profit warning in March 2001. Over the coming year, sales to operators halved. Mobile telephones became a burden; the company's telephones unit made a loss of SEK 24 billion in 2000. A fire in a Philips chip factory in New Mexico in March 2000 caused severe disruption to Ericsson's phone production, dealing a coup de grâce to Ericsson's mobile phone hopes. Mobile phones would be spun off into a joint venture with Sony, Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications, in October 2001.
Ericsson launched several rounds of restructuring, refinancing and job-cutting; during 2001, staff numbers fell from 107,000 to 85,000. A further 20,000 went the next year, and 11,000 more in 2003. A new rights issue raised SEK 30 billion to keep the company afloat. The company had survived as mobile Internet started growing. With record profits, it was in better shape than many of its competitors.
===Rebuilding and growing (2003–2018)===
The emergence of full mobile Internet began a period of growth for the global telecom industry, including Ericsson. After the launch of 3G services in 2003, people started to access the Internet using their telephones.
Ericsson was working on ways to improve WCDMA as operators were buying and rolling it out; it was the first generation of 3G access. New advances included IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem) and the next evolution of WCDMA, called High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA). It was initially deployed in the download version called HSDPA; the technology spread from the first test calls in the US in late 2005 to 59 commercial networks in September 2006. HSPA would provide the world's first mobile broadband.
In July 2016, Hans Vestberg stepped down as Ericsson's CEO after heading the company for six years. Jan Frykhammar, who had been working for the company since 1991 stepped in as interim CEO while Ericsson searched for a full-time replacement. On 16 January 2017, following Ericsson's announcement on 26 October 2016, new CEO Börje Ekholm started and interim CEO Jan Frykhammar stepped down the following day.
In June 2018, Ericsson, Inc. and Ericsson AB have agreed to pay $145,893 to settle potential civil liability for an apparent violation of the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) and the Sudanese Sanctions Regulations, 31 C.F.R. part 538 (SSR).1
===Acquisitions and cooperation===
Around 2000, companies and governments began to push for standards for mobile Internet. In May 2000, the European Commission created the Wireless Strategic Initiative, a consortium of four telecommunications suppliers in Europe – Ericsson, Nokia, Alcatel (France) and Siemens (Germany) – to develop and test new prototypes for advanced wireless communications systems. Later that year, the consortium partners invited other companies to join them in a Wireless World Research Forum in 2001. In December 1999, Microsoft
and Ericsson announced a strategic partnership to combine the former's web browser and server software with the latter's mobile-internet technologies. In 2000, the Dot-com bubble burst with marked economic implications for Sweden. Ericsson, the world's largest producer of mobile telecommunications equipment, shed thousands of jobs, as did the country's Internet consulting firms and dot-com start-ups. In the same year, Intel, the world's largest semiconductor chip manufacturer, signed a $1.5 billion deal to supply flash memory to Ericsson over the next three years.
The short-lived partnership, called Ericsson Microsoft Mobile Venture, owned 70/30 percent by Ericsson and Microsoft respectively, ended in October 2001 when Ericsson announced it would absorb the former joint venture and adopt a licensing agreement with Microsoft instead. The same month, Ericsson and Sony announced the creation of the mobile phone manufacturing joint venture: Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications. Ten years later, in February 2012, Ericsson sold its stake in the joint venture; Ericsson said it wanted to focus on the global wireless market as a whole.
Lower stock prices and job losses affected many telecommunications companies in 2001. The major equipment manufacturers – Motorola (U.S.), Lucent Technologies (U.S.), Cisco Systems (U.S.), Marconi (UK), Siemens (Germany), Nokia (Finland), as well as Ericsson – all announced job cuts in their home countries and subsidiaries around the world. Ericsson's workforce worldwide fell during 2001 from 107,000 to 85,000.
In September 2001, Ericsson purchased the remaining shares in EHPT from Hewlett-Packard. Founded in 1993, Ericsson Hewlett Packard Telecom (EHPT) was a joint venture made up of 60% Ericsson interests and 40% Hewlett-Packard interests.
In 2002, ICT investor losses topped $2 trillion and share prices fell by 95% until August that year. More than half a million people lost their jobs in the global telecom industry over the two years. The collapse of U.S. carrier WorldCom, with more than $107 billion in assets, was the biggest in U.S. history. The sector's problems caused bankruptcies and job losses, and led to changes in the leadership of several major companies. Ericsson made 20,000 more staff redundant and raised about $3 billion from its shareholders. In June 2002, Infineon Technologies (then the sixth-largest semiconductor supplier and a subsidiary of Siemens) bought Ericsson's microelectronics unit for $400 million.
Ericsson was an official backer in the 2005 launch of the .mobi top-level domain created specifically for the mobile internet.
Co-operation with Hewlett-Packard did not end with EHPT; in 2003 Ericsson outsourced its IT to HP, which included Managed Services, Help Desk Support, Data Center Operations, and HP Utility Data Center. The contract was extended in 2008. In October 2005, Ericsson acquired the bulk of the troubled UK telecommunications manufacturer Marconi Company, including its brand name that dates back to the creation of the original Marconi Company by the "father of radio" Guglielmo Marconi. In September 2006, Ericsson sold the greater part of its defense business Ericsson Microwave Systems, which mainly produced sensor and radar systems, to Saab AB, which renamed the company to Saab Microwave Systems.
In 2007, Ericsson acquired carrier edge-router maker Redback Networks, and then Entrisphere, a US-based company providing fiber-access technology. In September 2007, Ericsson acquired an 84% interest in German customer-care and billing software firm LHS, a stake later raised to 100%. In 2008, Ericsson sold its enterprise PBX division to Aastra Technologies, and acquired Tandberg Television, the television technology division of Norwegian company Tandberg.
In 2009, Ericsson bought the CDMA2000 and LTE business of Nortel's carrier networks division for US$1.18 billion; Bizitek, a Turkish business support systems integrator; the Estonian manufacturing operations of electronic manufacturing company Elcoteq; and completed its acquisition of LHS. Acquisitions in 2010 included assets from the Strategy and Technology Group of inCode, a North American business and consulting-services company; Nortel's majority shareholding (50% plus one share) in LG-Nortel, a joint venture between LG Electronics and Nortel Networks providing sales, R&D and industrial capacity in South Korea, now known as Ericsson-LG; further Nortel carrier-division assets, relating from Nortel's GSM business in the United States and Canada; Optimi Corporation, a U.S.–Spanish telecommunications vendor specializing in network optimization and management; and Pride, a consulting and systems-integration company operating in Italy.
In 2011, Ericsson acquired manufacturing and research facilities, and staff from the Guangdong Nortel Telecommunication Equipment Company (GDNT) as well as Nortel's Multiservice Switch business. Ericsson acquired U.S. company Telcordia Technologies in January 2012, an operations and business support systems (OSS/BSS) company. In March, Ericsson announced it was buying the broadcast-services division of Technicolor, a media broadcast technology company. In April 2012 Ericsson completed the acquisition of BelAir Networks a strong Wi-Fi network technology company.
On 3 May 2013, Ericsson announced it would divest its power cable operations to Danish company NKT Holding. On 1 July 2013, Ericsson announced it would acquire the media management company Red Bee Media, subject to regulatory approval. The acquisition was completed on 9 May 2014. In September 2013, Ericsson completed its acquisition of Microsoft's Mediaroom business and televisions services, originally announced in April the same year. The acquisition makes Ericsson the largest provider of IPTV and multi-screen services in the world, by market share; it was renamed Ericsson Mediaroom. In September 2014, Ericsson acquired majority stake in Apcera for cloud policy compliance. In October 2015, Ericsson completed the acquisition of Envivio, a software encoding company. In April 2016, Ericsson acquired Polish and Ukrainian operations of software development company Ericpol, a long-time supplier to Ericsson. Approximately 2,300 Ericpol employees joined Ericsson, bringing software development competence in radio, cloud, and IP.
On 20 June 2017, Bloomberg disclosed that Ericsson hired Morgan Stanley to explore the sale of its media businesses. The Red Bee Media business was kept in-house as an independent subsidiary company, as no suitable buyer was found, but a 51% stake of the remainder of the Media Solution division was sold to private equity firm One Equity Partners, the new company being named MediaKind. The transaction was completed on 31 January 2019. In February 2018, Ericsson acquired the location-based mobile data management platform Placecast. Ericsson has since integrated Placecast's platform and capabilities with its programmatic mobile ad subsidiary, Emodo. In May 2018, SoftBank partnered with Ericsson to trial new radio technology. In September 2020, Ericsson acquired US-based carrier equipment manufacturer Cradlepoint for $1.1 billion.
In November 2021, Ericsson announced it had reached an agreement to acquire Vonage for $6.2 billion. The acquisition completed in July 2022. In January 2024, Ericson and MTN Group announced expansion of their partnership to boost their mobile financial services on Africa market, as the company appointed Michael Wallis-Brown as vice president responsible for global mobile financial services.
== Corporate governance ==
, members of the board of directors of LM Ericsson were: Leif Johansson, Jacob Wallenberg, Kristin S. Rinne, Helena Stjernholm, Sukhinder Singh Cassidy, Börje Ekholm, Ulf J. Johansson, Mikael Lännqvist, Zlatko Hadzic, Kjell-Åke Soting, Nora Denzel, Kristin Skogen Lund, Pehr Claesson, Karin Åberg and Roger Svensson.
==Research and development==
Ericsson has structured its R&D in three levels depending on when products or technologies will be introduced to customers and users. Its research and development organization is part of 'Group Function Technology' and addresses several facets of network architecture: wireless access networks; radio access technologies; broadband technologies; packet technologies; multimedia technologies; services software; EMF safety and sustainability; security; and global services. The head of research since 2012 is Sara Mazur.
Group Function Technology holds research co-operations with several major universities and research institutes including Lund University in Sweden, Eötvös Loránd University in Hungary and Beijing Institute of Technology in China. Ericsson also holds research co-operations within several European research programs such as GigaWam and OASE. Ericsson holds 33,000 granted patents and is the number-one holder of GSM/GPRS/EDGE, WCDMA/HSPA, and LTE essential patents. In 2023, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)’s Annual PCT Review ranked Ericsson's number of patent applications published under the PCT System as 7th in the world, with 1,863 patent applications being published during 2023.
Ericsson hosts a developer program called Ericsson Developer Connection designed to encourage development of applications and services. Ericsson also has an open innovation initiative for beta applications and beta API's & tools called Ericsson Labs. The company hosts several internal innovation competitions among its employees.
In May 2022, it was announced that Ericsson and Intel are pooling R&D excellence to create high-performing Cloud RAN solutions. The organisations have pooled to launch a tech hub in California, USA. The hub focuses on the benefits that Ericsson Cloud RAN and Intel technology can bring to: improving energy efficiency and network performance, reducing time to market, and monetizing new business opportunities such as enterprise applications.
==Products and services==
Ericsson's business includes technology research, development, network systems and software development, and running operations for telecom service providers. and software Ericsson offers end-to-end services for all major mobile communication standards, and has three main business units.
===Business Area Networks===
Business Area Networks, previously called Business Unit Networks, develop network infrastructure for communication needs over mobile and fixed connections.
The company's network division has been described as a driver in the development of 2G, 3G, 4G/LTE and 5G technology, and the evolution towards all-IP, and it develops and deploys advanced LTE systems, but it is still developing the older GSM, WCDMA, and CDMA technologies. The company's networks portfolio also includes microwave transport, Internet Protocol (IP) networks, fixed-access services for copper and fiber, and mobile broadband modules, several levels of fixed broadband access, radio access networks from small pico cells to high-capacity macro cells and controllers for radio base stations.
====Network services====
Ericsson's network rollout services employ in-house capabilities, subcontractors and central resources to make changes to live networks. Services such as technology deployment, network transformation, support services and network optimization are also provided. Ericsson has announced m-commerce deals with Western Union and African wireless carrier MTN.
===Business Area Managed Services===
The unit is active in 180 countries; it supplies managed services, systems integration, consulting, network rollout, design and optimization, broadcast services, learning services and support.
The company also works with television and media, public safety, and utilities. Ericsson claims to manage networks that serve more than 1 billion subscribers worldwide, and to support customer networks that serve more than 2.5 billion subscribers.
===Broadcast services===
Ericsson's Broadcast Services unit was evolved into a unit called Red Bee Media, which has been spun out into a joint venture. It deals with the playout of live and pre-recorded, commercial and public service television programmes, including presentation (continuity announcements), trailers, and ancillary access services such as closed-caption subtitles, audio description and in-vision sign language interpreters. Its media management services consist of Managed Media Preparation and Managed Media Internet Delivery.
==Divested businesses==
Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications AB (Sony Ericsson) was a joint venture with Sony that merged the previous mobile telephone operations of both companies. It manufactured mobile telephones, accessories and personal computer (PC) cards. Sony Ericsson was responsible for product design and development, marketing, sales, distribution and customer services. On 16 February 2012, Sony announced it had completed the full acquisition of Sony Ericsson, after which it changed name to Sony Mobile Communications, and nearly a year later it moved headquarters from Sweden to Japan.
===Mobile phones===
As a joint venture with Sony, Ericsson's mobile telephone production was moved into the company Sony Ericsson in 2001. The following is a list of mobile phones marketed under the brand name Ericsson.
Ericsson GS88 – Cancelled mobile telephone Ericsson invented the "Smartphone" name for
Ericsson GA628 – Known for its Z80 CPU
Ericsson SH888 – First mobile telephone to have wireless modem capabilities
Ericsson A1018 – Dualband cellphone, notably easy to hack
Ericsson A2618 & Ericsson A2628 – Dualband cellphones. Use graphical LCD display based on PCF8548 I²C controller.
Ericsson PF768
Ericsson GF768
Ericsson DH318 - One of the earliest TDMA/AMPS phones in the USA
Ericsson GH388
Ericsson T10 – Colourful cellphone
Ericsson T18 – Business model of the T10, with active flip
Ericsson T28 – Very slim telephone. Uses lithium polymer batteries. Ericsson T28 FAQ use graphical LCD display based on PCF8558 I²C controller.
Ericsson T20s
Ericsson T29s – Similar to the T28s, but with WAP support
Ericsson T29m – Pre-alpha prototype for the T39m
Ericsson T36m – Prototype for the T39m. Announced in yellow and blue. Never hit the market due to release T39m
Ericsson T39 – Similar to the T28, but with a GPRS modem, Bluetooth and triband capabilities
Ericsson T65
Ericsson T66
Ericsson T68m – The first Ericsson handset to have a color display, later branded as Sony Ericsson T68i
Ericsson R250s Pro – Fully dust- and water resistant telephone
Ericsson R310s
Ericsson R320s
Ericsson R320s Titan – Limited Edition with titanium front
Ericsson R320s GPRS – Prototype for testing GPRS networks
Ericsson R360m – Pre-alpha prototype for the R520m
Ericsson R380 – First cellphone to use the Symbian OS
Ericsson R520m – Similar to the T39, but in a candy bar form factor and with added features such as a built-in speakerphone and an optical proximity sensor
Ericsson R520m UMTS – Prototype to test UMTS networks
Ericsson R520m SyncML – Prototype to test the SyncML implementation
Ericsson R580m – Announced in several press releases. Supposed to be a successor of the R380s without external antenna and with color display
Ericsson R600
===Telephones===
Ericsson Dialog
Ericofon
===Ericsson Mobile Platforms===
Ericsson Mobile Platforms existed for eight years; on 12 February 2009, Ericsson announced it would be merged with the mobile platform company of STMicroelectronics, ST-NXP Wireless, to create a 50/50 joint venture owned by Ericsson and STMicroelectronics.
This joint venture was divested in 2013 and remaining activities can be found in Ericsson Modems and STMicroelectronics. Ericsson Mobile Platform ceased being a legal entity early 2009.
===Ericsson Enterprise===
Starting in 1983 Ericsson Enterprise provided communications systems and services for businesses, public entities and educational institutions. It produced products for voice over Internet protocol (VoIP)-based private branch exchanges (PBX), wireless local area networks (WLAN), and mobile intranets.
Ericsson Enterprise operated mainly from Sweden but also operated through regional units and other partners/distributors. In 2008 it was sold to Aastra.
==Corruption==
On 7 December 2019, Ericsson agreed to pay more than $1.2 billion (€1.09 billion) to settle U.S. Department of Justice FCPA criminal and civil investigations into foreign corruption. US authorities accused the company of conducting a campaign of corruption between 2000 and 2016 across China, Indonesia, Vietnam, Kuwait and Djibouti. Ericsson admitted to paying bribes, falsifying books and records and failing to implement reasonable internal accounting controls in an attempt to strengthen its position in the telecommunications industry.
In 2022, an internal investigation into corruption inside the company was leaked by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. It detailed corruption in at least 10 countries. Ericsson has admitted "serious breaches of compliance rules".
The leak also revealed that some subcontractors working on behalf of Ericsson paid bribes to the Islamic State in order to continue operating the telecom network in occupied regions of Iraq.
|
[
"data management platform",
"Handelsbanken",
"Tandberg Television",
"Infineon Technologies",
"Great Depression",
"private branch exchange",
"List of networking hardware vendors",
"Telent",
"defense contractor",
"ICIJ",
"Telecommunications",
"GPRS",
"LG-Ericsson",
"mobile switching center",
"Hans Vestberg",
"Kista",
"Leif Johansson (businessman)",
"ERIPAX",
"Saab Microwave Systems",
"playout",
"Emodo",
"Red Bee Media",
"Lucent Technologies",
"Hewlett-Packard",
"Ronnie Leten",
"Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications",
"telecommunications industry",
"iconectiv",
"pico cell",
"LG Electronics",
"Ericsson Broadcast and Media Services",
"Public company",
"List of Sony Ericsson products",
"Alcatel",
"CDMA2000",
"Ericsson R310s",
"World Intellectual Property Organization",
"MCI Inc",
"Marcus Wallenberg Jr.",
"Ericsson Telephones Ltd.",
"Ericsson Mobile Platforms",
"Tandberg",
"Apcera",
"Internet Protocol",
"Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken",
"World War I",
"Radio Network Controller",
"dot-com start-up",
"Qualcomm",
"European Commission",
"flash memory",
"Ericpol",
"Automatic Electric",
"4G",
"Technicolor SA",
"High-Speed Packet Access",
"Code division multiple access",
"Microsoft",
"Broadband networks",
"GSM",
"HSDPA",
"crossbar switching",
"Guglielmo Marconi",
"Redback Networks",
"3GPP Long Term Evolution",
"automatic telephony",
"Televerket (Sweden)",
"Envivio",
"Cellular network",
"LHS Telekommunikation",
"STMicroelectronics",
"Lars Magnus Ericsson",
"Investor AB",
"3G",
"National Telephone Company",
"Bell System",
"International Telecommunication Union",
"Islamic State",
"Erlang (programming language)",
"Multi-service access node",
"Nortel",
"Stockholm",
"Patent Cooperation Treaty",
"ITT Inc.",
"GigaWam",
"Vonage",
"speakerphone",
"managed services",
"Guangdong Nortel Telecommunication Equipment Company",
"sign language",
"AXE telephone exchange",
"President (corporate title)",
"CDMA",
"KBR (company)",
"Ericsson R380",
"CNET",
"NKT Holding",
"Nokia",
"FOMA",
"OASE",
"Ericsson Microwave Systems",
"Intel",
"Stockholms Enskilda Bank",
"subtitle (captioning)",
"NTT Docomo",
"strategic partnership",
"information and communications technology",
"YouTube",
"Ericsson Dialog",
"Carl Johan Andersson",
"Ericsson T39",
"The Wall Street Journal",
"Sony",
"Karl Fredric Wincrantz",
"Wireless Strategic Initiative",
"telegraph",
"Jacob Wallenberg",
"wireless local area network",
"Ericsson T66",
"Tv",
"Wallenberg family",
"Bharti Airtel",
"Motorola",
"mobile internet",
"Aastra",
"Beijing Institute of Technology",
"Börje Ekholm",
"Marconi Company",
"Cedergren",
"Trailer (promotion)",
"chairman",
"MTD (mobile network)",
"multimedia",
"WCDMA",
"Elcoteq",
"Consultant",
"Sara Mazur",
"Fixed line",
"intranet",
"United States Department of Justice",
"Russian Revolution (1917)",
"International Emergency Economic Powers Act",
"5G",
"Chief executive officer",
"International Consortium of Investigative Journalists",
"Ivar Kreuger",
"Lund University",
"Damovo",
"Wireless Application Protocol",
"Economy of Sweden",
"D-AMPS",
"patent application",
"Sony Ericsson T68i",
"AT&T",
"Ericsson Modems",
"Foreign Corrupt Practices Act",
"Saab AB",
"Sony Mobile",
"Eötvös Loránd University",
".mobi",
"Lithium-ion polymer battery",
"Cisco Systems",
"Ericsson Nikola Tesla",
"Telcordia Technologies",
"telecommunications",
"Z80",
"Siemens",
"Mass production",
"Red Jade",
"continuity (broadcasting)",
"audio description",
"Ericofon",
"voice over Internet protocol",
"Reuters",
"Western Electric",
"Symbian OS",
"MTN Group",
"EHPT",
"Ericsson T28",
"Ericsson Mediaroom",
"Bluetooth",
"Aastra Technologies",
"Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum",
"microelectronics",
"Personal Digital Cellular"
] |
9,425 |
Ethology
|
Ethology is a branch of zoology that studies the behaviour of non-human animals. It has its scientific roots in the work of Charles Darwin and of American and German ornithologists of the late 19th and early 20th century, including Charles O. Whitman, Oskar Heinroth, and Wallace Craig. The modern discipline of ethology is generally considered to have begun during the 1930s with the work of the Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen and the Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, the three winners of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Ethology combines laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to neuroanatomy, ecology, and evolutionary biology.
== Etymology ==
The modern term ethology derives from the Greek language: ἦθος, ethos meaning "character" and , -logia meaning "the study of". The term was first popularized by the American entomologist William Morton Wheeler in 1902.
== History ==
=== The beginnings of ethology ===
Ethologists have been concerned particularly with the evolution of behaviour and its understanding in terms of natural selection. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals influenced many ethologists. He pursued his interest in behaviour by encouraging his protégé George Romanes, who investigated animal learning and intelligence using an anthropomorphic method, anecdotal cognitivism, that did not gain scientific support.
Other early ethologists, such as Eugène Marais, Charles O. Whitman, Oskar Heinroth, Wallace Craig and Julian Huxley, instead concentrated on behaviours that can be called instinctive in that they occur in all members of a species under specified circumstances.
Lorenz, Tinbergen, and von Frisch were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973 for their work of developing ethology.
Ethology is now a well-recognized scientific discipline, with its own journals such as Animal Behaviour, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Animal Cognition, Behaviour, Behavioral Ecology and Ethology. In 1972, the International Society for Human Ethology was founded along with its journal, Human Ethology.
=== Social ethology ===
In 1972, the English ethologist John H. Crook distinguished comparative ethology from social ethology, and argued that much of the ethology that had existed so far was really comparative ethology—examining animals as individuals—whereas, in the future, ethologists would need to concentrate on the behaviour of social groups of animals and the social structure within them.
E. O. Wilson's book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis appeared in 1975,
== Determinants of behaviour ==
Behaviour is determined by three major factors, namely inborn instincts, learning, and environmental factors. The latter include abiotic and biotic factors. Abiotic factors such as temperature or light conditions have dramatic effects on animals, especially if they are ectothermic or nocturnal. Biotic factors include members of the same species (e.g. sexual behavior), predators (fight or flight), or parasites and diseases.
=== Instinct ===
Webster's Dictionary defines instinct as "A largely inheritable and unalterable tendency of an organism to make a complex and specific response to environmental stimuli without involving reason". This covers fixed action patterns like beak movements of bird chicks,
One example of a releaser is the beak movements of many bird species performed by newly hatched chicks, which stimulates the mother to regurgitate food for her offspring. Other examples are the classic studies by Tinbergen on the egg-retrieval behaviour and the effects of a "supernormal stimulus" on the behaviour of graylag geese.
One investigation of this kind was the study of the waggle dance ("dance language") in bee communication by Karl von Frisch.
=== Learning ===
==== Habituation ====
Habituation is a simple form of learning and occurs in many animal taxa. It is the process whereby an animal ceases responding to a stimulus. Often, the response is an innate behavior. Essentially, the animal learns not to respond to irrelevant stimuli. For example, prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) give alarm calls when predators approach, causing all individuals in the group to quickly scramble down burrows. When prairie dog towns are located near trails used by humans, giving alarm calls every time a person walks by is expensive in terms of time and energy. Habituation to humans is therefore an important behavior in this context.
==== Associative learning ====
Associative learning in animal behaviour is any learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a particular stimulus. The first studies of associative learning were made by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who observed that dogs trained to associate food with the ringing of a bell would salivate on hearing the bell.
==== Imprinting ====
Imprinting enables the young to discriminate the members of their own species, vital for reproductive success. This important type of learning only takes place in a very limited period of time. Konrad Lorenz observed that the young of birds such as geese and chickens followed their mothers spontaneously from almost the first day after they were hatched, and he discovered that this response could be imitated by an arbitrary stimulus if the eggs were incubated artificially and the stimulus were presented during a critical period that continued for a few days after hatching.
==== Cultural learning ====
===== Observational learning =====
===== Imitation =====
Imitation is an advanced behavior whereby an animal observes and exactly replicates the behavior of another.
The National Institutes of Health reported that capuchin monkeys preferred the company of researchers who imitated them to that of researchers who did not. The monkeys not only spent more time with their imitators but also preferred to engage in a simple task with them even when provided with the option of performing the same task with a non-imitator. Imitation has been observed in recent research on chimpanzees; not only did these chimps copy the actions of another individual, when given a choice, the chimps preferred to imitate the actions of the higher-ranking elder chimpanzee as opposed to the lower-ranking young chimpanzee.
===== Stimulus and local enhancement =====
Animals can learn using observational learning but without the process of imitation. One way is stimulus enhancement in which individuals become interested in an object as the result of observing others interacting with the object. Increased interest in an object can result in object manipulation which allows for new object-related behaviours by trial-and-error learning. Haggerty (1909) devised an experiment in which a monkey climbed up the side of a cage, placed its arm into a wooden chute, and pulled a rope in the chute to release food. Another monkey was provided an opportunity to obtain the food after watching a monkey go through this process on four occasions. The monkey performed a different method and finally succeeded after trial-and-error. In local enhancement, a demonstrator attracts an observer's attention to a particular location. Local enhancement has been observed to transmit foraging information among birds, rats and pigs. The stingless bee (Trigona corvina) uses local enhancement to locate other members of their colony and food resources.
===== Social transmission =====
A well-documented example of social transmission of a behaviour occurred in a group of macaques on Hachijojima Island, Japan. The macaques lived in the inland forest until the 1960s, when a group of researchers started giving them potatoes on the beach: soon, they started venturing onto the beach, picking the potatoes from the sand, and cleaning and eating them. About one year later, an individual was observed bringing a potato to the sea, putting it into the water with one hand, and cleaning it with the other. This behaviour was soon expressed by the individuals living in contact with her; when they gave birth, this behaviour was also expressed by their young—a form of social transmission.
==== Teaching ====
Teaching is a highly specialized aspect of learning in which the "teacher" (demonstrator) adjusts their behaviour to increase the probability of the "pupil" (observer) achieving the desired end-result of the behaviour. For example, orcas are known to intentionally beach themselves to catch pinniped prey. Mother orcas teach their young to catch pinnipeds by pushing them onto the shore and encouraging them to attack the prey. Because the mother orca is altering her behaviour to help her offspring learn to catch prey, this is evidence of teaching. It has been suggested that the pupil ant is able to learn this route to obtain food in the future or teach the route to other ants. This behaviour of teaching is also exemplified by crows, specifically New Caledonian crows. The adults (whether individual or in families) teach their young adolescent offspring how to construct and utilize tools. For example, Pandanus branches are used to extract insects and other larvae from holes within trees.
== Mating and the fight for supremacy ==
Individual reproduction is the most important phase in the proliferation of individuals or genes within a species: for this reason, there exist complex mating rituals, which can be very complex even if they are often regarded as fixed action patterns. The stickleback's complex mating ritual, studied by Tinbergen, is regarded as a notable example.
Often in social life, animals fight for the right to reproduce, as well as social supremacy. A common example of fighting for social and sexual supremacy is the so-called pecking order among poultry. Every time a group of poultry cohabitate for a certain time length, they establish a pecking order. In these groups, one chicken dominates the others and can peck without being pecked. A second chicken can peck all the others except the first, and so on. Chickens higher in the pecking order may at times be distinguished by their healthier appearance when compared to lower level chickens. While the pecking order is establishing, frequent and violent fights can happen, but once established, it is broken only when other individuals enter the group, in which case the pecking order re-establishes from scratch.
== Social behaviour ==
Several animal species, including humans, tend to live in groups. Group size is a major aspect of their social environment. Social life is probably a complex and effective survival strategy. It may be regarded as a sort of symbiosis among individuals of the same species: a society is composed of a group of individuals belonging to the same species living within well-defined rules on food management, role assignments and reciprocal dependence.
When biologists interested in evolution theory first started examining social behaviour, some apparently unanswerable questions arose, such as how the birth of sterile castes, like in bees, could be explained through an evolving mechanism that emphasizes the reproductive success of as many individuals as possible, or why, amongst animals living in small groups like squirrels, an individual would risk its own life to save the rest of the group. These behaviours may be examples of altruism. Not all behaviours are altruistic, as indicated by the table below. For example, revengeful behaviour was at one point claimed to have been observed exclusively in Homo sapiens. However, other species have been reported to be vengeful including chimpanzees, as well as anecdotal reports of vengeful camels.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto;" text-align:center;"
|+ Classification of social behaviours
=== Benefits and costs of group living ===
One advantage of group living is decreased predation. If the number of predator attacks stays the same despite increasing prey group size, each prey has a reduced risk of predator attacks through the dilution effect. Further, according to the selfish herd theory, the fitness benefits associated with group living vary depending on the location of an individual within the group. The theory suggests that conspecifics positioned at the centre of a group will reduce the likelihood predations while those at the periphery will become more vulnerable to attack. In groups, prey can also actively reduce their predation risk through more effective defence tactics, or through earlier detection of predators through increased vigilance. Predators also receive benefits from hunting in groups, through using better strategies and being able to take down larger prey.
=== Group size ===
Theoretically, social animals should have optimal group sizes that maximize the benefits and minimize the costs of group living. However, in nature, most groups are stable at slightly larger than optimal sizes.
==Tinbergen's four questions for ethologists==
Tinbergen argued that ethology needed to include four kinds of explanation in any instance of behaviour:
Function – How does the behaviour affect the animal's chances of survival and reproduction? Why does the animal respond that way instead of some other way?
Causation – What are the stimuli that elicit the response, and how has it been modified by recent learning?
Development – How does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the animal to display the behaviour?
Evolutionary history – How does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related species, and how might it have begun through the process of phylogeny?
These explanations are complementary rather than mutually exclusive—all instances of behaviour require an explanation at each of these four levels. For example, the function of eating is to acquire nutrients (which ultimately aids survival and reproduction), but the immediate cause of eating is hunger (causation). Hunger and eating are evolutionarily ancient and are found in many species (evolutionary history), and develop early within an organism's lifespan (development). It is easy to confuse such questions—for example, to argue that people eat because they are hungry and not to acquire nutrients—without realizing that the reason people experience hunger is because it causes them to acquire nutrients.
|
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"E. O. Wilson",
"Charles Darwin",
"Ant",
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"comparative psychology",
"macaque",
"biologist",
"William Homan Thorpe",
"Nocturnality",
"entomologist",
"beak",
"evolutionary biology",
"Trigona corvina",
"Anthrozoology",
"International Society for Human Ethology",
"pinniped",
"Animal behavior consultant",
"gene-centered view of evolution",
"altruism",
"courtship display",
"Karl von Frisch",
"anecdotal cognitivism",
"goose",
"Ethology (journal)",
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"Greek language",
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"imprinting (psychology)",
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"society",
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"bee learning and communication",
"Cooperative hunting",
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"Robert Hinde",
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"moose",
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"light",
"Oskar Heinroth",
"phylogeny",
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"ecology",
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"Robert Trivers",
"wikt:ἦθος",
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"animal",
"evolution",
"behavioural ecology",
"Behavioral ecology",
"Foraging",
"Disease",
"Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine",
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"anthropomorphism",
"Sociobiology: The New Synthesis",
"Behaviour (journal)",
"behavior",
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"Charles Otis Whitman",
"Konrad Lorenz",
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"Fixed action pattern",
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"temperature",
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"ethos",
"Parasitism",
"University of Cambridge",
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"reproduction",
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"Rut (mammalian reproduction)",
"Graylag goose",
"physiologist",
"Eugène Marais"
] |
9,426 |
Electromagnetic radiation
|
In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is a self-propagating wave of the electromagnetic field that carries momentum and radiant energy through space. It encompasses a broad spectrum, classified by frequency or its inverse, wavelength, ranging from radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. All forms of EMR travel at the speed of light in a vacuum and exhibit wave–particle duality, behaving both as waves and as discrete particles called photons.
Electromagnetic radiation is produced by accelerating charged particles such as from the Sun and other celestial bodies or artificially generated for various applications. Its interaction with matter depends on wavelength, influencing its uses in communication, medicine, industry, and scientific research. Radio waves enable broadcasting and wireless communication, infrared is used in thermal imaging, visible light is essential for vision, and higher-energy radiation, such as X-rays and gamma rays, is applied in medical imaging, cancer treatment, and industrial inspection. Exposure to high-energy radiation can pose health risks, making shielding and regulation necessary in certain applications.
In quantum mechanics, an alternate way of viewing EMR is that it consists of photons, uncharged elementary particles with zero rest mass which are the quanta of the electromagnetic field, responsible for all electromagnetic interactions. Quantum electrodynamics is the theory of how EMR interacts with matter on an atomic level. Quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR, such as the transition of electrons to lower energy levels in an atom and black-body radiation.
== Physics ==
=== Properties ===
Electromagnetic radiation is produced by accelerating charged particles and can be naturally emitted, as from the Sun and other celestial bodies, or artificially generated for various applications. The energy in electromagnetic waves is sometimes called radiant energy. The electromagnetic waves' energy does not need a propagating medium to travel through space; they move through a vacuum at the speed of light.
Electric and magnetic fields obey the properties of superposition. Thus, a field due to any particular particle or time-varying electric or magnetic field contributes to the fields present in the same space due to other causes. Further, as they are vector fields, all magnetic and electric field vectors add together according to vector addition. For example, in optics two or more coherent light waves may interact and by constructive or destructive interference yield a resultant irradiance deviating from the sum of the component irradiances of the individual light waves. The electromagnetic fields of light are not affected by traveling through static electric or magnetic fields in a linear medium such as a vacuum. However, in nonlinear media, such as some crystals, interactions can occur between light and static electric and magnetic fields—these interactions include the Faraday effect and the Kerr effect.
In refraction, a wave crossing from one medium to another of different density alters its speed and direction upon entering the new medium. The ratio of the refractive indices of the media determines the degree of refraction, and is summarized by Snell's law. Light of composite wavelengths (natural sunlight) disperses into a visible spectrum passing through a prism, because of the wavelength-dependent refractive index of the prism material (dispersion); that is, each component wave within the composite light is bent a different amount.
EM radiation exhibits both wave properties and particle properties at the same time (known as wave–particle duality). Both wave and particle characteristics have been confirmed in many experiments. Wave characteristics are more apparent when EM radiation is measured over relatively large timescales and over large distances while particle characteristics are more evident when measuring small timescales and distances. For example, when electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by matter, particle-like properties will be more obvious when the average number of photons in the cube of the relevant wavelength is much smaller than 1. It is not so difficult to experimentally observe non-uniform deposition of energy when light is absorbed, however this alone is not evidence of "particulate" behavior. Rather, it reflects the quantum nature of matter. A quantum theory of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter such as electrons is described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics.
Electromagnetic waves can be polarized, reflected, refracted, or diffracted, and can interfere with each other. Some experiments display both the wave and particle natures of electromagnetic waves, such as the self-interference of a single photon. When a low intensity light is sent through an interferometer it will detected by a photomultiplier or other sensitive detector only along one arm of the device, consistent with particle properties, and yet the accumulated effect of many such detections will be interference consistent with wave properties.
=== Wave model ===
In homogeneous, isotropic media, electromagnetic radiation is a transverse wave, meaning that its oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer and travel. It comes from the following equations:\begin{align}
\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} &= 0\\
\nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} &= 0
\end{align}These equations predicate that any electromagnetic wave must be a transverse wave, where the electric field and the magnetic field are both perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. The electric and magnetic parts of the field in an electromagnetic wave stand in a fixed ratio of strengths to satisfy the two Maxwell's equations that specify how one is produced from the other. In dissipation-less (lossless) media, these and fields are also in phase, with both reaching maxima and minima at the same points in space.
In the far-field EM radiation which is described by the two source-free Maxwell curl operator equations, a time-change in one type of field is proportional to the curl of the other. These derivatives require that the and fields in EMR are in phase. An important aspect of light's nature is its frequency. The frequency of a wave is its rate of oscillation and is measured in hertz, the SI unit of frequency, where one hertz is equal to one oscillation per second. Light usually has multiple frequencies that sum to form the resultant wave. Different frequencies undergo different angles of refraction, a phenomenon known as dispersion.
A monochromatic wave (a wave of a single frequency) consists of successive troughs and crests, and the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called the wavelength. Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves longer than a continent to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, according to the equation:
\displaystyle v=f\lambda
where v is the speed of the wave (c in a vacuum or less in other media), f is the frequency, and λ is the wavelength. As waves cross boundaries between different media, their speeds change but their frequencies remain constant.
Electromagnetic waves in free space must be solutions of Maxwell's electromagnetic wave equation. Two main classes of solutions are known, namely plane waves and spherical waves. The plane waves may be viewed as the limiting case of spherical waves at a very large (ideally infinite) distance from the source. Both types of waves can have a waveform which is an arbitrary time function (so long as it is sufficiently differentiable to conform to the wave equation). As with any time function, this can be decomposed by means of Fourier analysis into its frequency spectrum, or individual sinusoidal components, each of which contains a single frequency, amplitude, and phase. Such a component wave is said to be monochromatic.
Interference is the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern. If the fields have components in the same direction, they constructively interfere, while opposite directions cause destructive interference. Additionally, multiple polarization signals can be combined (i.e. interfered) to form new states of polarization, which is known as parallel polarization state generation.
=== Maxwell's equations ===
James Clerk Maxwell derived a wave form of the electric and magnetic equations, thus uncovering the wave-like nature of electric and magnetic fields and their symmetry. Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with the measured speed of light, Maxwell concluded that light itself is an EM wave. Maxwell's equations were confirmed by Heinrich Hertz through experiments with radio waves. Out of the four equations, two of the equations that Maxwell refine were Faraday's Law of Induction and Ampère's circuital law, which he extended by adding the displacement current term to the equations himself. Maxwell thought that the displacement current, which he viewed as the motion of bound charges, gave rise to the magnetic field. The other two equations are Gauss's law and Gauss's law for magnetism.
=== Near and far fields ===
Maxwell's equations established that some charges and currents (sources) produce local electromagnetic fields near them that do not radiate. Currents directly produce magnetic fields, but such fields of a magnetic-dipole–type that dies out with distance from the current. In a similar manner, moving charges pushed apart in a conductor by a changing electrical potential (such as in an antenna) produce an electric-dipole–type electrical field, but this also declines with distance. These fields make up the near field. Neither of these behaviours is responsible for EM radiation. Instead, they only efficiently transfer energy to a receiver very close to the source, such as inside a transformer. The near field has strong effects on its source, with any energy withdrawn by a receiver causing increased load (decreased electrical reactance) on the source. The near field does not propagate freely into space, carrying energy away without a distance limit, but rather oscillates, returning its energy to the transmitter if it is not absorbed by a receiver.
By contrast, the far field is composed of radiation that is free of the transmitter, in the sense that the transmitter requires the same power to send changes in the field out regardless of whether anything absorbs the signal, e.g. a radio station does not need to increase its power when more receivers use the signal. This far part of the electromagnetic field is electromagnetic radiation. The far fields propagate (radiate) without allowing the transmitter to affect them. This causes them to be independent in the sense that their existence and their energy, after they have left the transmitter, is completely independent of both transmitter and receiver. Due to conservation of energy, the amount of power passing through any closed surface drawn around the source is the same. The power density of EM radiation from an isotropic source decreases with the inverse square of the distance from the source; this is called the inverse-square law. Field intensity due to dipole parts of the near field varies according to an inverse-cube law, and thus fades with distance.
In the Liénard–Wiechert potential formulation of the electric and magnetic fields due to motion of a single particle (according to Maxwell's equations), the terms associated with acceleration of the particle are those that are responsible for the part of the field that is regarded as electromagnetic radiation. By contrast, the term associated with the changing static electric field of the particle and the magnetic term that results from the particle's uniform velocity are both associated with the near field, and do not comprise electromagnetic radiation.
=== Particle model and quantum theory ===
An anomaly arose in the late 19th century involving a contradiction between the wave theory of light and measurements of the electromagnetic spectra that were being emitted by thermal radiators known as black bodies. Physicists struggled with this problem unsuccessfully for many years, and it later became known as the ultraviolet catastrophe. In 1900, Max Planck developed a new theory of black-body radiation that explained the observed spectrum. Planck's theory was based on the idea that black bodies emit light (and other electromagnetic radiation) only as discrete bundles or packets of energy. These packets were called quanta. In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed that light quanta be regarded as real particles. Later the particle of light was given the name photon, to correspond with other particles being described around this time, such as the electron and proton. A photon has an energy, E, proportional to its frequency, f, by
E = hf = \frac{hc}{\lambda} \,\!
where h is the Planck constant, \lambda is the wavelength and c is the speed of light. This is sometimes known as the Planck–Einstein equation. In quantum theory (see first quantization) the energy of the photons is thus directly proportional to the frequency of the EMR wave. Likewise, the momentum p of a photon is also proportional to its frequency and inversely proportional to its wavelength:
p = { E \over c } = { hf \over c } = { h \over \lambda }.
The source of Einstein's proposal that light was composed of particles (or could act as particles in some circumstances) was an experimental anomaly not explained by the wave theory: the photoelectric effect, in which light striking a metal surface ejected electrons from the surface, causing an electric current to flow across an applied voltage. Experimental measurements demonstrated that the energy of individual ejected electrons was proportional to the frequency, rather than the intensity, of the light. Furthermore, below a certain minimum frequency, which depended on the particular metal, no current would flow regardless of the intensity. These observations appeared to contradict the wave theory, and for years physicists tried to find an explanation. In 1905, Einstein explained this phenomenon by resurrecting the particle theory of light. Because of the preponderance of evidence in favor of the wave theory, however, Einstein's ideas were met initially with great skepticism among established physicists. Eventually Einstein's explanation was accepted as new particle-like behavior of light was observed, such as the Compton effect.
As a photon is absorbed by an atom, it excites the atom, elevating an electron to a higher energy level (one that is on average farther from the nucleus). When an electron in an excited molecule or atom descends to a lower energy level, it emits a photon of light at a frequency corresponding to the energy difference. Since the energy levels of electrons in atoms are discrete, each element and each molecule emits and absorbs its own characteristic frequencies. Immediate photon emission is called fluorescence, a type of photoluminescence. An example is visible light emitted from fluorescent paints, in response to ultraviolet (blacklight). Many other fluorescent emissions are known in spectral bands other than visible light. Delayed emission is called phosphorescence.
Quantum mechanics also governs emission, which is seen when an emitting gas glows due to excitation of the atoms from any mechanism, including heat. As electrons descend to lower energy levels, a spectrum is emitted that represents the jumps between the energy levels of the electrons, but lines are seen because again emission happens only at particular energies after excitation. An example is the emission spectrum of nebulae. Rapidly moving electrons are most sharply accelerated when they encounter a region of force, so they are responsible for producing much of the highest frequency electromagnetic radiation observed in nature. These phenomena can be used to detect the composition of gases lit from behind (absorption spectra) and for glowing gases (emission spectra). Spectroscopy (for example) determines what chemical elements comprise a particular star. Shifts in the frequency of the spectral lines for an element, called a redshift, can be used to determine the star's cosmological distance.
=== Wave–particle duality ===
The modern theory that explains the nature of light includes the notion of wave–particle duality. The theory is based on the concept that every quantum entity can show wave-like or particle-like behaviors, depending on observation. The observation led to the collapse of the entity's wave function. If it is based on the Copenhagen interpretation, the observation does really collapse the wave function; for the many-worlds interpretation, all possible outcomes of the collapse happened in parallel universes; for the pilot wave theory, the particle behaviour is simply determined by waves. The duality nature of a real photon has been observed in the double-slit experiment.
Together, wave and particle effects fully explain the emission and absorption spectra of EM radiation. The matter-composition of the medium through which the light travels determines the nature of the absorption and emission spectrum. These bands correspond to the allowed energy levels in the atoms. Dark bands in the absorption spectrum are due to the atoms in an intervening medium between source and observer. The atoms absorb certain frequencies of the light between emitter and detector/eye, then emit them in all directions. A dark band appears to the detector, due to the radiation scattered out of the light beam. For instance, dark bands in the light emitted by a distant star are due to the atoms in the star's atmosphere.
=== Propagation speed ===
In empty space (vacuum), electromagnetic radiation travels at the speed of light, c, 299,792,458 meters per second (approximately 186,000 miles per second). In a medium other than vacuum it travels at a lower velocity v, given by a dimensionless parameter between 0 and 1 characteristic of the medium called the velocity factor \mathit{VF} or its reciprocal, the refractive index n:
v = \mathit{VF} \cdot c = {c \over n}.
The reason for this is that in matter the electric and magnetic fields of the wave are slowed because they polarize the charged particles in the medium they pass through. The oscillating electric field causes nearby positive and negative charges in atoms to move slightly apart and together, inducing an oscillating polarization, creating an electric polarization field. The oscillating magnetic field moves nearby magnetic dipoles, inducing an oscillating magnetization, creating an induced oscillating magnetic field. These induced fields, superposed on the original wave fields, slow the wave (Ewald–Oseen extinction theorem). The amount of slowing depends on the electromagnetic properties of the medium, the electric permittivity and magnetic permeability. In the SI system of units, empty space has a vacuum permittivity of \epsilon_\text{0} = 8.854×10−12 F/m (farads per meter) and a vacuum permeability of \mu_\text{0} = 1.257×10−6 H/m (henries per meter). These universal constants determine the speed of light in a vacuum:
c = {1 \over \sqrt{\epsilon_\text{0}\mu_\text{0}}}
In a medium that is isotropic and linear, which means the electric polarization is proportional to the electric field \mathbf{D} = \epsilon\mathbf{E} and the magnetization is proportional to the magnetic field \mathbf{H} = {1 \over \mu}\mathbf{B}, the speed of the waves, the \mathit{VF} and refractive index, is determined by only two parameters: the electric permittivity \epsilon of the medium in farads per meter, and the magnetic permeability of the medium \mu in henrys per meter Herschel used a glass prism to refract light from the Sun and detected invisible rays that caused heating beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded with a thermometer. These "calorific rays" were later termed infrared.
In 1801 German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter discovered ultraviolet in an experiment similar to Herschel's, using sunlight and a glass prism. Ritter noted that invisible rays near the violet edge of a solar spectrum dispersed by a triangular prism darkened silver chloride preparations more quickly than did the nearby violet light. Ritter's experiments were an early precursor to what would become photography. Ritter noted that the ultraviolet rays (which at first were called "chemical rays") were capable of causing chemical reactions.
In 1862–64 James Clerk Maxwell developed equations for the electromagnetic field which suggested that waves in the field would travel with a speed that was very close to the known speed of light. Maxwell therefore suggested that visible light (as well as invisible infrared and ultraviolet rays by inference) all consisted of propagating disturbances (or radiation) in the electromagnetic field. Radio waves were first produced deliberately by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, using electrical circuits calculated to produce oscillations at a much lower frequency than that of visible light, following recipes for producing oscillating charges and currents suggested by Maxwell's equations. Hertz also developed ways to detect these waves, and produced and characterized what were later termed radio waves and microwaves.
Wilhelm Röntgen discovered and named X-rays. After experimenting with high voltages applied to an evacuated tube on 8 November 1895, he noticed a fluorescence on a nearby plate of coated glass. In one month, he discovered X-rays' main properties. the spectrum is commonly divided as near-infrared (0.75–1.4 μm), short-wavelength infrared (1.4–3 μm), mid-wavelength infrared (3–8 μm), long-wavelength infrared (8–15 μm) and far infrared (15–1000 μm).
Some animals, such as for snakes, have thermo-sensitive membranes (pit organs) that can detect temperature differences, allowing them to sense infrared radiation.
=== Visible light ===
Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum. EM radiation with a wavelength between approximately 400 nm and 700 nm is directly detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light.
As frequency increases into the visible range, photons have enough energy to change the bond structure of some individual molecules. It is not a coincidence that this happens in the visible range, as the mechanism of vision involves the change in bonding of a single molecule, retinal, which absorbs a single photon. The change in retinal causes a change in the shape of the rhodopsin protein it is contained in, which starts the biochemical process that causes the retina of the human eye to sense the light.
Visible light is able to affect only a tiny percentage of all molecules. Usually not in a permanent or damaging way, rather the photon excites an electron which then emits another photon when returning to its original position. This is the source of color produced by most dyes. Retinal is an exception. When a photon is absorbed, the retinal permanently changes structure from cis to trans, and requires a protein to convert it back, i.e. reset it to be able to function as a light detector again.
Photosynthesis becomes possible in this range as well, for the same reason. A single molecule of chlorophyll is excited by a single photon. In plant tissues that conduct photosynthesis, carotenoids act to quench electronically excited chlorophyll produced by visible light in a process called non-photochemical quenching, to prevent reactions that would otherwise interfere with photosynthesis at high light levels.
Limited evidence indicate that some reactive oxygen species are created by visible light in skin, and that these may have some role in photoaging, in the same manner as ultraviolet A.
Infrared, microwaves, and radio waves are known to damage molecules and biological tissue only by bulk heating, not excitation from single photons of the radiation.
=== Ultraviolet ===
As frequency increases into the ultraviolet, photons now carry enough energy (about three electron volts or more) to excite certain doubly bonded molecules into permanent chemical rearrangement. In DNA, this causes lasting damage. DNA is also indirectly damaged by reactive oxygen species produced by ultraviolet A (UVA), which has energy too low to damage DNA directly. This is why ultraviolet at all wavelengths can damage DNA, and is capable of causing cancer, and (for UVB) skin burns (sunburn) that are far worse than would be produced by simple heating (temperature increase) effects.
At the higher end of the ultraviolet range, the energy of photons becomes large enough to impart enough energy to electrons to cause them to be liberated from the atom, in a process called photoionisation. The energy required for this is always larger than about 10 electron volt (eV) corresponding with wavelengths smaller than 124 nm (some sources suggest a more realistic cutoff of 33 eV, which is the energy required to ionize water). This high end of the ultraviolet spectrum with energies in the approximate ionization range, is sometimes called "extreme UV". Ionizing UV is strongly filtered by the Earth's atmosphere.
=== X-rays and gamma rays ===
Electromagnetic radiation composed of photons that carry minimum-ionization energy, or more (which includes the entire spectrum with shorter wavelengths), is therefore termed ionizing radiation. (Many other kinds of ionizing radiation are made of non-EM particles.) Electromagnetic-type ionizing radiation extends from the extreme ultraviolet to all higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths, which means that all X-rays and gamma rays qualify. These are capable of the most severe types of molecular damage, which can happen in biology to any type of biomolecule, including mutation and cancer, and often at great depths below the skin, since the higher end of the X-ray spectrum, and all of the gamma ray spectrum, penetrate matter.
== Atmosphere and magnetosphere ==
Most UV and X-rays are blocked by absorption first from molecular nitrogen, and then (for wavelengths in the upper UV) from the electronic excitation of dioxygen and finally ozone at the mid-range of UV. Only 30% of the Sun's ultraviolet light reaches the ground, and almost all of this is well transmitted.
Visible light is well transmitted in air, a property known as an atmospheric window, as it is not energetic enough to excite nitrogen, oxygen, or ozone, but too energetic to excite molecular vibrational frequencies of water vapor and carbon dioxide. Absorption bands in the infrared are due to modes of vibrational excitation in water vapor. However, at energies too low to excite water vapor, the atmosphere becomes transparent again, allowing free transmission of most microwave and radio waves.
Finally, at radio wavelengths longer than 10 m or so (about 30 MHz), the air in the lower atmosphere remains transparent to radio, but plasma in certain layers of the ionosphere begins to interact with radio waves (see skywave). This property allows some longer wavelengths (100 m or 3 MHz) to be reflected and results in shortwave radio beyond line-of-sight. However, certain ionospheric effects begin to block incoming radiowaves from space, when their frequency is less than about 10 MHz (wavelength longer than about 30 m).
== Thermal and electromagnetic radiation as a form of heat ==
The basic structure of matter involves charged particles bound together. When electromagnetic radiation impinges on matter, it causes the charged particles to oscillate and gain energy. The ultimate fate of this energy depends on the context. It could be immediately re-radiated and appear as scattered, reflected, or transmitted radiation. It may get dissipated into other microscopic motions within the matter, coming to thermal equilibrium and manifesting itself as thermal energy, or even kinetic energy, in the material. With a few exceptions related to high-energy photons (such as fluorescence, harmonic generation, photochemical reactions, the photovoltaic effect for ionizing radiations at far ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma radiation), absorbed electromagnetic radiation simply deposits its energy by heating the material. This happens for infrared, microwave, and radio wave radiation.
Intense radio waves can thermally burn living tissue and can cook food. In addition to infrared lasers, sufficiently intense visible and ultraviolet lasers can easily set paper afire. Ionizing radiation creates high-speed electrons in a material and breaks chemical bonds, but after these electrons collide many times with other atoms eventually most of the energy becomes thermal energy all in a tiny fraction of a second. This caveat also applies to UV, even though almost all of it is not ionizing, because UV can damage molecules due to electronic excitation, which is far greater per unit energy than heating effects. The inverse or time-reversed process of absorption is thermal radiation. Much of the thermal energy in matter consists of random motion of charged particles, and this energy can be radiated away from the matter. The resulting radiation may subsequently be absorbed by another piece of matter, with the deposited energy heating the material.
The electromagnetic radiation in an opaque cavity at thermal equilibrium is effectively a form of thermal energy, having maximum radiation entropy.
== Biological effects ==
Bioelectromagnetics is the study of the interactions and effects of EM radiation on living organisms. The effects of electromagnetic radiation upon living cells, including those in humans, depends upon the radiation's power and frequency. For low-frequency radiation (radio waves to near ultraviolet) the best-understood effects are those due to radiation power alone, acting through heating when radiation is absorbed. For these thermal effects, frequency is important as it affects the intensity of the radiation and penetration into the organism (for example, microwaves penetrate better than infrared). It is widely accepted that low frequency fields that are too weak to cause significant heating could not possibly have any biological effect. Some research suggests that weaker non-thermal electromagnetic fields (including weak ELF magnetic fields, although the latter does not strictly qualify as EM radiation) and modulated RF and microwave fields can have biological effects, though the significance of this is unclear.
The World Health Organization has classified radio frequency electromagnetic radiation as Group 2B—possibly carcinogenic. This group contains possible carcinogens such as lead, DDT, and styrene. At higher frequencies (some of visible and beyond), the effects of individual photons begin to become important, as these now have enough energy individually to directly or indirectly damage biological molecules. All UV frequencies have been classed as Group 1 carcinogens by the World Health Organization. Ultraviolet radiation from sun exposure is the primary cause of skin cancer.
Thus, at UV frequencies and higher, electromagnetic radiation does more damage to biological systems than simple heating predicts. This is most obvious in the "far" (or "extreme") ultraviolet. UV, with X-ray and gamma radiation, are referred to as ionizing radiation due to the ability of photons of this radiation to produce ions and free radicals in materials (including living tissue). Since such radiation can severely damage life at energy levels that produce little heating, it is considered far more dangerous (in terms of damage-produced per unit of energy, or power) than the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum.
=== Use as a weapon ===
The heat ray is an application of EMR that makes use of microwave frequencies to create an unpleasant heating effect in the upper layer of the skin. A publicly known heat ray weapon called the Active Denial System was developed by the US military as an experimental weapon to deny the enemy access to an area. A death ray is a theoretical weapon that delivers heat ray based on electromagnetic energy at levels that are capable of injuring human tissue. An inventor of a death ray, Harry Grindell Matthews, claimed to have lost sight in his left eye while working on his death ray weapon based on a microwave magnetron from the 1920s (a normal microwave oven creates a tissue damaging cooking effect inside the oven at around 2 kV/m).
== Derivation from electromagnetic theory ==
Electromagnetic waves are predicted by the classical laws of electricity and magnetism, known as Maxwell's equations. There are nontrivial solutions of the homogeneous Maxwell's equations (without charges or currents), describing waves of changing electric and magnetic fields. Beginning with Maxwell's equations in free space:
{\partial t}|}}
{\partial t}|}}
where
\mathbf{E} and \mathbf{B} are the electric field (measured in V/m or N/C) and the magnetic field (measured in T or Wb/m2), respectively;
\nabla \cdot \mathbf X yields the divergence and \nabla \times \mathbf X the curl of a vector field \mathbf X;
\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t} and \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t} are partial derivatives (rate of change in time, with location fixed) of the magnetic and electric field;
\mu_0 is the permeability of a vacuum (4 × 10−7 H/m), and \varepsilon_0 is the permittivity of a vacuum (8.85 × 10−12 F/m);
Besides the trivial solution \mathbf{E} = \mathbf{B} = \mathbf{0}, useful solutions can be derived with the following vector identity, valid for all vectors \mathbf{A} in some vector field:\nabla \times \left( \nabla \times \mathbf{A} \right) = \nabla \left( \nabla \cdot \mathbf{A} \right) - \nabla^2 \mathbf{A}.Taking the curl of the second Maxwell's equation () yields:{\partial t} \right)|}}
Evaluating the left hand side of () with the above identity and simplifying using (), yields:
Evaluating the right hand side of () by exchanging the sequence of derivatives and inserting the fourth yields:
{\partial t} \right) = -\frac{\partial}{\partial t} \left( \nabla \times \mathbf{B} \right) = -\mu_0 \varepsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2 \mathbf{E}}{\partial t^2}|}}
Combining () and () again, gives a vector-valued differential equation for the electric field, solving the homogeneous Maxwell's equations:
{\partial t^2}
}}
Taking the curl of the fourth Maxwell's equation () results in a similar differential equation for a magnetic field solving the homogeneous Maxwell's equations:
{\partial t^2}.
}}
Both differential equations have the form of the general wave equation for waves propagating with speed c_0, where f is a function of time and location, which gives the amplitude of the wave at some time at a certain location:\nabla^2 f = \frac{1}.
This is the speed of light in vacuum. Thus Maxwell's equations connect the vacuum permittivity \varepsilon_0, the vacuum permeability \mu_0, and the speed of light, c0, via the above equation. This relationship had been discovered by Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch prior to the development of Maxwell's electrodynamics, however Maxwell was the first to produce a field theory consistent with waves traveling at the speed of light.
These are only two equations versus the original four, so more information pertains to these waves hidden within Maxwell's equations. A generic vector wave for the electric field has the form
\mathbf{E} = \mathbf{E}_0 f{\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c_0 t \right)}
Here, \mathbf{E}_0 is a constant vector, f is any second differentiable function, \hat{\mathbf{k}} is a unit vector in the direction of propagation, and {\mathbf{x}} is a position vector. f{\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c_0 t \right)} is a generic solution to the wave equation. In other words,
\nabla^2 f{\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c_0 t \right)} = \frac{1} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c_0 t \right)},
for a generic wave traveling in the \hat{\mathbf{k}} direction.
From the first of Maxwell's equations, we get\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{E}_0 f'{\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c_0 t \right)} = 0Thus,\mathbf{E} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{k}} = 0which implies that the electric field is orthogonal to the direction the wave propagates. The second of Maxwell's equations yields the magnetic field, namely,\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = \hat{\mathbf{k}} \times \mathbf{E}_0 f'{\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c_0 t \right)} = -\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t}Thus,
\mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{c_0} \hat{\mathbf{k}} \times \mathbf{E}
The remaining equations will be satisfied by this choice of \mathbf{E},\mathbf{B}.
The electric and magnetic field waves in the far-field travel at the speed of light. They have a special restricted orientation and proportional magnitudes, E_0 = c_0 B_0, which can be seen immediately from the Poynting vector. The electric field, magnetic field, and direction of wave propagation are all orthogonal, and the wave propagates in the same direction as \mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{B}. Also E and B far-fields in free space, which as wave solutions depend primarily on these two Maxwell's equations to remain in phase with each other. This is guaranteed since the generic wave solution is first order in both space and time, and the curl operator on one side of these equations results in first-order spatial derivatives of the wave solution, while the time-derivative on the other side of the equations, which gives the other field, is first-order in time, resulting in the same phase shift for both fields in each mathematical operation.
From the viewpoint of an electromagnetic wave traveling forward, the electric field might be oscillating up and down, while the magnetic field oscillates right and left. This picture can be rotated with the electric field oscillating right and left and the magnetic field oscillating down and up. This is a different solution that is traveling in the same direction. This arbitrariness in the orientation with respect to propagation direction is known as polarization. On a quantum level, it is described as photon polarization. The direction of the polarization is defined as the direction of the electric field.
More general forms of the second-order wave equations given above are available, allowing for both non-vacuum propagation media and sources. Many competing derivations exist, all with varying levels of approximation and intended applications. One very general example is a form of the electric field equation, which was factorized into a pair of explicitly directional wave equations, and then efficiently reduced into a single uni-directional wave equation by means of a simple slow-evolution approximation.
|
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"interferometer",
"electric current",
"physics",
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"human eye",
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"absorption spectroscopy",
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"death ray",
"black body",
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"ionosphere",
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"permeability (electromagnetism)",
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"Sun",
"Wilhelm Eduard Weber",
"Albert Einstein",
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"radio frequency induction",
"transverse wave",
"free space",
"photoaging",
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"photovoltaic effect",
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"density",
"DNA",
"electrical reactance",
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"broadcasting",
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] |
9,428 |
Ernest Hemingway
|
Ernest Miller Hemingway ( ; July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American novelist, short-story writer and journalist. Known for an economical, understated style that influenced later 20th-century writers, he has been romanticized for his adventurous lifestyle and outspoken, blunt public image. Some of his seven novels, six short-story collections and two non-fiction works have become classics of American literature, and he was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize in Literature.
Hemingway was raised in Oak Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. After high school, he spent six months as a reporter for The Kansas City Star before enlisting in the Red Cross. He served as an ambulance driver on the Italian Front in World War I and was seriously wounded by shrapnel in 1918. In 1921, Hemingway moved to Paris, where he worked as a foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star and was influenced by the modernist writers and artists of the "Lost Generation" expatriate community. His debut novel, The Sun Also Rises, was published in 1926. In 1928, Hemingway returned to the U.S., where he settled in Key West, Florida. His experiences during the war supplied material for his 1929 novel A Farewell to Arms.
In 1937, Hemingway went to Spain to cover the Spanish Civil War, which formed the basis for his 1940 novel For Whom the Bell Tolls, written in Havana, Cuba. During World War II, Hemingway was present with Allied troops as a journalist at the Normandy landings and the liberation of Paris. In 1952, his novel The Old Man and the Sea was published to considerable acclaim, and won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. On a 1954 trip to Africa, Hemingway was seriously injured in two successive plane crashes, leaving him in pain and ill health for much of the rest of his life. He committed suicide at his house in Ketchum, Idaho, in 1961.
==Early life==
Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois, an affluent suburb just west of Chicago, to Clarence Edmonds Hemingway, a physician, and Grace Hall Hemingway, a musician. His parents were well-educated and well-respected in Oak Park, a conservative community about which resident Frank Lloyd Wright said, "So many churches for so many good people to go to." When Clarence and Grace Hemingway married in 1896, they lived with Grace's father, Ernest Miller Hall, after whom they named their first son, the second of their six children.
Grace Hemingway was a well-known local musician, and taught her reluctant son to play the cello. Later he said music lessons contributed to his writing style, as evidenced in the "contrapuntal structure" of For Whom the Bell Tolls. As an adult Hemingway professed to hate his mother, although they shared similar enthusiastic energies.
Hemingway went to Oak Park and River Forest High School in Oak Park between 1913 and 1917, where he competed in boxing, track and field, water polo, and football. He performed in the school orchestra for two years with his sister Marcelline, and received good grades in English classes.
After leaving high school, he went to work for The Kansas City Star as a cub reporter. Although he stayed there only for six months, the Stars style guide, which stated "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative", became a foundation for his prose.
==World War I==
Hemingway wanted to go to war and tried to enlist in the U.S. Army but was not accepted because he had poor eyesight. Instead he volunteered to a Red Cross recruitment effort in December 1917 and signed on to be an ambulance driver with the American Red Cross Motor Corps in Italy. In May 1918, he sailed from New York, and arrived in Paris as the city was under bombardment from German artillery. That June he arrived at the Italian Front, holding the ranks of second lieutenant (A.R.C.) and sottotenente (Italian Army) simultaneously. On his first day in Milan, he was sent to the scene of a munitions factory explosion to join rescuers retrieving the shredded remains of female workers. He described the incident in his 1932 non-fiction book Death in the Afternoon: "I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments." A few days later, he was stationed at Fossalta di Piave. For his deed, he was promoted to first lieutenant (A.R.C.) and tenente (Italian Army).
He was only 18 at the time. Hemingway later said of the incident: "When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not you ... Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you." He sustained severe shrapnel wounds to both legs, underwent an immediate operation at a distribution center, and spent five days at a field hospital, before he was transferred for recuperation to the Red Cross hospital in Milan. He spent six months at the hospital, where he met "Chink" Dorman-Smith. The two formed a strong friendship that lasted for decades.
While recuperating, Hemingway fell in love with Agnes von Kurowsky, a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior. When Hemingway returned to the United States in January 1919, he believed Agnes would join him within months, and the two would marry. Instead, he received a letter from her in March with news that she was engaged to an Italian officer. Biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes Agnes's rejection devastated and scarred the young man. In future relationships Hemingway followed a pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned him.
His return home in 1919 was a difficult time of readjustment. Before the age of 20, he had gained from the war a maturity that was at odds with living at home without a job and with the need for recuperation. As biographer Michael S. Reynolds explains, "Hemingway could not really tell his parents what he thought when he saw his bloody knee." He was not able to tell them how scared he had been "in another country with surgeons who could not tell him in English if his leg was coming off or not."
That September, he went on a fishing and camping trip with high school friends to the back-country of Michigan's Upper Peninsula. A family friend offered Hemingway a job in Toronto, and with nothing else to do, he accepted. Late that year, he began as a freelancer and staff writer for the Toronto Star Weekly. He returned to Michigan the next June
He met Hadley Richardson through his roommate's sister. Later, he claimed, "I knew she was the girl I was going to marry." Bernice Kert, author of The Hemingway Women, claims Hadley was "evocative" of Agnes, but Agnes lacked Hadley's childishness. After exchanging letters for a few months, Hemingway and Hadley decided to marry and travel to Europe.
They wanted to visit Rome, but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to go to Paris instead, writing letters of introduction for the young couple. They were married on September 3, 1921. Two months later, Hemingway signed on as a foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star and the couple left for Paris. Of Hemingway's marriage to Hadley, Meyers claims: "With Hadley, Hemingway achieved everything he had hoped for with Agnes: the love of a beautiful woman, a comfortable income, a life in Europe."
==Paris==
Anderson suggested Paris because it was inexpensive and it was where "the most interesting people in the world" resided. There Hemingway would meet writers such as Gertrude Stein, James Joyce and Ezra Pound who "could help a young writer up the rungs of a career". became Hemingway's mentor and godmother to his son Jack; she introduced him to the expatriate artists and writers of the Montparnasse Quarter, whom she referred to as the "Lost Generation"—a term Hemingway popularized with the publication of The Sun Also Rises. A regular at Stein's salon, Hemingway met influential painters such as Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró, Juan Gris, and Luis Quintanilla. He eventually withdrew from Stein's influence, and their relationship deteriorated into a literary quarrel that spanned decades.
Pound was older than Hemingway by 14 years when they met by chance in 1922 at Sylvia Beach's bookstore Shakespeare and Company. They visited Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924. The two forged a strong friendship; in Hemingway Pound recognized and fostered a young talent.
During his first 20 months in Paris, Hemingway filed 88 stories for the Toronto Star newspaper. He covered the Greco-Turkish War, where he witnessed the burning of Smyrna, and wrote travel pieces such as "Tuna Fishing in Spain" and "Trout Fishing All Across Europe: Spain Has the Best, Then Germany". Almost all his fiction and short stories were lost, when in December 1922 as she was traveling to join him in Geneva, Hadley lost a suitcase filled with his manuscripts at the train station Gare de Lyon. He was devastated and furious. Nine months later the couple returned to Toronto, where their son John Hadley Nicanor was born on October 10, 1923. During their absence, Hemingway's first book, Three Stories and Ten Poems, was published in Paris. All that remained after the loss of the suitcase were two of the stories the volume contained; he wrote the third story early in 1923 while in Italy. A few months later, in our time (without capitals) was produced in Paris. The small volume included 18 vignettes, a dozen of which he wrote the previous summer during his first visit to Spain, where he discovered the thrill of the corrida. He considered Toronto boring, missed Paris, and wanted to return to the life of a writer, rather than live the life of a journalist.
Hemingway, Hadley, and their son (nicknamed Bumby) returned to Paris in January 1924 and moved into an apartment on the rue Notre-Dame des Champs. When Hemingway's first collection of stories, In Our Time, was published in 1925, the dust jacket bore comments from Ford. "Indian Camp" received considerable praise; Ford saw it as an important early story by a young writer, and critics in the United States praised Hemingway for reinvigorating the short-story genre with his crisp style and use of declarative sentences. Six months earlier, Hemingway had met F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the pair formed a friendship of "admiration and hostility". Fitzgerald had published The Great Gatsby the same year: Hemingway read it, liked it, and decided his next work had to be a novel.
The year before, Hemingway visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona, Spain, for the first time, where he became fascinated by bullfighting. The Hemingways returned to Pamplona again in 1924 and a third time in June 1925; that year, they brought with them a group of American and British expatriates: Hemingway's Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith, Donald Ogden Stewart, Lady Duff Twysden (recently divorced), her lover Pat Guthrie, and Harold Loeb.
A few days after the fiesta ended, on his birthday (July 21), he began to write the draft of what would become The Sun Also Rises, finishing eight weeks later. A few months later, in December 1925, the Hemingways left to spend the winter in Schruns, Austria, where Hemingway began extensively revising the manuscript. Pauline Pfeiffer, the daughter of a wealthy Catholic family in Arkansas, who came to Paris to work for Vogue magazine, joined them in January. Against Hadley's advice, Pfeiffer urged Hemingway to sign a contract with Scribner's. He left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers and, on his return, began an affair with Pfeiffer during a stop in Paris, before returning to Schruns to finish the revisions in March. The manuscript arrived in New York in April; he corrected the final proof in Paris in August 1926, and Scribner's published the novel in October.
The Sun Also Rises epitomized the post-war expatriate generation, received good reviews and is "recognized as Hemingway's greatest work". Hemingway himself later wrote to his editor Max Perkins that the "point of the book" was not so much about a generation being lost, but that "the earth abideth forever"; he believed the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been "battered" but were not lost.
Hemingway's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on The Sun Also Rises. On their return to Paris, Hadley asked for a separation; in November she formally requested a divorce. They split their possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway's offer of the proceeds from The Sun Also Rises. They were divorced in January 1927, and Hemingway married Pfeiffer in May.
Before his marriage to Pfeiffer, Hemingway converted to Catholicism. They honeymooned in Le Grau-du-Roi, where he contracted anthrax, and he planned his next collection of short stories, Men Without Women, which was published in October 1927, and included his boxing story "Fifty Grand". Cosmopolitan magazine editor-in-chief Ray Long praised "Fifty Grand", calling it, "one of the best short stories that ever came to my hands ... the best prize-fight story I ever read ... a remarkable piece of realism."
By the end of the year Pauline was pregnant and wanted to move back to America. Dos Passos recommended Key West, and they left Paris in March 1928. Hemingway suffered a severe head injury in their Paris bathroom when he pulled a skylight down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet chain. This left him with a prominent forehead scar, which he carried for the rest of his life. When Hemingway was asked about the scar, he was reluctant to answer. After his departure from Paris, Hemingway "never again lived in a big city".
== Key West ==
Hemingway and Pauline went to Kansas City, Missouri, where their son Patrick was born on June 28, 1928, at Bell Memorial Hospital. Pauline had a difficult delivery; Hemingway wrote a fictionalized version of the event in A Farewell to Arms. After Patrick's birth, they traveled to Wyoming, Massachusetts, and New York. On December 6, Hemingway was in New York visiting Bumby, about to board a train to Florida, when he received the news that his father Clarence had killed himself. Hemingway was devastated, having earlier written to his father telling him not to worry about financial difficulties; the letter arrived minutes after the suicide. He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own father's suicide in 1903, and said, "I'll probably go the same way."
Upon his return to Key West in December, Hemingway worked on the draft of A Farewell to Arms before leaving for France in January. He had finished it the previous August but delayed the revision. The serialization in Scribner's Magazine was scheduled to appear in May. In April, he was still working on the ending, which he may have rewritten as many as seventeen times. The completed novel was published on September 27, 1929. Biographer James Mellow believes A Farewell to Arms established Hemingway's stature as a major American writer and displayed a level of complexity not apparent in The Sun Also Rises. In Spain in mid-1929, Hemingway researched his next work, Death in the Afternoon. He wanted to write a comprehensive treatise on bullfighting, explaining the toreros and corridas complete with glossaries and appendices, because he believed bullfighting was "of great tragic interest, being literally of life and death."
During the early 1930s, Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming, where he found "the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West" and hunted deer, elk, and grizzly bear. He was joined there by Dos Passos. In November 1930, after taking Dos Passos to the train station in Billings, Montana, Hemingway broke his arm in a car accident. He was hospitalized for seven weeks, with Pauline tending to him. The nerves in his writing hand took as long as a year to heal, during which time he suffered intense pain.
His third child, Gloria Hemingway, was born a year later on November 12, 1931, in Kansas City as "Gregory Hancock Hemingway". Pauline's uncle bought the couple a house in Key West with a carriage house, the second floor of which was converted into a writing studio. He invited friends—including Waldo Peirce, Dos Passos, and Max Perkins—to join him on fishing trips and on an all-male expedition to the Dry Tortugas. He continued to travel to Europe and to Cuba, and—although in 1933 he wrote of Key West, "We have a fine house here, and kids are all well"—Mellow believes he "was plainly restless".
In 1933, Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to Kenya. The 10-week trip provided material for Green Hills of Africa, as well as for the short stories "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" and "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber". The couple visited Mombasa, Nairobi, and Machakos in Kenya; then moved on to Tanganyika Territory, where they hunted in the Serengeti, around Lake Manyara, and west and southeast of present-day Tarangire National Park. Their guide was the noted "white hunter" Philip Percival who had guided Theodore Roosevelt on his 1909 safari. During these travels, Hemingway contracted amoebic dysentery that caused a prolapsed intestine, and he was evacuated by plane to Nairobi, an experience reflected in "The Snows of Kilimanjaro". On Hemingway's return to Key West in early 1934, he began work on Green Hills of Africa, which he published in 1935 to mixed reviews.
He purchased a boat in 1934, naming it the Pilar, and began to sail the Caribbean. He arrived at Bimini in 1935, where he spent a considerable amount of time.
== Spanish Civil War ==
Hemingway had been following developments in Spain since early in his career and from 1931 it became clear that there would be another European war. Hemingway predicted war would happen in the late 1930s. Baker writes that Hemingway did not expect Spain to "become a sort of international testing-ground for Germany, Italy, and Russia before the Spanish Civil War was over". Despite Pauline's reluctance, he signed with North American Newspaper Alliance to cover the Spanish Civil War, and sailed from New York on February 27, 1937. Journalist and writer Martha Gellhorn accompanied Hemingway. He had met her in Key West a year earlier. Like Hadley, Martha was a St. Louis native and, like Pauline, had worked for Vogue in Paris. According to Kert, Martha "never catered to him the way other women did".
He arrived in Spain in March with Dutch filmmaker Joris Ivens. Ivens, who was filming The Spanish Earth, intended to replace John Dos Passos with Hemingway as screenwriter. Dos Passos had left the project when his friend and Spanish translator José Robles was arrested and later executed. The incident changed Dos Passos's opinion of the leftist republicans, and caused a rift with Hemingway. Back in the U.S. that summer, Hemingway prepared the soundtrack for the film. It was screened at the White House in July.
In late August he returned to France and flew from Paris to Barcelona and then to Valencia. In September he visited the front in Belchite and then on to Teruel. On his return to Madrid Hemingway wrote his only play, The Fifth Column, as the city was being bombarded by the Francoist army. He went back to Key West for a few months in January 1938. It was a frustrating time: he found it hard to write, fretted over poor reviews for To Have and Have Not, bickered with Pauline, followed the news from Spain avidly and planned the next trip. He took two trips to Spain in 1938. In November he visited the location of the Battle of the Ebro, the last republican stand, along with other British and American journalists. They arrived to find the last bridge destroyed and had to retreat across the turbulent Ebro in a rowboat, Hemingway at the oars, "pulling for dear life".
In early 1939, Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the Hotel Ambos Mundos in Havana. This was the separation phase of a slow and painful split from Pauline, which began when Hemingway met Martha Gellhorn. Martha soon joined him in Cuba, and they rented Finca Vigía ("Lookout Farm"), a property from Havana. That summer while visiting with Pauline and the children in Wyoming, she took the children and left him. When his divorce from Pauline was finalized, he and Martha were married on November 20, 1940, in Cheyenne, Wyoming.
Hemingway followed the pattern established after his divorce from Hadley and moved again. He split his time between Cuba and the newly established resort Sun Valley. He was at work on For Whom the Bell Tolls, which he began in March 1939 and finished in July 1940.
In January 1941, Martha was sent to China on assignment for Collier's magazine. Although his dispatches for PM provided incisive insights of the Sino-Japanese War according to Reynolds, with analysis of Japanese incursions into the Philippines sparking an "American war in the Pacific". In August, Hemingway returned to Finca Vigía. In September, he left for Sun Valley.
== World War II ==
The United States entered the war after the Attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Back in Cuba, Hemingway refitted the Pilar as a Q-boat and went on patrol for German U-boats. and Nazi sympathizers. Martha and his friends thought his activities "little more than a diverting racket", but the FBI began watching him and compiled a 124-page file. Martha wanted Hemingway in Europe as a journalist and failed to understand his reticence to take part in another European war. They fought frequently and bitterly, and he drank too much, until she left for Europe to report for Collier's in September 1943. On a visit to Cuba in March 1944, Hemingway was bullying and abusive with Martha. Reynolds writes that "looking backward from 1960–61 [anyone] might say that his behavior was a manifestation of the depression that eventually destroyed him". He was in Europe from May 1944 to March 1945. The last time that Hemingway saw Martha was in March 1945 as he prepared to return to Cuba; their divorce was finalized later that year. Still suffering symptoms of the concussion, he accompanied troops to the Normandy landings wearing a large head bandage. The military treated him as "precious cargo" and he was not allowed ashore. The landing craft he was on came within sight of Omaha Beach before coming under enemy fire when it turned back. Hemingway later wrote in Collier's that he could see "the first, second, third, fourth and fifth waves of [landing troops] lay where they had fallen, looking like so many heavily laden bundles on the flat pebbly stretch between the sea and first cover". Mellow explains that, on that first day, none of the correspondents were allowed to land and Hemingway was returned to the Dorothea Dix. Late in July, he attached himself to "the 22nd Infantry Regiment commanded by Col. Charles 'Buck' Lanham, as it drove toward Paris", and Hemingway became de facto leader to a small band of village militia in Rambouillet outside of Paris. Paul Fussell remarks: "Hemingway got into considerable trouble playing infantry captain to a group of Resistance people that he gathered because a correspondent is not supposed to lead troops, even if he does it well."
He was present at the liberation of Paris on August 25; however contrary to legend, he was not the first into the city nor did he liberate the Ritz. While there, he visited Sylvia Beach and met Picasso with Mary Welsh, and in a spirit of happiness, forgave Gertrude Stein. Later that year, he observed heavy fighting at the Battle of Hürtgen Forest. In 1946 he married Mary, who had an ectopic pregnancy five months later. The Hemingway family suffered a series of accidents and health problems in the years following the war: in a 1945 car accident, he injured his knee and sustained another head wound. A few years later Mary broke first her right ankle and then her left in successive skiing accidents. A 1947 car accident left Patrick with a head wound, severely ill and delirious. The doctor in Cuba diagnosed schizophrenia, and sent him for 18 sessions of electroconvulsive therapy.
Hemingway sank into depression as his literary friends began to die: in 1939 William Butler Yeats and Ford Madox Ford; in 1940 F. Scott Fitzgerald; in 1941 Sherwood Anderson and James Joyce; in 1946 Gertrude Stein; and the following year in 1947, Max Perkins, Hemingway's long-time Scribner's editor, and friend. During this period, he suffered from severe headaches, high blood pressure, weight problems, and eventually diabetes—much of which was the result of previous accidents and many years of heavy drinking.
In January 1946, he began work on The Garden of Eden, finishing 800 pages by June. During the post-war years, he also began work on a trilogy tentatively titled "The Land", "The Sea" and "The Air", which he wanted to combine in one novel titled The Sea Book. Both projects stalled. Mellow writes that Hemingway's inability to write was "a symptom of his troubles" during these years.
In 1948, Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe, staying in Venice for several months. While there, Hemingway fell in love with the then 19-year-old Adriana Ivancich. The platonic love affair inspired the novel Across the River and into the Trees, written in Cuba during a time of strife with Mary, and published in 1950 to negative reviews. The following year, furious at the critical reception of Across the River and Into the Trees, Hemingway wrote the draft of The Old Man and the Sea in eight weeks, saying that it was "the best I can write ever for all of my life". The Old Man and the Sea became a book-of-the-month selection, made Hemingway an international celebrity, and won the Pulitzer Prize in May 1953. In June, he departed Cuba for his second trip to Africa.
In January 1954 while in Africa, Hemingway was almost fatally injured in successive plane crashes. He had chartered a sightseeing flight over the Belgian Congo as a Christmas present to Mary. On their way to photograph Murchison Falls from the air, the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and was forced into a crash landing. Hemingway sustained injuries to his back and shoulder. Mary sustained broken ribs and went into shock. After a night in the brush, they chartered a boat on the river and arrived in Butiaba, where they were met by a pilot who had been searching for them. He assured them he could fly out, but the landing strip was too rough and the plane exploded in flames. Mary and the pilot escaped through a broken window. Hemingway had to smash his way out by battering the door open with his head.
Hemingway suffered burns and another serious head injury, that caused cerebral fluid to leak from the injury. They eventually arrived in Entebbe to find reporters covering the story of Hemingway's death. He briefed the reporters and spent the next few weeks recuperating in Nairobi. Despite his injuries, Hemingway accompanied Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February, but pain caused him to be irascible and difficult to get along with. When a bushfire broke out, he was again injured, sustaining second-degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm.
Months later in Venice, Mary reported to friends the full extent of Hemingway's injuries: two cracked discs, a kidney and liver rupture, a dislocated shoulder and a broken skull.
In October 1954, Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in Literature. He modestly told the press that Carl Sandburg, Isak Dinesen and Bernard Berenson deserved the prize, but he gladly accepted the prize money. Mellow says Hemingway "had coveted the Nobel Prize", but when he won it, months after his plane accidents and their worldwide press coverage, "there must have been a lingering suspicion in Hemingway's mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy's decision." He was still recuperating and decided against traveling to Stockholm. Instead he sent a speech to be read in which he defined the writer's life:
Since his return from Africa, Hemingway had been slowly writing his "African Journal". He was ordered to stop drinking so as to mitigate liver damage, advice he initially followed but eventually disregarded. In October 1956, he returned to Europe and visited ailing Basque writer Pio Baroja, who died a few weeks later. During the trip, Hemingway again became sick and was treated for a variety of ailments including liver disease and high blood pressure.
In November 1956, while staying in Paris, he was reminded of trunks he had stored in the Ritz Hotel in 1928 and never retrieved. Upon re-claiming and opening the trunks, Hemingway discovered they were filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years. Excited about the discovery, when he returned to Cuba in early 1957, he began to shape the recovered work into his memoir A Moveable Feast. In 1959, he ended a period of intense activity: he finished A Moveable Feast (scheduled to be released the following year); brought True at First Light to 200,000 words; added chapters to The Garden of Eden; and worked on Islands in the Stream. The last three were stored in a safe deposit box in Havana as he focused on the finishing touches for A Moveable Feast. Reynolds claims it was during this period that Hemingway slid into depression, from which he was unable to recover.
Finca Vigía became crowded with guests and tourists, as Hemingway considered a permanent move to Idaho. In 1959, he bought a home overlooking the Big Wood River, outside Ketchum and left Cuba—although he apparently remained on easy terms with the Castro government, telling The New York Times he was "delighted" with Castro's overthrow of Batista. He was in Cuba in November 1959, between returning from Pamplona and traveling west to Idaho, and in 1960, for his 61st birthday.
In 1960, he and Mary decided to leave, after hearing the news that Castro wanted to nationalize property owned by Americans and other foreign nationals. On July 25, 1960, the Hemingways left Cuba for the last time, leaving art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana. After the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion, Finca Vigía was expropriated by the Cuban government, complete with Hemingway's collection of about 5,000 books.
== Idaho and suicide ==
After leaving Cuba, in Sun Valley, Hemingway continued to rework the material that was published as A Moveable Feast through the 1950s. Life wanted only 10,000 words, but the manuscript grew out of control. For the first time in his life he could not organize his writing, so he asked A. E. Hotchner to travel to Cuba to help him. Hotchner helped trim the Life piece down to 40,000 words, and Scribner's agreed to a full-length book version (The Dangerous Summer) of almost 130,000 words.
Hotchner found Hemingway to be "unusually hesitant, disorganized, and confused", and suffering badly from failing eyesight. He left Cuba for the last time on July 25, 1960. Mary went with him to New York where he set up a small office and attempted unsuccessfully to work. Soon after, he left New York, traveling without Mary to Spain to be photographed for the front cover of Life magazine. A few days later the news reported that he was seriously ill and on the verge of dying, which panicked Mary until she received a cable from him telling her, "Reports false. Enroute Madrid. Love Papa."
He was, in fact, seriously ill, and believed himself to be on the verge of a breakdown. In October, he went back to New York, where he refused to leave Mary's apartment, presuming that he was being watched. She quickly took him to Idaho, where they were met at the train station in Ketchum by local physician George Saviers. He believed the manuscripts that would be published as Islands in the Stream and True at First Light were lost. He became paranoid, believing that the FBI was actively monitoring his movements in Ketchum. Reynolds gained access to Hemingway's records at the Mayo, which document 10 ECT sessions. The doctors in Rochester told Hemingway the depressive state for which he was being treated may have been caused by his long-term use of Reserpine and Ritalin. Of the ECT therapy, Hemingway told Hotchner, "What is the sense of ruining my head and erasing my memory, which is my capital, and putting me out of business? It was a brilliant cure, but we lost the patient." In late January 1961 he was sent home, as Meyers writes, "in ruins". Asked to provide a tribute to President John F. Kennedy in February he could only produce a few sentences after a week's effort.
A few months later, on April 21, Mary found Hemingway with a shotgun in the kitchen. She called Saviers, who admitted Hemingway to the Sun Valley Hospital under sedation. Once the weather cleared, Saviers flew again to Rochester with his patient. Hemingway underwent three electroshock treatments during that visit. He was released at the end of June and was home in Ketchum on June 30.
Two days later Hemingway "quite deliberately" shot himself with his favorite shotgun in the early morning hours of July 2, 1961. Meyers writes that he unlocked the basement storeroom where his guns were kept, went upstairs to the front entrance foyer, "pushed two shells into the twelve-gauge Boss shotgun ... put the end of the barrel into his mouth, pulled the trigger and blew out his brains." In 2010, however, it was argued that Hemingway never owned a Boss and that the suicide gun was actually made by W. & C. Scott & Son, his favorite one that was used at shooting competitions in Cuba, duck hunts in Italy or at a safari in East Africa.
When the authorities arrived, Mary was sedated and taken to the hospital. Returning to the house the next day, she cleaned the house and saw to the funeral and travel arrangements. Bernice Kert writes that it "did not seem to her a conscious lie" when she told the press that his death had been accidental. In a press interview five years later, Mary confirmed that he had shot himself. Family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral, officiated by the local Catholic priest, who believed that the death had been accidental.
Hemingway's behavior during his final years had been similar to that of his father before he killed himself; his father may have had hereditary hemochromatosis, whereby the excessive accumulation of iron in tissues culminates in mental and physical deterioration. Medical records made available in 1991 confirmed that Hemingway had been diagnosed with hemochromatosis in early 1961. His sister Ursula and his brother Leicester also killed themselves.
Hemingway's health was further complicated by heavy drinking throughout most of his life, which exacerbated his erratic behavior, and his head injuries increased the effects of the alcohol. The neuropsychiatrist Andrew Farah's 2017 book Hemingway's Brain, offers a forensic examination of Hemingway's mental illness. In her review of Farah's book, Beegel writes that Farah postulates Hemingway suffered from the combination of depression, the side-effects of nine serious concussions, then, she writes, "Add alcohol and stir". Farah writes that Hemingway's concussions resulted in chronic traumatic encephalopathy, which eventually led to a form of dementia, most likely dementia with Lewy bodies. He bases his hypothesis on Hemingway's symptoms consistent with DLB, such as the various comorbidities, and most particularly the delusions, which surfaced as early as the late 1940s and were almost overwhelming during the final Ketchum years. Beegel writes that Farah's study is convincing and "should put an end to future speculation". The Sun Also Rises is written in the spare, tight prose that made Hemingway famous, and, according to James Nagel, "changed the nature of American writing".
In 1954, when Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, it was for "his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in The Old Man and the Sea, and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style." Henry Louis Gates believes Hemingway's style was fundamentally shaped "in reaction to [his] experience of world war". After World War I, he and other modernists "lost faith in the central institutions of Western civilization" by reacting against the elaborate style of 19th-century writers and by creating a style "in which meaning is established through dialogue, through action, and silences—a fiction in which nothing crucial—or at least very little—is stated explicitly." Critics Allen Josephs, Mimi Gladstein, and Jeffrey Herlihy-Mera have studied how Spanish influenced Hemingway's prose,
Because he began as a writer of short stories, Baker believes Hemingway learned to "get the most from the least, how to prune language, how to multiply intensities and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth." Hemingway called his style the iceberg theory: the facts float above water; the supporting structure and symbolism operate out of sight.
Paul Smith writes that Hemingway's first stories, collected as In Our Time, showed he was still experimenting with his writing style, and when he wrote about Spain or other countries he incorporated foreign words into the text, which sometimes appears directly in the other language, in italics, as occurs in The Old Man and the Sea, or in English as literal translations. In general, he avoided complicated syntax. About 70 percent of the sentences are simple sentences without subordination—a simple childlike grammar structure.
Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in general—not only about his life. For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences and drew them out with "what if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?" Writing in "The Art of the Short Story", Hemingway explains: "A few things I have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit."
The simplicity of the prose is deceptive. Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in response to Henry James's observation that World War I had "used up words". Hemingway offers a "multi-focal" photographic reality. His iceberg theory of omission is the foundation on which he builds. The syntax, which lacks subordinating conjunctions, creates static sentences. The photographic "snapshot" style creates a collage of images. Many types of internal punctuation (colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences.
The sentences build on each other, as events build to create a sense of the whole. Multiple strands exist in one story; an "embedded text" bridges to a different angle. He also uses other cinematic techniques of "cutting" quickly from one scene to the next; or of "splicing" a scene into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap, as though responding to instructions from the author, and create three-dimensional prose. Conjunctions such as "and" are habitually used in place of commas; a use polysyndeton that conveys immediacy. Hemingway's polysyndetonic sentence—or in later works his use of subordinate clauses—uses conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images. Benson compares them to haikus.
Many of Hemingway's followers misinterpreted his style and frowned upon expression of emotion; Saul Bellow satirized this style as "Do you have emotions? Strangle them." Hemingway's intent was not to eliminate emotion, but to portray it realistically. As he explains in Death in the Afternoon: "In writing for a newspaper you told what happened ... but the real thing, the sequence of motion and fact which made the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you stated it purely enough, always, was beyond me". He tried to achieve conveying emotion with collages of images. This use of an image as an objective correlative is characteristic of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Marcel Proust. Hemingway's letters refer to Proust's Remembrance of Things Past several times over the years, and indicate he read the book at least twice.
== Themes ==
Hemingway's writing includes themes of love, war, travel, expatriation, wilderness, and loss. Critic Leslie Fiedler sees the theme he defines as "The Sacred Land"—the American West—extended in Hemingway's work to include mountains in Spain, Switzerland and Africa, and to the streams of Michigan. The American West is given a symbolic nod with the naming of the "Hotel Montana" in The Sun Also Rises and For Whom the Bell Tolls. In this way, "foreign scenarios, far from being mere exotic backdrops or cosmopolitan milieus, are motivating factors in-character action".
In Hemingway's fiction, nature is a place for rebirth and rest; it is where the hunter or fisherman might experience a moment of transcendence at the moment they kill their prey. At its core, much of Hemingway's work can be viewed in the light of American naturalism, evident in detailed descriptions such as those in "Big Two-Hearted River". Robert Scholes says early Hemingway stories, such as "A Very Short Story", present "a male character favorably and a female unfavorably". According to Rena Sanderson, early Hemingway critics lauded his male-centric world of masculine pursuits, and the fiction divided women into "castrators or love-slaves". Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as "public enemy number one", although more recent re-evaluations of his work "have given new visibility to Hemingway's female characters (and their strengths) and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues, thus casting doubts on the old assumption that his writings were one-sidedly masculine." Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley and Margot Macomber "are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.
Death permeates much of Hemingway's work. Young believes the emphasis on death in "Indian Camp" was not so much on the father who kills himself, but on Nick Adams, who witnesses these events and becomes a "badly scarred and nervous young man". Young believes the archetype in "Indian Camp" holds the "master key" to "what its author was up to for some thirty-five years of his writing career". Stoltzfus considers Hemingway's work to be more complex with a representation of the truth inherent in existentialism: if "nothingness" is embraced, then redemption is achieved at the moment of death. Those who face death with dignity and courage live an authentic life. Francis Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life are authentic; the bullfighter in the corrida represents the pinnacle of a life lived with authenticity. In his paper The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, Timo Müller writes that Hemingway's fiction is successful because the characters live an "authentic life", and the "soldiers, fishers, boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in modern literature".
Emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, notably in God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen and The Sun Also Rises. Emasculation, according to Fiedler, is a result of a generation of wounded soldiers; and of a generation in which women such as Brett gained emancipation. This also applies to the minor character, Frances Clyne, Cohn's girlfriend in the beginning of The Sun Also Rises. Her character supports the theme not only because the idea was presented early on in the novel but also the impact she had on Cohn in the start of the book while only appearing a small number of times. In an overall assessment of Hemingway's work Beegel has written: "Throughout his remarkable body of fiction, he tells the truth about human fear, guilt, betrayal, violence, cruelty, drunkenness, hunger, greed, apathy, ecstasy, tenderness, love and lust."
== Influence and legacy ==
Hemingway's legacy to American literature is his style: writers who came after him either emulated or avoided it. After his reputation was established with the publication of The Sun Also Rises, he became the spokesperson for the post–World War I generation, having established a style to follow. Reynolds asserts the legacy is that "[Hemingway] left stories and novels so starkly moving that some have become part of our cultural heritage."
Benson believes the details of Hemingway's life have become a "prime vehicle for exploitation", resulting in a Hemingway industry. The Hemingway scholar believes the "hard-boiled style" and the machismo must be separated from the author himself.
During World War II, Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway, whom he acknowledged as an influence. In a letter to Hemingway, Salinger claimed their talks "had given him his only hopeful minutes of the entire war" and jokingly "named himself national chairman of the Hemingway Fan Clubs". In 2002, a fossil billfish from the Danata Formation of Turkmenistan was named Hemingwaya after Hemingway, who prominently featured a marlin in The Old Man and the Sea.
Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation in 1965, and in the 1970s, she donated her husband's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library. In 1980, a group of Hemingway scholars gathered to assess the donated papers, subsequently forming the Hemingway Society, "committed to supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship", publishing The Hemingway Review. His granddaughter Margaux Hemingway was a supermodel and actress and co-starred with her younger sister Mariel in the 1976 movie Lipstick. Her death was later ruled a death by suicide.
== Selected works ==
This is a list of work that Ernest Hemingway published during his lifetime. While much of his later writing was published posthumously, they were finished without his supervision, unlike the works listed below.
Three Stories and Ten Poems (1923)
in our time (1924)
In Our Time (1925)
The Torrents of Spring (1926)
The Sun Also Rises (1926)
Men Without Women (1927)
A Farewell to Arms (1929)
Death in the Afternoon (1932)
Winner Take Nothing (1933)
Green Hills of Africa (1935)
To Have and Have Not (1937)
The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories (1938)
For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940)
Across the River and into the Trees (1950)
The Old Man and the Sea (1952)
|
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"Northern Michigan",
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"Pulitzer Prize",
"Upper Peninsula of Michigan",
"Great fire of Smyrna",
"World Publishing Company",
"hypertension",
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"Waldo Peirce",
"Theodore Dreiser",
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"The Kansas City Star",
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"Jack Hemingway",
"polysyndeton",
"contrapuntal",
"style guide",
"Normandy landings",
"second lieutenant",
"Nairobi",
"Joan Miró",
"Lake Manyara",
"simple sentence",
"Intervertebral disc",
"Stephen Koch (writer)",
"The Snows of Kilimanjaro (short story)",
"Pablo Picasso",
"Lipstick (1976 film)",
"El Floridita",
"North American Newspaper Alliance",
"Scribner's Magazine",
"José Robles",
"A Farewell to Arms",
"Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)",
"John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum",
"collage",
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"Paris-Gare de Lyon",
"Henry Louis Gates",
"Harvard University Press",
"The University of Kansas Hospital",
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"haiku",
"marlin",
"Tarangire National Park",
"Venice",
"Oak Park, Illinois",
"Theodore Roosevelt",
"liberation of Paris",
"Ritalin",
"expropriated",
"The Spanish Earth",
"United States Army",
"An Alpine Idyll",
"Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)",
"Toronto Star",
"skylight",
"Caribbean",
"Key West",
"U-boat",
"Winner Take Nothing",
"Adriana Ivancich",
"chronic traumatic encephalopathy",
"Reserpine",
"Le Grau-du-Roi",
"short-story writer",
"Oxford University Press",
"Murchison Falls",
"Entebbe",
"William Butler Yeats",
"Italian Army",
"T. S. Eliot",
"Montparnasse Quarter",
"Nobel Prize in Literature",
"J. Edgar Hoover",
"ectopic pregnancy",
"In Our Time (short story collection)",
"The Waste Land",
"True at First Light",
"Donald Ogden Stewart",
"Arkansas",
"Chicago",
"Cosmopolitan (magazine)",
"Q-boat",
"Cambridge University Press",
"Sylvia Beach",
"Falangism",
"Mark Twain",
"The University of Texas at Austin",
"Agnes von Kurowsky",
"Time (magazine)",
"comorbidities",
"Frank Lloyd Wright",
"A. E. Hotchner",
"The Transatlantic Review",
"Gloria Hemingway",
"Death in the Afternoon",
"J. D. Salinger",
"Nina Baym",
"woodcraft",
"Fidel Castro",
"Stephen Crane",
"Schruns",
"Barcelona",
"Pauline Pfeiffer",
"misogynistic",
"F. Scott Fitzgerald",
"Danata Formation",
"Henry James",
"iceberg theory",
"Catholic Church",
"The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber",
"modernism",
"American Old West",
"Carl Sandburg",
"Lago Oil and Transport Company",
"munitions factory",
"Ford Madox Ford",
"first lieutenant",
"Birthplace of Ernest Hemingway",
"The Great Gatsby",
"Philippines",
"LCVP (United States)",
"Toronto",
"dislocated shoulder",
"Carlos Baker",
"Joris Ivens",
"Omaha Beach",
"hereditary hemochromatosis",
"Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)",
"The Sun Also Rises",
"To Have and Have Not",
"billfish",
"Festival of San Fermín",
"Havana",
"Ludwig Renn",
"Mombasa",
"Aruba",
"Fulgencio Batista",
"objective correlative",
"Vogue (magazine)",
"White House",
"Battle of Teruel",
"Margaux Hemingway",
"Hôtel Ritz Paris",
"The Old Man and the Sea",
"Bernard Berenson",
"Garden & Gun",
"Routledge",
"Stockholm",
"Ray Long",
"Walloon Lake",
"Mary Welsh Hemingway",
"Big Wood River",
"homophobic",
"War correspondent",
"Bay of Pigs Invasion",
"Ezra Pound",
"Basque people",
"Serengeti",
"Mayo Clinic",
"Naturalism (literature)",
"Billings, Montana",
"Picabo, Idaho",
"Michael S. Reynolds",
"Geneva Conventions",
"World War II",
"Lost Generation",
"Pio Baroja",
"Attack on Pearl Harbor",
"modernist",
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"James Joyce",
"Boss & Co.",
"amoebic dysentery",
"In Search of Lost Time",
"grammatical conjunction",
"Isak Dinesen",
"Hadley Richardson",
"The Garden of Eden (novel)",
"Red Cross",
"Paul Fussell",
"Mariel Hemingway",
"The Torrents of Spring",
"Kenneth S. Lynn",
"Eric Dorman-Smith",
"United States declaration of war on Japan",
"Siege of Madrid"
] |
9,429 |
Young and Innocent
|
{{Infobox film
| name = Young and Innocent
| image = Young and Innocent poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Alfred Hitchcock
| producer = Edward Black (uncredited)
| writer =
| screenplay =
| based_on = is a 1937 British crime thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock and starring Nova Pilbeam and Derrick De Marney.
==Reception==
Variety called the film a "Pleasing, artless vehicle" for Nova Pilbeam, who was "charming" in her role and concluded, "If the pic is not Hitchcock's best effort, it is by no means unworthy of him." Frank Nugent of The New York Times called it a "crisply paced, excellently performed film." The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote, "Innumerable small touches show Hitchcock's keen and penetrating observation and his knowledge of human nature. Comedy, romance, and thrills are skilfully blended." Harrison's Reports wrote, "Good melodramatic entertainment. Because of the novelty of the story, the interesting plot developments, and the expert direction by Alfred Hitchcock, one's attention is held from the beginning to the end."
John Mosher of The New Yorker, however, wrote that it was "rather exasperating and disappointing to me. It begins with a smart murder, but wanders off through the English rural landscape in a fashion so lacking in that sound common sense we like in our mysteries, or like to feel is there anyhow, that one's interest fades away."
Aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports 100% approval of Young and Innocent, with an average rating of 7.6/10.
==Changes from the novel==
Significant changes were made in adapting the book for the film. The novel is a whodunit centred on the Scotland Yard inspector, who is Tey's regular character Alan Grant. but has been heavily bootlegged for home video. Despite this, licensed releases have appeared on Blu-ray, DVD and video on demand services worldwide from the likes of Network Distributing in the UK, MGM and The Criterion Collection in the US, and others.
|
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"Bernard Knowles",
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9,432 |
The Time in Between
|
The Time in Between is a novel by Canadian author David Bergen. It deals with a man, who mysteriously returns to Vietnam, where he had been a soldier earlier in his life, followed by his children, who also go to Vietnam to search for him. The novel was the recipient of the Scotiabank Giller Prize and the McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award in 2005.
== Plot ==
Charles Boatman, an army veteran suddenly disappears and his daughter Ada and her younger brother Jon on finding some clues go looking out for him in Danang, Vietnam. The novel mixes various stories from different timeframes narrating Charles's days in Washington when he was young. He married Sara and had daughter Ada while living in Fraser Valley of British Columbia. He gets posted in the wartime era to Vietnam and serves there and upon arrival discovers his wife's infidelity. Sara dies early and by then they also had a son Jon. Charles keeps getting nightmares of his Vietnam days on how he killed an innocent civilian boy in one of the operations and this keeps haunting him. On the other hand, Ada is on a mission to find her father and is helped by a local guy Yen who becomes her guide and guardian in the new country. She engages in a sexual relationship with an older man, Hoang Vu who is an artist by profession. Jon indulges in the nightlife of Vietnam, and Ada keeps getting closer to her father as she travels across the country. Charles discovers author Dang Tho's novel chronicling wartime and this helps him find some peace.
== Publication and development ==
The book is author David Bergen's fifth novel. Although generally called a war novel, the author states that he "[doesn't] see The Time in Between as a war novel". The book was released as Audio book by Blackstone Audio in December 2005 and was narrated by Anna Fields, better known as Kate Fleming.
== Reviews and reception ==
Kirkus reviews called the novel a "beautifully composed, unflinching and harrowing story". While Dennis Lythgoe of Deseret News noted that "Bergen's book lives and breathes the Vietnam experience"; Ron Charles in his The Washington Post review mentioned that "Bergen's ability to dramatize trauma-induced disaffection is undeniable; whether readers will want to sink down that hole with his characters is less clear". Irene Wanner of The Seattle Times appreciated the novel for its writing.
The novel won the Scotiabank Giller Prize in 2005 while being nominated along with Luck (by Joan Barfoot), Sweetness in the Belly (by Camilla Gibb), Alligator (by Lisa Moore), and A Wall of Light (by Edeet Ravel). The judges Warren Cariou, Elizabeth Hay, and Richard B. Wright noted "The Time in Between explores our need to understand the relationship between love and duty....[] This is a subtle and elegantly written novel by an author in complete command of his talent". It also won the McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award in 2005. Bergen had earlier won the award in 1996 for A Year of Lesser and later again won in 2009 for The Retreat. Dan Zigmond of SFGate reviews the novel as "a rich and rewarding novel".
|
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"Edeet Ravel",
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"Joan Barfoot",
"Warren Cariou",
"Fraser Valley",
"A Year of Lesser",
"Seattle Times",
"Elizabeth Hay (novelist)",
"The Washington Post",
"David Bergen",
"Danang",
"The Retreat (David Bergen novel)",
"Lisa Moore (writer)",
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"McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award",
"Blackstone Audio",
"Random House",
"Richard B. Wright",
"Anna Fields"
] |
9,433 |
Spain in Flames
|
Spain in Flames is a 1937 compilation film made by Helen van Dongen during the Spanish Civil War. Hal Erickson has written that the film "... is remarkable in its willingness to offer both sides of the conflict -- though its sympathies are firmly with the Loyalists." The film consists of two parts. The first, "The Fight for Freedom", was based on film footage from a Spanish government documentary Spain and the Fight for Freedom. A foreword by the then Spanish Ambassador to the United States, Fernando de los Ríos, began one of the film's screenings in New York in 1937.
The second part, "They Shalt Not Pass", was based on a short film No Pasaran! done by the Artkino Film Company of the Soviet Union, where van Dongen was working at the time the film was made. Erickson writes that, "The horrendous images of battlefield carnage, not to mention the close-ups of suffering and dying Spanish children, still pack a wallop when seen today." A screening of the film, accompanied by a speech from Granville Hicks, was also banned in Provincetown, Massachusetts.
|
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"Ernest Hemingway",
"Artkino",
"Archibald MacLeish",
"Spanish Civil War",
"John Dos Passos",
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"Hal Erickson (author)",
"Joris Ivens",
"Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)",
"Granville Hicks",
"España 1936 (film)",
"Helen van Dongen",
"Fernando de los Ríos",
"Lillian Hellman"
] |
9,441 |
The Downward Spiral
|
The Downward Spiral is the second studio album by the American industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails, released on March 8, 1994, by Nothing Records in the United States and Island Records in Europe. It is a concept album detailing the self-destruction of a man from the beginning of his misanthropic "downward spiral" to his suicidal breaking point. The album was a commercial success and established Nine Inch Nails as a reputable force in the 1990s music scene, with its sound being widely imitated, and the band receiving media attention and multiple honors.
Trent Reznor, the band's sole official member at the time, had moved to 10050 Cielo Drive in Benedict Canyon, Los Angeles, the site of the murder of actress Sharon Tate by members of the Manson Family in 1969; it was transformed into a studio for recording the Broken EP (1992) and subsequently The Downward Spiral. The album features elements of industrial rock, techno, metal and ambient soundscapes, in contrast to the band's synth-pop-influenced debut album Pretty Hate Machine (1989). Reznor was strongly influenced by David Bowie's Low and Pink Floyd's The Wall for their themes of introspection and dissociation, and their focus on texture and space.
The Downward Spiral was praised for its abrasive, eclectic nature and dark themes, and it has since been regarded by music critics and audiences as one of the greatest and most influential albums of the 1990s, although it was sensationalized by social conservatives for some of its lyrics. The album spawned two lead singles, "March of the Pigs" and "Closer", in addition to the promotional singles "Piggy" and "Hurt". The lead singles were accompanied by music videos, with the former shot twice and the latter being heavily censored. A remix album titled Further Down the Spiral was released in 1995.
==Writing and recording==
Reznor conceived of The Downward Spiral after Nine Inch Nails' run in the lineup of the Lollapalooza festival tour, feeling increasingly alienated and disinterested. The band's concerts were known for their radical onstage dynamic in which members acted aggressively, injured themselves, destroyed instruments, and polluted stages. Reznor had begun to feud with TVT Records, resulting in him co-founding Nothing Records with his then-manager John Malm, Jr. as a subsidiary of Interscope. Simultaneously, he began fleshing out the concept for The Downward Spiral, focusing on the life and death of a misanthropic man who rebels against humanity, and kills God before attempting suicide. Reznor frequently struggled with drug addiction and depression, and the themes of the album gradually allegorized his living situation. His peers at some point recommended him the antidepressant Prozac, but he declined to be medicated.
Reznor wanted the album's sound to diverge from the abrasion of Broken, emphasizing mood, texture, restraint and subtlety, although he was unsure about its musical direction. Subsequently, he mainly worked with a Macintosh computer, using music editor programs on the computer to distort frequencies in guitar and bass parts as a form of sound design, and creating collages of sounds with Pro Tools.
thumb|upright|Reznor bought the house where actress [[Sharon Tate was murdered, and set up a recording studio that he named Le Pig, where The Downward Spiral was recorded. a decision made against his initial choice to record the album in New Orleans. 10050 Cielo Drive is referred to as the "Tate House" since Sharon Tate was murdered by members of the Manson Family in 1969; Reznor named the studio "Le Pig" after the message that was scrawled on the front door with Tate's blood by her murderers, and stayed there with Malm for 18 months. He called his first night in 10050 Cielo Drive "terrifying" because he already knew it and read books related to the incident. Reznor chose the Tate house to calibrate his engineering skills and the band bought a large console and two Studer machines as resources, a move that he believed was cheaper than renting.
Reznor collaborated with the Jane's Addiction and Porno for Pyros drummer Stephen Perkins, the progressive rock guitarist Adrian Belew, and the Nine Inch Nails drummer Chris Vrenna. Belew's first visit to the studio involved playing the guitar parts in "Mr. Self Destruct", and he was told to play freely, think on reacting to melodies, concentrate on rhythm, and use noise. This approach improved Reznor's confidence in the instrument: he found it to be more expressive than the keyboard due to the interface. Belew praised Reznor for his "command of technology," and commented that the music of Nine Inch Nails made innovations "that are in [his] realm." Vrenna and Perkins played drum parts recorded live in the studio; the tracks were rendered into looped samples. Reznor took a similar approach to recording guitar parts: he would tape 20- to 25-minute-long sessions of himself playing guitars on a hard disc recorder with the Studio Vision sequencer.}}
The British producer and engineer Flood, who previously engineered and co-produced Nine Inch Nails' debut album Pretty Hate Machine and Broken, was brought back to co-produce The Downward Spiral; although it would be his last collaboration with Nine Inch Nails due to creative differences. After the album's recording, Reznor moved out and the house was demolished shortly thereafter. dance, heavy metal, and hard rock, The Downward Spiral is considered an industrial rock, alternative rock, industrial, and art rock album. Reznor regularly uses noise and distortion in his song arrangements that do not follow verse–chorus form, and incorporates dissonance with chromatic melody or harmony (or both). The treatment of metal guitars in Broken is carried over to The Downward Spiral, which includes innovative techniques such as expanded song structures and unconventional time signatures. Reznor's singing follows a similar pattern from beginning to end, frequently moving from whispers to screams. These techniques are all used in the song "Hurt", which features a highly dissonant tritone played on guitar during the verses, a B5#11, emphasized when Reznor sings the eleventh note on the word "I" every time the B/E# dyad is played.
"Mr. Self Destruct", a song about a powerful person, follows a build-up sampled from the 1971 film THX 1138 with an "industrial roar" and is accompanied by an audio loop of a pinion rotating. "The Becoming" expresses the state of being dead and the protagonist's transformation into a non-human organism. The album was chiefly inspired by David Bowie's Low, an experimental rock album which Reznor related to on songwriting, mood, and structures, as well as progressive rock group Pink Floyd's The Wall, a concept album featuring themes of abuse, isolation, and mental instability.
==Packaging==
Committere, an installation featuring artwork and sketches for The Downward Spiral, "Closer" and "March of the Pigs" by Russell Mills was displayed at the Glasgow School of Art. Mills explained the ideas and materials that made up the painting (titled "Wound") that was used for the album's cover art:
==Promotion==
===Singles===
"March of the Pigs" and "Closer" were released as singles; two other songs, "Hurt" and "Piggy", were issued to radio without a commercial single release. "March of the Pigs" has an unusual meter, alternating three bars of 7/8 time with one of 8/8. Lyrically, it is a meditation on self-hatred and obsession, but to Reznor's dismay, the song was widely misinterpreted as a lust anthem due to its chorus, which included the line "I wanna fuck you like an animal". Reznor later stated: "It’s supernegative and superhateful. It’s 'I am a piece of shit and I am declaring that and if you think you want me, here I am.' I didn't think it would become a frat-party anthem or a titty-dancer anthem".
The music video for "Closer" was directed by Mark Romanek and received frequent rotation on MTV, though the network heavily censored the original version, which they perceived to be too graphic. The video shows events in a laboratory dealing with religion, sexuality, animal cruelty, politics, and terror; controversial imagery included a nude bald woman with a crucifix mask, a monkey tied to a cross, a pig's head spinning on a machine, a diagram of a vulva, Reznor wearing an S&M mask while swinging in shackles, and of him wearing a ball gag. A radio edit that partially censored the song's explicit lyrics also received extensive airtime. The video has since been made part of the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.
"Piggy" uses "nothing can stop me now", a line that recurs in "Ruiner" and "Big Man with a Gun". while other people claims that it describes the difficult process of finding a reason to live in spite of depression and pain and does not have much to do with the storyline of The Downward Spiral.
===Self Destruct Tour===
The Nine Inch Nails live band embarked on the Self Destruct tour in support of The Downward Spiral. Chris Vrenna and James Woolley performed drums and keyboards respectively, Robin Finck replaced Richard Patrick on guitar and the bassist Danny Lohner was added to the line-up. The stage set-up consisted of dirty curtains which would be pulled down and up for visuals shown during songs such as "Hurt". The back of the stage was littered with darker and standing lights, along with very few actual ones. The tour debuted the band's grungy and messy image in which they would come out in ragged clothes slathered in corn starch. The concerts were violent and chaotic, with band members often injuring themselves. They would frequently destroy their instruments at the end of concerts, attack each other, and stage-dive into the crowd.
The tour included a set at Woodstock '94 broadcast on pay-per-view and seen in as many as 24 million homes. Contrary to the widely-held belief that it was an attention-grabbing ploy, the band said that being covered in mud was a result of pre-concert backstage play. However, in 2024, backstage home video emerged on Youtube showing Reznor asking the stage manager to give them "5 minutes for mud" when discussing show timings for getting to the stage and debating whether to find a mud pit or bring some into the dressing room in a bucket. The mud made it difficult for Reznor to navigate the stage and saw mud from his hair entering his eyes while performing. Nine Inch Nails were widely proclaimed to have "stolen the show" from their popular contemporaries, mostly classic rock bands, and their fan base expanded. The band received considerable mainstream success thereafter, performing with significantly higher production values and the addition of various theatrical visual elements. Its performance of "Happiness in Slavery" from the Woodstock concert earned the group a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1995. Entertainment Weekly commented about the band's Woodstock '94 performance: "Reznor unstrings rock to its horrifying, melodramatic core—an experience as draining as it is exhilarating". Despite this acclaim, Reznor attributed his dislike of the concert to its technical difficulties.
The main leg of the tour featured Marilyn Manson as the supporting act, who featured the bassist Jeordie White (then playing under the pseudonym "Twiggy Ramirez"); White later played bass with Nine Inch Nails from 2005 to 2007. After another tour leg supporting the remix album Further Down the Spiral, Nine Inch Nails contributed to the Alternative Nation Festival in Australia and subsequently embarked on the Dissonance Tour, which included 26 separate performances with co-headliner David Bowie on his Outside Tour. Nine Inch Nails was the opening act for the tour, and its set transitioned into Bowie's set with joint performances of both bands' songs. However, the crowds reportedly did not respond positively to the pairing due to their creative differences. Despite this, in a 2012 Rolling Stone readers' poll, the tour (pairing Nine Inch Nails with Bowie) was named one of the top 10 opening acts in rock history.
The tour concluded with "Nights of Nothing", a three-night showcase of performances from Nothing Records bands Marilyn Manson, Prick, Meat Beat Manifesto, and Pop Will Eat Itself, which ended with an 80-minute set from Nine Inch Nails. Kerrang! described the Nine Inch Nails set during the Nights of Nothing showcase as "tight, brash and dramatic", but was disappointed at the lack of new material. On the second of the three nights, Richard Patrick was briefly reunited with the band and contributed guitar to a performance of "Head Like a Hole". After the Self Destruct tour, Chris Vrenna, who had been a member of the live band since 1988 and frequent contributor to Nine Inch Nails studio recordings, left the act permanently to pursue a career in producing and to form Tweaker.
==Release and reception==
The Downward Spirals release date was delayed at various times to slow down Reznor's intended pace of the album's recording. The first delay caused the process of setting up Le Pig to take longer than he expected, and its release was postponed again as he was educating himself different ways to write songs that did not resemble those on Broken and Pretty Hate Machine. He considered delivering the album to Interscope in early 1993, only to experience a writer's block as he was unable to produce any satisfactory material. Interscope grew impatient and concerned with this progress, but Reznor was not forced by their demands of expediency despite crediting the label for giving him creative freedom. He told the producer Rick Rubin that his motivation for creating the album was to get it finished, thus Rubin responded that Reznor might not do so until he makes music that is allowed to be heard. Reznor realized that he was in the most fortunate situation he imagined when the album was recorded with a normal budget, "cool" equipment, and a studio to work at.
Released on March 8, 1994, to instant success, The Downward Spiral debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200, selling nearly 119,000 copies in its first week. On October 28, 1998, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album quadruple platinum,
Many music critics and audiences praised The Downward Spiral for its abrasive, eclectic nature and dark themes and commented on the concept of a destruction of a man. The New York Times writer Jon Pareles' review of the album found the music to be highly abrasive. Pareles asserted that unlike other electro-industrial groups like Ministry and Nitzer Ebb, "Reznor writes full-fledged tunes" with stronger use of melodies than riffs. He noticed criticisms of Nine Inch Nails from industrial purists for popularizing the genre and the album's transgression. Village Voice critic Robert Christgau gave it an "honorable mention" in his capsule review column and summed the record up as, "musically, Hieronymus Bosch as postindustrial atheist; lyrically, Transformers as kiddie porn." Jonathan Gold, writing for Rolling Stone, likened the album to cyberpunk fiction. then was re-ranked 201 in a 2012 revised list. It moved up to 122 on the magazine's revised list in 2020. The album was placed 10th on Spins 125 Best Albums of the Past 25 Years list; the Spin staff quoted Ann Powers' review that appreciated its bleak, aggressive style. It was ranked number 488 in the book The Top 500 Heavy Metal Albums of All Time by heavy metal music critic Martin Popoff. In 2001, Q named The Downward Spiral as one of the 50 Heaviest Albums of All Time; in 2010, the album was ranked number 102 on their 250 Best Albums of Q's Lifetime (1986–2011) list. The Downward Spiral was featured in Robert Dimery's book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. In May 2014, Loudwire placed The Downward Spiral at number two on its "10 Best Hard Rock Albums of 1994" list. In July 2014, Guitar World placed The Downward Spiral at number 43 in their "Superunknown: 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1994" list.
==Legacy==
The immediate success of The Downward Spiral established Nine Inch Nails as a reputable force in the 1990s. The band's image and musical style became so recognizable that a Gatorade commercial featured a remix of "Down in It" without their involvement. Reznor felt uncomfortable with the media hype and success the band earned, received false reports of his death, depression, and was falsely reported to have had a relationship with serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer, and was depicted as a sex icon. Nine Inch Nails received several honors, including Grammy Award nominations for Best Alternative Performance for The Downward Spiral and Best Rock Song for "Hurt". After the release of The Downward Spiral, many bands such as Gravity Kills, Stabbing Westward, Filter, and Mötley Crüe made albums that imitated the sound of Nine Inch Nails.
Reznor interpreted The Downward Spiral as an extension of himself that "became the truth fulfilling itself," as he experienced personal and social issues presented in the album after its release. He had already struggled with social anxiety disorder and depression and started his abuse of narcotics including cocaine while he went on an alcohol binge. struggles with addiction, and bouts of writer's block prolonged the production of The Fragile, and Reznor completed rehabilitation from drugs in 2001.
One year after The Downward Spiral’s release, the band released an accompanying remix album titled Further Down the Spiral. It features contributions from Coil with Danny Hyde, J. G. Thirlwell, electronic musician Aphex Twin, producer Rick Rubin, and Jane's Addiction guitarist Dave Navarro. The album peaked at number 23 on the Billboard 200 and received mixed reviews. Recoiled, a remix EP of "Gave Up", "Closer", "The Downward Spiral", and "Eraser" by Coil, was released on February 24, 2014, via British record label Cold Spring.
Retrospective reviews regard The Downward Spiral as one of the most important albums of the 1990s and Reznor's greatest work. The 2004 edition of The New Rolling Stone Album Guide gave the album five out of five stars and called it "a powerful statement, and one of the landmark albums of the Nineties." Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Kyle Anderson remembered watching the music video of "Closer" on MTV as an adolescent and expressed that the album changed his perception of popular music from that of songs heard on the radio to albums with cover art. Stereogums Tom Breihan remains favorable toward the album since influenced youth culture, with teenagers wearing ripped fish nets on their arms. Adrien Begrand of Stylus Magazine considers The Downward Spiral to be an "over-the-top masterpiece" that ranks alongside My Bloody Valentine's Loveless (1991) as the best-produced album of the 1990s.
==Controversies==
==="Big Man with a Gun" lyrics===
The Downward Spirals emphasis on transgressive themes drew criticism from American social conservatives. Senator Bob Dole, then the head of the Republican Party, sharply denounced Time Warner, the former owner of Interscope's former parent company Warner Music Group, after a meeting between Michael J. Fuchs (head of WMG), William Bennett, and C. Delores Tucker. During the meeting, Tucker and Bennett demanded that Fuchs recite lyrics from "Big Man with a Gun". Interscope had previously been blamed for releasing gangsta rap albums by rappers such as Dr. Dre, 2Pac and Snoop Dogg that were deemed objectionable. Reznor called Tucker (who erroneously referred to Nine Inch Nails as a gangsta rap act) "such a fucking idiot", and claimed that the song was actually a satire of the gangsta rap genre as a whole and was originally about madness. Reznor conceded The Downward Spiral could be "harmful, through implying and subliminally suggesting things", whereas hardcore hip hop could be "cartoonish". Robert Bork also repeatedly referenced "Big Man with a Gun" in his book Slouching Toward Gomorrah as evidence of a supposed cultural decline.
===Alleged contribution to the Columbine shooting===
Before the Columbine High School massacre, perpetrator Dylan Klebold referenced lyrics from Nine Inch Nails songs multiple times in his journal. Klebold heavily identified with the protagonist of The Downward Spiral as a symbol of his own depression. On May 4, 1999, a hearing on the marketing and distribution practices of violent content to minors by the television, music, film, and video game industries was conducted before the United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation. The committee heard testimony from cultural observers, professors, and mental health professionals, that included conservative William Bennett and the Archbishop of Denver, Reverend Charles J. Chaput.
===iPhone application refusal===
In 2009, Apple rejected a proposal for a Nine Inch Nails iPhone software application, citing objectionable content in the title track. Days later, Apple reversed the decision, but refused to explain its reasoning; however, they noted that the app has "objectionable content".
==Track listing==
Notes
The opening sounds of "Mr. Self Destruct" are a sample from the film THX 1138 in which a man is being beaten by a prison guard.
The sample of screams that plays throughout "The Becoming" is from the film Robot Jox, when a giant robot falls on a crowd of spectators.
The sample at the beginning of "Big Man with a Gun" comes from a studio-altered recording of a porn star having an orgasm. According to the album booklet, this "sample" is titled "Steakhouse" and is credited to Tommy Lee. The drumbeat is the same as on 'Stinking Drunk' by Big Black from their 1986 Atomizer LP.
Japanese pressings of the album contain a cover of Joy Division's song "Dead Souls", originally included on the soundtrack to the film The Crow. The track is placed in between "Big Man with a Gun" and "A Warm Place".
The break in "Reptile" contains an audio sample (starting at 5:06) of a woman falling down a hill from the 1974 film The Texas Chain Saw Massacre.
The first Australian pressing has track length errors. Affected tracks do not play at their beginnings when selected individually ("Big Man with a Gun" has the beginning of "A Warm Place" tacked on, likewise all the songs up to "Hurt" start 41 seconds earlier than they should. "Hurt" itself has 44 seconds of silence on the end as a result); however, the disc plays and flows correctly as a whole.
===Deluxe edition (Halo 8 DE)===
To mark the album's tenth anniversary, The Downward Spiral was re-released on November 23, 2004, in high-resolution SACD and DualDisc formats. Disc one of the album's deluxe edition re-release is nearly identical to the original version; track anomalies such as sounds from previous tracks creeping up on start of tracks are fixed, and it includes a stereo and multi-channel SACD layer. The second bonus disc is a collection of remixes and B-sides and also includes a stereo SACD layer in addition to the Redbook CD layer. The last three tracks on the bonus disc are previously unreleased demo recordings from the original album.
DualDisc (Halo 8 DVD-A)
The DualDisc edition of The Downward Spiral contains the same CD content on Side A as the Deluxe Edition, with a DVD-Audio layer on Side B. When played on DVD-Video players a Dolby Digital 5.1 multi-channel or Dolby Digital 2.0 stereo mix of The Downward Spiral can be selected, along with videos of "March of the Pigs", "Hurt" and an uncensored video of "Closer". There is also an interactive discography and an image gallery. High resolution 24-bit/48 kHz 5.1 Surround sound and stereo versions of The Downward Spiral can be played on a DVD-Audio player, allowing the user a similar high fidelity experience as the SACD layer of the Deluxe Edition. The DualDisc release does not contain the additional B-sides and demo tracks.
==Personnel==
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Downward Spiral.
| 38
|-
! scope="row"| Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista)
| 34
|-
|-
|-
|-
|}
===Year-end charts===
==Certifications==
|
[
"Super Audio CD",
"New Orleans",
"alternative rock",
"Federal Trade Commission",
"Dr. Dre",
"Down in It",
"Robert Christgau",
"Michael J. Fuchs",
"Tommy Lee",
"The Crow: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack",
"James Woolley",
"Billboard 200",
"Sharon Tate",
"Omnibus Press",
"William Bennett",
"Nine Inch Nails discography",
"EMAP",
"Music & Media",
"iPhone",
"Q (magazine)",
"The Matrix",
"Rolling Stone",
"Low (David Bowie album)",
"Encyclopedia of Popular Music",
"Filter (band)",
"DVD-Audio",
"Chicago Tribune",
"Chris Vrenna",
"Closer (Nine Inch Nails song)",
"Mr. Self Destruct",
"Nirvana (band)",
"art rock",
"Jonathan Gold",
"Loveless (album)",
"Nothing Records",
"Richard Patrick",
"Republican Party (United States)",
"BBC News",
"Record Plant",
"Alan Moulder",
"industrial music",
"capsule review",
"Jeffrey Dahmer",
"Alternative Nation Festival",
"My Bloody Valentine (band)",
"Condé Nast Publications",
"Iggy Pop",
"Charles J. Chaput",
"Charlie Clouser",
"The Fragile",
"Sean Beavan",
"Jon Pareles",
"Los Angeles Times",
"Guitar World",
"Snoop Dogg",
"cover art",
"Marshall Amplification",
"Coil (band)",
"Billboard (magazine)",
"Meat Beat Manifesto",
"Manson Family",
"Ministry (band)",
"Bob Dole",
"Digital Audio Tape",
"Dead Souls (song)",
"Vintage Books",
"Woodstock '94",
"Internet Archive",
"Nightclubbing (song)",
"Keyboard (magazine)",
"PopMatters",
"Guitar Player",
"Instrument destruction",
"Kerrang!",
"British Phonographic Industry",
"Mötley Crüe",
"Metal Hammer",
"Gave Up (song)",
"Drug abuse",
"HMV Japan",
"Alternative Press (music magazine)",
"Mark Romanek",
"Zoom Corporation",
"Digital Spy",
"instrument destruction",
"Peter Christopherson",
"hard rock",
"Robert Bork",
"United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation",
"European Top 100 Albums",
"Misanthropy",
"Hieronymus Bosch",
"The Dallas Morning News",
"AllMusic",
"Aphex Twin",
"Heavy metal music",
"Martin Popoff",
"A&M Studios",
"Prophet VS",
"The Idiot (album)",
"Dave Navarro",
"hardcore hip hop",
"Atomizer (album)",
"Recoiled",
"Glasgow School of Art",
"Tate murders",
"St. Martin's Press",
"Grammy Award for Best Rock Song",
"Newser",
"Digidesign",
"Tweaker (band)",
"Jeordie White",
"Pink Floyd",
"grunge",
"Porno for Pyros",
"The Globe and Mail",
"Blabbermouth.net",
"Museum of Modern Art",
"Hurt (Nine Inch Nails song)",
"motif (music)",
"Gibson Guitar Corporation",
"Benedict Canyon, Los Angeles",
"Robot Jox",
"narcotic",
"Natural Born Killers (soundtrack)",
"Canadian Recording Industry Association",
"Time Warner",
"Trent Reznor",
"Andy Kubiszewski",
"self-control",
"Rick Rubin",
"Cold Spring (label)",
"Distortion (music)",
"Danny Hyde",
"The Seattle Times",
"Rowman & Littlefield",
"Fixed (EP)",
"Russell Mills (artist)",
"Further Down the Spiral",
"March of the Pigs",
"Robin Finck",
"ARP 2600",
"Ogg",
"Interscope Records",
"Honolulu Star-Bulletin",
"Big Black",
"gangsta rap",
"Multichannel News",
"Trent Reznor–TVT Records feud",
"Fireside Books",
"industrial metal",
"industrial rock",
"social anxiety disorder",
"Spin (magazine)",
"Island Records",
"Nine Inch Nails live performances",
"Rip (magazine)",
"sound design",
"St. Martin's Griffin",
"Stephen Perkins",
"10050 Cielo Drive",
"bar (music)",
"Fuse (TV channel)",
"The Hollywood Reporter",
"Christgau's Consumer Guide: Albums of the '90s",
"Blender (magazine)",
"Broken (Nine Inch Nails EP)",
"The Texas Chain Saw Massacre",
"Marilyn Manson",
"Piggy (song)",
"Spin Alternative Record Guide",
"Loudwire",
"The Crow (1994 film)",
"Fluoxetine",
"Recording Industry Association of America",
"meter (music)",
"effects unit",
"Jackson Guitars",
"Eventide, Inc",
"verse–chorus form",
"Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance",
"MTV News",
"The Village Voice",
"1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die",
"drum machine",
"Webster Hall",
"dyad (music)",
"Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time",
"Exclaim!",
"Entertainment Weekly",
"Details (magazine)",
"HuffPost",
"Grammy Award",
"Self Destruct Tour",
"Pop Will Eat Itself",
"ECW Press",
"Ambient music",
"Columbine High School massacre",
"techno",
"David Bowie",
"Apple Inc.",
"Pitchfork (website)",
"Burn (Nine Inch Nails song)",
"Social conservatism",
"Joy Division",
"Bob Ludwig",
"Jane's Addiction",
"Minimoog",
"Hachette Filipacchi Médias",
"UK Albums Chart",
"Roland TR-808",
"United States Department of Justice",
"Rob Sheridan",
"Happiness in Slavery",
"Head Like a Hole",
"Otava (publisher)",
"The Wall",
"Guitar amplifier",
"Lollapalooza",
"Stereogum",
"Detroit Free Press",
"Hollywood, Los Angeles",
"Macintosh",
"writer's block",
"1990s in music",
"drop D tuning",
"remix album",
"Outside Tour",
"electronic music",
"Flood (producer)",
"Bauer Media Group",
"concept album",
"Gravity Kills",
"Slouching Toward Gomorrah",
"The Crow (album)",
"nihilism",
"Soft Cell",
"C. Delores Tucker",
"2Pac",
"Billboard Modern Rock Tracks",
"Transformers",
"Roland Corporation",
"Nine Inch Nails",
"Pro Tools",
"synth-pop",
"Prick (band)",
"TVT Records",
"Industrial rock",
"J. G. Thirlwell",
"Adrian Belew",
"Nitzer Ebb",
"solipsism",
"tritone",
"THX 1138",
"Sound on Sound",
"Gatorade",
"USA Today",
"self-harm",
"Dylan Klebold",
"The New York Times",
"RPM (magazine)",
"Danny Lohner",
"NME",
"Warner Music Group",
"Denver",
"Conservatism in the United States",
"The Official Finnish Charts",
"AbsolutePunk",
"Stabbing Westward",
"Universe Publishing",
"pay-per-view",
"Charles Manson",
"Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album",
"Village Voice",
"John Malm, Jr.",
"Mojo (magazine)",
"self-destructive behaviour",
"10050 Cielo Drive (Los Angeles)",
"Pretty Hate Machine",
"The Rolling Stone Album Guide",
"Akai S1000",
"Oberheim Electronics",
"Alternative Press (magazine)",
"Stylus Magazine",
"Kurzweil K2000",
"Gary Talpas"
] |
9,447 |
Egyptian Lover
|
Gregory James Broussard (born August 31, 1963), better known by his stage name Egyptian Lover, is an American musician, vocalist, producer and DJ, and was a part of the L.A. dance music, electro, and rap scene in the early 1980s.
== History ==
The Egyptian Lover was born in Los Angeles, California, and started out there as a DJ with Uncle Jamm's Army, DJing dances as large as the L.A. Sports Arena with 10,000 people. He began recording around Los Angeles in 1982 as a member of the Radio Crew, as well as Uncle Jamm's Army. Members of Uncle Jamm's Army and the World Class Wreckin' Cru, including Dr. Dre, The Unknown DJ, Egyptian Lover, Ice-T and Kid Frost would later go on to help define the early West Coast Hip-Hop sound throughout the 1980s.
Most of the Egyptian Lover's successful recordings were 12" singles. "Egypt, Egypt" was one of the most popular, which was called part of the "b-boy canon." He also collaborated with several other hip-hop and dance music artists. After a break in the early 1990s, Egyptian Lover returned in 1994 with Back from the Tomb, his first full-length album in over ten years.
The Egyptian Lover also established his own record company, Egyptian Empire Records, which included artists such as Rodney O & Joe Cooley, 2 O'Clock, and Te & Joezee.
His 2015 release, 1984, continues his tradition of using all analog equipment, including the Roland TR-808, along with much of the same gear used on his recordings of the 1980s. The name "1984" refers to his earlier albums. The album was recorded at Skip Saylor, Encore Studios, and at RUSK Studios, the same studio where On The Nile was recorded in 1984. It is widely available on double gatefold LP, CD and cassette tape.
=== 2000s ===
2005 – New single "Party", backed with "Dancefloor"
February 2006 – Platinum Pyramids was released
End of 2006 – Recorded "UFO" and "Futuristic" with Jamie Jupiter for Jupiter's new 12" single (never released)
2007 – Remade "Modernaire" by Dez Dickerson (from the film Purple Rain) for the label Citinite
2007 – Collaborated with Clone Machine and Egypt Ear Werk
December 2008 – Released exclusive songs on iTunes: "Electro Pharaoh", "Freaky D.J.", and "Scandinavian Summer"
2008 – Joined Who Cares on the song "They Killed the Radio"
2008 – Worked with Jamie Jones on the song "Galactic Space Bar"
2008 – Worked with M.I.A. on "Rock off Shake off" for new artist Rye Rye
May 2009 – Collaborated with Debonaire on "Do U Wanna Get Down?" for a new Street Sounds compilation
May 2009 – New video "Freaky D.J." with producer/director Victor Brooks a.k.a. Who007
2009 – New album that included songs "Electro Pharaoh", "U.F.O.", "Freaky D.J.", "BellyDance", "Scandinavian Summer", and "Do U Wanna Get Down?"
June 2009 – Remix of James Pants's Cosmic Rapp was released
2011 – Work on new album entitled 1984 begins
2014 – Collaborated with Dye on the song "She's Bad"
2015 – 1984 released
=== Touring ===
The Egyptian Lover began touring again in 2004 throughout Europe, Asia, and North America. His performances often begin with mixing records on turntables before segueing into his original compositions.
In 2008, he supported M.I.A. in her People vs. Money Tour.
==Discography==
===Albums===
===EPs===
1984 – "Egypt, Egypt EP"
2009 – "Electro Pharaoh"
2009 – "James Pants Meets Egyptian Lover" (split 12" with James Pants)
===Compilation albums===
2016 – 1983-1988
===Charted singles===
|
[
"Roland TR-808",
"World Class Wreckin' Cru",
"Red Bull Music Academy",
"Platinum Pyramids",
"Filthy (album)",
"Ice-T",
"M.I.A. (artist)",
"Billboard 200",
"MySpace",
"People vs. Money Tour",
"Los Angeles, California",
"1983-1988",
"Egyptian Empire Records",
"west coast hip hop",
"James Pants",
"Pyramix (album)",
"Red Bull",
"Back from the Tomb",
"dance music",
"Rodney O & Joe Cooley",
"Hip hop music",
"Dance Club Songs",
"Uncle Jamm's Army",
"DJ",
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"King of Ecstasy",
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"On the Nile",
"Electro (music)",
"Get Into It (Egyptian Lover album)",
"Billboard (magazine)",
"Moogfest",
"Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs",
"One Track Mind (Egyptian Lover album)",
"b-boy"
] |
9,450 |
Electrical telegraph
|
Electrical telegraphy is point-to-point distance communicating via sending electric signals over wire, a system primarily used from the 1840s until the late 20th century. It was the first electrical telecommunications system and the most widely used of a number of early messaging systems called telegraphs, that were devised to send text messages more quickly than physically carrying them. Electrical telegraphy can be considered the first example of electrical engineering.
Electrical telegraphy consisted of two or more geographically separated stations, called telegraph offices. The offices were connected by wires, usually supported overhead on utility poles. Many electrical telegraph systems were invented that operated in different ways, but the ones that became widespread fit into two broad categories. First are the needle telegraphs, in which electric current sent down the telegraph line produces electromagnetic force to move a needle-shaped pointer into position over a printed list. Early needle telegraph models used multiple needles, thus requiring multiple wires to be installed between stations. The first commercial needle telegraph system and the most widely used of its type was the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, invented in 1837. The second category are armature systems, in which the current activates a telegraph sounder that makes a click; communication on this type of system relies on sending clicks in coded rhythmic patterns. The archetype of this category was the Morse system and the code associated with it, both invented by Samuel Morse in 1838. In 1865, the Morse system became the standard for international communication, using a modified form of Morse's code that had been developed for German railways.
Electrical telegraphs were used by the emerging railway companies to provide signals for train control systems, minimizing the chances of trains colliding with each other. This was built around the signalling block system in which signal boxes along the line communicate with neighbouring boxes by telegraphic sounding of single-stroke bells and three-position needle telegraph instruments.
In the 1840s, the electrical telegraph superseded optical telegraph systems such as semaphores, becoming the standard way to send urgent messages. By the latter half of the century, most developed nations had commercial telegraph networks with local telegraph offices in most cities and towns, allowing the public to send messages (called telegrams) addressed to any person in the country, for a fee.
Beginning in 1850, submarine telegraph cables allowed for the first rapid communication between people on different continents. The telegraph's nearly-instant transmission of messages across continents and between continents had widespread social and economic impacts. The electric telegraph led to Guglielmo Marconi's invention of wireless telegraphy, the first means of radiowave telecommunication, which he began in 1894.
In the early 20th century, manual operation of telegraph machines was slowly replaced by teleprinter networks. Increasing use of the telephone pushed telegraphy into only a few specialist uses; its use by the general public dwindled to greetings for special occasions. The rise of the Internet and email in the 1990s largely made dedicated telegraphy networks obsolete.
== History ==
=== Precursors ===
Prior to the electric telegraph, visual systems were used, including beacons, smoke signals, flag semaphore, and optical telegraphs for visual signals to communicate over distances of land.
An auditory predecessor was West African talking drums. In the 19th century, Yoruba drummers used talking drums to mimic human tonal language to communicate complex messages – usually regarding news of birth, ceremonies, and military conflict – over 4–5 mile distances.
Possibly the earliest design and conceptualization for a telegraph system was by the British polymath Robert Hooke, who gave a vivid and comprehensive outline of visual telegraphy to the Royal Society in a 1684 submission in which he outlined many practical details. The system was largely motivated by military concerns, following the Battle of Vienna in 1683.
The first official optical telegraph was invented in France in the 18th century by Claude Chappe and his brothers. The Chappe system would stretch nearly 5,000 km with 556 stations and was used until the 1850s.
===Early work===
From early studies of electricity, electrical phenomena were known to travel with great speed, and many experimenters worked on the application of electricity to communications at a distance. All the known effects of electricitysuch as sparks, electrostatic attraction, chemical changes, electric shocks, and later electromagnetismwere applied to the problems of detecting controlled transmissions of electricity at various distances.
In 1753, an anonymous writer in the Scots Magazine suggested an electrostatic telegraph. Using one wire for each letter of the alphabet, a message could be transmitted by connecting the wire terminals in turn to an electrostatic machine, and observing the deflection of pith balls at the far end. The writer has never been positively identified, but the letter was signed C.M. and posted from Renfrew leading to a Charles Marshall of Renfrew being suggested. Telegraphs employing electrostatic attraction were the basis of early experiments in electrical telegraphy in Europe, but were abandoned as being impractical and were never developed into a useful communication system.
In 1774, Georges-Louis Le Sage realised an early electric telegraph. The telegraph had a separate wire for each of the 26 letters of the alphabet and its range was only between two rooms of his home.
In 1800, Alessandro Volta invented the voltaic pile, providing a continuous current of electricity for experimentation. This became a source of a low-voltage current that could be used to produce more distinct effects, and which was far less limited than the momentary discharge of an electrostatic machine, which with Leyden jars were the only previously known human-made sources of electricity.
Another very early experiment in electrical telegraphy was an "electrochemical telegraph" created by the German physician, anatomist and inventor Samuel Thomas von Sömmering in 1809, based on an earlier 1804 design by Spanish polymath and scientist Francisco Salva Campillo. Both their designs employed multiple wires (up to 35) to represent almost all Latin letters and numerals. Thus, messages could be conveyed electrically up to a few kilometers (in von Sömmering's design), with each of the telegraph receiver's wires immersed in a separate glass tube of acid. An electric current was sequentially applied by the sender through the various wires representing each letter of a message; at the recipient's end, the currents electrolysed the acid in the tubes in sequence, releasing streams of hydrogen bubbles next to each associated letter or numeral. The telegraph receiver's operator would watch the bubbles and could then record the transmitted message. This is in contrast to later telegraphs that used a single wire (with ground return).
Hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that an electric current produces a magnetic field that will deflect a compass needle. In the same year Johann Schweigger invented the galvanometer, with a coil of wire around a compass, that could be used as a sensitive indicator for an electric current. Also that year, André-Marie Ampère suggested that telegraphy could be achieved by placing small magnets under the ends of a set of wires, one pair of wires for each letter of the alphabet. He was apparently unaware of Schweigger's invention at the time, which would have made his system much more sensitive. In 1825, Peter Barlow tried Ampère's idea but only got it to work over and declared it impractical. In 1830 William Ritchie improved on Ampère's design by placing the magnetic needles inside a coil of wire connected to each pair of conductors. He successfully demonstrated it, showing the feasibility of the electromagnetic telegraph, but only within a lecture hall.
In 1825, William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet, with a single winding of uninsulated wire on a piece of varnished iron, which increased the magnetic force produced by electric current. Joseph Henry improved it in 1828 by placing several windings of insulated wire around the bar, creating a much more powerful electromagnet which could operate a telegraph through the high resistance of long telegraph wires. During his tenure at The Albany Academy from 1826 to 1832, Henry first demonstrated the theory of the 'magnetic telegraph' by ringing a bell through of wire strung around the room in 1831.
In 1835, Joseph Henry and Edward Davy independently invented the mercury dipping electrical relay, in which a magnetic needle is dipped into a pot of mercury when an electric current passes through the surrounding coil. In 1837, Davy invented the much more practical metallic make-and-break relay which became the relay of choice in telegraph systems and a key component for periodically renewing weak signals. Davy demonstrated his telegraph system in Regent's Park in 1837 and was granted a patent on 4 July 1838. Davy also invented a printing telegraph which used the electric current from the telegraph signal to mark a ribbon of calico infused with potassium iodide and calcium hypochlorite.
===First working systems===
The first working telegraph was built by the English inventor Francis Ronalds in 1816 and used static electricity. At the family home on Hammersmith Mall, he set up a complete subterranean system in a long trench as well as an long overhead telegraph. The lines were connected at both ends to revolving dials marked with the letters of the alphabet and electrical impulses sent along the wire were used to transmit messages. Offering his invention to the Admiralty in July 1816, it was rejected as "wholly unnecessary". His account of the scheme and the possibilities of rapid global communication in Descriptions of an Electrical Telegraph and of some other Electrical Apparatus was the first published work on electric telegraphy and even described the risk of signal retardation due to induction. Elements of Ronalds' design were utilised in the subsequent commercialisation of the telegraph over 20 years later.
The Schilling telegraph, invented by Baron Schilling von Canstatt in 1832, was an early needle telegraph. It had a transmitting device that consisted of a keyboard with 16 black-and-white keys. These served for switching the electric current. The receiving instrument consisted of six galvanometers with magnetic needles, suspended from silk threads. The two stations of Schilling's telegraph were connected by eight wires; six were connected with the galvanometers, one served for the return current and one for a signal bell. When at the starting station the operator pressed a key, the corresponding pointer was deflected at the receiving station. Different positions of black and white flags on different disks gave combinations which corresponded to the letters or numbers. Pavel Schilling subsequently improved its apparatus by reducing the number of connecting wires from eight to two.
On 21 October 1832, Schilling managed a short-distance transmission of signals between two telegraphs in different rooms of his apartment. In 1836, the British government attempted to buy the design but Schilling instead accepted overtures from Nicholas I of Russia. Schilling's telegraph was tested on a experimental underground and underwater cable, laid around the building of the main Admiralty in Saint Petersburg and was approved for a telegraph between the imperial palace at Peterhof and the naval base at Kronstadt. However, the project was cancelled following Schilling's death in 1837. Schilling was also one of the first to put into practice the idea of the binary system of signal transmission. His work was taken over and developed by Moritz von Jacobi who invented telegraph equipment that was used by Tsar Alexander III to connect the Imperial palace at Tsarskoye Selo and Kronstadt Naval Base.
In 1833, Carl Friedrich Gauss, together with the physics professor Wilhelm Weber in Göttingen, installed a wire above the town's roofs. Gauss combined the Poggendorff-Schweigger multiplicator with his magnetometer to build a more sensitive device, the galvanometer. To change the direction of the electric current, he constructed a commutator of his own. As a result, he was able to make the distant needle move in the direction set by the commutator on the other end of the line.
At first, Gauss and Weber used the telegraph to coordinate time, but soon they developed other signals and finally, their own alphabet. The alphabet was encoded in a binary code that was transmitted by positive or negative voltage pulses which were generated by means of moving an induction coil up and down over a permanent magnet and connecting the coil with the transmission wires by means of the commutator. The page of Gauss's laboratory notebook containing both his code and the first message transmitted, as well as a replica of the telegraph made in the 1850s under the instructions of Weber are kept in the faculty of physics at the University of Göttingen, in Germany.
Gauss was convinced that this communication would be of help to his kingdom's towns. Later in the same year, instead of a voltaic pile, Gauss used an induction pulse, enabling him to transmit seven letters a minute instead of two. The inventors and university did not have the funds to develop the telegraph on their own, but they received funding from Alexander von Humboldt. Carl August Steinheil in Munich was able to build a telegraph network within the city in 1835–1836. In 1838, Steinheil installed a telegraph along the Nuremberg–Fürth railway line, built in 1835 as the first German railroad, which was the first earth-return telegraph put into service.
By 1837, William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone had co-developed a telegraph system which used a number of needles on a board that could be moved to point to letters of the alphabet. Any number of needles could be used, depending on the number of characters it was required to code. In May 1837 they patented their system. The patent recommended five needles, which coded twenty of the alphabet's 26 letters.
Samuel Morse independently developed and patented a recording electric telegraph in 1837. Morse's assistant Alfred Vail developed an instrument that was called the register for recording the received messages. It embossed dots and dashes on a moving paper tape by a stylus which was operated by an electromagnet. Morse and Vail developed the Morse code signalling alphabet.
On 24 May 1844, Morse sent to Vail the historic first message “WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT" from the Capitol in Washington to the old Mt. Clare Depot in Baltimore.
== Commercial telegraphy ==
===Cooke and Wheatstone system===
The first commercial electrical telegraph was the Cooke and Wheatstone system. A demonstration four-needle system was installed on the Euston to Camden Town section of Robert Stephenson's London and Birmingham Railway in 1837 for signalling rope-hauling of locomotives. It was rejected in favour of pneumatic whistles. Cooke and Wheatstone had their first commercial success with a system installed on the Great Western Railway over the from Paddington station to West Drayton in 1838. This was a five-needle, six-wire
===Wheatstone ABC telegraph===
Wheatstone developed a practical alphabetical system in 1840 called the A.B.C. System, used mostly on private wires. This consisted of a "communicator" at the sending end and an "indicator" at the receiving end. The communicator consisted of a circular dial with a pointer and the 26 letters of the alphabet (and four punctuation marks) around its circumference. Against each letter was a key that could be pressed. A transmission would begin with the pointers on the dials at both ends set to the start position. The transmitting operator would then press down the key corresponding to the letter to be transmitted. In the base of the communicator was a magneto actuated by a handle on the front. This would be turned to apply an alternating voltage to the line. Each half cycle of the current would advance the pointers at both ends by one position. When the pointer reached the position of the depressed key, it would stop and the magneto would be disconnected from the line. The communicator's pointer was geared to the magneto mechanism. The indicator's pointer was moved by a polarised electromagnet whose armature was coupled to it through an escapement. Thus the alternating line voltage moved the indicator's pointer on to the position of the depressed key on the communicator. Pressing another key would then release the pointer and the previous key, and re-connect the magneto to the line. These machines were very robust and simple to operate, and they stayed in use in Britain until well into the 20th century.
===Morse system===
The Morse system uses a single wire between offices. At the sending station, an operator taps on a switch called a telegraph key, spelling out text messages in Morse code. Originally, the armature was intended to make marks on paper tape, but operators learned to interpret the clicks and it was more efficient to write down the message directly.
In 1851, a conference in Vienna of countries in the German-Austrian Telegraph Union (which included many central European countries) adopted the Morse telegraph as the system for international communications. The international Morse code adopted was considerably modified from the original American Morse code, and was based on a code used on Hamburg railways (Gerke, 1848). A common code was a necessary step to allow direct telegraph connection between countries. With different codes, additional operators were required to translate and retransmit the message. In 1865, a conference in Paris adopted Gerke's code as the International Morse code and was henceforth the international standard. The US, however, continued to use American Morse code internally for some time, hence international messages required retransmission in both directions.
In the United States, the Morse/Vail telegraph was quickly deployed in the two decades following the first demonstration in 1844. The overland telegraph connected the west coast of the continent to the east coast by 24 October 1861, bringing an end to the Pony Express.
===Foy–Breguet system===
France was slow to adopt the electrical telegraph, because of the extensive optical telegraph system built during the Napoleonic era. There was also serious concern that an electrical telegraph could be quickly put out of action by enemy saboteurs, something that was much more difficult to do with optical telegraphs which had no exposed hardware between stations. The Foy-Breguet telegraph was eventually adopted. This was a two-needle system using two signal wires but displayed in a uniquely different way to other needle telegraphs. The needles made symbols similar to the Chappe optical system symbols, making it more familiar to the telegraph operators. The optical system was decommissioned starting in 1846, but not completely until 1855. In that year the Foy-Breguet system was replaced with the Morse system.
===Expansion===
As well as the rapid expansion of the use of the telegraphs along the railways, they soon spread into the field of mass communication with the instruments being installed in post offices. The era of mass personal communication had begun. Telegraph networks were expensive to build, but financing was readily available, especially from London bankers. By 1852, National systems were in operation in major countries:
The New York and Mississippi Valley Printing Telegraph Company, for example, was created in 1852 in Rochester, New York and eventually became the Western Union Telegraph Company. Although many countries had telegraph networks, there was no worldwide interconnection. Message by post was still the primary means of communication to countries outside Europe.
Telegraphy was introduced in Central Asia during the 1870s.
===Telegraphic improvements===
A continuing goal in telegraphy was to reduce the cost per message by reducing hand-work, or increasing the sending rate. There were many experiments with moving pointers, and various electrical encodings. However, most systems were too complicated and unreliable. A successful expedient to reduce the cost per message was the development of telegraphese.
The first system that did not require skilled technicians to operate was Charles Wheatstone's ABC system in 1840 in which the letters of the alphabet were arranged around a clock-face, and the signal caused a needle to indicate the letter. This early system required the receiver to be present in real time to record the message and it reached speeds of up to 15 words a minute.
In 1846, Alexander Bain patented a chemical telegraph in Edinburgh. The signal current moved an iron pen across a moving paper tape soaked in a mixture of ammonium nitrate and potassium ferrocyanide, decomposing the chemical and producing readable blue marks in Morse code. The speed of the printing telegraph was 16 and a half words per minute, but messages still required translation into English by live copyists. Chemical telegraphy came to an end in the US in 1851, when the Morse group defeated the Bain patent in the US District Court.
For a brief period, starting with the New York–Boston line in 1848, some telegraph networks began to employ sound operators, who were trained to understand Morse code aurally. Gradually, the use of sound operators eliminated the need for telegraph receivers to include register and tape. Instead, the receiving instrument was developed into a "sounder", an electromagnet that was energized by a current and attracted a small iron lever. When the sounding key was opened or closed, the sounder lever struck an anvil. The Morse operator distinguished a dot and a dash by the short or long interval between the two clicks. The message was then written out in long-hand.
Royal Earl House developed and patented a letter-printing telegraph system in 1846 which employed an alphabetic keyboard for the transmitter and automatically printed the letters on paper at the receiver, and followed this up with a steam-powered version in 1852. Advocates of printing telegraphy said it would eliminate Morse operators' errors. The House machine was used on four main American telegraph lines by 1852. The speed of the House machine was announced as 2600 words an hour.
David Edward Hughes invented the printing telegraph in 1855; it used a keyboard of 26 keys for the alphabet and a spinning type wheel that determined the letter being transmitted by the length of time that had elapsed since the previous transmission. The system allowed for automatic recording on the receiving end. The system was very stable and accurate and became accepted around the world.
The next improvement was the Baudot code of 1874. French engineer Émile Baudot patented a printing telegraph in which the signals were translated automatically into typographic characters. Each character was assigned a five-bit code, mechanically interpreted from the state of five on/off switches. Operators had to maintain a steady rhythm, and the usual speed of operation was 30 words per minute.
By this point, reception had been automated, but the speed and accuracy of the transmission were still limited to the skill of the human operator. The first practical automated system was patented by Charles Wheatstone. The message (in Morse code) was typed onto a piece of perforated tape using a keyboard-like device called the 'Stick Punch'. The transmitter automatically ran the tape through and transmitted the message at the then exceptionally high speed of 70 words per minute.
====Teleprinters====
An early successful teleprinter was invented by Frederick G. Creed. In Glasgow he created his first keyboard perforator, which used compressed air to punch the holes. He also created a reperforator (receiving perforator) and a printer. The reperforator punched incoming Morse signals onto paper tape and the printer decoded this tape to produce alphanumeric characters on plain paper. This was the origin of the Creed High Speed Automatic Printing System, which could run at an unprecedented 200 words per minute. His system was adopted by the Daily Mail for daily transmission of the newspaper contents.
With the invention of the teletypewriter, telegraphic encoding became fully automated. Early teletypewriters used the ITA-1 Baudot code, a five-bit code. This yielded only thirty-two codes, so it was over-defined into two "shifts", "letters" and "figures". An explicit, unshared shift code prefaced each set of letters and figures. In 1901, Baudot's code was modified by Donald Murray.
In the 1930s, teleprinters were produced by Teletype in the US, Creed in Britain and Siemens in Germany.
By 1935, message routing was the last great barrier to full automation. Large telegraphy providers began to develop systems that used telephone-like rotary dialling to connect teletypewriters. These resulting systems were called "Telex" (TELegraph EXchange). Telex machines first performed rotary-telephone-style pulse dialling for circuit switching, and then sent data by ITA2. This "type A" Telex routing functionally automated message routing.
The first wide-coverage Telex network was implemented in Germany during the 1930s as a network used to communicate within the government.
At the rate of 45.45 (±0.5%) baud – considered speedy at the time – up to 25 telex channels could share a single long-distance telephone channel by using voice frequency telegraphy multiplexing, making telex the least expensive method of reliable long-distance communication.
Automatic teleprinter exchange service was introduced into Canada by CPR Telegraphs and CN Telegraph in July 1957 and in 1958, Western Union started to build a Telex network in the United States.
====The harmonic telegraph====
The most expensive aspect of a telegraph system was the installation – the laying of the wire, which was often very long. The costs would be better covered by finding a way to send more than one message at a time through the single wire, thus increasing revenue per wire. Early devices included the duplex and the quadruplex which allowed, respectively, one or two telegraph transmissions in each direction. However, an even greater number of channels was desired on the busiest lines. In the latter half of the 1800s, several inventors worked towards creating a method for doing just that, including Charles Bourseul, Thomas Edison, Elisha Gray, and Alexander Graham Bell.
One approach was to have resonators of several different frequencies act as carriers of a modulated on-off signal. This was the harmonic telegraph, a form of frequency-division multiplexing. These various frequencies, referred to as harmonics, could then be combined into one complex signal and sent down the single wire. On the receiving end, the frequencies would be separated with a matching set of resonators.
With a set of frequencies being carried down a single wire, it was realized that the human voice itself could be transmitted electrically through the wire. This effort led to the invention of the telephone. (While the work toward packing multiple telegraph signals onto one wire led to telephony, later advances would pack multiple voice signals onto one wire by increasing the bandwidth by modulating frequencies much higher than human hearing. Eventually, the bandwidth was widened much further by using laser light signals sent through fiber optic cables. Fiber optic transmission can carry 25,000 telephone signals simultaneously down a single fiber.)
===Oceanic telegraph cables===
Soon after the first successful telegraph systems were operational, the possibility of transmitting messages across the sea by way of submarine communications cables was first proposed. One of the primary technical challenges was to sufficiently insulate the submarine cable to prevent the electric current from leaking out into the water. In 1842, a Scottish surgeon William Montgomerie introduced gutta-percha, the adhesive juice of the Palaquium gutta tree, to Europe. Michael Faraday and Wheatstone soon discovered the merits of gutta-percha as an insulator, and in 1845, the latter suggested that it should be employed to cover the wire which was proposed to be laid from Dover to Calais. Gutta-percha was used as insulation on a wire laid across the Rhine between Deutz and Cologne. In 1849, C. V. Walker, electrician to the South Eastern Railway, submerged a wire coated with gutta-percha off the coast from Folkestone, which was tested successfully. John Pender, one of the men on the Great Eastern, later founded several telecommunications companies primarily laying cables between Britain and Southeast Asia. Earlier transatlantic submarine cables installations were attempted in 1857, 1858 and 1865. The 1857 cable only operated intermittently for a few days or weeks before it failed. The study of underwater telegraph cables accelerated interest in mathematical analysis of very long transmission lines. The telegraph lines from Britain to India were connected in 1870. (Those several companies combined to form the Eastern Telegraph Company in 1872.) The HMS Challenger expedition in 1873–1876 mapped the ocean floor for future underwater telegraph cables.
Australia was first linked to the rest of the world in October 1872 by a submarine telegraph cable at Darwin. This brought news reports from the rest of the world. The telegraph across the Pacific was completed in 1902, finally encircling the world.
From the 1850s until well into the 20th century, British submarine cable systems dominated the world system. This was set out as a formal strategic goal, which became known as the All Red Line. In 1896, there were thirty cable laying ships in the world and twenty-four of them were owned by British companies. In 1892, British companies owned and operated two-thirds of the world's cables and by 1923, their share was still 42.7 percent.
===Cable and Wireless Company===
Cable & Wireless was a British telecommunications company that traced its origins back to the 1860s, with Sir John Pender as the founder, although the name was only adopted in 1934. It was formed from successive mergers including:
The Falmouth, Malta, Gibraltar Telegraph Company
The British Indian Submarine Telegraph Company
The Marseilles, Algiers and Malta Telegraph Company
The Eastern Telegraph Company
The Eastern Extension Australasia and China Telegraph Company
The Eastern and Associated Telegraph Companies
==Telegraphy and longitude==
Main article § Section: .
The telegraph was very important for sending time signals to determine longitude, providing greater accuracy than previously available. Longitude was measured by comparing local time (for example local noon occurs when the sun is at its highest above the horizon) with absolute time (a time that is the same for an observer anywhere on earth). If the local times of two places differ by one hour, the difference in longitude between them is 15° (360°/24h). Before telegraphy, absolute time could be obtained from astronomical events, such as eclipses, occultations or lunar distances, or by transporting an accurate clock (a chronometer) from one location to the other.
The idea of using the telegraph to transmit a time signal for longitude determination was suggested by François Arago to Samuel Morse in 1837, and the first test of this idea was made by Capt. Wilkes of the U.S. Navy in 1844, over Morse's line between Washington and Baltimore. The method was soon in practical use for longitude determination, in particular by the U.S. Coast Survey, and over longer and longer distances as the telegraph network spread across North America and the world, and as technical developments improved accuracy and productivity
The "telegraphic longitude net" soon became worldwide. Transatlantic links between Europe and North America were established in 1866 and 1870. The US Navy extended observations into the West Indies and Central and South America with an additional transatlantic link from South America to Lisbon between 1874 and 1890. British, Russian and US observations created a chain from Europe through Suez, Aden, Madras, Singapore, China and Japan, to Vladivostok, thence to Saint Petersburg and back to Western Europe.
Australia's telegraph network was linked to Singapore's via Java in 1871, and the net circled the globe in 1902 with the connection of the Australia and New Zealand networks to Canada's via the All Red Line. The two determinations of longitudes, one transmitted from east to west and the other from west to east, agreed within one second of arc ( second of time – less than 30 metres).
==Telegraphy in war==
The ability to send telegrams brought obvious advantages to those conducting war. Secret messages were encoded, so interception alone would not be sufficient for the opposing side to gain an advantage. There were also geographical constraints on intercepting the telegraph cables that improved security, however once radio telegraphy was developed interception became far more widespread.
===Crimean War===
The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use telegraphs and was one of the first to be documented extensively. In 1854, the government in London created a military Telegraph Detachment for the Army commanded by an officer of the Royal Engineers. It was to comprise twenty-five men from the Royal Corps of Sappers & Miners trained by the Electric Telegraph Company to construct and work the first field electric telegraph.
Journalistic recording of the war was provided by William Howard Russell (writing for The Times newspaper) with photographs by Roger Fenton. News from war correspondents kept the public of the nations involved in the war informed of the day-to-day events in a way that had not been possible in any previous war. After the French extended their telegraph lines to the coast of the Black Sea in late 1854, war news began reaching London in two days. When the British laid an underwater cable to the Crimean peninsula in April 1855, news reached London in a few hours. These prompt daily news reports energised British public opinion on the war, which brought down the government and led to Lord Palmerston becoming prime minister.
===American Civil War===
During the American Civil War the telegraph proved its value as a tactical, operational, and strategic communication medium and an important contributor to Union victory. By contrast the Confederacy failed to make effective use of the South's much smaller telegraph network. Prior to the War the telegraph systems were primarily used in the commercial sector. Government buildings were not inter-connected with telegraph lines, but relied on runners to carry messages back and forth. Before the war the Government saw no need to connect lines within city limits, however, they did see the use in connections between cities. Washington D.C. being the hub of government, it had the most connections, but there were only a few lines running north and south out of the city. It was not until the Civil War that the government saw the true potential of the telegraph system. Soon after the shelling of Fort Sumter, the South cut telegraph lines running into D.C., which put the city in a state of panic because they feared an immediate Southern invasion.
Within 6 months of the start of the war, the U.S. Military Telegraph Corps (USMT) had laid approximately of line. By war's end they had laid approximately of line, 8,000 for military and 5,000 for commercial use, and had handled approximately 6.5 million messages. The telegraph was not only important for communication within the armed forces, but also in the civilian sector, helping political leaders to maintain control over their districts.
Even before the war, the American Telegraph Company censored suspect messages informally to block aid to the secession movement. During the war, Secretary of War Simon Cameron, and later Edwin Stanton, wanted control over the telegraph lines to maintain the flow of information. Early in the war, one of Stanton's first acts as Secretary of War was to move telegraph lines from ending at McClellan's headquarters to terminating at the War Department. Stanton himself said "[telegraphy] is my right arm". Telegraphy assisted Northern victories, including the Battle of Antietam (1862), the Battle of Chickamauga (1863), and Sherman's March to the Sea (1864).
The telegraph system still had its flaws. The USMT, while the main source of telegraphers and cable, was still a civilian agency. Most operators were first hired by the telegraph companies and then contracted out to the War Department. This created tension between generals and their operators. One source of irritation was that USMT operators did not have to follow military authority. Usually they performed without hesitation, but they were not required to, so Albert Myer created a U.S. Army Signal Corps in February 1863. As the new head of the Signal Corps, Myer tried to get all telegraph and flag signaling under his command, and therefore subject to military discipline. After creating the Signal Corps, Myer pushed to further develop new telegraph systems. While the USMT relied primarily on civilian lines and operators, the Signal Corp's new field telegraph could be deployed and dismantled faster than USMT's system.
===First World War===
During World War I, Britain's telegraph communications were almost completely uninterrupted, while it was able to quickly cut Germany's cables worldwide. The British government censored telegraph cable companies in an effort to root out espionage and restrict financial transactions with Central Powers nations. British access to transatlantic cables and its codebreaking expertise led to the Zimmermann Telegram incident that contributed to the US joining the war. Despite British acquisition of German colonies and expansion into the Middle East, debt from the war led to Britain's control over telegraph cables to weaken while US control grew.
===Second World War===
World War II revived the 'cable war' of 1914–1918. In 1939, German-owned cables across the Atlantic were cut once again, and, in 1940, Italian cables to South America and Spain were cut in retaliation for Italian action against two of the five British cables linking Gibraltar and Malta. Electra House, Cable & Wireless's head office and central cable station, was damaged by German bombing in 1941.
Resistance movements in occupied Europe sabotaged communications facilities such as telegraph lines, forcing the Germans to use wireless telegraphy, which could then be intercepted by Britain.
The Germans developed a highly complex teleprinter attachment (German: Schlüssel-Zusatz, "cipher attachment") that was used for enciphering telegrams, using the Lorenz cipher, between German High Command (OKW) and the army groups in the field. These contained situation reports, battle plans, and discussions of strategy and tactics. Britain intercepted these signals, diagnosed how the encrypting machine worked, and decrypted a large amount of teleprinter traffic.
==End of the telegraph era==
In America, the end of the telegraph era can be associated with the fall of the Western Union Telegraph Company. Western Union was the leading telegraph provider for America and was seen as the best competition for the National Bell Telephone Company. Western Union and Bell were both invested in telegraphy and telephone technology. Western Union's decision to allow Bell to gain the advantage in telephone technology was the result of Western Union's upper management's failure to foresee the surpassing of the telephone over the, at the time, dominant telegraph system. Western Union soon lost the legal battle for the rights to their telephone copyrights. This led to Western Union agreeing to a lesser position in the telephone competition, which in turn led to the lessening of the telegraph.
While the telegraph was not the focus of the legal battles that occurred around 1878, the companies that were affected by the effects of the battle were the main powers of telegraphy at the time. Western Union thought that the agreement of 1878 would solidify telegraphy as the long-range communication of choice. However, due to the underestimates of telegraph's future and poor contracts, Western Union found itself declining. AT&T acquired working control of Western Union in 1909 but relinquished it in 1914 under threat of antitrust action. AT&T bought Western Union's electronic mail and Telex businesses in 1990.
Although commercial "telegraph" services are still available in many countries, transmission is usually done via a computer network rather than a dedicated wired connection.
|
[
"Simon Cameron",
"The World's Work",
"Göttingen",
"Samuel Thomas von Sömmering",
"Great Western Railway",
"Aurora",
"Claude Chappe",
"magneto",
"Joseph Henry",
"continuous current",
"Émile Baudot",
"John Watkins Brett",
"The Times",
"Edwin Stanton",
"Munich",
"Bletchley Park",
"pith",
"Donald Murray (inventor)",
"Y-stations",
"wireless telegraphy",
"potassium iodide",
"William Fothergill Cooke",
"Kelmscott House",
"Frederick G. Creed",
"Battle of Antietam",
"Sherman's March to the Sea",
"pulse dialling",
"Resistance during World War II",
"telegraph key",
"Western Electric Company",
"Alexander Bain (inventor)",
"List of basic communication topics",
"calcium hypochlorite",
"Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph",
"American entry into World War I",
"Tsarskoye Selo",
"92 Code",
"Bell Canada",
"Cable & Wireless plc",
"iron",
"Internet",
"Thomas Edison",
"Teletype Corporation",
"Baltimore",
"polymath",
"voltaic pile",
"Francisco Salva Campillo",
"transmission line",
"flag semaphore",
"George B. McClellan",
"international Morse code",
"electric shock",
"Massachusetts Institute of Technology",
"Point-to-point (telecommunications)",
"Tone (linguistics)",
"Telegraphy",
"binary coding",
"Albert J. Myer",
"Robert Hooke",
"optical telegraph",
"Wilhelm Eduard Weber",
"Louis-Philippe",
"Roger Fenton",
"Royal Earl House",
"Peter Barlow (mathematician)",
"telegram",
"Kronstadt",
"Germans",
"Talking drum",
"electrostatic attraction",
"Radio",
"Samuel Morse",
"Francis Ronalds",
"World War I",
"Creed & Company",
"Multiplexing",
"All Red Line",
"United States Secretary of War",
"Worldwide use of telegrams by country",
"telephone",
"submarine communications cable",
"Charles Wheatstone",
"Radiogram (message)",
"Edward Davy",
"sl:Telegraf",
"timeline of North American telegraphy",
"Georges-Louis Le Sage",
"occultations",
"British Admiralty",
"Calais",
"American Telephone and Telegraph Company",
"François Arago",
"electrostatic generator",
"signalling block system",
"Royal Society",
"Cologne",
"Guglielmo Marconi",
"Central Asia",
"Scots Magazine",
"Charles Bourseul",
"alphabet",
"Electric Telegraph Company",
"circuit switching",
"Yarn",
"Baltimore-Washington telegraph line",
"escapement",
"Atlantic Telegraph Company",
"chemical change",
"Carl Friedrich Gauss",
"Carl August Steinheil",
"baud",
"relay",
"Electric bell",
"telephone exchange",
"South Eastern Railway (UK)",
"First transcontinental telegraph",
"Great Northern Telegraph Company",
"Johann Schweigger",
"Battle of Chickamauga",
"frequency-division multiplexing",
"telegraph office",
"Michael Faraday",
"William Howard Russell",
"Magnetic Telegraph Company",
"C. V. Walker",
"Robert Stephenson",
"communication",
"Yoruba people",
"computer network",
"Marine chronometer",
"Hans Christian Ørsted",
"West Drayton",
"utility pole",
"Foy-Breguet telegraph",
"Palaquium gutta",
"Alexander Graham Bell",
"Nicholas I of Russia",
"Peterhof Palace",
"electrical engineering",
"André-Marie Ampère",
"Moritz von Jacobi",
"Pony Express",
"William Sturgeon",
"teleprinter",
"Oberkommando der Wehrmacht",
"Western Union",
"The Albany Academy",
"YouTube",
"Baudot code",
"earth-return telegraph",
"John Pender",
"eclipses",
"telegraph",
"A.S. Popov Central Museum of Communications",
"ITA2",
"Cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher",
"Alfred Vail",
"Kronstadt Naval Base",
"University of Göttingen",
"fi:Lennätin",
"Electra House",
"London",
"Schilling telegraph",
"John Lewis Ricardo",
"Bristol",
"Fort Sumter",
"Neutral direct-current telegraph system",
"Developed country",
"London and Birmingham Railway",
"Elisha Gray",
"Dover",
"World War II",
"Charles Wilkes",
"gutta-percha",
"needle telegraph",
"History of electrical engineering",
"Crimea: The Last Crusade",
"telegraphese",
"American Morse code",
"Camden Town",
"telegraph sounder",
"SS Great Eastern",
"Lorenz cipher",
"Geomagnetically induced current",
"galvanometer",
"invention of the telephone",
"Electromagnetic induction",
"Nuremberg–Fürth railway line",
"William Ritchie (physicist)",
"Zimmermann Telegram",
"email",
"electromagnet",
"Euston railway station",
"Armature (electrical)",
"AT&T",
"United States Capitol",
"Electrical telegraphy in the United Kingdom",
"Baron Schilling",
"Leyden jar",
"zh:电报",
"silk",
"Quadruplex telegraph",
"Beacon",
"telecommunications",
"Royal Engineers",
"Siemens",
"Cologne-Deutz",
"American Telegraph Company",
"NASA",
"Crimean War",
"Bell Telephone Company",
"teletypewriter",
"CPR Telegraphs",
"Glasgow",
"electromagnetism",
"David Edward Hughes",
"Alexander III of Russia",
"B&O Railroad Museum",
"William Montgomerie",
"physician",
"Lunar distance (navigation)",
"Rhine",
"Morse code",
"American Civil War",
"Alessandro Volta",
"voice frequency telegraphy",
"electric spark",
"Alexander von Humboldt",
"James Anderson (sea captain)",
"commutator (electric)",
"Paddington station",
"Yoruba language",
"duplex (telegraph)",
"Napoleonic era",
"Daily Mail",
"Slough",
"Friedrich Clemens Gerke",
"Submarine communications cable",
"Telex",
"electricity",
"Signal Corps (United States Army)",
"smoke signal",
"post office",
"Regent's Park",
"Renfrew",
"CN Telegraph",
"Schweigger multiplier",
"U.S. Military Telegraph Corps"
] |
9,451 |
Event
|
Event may refer to:
==Gatherings of people==
Ceremony, an event of ritual significance, performed on a special occasion
Convention (meeting), a gathering of individuals engaged in some common interest
Event management, the organization of events
Festival, an event that celebrates some unique aspect of a community
Happening, a type of artistic performance
Media event, an event created for publicity
Party, a social, recreational or corporate events held
Sporting event, at which athletic competition takes place
Virtual event, a gathering of individuals within a virtual environment
==Science, technology, and mathematics==
Event (computing), a software message indicating that something has happened, such as a keystroke or mouse click
Event (philosophy), an object in time, or an instantiation of a property in an object
Event (probability theory), a set of outcomes to which a probability is assigned
Event (relativity), a point in space at an instant in time, i.e. a location in spacetime
Event (synchronization primitive), a type of synchronization mechanism
Event (UML), in Unified Modeling Language, a notable occurrence at a particular point in time
Event (particle physics), refers to the results just after a fundamental interaction took place between subatomic particles
Event horizon, a boundary in spacetime, typically surrounding a black hole, beyond which events cannot affect an exterior observer
Extinction event, a sharp decrease in the number of extant species in a short period of time
Impact event, in which an extraterrestrial object impacts planet
Mental event, something that happens in the mind, such as a thought
==Arts and entertainment==
Event film, a term used to describe highly anticipated blockbusters
The Event, an American conspiracy thriller television series for NBC
The Event (2003 film), directed by Thom Fitzgerald
The Event (2015 film), directed by Sergei Loznitsa
Derren Brown: The Events, a Channel 4 television series
Event, a literary magazine published by Douglas College
==Business==
Event Communications, a London-based museum design consultancy
|
[
"Ceremony",
"News",
"Event management",
"Event (yacht)",
"The Event",
"Grouped events",
"Disaster",
"Festival",
"Media event",
"Event film",
"Phenomenon",
"Extinction event",
"Impact event",
"Derren Brown: The Events",
"Event (synchronization primitive)",
"Accident",
"Mental event",
"Competition",
"Event (philosophy)",
"Event chain methodology",
"Event (probability theory)",
"The Event (disambiguation)",
"Sustainable event management",
"Convention (meeting)",
"Event (relativity)",
"Douglas College",
"Sporting event",
"Event (UML)",
"Event horizon",
"The Event (2003 film)",
"Event Communications",
"Sequence of events",
"Happening",
"Party",
"Virtual event",
"Event (particle physics)",
"Eventive (disambiguation)",
"Eventing",
"The Event (2015 film)",
"Event (computing)"
] |
9,454 |
Establishing shot
|
An establishing shot in filmmaking and television production sets up, or establishes, the context for a scene by showing the relationship between its important figures and objects. It is generally a long or extreme-long shot at the beginning of a scene indicating where, and sometimes when, the remainder of the scene takes place.
Establishing shots were more common during the classical era of filmmaking than they are now. Today's filmmakers tend to skip the establishing shot in order to move the scene along more quickly, or merely mention the setting in on-screen text (as is done in the Law & Order franchise). In addition, the expositional nature of the shot may be unsuitable to scenes in mysteries, where details are intentionally obscured or left out.
==Use of establishing shots==
Location: Establishing shots may use famous landmarks to indicate the city where the action is taking place or has moved.
Time of day: Sometimes the viewer is guided in their understanding of the action. For example, an exterior shot of a building at night followed by an interior shot of people talking implies that the conversation is taking place at night inside that building – the conversation may in fact have been filmed on a studio set far from the apparent location, because of budget, permits, time limitations or convenience. In the series JAG, 24-hour Coordinated Universal Time was used for these scenes to reinforce the military setting of the series.
Relationship: An establishing shot might be a long shot of a room that shows all the characters from a particular scene. For example, a scene about a murder in a college lecture hall might begin with a shot that shows the entire room, including the lecturing professor and the students taking notes. A close-up shot can also be used at the beginning of a scene to establish the setting (such as, for the lecture hall scene, a shot of a pencil writing notes).
Concept: An establishing shot may also establish a concept, rather than a location. For example, opening with a martial arts drill visually establishes the theme of martial arts. A shot of rain falling could be an establishing shot, followed by more and more detailed look at the rain, culminating with individual raindrops falling.
|
[
"filmmaking",
"JAG (TV series)",
"Law & Order (franchise)",
"classical Hollywood cinema",
"Coordinated Universal Time",
"Yale University",
"Calgary board of education",
"Purdue University",
"Saturday Night Fever",
"television production",
"24-hour clock",
"long shot"
] |
9,455 |
Etruscan language
|
{{Infobox language
| name = Etruscan
| image =
| imagecaption = The Cippus Perusinus, a stone tablet bearing 46 lines of incised Etruscan text, one of the longest extant Etruscan inscriptions. 3rd or 2nd century BC.
| states = Ancient Etruria
| region = Italian Peninsula
| era = attested 700 BC to AD 50
| familycolor = grey
| fam1 = Tyrsenian
| iso3 = ett
| linglist = ett
| glotto = etru1241
| glottorefname = Etruscan
| created = 700 BC
| extinct = after AD 50 was the language of the Etruscan civilization in the ancient region of Etruria, in Etruria Padana and Etruria Campana in what is now Italy. Etruscan influenced Latin but was eventually superseded by it. Around 13,000 Etruscan inscriptions have been found so far, only a small minority of which are of significant length; some bilingual inscriptions with texts also in Latin, Greek, or Phoenician; and a few dozen purported loanwords. Attested from 700 BC to AD 50, the relation of Etruscan to other languages has been a source of long-running speculation and study. Nowadays, it is generally agreed to be in the Tyrsenian language family, but before it gained currency as one of the Tyrsenian languages, it was commonly treated as an isolate, although there were also a number of other less well-known hypotheses.
The consensus among linguists and Etruscologists is that Etruscan was a Pre-Indo-European and Paleo-European language, closely related to the Raetic language that was spoken in the Alps, and to the Lemnian language, attested in a few inscriptions on Lemnos.
The Etruscan alphabet is similar to the Greek one, particularly to the Euboean script that Greek colonists brought to southern Italy. Therefore, linguists have been able to read the inscriptions in the sense of knowing roughly how they would have been pronounced, but have not yet understood their meaning. However, by using combinatory method, it was possible to assign some Etruscan words to grammatical categories such as noun and verb, to identify some inflectional endings, and to assign meanings to a few words of very frequent occurrence.
A comparison between the Etruscan and Greek alphabets reveals how accurately the Etruscans preserved the Greek alphabet. The Etruscan alphabet contains letters that have since been dropped from the Greek alphabet, such as the digamma, sampi and qoppa. Etruscan was written in an alphabet derived from the Greek alphabet; this alphabet was the source of the Latin alphabet, as well as other alphabets in Italy and probably beyond. The Etruscan language is also believed to be the source of certain important cultural words of Western Europe such as military and person, which do not have obvious Indo-European roots.
==History of Etruscan literacy==
Etruscan literacy was widespread over the Mediterranean shores, as evidenced by about 13,000 inscriptions (dedications, epitaphs, etc.), most fairly short, but some of considerable length. They date from about 700 BC.
By 30 BC, Livy noted that Etruscan was once widely taught to Roman boys, but had since become replaced by the teaching of Greek, while Varro noted that theatrical works had once been composed in Etruscan.
Despite the apparent extinction of Etruscan, it appears that Etruscan religious rites continued much later, continuing to use the Etruscan names of deities and possibly with some liturgical usage of the language. In late Republican and early Augustan times, various Latin sources including Cicero noted the esteemed reputation of Etruscan soothsayers.
Around 180 AD, the Latin author Aulus Gellius mentions Etruscan alongside the Gaulish language in an anecdote. Freeman notes that although Gaulish was clearly still alive during Gellius' time, his testimony may not indicate that Etruscan was still alive because the phrase could indicate a meaning of the sort of "it's all Greek (incomprehensible) to me".
At the time of its extinction, only a few educated Romans with antiquarian interests, such as Marcus Terentius Varro, could read Etruscan. The Roman emperor Claudius (10 BC – AD 54) is considered to have possibly been able to read Etruscan, and authored the Tyrrhenika, a (now lost) treatise on Etruscan history; a separate dedication made by Claudius implies a knowledge from "diverse Etruscan sources", but it is unclear if any were fluent speakers of Etruscan.
Etruscan had some influence on Latin, as a few dozen Etruscan words and names were borrowed by the Romans, some of which remain in modern languages, among which are possibly 'vulture', 'trumpet', 'sheath', 'people'.
==Geographic distribution==
Inscriptions have been found in northwest and west-central Italy, in the region that even now bears the name of the Etruscan civilization, Tuscany (from Latin 'Etruscans'), as well as in modern Latium north of Rome, in today's Umbria west of the Tiber, in the Po Valley to the north of Etruria, and in Campania. This range may indicate a maximum Italian homeland where the language was at one time spoken.
Outside Italy, inscriptions have been found in Corsica, Gallia Narbonensis, Greece, the Balkans. But by far the greatest concentration is in Italy.
==Classification==
===Tyrsenian family hypothesis===
thumb|Tyrrhenian language family tree as proposed by de Simone and Marchesini (2013)
Rix's [[Tyrsenian language family has gained widespread acceptance among scholars, being confirmed by Stefan Schumacher, On the other hand, the Tyrsenian family, or Common Tyrrhenic, is often considered to be Paleo-European and to predate the arrival of Indo-European languages in southern Europe. Scholars such as Norbert Oettinger, Michel Gras and Carlo De Simone think that Lemnian is the testimony of an Etruscan commercial settlement on the island that took place before 700 BC, not related to the Sea Peoples.
==== Archeogenetic studies ====
A 2021 archeogenetic analysis of Etruscan individuals, who lived between 800 BC and 1 BC, concluded that the Etruscans were autochthonous and genetically similar to the Early Iron Age Latins, and that the Etruscan language, and therefore the other languages of the Tyrrhenian family, may be a surviving language of the ones that were widespread in Europe from at least the Neolithic period before the arrival of the Indo-European languages, as already argued by German geneticist Johannes Krause who concluded that it is likely that the Etruscan language (as well as Basque, Paleo-Sardinian and Minoan) "developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution". The lack of recent Anatolian-related admixture and Iranian-related ancestry among the Etruscans, who genetically joined firmly to the European cluster, might also suggest that the presence of a handful of inscriptions found at Lemnos, in a language related to Etruscan and Raetic, "could represent population movements departing from the Italian peninsula". and may be a Pre–Indo-European and Paleo-European language.
==== Pre-Greek substrate hypothesis ====
The idea of a relation between the language of the Minoan Linear A scripts was taken into consideration as the main hypothesis by Michael Ventris before he discovered that, in fact, the language behind the later Linear B script was Mycenean, a Greek dialect. It has been proposed to possibly be part of a wider Paleo-European "Aegean" language family, which would also include Minoan, Eteocretan (possibly descended from Minoan) and Eteocypriot. This has been proposed by Giulio Mauro Facchetti, a researcher who has dealt with both Etruscan and Minoan, and supported by S. Yatsemirsky, referring to some similarities between Etruscan and Lemnian on one hand, and Minoan and Eteocretan on the other.
It has also been proposed that this language family is related to the pre-Indo-European languages of Anatolia, based upon place name analysis. More recently, Robert S. P. Beekes argued in 2002 that the people later known as the Lydians and Etruscans had originally lived in northwest Anatolia, with a coastline to the Sea of Marmara, whence they were driven by the Phrygians circa 1200 BC, leaving a remnant known in antiquity as the Tyrsenoi. A segment of this people moved south-west to Lydia, becoming known as the Lydians, while others sailed away to take refuge in Italy, where they became known as Etruscans. This account draws on the well-known story by Herodotus (I, 94) of the Lydian origin of the Etruscans or Tyrrhenians, famously rejected by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (book I), partly on the authority of Xanthus, a Lydian historian, who had no knowledge of the story, and partly on what he judged to be the different languages, laws, and religions of the two peoples. In 2006, Frederik Woudhuizen went further on Herodotus' traces, suggesting that Etruscan belongs to the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European family, specifically to Luwian. Woudhuizen revived a conjecture to the effect that the Tyrsenians came from Anatolia, including Lydia, whence they were driven by the Cimmerians in the early Iron Age, 750–675 BC, leaving some colonists on Lemnos. He makes a number of comparisons of Etruscan to Luwian and asserts that Etruscan is modified Luwian. He accounts for the non-Luwian features as a Mysian influence: "deviations from Luwian [...] may plausibly be ascribed to the dialect of the indigenous population of Mysia." According to Woudhuizen, the Etruscans were initially colonizing the Latins, bringing the alphabet from Anatolia. For historical, archaeological, genetic, and linguistic reasons, a relationship between Etruscan and the Indo-European Anatolian languages (Lydian or Luwian) and the idea that the Etruscans initially colonized the Latins, bringing the alphabet from Anatolia, have not been accepted, since the account by Herodotus is no longer considered reliable.
==== Other theories ====
The interest in Etruscan antiquities and the Etruscan language found its modern origin in a book by a Renaissance Dominican friar, Annio da Viterbo, a cabalist and orientalist now remembered mainly for literary forgeries. In 1498, Annio published his antiquarian miscellany titled (in 17 volumes) where he put together a theory in which both the Hebrew and Etruscan languages were said to originate from a single source, the "Aramaic" spoken by Noah and his descendants, founders of the Etruscan city Viterbo.
The 19th century saw numerous attempts to reclassify Etruscan. Ideas of Semitic origins found supporters until this time. In 1858, the last attempt was made by Johann Gustav Stickel, Jena University in his . A reviewer concluded that Stickel brought forward every possible argument which would speak for that hypothesis, but he proved the opposite of what he had attempted to do. In 1861, Robert Ellis proposed that Etruscan was related to Armenian. Exactly 100 years later, a relationship with Albanian was to be advanced by Zecharia Mayani, a theory regarded today as disproven and discredited.
Several theories from the late 19th and early 20th centuries connected Etruscan to Uralic or even Altaic languages. In 1874, the British scholar Isaac Taylor brought up the idea of a genetic relationship between Etruscan and Hungarian, of which also Jules Martha would approve in his exhaustive study (1913). The Hungarian connection was revived by Mario Alinei, emeritus professor of Italian languages at the University of Utrecht. Alinei's proposal has been rejected by Etruscan experts such as Giulio M. Facchetti, Finno-Ugric experts such as Angela Marcantonio, and by Hungarian historical linguists such as Bela Brogyanyi. Another proposal, pursued mainly by a few linguists from the former Soviet Union, suggested a relationship with Northeast Caucasian (or Nakh-Daghestanian) languages. None of these theories has been accepted nor enjoys consensus. employs a Euboean variant of the Greek alphabet using the letter digamma and was in all probability transmitted through Pithecusae and Cumae, two Euboean settlements in southern Italy. This system is ultimately derived from West Semitic scripts.
The Etruscans recognized a 26-letter alphabet, which makes an early appearance incised for decoration on a small bucchero terracotta lidded vase in the shape of a cockerel at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, ca. 650–600 BC. The full complement of 26 has been termed the model alphabet. The Etruscans did not use four letters of it, mainly because Etruscan did not have the voiced stops b, d and g; the o was also not used. They innovated one letter for f ().
===Text===
Writing was from right to left except in archaic inscriptions, which occasionally used boustrophedon. An example found at Cerveteri used left to right. In the earliest inscriptions, the words are continuous. From the 6th century BC, they are separated by a dot or a colon, which might also be used to separate syllables. Writing was phonetic; the letters represented the sounds and not conventional spellings. On the other hand, many inscriptions are highly abbreviated and often casually formed, so the identification of individual letters is sometimes difficult. Spelling might vary from city to city, probably reflecting differences of pronunciation.
===Complex consonant clusters===
Speech featured a heavy stress on the first syllable of a word, causing syncopation by weakening of the remaining vowels, which then were not represented in writing: Alcsntre for Alexandros, Rasna for Rasena. This speech habit is one explanation of the Etruscan "impossible" consonant clusters. Some of the consonants, especially resonants, however, may have been syllabic, accounting for some of the clusters (see below under Consonants). In other cases, the scribe sometimes inserted a vowel: Greek Hēraklēs became Hercle by syncopation and then was expanded to Herecele. Pallottino regarded this variation in vowels as "instability in the quality of vowels" and accounted for the second phase (e.g. Herecele) as "vowel harmony, i.e., of the assimilation of vowels in neighboring syllables".
===Phases===
The writing system had two historical phases: the archaic from the seventh to fifth centuries BC, which used the early Greek alphabet, and the later from the fourth to first centuries BC, which modified some of the letters. In the later period, syncopation increased.
The alphabet went on in modified form after the language disappeared. In addition to being the source of the Roman and early Oscan and Umbrian alphabets, it has been suggested that it passed northward into Veneto and from there through Raetia into the Germanic lands, where it became the Elder Futhark alphabet, the oldest form of the runes.
==Epigraphy==
The corpus of Etruscan inscriptions is edited in the Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum (CIE) and Thesaurus Linguae Etruscae (TLE).
===Bilingual text===
The Pyrgi Tablets are a bilingual text in Etruscan and Phoenician engraved on three gold leaves, one for the Phoenician and two for the Etruscan. The Etruscan language portion has 16 lines and 37 words. The date is roughly 500 BC.
The tablets were found in 1964 by Massimo Pallottino during an excavation at the ancient Etruscan port of Pyrgi, now Santa Severa. The only new Etruscan word that could be extracted from close analysis of the tablets was the word for 'three', .
===Longer texts===
According to Rix and his collaborators, only two unified (though fragmentary) long texts are available in Etruscan:
The Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis, which was later used for mummy wrappings in Egypt. Roughly 1,200 words of readable (but not fully translatable) text, mainly repetitious prayers probably comprising a kind of religious calendar, yielded about 50 lexical items.
The Tabula Capuana (the inscribed tile from Capua) has about 300 readable words in 62 lines, dating to the fifth century BC. It again seems to be a religious calendar.
Some additional longer texts are:
The inscription of 59 words on the Sarcophagus of Laris Pulenas, also known as The Magistrate, dating from the third century BC, discovered in Tarquinia, now residing in Museo Nazionale Archeologico (Tarquinia, Viterbo, Lazio, Italy).
The lead foils of Punta della Vipera have about 40 legible words having to do with ritual formulae. It is dated to about 500 BC.
The Cippus Perusinus, a stone slab (cippus) found at Perugia, which probably functioned as a border marker, contains 46 lines and about 130 words. The cippus is assumed to be a text dedicating a legal contract between the Etruscan families of Velthina (from Perugia) and Afuna (from Chiusi), regarding the sharing or use of a property, including water rights, upon which there was a tomb belonging to the noble Velthinas.
The Piacenza Liver, a bronze model of a sheep's liver representing the sky, has the engraved names of the gods ruling different sections.
The Tabula Cortonensis, a bronze tablet from Cortona, is believed to record a legal contract between Cusu family and Petru Scevas and his wife concerning a real estate settlement of some sort, with about 200 words. Discovered in 1992, this new tablet contributed the word for 'lake', , but not much else.
The Vicchio stele, found in the 21st season of excavation at the Etruscan Sanctuary at Poggio Colla, is believed to be connected with the cult of the goddess Uni, with about 120 letters. Only discovered in 2016, it is still in the process of being deciphered. As an example of difficulties in reading this badly damaged monument, here is Maggiani's attempt at a transliteration and translation of a bit from the beginning of the third block of text (III, 1–3): (vacat) tinaś: θ(?)anuri: unial(?)/ ẹ ṿ ị: zal / ame (akil??) "for Tinia in the xxxx of Uni/xxxx(objects) two / must (akil ?) be..."
The badly damaged Saint Marinella lead sheet contains traces of 80 words, only half of which can be completely read with certainty, many of which can also be found in the Liber Linteus. It was discovered during the 1963-1964 excavations at a sanctuary near Saint Marinella near Pyrgi, now in the Villa Giulia Museum in Rome.
The Lead Plaque of Magliano contains 73 words, including many names of deities. It seems to be a series of dedications to various gods and ancestors.
===Inscriptions on monuments===
The main material repository of Etruscan civilization, from the modern perspective, is its tombs, all other public and private buildings having been dismantled and the stone reused centuries ago. The tombs are the main source of Etruscan portables, provenance unknown, in collections throughout the world. Their incalculable value has created a brisk black market in Etruscan objets d'art – and equally brisk law enforcement effort, as it is illegal to remove any objects from Etruscan tombs without authorization from the Italian government.
The magnitude of the task involved in cataloguing them means that the total number of tombs is unknown. They are of many types. Especially plentiful are the hypogeal or "underground" chambers or system of chambers cut into tuff and covered by a tumulus. The interior of these tombs represents a habitation of the living stocked with furniture and favorite objects. The walls may display painted murals, the predecessor of wallpaper. Tombs identified as Etruscan date from the Villanovan period to about 100 BC, when presumably the cemeteries were abandoned in favor of Roman ones. Some of the major cemeteries are as follows:
Caere or Cerveteri, a UNESCO site. Three complete necropoleis with streets and squares. Many hypogea are concealed beneath tumuli retained by walls; others are cut into cliffs. The Banditaccia necropolis contains more than 1,000 tumuli. Access is through a door.
Tarquinia, Tarquinii or Corneto, a UNESCO site:
Inner walls and doors of tombs and sarcophagi, including the Golini Tomb and the Tomb of Orcus
The Orator is a bronze statue with a dedicatory inscription of about 13 words in Etruscan
Engraved steles (tombstones)
ossuaries
===Inscriptions on portable objects===
====Votives====
One example of an early (pre-fifth century BC) votive inscription is on a bucchero oinochoe (wine vase): ṃiṇi mulvaṇịce venalia ṡlarinaṡ. en mipi kapi ṃi(r) ṇuṇai = "Venalia Ṡlarinaṡ gave me. Do not touch me (?), I (am) nunai (an offering?)." This seems to be a rare case from this early period of a female (Venalia) dedicating the votive.
====Mirrors====
A speculum is a circular or oval hand-mirror used predominantly by Etruscan women. is Latin; the Etruscan word is or . Specula were cast in bronze as one piece or with a tang into which a wooden, bone, or ivory handle fitted. The reflecting surface was created by polishing the flat side. A higher percentage of tin in the mirror improved its ability to reflect. The other side was convex and featured intaglio or cameo scenes from mythology. The piece was generally ornate.
About 2,300 specula are known from collections all over the world. As they were popular plunderables, the provenance of only a minority is known. An estimated time window is 530–100 BC. Most probably came from tombs.
Many bear inscriptions naming the persons depicted in the scenes, so they are often called picture bilinguals. In 1979, Massimo Pallottino, then president of the Istituto di Studi Etruschi ed Italici initiated the Committee of the Corpus Speculorum Etruscanorum, which resolved to publish all the specula and set editorial standards for doing so. Since then, the committee has grown, acquiring local committees and representatives from most institutions owning Etruscan mirror collections. Each collection is published in its own fascicle by diverse Etruscan scholars.
====Cistae====
A cista is a bronze container of circular, ovoid, or more rarely rectangular shape used by women for the storage of sundries. They are ornate, often with feet and lids to which figurines may be attached. The internal and external surfaces bear carefully crafted scenes usually from mythology, usually intaglio, or rarely part intaglio, part cameo.
Cistae date from the Roman Republic of the fourth and third centuries BC in Etruscan contexts. They may bear various short inscriptions concerning the manufacturer or owner or subject matter. The writing may be Latin, Etruscan, or both. Excavations at Praeneste, an Etruscan city which became Roman, turned up about 118 cistae, one of which has been termed "the Praeneste cista" or "the Ficoroni cista" by art analysts, with special reference to the one manufactured by Novios Plutius and given by Dindia Macolnia to her daughter, as the archaic Latin inscription says. All of them are more accurately termed "the Praenestine cistae".
====Rings and ringstones====
Among the most plunderable portables from the Etruscan tombs of Etruria are the finely engraved gemstones set in patterned gold to form circular or ovoid pieces intended to go on finger rings. Around one centimeter in size, they are dated to the Etruscan apogee from the second half of the sixth to the first centuries BC. The two main theories of manufacture are native Etruscan and Greek. The materials are mainly dark red carnelian, with agate and sard entering usage from the third to the first centuries BC, along with purely gold finger rings with a hollow engraved bezel setting. The engravings, mainly cameo, but sometimes intaglio, depict scarabs at first and then scenes from Greek mythology, often with heroic personages called out in Etruscan. The gold setting of the bezel bears a border design, such as cabling.
====Coins====
Etruscan-minted coins can be dated between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC. Use of the 'Chalcidian' standard, based on the silver unit of 5.8 grams, indicates that this custom, like the alphabet, came from Greece. Roman coinage later supplanted Etruscan, but the basic Roman coin, the sesterce, is believed to have been based on the 2.5-denomination Etruscan coin. Etruscan coins have turned up in caches or individually in tombs and in excavations seemingly at random, and concentrated, of course, in Etruria.
Etruscan coins were in gold, silver, and bronze, the gold and silver usually having been struck on one side only. The coins often bore a denomination, sometimes a minting authority name, and a cameo motif. Gold denominations were in units of silver; silver, in units of bronze. Full or abbreviated names are mainly Pupluna (Populonia), Vatl or Veltuna (Vetulonia), Velathri (Volaterrae), Velzu or Velznani (Volsinii) and Cha for Chamars (Camars). Insignia are mainly heads of mythological characters or depictions of mythological beasts arranged in a symbolic motif: Apollo, Zeus, Culsans, Athena, Hermes, griffin, gorgon, male sphinx, hippocamp, bull, snake, eagle, or other creatures which had symbolic significance.
===Functional categories===
Wallace et al. include the following categories, based on the uses to which they were put, on their site: abecedaria (alphabets), artisans' texts, boundary markers, construction texts, dedications, didaskalia (instructional texts), funerary texts, legal texts, other/unclear texts, prohibitions, proprietary texts (indicating ownership), religious texts, tesserae hospitales (tokens that establish "the claim of the bearer to hospitality when travelling").
==Phonology==
In the tables below, conventional letters used for transliterating Etruscan are accompanied by likely pronunciation in IPA symbols within the square brackets, followed by examples of the early Etruscan alphabet which would have corresponded to these sounds.
===Vowels===
The Etruscan vowel system consisted of four distinct vowels. The vowels o and u appear to have not been phonetically distinguished based on the nature of the writing system, as only one symbol is used to cover both in loans from Greek (e.g. Greek > Etruscan 'pitcher').
Before the front vowels is used, while and are used before respectively unrounded and rounded back vowels.
===Consonants===
====Table of consonants====
Etruscan also might have had consonants ʧ and ʧʰ, as they might be represented in the writing by using two letters, like in the word ('great-nephew' or 'great-grandson'). However, this theory is not widely accepted.
====Absence of voiced stops====
The Etruscan consonant system primarily distinguished between aspirated and non-aspirated stops. There were no voiced stops. When words from foreign languages were borrowed into Etruscan, voiced stops typically became unvoiced stops; one example is Greek , which became Etruscan and Latin . Such a lack of voiced stops is not particularly unusual; it is found e.g. in modern Icelandic, in Scottish Gaelic, and in most Chinese languages. Even in English, aspiration is often more important than voice in the distinction of fortis-lenis pairs.
====Syllabic theory====
Based on standard spellings by Etruscan scribes of words without vowels or with unlikely consonant clusters (e.g. 'of this (gen.)' and 'freeman'), it is likely that were sometimes syllabic sonorants (cf. English little, button). Thus and .
Rix postulates several syllabic consonants, namely and palatal as well as a labiovelar fricative , and some scholars such as Mauro Cristofani also view the aspirates as palatal rather than aspirated but these views are not shared by most Etruscologists. Rix supports his theories by means of variant spellings such as /, /, /.
==Morphology/Grammar==
Etruscan was an agglutinative language, varying the endings of nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs with discrete endings for each function. It also had adverbs and conjunctions, whose endings did not vary.
===Nouns===
Etruscan substantives had five cases—nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and locative—and two numbers: singular and a plural. Not all five cases are attested for every word. Nouns merge the nominative and accusative; pronouns do not generally merge these. Gender appears in personal names (masculine and feminine) and in pronouns (animate and inanimate); otherwise, it is not marked.
Unlike the Indo-European languages, Etruscan noun endings were more agglutinative, with some nouns bearing two or three agglutinated suffixes. For example, where Latin would have distinct nominative plural and dative plural endings, Etruscan would suffix the case ending to a plural marker: Latin nominative singular , 'son', plural , dative plural , but Etruscan , and . Moreover, Etruscan nouns could bear multiple suffixes from the case paradigm alone: that is, Etruscan exhibited Suffixaufnahme. Pallottino calls this phenomenon "morphological redetermination", which he defines as "the typical tendency ... to redetermine the syntactical function of the form by the superposition of suffixes." His example is , 'in the sanctuary of Juno', where -al is a genitive ending and -θi a locative.
Steinbauer says of Etruscan, "there can be more than one marker ... to design a case, and ... the same marker can occur for more than one case."
Nominative/accusative case : No distinction is made between nominative and accusative of nouns. The nominative/accusative could act as the subject of transitive and intransitive verbs, but also as the object of transitive verbs, and it was also used to indicate duration of time (e.g., 'for three years'). In the -s group are most noun stems ending in a vowel or a consonant: /', /. In the second are names of females ending in i and names of males that end in s, th or n: /', /, /. After l or r -us instead of -s appears: /. Otherwise, a vowel might be placed before the ending: instead of .
According to Rex Wallace, "A few nouns could be inflected with both types of endings without any difference in meaning. Consider, for example, the genitives 'fortress (?)' and . Why this should be the case is not clear."
====Personal====
The first-person personal pronoun has a nominative ('I') and an accusative ('me'). The third person has a personal form ('he' or 'she') and an inanimate ('it'). The second person is uncertain but some scholars, such as the Bonfantes, have claimed a dative singular ('to thee') and an accusative singular ('thee').
====Demonstrative====
The demonstratives, and , are used without distinction for 'that' or 'this'. The nominative–accusative singular forms are: , , , , ; the plural: , . There is a genitive singular: , , and plural . The accusative singular: , , , , , ; plural 'these/those'. Locative singular: ; plural .
===Adjectives===
Though uninflected for number, adjectives were inflected for case, agreeing with their noun: 'good' versus genitive 'of (the) good...' Adjectives were usually placed after the noun.
==Vocabulary==
===Borrowings from and to Etruscan===
Only a few hundred words of the Etruscan vocabulary are understood with some certainty. The exact count depends on whether the different forms and the expressions are included. Below is a table of some of the words grouped by topic.
Some words with corresponding Latin or other Indo-European forms are likely loanwords to or from Etruscan. For example, 'nephew', is probably from Latin (Latin , ; this is a cognate of German , Old Norse ). A number of words and names for which Etruscan origin has been proposed survive in Latin.
The word 'house' is a false cognate to the Coptic 'house'.
In addition to words believed to have been borrowed into Etruscan from Indo-European or elsewhere, there is a corpus of words such as which seem to have been borrowed into Latin from the older Etruscan civilization as a superstrate influence. Some of these words still have widespread currency in English and Latin-influenced languages. Other words believed to have a possible Etruscan origin include:
arena : from 'arena' < , 'arena, sand' < archaic < Sabine , unknown Etruscan word as the basis for fas- with Etruscan ending -ēna.
belt : from , 'sword belt'; the sole connection between this word and Etruscan is a statement by Marcus Terentius Varro that it was of Etruscan origin. All else is speculation.
market : from Latin , of obscure origin, perhaps Etruscan.
military : from Latin 'soldier'; either from Etruscan or related to Greek , 'assembled crowd' (compare homily).
person : from Middle English , from Old French , from Latin , 'mask', probably from Etruscan , 'mask'.
satellite : from Latin , meaning 'bodyguard, attendant', perhaps from Etruscan . Whatmough considers Latin satteles "as one of our securest Etruscan loans in Latin."
=== Etruscan vocabulary ===
====Numerals====
Much debate has been carried out about a possible Indo-European origin of the Etruscan cardinals. In the words of Larissa Bonfante (1990), "What these numerals show, beyond any shadow of a doubt, is the non-Indo-European nature of the Etruscan language". Conversely, other scholars, including Francisco R. Adrados, Albert Carnoy, Marcello Durante, Vladimir Georgiev, Alessandro Morandi and Massimo Pittau, have proposed a close phonetic proximity of the first ten Etruscan numerals to the corresponding numerals in other Indo-European languages.
The lower Etruscan numerals are:
It is unclear which of , , and are 7, 8 and 9. may also mean 'twelve', with for 'ten'.
For higher numbers, it has been determined that is 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, and and any two in the series 70–90. is 100 (clearly < 10, just as Proto-Indo-European 100 is from 10). Further, mean 'once, twice, and thrice' respectively; and 'first' and 'third'; 'one by one', 'two by two'; and and are 'double' and 'quadruple'.
| nephew (Latin: )
|-
|
| great-nephew or great-grandson
|-
|
|-
|
| maid, companion
|-
|
| youth
|-
|
| children
|-
|
| boy
|-
| taliθa
| girl, in the specific sense of "marriageable girl", or a proper name (attested only once in a mirror, 400-350 BC from Vulci. Likely a proper name rendering of the accusative case of the Greek , . Greek: , )
|-
|
| gens, people (IE , 'people')
|-
|
| freedman (IE , 'free', 'pertaining to the people')
|-
|
| freedwoman
|-
|
| foreigner, slave, client (Greek )
|-
|
| ancestors
|-
|
| those who come next (that is posterity)
|-
!colspan=2|Society
|-
|
| god
|-
|,
| Etruscans?
|-
|
| Etruria?, or equivalent to Latin
| boundaries
|-
|
| public boundaries
|-
|
| city boundaries
|-
|
| contract
|-
|
| state
|-
|
|-
|
| village priest?
|-
|
| morning, day; cf. Thesan
|-
|
| at noon
|-
|
| month, moon
|-
|
| year
|-
|
| at the age of
| March
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
| to say)
First section probably for March (lines 1–7):
Start of second section for April () (starting on line 8):
|
[
"Etruria Campana",
"Volterra",
"Zosimus (historian)",
"sesterce",
"Linear A",
"Science Advances",
"Jules Martha",
"Camunic language",
"kylix",
"Ammianus Marcellinus",
"Suetonius",
"Laconia",
"Aegean Sea",
"Cortona",
"Michael Ventris",
"Usil",
"University of Utrecht",
"hypogeum",
"Jena University",
"hippocamp",
"Present tense",
"Typology of Greek Vase Shapes",
"Caere",
"Dental consonant",
"Arezzo",
"Mediterranean Sea",
"Helmut Rix",
"Paleo-Sardinian",
"Language isolate",
"Intaglio (jewellery)",
"Tomb of Orcus",
"Villanovan",
"Lemnos",
"Nasal stop",
"Tyrsenian languages",
"Fortis and lenis",
"Central Alps",
"Minoan civilization",
"Alps",
"Combinatorial method (linguistics)",
"Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum",
"Close vowel",
"Elder Futhark",
"Latin alphabet",
"Dionysius of Halicarnassus",
"National Etruscan Museum",
"Julian the Apostate",
"Etruscan art",
"bronze sculpture",
"grammatical case",
"glottal consonant",
"Claudius",
"unrounded",
"Neolithic Europe",
"Zecharia Mayani",
"Athena",
"Hebrew language",
"Tiber",
"Poggio Colla",
"Noah",
"Battle of Veii",
"Etruscan religion",
"carnelian",
"Roman sculpture",
"Northeast Caucasian",
"Front vowel",
"Koppa (letter)",
"gorgon",
"vowel harmony",
"Italian Peninsula",
"Saena",
"Ischia",
"Umbria",
"Lombardy",
"alabaster",
"Euboea",
"Massimo Pallottino",
"Old Italic script",
"loanword",
"stress (linguistics)",
"Armenian language",
"Etruria Padana",
"List of English words of Etruscan origin",
"Wiktionary",
"oriental studies",
"Francisco Rodríguez Adrados",
"Bilabial",
"Maurus Servius Honoratus",
"Mysia",
"sard",
"Dative case",
"UNESCO",
"Lead Plaque of Magliano",
"active voice",
"Thesan",
"pre-Indo-European languages",
"Locative case",
"Gaulish language",
"Liturgy",
"Metropolitan Museum of Art",
"Bronze Age",
"Latin script",
"Plural number",
"Etruscan numerals",
"back vowel",
"Ancient Greek dialects",
"Ancient Greek",
"Santa Severa",
"Chiusi",
"Isaac Taylor (priest)",
"grammatical voice",
"Uni (mythology)",
"haruspex",
"Coptic language",
"Pompeii",
"Zeus",
"Johannes Krause",
"reading entrails",
"false cognate",
"Oscan",
"Christian Kabbalah",
"Lekythos",
"Larissa Bonfante",
"Tabula Cortonensis",
"military",
"Raetic language",
"history of the alphabet",
"Stop consonant",
"Etruscan alphabet",
"Attic red-figure",
"Minoan language",
"Etruscan history",
"Etruscan civilization",
"indicative mood",
"epitaph",
"I-mutation",
"Livy",
"Sardinia",
"Market (economics)",
"epigraphy",
"sound change",
"Back vowel",
"Jean MacIntosh Turfa",
"Annio da Viterbo",
"patronymic",
"Tarquinia",
"ivory",
"Tyrsenian language family",
"Sonorant",
"Cicero",
"griffin",
"Grammatical person",
"Populonia",
"Genitive case",
"agglutinative",
"runes",
"Cerveteri",
"Lydian language",
"agglutinating",
"Luwian",
"Velar consonant",
"phonology",
"wikt:Category:Latin terms derived from Etruscan",
"Campania",
"Varro",
"Pyrgi",
"Latium",
"Robert S. P. Beekes",
"Vulci",
"Suffixaufnahme",
"Lemnian language",
"Western Europe",
"Past tense",
"suffix",
"boustrophedon",
"Eteocretan language",
"divination",
"Cumae",
"Subject–object–verb word order",
"Johann Gustav Stickel",
"Oscan language",
"Cippus perusinus",
"rhetoric",
"Apophony",
"satellite (disambiguation)",
"Vetulonia",
"Proto-Indo-European numerals",
"cameo (carving)",
"Rhotic consonant",
"Tiras",
"mummy",
"belt (clothing)",
"Viterbo",
"Chinese languages",
"Paleo-European language",
"stele",
"Cimmerians",
"Linear B",
"sonorant",
"nenfro",
"ablative",
"Augustus",
"Capua",
"Aspirated consonant",
"Pyrgi Tablets",
"Sarcophagus of Laris Pulenas",
"accusative case",
"Egypt",
"relief",
"Syncope (phonetics)",
"Tyrrhenika",
"phonemes",
"Alaric I",
"bezel setting",
"Kylix (drinking cup)",
"linguistic superstratum",
"tuff",
"Roman Republic",
"Fricative consonant",
"locative case",
"vowel",
"Golini Tomb",
"vowels",
"Etruscans",
"Oberlin College",
"Liber Linteus",
"Mauro Cristofani",
"digamma",
"Hermes",
"Paleo-European languages",
"Santa Marinella",
"Tabula Capuana",
"Piacenza Liver",
"Spurinnia gens",
"sphinx",
"Phoenician language",
"Anatolian languages",
"Ossuary",
"Icelandic language",
"Perugia",
"Albanian language",
"Affricate consonant",
"Scottish Gaelic",
"Cippus Perusinus",
"Mycenean Greek",
"Hungarian Language",
"Raetia",
"Clusium",
"jussive mood",
"noun",
"Greek alphabet",
"Latins",
"Caesar",
"Sea of Marmara",
"Morphology (linguistics)",
"Basque language",
"Tuscany",
"syntax",
"front vowel",
"genitive case",
"Tinia",
"Approximant consonant",
"Linguistic Latinization",
"lightning",
"Volaterrae",
"bucchero",
"verb",
"Robert Ellis (classicist)",
"Culsans",
"imperative mood",
"agate",
"Greece",
"Brown University",
"tin",
"necropoleis",
"mural",
"The Orator",
"Lydia",
"Umbrian",
"agglutinative language",
"Veneto",
"Rhaetian language",
"Corsica",
"sampi",
"Mario Alinei",
"Apollo",
"Robert Drews",
"Open vowel",
"Marcus Terentius Varro",
"pronouns",
"inflection",
"Gallia Narbonensis",
"Phrygians",
"Pre-Indo-European languages",
"grammatical number",
"Divination",
"Semitic languages",
"Camars",
"Etruria",
"Sicily",
"dative case",
"Italy",
"Veii",
"person",
"Uralic languages",
"tumulus",
"Emilia-Romagna",
"Herodotus",
"Palatal consonant",
"Po Valley",
"Anatolia",
"Etruscan origins",
"English language",
"Plautia Urgulanilla",
"Balkans",
"Eteocypriot language",
"Nominative case",
"Latin",
"eastern Alps",
"Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis",
"Dung beetle",
"arena",
"Ancient Greek religion",
"noun class",
"Etruscan mythology",
"votive",
"language isolate",
"Indo-European languages",
"Roundedness",
"Aulus Gellius",
"Carlo De Simone (linguist)",
"Palestrina",
"Plosive consonant",
"Altaic languages",
"Germanic languages"
] |
9,457 |
Election
|
An election is a formal group decision-making process whereby a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold public office.
Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has operated since the 17th century. Elections may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the executive and judiciary, and for regional and local government. This process is also used in many other private and business organisations, from clubs to voluntary associations and corporations.
The global use of elections as a tool for selecting representatives in modern representative democracies is in contrast with the practice in the democratic archetype, ancient Athens, where the elections were considered an oligarchic institution and most political offices were filled using sortition, also known as allotment, by which officeholders were chosen by lot.
The Pala King Gopala (ruled – 770s CE) in early medieval Bengal was elected by a group of feudal chieftains. Such elections were quite common in contemporary societies of the region. In the Chola Empire, around 920 CE, in Uthiramerur (in present-day Tamil Nadu), palm leaves were used for selecting the village committee members. The leaves, with candidate names written on them, were put inside a mud pot. To select the committee members, a young boy was asked to take out as many leaves as the number of positions available. This was known as the Kudavolai system.
The first recorded popular elections of officials to public office, by majority vote, where all citizens were eligible both to vote and to hold public office, date back to the Ephors of Sparta in 754 BC, under the mixed government of the Spartan Constitution. Athenian democratic elections, where all citizens could hold public office, were not introduced for another 247 years, until the reforms of Cleisthenes. Under the earlier Solonian Constitution (), all Athenian citizens were eligible to vote in the popular assemblies, on matters of law and policy, and as jurors, but only the three highest classes of citizens could vote in elections. Nor were the lowest of the four classes of Athenian citizens (as defined by the extent of their wealth and property, rather than by birth) eligible to hold public office, through the reforms of Solon. The Spartan election of the Ephors, therefore, also predates the reforms of Solon in Athens by approximately 180 years.
Questions of suffrage, especially suffrage for minority groups, have dominated the history of elections. Males, the dominant cultural group in North America and Europe, often dominated the electorate and continue to do so in many countries. In many places, an election to the government is usually a competition among people who have already won a primary election within a political party. Elections within corporations and other organizations often use procedures and rules that are similar to those of governmental elections.
==Electorate==
===Suffrage===
The question of who may vote is a central issue in elections. The electorate does not generally include the entire population; for example, many countries prohibit those who are under the age of majority from voting. All jurisdictions require a minimum age for voting.
In Australia, Aboriginal people were not given the right to vote until 1962 (see 1967 referendum entry) and in 2010 the federal government removed the rights of prisoners serving for three years or more to vote (a large proportion of whom were Aboriginal Australians).
Suffrage is typically only for citizens of the country, though further limits may be imposed.
In the European Union, one can vote in municipal elections if one lives in the municipality and is an EU citizen; the nationality of the country of residence is not required.
In some countries, voting is required by law. Eligible voters may be subject to punitive measures such as a fine for not casting a vote. In Western Australia, the penalty for a first time offender failing to vote is a $20.00 fine, which increases to $50.00 if the offender refused to vote prior.
===Voting population===
Historically the size of eligible voters, the electorate, was small having the size of groups or communities of privileged men like aristocrats and men of a city (citizens).
With the growth of the number of people with bourgeois citizen rights outside of cities, expanding the term citizen, the electorates grew to numbers beyond the thousands.
Elections with an electorate in the hundred thousands appeared in the final decades of the Roman Republic, by extending voting rights to citizens outside of Rome with the Lex Julia of 90 BC, reaching an electorate of 910,000 and estimated voter turnout of maximum 10% in 70 BC, only again comparable in size to the first elections of the United States. At the same time the Kingdom of Great Britain had in 1780 about 214,000 eligible voters, 3% of the whole population. Naturalization can reshape the electorate of a country.
==Candidates==
A representative democracy requires a procedure to govern nomination for political office. In many cases, nomination for office is mediated through preselection processes in organized political parties.
Non-partisan systems tend to be different from partisan systems as concerns nominations. In a direct democracy, one type of non-partisan democracy, any eligible person can be nominated. Although elections were used in ancient Athens, in Rome, and in the selection of popes and Holy Roman emperors, the origins of elections in the contemporary world lie in the gradual emergence of representative government in Europe and North America beginning in the 17th century. In some systems no nominations take place at all, with voters free to choose any person at the time of voting—with some possible exceptions such as through a minimum age requirement—in the jurisdiction. In such cases, it is not required (or even possible) that the members of the electorate be familiar with all of the eligible persons, though such systems may involve indirect elections at larger geographic levels to ensure that some first-hand familiarity among potential electees can exist at these levels (i.e., among the elected delegates).
==Systems==
Electoral systems are the detailed constitutional arrangements and voting systems that convert the vote into a political decision.
The first step is for voters to cast the ballots, which may be simple single-choice ballots, but other types, such as multiple choice or ranked ballots may also be used. Then the votes are tallied, for which various vote counting systems may be used. and the voting system then determines the result on the basis of the tally. Most systems can be categorized as either proportional, majoritarian or mixed. Among the proportional systems, the most commonly used are party-list proportional representation (list PR) systems, among majoritarian are first-past-the-post electoral system (single winner plurality voting) and different methods of majority voting (such as the widely used two-round system). Mixed systems combine elements of both proportional and majoritarian methods, with some typically producing results closer to the former (mixed-member proportional) or the other (e.g. parallel voting).
Many countries have growing electoral reform movements, which advocate systems such as approval voting, single transferable vote, instant runoff voting or a Condorcet method; these methods are also gaining popularity for lesser elections in some countries where more important elections still use more traditional counting methods.
While openness and accountability are usually considered cornerstones of a democratic system, the act of casting a vote and the content of a voter's ballot are usually an important exception. The secret ballot is a relatively modern development, but it is now considered crucial in most free and fair elections, as it limits the effectiveness of intimidation.
==Campaigns==
When elections are called, politicians and their supporters attempt to influence policy by competing directly for the votes of constituents in what are called campaigns. Supporters for a campaign can be either formally organized or loosely affiliated, and frequently utilize campaign advertising. It is common for political scientists to attempt to predict elections via political forecasting methods.
The most expensive election campaign included US$7 billion spent on the 2012 United States presidential election and is followed by the US$5 billion spent on the 2014 Indian general election.
==Timing==
The nature of democracy is that elected officials are accountable to the people, and they must return to the voters at prescribed intervals to seek their mandate to continue in office. For that reason, most democratic constitutions provide that elections are held at fixed regular intervals. In the United States, elections for public offices are typically held between every two and six years in most states and at the federal level, with exceptions for elected judicial positions that may have longer terms of office. There is a variety of schedules, for example, presidents: the President of Ireland is elected every seven years, the President of Russia and the President of Finland every six years, the President of France every five years, President of the United States every four years.
Predetermined or fixed election dates have the advantage of fairness and predictability. They tend to greatly lengthen campaigns, and make dissolving the legislature (parliamentary system) more problematic if the date should happen to fall at a time when dissolution is inconvenient (e.g. when war breaks out). Other states (e.g., the United Kingdom) only set maximum time in office, and the executive decides exactly when within that limit it will actually go to the polls. In practice, this means the government remains in power for close to its full term, and chooses an election date it calculates to be in its best interests (unless something special happens, such as a motion of no-confidence). This calculation depends on a number of variables, such as its performance in opinion polls and the size of its majority.
Rolling elections are elections in which all representatives in a body are elected, but these elections are spread over a period of time rather than all at once. Examples are the presidential primaries in the United States, Elections to the European Parliament (where, due to differing election laws in each member state, elections are held on different days of the same week) and, due to logistics, general elections in Lebanon and India. The voting procedure in the Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic are also a classical example.
In rolling elections, voters have information about previous voters' choices. While in the first elections, there may be plenty of hopeful candidates, in the last rounds consensus on one winner is generally achieved. In today's context of rapid communication, candidates can put disproportionate resources into competing strongly in the first few stages, because those stages affect the reaction of latter stages.
==Undemocratic or unfair==
In many of the countries with weak rule of law, the most common reason why elections do not meet international standards of being "free and fair" is interference from the incumbent government. Dictators may use the powers of the executive (police, martial law, censorship, physical implementation of the election mechanism, etc.) to remain in power despite popular opinion in favour of removal. Members of a particular faction in a legislature may use the power of the majority or supermajority (passing criminal laws, and defining the electoral mechanisms including eligibility and district boundaries) to prevent the balance of power in the body from shifting to a rival faction due to an election.
===Lack of open political debate or an informed electorate===
The electorate may be poorly informed about issues or candidates due to lack of freedom of the press, lack of objectivity in the press due to state or corporate control, or lack of access to news and political media. Freedom of speech may be curtailed by the state, favouring certain viewpoints or state propaganda. Scheduling frequent elections can also lead to voter fatigue.
===Violation of political egalitarianism===
Gerrymandering, wasted votes and manipulating electoral thresholds can prevent that all votes count equally.
===Interference with campaigns===
Exclusion of opposition candidates from eligibility for office, needlessly high nomination rules on who may be a candidate, are some of the ways the structure of an election can be changed to favour a specific faction or candidate. Those in power may arrest or assassinate candidates, suppress or even criminalize campaigning, close campaign headquarters, harass or beat campaign workers, or intimidate voters with violence. Foreign electoral intervention can also occur, with the United States interfering between 1946 and 2000 in 81 elections and Russia or the Soviet Union in 36.
In 2018 the most intense interventions, utilizing false information, were by China in Taiwan and by Russia in Latvia; the next highest levels were in Bahrain, Qatar and Hungary.
===Tampering with mechanisms===
This can include falsifying voter instructions,
violation of the secret ballot, ballot stuffing, tampering with voting machines,
destruction of legitimately cast ballots,
voter suppression, voter registration fraud, failure to validate voter residency, fraudulent tabulation of results, and use of physical force or verbal intimation at polling places. Other examples include persuading candidates not to run, such as through blackmailing, bribery, intimidation or physical violence.
=== Shams ===
A sham election, or show election, is an election that is held purely for show; that is, without any significant political choice or real impact on the results of the election.
Sham elections are a common event in dictatorial regimes that feel the need to feign the appearance of public legitimacy. Published results usually show nearly 100% voter turnout and high support (typically at least 80%, and close to 100% in many cases) for the prescribed candidates or for the referendum choice that favours the political party in power. Dictatorial regimes can also organize sham elections with results simulating those that might be achieved in democratic countries.
Sometimes, only one government-approved candidate is allowed to run in sham elections with no opposition candidates allowed, or opposition candidates are arrested on false charges (or even without any charges) before the election to prevent them from running.
Ballots may contain only one "yes" option, or in the case of a simple "yes or no" question, security forces often persecute people who pick "no", thus encouraging them to pick the "yes" option. In other cases, those who vote receive stamps in their passport for doing so, while those who did not vote (and thus do not receive stamps) are persecuted as enemies of the people.
Sham elections can sometimes backfire against the party in power, especially if the regime believes they are popular enough to win without coercion, fraud or suppressing the opposition. The most famous example of this was the 1990 Myanmar general election, in which the government-sponsored National Unity Party suffered a landslide defeat by the opposition National League for Democracy and consequently, the results were annulled.
Examples of sham elections include: the 1929 and 1934 elections in Fascist Italy, the 1942 general election in Imperial Japan, those in Nazi Germany, East Germany other than the election in 1990, the 1940 elections of Stalinist "People's Parliaments" to legitimise the Soviet occupation of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, those in Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser, Anwar Sadat, Hosni Mubarak, and Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, those in Bangladesh under Sheikh Hasina, those in Russia under Vladimir Putin (including the 2014 Crimean status referendum, as well as the 2014 Donbas status referendums and the 2022 annexation referendum in Russian-occupied Ukraine), those in Syria under Hafez Al-Assad and his son Bashar Al-Assad, the 2018 and 2024 Venezuelan presidential election, the 1928, 1935, 1942, 1949, 1951 and 1958 elections in Portugal, those in Indonesia during New Order regime, the 1991 and 2019 Kazakh presidential elections, those in North Korea, the 1995 and 2002 presidential referendums in Saddam Hussein's Iraq.
In Mexico, all of the presidential elections from 1929 to 1982 are considered to be sham elections, as the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) and its predecessors governed the country in a de facto single-party system without serious opposition, and they won all of the presidential elections in that period with more than 70% of the vote. The first seriously competitive presidential election in modern Mexican history was that of 1988, in which for the first time the PRI candidate faced two strong opposition candidates, though it is believed that the government rigged the result. The first fair election was held in 1994, though the opposition did not win until 2000.
A predetermined conclusion is permanently established by the regime through suppression of the opposition, coercion of voters, vote rigging, reporting several votes received greater than the number of voters, outright lying, or some combination of these. In an extreme example, Charles D. B. King of Liberia was reported to have won by 234,000 votes in the 1927 general election, a "majority" that was over fifteen times larger than the number of eligible voters.
== Aristocratic ==
Some scholars argue that the predominance of elections in modern liberal democracies masks the fact that they are actually aristocratic selection mechanisms that deny each citizen an equal chance of holding public office. Such views were expressed as early as the time of Ancient Greece by Aristotle. These four factors result in the evaluation of candidates based on voters' partial standards of quality and social saliency (for example, skin colour and good looks). This leads to self-selection biases in candidate pools due to unobjective standards of treatment by voters and the costs (barriers to entry) associated with raising one's political profile. Ultimately, the result is the election of candidates who are superior (whether in actuality or as perceived within a cultural context) and objectively unlike the voters they are supposed to represent. Prior to the 18th century, some societies in Western Europe used sortition as a means to select rulers, a method which allowed regular citizens to exercise power, in keeping with understandings of democracy at the time. The idea of what constituted a legitimate government shifted in the 18th century to include consent, especially with the rise of the enlightenment. From this point onward, sortition fell out of favor as a mechanism for selecting rulers. On the other hand, elections began to be seen as a way for the masses to express popular consent repeatedly, resulting in the triumph of the electoral process until the present day.
This conceptual misunderstanding of elections as open and egalitarian when they are not innately so may thus be a root cause of the problems in contemporary governance. Those in favor of this view argue that the modern system of elections was never meant to give ordinary citizens the chance to exercise power - merely privileging their right to consent to those who rule. Therefore, the representatives that modern electoral systems select for are too disconnected, unresponsive, and elite-serving. To deal with this issue, various scholars have proposed alternative models of democracy, many of which include a return to sortition-based selection mechanisms. The extent to which sortition should be the dominant mode of selecting rulers remains a topic of debate.
|
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9,459 |
Enniskillen
|
Enniskillen ( , from , 'Ceithlenn's island') is the largest town in County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland. It is in the middle of the county, between the Upper and Lower sections of Lough Erne. It had a population of 14,086 at the 2011 Census.}}
The town's oldest building is Enniskillen Castle, built by Hugh (Maguire) the Hospitable who died in 1428. An earthwork, the Skonce on the shore of Lough Erne, may be the remains of an earlier motte. The castle was the stronghold of the junior branch of the Maguires. The first watergate was built around 1580 by Cú Chonnacht Maguire, though subsequent lowering of the level of the lough has left it without water. The strategic position of the castle made its capture important for the English in 1593, to support their plans for the control of Ulster. The castle was besieged three times in 1594–95. The English, led by a Captain Dowdall, captured it in February 1594. Maguire then laid siege to it, and defeated a relieving force at the Battle of the Ford of the Biscuits at Drumane Bridge on the Arney River. Although the defenders were relieved, Maguire gained possession of the castle from 1595 to 1598 and it was not finally captured by the English until 1607.
This was part of a wider campaign to bring the province of Ulster under English control; the final capture of Enniskillen Castle in 1607 was followed by the Plantation of Ulster, during which the lands of the native Irish were seized and handed over to planters loyal to the English Crown. The Maguires were supplanted by William Cole, originally from Devon, who was appointed by James I to build an English settlement there in 1612.
Captain Cole was installed as Constable and strengthened the castle wall and built a "fair house" on the old foundation as the centre point of the county town. The first Protestant parish church was erected on the hilltop in 1627. By 1630 the town had around 180 inhabitants, mostly comprising English and Scottish settlers. The Royal Free School of Fermanagh was moved onto the island in 1643. The first bridges were drawbridges; permanent bridges were not installed before 1688.
By 1689 the town had grown significantly. During the conflict which resulted from the ousting of King James II by his Protestant rival, William III, Enniskillen and Derry were the focus of Williamite resistance in Ireland, including the nearby Battle of Newtownbutler.
Enniskillen and Derry were the two garrisons in Ulster that were not wholly loyal to James II, and it was the last town to fall before the Siege of Derry. As a direct result of this conflict, Enniskillen developed not only as a market town but also as a garrison, which became home to two regiments.
The former site of Fermanagh College at Gaol Square (the college has now moved to the old Erne Hospital site) was the former Enniskillen Gaol. Many people were tried and hanged in the square during the times of public execution. Part of the old goal is still standing. Enniskillen Town Hall was designed by William Scott and completed in 1901.
=== Military history ===
Enniskillen is the site of the foundation of two British Army regiments:
Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
The Inniskillings (6th Dragoons)
The town's name (with the archaic spelling) continues to form part of the title to The Royal Irish Regiment (27th (Inniskilling) 83rd and 87th and Ulster Defence Regiment). Enniskillen Castle features on the cap badge of both regiments.
=== The Troubles ===
Enniskillen was the site of several events during The Troubles, the most notable being the Remembrance Day bombing in which 11 people were killed. Bill Clinton opened The Clinton Centre in 2002 on the site of the bombing. The Provisional Irish Republican Army claimed responsibility for the attack.
=== Alleged sexual abuse and assault ===
In 2019, at least nine men reported to the police and the press and said in public forums that, in the 1980s and 90s, when they were children, they were repeatedly molested and raped by a paedophile ring of at least 20 men in the Enniskillen area. Investigations are continuing.
== Demography ==
===2021 Census===
On Census day 2021 there were 14,086 people living in Enniskillen. Of these:
61.52% (8,666) belong to or were brought up in the Catholic Christian faith and 29.09% (4,097) belong to or were brought up in various 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' denominations. 2.2% (310) belong to other religions and 7.19% (1,013) had no religious background.
22.8% (3,212) indicated that they had a British only identity, 34.68% (4,885) had an Irish only identity and 26.4% (3,179) had a Northern Irish only identity (respondents could indicate more than one national identity)
===2011 Census===
On Census day (27 March 2011) there were 13,823 people living in Enniskillen (5,733 households), accounting for 0.76% of the NI total and representing an increase of 1.6% on the Census 2001 population of 13,599. Of these:
19.76% were aged under 16 years and 15.59% were aged 65 and over;
51.80% of the usually resident population were female and 48.20% were male;
61.62% belong to or were brought up in the Catholic Christian faith and 33.55% belong to or were brought up in various 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' denominations
35.59% indicated that they had a British national identity, 33.77% had an Irish national identity and 30.35% had a Northern Irish national identity (respondents could indicate more than one national identity)
39 years was the average (median) age of the population
13.03% had some knowledge of Irish (Gaelic) and 3.65% had some knowledge of Ulster-Scots
== Places of interest ==
===Churches===
There are four churches in the town centre. These are:
St. Macartin's Cathedral (Church of Ireland) - This church dates from 1840. It was built on the site of an earlier Plantation church.
St. Michael's Church (Catholic) - This church dates from 1875 although an earlier church on the site dates from 1803.
Enniskillen Methodist Church - This church opened in 1867. It has a Palladian facade.
Enniskillen Presbyterian Church - The current church was erected in 1897 although there is evidence of a building dating back to 1700.
There are several other churches outside the town centre.
===Historic Buildings===
Some of these buildings are outside the town.
Castle Coole
Colebrooke House, Brookeborough - eleven miles east of Enniskillen; built 1820
Cole's Monument
Enniskillen Castle
Enniskillen Town Hall
Enniskillen Courthouse - built 1785
Florence Court - eight miles outside Enniskillen; 18th century
Monea Castle
Portora Castle
The Regimental Museum of the Inniskilling Regiment
===Natural Phenomena===
The Marble Arch Caves
Cuilcagh Mountain Global Geo-Park
Lough Navar and the Cliffs of Magho
===Other===
Ardhowen Theatre
The Clinton Centre
The Round O
William Blake's pub - historic public house
==Gallery==
File:Enniskillen Castle by Paride.JPG|Enniskillen Castle
File:Enniskillen, Co. Fermanagh, late 19th century (7595791674).jpg|Enniskillen in the late 19th century
File:Enniskillen Registry Office - geograph.org.uk - 485072.jpg|Enniskillen Town Hall
File:Enniskillen St. Michael's Church NW 2012 09 17.jpg|St. Michael's Church, Enniskillen
File:Methodist Church, Enniskillen - geograph.org.uk - 1370358.jpg|Methodist Church, Enniskillen
File:Cole Monument at Fort Hill Park, Enniskillen - geograph.org.uk - 1361418.jpg|Cole's Monument, Enniskillen
File:Enniskillen Courthouse - geograph.org.uk - 928129.jpg|Enniskillen Courthouse
File:Portora Castle.jpg|Portora Castle
File:ArdhowenTheatre, Enniskillen - geograph.org.uk - 789403.jpg|ArdhowenTheatre, Enniskillen
File:William Blake Pub, Enniskillen - geograph.org.uk - 928131.jpg|William Blake Pub, Enniskillen
== Sports ==
===Association football===
As of season 2023/24, the town has five association football teams, Enniskillen Rangers, Enniskillen Town United F.C., Enniskillen Athletic, Enniskillen Galaxy and Enniskillen Rovers. Founded in 1953, Enniskillen Rangers are the oldest and most successful of these, having won the Irish Junior Cup five times, most recently in season 2023/24, when they defeated Cleary Celtic FC 2–0 in Stangmore Park, Dungannon, the Fermanagh & Western Division One title 19 times and the Mulhern Cup 16 times. They play their home games at The Ball Range.
Enniskillen Rangers have several notable former players including Sandy Fulton and Jim Cleary.
Enniskillen Town United F.C. currently play in the Fermanagh & Western 1st Division. Their most notable former player is Michael McGovern who won 32 senior caps for Northern Ireland and as of January 2024 was on loan at Livingston F.C. from parent club Heart of Midlothian F.C.. Enniskillen Town United F.C. currently play their home games at St Michael's GS Pavilion in Enniskillen.
===Rugby===
Enniskillen Rugby Football Club was founded in 1925 and plays its home games at Mullaghmeen. The club currently fields 4 senior men's teams, a senior ladies' team, a range of male and female youth teams, a vibrant mini section and a disability tag team called The Enniskillen Elks. Enniskillen XV won the Ulster Towns Cup in the 2018/19 season, defeating Ballyclare 19–0. The team currently play in Kukri Ulster Rugby Championship Division 1.
The rugby club was formed on 28 August 1925, when 37 attended a meeting in Enniskillen Town Hall. The name Enniskillen Rugby Club was agreed and the club adopted the rules of the Dublin University Football Club. The first match was played on 30 September 1925 against Ballyshannon in County Donegal.
===Gaelic games===
Enniskillen Gaels is a Gaelic Athletic Association club founded in 1927. It is based at Brewster Park, Enniskillen. The club has had success in both Gaelic football and hurling winning in both county and provincial competitions.
== International events ==
Enniskillen was the venue of the 39th G8 summit which was held on 17 and 18 June 2013. It was held at the Lough Erne Resort, a five-star hotel and golf resort on the shore of Lough Erne. The gathering was the biggest international diplomatic gathering ever held in Northern Ireland. Among the G8 leaders who attended were British Prime Minister David Cameron, United States President Barack Obama, German Chancellor Angela Merkel, and Russian President Vladimir Putin.
In the past, Enniskillen has hosted an array of international events, most notably stages of the World Waterski World Cup, annually from 2005 to 2007 at the Broadmeadow. Despite its success, Enniskillen was not chosen as a World Cup Stop for 2008.
In January 2009, Enniskillen hosted the ceremonial start of Rally Ireland 2009, the first stage of the WRC FIA World Rally Championship 2009 Calendar.
Enniskillen has hosted the Happy Days arts festival since 2012, which celebrates "the work and influence of Nobel Prize-winning writer Samuel Beckett" and is the "first annual, international, multi-arts festival to be held in Northern Ireland since the launch of the Ulster Bank Belfast Festival at Queen's in 1962".
== Notable natives and residents ==
===Arts and Media===
Samuel Beckett, playwright, educated at Portora Royal School
Nathan Carter, singer
Charles Duff, Irish author of books on language learning and other subjects
Adrian Dunbar, actor, born and brought up in Enniskillen
Nial Fulton, film and television producer, educated at Portora Royal School
Neil Hannon, lead singer/composer of the pop band The Divine Comedy, educated at Portora Royal School
Charles Lawson, most notable for playing Jim McDonald in Coronation Street
Lisa McHugh, country music singer; born in Glasgow, Scotland, she moved to Enniskillen as an adult.
Nigel McLoughlin, poet, editor of Iota poetry journal and Professor of Creativity and Poetics, University of Gloucestershire
Ciarán McMenamin, television actor and author
Frank Ormsby, poet
David Robinson, photographer and publisher, educated at Portora Royal School
William Scott, artist
Mick Softley singer and songwriter for Bob Dylan and Donovan, lived in the town at the time of his death
Joan Trimble, pianist and composer
Oscar Wilde, satirist and playwright, educated at Portora Royal School
===Business===
James Gamble, co-founder of Procter & Gamble, educated at Portora Royal School
===Medicine and Science===
Denis Burkitt, FRS, surgeon and epidemiologist
===Military===
Eric Bell, recipient of the Victoria Cross
Henry Hartigan, recipient of the Victoria Cross
James McGuire, recipient of the Victoria Cross
George Nurse, recipient of the Victoria Cross
===Politics===
Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster, brought up at the family's estate at Ely Lodge
Gordon Wilson, Irish senator and peace campaigner, who lived on Cooper Crescent
===Religion===
Edward Cooney, evangelist and early leader of the Cooneyite and Go-Preacher sects, educated at Portora Royal School
Edward Kernan, a Roman Catholic bishop
Henry Francis Lyte, hymn composer, most notably of "Abide with Me", educated at Portora Royal School
John McElroy (1782–1877), Jesuit priest, founder of Boston College
===Sports===
Robert Baloucoune, rugby union player, was born and grew up in Enniskillen, learned his rugby at Portora Royal School and made his international debut for Ireland in July 2021
Declan Burns, Irish kayaking athlete, three-time Irish Olympic representative and former World Superstars runner-up
Roy Carroll, goalkeeper who played for a number of professional clubs, most notably Manchester United F. C. and who was capped 45 times by Northern Ireland
Timothy Cathcart, rally driver
Harry Chatton, football player, from the 1920s and 1930s, who was a dual international for both the IFA and FAI Irish international teams
Jim Cleary, former Glentoran footballer and member of Northern Ireland's 1982 World Cup squad
William Emerson, football player who won 11 caps for Ireland between 1919 and 1923
Gordon Ferris, Northern Irish former heavyweight boxer who was both Irish and British champion in the early 1980s
Casey Howe, international footballer for the Northern Ireland Women's team
Frank Hoy, professional wrestler, was born in the town
Ted Keenan, record-breaking long-distance swimmer, inducted in 1984 into the Fort Lauderdale International Swimming Hall of Fame
Robert Kerr, Olympic 100m gold medalist in the 1908 Olympics for Canada
Kyle Lafferty, striker, professional football player for a number of clubs, most notably Rangers F. C., with 89 Northern Ireland international caps
Andrew Little, former professional football player and Northern Ireland international, educated at Portora Royal School
J. J. McCoy (rugby union), from nearby Monea, Jimmy first played rugby for Portora Royal School, Enniskillen
Michael McGovern, former Northern Ireland international goalkeeper, currently on loan to Livingston F. C. from parent club Heart of Midlothian F. C.
Kieran McKenna, football manager, appointed to take charge of Ipswich Town FC in December 2021
Harry Mercer, former player for Enniskillen Corinthians F.C. who, while with Linfield F.C., won a senior Ireland cap while still an amateur
Holly Nixon, former member of Portora Boat Club and World Champion oarswoman
Gavin Noble, Irish international triathlete, educated at Portora Royal School
Dick Rowley, football player who won six caps for Ireland between 1929 and 1931
== Education ==
There are numerous schools and colleges in and around the Enniskillen area, from primary level to secondary level, including some further education colleges such as the technical college.
=== Primary level ===
Enniskillen Integrated Primary school
Model primary school
Holy Trinity Primary School
Jones Memorial Primary School
Mullnaskea Primary School
=== Secondary level ===
Erne Integrated College
Devenish College
Enniskillen Royal Grammar School
Mount Lourdes Enniskillen; convent girls' grammar school
St Michael's College; boys' grammar school
St Fanchea's College
St Joseph's College
=== Colleges ===
Enniskillen Campus of the College of Agriculture, Food and Rural Enterprise (CAFRE)
Enniskillen Campus South West College
==Transport==
===Rail – historic===
Railway lines from Enniskillen railway station linked the town with Derry (Londonderry and Enniskillen Railway) from 1854, Dundalk (Irish North Western Railway) from 1861, Bundoran (Enniskillen and Bundoran Railway) from 1868 and Sligo from 1882. By 1883 the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) absorbed all the lines except the Sligo, Leitrim and Northern Counties Railway (SLNCR), which remained independent throughout its existence. In October 1957 the Government of Northern Ireland closed the GNR lines, which made it impossible for the SLNCR to continue and forced it to also close.
===Rail – current===
Today the nearest railway station to Enniskillen is Sligo station which is served by multiple trains to Dublin Connolly and is operated by Iarnród Éireann. The Dublin-Sligo railway line has a two-hourly service run by Iarnród Éireann. A connecting bus from Sligo via Manorhamilton to Enniskillen is operated by Bus Éireann.
===Bus===
Bus service to Enniskillen is provided by both Ulsterbus and Bus Éireann, from Enniskillen bus station. Number 261, 261b and X261 Goldline buses run from Belfast to Enniskillen. Bus Éireann Route 30 runs from Donegal to Dublin Airport/Dublin City via Enniskillen.
===Air===
Enniskillen has a World War II-era airport, Enniskillen/St Angelo Airport. The airport had scheduled flights in the past but now serves mainly private traffic.
===Road===
The town is on the main A4/N16 route linking Belfast and Sligo, and on the main Dublin to Ballyshannon route, the N3/A46/A509.
== Twinning ==
Enniskillen was originally twinned with Brackwede – a Bielefeld suburb – where the Inniskilling Dragoon Guards were stationed in the late 1950s when the twinning was initiated; however, this suburb was incorporated into Stadt Bielefeld in 1973, the city with which Enniskillen is now officially twinned.
Though the twinning arrangements are still operational, at a meeting of the Regeneration and Community Committee, in February 2018, it was agreed that the twinning arrangements would be formally terminated at the end of the Council term in June 2018. However, Fermanagh and Omagh District Council still have plans to send representatives to Brackwede for the 60th-anniversary celebrations of the twinning. Therefore, the future of the twinning is now somewhat unclear.
== Climate ==
Enniskillen has a maritime climate with a narrow range of temperatures and rainfall. The nearest official Met Office weather station for which online records are available is at Lough Navar Forest, about northwest of Enniskillen. Data has also more recently been collected from Enniskillen/St Angelo Airport, under north of the town centre, which should in time give a more accurate representation of the climate of the Enniskillen area.
The absolute maximum temperature is , recorded during July 2006. In an 'average' year, the warmest day is and only 2.4 days a year should rise to or above. The respective absolute maximum for St Angelo is
The absolute minimum temperature is , recorded during January 1984. In an 'average' year, the coldest night should fall to . Lough Navar is a frosty location, with some 76 air frosts recorded in a typical year. (mean maximum , mean minimum ), while the coldest month was December 2010, with a mean temperature of (mean maximum , mean minimum ).
Rainfall is high, averaging over 1500 mm. 212 days of the year report at least 1 mm of precipitation, ranging from 15 days during April, May and June, to 20 days in October, November, December, January and March.
The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate is "Cfb" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate).
|
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"39th G8 summit",
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"The Round O",
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"KNMI (institute)",
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"Monea castle",
"Vladimir Putin",
"Gordon Ferris",
"Linfield F.C."
] |
9,461 |
Eric Raymond (disambiguation)
|
Eric S. Raymond (born 1957) is an American computer programmer and author.
Eric Raymond may also refer to:
Eric Scott Raymond (born 1956), American flight instructor and glider pilot
Eric Raymond (Jem), a fictional character in the 1980s cartoon television show Jem
|
[
"Eric S. Raymond",
"Eric Scott Raymond",
"Eric Raymond (Jem)"
] |
9,467 |
Longest word in English
|
The identity of the longest word in English depends on the definition of "word" and of length.
Words may be derived naturally from the language's roots or formed by coinage and construction. Additionally, comparisons are complicated because place names may be considered words, technical terms may be arbitrarily long, and the addition of suffixes and prefixes may extend the length of words to create grammatically correct but unused or novel words. Different dictionaries include and omit different words.
The length of a word may also be understood in multiple ways. Most commonly, length is based on orthography (conventional spelling rules) and counting the number of written letters. Alternate, but less common, approaches include phonology (the spoken language) and the number of phonemes (sounds).
== Major dictionaries ==
The longest word in any of the major English language dictionaries is pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis (45 letters), a word that refers to a lung disease contracted from the inhalation of very fine silica particles, specifically from a volcano; medically, it is the same as silicosis. The word was deliberately coined to be the longest word in English, and has since been used in a close approximation of its originally intended meaning, lending at least some degree of validity to its claim.
The Oxford English Dictionary contains pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism (30 letters).
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary does not contain antidisestablishmentarianism (28 letters), as the editors found no widespread, sustained usage of the word in its original meaning. The longest word in that dictionary is electroencephalographically (27 letters).
The longest non-technical word in major dictionaries is floccinaucinihilipilification at 29 letters. Consisting of a series of Latin words meaning "nothing" and defined as "the act of estimating something as worthless"; its usage has been recorded as far back as 1741.
Ross Eckler has noted that most of the longest English words are not likely to occur in general text, meaning non-technical present-day text seen by casual readers, in which the author did not specifically intend to use an unusually long word. According to Eckler, the longest words likely to be encountered in general text are deinstitutionalisation (or deinstitutionalization) and counterrevolutionaries, with 22 letters each.
A computer study of over a million samples of normal English prose found that the longest word one is likely to encounter on an everyday basis is uncharacteristically, at 20 letters.
== Creations of long words ==
=== Coinages ===
In his play Assemblywomen (Ecclesiazousae), the ancient Greek comedic playwright Aristophanes created a word of 171 letters (183 in the transliteration below), which describes a dish by stringing together its ingredients:
Lopadotemachoselachogaleokranioleipsanodrimhypotrimmatosilphiokarabomelitokatakechymenokichlepikossyphophattoperisteralektryonoptekephalliokigklopeleiolagoiosiraiobaphetraganopterygon.
Henry Carey's farce Chrononhotonthologos (1743) holds the opening line: "Aldiborontiphoscophornio! Where left you Chrononhotonthologos?"
Thomas Love Peacock put these creations into the mouth of the phrenologist Mr. Cranium in his 1816 book Headlong Hall: osteosarchaematosplanchnochondroneuromuelous (44 characters) and osseocarnisanguineoviscericartilaginonervomedullary (51 characters).
James Joyce made up nine 100-letter words plus one 101-letter word in his novel Finnegans Wake, the most famous of which is Bababadalgharaghtakamminarronnkonnbronntonnerronntuonnthunntrovarrhounawnskawntoohoohoordenenthurnuk. Appearing on the first page, it allegedly represents the symbolic thunderclap associated with the fall of Adam and Eve. As it appears nowhere else except in reference to this passage, it is generally not accepted as a real word. Sylvia Plath made mention of it in her semi-autobiographical novel The Bell Jar, when the protagonist was reading Finnegans Wake.
"Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious", the 34-letter title of a song from the movie Mary Poppins, does appear in several dictionaries, but only as a proper noun defined in reference to the song title. The attributed meaning is "a word that you say when you don't know what to say." The idea and invention of the word is credited to songwriters Robert and Richard Sherman.
=== Agglutinative constructions ===
The English language permits the legitimate extension of existing words to serve new purposes by the addition of prefixes and suffixes. This is sometimes referred to as agglutinative construction. This process can create arbitrarily long words: for example, the prefixes pseudo (false, spurious) and anti (against, opposed to) can be added as many times as desired. More familiarly, the addition of numerous "great"s to a relative, such as "great-great-great-great-grandparent", can produce words of arbitrary length. In musical notation, an 8192nd note may be called a .
Antidisestablishmentarianism is the longest common example of a word formed by agglutinative construction.
=== Technical terms ===
A number of scientific naming schemes can be used to generate arbitrarily long words.
The IUPAC nomenclature for organic chemical compounds is open-ended, giving rise to the 189,819-letter chemical name Methionylthreonylleucine for the protein also known as titin, which is involved in striated muscle formation. In nature, DNA molecules can be much bigger than protein molecules and therefore potentially be referred to with much longer chemical names. For example, the wheat chromosome 3B contains almost 1 billion base pairs, so the sequence of one of its strands, if written out in full like Adenilyladenilylguanilylcystidyl, would be about 8billion letters long. The longest published word, Acetylseryltyrosylseryl, referring to the coat protein of a certain strain of tobacco mosaic virus (), is 1,185 letters long, and appeared in the American Chemical Society's Chemical Abstracts Service in 1964 and 1966. In 1965, the Chemical Abstracts Service overhauled its naming system and started discouraging excessively long names. In 2011, a dictionary broke this record with a 1909-letter word describing the trpA protein ().
is sometimes cited as the longest binomial name—it is a kind of amphipod. However, this name, proposed by B. Dybowski, was invalidated by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature in 1929 after being petitioned by Mary J. Rathbun to take up the case.
Myxococcus llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogochensis is the longest accepted binomial name for an organism. It is a bacterium found in soil collected at Llanfairpwllgwyngyll (discussed below). Parastratiosphecomyia stratiosphecomyioides is the longest accepted binomial name for any animal, or any organism visible with the naked eye. It is a species of soldier fly. The genus name Parapropalaehoplophorus (a fossil glyptodont, an extinct family of mammals related to armadillos) is two letters longer, but does not contain a similarly long species name.
, at 52 letters, describing the spa waters at Bath, England, is attributed to Dr. Edward Strother (1675–1737). The word is composed of the following elements:
Aequeo: equal (Latin, aequo)
Salino: containing salt (Latin, salinus)
Calcalino: calcium (Latin, calx)
Ceraceo: waxy (Latin, cera)
Aluminoso: alumina (Latin)
Cupreo: from "copper"
Vitriolic: resembling vitriol
== Notable long words ==
=== Place names ===
The longest officially recognized place name in an English-speaking country is Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateaturipukakapikimaungahoronukupokaiwhenuakitanatahu| (85 letters), which is a hill in New Zealand (see the signpost photo on this page). The name is in the Māori language. There are several variant spellings of the name, including some that are longer. In Māori, the digraphs ng and wh are each treated as single letters.
In Canada, the longest place name is Dysart, Dudley, Harcourt, Guilford, Harburn, Bruton, Havelock, Eyre and Clyde, a township in Ontario, at 61 letters or 68 non-space characters.
The 58-letter name Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch is the name of a town on Anglesey, an island of Wales. In terms of the traditional Welsh alphabet, the name is only 51 letters long, as certain digraphs in Welsh are considered as single letters, for instance ll, ng and ch. It is generally agreed, however, that this invented name, adopted in the mid-19th century, was contrived solely to be the longest name of any town in Britain. The official name of the place is Llanfairpwllgwyngyll, commonly abbreviated to Llanfairpwll or Llanfair PG.
The longest non-contrived place name in the United Kingdom which is a single non-hyphenated word is Cottonshopeburnfoot (19 letters) and the longest which is hyphenated is Sutton-under-Whitestonecliffe (29 characters).
The longest place name in the United States (45 letters) is , a lake in Webster, Massachusetts. It means "Fishing Place at the Boundaries – Neutral Meeting Grounds" and is sometimes facetiously translated as "you fish your side of the water, I fish my side of the water, nobody fishes the middle". The lake is also known as Webster Lake. The longest hyphenated names in the U.S. are Winchester-on-the-Severn, a town in Maryland, and Washington-on-the-Brazos, a notable place in Texas history. The longest single-word town names in the U.S. are Kleinfeltersville, Pennsylvania and Mooselookmeguntic, Maine.
The longest official geographical name in Australia is Mamungkukumpurangkuntjunya Hill|. It has 26 letters and is a Pitjantjatjara word meaning "where the Devil urinates".
Liechtenstein is the longest single-word country name in English, and the second-longest is Turkmenistan.
=== Personal names ===
Guinness World Records formerly contained a category for longest personal name used.
From about 1975 to 1985, the recordholder was Adolph Blaine Charles David Earl Frederick Gerald Hubert Irvin John Kenneth Lloyd Martin Nero Oliver Paul Quincy Randolph Sherman Thomas Uncas Victor William Xerxes Yancy Zeus Senior (746 letters), also known as Wolfe+585, Senior.
After 1985 Guinness briefly awarded the record to a newborn girl with a longer name. The category was removed shortly afterward.
Long birth names are often coined in protest of naming laws or for other personal reasons.
The naming law in Sweden was challenged by parents Lasse Diding and Elisabeth Hallin, who proposed the given name "Brfxxccxxmnpcccclllmmnprxvclmnckssqlbb11116" for their child (pronounced , 43 characters), which was rejected by a district court in Halmstad, southern Sweden.
=== Words with certain characteristics of notable length ===
Schmaltzed and strengthed (10 letters) appear to be the longest monosyllabic words recorded in The Oxford English Dictionary, while scraunched and scroonched appear to be the longest monosyllabic words recorded in Webster's Third New International Dictionary; but squirrelled (11 letters) is the longest if pronounced as one syllable only (as permitted in The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary at squirrel, and in Longman Pronunciation Dictionary). Schtroumpfed (12 letters) was coined by Umberto Eco, while broughammed (11 letters) was coined by William Harmon after broughamed (10 letters) was coined by George Bernard Shaw.
Strengths is the longest word in the English language containing only one vowel letter.
Euouae, a medieval musical term, is the longest English word consisting only of vowels, and the word with the most consecutive vowels. However, the "word" itself is simply a mnemonic consisting of the vowels to be sung in the phrase "seculorum Amen" at the end of the lesser doxology. (Although u was often used interchangeably with v, and the variant "Evovae" is occasionally used, the v in these cases would still be a vowel.)
The longest words with no repeated letters are subdermatoglyphic, dermatoglyphics, and uncopyrightable.
The longest word whose letters are in alphabetical order is the eight-letter Aegilops, a grass genus. However, this is arguably a proper noun. There are several six-letter English words with their letters in alphabetical order, including abhors, almost, begins, biopsy, chimps and chintz. and the more common but sometimes hyphenated sweaterdresses. Using the right hand alone, the longest word that can be typed is johnny-jump-up, or, excluding hyphens, monimolimnion and phyllophyllin.
The longest English word typable using only the top row of letters has 11 letters: rupturewort. The word teetertotter (used in North American English) is longer at 12 letters, although it is usually spelled with a hyphen.
The longest using only the middle row is shakalshas (10 letters). Nine-letter words include flagfalls; eight-letter words include galahads and alfalfas.
Since the bottom row contains no vowels, no standard words can be formed.
The longest word typable by alternating left and right hands is antiskepticism. Other such long words are papaya, Kikuyu, opaque, and upkeep. Kikuyu is typed entirely with the index finger, and so the longest one-fingered word on the Dvorak keyboard. There are no vowels on the right-hand side, and so the longest "right-handed" word is crwths.
The word that has the most consecutive letters that are shared on a phone keyboard is nonmonotonic.
|
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"counterrevolutionaries",
"longest word",
"Chargoggagoggmanchauggagoggchaubunagungamaugg",
"Ascender (typography)",
"Longest word in Turkish",
"crwth",
"hyphen",
"Longest word in Spanish",
"wikt:dereverberated",
"Aegilops",
"methionylglutaminylarginyltyrosylglutamyl...serine",
"Aristophanes",
"armadillo",
"Mamungkukumpurangkuntjunya Hill",
"Thomas Love Peacock",
"List of the longest English words with one syllable",
"supercalifragilisticexpialidocious",
"personal name",
"Sesquipedalianism",
"Anglesey",
"Canada",
"Lopado...pterygon",
"orthography",
"Massachusetts",
"New Zealand",
"Dvorak Simplified Keyboard",
"Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious",
"Webster, Massachusetts",
"Sullivan's Island",
"Mary J. Rathbun",
"Pitjantjatjara language",
"deinstitutionalisation",
"agglutinative language",
"township",
"Merriam-Webster",
"Ancient Greek",
"Chrononhotonthologos",
"alumina",
"Lipogram",
"Donaudampfschiffahrtselektrizitätenhauptbetriebswerkbauunterbeamtengesellschaft",
"Washington-on-the-Brazos",
"glyptodont",
"wikt:dereverberates",
"wikt:floccinaucinihilipilification",
"wikt:Appendix:Protologisms/Long words/Titin",
"Mary Poppins (musical)",
"Dysart et al, Ontario",
"Descender",
"isogram",
"phonemes",
"The Dictionary Project",
"dictionaries",
"Mary Poppins (film)",
"Assemblywomen",
"Guinness Book of Records",
"monosyllabic",
"Liechtenstein",
"Cottonshopeburnfoot",
"A. Ross Eckler, Jr.",
"naming law in Sweden",
"Ontario",
"Parapropalaehoplophorus",
"Webster's Third New International Dictionary",
"Henry Carey (writer)",
"pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism",
"Webster's Dictionary",
"Palindrome",
"Turkmenistan",
"The Oxford English Dictionary",
"Longest word in Romanian",
"Welsh language",
"nonsense word",
"Māori language",
"Longest English sentence",
"George Bernard Shaw",
"Myxococcus llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogochensis",
"Mooselookmeguntic, Maine",
"Texas",
"Robert and Richard Sherman",
"Maryland",
"word",
"Longest word in French",
"Wales",
"Bath, Somerset",
"International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature",
"Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary",
"Letter (alphabet)",
"AskOxford.com",
"vitriol",
"Umberto Eco",
"Oxford English Dictionary",
"Non-monotonic logic",
"Mike McCurry (press secretary)",
"William Harmon",
"English language",
"Hot spring",
"Halmstad",
"wikt:aftercataracts",
"Sutton-under-Whitestonecliffe",
"E. coli",
"seesaw",
"musical notation",
"James Joyce",
"transliteration",
"Neologism",
"Jipijapa (disambiguation)",
"Parastratiosphecomyia stratiosphecomyioides",
"rotary tiller",
"Hubert Blaine Wolfeschlegelsteinhausenbergerdorff Sr.",
"Bill Clinton",
"nonce word",
"Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch",
"Telephone keypad",
"IUPAC",
"List of long species names",
"the Devil",
"Tryptophan synthase",
"Lopadotemachoselachogaleokranioleipsanodrimhypotrimmatosilphiokarabomelitokatakechymenokichlepikossyphophattoperisteralektryonoptekephalliokigklopeleiolagoiosiraiobaphetraganopterygon",
"honorificabilitudinitatibus",
"Silicon dioxide",
"agglutinative",
"Sylvia Plath",
"Landon Curt Noll",
"medieval",
"silicosis",
"Robert Byrd",
"Headlong Hall",
"amphipod",
"Long and short scales",
"Shakespeare",
"mnemonic",
"QWERTY",
"The Bell Jar",
"Euouae",
"Adam and Eve",
"peekapoo",
"phonology"
] |
9,469 |
Eric S. Raymond
|
Eric Steven Raymond (born December 4, 1957), often referred to as ESR, is an American software developer, open-source software advocate, and author of the 1997 essay and 1999 book The Cathedral and the Bazaar. He wrote a guidebook for the Roguelike game NetHack.
== Early life ==
Raymond was born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1957, and lived in Venezuela as a child. His family moved to Pennsylvania in 1971. He developed cerebral palsy at birth; his weakened physical condition motivated him to go into computing.
==Career==
Raymond began his programming career writing proprietary software, between 1980 and 1985. In 1990, noting that the Jargon File had not been maintained since about 1983, he adopted it, but not without criticism; Paul Dourish maintains an archived original version of the Jargon File, because, he says, Raymond's updates "essentially destroyed what held it together."
In 1996, Raymond took over development of the open-source email software "popclient", renaming it to Fetchmail. Soon after this experience, in 1997, he wrote the essay "The Cathedral and the Bazaar", detailing his thoughts on open-source software development and why it should be done as openly as possible (the "bazaar" approach). The essay was based in part on his experience in developing Fetchmail. He first presented his thesis at the annual Linux Kongress on May 27, 1997. He later expanded the essay into a book, The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary, in 1999. The essay has been widely cited. The internal white paper by Frank Hecker that led to the release of the Mozilla (then Netscape) source code in 1998 cited The Cathedral and the Bazaar as "independent validation" of ideas proposed by Eric Hahn and Jamie Zawinski. Hahn would later describe the 1999 book as "clearly influential".
From the late 1990s onward, due in part to the popularity of his essay, Raymond became a prominent voice in the open source movement. He co-founded the Open Source Initiative (OSI) in 1998, taking on the self-appointed role of ambassador of open source to the press, business and public. He remains active in OSI, but stepped down as president of the initiative in February 2005. In early March 2020, he was removed from two Open Source Initiative mailing lists due to posts that violated the OSI's Code of Conduct.
In 1998, Raymond received and published a Microsoft document expressing worry about the quality of rival open-source software. He named this document, together with others subsequently leaked, "The Halloween Documents".
Between 2000 and 2002, he created Configuration Menu Language 2 (CML2), a source code configuration system; while originally intended for the Linux operating system, it was rejected by kernel developers. (Raymond attributed this rejection to "kernel list politics", but Linus Torvalds said in a 2007 mailing list post that as a matter of policy, the development team preferred more incremental changes.) Raymond's 2003 book The Art of Unix Programming discusses user tools for programming and other tasks.
Some versions of NetHack still include Raymond's guide. He has also contributed code and content to the free software video game The Battle for Wesnoth.
Raymond is the main developer of NTPsec, a "secure, hardened replacement" for the Unix utility NTP.
Raymond has written numerous open-source tools, including cvs-fast-export, a tool for exporting CVS repositories to Git fast-import streams, and "reposurgeon", a tool for exporting SVN repositories.
== Views on open source ==
Raymond coined an aphorism he dubbed Linus's law, inspired by Linus Torvalds: "Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow". It first appeared in his book The Cathedral and the Bazaar.
Raymond has refused to speculate on whether the "bazaar" development model could be applied to works such as books and music, saying that he does not want to "weaken the winning argument for open-sourcing software by tying it to a potential loser".
Raymond claims his method of promoting open-source software has been effective because he has used "a strategy of making rational, technical, utility-maximization arguments in which I explicitly disclaimed having any normative or moralizing agenda."
In a 2008 essay, he defended programmers' right to issue work under proprietary licenses: "I think that if a programmer wants to write a program and sell it, it's neither my business nor anyone else's but his customer's what the terms of sale are." In the same essay he described his own strong emotional response to proprietary software and negative experiences working as a software developer writing proprietary software. He has endorsed the open source firearms organization Defense Distributed, calling them "friends of freedom" and writing "I approve of any development that makes it more difficult for governments and criminals to monopolize the use of force. As 3D printers become less expensive and more ubiquitous, this could be a major step in the right direction."
In 2015, Raymond accused the Ada Initiative and other women in tech groups of attempting to entrap male open source leaders and accuse them of rape, saying "Try to avoid even being alone, ever, because there is a chance that a 'women in tech' advocacy group is going to try to collect your scalp".
Raymond has claimed that "Gays experimented with unfettered promiscuity in the 1970s and got AIDS as a consequence", and that "Police who react to a random black male behaving suspiciously who might be in the critical age range as though he is an near-imminent lethal threat, are being rational, not racist". A progressive campaign, "The Great Slate", was successful in raising funds for candidates in part by asking for contributions from tech workers in return for not posting similar quotes by Raymond. Matasano Security employee and Great Slate fundraiser Thomas Ptacek said, "I've been torturing Twitter with lurid Eric S. Raymond quotes for years. Every time I do, 20 people beg me to stop." It is estimated that, as of March 2018, over $30,000 has been raised in this way.
==Religious beliefs==
Raymond describes himself as neo-pagan.
|
[
"Pennsylvania",
"Richard Stallman",
"Configuration Menu Language",
"AIDS",
"software bug",
"Linus's law",
"Linucon",
"Git",
"Release early, release often",
"Jargon File",
"The Cathedral and the Bazaar",
"Linux Kongress",
"Libertarian Party (United States)",
"Linux kernel",
"Halloween Documents",
"Gna.org",
"Women in STEM fields",
"Massachusetts",
"cerebral palsy",
"Salon Media Group",
"NCC Group",
"Hacker ethic",
"Salon.com",
"Roguelike",
"software developer",
"computer programming",
"Concurrent Versions System",
"Linux Magazine",
"University of Pennsylvania",
"The Battle for Wesnoth",
"Revolution OS",
"honey trapping",
"NTPsec",
"The Art of Unix Programming",
"Network Time Protocol",
"open-source software development",
"open-source software",
"Boston, Massachusetts",
"Linus Torvalds",
"free software",
"Netscape (web browser)",
"Mozilla",
"Fetchmail",
"Halloween documents",
"male homosexuality",
"The Verge",
"free software movement",
"Software developer",
"Eric Hahn",
"NetHack",
"The New York Times",
"aphorism",
"Venezuela",
"proprietary software",
"Right to keep and bear arms",
"Free Software Foundation",
"neo-pagan",
"Homesteading the Noosphere",
"The Magic Cauldron (essay)",
"Defense Distributed",
"Apache Subversion",
"Jamie Zawinski",
"Paul Dourish",
"Open-source model",
"Boston",
"Open Source Initiative",
"Basic Books",
"Ada Initiative"
] |
9,471 |
Externalization (psychology)
|
Externalization is a term used in psychoanalytic theory which describes the tendency to project one's internal states onto the outside world. It is generally regarded as an unconscious defense mechanism, thus the person is unaware they are doing it. Externalization takes on a different meaning in narrative therapy, where the client is encouraged to externalize a problem in order to gain a new perspective on it.
==Psychoanalysis==
In Freudian psychology, externalization (or externalisation) is a defense mechanism by which an individual projects their own internal characteristics onto the outside world, particularly onto other people. For example, a patient who is overly argumentative might instead perceive others as argumentative and themselves as blameless.
Like other defense mechanisms, externalization can be a protection against anxiety and is, therefore, part of a healthy, normally functioning mind. However, if taken to excess, it can lead to the development of a neurosis.
==Narrative therapy==
Michael White states that the problem of the client is externalized, to alter the client's point of view.
== Neuroscience of externalization ==
Problems with self-regulation, including impulsivity, violence, sensation-seeking, and rule-breaking, are indicative of an externalizing risk pathway. A discrepancy exists between bottom-up reward-related circuitry, such as the ventral striatum, and top-down inhibitory control circuitry, which is located in the prefrontal cortex, linking externalizing behaviors. Externalization is often related to substance use disorders. In particular, alcohol use disorder is one of disorders that much externalization research has been dedicated to. Often, issues within the externalizing risk pathway, namely vulnerabilities in self-regulation, may impact the development of alcohol use disorder differently across stages of the addiction cycle. Likewise, marijuana use has been linked to an externalizing pathway that highlights aggressive and delinquent behavior. Another type of disorder that is linked to the externalizing pathway is Antisocial Personality Disorder due to its tendency to relate by lack of constraint. Much research has examined the similarities of antisocial personality disorder and substance use disorder in relation to externalizing behaviors.
|
[
"Sensation seeking",
"anxiety",
"American and British English spelling differences",
"alcohol use disorder",
"Freud",
"blame shifting",
"neurosis",
"defence mechanism",
"impulsivity",
"ventral striatum",
"substance use disorder",
"violence",
"psychological projection",
"Michael White (psychotherapist)",
"Point of view (philosophy)",
"prefrontal cortex",
"Internalization (psychology)"
] |
9,472 |
Euro
|
The euro (symbol: €; currency code: EUR) is the official currency of 20 of the member states of the European Union. This group of states is officially known as the euro area or, more commonly, the eurozone. The euro is divided into 100 euro cents.
The currency is also used officially by the institutions of the European Union, by four European microstates that are not EU members, It is the second-largest reserve currency as well as the second-most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. with more than €1.3 trillion in circulation, the euro has one of the highest combined values of banknotes and coins in circulation in the world.
The name euro was officially adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world financial markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999, replacing the former European Currency Unit (ECU) at a ratio of 1:1 (US$1.1743 at the time). Physical euro coins and banknotes entered into circulation on 1 January 2002, making it the day-to-day operating currency of its original members, and by March 2002 it had completely replaced the former currencies.
Between December 1999 and December 2002, the euro traded below the US dollar, but has since traded near parity with or above the US dollar, peaking at US$1.60 on 18 July 2008 and since then returning near to its original issue rate. On 13 July 2022, the two currencies hit parity for the first time in nearly two decades due in part to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Then, in September 2022, the US dollar again had a face value higher than the Euro, at around US dollar 0.95 per euro.
==Characteristics==
===Administration===
The euro is managed and administered by the European Central Bank and the Eurosystem, composed of the central banks of the eurozone countries. As an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of euro banknotes and coins in all member states, and the operation of the eurozone payment systems.
Through their ratification of the 1992 Maastricht Treaty (or subsequent treaties of accession), most EU member states commited to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, although not all participating states have done so. Denmark has negotiated exemptions, while Sweden (which joined the EU in 1995, after the Maastricht Treaty was signed) turned down the euro in a 2003 non-binding referendum, and has circumvented its commitment to adopt the euro by not meeting the monetary and budgetary requirements. All nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. The Maastricht Treaty was amended by the 2001 Treaty of Nice, which closed the gaps and loopholes in the Maastricht and Rome Treaties.
==Countries that use the euro==
The euro is the official currency of 43 countries and territories:
===Eurozone members===
The 20 participating members are:
===Special territories of members of the European Economic Area===
EU Outermost Regions:
Martinique
Overseas Territories:
Saint Barthélemy
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Special Autonomous Territories:
Mount Athos
===Other users===
Microstates with a monetary agreement:
British Overseas Territory:
Unilateral adopters:
==EU members not using the euro ==
=== Committed to adopt the euro ===
The following six EU member states, representing 95 million people, committed themselves in their respective Treaty of Accession to adopt the euro. However they do not have a deadline to do so and can delay the process by deliberately not complying with the convergence criteria (such as by not meeting the convergence criteria to join ERM II). Bulgaria and Romania are actively working to adopt the euro, while the four remaining states do not have a migration plan in progress.
: The Bulgarian government aims to replace the Bulgarian lev with the euro by 2026. In November 2023, Bulgarian euro coin design has been revealed and approved by the Bulgarian National Bank.
===Opt-outs===
The Maastricht Treaty of 1992 included protocols on Denmark and the United Kingdom, giving them opt-outs with the right to decide if and when they would adopt the euro.
: The government of Denmark negotiated an opt-out to retain usage of the Danish krone.
: Prior to its withdrawal from the European Union in 2020, the United Kingdom negotiated an opt-out to retain usage of Sterling.
==Coins and banknotes==
===Coins===
The euro is divided into 100 cents (also referred to as euro cents, especially when distinguishing them from other currencies, and referred to as such on the common side of all cent coins). In Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are used, with many local variations such as centime in France.
All circulating coins have a common side showing the denomination or value, and a map in the background. Due to the linguistic plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used (as opposed to the less common Greek or Cyrillic) and Arabic numerals (other text is used on national sides in national languages, but other text on the common side is avoided). For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, the map only showed the 15 member states of the union as of 2002. Beginning in 2007 or 2008 (depending on the country), the old map was replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the EU. The 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, however, keep their old design, showing a geographical map of Europe with the EU member states as of 2002, raised somewhat above the rest of the map. All common sides were designed by Luc Luycx. The coins also have a national side showing an image specifically chosen by the country that issued the coin. Euro coins from any member state may be freely used in any nation that has adopted the euro.
The coins are issued in denominations of €2, €1, 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c. To avoid the use of the two smallest coins, some cash transactions are rounded to the nearest five cents in the Netherlands and Ireland (by voluntary agreement) and in Finland and Italy (by law). This practice is discouraged by the commission, as is the practice of certain shops of refusing to accept high-value euro notes.
Commemorative coins with €2 face value have been issued with changes to the design of the national side of the coin. These include both commonly issued coins, such as the €2 commemorative coin for the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of Rome, and nationally issued coins, such as the coin to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics issued by Greece. These coins are legal tender throughout the eurozone. Collector coins with various other denominations have been issued as well, but these are not intended for general circulation, and they are legal tender only in the member state that issued them.
====Coin minting====
A number of institutions are authorised to mint euro coins:
Bayerisches Hauptmünzamt (Mint mark: D)
Currency Centre
Real Casa de la Moneda
Hamburgische Münze (J)
Hrvatska kovnica novca
Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda
Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato
Koninklijke Munt van België/Monnaie Royale de Belgique
Koninklijke Nederlandse Munt
Lietuvos monetų kalykla
Mincovňa Kremnica
Monnaie de Paris
Münze Österreich
Suomen Rahapaja/Myntverket i Finland
Staatliche Münze Berlin (A)
Staatliche Münzen Baden-Württemberg (F): Stuttgart, (G): Karlsruhe
===Banknotes===
The design for the euro banknotes has common designs on both sides. The design was created by the Austrian designer Robert Kalina. Notes are issued in €500, €200, €100, €50, €20, €10, and €5. Each banknote has its own colour and is dedicated to an artistic period of European architecture. The front of the note features windows or gateways while the back has bridges, symbolising links between states in the union and with the future. While the designs are supposed to be devoid of any identifiable characteristics, the initial designs by Robert Kalina were of specific bridges, including the Rialto and the Pont de Neuilly, and were subsequently rendered more generic; the final designs still bear very close similarities to their specific prototypes; thus they are not truly generic. The monuments looked similar enough to different national monuments to please everyone.
The Europa series, or second series, consists of six denominations and no longer includes the €500 with issuance discontinued as of 27 April 2019. However, both the first and the second series of euro banknotes, including the €500, remain legal tender throughout the euro area.
====Issuing modalities for banknotes====
Since 1 January 2002, the national central banks (NCBs) and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8% of the total value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem.
====Banknote printing====
Member states are authorised to print or to commission bank note printing. , these are the printers:
Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato
Banco de Portugal
Bank of Greece
Bank of France
Bundesdruckerei
Central Bank of Ireland
De La Rue
Real Casa de la Moneda
François-Charles Oberthür
Giesecke+Devrient
Royal Joh. Enschedé
National Bank of Belgium
Oesterreichische Nationalbank
Setec Oy
===Payments clearing, electronic funds transfer===
Capital within the EU may be transferred in any amount from one state to another. All intra-Union transfers in euro are treated as domestic transactions and bear the corresponding domestic transfer costs. This includes all member states of the EU, even those outside the eurozone providing the transactions are carried out in euro. Credit/debit card charging and ATM withdrawals within the eurozone are also treated as domestic transactions; however paper-based payment orders, like cheques, have not been standardised so these are still domestic-based. The ECB has also set up a clearing system, T2 since March 2023, for large euro transactions.
==History==
===Introduction===
The euro was established by the provisions in the 1992 Maastricht Treaty. To participate in the currency, member states are meant to meet strict criteria, such as a budget deficit of less than 3% of their GDP, a debt ratio of less than 60% of GDP (both of which were ultimately widely flouted after introduction), low inflation, and interest rates close to the EU average. In the Maastricht Treaty, the United Kingdom and Denmark were granted exemptions per their request from moving to the stage of monetary union which resulted in the introduction of the euro (see also United Kingdom and the euro).
The name "euro" was officially adopted in Madrid on 16 December 1995.
Due to differences in national conventions for rounding and significant digits, all conversion between the national currencies had to be carried out using the process of triangulation via the euro. The definitive values of one euro in terms of the exchange rates at which the currency entered the euro are shown in the table.
The rates were determined by the Council of the European Union, based on a recommendation from the European Commission based on the market rates on 31 December 1998. They were set so that one European Currency Unit (ECU) would equal one euro. The European Currency Unit was an accounting unit used by the EU, based on the currencies of the member states; it was not a currency in its own right. They could not be set earlier, because the ECU depended on the closing exchange rate of the non-euro currencies (principally pound sterling) that day.
The procedure used to fix the conversion rate between the Greek drachma and the euro was different since the euro by then was already two years old. While the conversion rates for the initial eleven currencies were determined only hours before the euro was introduced, the conversion rate for the Greek drachma was fixed several months beforehand.
The currency was introduced in non-physical form (traveller's cheques, electronic transfers, banking, etc.) at midnight on 1 January 1999, when the national currencies of participating countries (the eurozone) ceased to exist independently. Their exchange rates were locked at fixed rates against each other. The euro thus became the successor to the European Currency Unit (ECU). The notes and coins for the old currencies, however, continued to be used as legal tender until new euro notes and coins were introduced on 1 January 2002.
The changeover period during which the former currencies' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, until 28 February 2002. The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state. The earliest date was in Germany, where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001, though the exchange period lasted for two months more. Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from several years to indefinitely (the latter for Austria, Germany, Ireland, Estonia and Latvia in banknotes and coins, and for Belgium, Luxembourg, Slovenia and Slovakia in banknotes only). The earliest coins to become non-convertible were the Portuguese escudos, which ceased to have monetary value after 31 December 2002, although banknotes remained exchangeable until 2022.
===Currency sign===
A special euro currency sign (€) was designed after a public survey had narrowed ten of the original thirty proposals down to two. The President of the European Commission at the time (Jacques Santer) and the European Commissioner with responsibility for the euro (Yves-Thibault de Silguy) then chose the winning design.
Regarding the symbol, the European Commission stated on behalf of the European Union:
The European Commission also specified a euro logo with exact proportions.
===Eurozone crisis===
Following the 2008 financial crisis, fears of a sovereign default developed in 2009 among investors concerning some European states, with the situation becoming particularly tense in early 2010. Greece was most acutely affected, but fellow Eurozone members Cyprus, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, and Spain were also significantly affected. All these countries used EU funds except Italy, which is a major donor to the EFSF. To be included in the eurozone, countries had to fulfil certain convergence criteria, but the meaningfulness of such criteria was diminished by the fact it was not enforced with the same level of strictness among countries.
According to the Economist Intelligence Unit in 2011, "[I]f the [euro area] is treated as a single entity, its [economic and fiscal] position looks no worse and in some respects, rather better than that of the US or the UK" and the budget deficit for the euro area as a whole is much lower and the euro area's government debt/GDP ratio of 86% in 2010 was about the same level as that of the United States. "Moreover", they write, "private-sector indebtedness across the euro area as a whole is markedly lower than in the highly leveraged Anglo-Saxon economies". The authors conclude that the crisis "is as much political as economic" and the result of the fact that the euro area lacks the support of "institutional paraphernalia (and mutual bonds of solidarity) of a state".
The crisis continued with S&P downgrading the credit rating of nine euro-area countries, including France, then downgrading the entire European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) fund.
A historical parallel – to 1931 when Germany was burdened with debt, unemployment and austerity while France and the United States were relatively strong creditors – gained attention in summer 2012 even as Germany received a debt-rating warning of its own.
==Direct and indirect usage==
===Agreed direct usage with minting rights===
The euro is the sole currency of 20 EU member states: Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain. These countries constitute the "eurozone", some 347 million people in total . According to bilateral agreements with the EU, the euro has also been designated as the sole and official currency in a further four European microstates awarded minting rights (Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City). All other EU member states (except Denmark, which has an opt-out), and any potential future members, are obliged to adopt the euro when economic conditions permit.
===Agreed direct usage without minting rights===
The euro is also the sole currency in three overseas territories of France that are not themselves part of the EU, namely Saint Barthélemy, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and the French Southern and Antarctic Lands, as well as in the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia.
===Unilateral direct usage===
The euro has been adopted unilaterally as the sole currency of Montenegro and Kosovo. It has also been used as a foreign trading currency in Cuba since 1998, Syria since 2006, and Venezuela since 2018. In 2009, Zimbabwe abandoned its local currency and introduced major global convertible currencies instead, including the euro and the United States dollar. The direct usage of the euro outside of the official framework of the EU affects nearly 3 million people.
===Currencies pegged to the euro===
Outside the eurozone, two EU member states have currencies that are pegged to the euro, which is a precondition to joining the eurozone. The Danish krone and Bulgarian lev are pegged due to their participation in the ERM II.
Additionally, a total of 22 countries and territories that do not belong to the EU have currencies that are directly pegged to the euro including 14 countries in mainland Africa (CFA franc), three African island countries (Comorian franc, Cape Verdean escudo and São Tomé and Príncipe dobra (since 1 January 2010)), three French Pacific territories (CFP franc) and two Balkan countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark) and North Macedonia (Macedonian denar). The Maltese scudo itself is pegged to the euro and is only recognised as legal tender within the Order.
The currency of a number of states is pegged to the euro. These states are:
North America
(Haitian gourde, )
Europe
(Albanian lek, )
(Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark, )
(Bulgarian lev, )
(Danish krone, )
(Macedonian denar, )
(Maltese scudo)
(Moldovan leu, )
(Romanian leu, )
(Serbian dinar, )
Oceania
(CFP franc, )
(CFP franc)
(CFP franc)
Africa
(Burundi franc, )
(Cape Verdean escudo, )
(Central African CFA franc, )
(Central African CFA franc)
(Central African CFA franc)
(Central African CFA franc)
(Central African CFA franc)
(Central African CFA franc)
(Comorian franc, )
(Congolese franc, )
(Djibouti franc, )
(Eritrean nakfa, )
(Ethiopian birr, )
(Gambian dalasi, )
(Guinean franc, )
(Malagasy ariary, )
(Mozambique metical, )
(Rwanda franc, )
(Sahrawi peseta)
(São Tomé and Príncipe dobra, )
(Sierra Leonean leone, )
(West African CFA franc, )
(West African CFA franc)
(West African CFA franc)
(West African CFA franc)
(West African CFA franc)
(West African CFA franc)
(West African CFA franc)
(West African CFA franc)
===Use as reserve currency===
Since its introduction in 1999, the euro has been the second most widely held international reserve currency after the U.S. dollar. The share of the euro as a reserve currency increased from 18% in 1999 to 27% in 2008. Over this period, the share held in U.S. dollar fell from 71% to 64% and that held in RMB fell from 6.4% to 3.3%. The euro inherited and built on the status of the Deutsche Mark as the second most important reserve currency. The euro remains underweight as a reserve currency in advanced economies while overweight in emerging and developing economies: according to the International Monetary Fund the total of euro held as a reserve in the world at the end of 2008 was equal to $1.1 trillion or €850 billion, with a share of 22% of all currency reserves in advanced economies, but a total of 31% of all currency reserves in emerging and developing economies.
The possibility of the euro becoming the first international reserve currency has been debated among economists. Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan gave his opinion in September 2007 that it was "absolutely conceivable that the euro will replace the US dollar as reserve currency, or will be traded as an equally important reserve currency". In contrast to Greenspan's 2007 assessment, the euro's increase in the share of the worldwide currency reserve basket has slowed considerably since 2007 and since the beginning of the worldwide credit crunch related recession and European sovereign-debt crisis. However, even before the creation of the single currency, there were concerns over diverging economies. Before the late-2000s recession it was considered unlikely that a state would leave the euro or the whole zone would collapse. However the Greek government-debt crisis led to former British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw claiming the eurozone could not last in its current form. Part of the problem seems to be the rules that were created when the euro was set up. John Lanchester, writing for The New Yorker, explains it:
Increasing business cycle divergence across the Eurozone over the last decades implies a decreasing Optimum Currency Area.
===Transaction costs and risks===
The most obvious benefit of adopting a single currency is to remove the cost of exchanging currency, theoretically allowing businesses and individuals to consummate previously unprofitable trades. For consumers, banks in the eurozone must charge the same for intra-member cross-border transactions as purely domestic transactions for electronic payments (e.g., credit cards, debit cards and cash machine withdrawals).
Financial markets on the continent are expected to be far more liquid and flexible than they were in the past. The reduction in cross-border transaction costs will allow larger banking firms to provide a wider array of banking services that can compete across and beyond the eurozone. However, although transaction costs were reduced, some studies have shown that risk aversion has increased during the last 40 years in the Eurozone.
===Price parity===
Another effect of the common European currency is that differences in prices—in particular in price levels—should decrease because of the law of one price. Differences in prices can trigger arbitrage, i.e., speculative trade in a commodity across borders purely to exploit the price differential. Therefore, prices on commonly traded goods are likely to converge, causing inflation in some regions and deflation in others during the transition. Some evidence of this has been observed in specific eurozone markets.
===Macroeconomic stability===
Before the introduction of the euro, some countries had successfully contained inflation, which was then seen as a major economic problem, by establishing largely independent central banks. One such bank was the Bundesbank in Germany; the European Central Bank was modelled on the Bundesbank.
The euro has come under criticism due to its regulation, lack of flexibility and rigidity towards sharing member states on issues such as nominal interest rates.
Many national and corporate bonds denominated in euro are significantly more liquid and have lower interest rates than was historically the case when denominated in national currencies. While increased liquidity may lower the nominal interest rate on the bond, denominating the bond in a currency with low levels of inflation arguably plays a much larger role. A credible commitment to low levels of inflation and a stable debt reduces the risk that the value of the debt will be eroded by higher levels of inflation or default in the future, allowing debt to be issued at a lower nominal interest rate.
There is also a cost in structurally keeping inflation lower than in the United States, United Kingdom, and China. The result is that seen from those countries, the euro has become expensive, making European products increasingly expensive for its largest importers; hence export from the eurozone becomes more difficult.
In general, those in Europe who own large amounts of euro are served by high stability and low inflation.
A monetary union means states in that union lose the main mechanism of recovery of their international competitiveness by weakening (depreciating) their currency. When wages become too high compared to productivity in the exports sector, then these exports become more expensive and they are crowded out from the market within a country and abroad. This drives the fall of employment and output in the exports sector and fall of trade and current account balances. Fall of output and employment in the tradable goods sector may be offset by the growth of non-exports sectors, especially in construction and services. Increased purchases abroad and negative current account balances can be financed without a problem as long as credit is cheap. The need to finance trade deficit weakens currency, making exports automatically more attractive in a country and abroad. A state in a monetary union cannot use weakening of currency to recover its international competitiveness. To achieve this a state has to reduce prices, including wages (deflation). This could result in high unemployment and lower incomes as it was during the European sovereign-debt crisis.
====Trade====
The euro increased price transparency and stimulated cross-border trade. A 2009 consensus from the studies of the introduction of the euro concluded that it has increased trade within the eurozone by 5% to 10%, and a meta-analysis of all available studies on the effect of introduction of the euro on increased trade suggests that the prevalence of positive estimates is caused by publication bias and that the underlying effect may be negligible. Although a more recent meta-analysis shows that publication bias decreases over time and that there are positive trade effects from the introduction of the euro, as long as results from before 2010 are taken into account. This may be because of the inclusion of the 2008 financial crisis and ongoing integration within the EU. Furthermore, older studies based on certain methods of analysis of main trends reflecting general cohesion policies in Europe that started before, and continue after implementing the common currency find no effect on trade. These results suggest that other policies aimed at European integration might be the source of observed increase in trade. According to Barry Eichengreen, studies disagree on the magnitude of the effect of the euro on trade, but they agree that it did have an effect. Regarding foreign direct investment, a study found that the intra-eurozone FDI stocks have increased by about 20% during the first four years of the EMU. Concerning the effect on corporate investment, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has resulted in an increase in investment rates and that it has made it easier for firms to access financing in Europe. The euro has most specifically stimulated investment in companies that come from countries that previously had weak currencies. A study found that the introduction of the euro accounts for 22% of the investment rate after 1998 in countries that previously had a weak currency.
====Inflation====
The introduction of the euro has led to extensive discussion about its possible effect on inflation. In the short term, there was a widespread impression in the population of the eurozone that the introduction of the euro had led to an increase in prices, but this impression was not confirmed by general indices of inflation and other studies. A study of this paradox found that this was due to an asymmetric effect of the introduction of the euro on prices: while it had no effect on most goods, it had an effect on cheap goods which have seen their price round up after the introduction of the euro. The study found that consumers based their beliefs on inflation of those cheap goods which are frequently purchased. It has also been suggested that the jump in small prices may be because prior to the introduction, retailers made fewer upward adjustments and waited for the introduction of the euro to do so. Based on the introduction of the euro as the official currency in Croatia in 2023, the ECB argues that inflation due to a change of currency is a one-time effect of limited impact.
====Exchange rate risk====
One of the advantages of the adoption of a common currency is the reduction of the risk associated with changes in currency exchange rates. These reductions in market risk "were concentrated in firms domiciled in the eurozone and in non-euro firms with a high fraction of foreign sales or assets in Europe".
====Financial integration====
The introduction of the euro increased financial integration within Europe, which helped stimulate growth of a European securities market (bond markets are characterized by economies of scale dynamics). Specifically, the euro has significantly decreased the cost of trade in bonds, equity, and banking assets within the eurozone. On a global level, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has led to an integration in terms of investment in bond portfolios, with eurozone countries lending and borrowing more between each other than with other countries. Financial integration made it cheaper for European companies to borrow. Following the 2008 financial crisis, governments in these countries found it necessary to bail out or nationalise their privately held banks to prevent systemic failure of the banking system when underlying hard or financial asset values were found to be grossly inflated and sometimes so nearly worthless there was no liquid market for them. This further increased the already high levels of public debt to a level the markets began to consider unsustainable, via increasing government bond interest rates, producing the ongoing European sovereign-debt crisis.
====Price convergence====
The evidence on the convergence of prices in the eurozone with the introduction of the euro is mixed. Several studies failed to find any evidence of convergence following the introduction of the euro after a phase of convergence in the early 1990s. Other studies have found evidence of price convergence, in particular for cars. A possible reason for the divergence between the different studies is that the processes of convergence may not have been linear, slowing down substantially between 2000 and 2003, and resurfacing after 2003 as suggested by a recent study (2009).
====Tourism====
A study suggests that the introduction of the euro has had a positive effect on the amount of tourist travel within the EMU, with an increase of 6.5%.
==Exchange rates==
===Flexible exchange rates===
The ECB targets interest rates rather than exchange rates and in general, does not intervene on the foreign exchange rate markets. This is because of the implications of the Mundell–Fleming model, which implies a central bank cannot (without capital controls) maintain interest rate and exchange rate targets simultaneously, because increasing the money supply results in a depreciation of the currency. In the years following the Single European Act, the EU has liberalised its capital markets and, as the ECB has inflation targeting as its monetary policy, the exchange-rate regime of the euro is floating.
===Against other major currencies===
The euro is the second-most widely held reserve currency after the U.S. dollar. After its introduction on 4 January 1999 its exchange rate against the other major currencies fell reaching its lowest exchange rates in 2000 (3 May vs sterling, 25 October vs the U.S. dollar, 26 October vs Japanese yen). Afterwards it regained and its exchange rate reached its historical highest point in 2008 (15 July vs US dollar, 23 July vs Japanese yen, 29 December vs sterling). With the onset of the 2008 financial crisis, the euro initially fell, to regain later. Despite pressure due to the European sovereign-debt crisis, the euro remained stable. In November 2011 the euro's exchange rate index – measured against currencies of the bloc's major trading partners – was trading almost two percent higher on the year, approximately at the same level as it was before the crisis began in 2007. In mid July 2022, the euro and the US dollar traded at par for a short period of time during an episode of dollar appreciation.
Current and historical exchange rates against 32 other currencies (European Central Bank): link
==Political considerations==
Besides the economic motivations to the introduction of the euro, its creation was also partly justified as a way to foster a closer sense of joint identity between European citizens. Statements about this goal were for instance made by Wim Duisenberg, European Central Bank Governor, in 1998, Laurent Fabius, French Finance Minister, in 2000, and Romano Prodi, President of the European Commission, in 2002. However, 15 years after the introduction of the euro, a study found no evidence that it has had any effect on a shared sense of European identity.
Public support of Euro by country according to Eurobarometer 2024:
==Euro in various official EU languages==
The formal titles of the currency are euro for the major unit and cent for the minor (one-hundredth) unit and for official use in most eurozone languages; according to the ECB, all languages should use the same spelling for the nominative singular. This may contradict normal rules for word formation in some languages.
Bulgaria has negotiated an exception; euro in the Bulgarian Cyrillic alphabet is spelled () and not () in all official documents. In the Greek script the term () is used; the Greek "cent" coins are denominated in (). Official practice for English-language EU legislation is to use the words euro and cent as both singular and plural, although the European Commission's Directorate-General for Translation states that the plural forms euros and cents should be used in English.
The word 'euro' is pronounced differently according to pronunciation rules in the individual languages applied; in German , in English , in French , etc.
In summary:
For local phonetics, cent, use of plural and amount formatting (€6,00 or 6.00 €), see Language and the euro.
|
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] |
9,474 |
European Central Bank
|
{{Infobox central bank
| native_name =
| logo = Logo European Central Bank.svg
| logo_size = 150px
| image = Europäische Zentralbank - European Central Bank (19190136328) (cropped).jpg
| caption = Seat in Frankfurt
| image_size =
| headquarters = Ostend district, Frankfurt, Germany
| coordinates =
| established =
| governance =
| key_people =
| currency = Euro (€)
| currency_iso = EUR
| reserves =
| reserve_requirements =
| borrowing_rate = 2.65% (main refinancing operations) It is one of the world's most important central banks with a balance sheet total of around 7 trillion.
The ECB Governing Council makes monetary policy for the Eurozone and the European Union, administers the foreign exchange reserves of EU member states, engages in foreign exchange operations, and defines the intermediate monetary objectives and key interest rate of the EU. The ECB Executive Board enforces the policies and decisions of the Governing Council, and may direct the national central banks when doing so. The ECB has the exclusive right to authorise the issuance of euro banknotes. Member states can issue euro coins, but the volume must be approved by the ECB beforehand. The bank also operates the T2 (RTGS) payments system.
The ECB was established by the Treaty of Amsterdam in May 1999 with the purpose of guaranteeing and maintaining price stability. On 1 December 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon became effective and the bank gained the official status of an EU institution. When the ECB was created, it covered a Eurozone of eleven members. Since then, Greece joined in January 2001, Slovenia in January 2007, Cyprus and Malta in January 2008, Slovakia in January 2009, Estonia in January 2011, Latvia in January 2014, Lithuania in January 2015 and Croatia in January 2023. The EMI was established at the start of the second stage of the EU's Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) to handle the transitional issues of states adopting the euro and prepare for the creation of the ECB and European System of Central Banks (ESCB).
The ECB formally replaced the EMI on 1 June 1998 by virtue of the Treaty on European Union (TEU, Treaty of Maastricht), however it did not exercise its full powers until the introduction of the euro on 1 January 1999, signalling the third stage of EMU. While Duisenberg had been the head of the EMI (taking over from Alexandre Lamfalussy of Belgium) just before the ECB came into existence, Tensions were abated by a gentleman's agreement in which Duisenberg would stand down before the end of his mandate, to be replaced by Trichet.
Trichet replaced Duisenberg as president in November 2003. Until 2007, the ECB had very successfully managed to maintain inflation close but below 2%.
=== Response to the financial crises (2008–2014) ===
The European Central Bank underwent through a deep internal transformation as it faced the 2008 financial crisis and the European debt crisis.
==== Early response to the Eurozone debt crisis ====
The so-called European debt crisis began after Greece's new elected government uncovered the real level indebtedness and budget deficit and warned EU institutions of the imminent danger of a Greek sovereign default.
Foreseeing a possible sovereign default in the eurozone, the general public, international and European institutions, and the financial community reassessed the economic situation and creditworthiness of some Eurozone member states. Consequently, sovereign bonds yields of several Eurozone countries started to rise sharply. This provoked a self-fulfilling panic on financial markets: the more Greek bonds yields rose, the more likely a default became possible, the more bond yields increased in turn.
This panic was also aggravated because of the reluctance of the ECB to react and intervene on sovereign bond markets for two reasons. First, because the ECB's legal framework normally forbids the purchase of sovereign bonds in the primary market (Article 123. TFEU), An over-interpretation of this limitation, inhibited the ECB from implementing quantitative easing like the Federal Reserve and the Bank of England did as soon as 2008, which played an important role in stabilizing markets.
Secondly, a decision by the ECB made in 2005 introduced a minimum credit rating (BBB-) for all Eurozone sovereign bonds to be eligible as collateral to the ECB's open market operations. This meant that if a private rating agencies were to downgrade a sovereign bond below that threshold, many banks would suddenly become illiquid because they would lose access to ECB refinancing operations. According to former member of the governing council of the ECB Athanasios Orphanides, this change in the ECB's collateral framework "planted the seed" of the euro crisis.
Faced with those regulatory constraints, the ECB led by Jean-Claude Trichet in 2010 was reluctant to intervene to calm down financial markets. Up until 6 May 2010, Trichet formally denied at several press conferences the possibility of the ECB to embark into sovereign bonds purchases, even though Greece, Ireland, Portugal, Spain and Italy faced waves of credit rating downgrades and increasing interest rate spreads.
==== Market interventions (2010–2011) ====
In a remarkable u-turn, the ECB announced on 10 May 2010, the launch of a "Securities Market Programme" (SMP) which involved the discretionary purchase of sovereign bonds in secondary markets. Extraordinarily, the decision was taken by the Governing Council during a teleconference call only three days after the ECB's usual meeting of 6 May (when Trichet still denied the possibility of purchasing sovereign bonds). The ECB justified this decision by the necessity to "address severe tensions in financial markets." The decision also coincided with the EU leaders decision of 10 May to establish the European Financial Stabilisation mechanism, which would serve as a crisis fighting fund to safeguard the euro area from future sovereign debt crisis.
Although at first limited to the debt of Greece, Ireland and Portugal, the bulk of the ECB's bond buying eventually consisted of Spanish and Italian debt. These purchases were intended to dampen international speculation against stressed countries, and thus avoid a contagion of the Greek crisis towards other Eurozone countries. The assumption—largely justified—was that speculative activity would decrease over time and the value of the assets increase.
Although SMP purchases did inject liquidity into financial markets, all of these injections were "sterilized" through weekly liquidity absorption. So the operation was net neutral in liquidity terms (though this was of little practical importance since normal monetary policy operations were ensuring unlimited supplies of liquidity at the main policy interest rate).
In September 2011, ECB's Board member Jürgen Stark, resigned in protest against the "Securities Market Programme" which involved the purchase of sovereign bonds from Southern member states, a move that he considered as equivalent to monetary financing, which is prohibited by the EU Treaty. The Financial Times Deutschland referred to this episode as "the end of the ECB as we know it", referring to its hitherto perceived "hawkish" stance on inflation and its historical Deutsche Bundesbank influence.
As of 18 June 2012, the ECB in total had spent €212.1bn (equal to 2.2% of the Eurozone GDP) for bond purchases covering outright debt, as part of the Securities Markets Programme. Controversially, the ECB made substantial profits out of SMP, which were largely redistributed to Eurozone countries. In 2013, the Eurogroup decided to refund those profits to Greece, however, the payments were suspended from 2014 until 2017 over the conflict between Yanis Varoufakis and ministers of the Eurogroup. In 2018, profits refunds were reinstalled by the Eurogroup. However, several NGOs complained that a substantial part of the ECB profits would never be refunded to Greece.
====Role in the Troika (2010–2015) ====
The ECB played a controversial role in the "Troika" by rejecting most forms of debt restructuring of public and bank debts, and pressing governments to adopt bailout programmes and structural reforms through secret letters to Italian, Spanish, Greek and Irish governments. It has further been accused of interfering in the Greek referendum of July 2015 by constraining liquidity to Greek commercial banks.
In November 2010, reflecting the huge increase in borrowing, including the cover the cost of having guaranteed the liabilities of banks, the cost of borrowing in the private financial markets had become prohibitive for the Irish government. Although it had deferred the cash cost of recapitalising the failing Anglo Irish Bank by nationalising it and issuing it with a "promissory note" (an IOU), the Government also faced a large deficit on its non-banking activities, and it therefore turned to the official sector for a loan to bridge the shortfall until its finances were credibly back on a sustainable footing. Meanwhile, Anglo used the promissory note as collateral for its emergency loan (ELA) from the Central Bank. This enabled Anglo to repay its depositors and bondholders.
It became clear later that the ECB played a key role in making sure the Irish government did not let Anglo default on its debts, to avoid financial instability risks. On 15 October and 6 November 2010, the ECB President Jean-Claude Trichet sent two secret letters to the Irish finance Minister which essentially informed the Irish government of the possible suspension of ELA's credit lines, unless the government requested a financial assistance programme to the Eurogroup under the condition of further reforms and fiscal consolidation.
In addition, the ECB insisted that no debt restructuring (or bail-in) should be applied to the nationalized banks' bondholders, a measure which could have saved Ireland 8 billion euros.
During 2012, the ECB pressed for an early end to the ELA, and this situation was resolved with the liquidation of the successor institution IBRC in February 2013. The promissory note was exchanged for much longer term marketable floating rate notes which were disposed of by the Central Bank over the following decade.
In April 2011, the ECB raised interest rates for the first time since 2008 from 1% to 1.25%, with a further increase to 1.50% in July 2011. However, in 2012–2013 the ECB sharply lowered interest rates to encourage economic growth, reaching the historically low 0.25% in November 2013. Soon after the rates were cut to 0.15%, then on 4 September 2014 the central bank reduced the rates by two-thirds from 0.15% to 0.05%. Recently, the interest rates were further reduced reaching 0.00%, the lowest rates on record. This change in leadership also marks the start of a new era under which the ECB will become more and more interventionist and eventually ended the Eurozone sovereign debt crisis.
Draghi's presidency started with the impressive launch of a new round of 1% interest loans with a term of three years (36 months) – the Long-term Refinancing operations (LTRO). Under this programme, 523 Banks tapped as much as €489.2 bn (US$640 bn). Observers were surprised by the volume of loans made when it was implemented. By far biggest amount of was tapped by banks in Greece, Ireland, Italy and Spain. Although those LTROs loans did not directly benefit EU governments, it effectively allowed banks to do a carry trade, by lending off the LTROs loans to governments with an interest margin. The operation also facilitated the rollover of of maturing bank debts in the first three months of 2012.
===== "Whatever it takes" (26 July 2012) =====
Facing renewed fears about sovereigns in the eurozone continued Mario Draghi made a decisive speech in London, by declaring that the ECB "...is ready to do whatever it takes to preserve the Euro. And believe me, it will be enough." In light of slow political progress on solving the eurozone crisis, Draghi's statement has been seen as a key turning point in the eurozone crisis, as it was immediately welcomed by European leaders, and led to a steady decline in bond yields for eurozone countries, in particular Spain, Italy and France.
Following up on Draghi's speech, on 6 September 2012 the ECB announced the Outright Monetary Transactions programme (OMT). Unlike the previous SMP programme, OMT has no ex-ante time or size limit. However, the activation of the purchases remains conditioned to the adherence by the benefitting country to an adjustment programme to the ESM. The program was adopted with near unanimity, the Bundesbank president Jens Weidmann being the sole member of the ECB's Governing Council to vote against it.
Even if OMT was never actually implemented until today, it made the "Whatever it takes" pledge credible and significantly contributed to stabilizing financial markets and ending the sovereign debt crisis. According to various sources, the OMT programme and "whatever it takes" speeches were made possible because EU leaders previously agreed to build the banking union.
=== Low inflation and quantitative easing (2015–2019) ===
In November 2014, the bank moved into its new premises, while the Eurotower building was dedicated to hosting the newly established supervisory activities of the ECB under European Banking Supervision.
Although the sovereign debt crisis was almost solved by 2014, the ECB started to face a repeated decline in the Eurozone inflation rate, indicating that the economy was going towards a deflation. Responding to this threat, the ECB announced on 4 September 2014 the launch of two bond buying purchases programmes: the Covered Bond Purchasing Programme (CBPP3) and Asset-Backed Securities Programme (ABSPP).
==== Asset Purchase programme (APP) ====
On 22 January 2015, the ECB announced an extension of those programmes within a full-fledge "quantitative easing" programme which also included sovereign bonds, to the tune of 60 billion euros per month up until at least September 2016. The programme was started on 9 March 2015.
On 8 June 2016, the ECB added corporate bonds to its asset purchases portfolio with the launch of the corporate sector purchase programme (CSPP). Under this programme, it conducted the net purchase of corporate bonds until January 2019 to reach about €177 billion. While the programme was halted for 11 months in January 2019, the ECB restarted net purchases in November 2019.
On May 5, 2020, the Court ordered the Bundestag and the Bundesregierung to ensure the ECB had carried out a proportionality assessment of the vast purchases of government debt in the Public Sector Purchase Programme (PSPP) to ensure the economic and fiscal policy effects do not outweigh its policy objectives. The PSPP-implementing decision has been considered an act ultra vires by the ECB as it was too arbitrary and lacks reasoning in ints proportionality assessment. This ruling by the German Constitutional Court comes at a difficult time for the ECB as it was at the time considering expanding the PEPP. The ruling also reflects the mistrust within some parts of Germany in the ECB, which is seen there as an institution that bails out profligate Southern European countries.
==== Long Term Refinancing Operations (LTRO) ====
The long term refinancing operations (LTRO) are regular open market operations providing financing to credit institutions for periods up to four years. They aim at favoring lending conditions to the private sector and more generally stimulating bank lending to the real economy, thereby fostering growth.
In December 2011 and January 2012, in the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis, the ECB implemented two LTROs, injecting over €1000 billion of liquidity in the Eurozone financial system. They were later criticized for their inability to revive growth and to help truly revive the real economy, despite having stabilized the Eurozone's financial institutions. Further, these operations were devoid of monitoring from the ECB regarding the use made of these liquidities purchasing sovereign bonds with higher rates and corresponding maturity to generate profits, instead of increasing private lending.
These critics and deficiencies brought the ECB to instigate targeted long term refinancing operations (TLTROs), first in September and later in December 2014. These complementary programs imposed conditionality on the LTROs. Under TLTRO III, the interest rate was set at -0.5% below the deposit facility rate (DFR), under condition that banks reached a specific lending performance threshold. The TLTRO III programme was successful to stimulate credit growth.
=== Christine Lagarde's era (2019 – ) ===
In July 2019, EU leaders nominated Christine Lagarde to replace Mario Draghi as ECB President. Lagarde resigned from her position as managing director of the International Monetary Fund in July 2019 and formally took over the ECB's presidency on 1 November 2019.
Lagarde immediately signalled a change of style in the ECB's leadership. She embarked the ECB on a strategic review of the ECB's monetary policy strategy, an exercise the ECB had not done for 17 years. As part of this exercise, Lagarde committed the ECB to look into how monetary policy could contribute to address climate change, and promised that "no stone would be left unturned." The ECB president also adopted a change of communication style, in particular in her use of social media to promote gender equality, and by opening dialogue with civil society stakeholders.
==== The ECB's response to COVID-19 pandemic ====
The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic precipitated an unprecedented crisis, profoundly impacting global public health, economies, and societal structures on an unparalleled scale. The crisis led to renewed tensions in European sovereign bonds markets, marked by a growing spreads between the interest rates paid by Eurozone member states, which spurred important concerns that the Eurozone couild be headed towards a new sovereign debt crisis.
On 12 March 2020, the ECB announced a set of policy measures such as an additional package of net asset purchases of €120 billion by the end of 2020 under the already existing APP, and more favorable terms on the TLTRO III. During the press conference, Christine Lagarde declared that the ECB "[...] is not here to close spreads." This particular statement triggered a sudden negative reaction on financial markets, with a widening of yield spreads in Spain, Italy and Greece.
===== Pandemic Emergency Purchase Programme (PEPP) =====
On 19 March 2020—less than one week after Lagarde's unfortunate statements on the spreads—the ECB announced by surprise the launch of the Pandemic Emergency Purchase Programme (PEPP) worth €750 billion to boost liquidity in the European economy and to contain any sharp increases in sovereign yield spreads. This announcement led to an immediate reboot in stock prices and came one day after the spike of sovereign risk spreads.
The PEPP was designed as a typical "quantitative easing" policy, under which the ECB is able to purchase securities from the private and public sector in a flexible manner. The purpose of the PEPP was to stabilize sovereign bonds yields to low and stable levels, thus preventing self-fulfilling panics in financial markets as was the case during the European debt crisis.
The PEPP was established as a separate purchase programme alongside the pre-existing Asset Purchase Programme (APP) with the sole purpose to respond to the economic and financial consequences of the COVID-19 crisis, and in particular prevent market fragmentations. While very similar, Contrary to the APP, the ECB decided to allow itself to deviate from the capital key. This temporal flexibility from the capital key meant that the ECB could more effectively prevent the rise of Italian and Spanish yield spreads.
Assets meeting the eligibility criteria of the APP were also eligible under the PEPP. However, the pool of assets eligible under the PEPP was broader than the usual ECB collateral eligibility framework. This waiver was given based on several considerations from the ECB: there was a need to alleviate the pressures stemming from the pandemic on the Greek financial markets; Greece was already and would be closely monitored by giving the waiver; and Greece regained market access. Non-financial commercial paper with a remaining maturity of at least 28 days were also eligible for purchase under the PEPP.
On 4 June 2020, the ECB announced it would expand the PEPP by another €600 billion, as it became clear that the pandemic would continue to harm European economies.
In December 2021 the ECB announced that it would discontinue net purchases under the PEPP as from the end of March 2022 and that it intended to reinvest the principal payments from maturing securities at least until the end of 2024.On 31 March 2022, at the end of the net purchases, the net purchases amounted to €1.718 billion, of which €1.665 billion is invested in public sector securities and €52 billion in private sector securities. Of the total €1.850 billion available under the PEPP, 93% of the full envelope wase used, due to indications of decreased financial stress in the Euro Area, mainly thanks to relaxation of COVID restrictions and the reopening of European markets.
====General Council====
The General Council is a body dealing with transitional issues of euro adoption, for example, fixing the exchange rates of currencies being replaced by the euro (continuing the tasks of the former EMI).
====Supervisory Board====
The ECB Supervisory Board meets twice a month to discuss, plan and carry out the ECB's supervisory tasks. It proposes draft decisions to the Governing Council under the non-objection procedure. It is composed of Chair (appointed for a non-renewable term of five years), Vice-chair (chosen from among the members of the ECB's executive board) four ECB representatives and representatives of national supervisors. If the national supervisory authority designated by a Member State is not a national central bank (NCB), the representative of the competent authority can be accompanied by a representative from their NCB. In such cases, the representatives are together considered as one member for the purposes of the voting procedure. and the initial capital allocation key was determined in 1998 on the basis of the member states' populations and GDP, but the key is adjustable. The euro area NCBs were required to pay their respective subscriptions to the ECB's capital in full. The NCBs of the non-participating countries have had to pay 7% of their respective subscriptions to the ECB's capital as a contribution to the operational costs of the ECB. As a result, the ECB was endowed with an initial capital of just under €4 billion. The capital is held by the national central banks of the member states as shareholders. Shares in the ECB are not transferable and cannot be used as collateral. The NCBs are the sole subscribers to and holders of the capital of the ECB.
Today, ECB capital is about €11 billion, which is held by the national central banks of the member states as shareholders.
===Reserves===
In addition to capital subscriptions, the NCBs of the member states participating in the euro area provided the ECB with foreign reserve assets equivalent to around €40 billion. The contributions of each NCB is in proportion to its share in the ECB's subscribed capital, while in return each NCB is credited by the ECB with a claim in euro equivalent to its contribution. 15% of the contributions was made in gold, and the remaining 85% in US dollars and UK pounds sterling.
===Languages===
The internal working language of the ECB is English, and press conferences are held in English. External communications are handled flexibly: English is preferred (though not exclusively) for communication within the ESCB (i.e. with other central banks) and with financial markets; communication with other national bodies and with EU citizens is normally in their respective language, but the ECB website is predominantly English; official documents such as the Annual Report are in the official languages of the EU (generally English, German and French).
In 2022, the ECB publishes for the first time details on the nationality of its staff, revealing an over-representation of Germans and Italians along the ECB employees, including in management positions.
===Independence===
The European Central Bank (and by extension, the Eurosystem) is often considered as the "most independent central bank in the world". In general terms, this means that the Eurosystem tasks and policies can be discussed, designed, decided and implemented in full autonomy, without pressure or need for instructions from any external body. The main justification for the ECB's independence is that such an institutional setup assists the maintenance of price stability.
In practice, the ECB's independence is pinned by four key principles:
Operational and legal independence: the ECB has all required competences to achieve its price stability mandate and thereby can steer monetary policy in full autonomy and by means of high level of discretion. The ECB's governing council deliberates with a high degree of secrecy, since individual voting records are not disclosed to the public (leading to suspicions that Governing Council members are voting along national lines.) In addition to monetary policy decisions, the ECB has the right to issue legally binding regulations, within its competence and if the conditions laid down in Union law are fulfilled, it can sanction non-compliant actors if they violate legal requirements laid down in directly applicable Union regulations. The ECB's own legal personality also allows the ECB to enter into international legal agreements independently from other EU institutions, and be the party of legal proceedings. Finally, the ECB can organise its internal structure as it sees fit.
Personal independence: the mandate of ECB board members is purposefully very long (8 years) and Governors of national central banks have a minimum renewable term of office of five years. Indeed, removals from the office can only be decided by the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), under the request of the ECB's Governing Council or the executive board (i.e. the ECB itself). Such a decision is only possible in the event of incapacity or serious misconduct. National governors of the Eurosystem's national central banks can be dismissed under national law (with a possibility to appeal) in case they can no longer fulfil their functions or are guilty of serious misconduct.
Financial independence: the ECB is the only body within the EU whose statute guarantees budgetary independence through its own resources and income. The ECB uses its own profits generated by its monetary policy operations and cannot be technically insolvent. The ECB's financial independence reinforces its political independence. Because the ECB does not require external financing and symmetrically is prohibited from direct monetary financing of public institutions, this shields it from potential pressure from public authorities.
Political independence: The Community institutions and bodies and the governments of the member states may not seek to influence the members of the decision-making bodies of the ECB or of the NCBs in the performance of their tasks. Symmetrically, EU institutions and national governments are bound by the treaties to respect the ECB's independence. It is the latter which is the subject of much debate.
===Democratic accountability===
In return to its high degree of independence and discretion, the ECB is accountable to the European Parliament (and to a lesser extent to the European Court of Auditors, the European Ombudsman and the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU)). Although the accountability mechanisms are not enshrined in EU law, several practices were established following a resolution of the European Parliament adopted in 1998, which were informally agreed by the ECB, and incorporated into the Parliament's rule of procedure. In 2023, the European Parliament and the ECB made these accountability arrangements were made more formal by signing an exchange of letter.
The accountability framework involves five main mechanisms:
Annual report: the ECB is bound to publish reports on its activities and has to address its annual report to the European Parliament, the European Commission, the Council of the European Union and the European Council . The report is presented to the European parliament at the occasion of a specific hearing with the ECB's vice-president at the ECON committee.
Annual parliamentary resolution: in return, the European Parliament evaluates the past activities to the ECB via its own annual resolution on the European Central Bank's report (which is essentially a non-legally-binding list of resolutions). Since 2016, the ECB replies to the Parliament's suggestions in an annex to its annual report.
Quarterly hearings (known as the "Monetary Dialogue"): the Economic and Monetary Affairs Committee of the European Parliament organises a hearing with the ECB every quarter, allowing members of parliament to address oral questions to the ECB president.
Parliamentary questions: all Members of the European Parliament have the right to address written questions to the ECB president. The ECB president provides a written answer in about six weeks.
Appointments: The European Parliament is consulted during the appointment process of executive board members of the ECB. However the Parliament's vote is only consultative, and in practice, the Parliament's opinion – when negative – has been ignored by the European Council.
Legal proceedings: the ECB's legal personality allows civil society or public institutions to file complaints against the ECB to the Court of Justice of the EU.
In 2013, an interinstitutional agreement was reached between the ECB and the European Parliament in the context of the establishment of the ECB's Banking Supervision. This agreement sets broader powers to the European Parliament than the established practice on the monetary policy side of the ECB's activities. For example, under the agreement, the Parliament can veto the appointment of the chair and vice-chair of the ECB's supervisory board and may approve removals if requested by the ECB.
=== Transparency ===
In addition to its independence, the ECB is subject to limited transparency obligations in contrast to EU Institutions standards and other major central banks. Indeed, as pointed out by Transparency International, "The Treaties establish transparency and openness as principles of the EU and its institutions. They do, however, grant the ECB a partial exemption from these principles. According to Art. 15(3) TFEU, the ECB is bound by the EU's transparency principles "only when exercising [its] administrative tasks" (the exemption – which leaves the term "administrative tasks" undefined – equally applies to the Court of Justice of the European Union and to the European Investment Bank).
In practice, there are several concrete examples where the ECB is less transparent than other institutions:
Voting secrecy: while other central banks publish the voting record of its decision makers, the ECB's Governing Council decisions are made in full discretion. Since 2014, the ECB has published "accounts" of its monetary policy meetings, but those remain rather vague and do not include individual votes.
Access to documents: The obligation for EU bodies to make documents freely accessible after a 30-year embargo applies to the ECB. However, under the ECB's Rules of Procedure, the Governing Council may decide to keep individual documents classified beyond the 30 years.
Disclosure of securities: The ECB is less transparent than the Fed when it comes to disclosing the list of securities being held in its balance sheet under monetary policy operations such as QE.
==Location==
The bank is based in Ostend (East End), Frankfurt am Main. The city is the largest financial centre in the Eurozone and the bank's location in it is fixed by the Amsterdam Treaty. The bank moved to a new purpose-built headquarters in 2014, designed by a Vienna-based architectural office, Coop Himmelbau. The building is approximately tall and is to be accompanied by other secondary buildings on a landscaped site on the site of the former wholesale market in the eastern part of Frankfurt am Main. The main construction on a 120,000 m2 total site area began in October 2008, and it was expected that the building would become an architectural symbol for Europe. While it was designed to accommodate double the number of staff who operated in the former Eurotower, that building has been retained by the ECB, owing to more space being required since it took responsibility for banking supervision.
== Debates surrounding the ECB ==
=== Debates on ECB independence ===
The debate on the independence of the ECB finds its origins in the preparatory stages of the construction of the EMU. The German government agreed to go ahead if certain crucial guarantees were respected, such as a European Central Bank independent of national governments and shielded from political pressure along the lines of the German central bank. The French government, for its part, feared that this independence would mean that politicians would no longer have any room for manoeuvre in the process. A compromise was then reached by establishing a regular dialogue between the ECB and the Council of Finance Ministers of the euro area, the Eurogroup.
==== Arguments in favour of independence ====
There is strong consensus among economists on the value of central bank independence from politics. The rationale behind are both empirical and theoretical. On the theoretical side, it's believed that time inconsistency suggests the existence of political business cycles where elected officials might take advantage of policy surprises to secure reelection. The politician up to the election will therefore be incentivized to introduce expansionary monetary policies, reducing unemployment in the short run. These effects will be most likely temporary. By contrast, in the long run, it will increase inflation, with unemployment returning to the natural rate negating the positive effect. Furthermore, the credibility of the central bank will deteriorate, making it more difficult to answer the market. Additionally, empirical work has been done that defined and measured central bank independence (CBI), looking at the relationship of CBI with inflation.
==== The arguments against too much independence ====
===== An independence that would be the source of a democratic deficit. =====
According to Christopher Adolph, the alleged neutrality of central bankers is only a legal façade and not an indisputable fact.
The crisis: an opportunity to impose its will and extend its powers:
– Its participation in the troika: Thanks to its three factors which explain its independence, the ECB took advantage of this crisis to implement, through its participation in the troika, the famous structural reforms in the Member States aimed at making, more flexible the various markets, particularly the labour market, which are still considered too rigid under the ordoliberal concept.
- Macro-prudential supervision : At the same time, taking advantage of the reform of the financial supervision system, the Frankfurt Bank has acquired new responsibilities, such as macro-prudential supervision, in other words, supervision of the provision of financial services.
-Take liberties with its mandate to save the Euro : Paradoxically, the crisis undermined the ECB's ordoliberal discourse "because some of its instruments, which it had to implement, deviated significantly from its principles. It then interpreted the paradigm with enough flexibly to adapt its original reputation to these new economic conditions. It was forced to do so as a last resort to save its one and only raison d'être: the euro. This Independent was thus obliged to be pragmatic by departing from the spirit of its statutes, which is unacceptable to the hardest supporters of ordoliberalism, which will lead to the resignation of the two German leaders present within the ECB: the governor of the Bundesbank, Jens WEIDMANN and the member of the executive board of the ECB, Jürgen STARK.
– Regulation of the financial system : The delegation of this new function to the ECB was carried out with great simplicity and with the consent of European leaders, because neither the Commission nor the Member States really wanted to obtain the monitoring of financial abuses throughout the area. In other words, in the event of a new financial crisis, the ECB would be the perfect scapegoat.
- Capturing exchange rate policy : The event that will most mark the definitive politicization of the ECB is, of course, the operation launched in January 2015: the quantitative easing (QE) operation. Indeed, the Euro is an overvalued currency on the world markets against the dollar and the euro zone is at risk of deflation. In addition, Member States find themselves heavily indebted, partly due to the rescue of their national banks. The ECB, as the guardian of the stability of the euro zone, is deciding to gradually buy back more than EUR 1 100 billion Member States' public debt. In this way, money is injected back into the economy, the euro depreciates significantly, prices rise, the risk of deflation is removed, and Member States reduce their debts. However, the ECB has just given itself the right to direct the exchange rate policy of the euro zone without this being granted by the Treaties or with the approval of European leaders, and without public opinion or the public arena being aware of this. The development of new institutions or the creation of a minister is another solution proposed:
Towards democratic institutions ?
The absence of democratic institutions such as a Parliament or a real government is a regular criticism of the ECB in its management of the euro area, and many proposals have been made in this respect, particularly after the economic crisis, which would have shown the need to improve the governance of the euro area. For Moïse Sidiropoulos, a professor in economy: "The crisis in the euro zone came as no surprise, because the euro remains an unfinished currency, a stateless currency with a fragile political legitimacy".
French economist Thomas Piketty wrote on his blog in 2017 that it was essential to equip the eurozone with democratic institutions. An economic government could for example enable it to have a common budget, common taxes and borrowing and investment capacities. Such a government would then make the euro area more democratic and transparent by avoiding the opacity of a council such as the Eurogroup.
Nevertheless, according to him "there is no point in talking about a government of the eurozone if we do not say to which democratic body this government will be accountable", a real parliament of the eurozone to which a finance minister would be accountable seems to be the real priority for the economist, who also denounces the lack of action in this area.
The creation of a sub-committee within the current European Parliament was also mentioned, in the model of the Eurogroup, which is currently an under-formation of the ECOFIN Committee. This would require a simple amendment to the rules of procedure and would avoid a competitive situation between two separate parliamentary assemblies. The former President of the European Commission had, moreover, stated on this subject that he had "no sympathy for the idea of a specific Eurozone Parliament".
==== Debates on the role of central bank reserves in monetary policy ====
In "Towards monetary policies that do not subsidise banks" published in July 2023 and co-authored with Yuemei Ji, Paul de Grauwe criticizes the prevailing role of central bank reserves in monetary policy. Holding the John Paulson Chair in European Political Economy at the London School of Economics, de Grauwe presented his views on this matter in a lecture at the Bundesbank in September 2023.
De Grauwe states that major central banks are currently operating in a regime of abundance of bank reserves. This abundance, he argues, is a consequence of massive government bond-buying programs and a fundamental change in the operating procedures of these central banks. Since late 2021, in response to rising interest rates aimed at combating inflation, central banks have adopted a procedure of increasing interest rates by raising the remuneration on bank reserves. This approach has resulted in substantial interest payments to commercial banks. Due to past Quantitative Easing, bank reserves are now massive, leading to huge transfers of profits. Paul de Grauwe highlights the magnitude of these interest payments, comparing them to significant public expenditures: the interests received by commercial banks to the yearly spending of the EU (€165 billion) to the interest payments of the ECB during the same period (€152 billion).
De Grauwe argues that these transfers lack economic rationale. Despite seigniorage gains traditionally returning to the government, he observes that central banks are transferring more than the total seigniorage gains to private banks, resulting in significant losses and effectively constituting a subsidy to banks at the expense of taxpayers.
Furthermore, the author raises concerns about moral hazard, noting that the provision of free interest hedging for banks by central banks may create ethical issues, as public authorities offer free insurance to private agents.
Questioning the economic rationale for these practices, de Grauwe states that the remuneration of bank reserves is not totally necessary for conducting monetary policy and that the regime of reserve abundance is a result of the oversupply of reserves created by central banks through the buying of large amounts of government bonds. Now, central banks cannot raise the interest rate without remunerating bank reserves, the equilibrium of demand (commercial blanks) and supply (central banks) being under the 0% rate. De Grauwe also states that the reserve abundance regime has altered the view of economists on the role of central banks : money base created by the central bank is now viewed as part of the public debt since central banks must pay a rate of remuneration on bank reserves. According to de Grauwe, this view is not inevitable and he suggests alternative operating procedures to address these issues : a gradual return to a regime of scarce reserves through Quantitative Tightening, raising minimum reserve requirements without paying interest on bank reserves, and implementing a two-tier system of reserve requirements to control the market rate while reducing transfers to commercial banks.
Policymakers at the European Central Bank are split on the economic outlook, with some worried about a looming recession and others focused on inflation pressures. This disagreement is likely to impact future decisions on interest rate cuts, with one side advocating for faster cuts due to economic concerns, while the other prefers a cautious approach to ensure inflation remains under control.
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"2021–2023 inflation",
"Banca d'Italia",
"European Council",
"Luis de Guindos",
"Financial Times",
"Outright Monetary Transactions",
"The New York Times",
"José Manuel González-Páramo",
"Macro-prudential supervision",
"monetary financing",
"List of central banks",
"José Luis Escrivá",
"Bank of France",
"Klaas Knot",
"Croatian National Bank",
"Banque de France",
"De Nederlandsche Bank",
"TARGET2-Securities",
"introduction of the euro",
"Princeton University Press"
] |
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Electron
|
The electron (', or ' in nuclear reactions) is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary electric charge. Matter that contains a different number of electrons and protons is electrically charged, giving electrons their name. Because electrons are much less massive than protons, electrical charge is the primary way we observe their effects at human scale.
== Characterization ==
Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, elementary particles that do not feel the strong nuclear force they only interact through the weak force, electromagnetic force and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure. Both electric and electricity are derived from the Latin ' (also the root of the alloy of the same name), which came from the Greek word for amber, (').
=== Discovery of two kinds of charges ===
In the early 1700s, French chemist Charles François du Fay found that if a charged gold-leaf is repulsed by glass rubbed with silk, then the same charged gold-leaf is attracted by amber rubbed with wool. From this and other results of similar types of experiments, du Fay concluded that electricity consists of two electrical fluids, vitreous fluid from glass rubbed with silk and resinous fluid from amber rubbed with wool. These two fluids can neutralize each other when combined. American scientist Ebenezer Kinnersley later also independently reached the same conclusion. A decade later Benjamin Franklin proposed that electricity was not from different types of electrical fluid, but a single electrical fluid showing an excess (+) or deficit (−). He gave them the modern charge nomenclature of positive and negative respectively. Franklin thought of the charge carrier as being positive, but he did not correctly identify which situation was a surplus of the charge carrier, and which situation was a deficit.
Between 1838 and 1851, British natural philosopher Richard Laming developed the idea that an atom is composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit electric charges. Beginning in 1846, German physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber theorized that electricity was composed of positively and negatively charged fluids, and their interaction was governed by the inverse square law. After studying the phenomenon of electrolysis in 1874, Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney suggested that there existed a "single definite quantity of electricity", the charge of a monovalent ion. He was able to estimate the value of this elementary charge e by means of Faraday's laws of electrolysis. However, Stoney believed these charges were permanently attached to atoms and could not be removed. In 1881, German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz argued that both positive and negative charges were divided into elementary parts, each of which "behaves like atoms of electricity".
Stoney initially coined the term electrolion in 1881. Ten years later, he switched to electron to describe these elementary charges, writing in 1894: "... an estimate was made of the actual amount of this most remarkable fundamental unit of electricity, for which I have since ventured to suggest the name electron". A 1906 proposal to change to electrion failed because Hendrik Lorentz preferred to keep electron. The word electron is a combination of the words electric and ion. The suffix -on which is now used to designate other subatomic particles, such as a proton or neutron, is in turn derived from electron.
=== Discovery of free electrons outside matter ===
While studying electrical conductivity in rarefied gases in 1859, the German physicist Julius Plücker observed the radiation emitted from the cathode caused phosphorescent light to appear on the tube wall near the cathode; and the region of the phosphorescent light could be moved by application of a magnetic field. In 1869, Plücker's student Johann Wilhelm Hittorf found that a solid body placed in between the cathode and the phosphorescence would cast a shadow upon the phosphorescent region of the tube. Hittorf inferred that there are straight rays emitted from the cathode and that the phosphorescence was caused by the rays striking the tube walls. Furthermore, he also discovered that these rays are deflected by magnets just like lines of current.
In 1876, the German physicist Eugen Goldstein showed that the rays were emitted perpendicular to the cathode surface, which distinguished between the rays that were emitted from the cathode and the incandescent light. Goldstein dubbed the rays cathode rays. Decades of experimental and theoretical research involving cathode rays were important in J. J. Thomson's eventual discovery of electrons.
During the 1870s, the English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes developed the first cathode-ray tube to have a high vacuum inside. He then showed in 1874 that the cathode rays can turn a small paddle wheel when placed in their path. Therefore, he concluded that the rays carried momentum. Furthermore, by applying a magnetic field, he was able to deflect the rays, thereby demonstrating that the beam behaved as though it were negatively charged. In 1879, he proposed that these properties could be explained by regarding cathode rays as composed of negatively charged gaseous molecules in a fourth state of matter, in which the mean free path of the particles is so long that collisions may be ignored. The field deflected the rays toward the positively charged plate, providing further evidence that the rays carried negative charge. By measuring the amount of deflection for a given electric and magnetic field, in 1890 Schuster was able to estimate the charge-to-mass ratio of the ray components. However, this produced a value that was more than a thousand times greater than what was expected, so little credence was given to his calculations at the time.
While studying naturally fluorescing minerals in 1896, the French physicist Henri Becquerel discovered that they emitted radiation without any exposure to an external energy source. These radioactive materials became the subject of much interest by scientists, including the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford who discovered they emitted particles. He designated these particles alpha and beta, on the basis of their ability to penetrate matter. In 1900, Becquerel showed that the beta rays emitted by radium could be deflected by an electric field, and that their mass-to-charge ratio was the same as for cathode rays. This evidence strengthened the view that electrons existed as components of atoms.
In 1897, the British physicist J. J. Thomson, with his colleagues John S. Townsend and H. A. Wilson, performed experiments indicating that cathode rays really were unique particles, rather than waves, atoms or molecules as was believed earlier. Thomson measured m/e for cathode ray "corpuscles", and made good estimates of the charge e, leading to value for the mass m, finding a value 1400 times less massive than the least massive ion known: hydrogen.
The name "electron" was adopted for these particles by the scientific community, mainly due to the advocation by G. F. FitzGerald, J. Larmor, and H. A. Lorentz. The term was originally coined by George Johnstone Stoney in 1891 as a tentative name for the basic unit of electrical charge (which had then yet to be discovered). However, oil drops were more stable than water drops because of their slower evaporation rate, and thus more suited to precise experimentation over longer periods of time.
Around the beginning of the twentieth century, it was found that under certain conditions a fast-moving charged particle caused a condensation of supersaturated water vapor along its path. In 1911, Charles Wilson used this principle to devise his cloud chamber so he could photograph the tracks of charged particles, such as fast-moving electrons.
=== Atomic theory ===
By 1914, experiments by physicists Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, James Franck and Gustav Hertz had largely established the structure of an atom as a dense nucleus of positive charge surrounded by lower-mass electrons. However, Bohr's model failed to account for the relative intensities of the spectral lines and it was unsuccessful in explaining the spectra of more complex atoms.
Chemical bonds between atoms were explained by Gilbert Newton Lewis, who in 1916 proposed that a covalent bond between two atoms is maintained by a pair of electrons shared between them. Later, in 1927, Walter Heitler and Fritz London gave the full explanation of the electron-pair formation and chemical bonding in terms of quantum mechanics. In 1919, the American chemist Irving Langmuir elaborated on the Lewis's static model of the atom and suggested that all electrons were distributed in successive "concentric (nearly) spherical shells, all of equal thickness". In turn, he divided the shells into a number of cells each of which contained one pair of electrons. With this model Langmuir was able to qualitatively explain the chemical properties of all elements in the periodic table,
In 1924, Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli observed that the shell-like structure of the atom could be explained by a set of four parameters that defined every quantum energy state, as long as each state was occupied by no more than a single electron. This prohibition against more than one electron occupying the same quantum energy state became known as the Pauli exclusion principle. The physical mechanism to explain the fourth parameter, which had two distinct possible values, was provided by the Dutch physicists Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck. In 1925, they suggested that an electron, in addition to the angular momentum of its orbit, possesses an intrinsic angular momentum and magnetic dipole moment. This is analogous to the rotation of the Earth on its axis as it orbits the Sun. The intrinsic angular momentum became known as spin, and explained the previously mysterious splitting of spectral lines observed with a high-resolution spectrograph; this phenomenon is known as fine structure splitting.
=== Quantum mechanics ===
In his 1924 dissertation (Research on Quantum Theory), French physicist Louis de Broglie hypothesized that all matter can be represented as a de Broglie wave in the manner of light. That is, under the appropriate conditions, electrons and other matter would show properties of either particles or waves. The corpuscular properties of a particle are demonstrated when it is shown to have a localized position in space along its trajectory at any given moment. The wave-like nature of light is displayed, for example, when a beam of light is passed through parallel slits thereby creating interference patterns. In 1927, George Paget Thomson and Alexander Reid discovered the interference effect was produced when a beam of electrons was passed through thin celluloid foils and later metal films, and by American physicists Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer by the reflection of electrons from a crystal of nickel. Alexander Reid, who was Thomson's graduate student, performed the first experiments but he died soon after in a motorcycle accident and is rarely mentioned.
De Broglie's prediction of a wave nature for electrons led Erwin Schrödinger to postulate a wave equation for electrons moving under the influence of the nucleus in the atom. In 1926, this equation, the Schrödinger equation, successfully described how electron waves propagated. Rather than yielding a solution that determined the location of an electron over time, this wave equation also could be used to predict the probability of finding an electron near a position, especially a position near where the electron was bound in space, for which the electron wave equations did not change in time. This approach led to a second formulation of quantum mechanics (the first by Heisenberg in 1925), and solutions of Schrödinger's equation, like Heisenberg's, provided derivations of the energy states of an electron in a hydrogen atom that were equivalent to those that had been derived first by Bohr in 1913, and that were known to reproduce the hydrogen spectrum. Once spin and the interaction between multiple electrons were describable, quantum mechanics made it possible to predict the configuration of electrons in atoms with atomic numbers greater than hydrogen.
In 1928, building on Wolfgang Pauli's work, Paul Dirac produced a model of the electron – the Dirac equation, consistent with relativity theory, by applying relativistic and symmetry considerations to the hamiltonian formulation of the quantum mechanics of the electro-magnetic field. In order to resolve some problems within his relativistic equation, Dirac developed in 1930 a model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of particles with negative energy, later dubbed the Dirac sea. This led him to predict the existence of a positron, the antimatter counterpart of the electron. This particle was discovered in 1932 by Carl Anderson, who proposed calling standard electrons negatrons and using electron as a generic term to describe both the positively and negatively charged variants.
In 1947, Willis Lamb, working in collaboration with graduate student Robert Retherford, found that certain quantum states of the hydrogen atom, which should have the same energy, were shifted in relation to each other; the difference came to be called the Lamb shift. About the same time, Polykarp Kusch, working with Henry M. Foley, discovered the magnetic moment of the electron is slightly larger than predicted by Dirac's theory. This small difference was later called anomalous magnetic dipole moment of the electron. This difference was later explained by the theory of quantum electrodynamics, developed by Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and
Richard Feynman in the late 1940s.
=== Particle accelerators ===
With the development of the particle accelerator during the first half of the twentieth century, physicists began to delve deeper into the properties of subatomic particles. The first successful attempt to accelerate electrons using electromagnetic induction was made in 1942 by Donald Kerst. His initial betatron reached energies of 2.3 MeV, while subsequent betatrons achieved 300 MeV. In 1947, synchrotron radiation was discovered with a 70 MeV electron synchrotron at General Electric. This radiation was caused by the acceleration of electrons through a magnetic field as they moved near the speed of light.
With a beam energy of 1.5 GeV, the first high-energy
particle collider was ADONE, which began operations in 1968. This device accelerated electrons and positrons in opposite directions, effectively doubling the energy of their collision when compared to striking a static target with an electron. The Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN, which was operational from 1989 to 2000, achieved collision energies of 209 GeV and made important measurements for the Standard Model of particle physics.
=== Confinement of individual electrons ===
Individual electrons can now be easily confined in ultra small (, ) CMOS transistors operated at cryogenic temperature over a range of −269 °C (4 K) to about −258 °C (15 K). The electron wavefunction spreads in a semiconductor lattice and negligibly interacts with the valence band electrons, so it can be treated in the single particle formalism, by replacing its mass with the effective-mass tensor.
== Characteristics ==
=== Classification ===
In the Standard Model of particle physics, electrons belong to the group of subatomic particles called leptons, which are believed to be fundamental or elementary particles. Electrons have the lowest mass of any charged lepton (or electrically charged particle of any type) and belong to the first generation of fundamental particles. The second and third generation contain charged leptons, the muon and the tau, which are identical to the electron in charge, spin and interactions, but are more massive. Leptons differ from the other basic constituent of matter, the quarks, by their lack of strong interaction. All members of the lepton group are fermions because they all have half-odd integer spin; the electron has spin .
=== Fundamental properties ===
The invariant mass of an electron is approximately Orders of magnitude (mass)#The least massive things: below 10−24 kg|, Astronomical measurements show that the proton-to-electron mass ratio has held the same value, as is predicted by the Standard Model, for at least half the age of the universe.
Electrons have an electric charge of coulombs, which is used as a standard unit of charge for subatomic particles, and is also called the elementary charge. Within the limits of experimental accuracy, the electron charge is identical to the charge of a proton, but with the opposite sign. The electron is commonly symbolized by , and the positron is symbolized by .
The electron has no known substructure. Nevertheless, in condensed matter physics, spin–charge separation can occur in some materials. In such cases, electrons 'split' into three independent particles, the spinon, the orbiton and the holon (or chargon). The electron can always be theoretically considered as a bound state of the three, with the spinon carrying the spin of the electron, the orbiton carrying the orbital degree of freedom and the chargon carrying the charge, but in certain conditions they can behave as independent quasiparticles.
The issue of the radius of the electron is a challenging problem of modern theoretical physics. The admission of the hypothesis of a finite radius of the electron is incompatible to the premises of the theory of relativity. On the other hand, a point-like electron (zero radius) generates serious mathematical difficulties due to the self-energy of the electron tending to infinity. Observation of a single electron in a Penning trap suggests the upper limit of the particle's radius to be 10−22 meters.
The upper bound of the electron radius of 10−18 meters can be derived using the uncertainty relation in energy. There is also a physical constant called the "classical electron radius", with the much larger value of , greater than the radius of the proton. However, the terminology comes from a simplistic calculation that ignores the effects of quantum mechanics; in reality, the so-called classical electron radius has little to do with the true fundamental structure of the electron.
There are elementary particles that spontaneously decay into less massive particles. An example is the muon, with a mean lifetime of seconds, which decays into an electron, a muon neutrino and an electron antineutrino. The electron, on the other hand, is thought to be stable on theoretical grounds: the electron is the least massive particle with non-zero electric charge, so its decay would violate charge conservation. The experimental lower bound for the electron's mean lifetime is years, at a 90% confidence level.
=== Quantum properties ===
As with all particles, electrons can act as waves. This is called the wave–particle duality and can be demonstrated using the double-slit experiment.
The wave-like nature of the electron allows it to pass through two parallel slits simultaneously, rather than just one slit as would be the case for a classical particle. In quantum mechanics, the wave-like property of one particle can be described mathematically as a complex-valued function, the wave function, commonly denoted by the Greek letter psi (ψ). When the absolute value of this function is squared, it gives the probability that a particle will be observed near a location—a probability density.
Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system. The wave function of fermions, including electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning that it changes sign when two electrons are swapped; that is, , where the variables r1 and r2 correspond to the first and second electrons, respectively. Since the absolute value is not changed by a sign swap, this corresponds to equal probabilities. Bosons, such as the photon, have symmetric wave functions instead. The combination of the energy variation needed to create these particles, and the time during which they exist, fall under the threshold of detectability expressed by the Heisenberg uncertainty relation, ΔE · Δt ≥ ħ. In effect, the energy needed to create these virtual particles, ΔE, can be "borrowed" from the vacuum for a period of time, Δt, so that their product is no more than the reduced Planck constant, . Thus, for a virtual electron, Δt is at most .
While an electron–positron virtual pair is in existence, the Coulomb force from the ambient electric field surrounding an electron causes a created positron to be attracted to the original electron, while a created electron experiences a repulsion. This causes what is called vacuum polarization. In effect, the vacuum behaves like a medium having a dielectric permittivity more than unity. Thus the effective charge of an electron is actually smaller than its true value, and the charge decreases with increasing distance from the electron. This polarization was confirmed experimentally in 1997 using the Japanese TRISTAN particle accelerator. Virtual particles cause a comparable shielding effect for the mass of the electron.
The interaction with virtual particles also explains the small (about 0.1%) deviation of the intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron from the Bohr magneton (the anomalous magnetic moment). The extraordinarily precise agreement of this predicted difference with the experimentally determined value is viewed as one of the great achievements of quantum electrodynamics.
The apparent paradox in classical physics of a point particle electron having intrinsic angular momentum and magnetic moment can be explained by the formation of virtual photons in the electric field generated by the electron. These photons can heuristically be thought of as causing the electron to shift about in a jittery fashion (known as zitterbewegung), which results in a net circular motion with precession. This motion produces both the spin and the magnetic moment of the electron. When an electron is in motion, it generates a magnetic field. The electromagnetic field of an arbitrary moving charged particle is expressed by the Liénard–Wiechert potentials, which are valid even when the particle's speed is close to that of light (relativistic).
Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in quantum electrodynamics. An isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum between two charged particles. This exchange of virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb force. Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton. The deceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation.
An inelastic collision between a photon (light) and a solitary (free) electron is called Compton scattering. This collision results in a transfer of momentum and energy between the particles, which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift.c} (1 - \cos \theta),
where c is the speed of light in vacuum and me is the electron mass. See Zombeck (2007). For an electron, it has a value of .
The relative strength of the electromagnetic interaction between two charged particles, such as an electron and a proton, is given by the fine-structure constant. This value is a dimensionless quantity formed by the ratio of two energies: the electrostatic energy of attraction (or repulsion) at a separation of one Compton wavelength, and the rest energy of the charge. It is given by which is approximately equal to .
When electrons and positrons collide, they annihilate each other, giving rise to two or more gamma ray photons. If the electron and positron have negligible momentum, a positronium atom can form before annihilation results in two or three gamma ray photons totalling 1.022 MeV. On the other hand, a high-energy photon can transform into an electron and a positron by a process called pair production, but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus.
In the theory of electroweak interaction, the left-handed component of electron's wavefunction forms a weak isospin doublet with the electron neutrino. This means that during weak interactions, electron neutrinos behave like electrons. Either member of this doublet can undergo a charged current interaction by emitting or absorbing a and be converted into the other member. Charge is conserved during this reaction because the W boson also carries a charge, canceling out any net change during the transmutation. Charged current interactions are responsible for the phenomenon of beta decay in a radioactive atom. Both the electron and electron neutrino can undergo a neutral current interaction via a exchange, and this is responsible for neutrino–electron elastic scattering.
=== Atoms and molecules ===
An electron can be bound to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force. A system of one or more electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom. If the number of electrons is different from the nucleus's electrical charge, such an atom is called an ion. The wave-like behavior of a bound electron is described by a function called an atomic orbital. Each orbital has its own set of quantum numbers such as energy, angular momentum and projection of angular momentum, and only a discrete set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus. According to the Pauli exclusion principle each orbital can be occupied by up to two electrons, which must differ in their spin quantum number.
Electrons can transfer between different orbitals by the emission or absorption of photons with an energy that matches the difference in potential. To escape the atom, the energy of the electron must be increased above its binding energy to the atom. This occurs, for example, with the photoelectric effect, where an incident photon exceeding the atom's ionization energy is absorbed by the electron.
The orbital angular momentum of electrons is quantized. Because the electron is charged, it produces an orbital magnetic moment that is proportional to the angular momentum. The net magnetic moment of an atom is equal to the vector sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments of all electrons and the nucleus. The magnetic moment of the nucleus is negligible compared with that of the electrons. The magnetic moments of the electrons that occupy the same orbital, called paired electrons, cancel each other out.
The chemical bond between atoms occurs as a result of electromagnetic interactions, as described by the laws of quantum mechanics. The strongest bonds are formed by the sharing or transfer of electrons between atoms, allowing the formation of molecules. Within a molecule, electrons move under the influence of several nuclei, and occupy molecular orbitals; much as they can occupy atomic orbitals in isolated atoms. A fundamental factor in these molecular structures is the existence of electron pairs. These are electrons with opposed spins, allowing them to occupy the same molecular orbital without violating the Pauli exclusion principle (much like in atoms). Different molecular orbitals have different spatial distribution of the electron density. For instance, in bonded pairs (i.e. in the pairs that actually bind atoms together) electrons can be found with the maximal probability in a relatively small volume between the nuclei. By contrast, in non-bonded pairs electrons are distributed in a large volume around nuclei.
=== Conductivity ===
If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei, then that object has a net electric charge. When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than the number of protons in nuclei, the object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the triboelectric effect.
Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed free electrons. Electrons in metals also behave as if they were free. In reality the particles that are commonly termed electrons in metals and other solids are quasi-electrons—quasiparticles, which have the same electrical charge, spin, and magnetic moment as real electrons but might have a different mass. When free electrons—both in vacuum and metals—move, they produce a net flow of charge called an electric current, which generates a magnetic field. Likewise a current can be created by a changing magnetic field. These interactions are described mathematically by Maxwell's equations.
At a given temperature, each material has an electrical conductivity that determines the value of electric current when an electric potential is applied. Examples of good conductors include metals such as copper and gold, whereas glass and Teflon are poor conductors. In any dielectric material, the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an insulator. Most semiconductors have a variable level of conductivity that lies between the extremes of conduction and insulation. On the other hand, metals have an electronic band structure containing partially filled electronic bands. The presence of such bands allows electrons in metals to behave as if they were free or delocalized electrons. These electrons are not associated with specific atoms, so when an electric field is applied, they are free to move like a gas (called Fermi gas) through the material much like free electrons.
Because of collisions between electrons and atoms, the drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is on the order of millimeters per second. However, the speed at which a change of current at one point in the material causes changes in currents in other parts of the material, the velocity of propagation, is typically about 75% of light speed. This occurs because electrical signals propagate as a wave, with the velocity dependent on the dielectric constant of the material.
Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are free to transport thermal energy between atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed mathematically by the Wiedemann–Franz law,
When cooled below a point called the critical temperature, materials can undergo a phase transition in which they lose all resistivity to electric current, in a process known as superconductivity. In BCS theory, pairs of electrons called Cooper pairs have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called phonons, thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical resistance. (Cooper pairs have a radius of roughly 100 nm, so they can overlap each other.) However, the mechanism by which higher temperature superconductors operate remains uncertain.
Electrons inside conducting solids, which are quasi-particles themselves, when tightly confined at temperatures close to absolute zero, behave as though they had split into three other quasiparticles: spinons, orbitons and holons. The former carries spin and magnetic moment, the next carries its orbital location while the latter electrical charge.
=== Motion and energy ===
According to Einstein's theory of special relativity, as an electron's speed approaches the speed of light, from an observer's point of view its relativistic mass increases, thereby making it more and more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference. The speed of an electron can approach, but never reach, the speed of light in vacuum, c. However, when relativistic electrons—that is, electrons moving at a speed close to c—are injected into a dielectric medium such as water, where the local speed of light is significantly less than c, the electrons temporarily travel faster than light in the medium. As they interact with the medium, they generate a faint light called Cherenkov radiation.
The effects of special relativity are based on a quantity known as the Lorentz factor, defined as \scriptstyle\gamma=1/ \sqrt{ 1-{v^2}/{c^2} } where v is the speed of the particle. The kinetic energy Ke of an electron moving with velocity v is:
\displaystyle K_{\mathrm{e}} = (\gamma - 1)m_{\mathrm{e}} c^2,
where me is the mass of electron. For example, the Stanford linear accelerator can accelerate an electron to roughly 51 GeV.
Since an electron behaves as a wave, at a given velocity it has a characteristic de Broglie wavelength. This is given by λe = h/p where h is the Planck constant and p is the momentum.
== Formation ==
The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory to explain the early stages in the evolution of the Universe. For the first millisecond of the Big Bang, the temperatures were over 10 billion kelvins and photons had mean energies over a million electronvolts. These photons were sufficiently energetic that they could react with each other to form pairs of electrons and positrons. Likewise, positron–electron pairs annihilated each other and emitted energetic photons:
+ ↔ +
An equilibrium between electrons, positrons and photons was maintained during this phase of the evolution of the Universe. After 15 seconds had passed, however, the temperature of the universe dropped below the threshold where electron-positron formation could occur. Most of the surviving electrons and positrons annihilated each other, releasing gamma radiation that briefly reheated the universe.
For reasons that remain uncertain, during the annihilation process there was an excess in the number of particles over antiparticles. Hence, about one electron for every billion electron–positron pairs survived. This excess matched the excess of protons over antiprotons, in a condition known as baryon asymmetry, resulting in a net charge of zero for the universe. The surviving protons and neutrons began to participate in reactions with each other—in the process known as nucleosynthesis, forming isotopes of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of lithium. This process peaked after about five minutes. Any leftover neutrons underwent negative beta decay with a half-life of about a thousand seconds, releasing a proton and electron in the process,
→ + +
For about the next –, the excess electrons remained too energetic to bind with atomic nuclei. What followed is a period known as recombination, when neutral atoms were formed and the expanding universe became transparent to radiation.
Roughly one million years after the big bang, the first generation of stars began to form. An example is the cobalt-60 (60Co) isotope, which decays to form nickel-60 ().
At the end of its lifetime, a star with more than about 20 solar masses can undergo gravitational collapse to form a black hole. According to classical physics, these massive stellar objects exert a gravitational attraction that is strong enough to prevent anything, even electromagnetic radiation, from escaping past the Schwarzschild radius. However, quantum mechanical effects are believed to potentially allow the emission of Hawking radiation at this distance. Electrons (and positrons) are thought to be created at the event horizon of these stellar remnants.
When a pair of virtual particles (such as an electron and positron) is created in the vicinity of the event horizon, random spatial positioning might result in one of them to appear on the exterior; this process is called quantum tunnelling. The gravitational potential of the black hole can then supply the energy that transforms this virtual particle into a real particle, allowing it to radiate away into space. In exchange, the other member of the pair is given negative energy, which results in a net loss of mass–energy by the black hole. The rate of Hawking radiation increases with decreasing mass, eventually causing the black hole to evaporate away until, finally, it explodes.
Cosmic rays are particles traveling through space with high energies. Energy events as high as have been recorded. When these particles collide with nucleons in the Earth's atmosphere, a shower of particles is generated, including pions. More than half of the cosmic radiation observed from the Earth's surface consists of muons. The particle called a muon is a lepton produced in the upper atmosphere by the decay of a pion.
→ +
A muon, in turn, can decay to form an electron or positron.
→ + +
== Observation ==
Remote observation of electrons requires detection of their radiated energy. For example, in high-energy environments such as the corona of a star, free electrons form a plasma that radiates energy due to Bremsstrahlung radiation. Electron gas can undergo plasma oscillation, which is waves caused by synchronized variations in electron density, and these produce energy emissions that can be detected by using radio telescopes.
The frequency of a photon is proportional to its energy. As a bound electron transitions between different energy levels of an atom, it absorbs or emits photons at characteristic frequencies. For instance, when atoms are irradiated by a source with a broad spectrum, distinct dark lines appear in the spectrum of transmitted radiation in places where the corresponding frequency is absorbed by the atom's electrons. Each element or molecule displays a characteristic set of spectral lines, such as the hydrogen spectral series. When detected, spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of these lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.
In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of particle detectors, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and charge. The development of the Paul trap and Penning trap allows charged particles to be contained within a small region for long durations. This enables precise measurements of the particle properties. For example, in one instance a Penning trap was used to contain a single electron for a period of 10 months. The magnetic moment of the electron was measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater accuracy than for any other physical constant.
The first video images of an electron's energy distribution were captured by a team at Lund University in Sweden, February 2008. The scientists used extremely short flashes of light, called attosecond pulses, which allowed an electron's motion to be observed for the first time.
The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can be visualized by angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES). This technique employs the photoelectric effect to measure the reciprocal space—a mathematical representation of periodic structures that is used to infer the original structure. ARPES can be used to determine the direction, speed and scattering of electrons within the material.
== Plasma applications ==
=== Particle beams ===
Electron beams are used in welding. They allow energy densities up to across a narrow focus diameter of and usually require no filler material. This welding technique must be performed in a vacuum to prevent the electrons from interacting with the gas before reaching their target, and it can be used to join conductive materials that would otherwise be considered unsuitable for welding.
Electron-beam lithography (EBL) is a method of etching semiconductors at resolutions smaller than a micrometer. This technique is limited by high costs, slow performance, the need to operate the beam in the vacuum and the tendency of the electrons to scatter in solids. The last problem limits the resolution to about 10 nm. For this reason, EBL is primarily used for the production of small numbers of specialized integrated circuits.
Electron beam processing is used to irradiate materials in order to change their physical properties or sterilize medical and food products. Electron beams fluidise or quasi-melt glasses without significant increase of temperature on intensive irradiation: e.g. intensive electron radiation causes a many orders of magnitude decrease of viscosity and stepwise decrease of its activation energy.
Linear particle accelerators generate electron beams for treatment of superficial tumors in radiation therapy. Electron therapy can treat such skin lesions as basal-cell carcinomas because an electron beam only penetrates to a limited depth before being absorbed, typically up to 5 cm for electron energies in the range 5–20 MeV. An electron beam can be used to supplement the treatment of areas that have been irradiated by X-rays.
Particle accelerators use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies. These particles emit synchrotron radiation as they pass through magnetic fields. The dependency of the intensity of this radiation upon spin polarizes the electron beam—a process known as the Sokolov–Ternov effect. Polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments. Synchrotron radiation can also cool the electron beams to reduce the momentum spread of the particles. Electron and positron beams are collided upon the particles' accelerating to the required energies; particle detectors observe the resulting energy emissions, which particle physics studies.
=== Imaging ===
Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a method of bombarding a crystalline material with a collimated beam of electrons and then observing the resulting diffraction patterns to determine the structure of the material. The required energy of the electrons is typically in the range 20–200 eV. The reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED) technique uses the reflection of a beam of electrons fired at various low angles to characterize the surface of crystalline materials. The beam energy is typically in the range 8–20 keV and the angle of incidence is 1–4°.
The electron microscope directs a focused beam of electrons at a specimen. Some electrons change their properties, such as movement direction, angle, and relative phase and energy as the beam interacts with the material. Microscopists can record these changes in the electron beam to produce atomically resolved images of the material. In blue light, conventional optical microscopes have a diffraction-limited resolution of about 200 nm. By comparison, electron microscopes are limited by the de Broglie wavelength of the electron. This wavelength, for example, is equal to 0.0037 nm for electrons accelerated across a 100,000-volt potential. The Transmission Electron Aberration-Corrected Microscope is capable of sub-0.05 nm resolution, which is more than enough to resolve individual atoms. This capability makes the electron microscope a useful laboratory instrument for high resolution imaging. However, electron microscopes are expensive instruments that are costly to maintain.
Two main types of electron microscopes exist: transmission and scanning. Transmission electron microscopes function like overhead projectors, with a beam of electrons passing through a slice of material then being projected by lenses on a photographic slide or a charge-coupled device. Scanning electron microscopes rasteri a finely focused electron beam, as in a TV set, across the studied sample to produce the image. Magnifications range from 100× to 1,000,000× or higher for both microscope types. The scanning tunneling microscope uses quantum tunneling of electrons from a sharp metal tip into the studied material and can produce atomically resolved images of its surface.
=== Other applications ===
In the free-electron laser (FEL), a relativistic electron beam passes through a pair of undulators that contain arrays of dipole magnets whose fields point in alternating directions. The electrons emit synchrotron radiation that coherently interacts with the same electrons to strongly amplify the radiation field at the resonance frequency. FEL can emit a coherent high-brilliance electromagnetic radiation with a wide range of frequencies, from microwaves to soft X-rays. These devices are used in manufacturing, communication, and in medical applications, such as soft tissue surgery.
Electrons are important in cathode-ray tubes, which have been extensively used as display devices in laboratory instruments, computer monitors and television sets. In a photomultiplier tube, every photon striking the photocathode initiates an avalanche of electrons that produces a detectable current pulse. Vacuum tubes use the flow of electrons to manipulate electrical signals, and they played a critical role in the development of electronics technology. However, they have been largely supplanted by solid-state devices such as the transistor.
|
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] |
9,477 |
Europium
|
Europium is a chemical element; it has symbol Eu and atomic number 63. It is a silvery-white metal of the lanthanide series that reacts readily with air to form a dark oxide coating. Europium is the most chemically reactive, least dense, and softest of the lanthanides. It is soft enough to be cut with a knife. Europium was discovered in 1896, provisionally designated as Σ; in 1901, it was named after the continent of Europe. Europium usually assumes the oxidation state +3, like other members of the lanthanide series, but compounds having oxidation state +2 are also common. All europium compounds with oxidation state +2 are slightly reducing. Europium has no significant biological role and is relatively non-toxic compared to other heavy metals. Most applications of europium exploit the phosphorescence of europium compounds. Europium is one of the rarest of the rare-earth elements on Earth.
==Etymology==
Its discoverer, Eugène-Anatole Demarçay, named the element after the continent of Europe. Its reactivity with water is comparable to that of calcium, and the reaction is
2 Eu + 6 H2O → 2 Eu(OH)3 + 3 H2
Because of the high reactivity, samples of solid europium rarely have the shiny appearance of the fresh metal, even when coated with a protective layer of mineral oil. Europium ignites in air at 150 to 180 °C to form europium(III) oxide:
4 Eu + 3 O2 → 2 Eu2O3
Europium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form pale pink solutions of [Eu(H2O)9]3+:
2 Eu + 3 H2SO4 + 18 H2O → 2 [Eu(H2O)9]3+ + 3 + 3 H2
====Eu(II) vs. Eu(III)====
Although usually trivalent, europium readily forms divalent compounds. This behavior is unusual for most lanthanides, which almost exclusively form compounds with an oxidation state of +3. The +2 state has an electron configuration 4f7 because the half-filled f-shell provides more stability. In terms of size and coordination number, europium(II) and barium(II) are similar. The sulfates of both barium and europium(II) are also highly insoluble in water. Divalent europium is a mild reducing agent, oxidizing in air to form Eu(III) compounds. In anaerobic, and particularly geothermal conditions, the divalent form is sufficiently stable that it tends to be incorporated into minerals of calcium and the other alkaline earths. This ion-exchange process is the basis of the "negative europium anomaly", the low europium content in many lanthanide minerals such as monazite, relative to the chondritic abundance. Bastnäsite tends to show less of a negative europium anomaly than does monazite, and hence is the major source of europium today. The development of easy methods to separate divalent europium from the other (trivalent) lanthanides made europium accessible even when present in low concentration, as it usually is.
===Isotopes===
Naturally occurring europium is composed of two isotopes, 151Eu and 153Eu, which occur in almost equal proportions; 153Eu is slightly more abundant (52.2% natural abundance). While 153Eu is stable, 151Eu was found to be unstable to alpha decay with a half-life of in 2007, giving about one alpha decay per two minutes in every kilogram of natural europium. This value is in reasonable agreement with theoretical predictions. Besides the natural radioisotope 151Eu, 35 artificial radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 150Eu with a half-life of 36.9 years, 152Eu with a half-life of 13.516 years, and 154Eu with a half-life of 8.593 years. All the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives shorter than 4.7612 years, and the majority of these have half-lives shorter than 12.2 seconds; the known isotopes of europium range from 130Eu to 170Eu. This element also has 17 meta states, with the most stable being 150mEu (t1/2=12.8 hours), 152m1Eu (t1/2=9.3116 hours) and 152m2Eu (t1/2=96 minutes).
The primary decay mode for isotopes lighter than 153Eu is electron capture, and the primary mode for heavier isotopes is beta minus decay. The primary decay products before 153Eu are isotopes of samarium (Sm) and the primary products after are isotopes of gadolinium (Gd).
The fission product yields of europium isotopes are low near the top of the mass range for fission products.
As with other lanthanides, many isotopes of europium, especially those that have odd mass numbers or are neutron-poor like 152Eu, have high cross sections for neutron capture, often high enough to be neutron poisons.
151Eu is the beta decay product of samarium-151, but since this has a long decay half-life and short mean time to neutron absorption, most 151Sm instead ends up as 152Sm.
152Eu (half-life 13.516 years) and 154Eu (half-life 8.593 years) cannot be beta decay products because 152Sm and 154Sm are non-radioactive, but 154Eu is the only long-lived "shielded" nuclide, other than 134Cs, to have a fission yield of more than 2.5 parts per million fissions. A larger amount of 154Eu is produced by neutron activation of a significant portion of the non-radioactive 153Eu; however, much of this is further converted to 155Eu.
===Occurrence===
Europium is not found in nature as a free element. Many minerals contain europium, with the most important sources being bastnäsite, monazite, xenotime and loparite-(Ce). No europium-dominant minerals are known yet, despite a single find of a tiny possible Eu–O or Eu–O–C system phase in the Moon's regolith.
Depletion or enrichment of europium in minerals relative to other rare-earth elements is known as the europium anomaly. Europium is commonly included in trace element studies in geochemistry and petrology to understand the processes that form igneous rocks (rocks that cooled from magma or lava). The nature of the europium anomaly found helps reconstruct the relationships within a suite of igneous rocks. The median crustal abundance of europium is 2 ppm; values of the less abundant elements may vary with location by several orders of magnitude.
Divalent europium (Eu2+) in small amounts is the activator of the bright blue fluorescence of some samples of the mineral fluorite (CaF2). The reduction from Eu3+ to Eu2+ is induced by irradiation with energetic particles. The most outstanding examples of this originated around Weardale and adjacent parts of northern England; it was the fluorite found here that fluorescence was named after in 1852, although it was not until much later that europium was determined to be the cause.
In astrophysics, the signature of europium in stellar spectra can be used to classify stars and inform theories of how or where a particular star was born. For instance, astronomers used the relative levels of europium to iron within the star LAMOST J112456.61+453531.3 to propose that the accretion process for star occurred late.
==Production==
Europium is associated with the other rare-earth elements and is, therefore, mined together with them. Separation of the rare-earth elements occurs during later processing. Rare-earth elements are found in the minerals bastnäsite, loparite-(Ce), xenotime, and monazite in mineable quantities. Bastnäsite is a group of related fluorocarbonates, Ln(CO3)(F,OH). Monazite is a group of related of orthophosphate minerals (Ln denotes a mixture of all the lanthanides except promethium), loparite-(Ce) is an oxide, and xenotime is an orthophosphate (Y,Yb,Er,...)PO4. Monazite also contains thorium and yttrium, which complicates handling because thorium and its decay products are radioactive. For the extraction from the ore and the isolation of individual lanthanides, several methods have been developed. The choice of method is based on the concentration and composition of the ore and on the distribution of the individual lanthanides in the resulting concentrate. Roasting the ore, followed by acidic and basic leaching, is used mostly to produce a concentrate of lanthanides. If cerium is the dominant lanthanide, then it is converted from cerium(III) to cerium(IV) and then precipitated. Further separation by solvent extractions or ion exchange chromatography yields a fraction which is enriched in europium. This fraction is reduced with zinc, zinc/amalgam, electrolysis or other methods converting the europium(III) to europium(II). Europium(II) reacts in a way similar to that of alkaline earth metals and therefore it can be precipitated as a carbonate or co-precipitated with barium sulfate. Europium metal is available through the electrolysis of a mixture of molten EuCl3 and NaCl (or CaCl2) in a graphite cell, which serves as cathode, using graphite as anode. The other product is chlorine gas.
A few large deposits produce or produced a significant amount of the world production. The Bayan Obo iron ore deposit in Inner Mongolia contains significant amounts of bastnäsite and monazite and is, with an estimated 36 million tonnes of rare-earth element oxides, the largest known deposit. The mining operations at the Bayan Obo deposit made China the largest supplier of rare-earth elements in the 1990s. Only 0.2% of the rare-earth element content is europium. The second large source for rare-earth elements between 1965 and its closure in the late 1990s was the Mountain Pass rare earth mine in California. The bastnäsite mined there is especially rich in the light rare-earth elements (La-Gd, Sc, and Y) and contains only 0.1% of europium. Another large source for rare-earth elements is the loparite found on the Kola peninsula. It contains besides niobium, tantalum and titanium up to 30% rare-earth elements and is the largest source for these elements in Russia.
==Compounds==
Europium compounds tend to exist in a trivalent oxidation state under most conditions. Commonly these compounds feature Eu(III) bound by 6–9 oxygenic ligands. The Eu(III) sulfates, nitrates and chlorides are soluble in water or polar organic solvents. Lipophilic europium complexes often feature acetylacetonate-like ligands, such as EuFOD.
===Halides===
Europium metal reacts with all the halogens:
2 Eu + 3 X2 → 2 EuX3 (X = F, Cl, Br, I)
This route gives white europium(III) fluoride (EuF3), yellow europium(III) chloride (EuCl3), gray europium(III) bromide (EuBr3), and colorless europium(III) iodide (EuI3). Europium also forms the corresponding dihalides: yellow-green europium(II) fluoride (EuF2), colorless europium(II) chloride (EuCl2) (although it has a bright blue fluorescence under UV light), colorless europium(II) bromide (EuBr2), and green europium(II) iodide (EuI2).
===Chalcogenides and pnictides===
Europium forms stable compounds with all of the chalcogens, but the heavier chalcogens (S, Se, and Te) stabilize the lower oxidation state. Three oxides are known: europium(II) oxide (EuO), europium(III) oxide (Eu2O3), and the mixed-valence oxide Eu3O4, consisting of both Eu(II) and Eu(III). Otherwise, the main chalcogenides are europium(II) sulfide (EuS), europium(II) selenide (EuSe) and europium(II) telluride (EuTe): all three of these are black solids. Europium(II) sulfide is prepared by sulfiding the oxide at temperatures sufficiently high to decompose the Eu2O3:
Eu2O3 + 3 H2S → 2 EuS + 3 H2O + S
The main nitride of europium is europium(III) nitride (EuN).
==History==
Although europium is present in most of the minerals containing the other rare elements, due to the difficulties in separating the elements it was not until the late 1800s that the element was isolated. William Crookes observed the phosphorescent spectra of the rare elements including those eventually assigned to europium.
Europium was first found in 1892 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, who obtained basic fractions from samarium-gadolinium concentrates which had spectral lines not accounted for by samarium or gadolinium. However, the discovery of europium is generally credited to French chemist Eugène-Anatole Demarçay, who suspected samples of the recently discovered element samarium were contaminated with an unknown element in 1896 and who was able to isolate it in 1901; he then named it europium.
When the europium-doped yttrium orthovanadate red phosphor was discovered in the early 1960s, and understood to be about to cause a revolution in the color television industry, there was a scramble for the limited supply of europium on hand among the monazite processors, as the typical europium content in monazite is about 0.05%. However, the Molycorp bastnäsite deposit at the Mountain Pass rare earth mine, California, whose lanthanides had an unusually high europium content of 0.1%, was about to come on-line and provide sufficient europium to sustain the industry. Prior to europium, the color-TV red phosphor was very weak, and the other phosphor colors had to be muted, to maintain color balance. With the brilliant red europium phosphor, it was no longer necessary to mute the other colors, and a much brighter color TV picture was the result. he was lecturing on the rare earths in the 1930s, when an elderly gentleman approached him with an offer of a gift of several pounds of europium oxide. This was an unheard-of quantity at the time, and Spedding did not take the man seriously. However, a package duly arrived in the mail, containing several pounds of genuine europium oxide. The elderly gentleman had turned out to be Herbert Newby McCoy, who had developed a famous method of europium purification involving redox chemistry.
==Applications==
Relative to most other elements, commercial applications for europium are few and rather specialized. Almost invariably, its phosphorescence is exploited, either in the +2 or +3 oxidation state.
It is a dopant in some types of glass in lasers and other optoelectronic devices. Europium oxide (Eu2O3) is widely used as a red phosphor in television sets and fluorescent lamps, and as an activator for yttrium-based phosphors. Color TV screens contain between 0.5 and 1 g of europium oxide. Whereas trivalent europium gives red phosphors, the luminescence of divalent europium depends strongly on the composition of the host structure. UV to deep red luminescence can be achieved. The two classes of europium-based phosphor (red and blue), combined with the yellow/green terbium phosphors give "white" light, the color temperature of which can be varied by altering the proportion or specific composition of the individual phosphors. This phosphor system is typically encountered in helical fluorescent light bulbs. Combining the same three classes is one way to make trichromatic systems in TV and computer screens, Europium fluorescence is used to interrogate biomolecular interactions in drug-discovery screens. It is also used in the anti-counterfeiting phosphors in euro banknotes.
An application that has almost fallen out of use with the introduction of affordable superconducting magnets is the use of europium complexes, such as Eu(fod)3, as shift reagents in NMR spectroscopy. Chiral shift reagents, such as Eu(hfc)3, are still used to determine enantiomeric purity.
Europium compounds are used to label antibodies for sensitive detection of antigens in body fluids, a form of immunoassay. When these europium-labeled antibodies bind to specific antigens, the resulting complex can be detected with laser excited fluorescence.
==Precautions==
There are no clear indications that europium is particularly toxic compared to other heavy metals. Europium chloride, nitrate and oxide have been tested for toxicity: europium chloride shows an acute intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 550 mg/kg and the acute oral LD50 toxicity is 5000 mg/kg. Europium nitrate shows a slightly higher intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 320 mg/kg, while the oral toxicity is above 5000 mg/kg. The metal dust presents a fire and explosion hazard.
|
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] |
9,478 |
Erbium
|
Erbium is a chemical element; it has symbol Er and atomic number 68. A silvery-white solid metal when artificially isolated, natural erbium is always found in chemical combination with other elements. It is a lanthanide, a rare-earth element, originally found in the gadolinite mine in Ytterby, Sweden, which is the source of the element's name.
Erbium's principal uses involve its pink-colored Er3+ ions, which have optical fluorescent properties particularly useful in certain laser applications. Erbium-doped glasses or crystals can be used as optical amplification media, where Er3+ ions are optically pumped at around 980 or and then radiate light at in stimulated emission. This process results in an unusually mechanically simple laser optical amplifier for signals transmitted by fiber optics. The wavelength is especially important for optical communications because standard single mode optical fibers have minimal loss at this particular wavelength.
In addition to optical fiber amplifier-lasers, a large variety of medical applications (e.g. dermatology, dentistry) rely on the erbium ion's emission (see Er:YAG laser) when lit at another wavelength, which is highly absorbed in water in tissues, making its effect very superficial. Such shallow tissue deposition of laser energy is helpful in laser surgery, and for the efficient production of steam which produces enamel ablation by common types of dental laser.
== Characteristics ==
===Physical properties===
A trivalent element, pure erbium metal is malleable (or easily shaped), soft yet stable in air, and does not oxidize as quickly as some other rare-earth metals. Its salts are rose-colored, and the element has characteristic sharp absorption spectra bands in visible light, ultraviolet, and near infrared. Otherwise it looks much like the other rare earths. Its sesquioxide is called erbia. Erbium's properties are to a degree dictated by the kind and amount of impurities present. Erbium does not play any known biological role, but is thought to be able to stimulate metabolism.
Erbium is ferromagnetic below 19 K, antiferromagnetic between 19 and 80 K and paramagnetic above 80 K.
Erbium can form propeller-shaped atomic clusters Er3N, where the distance between the erbium atoms is 0.35 nm. Those clusters can be isolated by encapsulating them into fullerene molecules, as confirmed by transmission electron microscopy.
Like most rare-earth elements, erbium is usually found in the +3 oxidation state. However, it is possible for erbium to also be found in the 0, +1 and +2 oxidation states.
===Chemical properties===
Erbium metal retains its luster in dry air, however will tarnish slowly in moist air and burns readily to form erbium(III) oxide:
2 Er (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 2 Er(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Erbium metal reacts with all the halogens:
2 Er (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Er3+ (aq) + 3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
=== Isotopes ===
Naturally occurring erbium is composed of 6 stable isotopes, Er, Er, Er, Er, Er, and Er, with Er being the most abundant (33.503% natural abundance). 32 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being Er with a half-life of , Er with a half-life of , Er with a half-life of , Er with a half-life of , and Er with a half-life of . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than , and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 4 minutes. This element also has 26 meta states, with the most stable being Er with a half-life of .
The isotopes of erbium range in Er to Er. The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Er, is electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products before Er are element 67 (holmium) isotopes, and the primary products after are element 69 (thulium) isotopes.
Er has been identified as useful for use in Auger therapy, as it decays via electron capture and emits no gamma radiation. It can also be used as a radioactive tracer to label antibodies and peptides, though it cannot be detected by any kind of imaging for the study of its biological distribution. The isotope can be produced via the bombardment of Er with Tm or Er with Ho, the latter of which is more convenient due to Ho being a stable primordial isotope, though it requires an initial supply of Er.
==Compounds==
===Oxides===
Erbium(III) oxide (also known as erbia) is the only known oxide of erbium, first isolated by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1843, and first obtained in pure form in 1905 by Georges Urbain and Charles James. It has a cubic structure resembling the bixbyite motif. The Er3+ centers are octahedral. The formation of erbium oxide is accomplished by burning erbium metal, Erbium oxide is insoluble in water and slightly soluble in heated mineral acids. The pink-colored compound is used as a phosphor activator and to produce infrared-absorbing glass. that can be produced by reacting erbium(III) nitrate and ammonium fluoride. It can be used to make infrared light-transmitting materials and up-converting luminescent materials, and is an intermediate in the production of erbium metal prior to its reduction with calcium. It forms crystals of the aluminium chloride| type, with monoclinic crystals and the point group C2/m. Erbium(III) chloride hexahydrate also forms monoclinic crystals with the point group of P2/n (P2/c) - C42h. In this compound, erbium is octa-coordinated to form ions with the isolated completing the structure.
Erbium(III) bromide is a violet solid. It is used, like other metal bromide compounds, in water treatment, chemical analysis and for certain crystal growth applications. Erbium(III) iodide is a slightly pink compound that is insoluble in water. It can be prepared by directly reacting erbium with iodine.
===Organoerbium compounds===
Organoerbium compounds are very similar to those of the other lanthanides, as they all share an inability to undergo π backbonding. They are thus mostly restricted to the mostly ionic cyclopentadienides (isostructural with those of lanthanum) and the σ-bonded simple alkyls and aryls, some of which may be polymeric.
== History ==
Erbium (for Ytterby, a village in Sweden) was discovered by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1843. Mosander was working with a sample of what was thought to be the single metal oxide yttria, derived from the mineral gadolinite. He discovered that the sample contained at least two metal oxides in addition to pure yttria, which he named "erbia" and "terbia" after the village of Ytterby where the gadolinite had been found. Mosander was not certain of the purity of the oxides and later tests confirmed his uncertainty. Not only did the "yttria" contain yttrium, erbium, and terbium; in the ensuing years, chemists, geologists and spectroscopists discovered five additional elements: ytterbium, scandium, thulium, holmium, and gadolinium.
Erbia and terbia, however, were confused at this time. Marc Delafontaine, a Swiss spectroscopist, mistakenly switched the names of the two elements in his work separating the oxides erbia and terbia. After 1860, terbia was renamed erbia and after 1877 what had been known as erbia was renamed terbia. Fairly pure Er2O3 was independently isolated in 1905 by Georges Urbain and Charles James. Reasonably pure erbium metal was not produced until 1934 when Wilhelm Klemm and Heinrich Bommer reduced the anhydrous chloride with potassium vapor. (Concentration of less abundant elements may vary with location by several orders of magnitude making the relative abundance unreliable). Like other rare earths, this element is never found as a free element in nature but is found in monazite and bastnäsite ores. developed in the late 20th century have greatly reduced the cost of production of all rare-earth metals and their chemical compounds.
The principal commercial sources of erbium are from the minerals xenotime and euxenite, and most recently, the ion adsorption clays of southern China. Consequently, China has now become the principal global supplier of this element. In the high-yttrium versions of these ore concentrates, yttrium is about two-thirds of the total by weight, and erbia is about 4–5%. When the concentrate is dissolved in acid, the erbia liberates enough erbium ion to impart a distinct and characteristic pink color to the solution. This color behavior is similar to what Mosander and the other early workers in the lanthanides saw in their extracts from the gadolinite minerals of Ytterby.
==Production==
Crushed minerals are attacked by hydrochloric or sulfuric acid that transforms insoluble rare-earth oxides into soluble chlorides or sulfates. The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) to pH 3–4. Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed. After that the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths into their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3. The solution is treated with magnesium nitrate to produce a crystallized mixture of double salts of rare-earth metals. The salts are separated by ion exchange. In this process, rare-earth ions are sorbed onto suitable ion-exchange resin by exchange with hydrogen, ammonium or cupric ions present in the resin. The rare earth ions are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent. Common applications of erbium lasers in dentistry include ceramic cosmetic dentistry and removal of brackets in orthodontic braces; such laser applications have been noted as more time-efficient than performing the same procedures with rotary dental instruments.
Erbium-doped optical silica-glass fibers are the active element in erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs), which are widely used in optical communications. The same fibers can be used to create fiber lasers. In order to work efficiently, erbium-doped fiber is usually co-doped with glass modifiers/homogenizers, often aluminium or phosphorus. These dopants help prevent clustering of Er ions and transfer the energy more efficiently between excitation light (also known as optical pump) and the signal. Co-doping of optical fiber with Er and Yb is used in high-power Er/Yb fiber lasers. Erbium can also be used in erbium-doped waveguide amplifiers. An erbium-nickel alloy Er3Ni has an unusually high specific heat capacity at liquid-helium temperatures and is used in cryocoolers; a mixture of 65% Er3Co and 35% Er0.9Yb0.1Ni by volume improves the specific heat capacity even more.
Erbium oxide has a pink color, and is sometimes used as a colorant for glass, cubic zirconia and porcelain. The glass is then often used in sunglasses and jewellery, or where infrared absorption is needed. or as a burnable poison in nuclear fuel design.
==Biological role and precautions==
Erbium does not have a biological role, but erbium salts can stimulate metabolism. Humans consume 1 milligram of erbium a year on average. The highest concentration of erbium in humans is in the bones, but there is also erbium in the human kidneys and liver. Ingestion and inhalation are the main routes of exposure to erbium and other rare earths, as they do not diffuse through unbroken skin.
|
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] |
9,479 |
Einsteinium
|
Einsteinium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Es and atomic number 99 and is a member of the actinide series and the seventh transuranium element.
Einsteinium was discovered as a component of the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952. Its most common isotope, einsteinium-253 (Es; half-life 20.47 days), is produced artificially from decay of californium-253 in a few dedicated high-power nuclear reactors with a total yield on the order of one milligram per year. The reactor synthesis is followed by a complex process of separating einsteinium-253 from other actinides and products of their decay. Other isotopes are synthesized in various laboratories, but in much smaller amounts, by bombarding heavy actinide elements with light ions. Due to the small amounts of einsteinium produced and the short half-life of its most common isotope, there are no practical applications for it except basic scientific research. In particular, einsteinium was used to synthesize, for the first time, 17 atoms of the new element mendelevium in 1955.
Einsteinium is a soft, silvery, paramagnetic metal. Its chemistry is typical of the late actinides, with a preponderance of the +3 oxidation state; the +2 oxidation state is also accessible, especially in solids. The high radioactivity of Es produces a visible glow and rapidly damages its crystalline metal lattice, with released heat of about 1000 watts per gram. Studying its properties is difficult due to Es's decay to berkelium-249 and then californium-249 at a rate of about 3% per day. The longest-lived isotope of einsteinium, Es (half-life 471.7 days) would be more suitable for investigation of physical properties, but it has proven far more difficult to produce and is available only in minute quantities, not in bulk. Einsteinium is the element with the highest atomic number which has been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form as einsteinium-253.
Ghiorso and co-workers analyzed filter papers which had been flown through the explosion cloud on airplanes (the same sampling technique that had been used to discover Pu). Larger amounts of radioactive material were later isolated from coral debris of the atoll, and these were delivered to the U.S. Nevertheless, element 99, einsteinium, and in particular Es, could be detected via its characteristic high-energy alpha decay at 6.6 MeV. The discovery of the new elements and the associated new data on multiple neutron capture were initially kept secret on the orders of the U.S. military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions and competition with Soviet Union in nuclear technologies. However, the rapid capture of so many neutrons would provide needed direct experimental confirmation of the r-process multi-neutron absorption needed to explain the cosmic nucleosynthesis (production) of certain heavy elements (heavier than nickel) in supernovas, before beta decay. Such a process is needed to explain the existence of many stable elements in the universe.
Meanwhile, isotopes of element 99 (as well as of new element 100, fermium) were produced in the Berkeley and Argonne laboratories, in a nuclear reaction between nitrogen-14 and uranium-238, and later by intense neutron irradiation of plutonium or californium:
^{252}_{98}Cf ->[\ce{(n,\gamma)}] ^{253}_{98}Cf ->[\beta^-][17.81 \ce{d}] ^{253}_{99}Es ->[\ce{(n,\gamma)}] ^{254}_{99}Es ->[\beta^-] ^{254}_{100}Fm
These results were published in several articles in 1954 with the disclaimer that these were not the first studies that had been carried out on the elements. The Berkeley team also reported some results on the chemical properties of einsteinium and fermium. The Ivy Mike results were declassified and published in 1955. Nevertheless, the priority of the Berkeley team was generally recognized, as its publications preceded the Swedish article, and they were based on the previously undisclosed results of the 1952 thermonuclear explosion; thus the Berkeley team was given the privilege to name the new elements. As the effort which had led to the design of Ivy Mike was codenamed Project PANDA, element 99 had been jokingly nicknamed "Pandemonium" but the official names suggested by the Berkeley group derived from two prominent scientists, Einstein and Fermi: "We suggest for the name for the element with the atomic number 99, einsteinium (symbol E) after Albert Einstein and for the name for the element with atomic number 100, fermium (symbol Fm), after Enrico Fermi."
==Characteristics==
===Physical===
Einsteinium is a synthetic, silvery, radioactive metal. In the periodic table, it is located to the right of the actinide californium, to the left of the actinide fermium and below the lanthanide holmium with which it shares many similarities in physical and chemical properties. Its density of 8.84 g/cm is lower than that of californium (15.1 g/cm) and is nearly the same as that of holmium (8.79 g/cm), despite einsteinium being much heavier per atom than holmium. Einsteinium's melting point (860 °C) is also relatively low – below californium (900 °C), fermium (1527 °C) and holmium (1461 °C). Einsteinium is a soft metal, with a bulk modulus of only 15 GPa, one of the lowest among non-alkali metals.
Unlike the lighter actinides californium, berkelium, curium and americium, which crystallize in a double hexagonal structure at ambient conditions; einsteinium is believed to have a face-centered cubic (fcc) symmetry with the space group Fmm and the lattice constant . However, there is a report of room-temperature hexagonal einsteinium metal with and , which converted to the fcc phase upon heating to 300 °C. These processes may contribute to the relatively low density and melting point of einsteinium. Further, due to the small size of available samples, the melting point of einsteinium was often deduced by observing the sample being heated inside an electron microscope. Thus, surface effects in small samples could reduce the melting point.
The metal is trivalent and has a noticeably high volatility. In order to reduce the self-radiation damage, most measurements of solid einsteinium and its compounds are performed right after thermal annealing. Also, some compounds are studied under the atmosphere of the reductant gas, for example HO+HCl for EsOCl so that the sample is partly regrown during its decomposition.
^{253}_{99}Es ->[\alpha][20 \ce{d}] ^{249}_{97}Bk ->[\beta^-][314 \ce{d}] ^{249}_{98}Cf
Thus, most einsteinium samples are contaminated, and their intrinsic properties are often deduced by extrapolating back experimental data accumulated over time. Other experimental techniques to circumvent the contamination problem include selective optical excitation of einsteinium ions by a tunable laser, such as in studying its luminescence properties.
Magnetic properties have been studied for einsteinium metal, its oxide and fluoride. All three materials showed Curie–Weiss paramagnetic behavior from liquid helium to room temperature. The effective magnetic moments were deduced as for EsO and for the EsF, which are the highest values among actinides, and the corresponding Curie temperatures are 53 and 37 K.
===Chemical===
Like all actinides, einsteinium is rather reactive. Its trivalent oxidation state is most stable in solids and aqueous solution where it induces a pale pink color. The existence of divalent einsteinium is firmly established, especially in the solid phase; such +2 state is not observed in many other actinides, including protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, curium and berkelium. Einsteinium(II) compounds can be obtained, for example, by reducing einsteinium(III) with samarium(II) chloride.
===Isotopes===
Eighteen isotopes and four nuclear isomers are known for einsteinium, with mass numbers 240–257. All are radioactive; the most stable one, Es, has half-life 471.7 days. The next most stable isotopes are Es (half-life 275.7 days), Es (39.8 days), and Es (20.47 days). All the other isotopes have half-lives shorter than 40 hours, most shorter than 30 minutes. Of the five isomers, the most stable is Es with a half-life of 39.3 hours.
===Nuclear fission===
Einsteinium has a high rate of nuclear fission that results in a low critical mass. This mass is 9.89 kilograms for a bare sphere of Es, and can be lowered to 2.9 kg by adding a 30-centimeter-thick steel neutron reflector, or even to 2.26 kg with a 20-cm-thick reflector made of water. However, even this small critical mass far exceeds the total amount of einsteinium isolated so far, especially of the rare Es.
===Natural occurrence===
Due to the short half-life of all isotopes of einsteinium, any primordial einsteinium—that is, einsteinium that could have been present on Earth at its formation—has long since decayed. Synthesis of einsteinium from naturally-occurring uranium and thorium in the Earth's crust requires multiple neutron capture, an extremely unlikely event. Therefore, all einsteinium on Earth is produced in laboratories, high-power nuclear reactors, or nuclear testing, and exists only within a few years from the time of the synthesis.
Einsteinium was theoretically observed in the spectrum of Przybylski's Star. However, the lead author of the studies finding einsteinium and other short-lived actinides in Przybylski's Star, Vera F. Gopka, admitted that "the position of lines of the radioactive elements under search were simply visualized in synthetic spectrum as vertical markers because there are not any atomic data for these lines except for their wavelengths (Sansonetti et al. 2004), enabling one to calculate their profiles with more or less real intensities." The signature spectra of einsteinium's isotopes have since been comprehensively analyzed experimentally (in 2021), though there is no published research confirming whether the theorized einsteinium signatures proposed to be found in the star's spectrum match the lab-determined results.
==Synthesis and extraction==
Einsteinium is produced in minute quantities by bombarding lighter actinides with neutrons in dedicated high-flux nuclear reactors. The world's major irradiation sources are the 85-megawatt High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), Tennessee, U.S., and the SM-2 loop reactor at the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors (NIIAR) in Dimitrovgrad, Russia, which are both dedicated to the production of transcurium (Z>96) elements. These facilities have similar power and flux levels, and are expected to have comparable production capacities for transcurium elements, though the quantities produced at NIIAR are not widely reported. In a "typical processing campaign" at ORNL, tens of grams of curium are irradiated to produce decigram quantities of californium, milligrams of berkelium (Bk) and einsteinium and picograms of fermium.
The first microscopic sample of Es sample weighing about 10 nanograms was prepared in 1961 at HFIR. A special magnetic balance was designed to estimate its weight. Larger batches were produced later starting from several kilograms of plutonium with the einsteinium yields (mostly Es) of 0.48 milligram in 1967–1970, 3.2 milligrams in 1971–1973, followed by steady production of about 3 milligrams per year between 1974 and 1978. These quantities however refer to the integral amount in the target right after irradiation. Subsequent separation procedures reduced the amount of isotopically pure einsteinium roughly tenfold. An alternative route involves bombardment of uranium-238 with high-intensity nitrogen or oxygen ion beams.
Es (half-life 4.55 min) was produced by irradiating Am with carbon or U with nitrogen ions. The latter reaction was first realized in 1967 in Dubna, Russia, and the involved scientists were awarded the Lenin Komsomol Prize.
Es was produced by irradiating Cf with deuterium ions. It mainly β-decays to Cf with a half-life of minutes, but also releases 6.87-MeV α-particles; the ratio of β's to α-particles is about 400.
\ce{^{249}_{98}Cf + ^{2}_{1}H -> ^{248}_{99}Es + 3^{1}_{0}n} \quad \left( \ce{^{248}_{99}Es ->[\epsilon][27 \ce{min}] ^{248}_{98}Cf} \right)
Es were obtained by bombarding Bk with α-particles. One to four neutrons are released, so four different isotopes are formed in one reaction.
^{249}_{97}Bk ->[+\alpha] ^{249,250,251,252}_{99}Es
Es was produced by irradiating a 0.1–0.2 milligram Cf target with a thermal neutron flux of (2–5)×10 neutrons/(cm·s) for 500–900 hours:
^{252}_{98}Cf ->[\ce{(n,\gamma)}] ^{253}_{98}Cf ->[\beta^-][17.81 \ce{d}] ^{253}_{99}Es
In 2020, scientists at ORNL created about 200 nanograms of Es; allowing some chemical properties of the element to be studied for the first time.
===Synthesis in nuclear explosions===
thumb|upright=1.4|left|Estimated yield of transuranium elements in the U.S. nuclear tests Hutch and Cyclamen
Of the nine underground tests between 1962 and 1969, the last one was the most powerful and had the highest yield of transuranics. Milligrams of einsteinium that would normally take a year of irradiation in a high-power reactor, were produced within a microsecond. Shafts were drilled at the site before the test in order to accelerate sample collection after explosion, so that explosion would expel radioactive material from the epicenter through the shafts and to collecting volumes near the surface. This method was tried in two tests and instantly provided hundreds of kilograms of material, but with actinide concentration 3 times lower than in samples obtained after drilling. Whereas such method could have been efficient in scientific studies of short-lived isotopes, it could not improve the overall collection efficiency of the produced actinides.
Though no new elements (except einsteinium and fermium) could be detected in the nuclear test debris, and the total yields of transuranics were disappointingly low, these tests did provide significantly higher amounts of rare heavy isotopes than previously available in laboratories.
===Separation===
Separation procedure of einsteinium depends on the synthesis method. In the case of light-ion bombardment inside a cyclotron, the heavy ion target is attached to a thin foil, and the generated einsteinium is simply washed off the foil after the irradiation. However, the produced amounts in such experiments are relatively low. The yields are much higher for reactor irradiation, but there, the product is a mixture of various actinide isotopes, as well as lanthanides produced in the nuclear fission decays. In this case, isolation of einsteinium is a tedious procedure which involves several repeating steps of cation exchange, at elevated temperature and pressure, and chromatography. Separation from berkelium is important, because the most common einsteinium isotope produced in nuclear reactors, Es, decays with a half-life of only 20 days to Bk, which is fast on the timescale of most experiments. Such separation relies on the fact that berkelium easily oxidizes to the solid +4 state and precipitates, whereas other actinides, including einsteinium, remain in their +3 state in solutions.
Trivalent actinides can be separated from lanthanide fission products by a cation-exchange resin column using a 90% water/10% ethanol solution saturated with [[hydrochloric acid (HCl) as eluant. It is usually followed by anion-exchange chromatography using 6 molar HCl as eluant. A cation-exchange resin column (Dowex-50 exchange column) treated with ammonium salts is then used to separate fractions containing elements 99, 100 and 101. These elements can be then identified simply based on their elution position/time, using α-hydroxyisobutyrate solution (α-HIB), for example, as eluant.
The 3+ actinides can also be separated via solvent extraction chromatography, using bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (abbreviated as HDEHP) as the stationary organic phase, and nitric acid as the mobile aqueous phase. The actinide elution sequence is reversed from that of the cation-exchange resin column. The einsteinium separated by this method has the advantage to be free of organic complexing agent, as compared to the separation using a resin column. This can be achieved by reduction of einsteinium(III) fluoride with metallic lithium:
EsF + 3 Li → Es + 3 LiF
However, owing to its low melting point and high rate of self-radiation damage, einsteinium has a higher vapor pressure than lithium fluoride. This makes this reduction reaction rather inefficient. It was tried in the early preparation attempts and quickly abandoned in favor of reduction of einsteinium(III) oxide with lanthanum metal:
EsO + 2 La → 2 Es + LaO
==Chemical compounds==
{|class = wikitable
|+Crystal structure and lattice constants of some Es compounds
!Compound!!Color !! Symmetry!!Space group!!No!!Pearson symbol||a (pm)!!b (pm)!!c (pm)
|-
|EsO|| Colorless||Cubic || C2/c||15 ||mS60 || || ||
|-
|EsCl||Orange||Hexagonal||C2/m || 12|| mS16||727 ||1259 || 681
|-
|EsI||Amber||Hexagonal||R ||148 ||hR24 || 753|| ||2084
|-
|EsOCl|| ||Tetragonal Two other phases, monoclinic and hexagonal, are known for this oxide. The formation of a certain EsO phase depends on the preparation technique and sample history, and there is no clear phase diagram. Interconversions between the three phases can occur spontaneously, as a result of self-irradiation or self-heating. The hexagonal phase is isotypic with lanthanum oxide where the Es ion is surrounded by a 6-coordinated group of O ions. The most stable state is +3 for all halides from fluoride to iodide.
Einsteinium(III) fluoride (EsF) can be precipitated from Es(III) chloride solutions upon reaction with fluoride ions. An alternative preparation procedure is to exposure Es(III) oxide to chlorine trifluoride (ClF) or F gas at a pressure of 1–2 atmospheres and temperature 300–400°C. The EsF crystal structure is hexagonal, as in californium(III) fluoride (CfF) where the Es ions are 8-fold coordinated by fluorine ions in a bicapped trigonal prism arrangement.
Es(III) chloride (EsCl) can be prepared by annealing Es(III) oxide in the atmosphere of dry hydrogen chloride vapors at about 500°C for some 20 minutes. It crystallizes upon cooling at about 425°C into an orange solid with a hexagonal structure of UCl type, where einsteinium atoms are 9-fold coordinated by chlorine atoms in a tricapped trigonal prism geometry. Einsteinium(III) bromide (EsBr) is a pale-yellow solid with a monoclinic structure of AlCl type, where the einsteinium atoms are octahedrally coordinated by bromine (coordination number 6).
2 EsX + H → 2 EsX + 2 HX; X = F, Cl, Br, I
Einsteinium(II) chloride (EsCl), einsteinium(II) bromide (EsBr), and einsteinium(II) iodide (EsI)
===Organoeinsteinium compounds===
Einsteinium's high radioactivity has a potential use in radiation therapy, and organometallic complexes have been synthesized in order to deliver einsteinium to an appropriate organ in the body. Experiments have been performed on injecting einsteinium citrate (as well as fermium compounds) to dogs.
Luminescence of Es ions was however observed in inorganic hydrochloric acid solutions as well as in organic solution with di(2-ethylhexyl)orthophosphoric acid. It shows a broad peak at about 1064 nanometers (half-width about 100 nm) which can be resonantly excited by green light (ca. 495 nm wavelength). The luminescence has a lifetime of several microseconds and the quantum yield below 0.1%. The relatively high, compared to lanthanides, non-radiative decay rates in Es were associated with the stronger interaction of f-electrons with the inner Es electrons.
==Applications==
There is almost no use for any isotope of einsteinium outside basic scientific research aiming at production of higher transuranium elements and superheavy elements.
In 1955, mendelevium was synthesized by irradiating a target consisting of about 10 atoms of Es in the 60-inch cyclotron at Berkeley Laboratory. The resulting Es(α,n)Md reaction yielded 17 atoms of the new element with the atomic number of 101.
The rare isotope Es is favored for production of superheavy elements due to its large mass, relatively long half-life of 270 days, and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms. Hence Es was used as a target in the attempted synthesis of ununennium (element 119) in 1985 by bombarding it with calcium-48 ions at the superHILAC linear particle accelerator at Berkeley, California. No atoms were identified, setting an upper limit for the cross section of this reaction at 300 nanobarns.
{^{254}_{99}Es} + {^{48}_{20}Ca} -> {^{302}_{119}Uue^\ast} -> no\ atoms
Es was used as the calibration marker in the chemical analysis spectrometer ("alpha-scattering surface analyzer") of the Surveyor 5 lunar probe. The large mass of this isotope reduced the spectral overlap between signals from the marker and the studied lighter elements of the lunar surface.
==Safety==
Most of the available einsteinium toxicity data is from research on animals. Upon ingestion by rats, only ~0.01% of it ends in the bloodstream. From there, about 65% goes to the bones, where it would remain for ~50 years if not for its radioactive decay, not to speak of the 3-year maximum lifespan of rats, 25% to the lungs (biological half-life ~20 years, though this is again rendered irrelevant by the short half-life of einsteinium), 0.035% to the testicles or 0.01% to the ovaries – where einsteinium stays indefinitely. About 10% of the ingested amount is excreted. The distribution of einsteinium over bone surfaces is uniform and is similar to that of plutonium.
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9,480 |
Edmund Stoiber
|
Edmund Rüdiger Stoiber (born 28 September 1941) is a German politician who served as the 16th minister-president of the state of Bavaria between 1993 and 2007 and chairman of the Christian Social Union (CSU) between 1999 and 2007. In 2002, he ran for the office of Chancellor of Germany in the federal election, and in one of the narrowest elections in German history lost against Gerhard Schröder. On 18 January 2007, he announced that he would step down as minister-president and as party chairman by 30 September, after having been under fire in his own party for weeks.
==Early life==
Stoiber was born in Oberaudorf in the district of Rosenheim in Bavaria. Prior to entering politics in 1974 and serving in the Bavarian Parliament, he was a lawyer and worked at the University of Regensburg.
==Education and profession==
Stoiber attended the Ignaz-Günther-Gymnasium in Rosenheim, where he received his Abitur (high school diploma) in 1961, although he had to repeat one year for failing Latin. His military service was with the 1st Gebirgsdivision (mountain infantry division) in Mittenwald and Bad Reichenhall and was cut short due to a knee injury. Stoiber then studied political science and (from the fall of 1962) law at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München. In 1967, he passed the state law exam and then worked at the University of Regensburg in criminal law and Eastern European law. He received a doctorate in jurisprudence, and then in 1971 passed the second state examination with distinction.
In 1971, Stoiber joined the Bavarian State Ministry of Development and Environment.
==Political career==
In 1978, Stoiber was elected secretary general of the CSU, a post he held until 1982/83. In this capacity, he served as campaign manager of Franz-Josef Strauss, the first Bavarian leader to run for the chancellorship, in the 1980 national elections. Upon taking office, he nominated Strauss' daughter Monika Hohlmeier as State Minister for Education and Cultural Affairs.
In his capacity as Minister-President, Stoiber served as President of the Bundesrat in 1995/96. In 1998, he also succeeded Theo Waigel as chairman of the CSU.
During Stoiber's 14 years leading Bavaria, the state solidified its position as one of Germany's richest. Already by 1998, under his leadership, the state had privatized more than $3 billion worth of state-owned businesses and used that money to invest in new infrastructure and provide venture capital for new companies. He was widely regarded a central figure in building one of Europe's most powerful regional economies, attracting thousands of hi-tech, engineering and media companies and reducing unemployment to half the national average.
===Candidate for Chancellor, 2002===
In 2002, Stoiber politically outmaneuvered CDU chairwoman, Angela Merkel, and was declared the CDU/CSU's candidate for the office of chancellor by practically the entire leadership of the CSU's sister party CDU, challenging Gerhard Schröder. At that time, Merkel had generally been seen as a transitional chair and was strongly opposed by the CDU's male leaders, often called the party's "crown princess".
In the run up to the 2002 national elections, the CSU/CDU held a huge lead in the opinion polls and Stoiber famously remarked that "...this election is like a football match where it's the second half and my team is ahead by 2–0." However, on election day things had changed. The SPD had mounted a huge comeback, and the CDU/CSU was narrowly defeated (though both the SPD and CDU/CSU had 38.5% of the vote, the SPD was ahead by a small 6,000 vote margin, winning 251 seats to the CDU/CSU's 248). The election was one of modern Germany's closest votes.
Gerhard Schröder was re-elected as chancellor by the parliament in a coalition with the Greens, who had increased their vote share marginally. Many commentators faulted Stoiber's reaction to the floods in eastern Germany, in the run-up to the election, as a contributory factor in his party's poor electoral result and defeat. In addition, Schröder distinguished himself from his opponent by taking an active stance against the upcoming United States-led Iraq War. His extensive campaigning on this stance was widely seen as swinging the election to the SPD in the weeks running up to the election.
===Later political career===
Stoiber subsequently led the CSU to an absolute majority in the 2003 Bavarian state elections, for the third time in a row, winning this time 60.7% of the votes and a two-thirds majority in the Landtag. This was the widest margin ever achieved by a German party in any state.
Between 2003 and 2004, Stoiber served as co-chair (alongside Franz Müntefering) of the First Commission on the modernization of the federal state (Föderalismuskommission I), which had been established to reform the division of powers between federal and state authorities in Germany. In February 2004, he became a candidate of Jacques Chirac and Gerhard Schröder for the presidency of the European Commission but he decided not to run for this office.
Stoiber had ambitions to run again for the chancellorship, but Merkel secured the nomination, and in November 2005 she won the general election. He was slated to join Merkel's first grand coalition cabinet as Economics minister. However, on 1 November 2005, he announced his decision to stay in Bavaria, due to personnel changes on the SPD side of the coalition (Franz Müntefering resigned as SPD chairman) and an unsatisfactory apportionment of competences between himself and designated Science minister Annette Schavan. Stoiber also resigned his seat in the 16th Bundestag, being a member from 18 October to 8 November.
Subsequently, criticism grew in the CSU, where other politicians had to scale back their ambitions after Stoiber's decision to stay in Bavaria. On 18 January 2007, he announced his decision to stand down from the posts of minister-president and party chairman by 30 September. Günther Beckstein, then Bavarian state minister of the interior, succeeded him as minister-president and Erwin Huber as party chairman, defeating Horst Seehofer at a convention at 18 September 2007 with 58,1% of the votes. Both Beckstein and Huber resigned after the 2008 state elections, in which the CSU vote dropped to 43,4% and the party had to form a coalition with another party for the first time since 1966.
==Life after politics==
Stoiber was first appointed in 2007 as a special adviser to European Commission President José Manuel Barroso to chair the "High level group on administrative burdens", made up of national experts, NGOs, business and industry organizations. Quickly nicknamed the "Stoiber Group", it produced a report in July 2014 with several proposals on streamlining the regulatory process. Stoiber was re-appointed in December 2014 by Jean-Claude Juncker to the same role, from which he resigned after one year in late 2015.
Since his retirement from German politics in 2007, Stoiber has worked as a lawyer and held paid and unpaid positions, including: (since 2009)
Donner & Reuschel, Member of the Advisory Board
FC Bayern Munich, Member of the Supervisory Board of the stock corporation and Chairman of the Advisory Board of the club.
German-Russian Raw Materials Forum, Member of the Presidium
Hanns Seidel Foundation, Member
Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings, Member of the Honorary Senate
Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Member of the Board of Trustees
Munich Security Conference, Member of the Advisory Council
Nürnberger Beteiligungs-Aktiengesellschaft, Member of the Supervisory Board
ProSiebenSat.1 Media, Member of the advisory board (since 2011)
Stoiber was a CSU delegate to the Federal Convention for the purpose of electing the President of Germany in 2017.
==Political positions==
===Foreign policy===
In his capacity as Minister-President, Stoiber made 58 foreign trips, including to China (1995, 2003), Israel (2001), Egypt (2001), India (2004, 2007) and South Korea (2007).
In 2002, Stoiber publicly expressed support for the United States in their policy toward Iraq. During his election campaign, he made clear his opposition to war, and his support for the introduction of weapons inspectors to Iraq without preconditions as a way of avoiding war, and he criticized Schröder for harming the German-American alliance by not calling President George W. Bush and discussing the issue privately. He also attacked German Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer for his criticism of the U.S. position.
Stoiber is known for backing Vladimir Putin and there have been comparisons to Gerhard Schröder. One author called Stoiber a "Moscow's Trojan Horse". Putin is known to have given Stoiber "extreme forms of flattery" and privileges such as a private dinner at Putin's residence outside Moscow.
===European integration===
Stoiber has been said to be skeptical of Germany's decision to adopt the euro. In 1997, he joined the minister-presidents of two other German states, Kurt Biedenkopf and Gerhard Schröder, in making the case for a five-year delay in Europe's currency union. When the European Commission recommended that Greece be allowed to join the eurozone in 1998, he demanded that the country be barred from adopting the common currency for several years instead. He is a staunch opponent of Turkey's integration into the European Union, claiming that its non-Christian culture would dilute the Union.
At the same time, Stoiber has repeatedly insisted he is a "good European" who is keen, for instance, on forging an EU-wide foreign policy, replete with a single European army. Earlier, in 1993, he had told German newspapers: "I want a simple confederation. That means the nation-states maintain their dominant role, at least as far as internal matters are concerned."
===Economic policy===
While the conservative wing of the German political spectrum, primarily formed of the CDU and CSU, enjoys considerable support, this support tends to be less extended to Stoiber. He enjoys considerably more support in his home state of Bavaria than in the rest of Germany, where CDU chairwoman Angela Merkel is more popular. This has its reasons: Merkel supports a kind of fiscal conservatism, but a more liberal social policy. Stoiber, on the other hand, favors a more conservative approach to both fiscal and social matters, and while this ensures him the religious vote, strongest in Bavaria, it has weakened his support at the national level.
In 2005, Stoiber successfully lobbied Novartis, the Swiss pharmaceuticals group, to move the headquarters of its Sandoz subsidiary to Munich, making it one of Europe's highest-profile corporate relocations that year as well as a significant boost to Stoiber's attempts to build up Bavaria as a pharmaceuticals and biotechnology center.
During his time as Minister-President of Bavaria, Stoiber pushed for the construction of a roughly 40-kilometer high-speed magnetic-levitation link from Munich's main station to its airport, to be built by Transrapid International, a consortium including ThyssenKrupp and Munich-based Siemens. After he left office, the German federal government abandoned the plans in 2008 because of spiraling costs of as much as €3.4 billion.
===Domestic policy===
Stoiber, as a minister in the state of Bavaria, was widely known for advocating a reduction in the number of asylum seekers Germany accepts, something that prompted critics to label him xenophobic, anti-Turkish and anti-Islam. In the late 1990s, he criticized the incoming Chancellor Gerhard Schröder for saying that he would work hard in the interest of Germans and people living in Germany. Stoiber's remarks drew heavy criticism in the press.
When Germany's Federal Constitutional Court decided in 1995 that a Bavarian law requiring a crucifix to be hung in each of the state's 40,000 classrooms was unconstitutional, Stoiber said he would not order the removal of crucifixes "for the time being", and asserted that he was under no obligation to remove them in schools where parents unanimously opposed such action.
During his 2002 election campaign, Stoiber indicated he would not ban same-sex marriages—sanctioned by the Schröder government—a policy he had vehemently objected to when it was introduced.
===Media policy===
Stoiber has been a staunch advocate of changes in German law that would give more power to owners of private TV channels. In 1995, he publicly called for the abolition of Germany's public television service ARD and a streamlining of its regional services, adding that he and Minister-President Kurt Biedenkopf of Saxony would break the contract ARD has with regional governments if reforms were not undertaken. However, when European Commissioner for Competition Karel van Miert unveiled ideas for reforming the rules governing the financing of public service broadcasters in 1998, Stoiber led the way in rejecting moves to reform established practice.
==Controversies==
===Comments on East Germany===
During the run-up to the German general election in 2005, which was held ahead of schedule, Stoiber created controversy through a campaign speech held in the beginning of August 2005 in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg. He said, "I do not accept that the East [of Germany] will again decide who will be Germany's chancellor. It cannot be allowed that the frustrated determine Germany's fate." People in the new federal states of Germany (the former German Democratic Republic) were offended by Stoiber's remarks. While the CSU attempted to portray them as "misinterpreted", Stoiber created further controversy when he claimed that "if it was like Bavaria everywhere, there wouldn't be any problems. But unfortunately, ladies and gentlemen, we have everywhere some sections of the populace not as intelligent as in Bavaria." The tone of the comments was exacerbated by a perception by some within Germany of the state of Bavaria as "arrogant".
Many, including members of the CDU, attribute Stoiber's comments and behavior as a contributing factor to the CDU's losses in the 2005 general election. He was accused by many in the CDU/CSU of offering "half-hearted" support to Angela Merkel, with some even accusing him of being reluctant to support a female candidate from the East. (This also contrasted unfavorably with Merkel's robust support for his candidacy in the 2002 election.) He has insinuated that votes were lost because of the choice of a female candidate. He came under heavy fire for these comments from press and politicians alike, especially since he himself lost almost 10% of the Bavarian vote—a dubious feat in itself as Bavarians tend to consistently vote conservatively. Nonetheless, a poll has suggested over 9% may have voted differently if the conservative candidate was a man from the West, although this does not clearly show if such a candidate would have gained or lost votes for the conservatives.
===BayernLB activities===
When the Croatian National Bank turned down BayernLB's original bid to take over the local arm of Hypo Alpe-Adria-Bank International, this drew strong criticism from Stoiber, who said the decision was "unacceptable" and a "severe strain" for Bavaria's relations with Croatia. Croatia was seeking to join the European Union at the time. The central bank's board later reviewed and accepted BayernLB's offer of 1.6 billion euros. The investment in Hypo Group Alpe Adria was part of a series of ill-fated investments, which later forced BayernLB to take a 10 billion-euro bailout in the financial crisis.
===Alleged intentions for a coup===
In Wolfgang Schäuble's memoirs Erinnerungen. Mein Leben in der Politik (“Memories. My Life in Politics”), published posthumously in 2024, Schäuble claims that in 2015, at the height of the refugee crisis at the time, Stoiber tried to persuade him to overthrow Chancellor Angela Merkel, in order to become chancellor himself. Stoiber commented on that: “I have had as many personal and confidential conversations with few colleagues in my life from the 1980s until the last few years as with my long-standing and close colleague Wolfgang Schäuble. I have never commented on reports about it and of course that still applies to me today after his death."
==Personal life==
Stoiber is Roman Catholic. He is married to Karin Stoiber. They have three children: Constanze (born 1971, married Hausmann), Veronica (born 1977, married Saß), Dominic (born 1980) and five grandchildren: Johannes (1999), Benedikt (2001), Theresa Marie (2005), Ferdinand (2009) and another grandson (2011).
Stoiber is a keen football fan and operative. In his youth, he played for local football side BCF Wolfratshausen. Stoiber serves as Member of the Supervisory Board of FC Bayern München AG (the stock corporation that runs the professional football section) and Chairman of the Administrative Advisory Board of FC Bayern Munich e.V. (the club that owns the majority of the club corporation).
Before the 2002 election, FC Bayern general manager Uli Hoeneß expressed his support for Stoiber and the CSU. Football legend, former FC Bayern president and DFB vice president Franz Beckenbauer showed his support for Stoiber by letting him join the Germany national football team on their flight home from Japan after the 2002 FIFA World Cup.
==Honours and awards==
1984: Bavarian Order of Merit
1996: Karl Valentin Order
1996: Grand Order of King Dmitar Zvonimir
1999: Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania
2000: Orden wider den tierischen Ernst
2002: Commander of the Legion of Honour
2003: Officer of the Ordre national du Québec
2004: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
2005: Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria
2006: Grand Cross of Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
2007: Large Gold Medal of the province of Upper Austria
2007: Honorary degree awarded by the Sogang University
2008: Steiger Award
2009: Order of Merit of Baden-Württemberg
==Literature==
Michael Stiller: Edmund Stoiber: der Kandidat. Econ, München 2002, .
Jürgen Roth, Peter Köhler: Edmund G. Stoiber: Weltstaatsmann und Freund des Volkes. Eichborn, Frankfurt 2002, .
Jule Philippi: Wer für alles offen ist, ist nicht ganz dicht. Weisheiten des Edmund Stoiber. Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 2007, .
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] |
9,481 |
Erfurt
|
Erfurt () is the capital and largest city of the Central German state of Thuringia, with a population of around 216,000. It lies in the wide valley of the River Gera, in the southern part of the Thuringian Basin, north of the Thuringian Forest, and in the middle of a line of the six largest Thuringian cities (Thüringer Städtekette), stretching from Eisenach in the west, via Gotha, Erfurt, Weimar and Jena, to Gera in the east. Together with Kassel and Göttingen, it is one of the cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants lying closest to the geographic centre of Germany. Erfurt is south-west of Leipzig, north-east of Frankfurt, south-west of Berlin and north of Munich.
Erfurt's old town is one of the best preserved medieval city centres in Germany. The Gera is spanned by the Merchants' Bridge (Krämerbrücke), one of the rare bridges with houses built on it. On the Erfurt Cathedral Hill is the ensemble of Erfurt Cathedral—which houses the world's largest free-swinging medieval bell—and St Severus' Church. Petersberg Citadel is one of the largest and best preserved town fortresses in Central Europe. Erfurt's Old Synagogue is the oldest synagogue in Europe, and together with the , which was only rediscovered in 2007, and the , forms the UNESCO World Heritage Site Jewish-Medieval Heritage of Erfurt.
The city's economy is based on agriculture, horticulture and microelectronics. Its central location has made it a logistics hub for Germany and central Europe. Erfurt hosts the second-largest trade fair in eastern Germany (after Leipzig), as well as the public television children's channel KiKa. The city is on the Via Regia, a medieval trade and pilgrims' road network. Erfurt Main Station is the junction of the Nuremberg–Erfurt and the Erfurt–Leipzig/Halle high-speed lines with the Halle–Bebra railway.
Erfurt was first mentioned in 742, as Saint Boniface founded the diocese. Although the town did not belong to any of the Thuringian states politically, it quickly became the economic centre of the region and was a member of the Hanseatic League. It was part of the Electorate of Mainz during the Holy Roman Empire, and became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1802. From 1949 until 1990 Erfurt was part of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany).
The University of Erfurt was founded in 1379, making it the first university to be established within the geographic area which constitutes modern Germany. It closed in 1816 and was re-established in 1994. Martin Luther (1483–1546) was its most famous student, studying there from 1501 before entering St Augustine's Monastery in 1505. Other noted Erfurters include the medieval philosopher and mystic Meister Eckhart (c. 1260–1328), the Baroque composer Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706) and the sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920).
== History ==
=== Prehistory and antiquity ===
To the west of Erfurt in Frienstedt existed, in the AD era, a big Germanic village, which was found during the construction of a highway. Where they also discovered the oldest Germanic word ever discovered in Central Germany written in runic script was found on a comb from a sacrificial shaft the word: "kaba". From Roman Times, however, they found 200 coins dating back to the third century, plus 150 Roman ceramic fragments and more than 200 fibulae. Also 11 inhumation graves of the Haßleben-Leuna group, which is an archeological cultural group.
The Melchendorf dig in the southern city part showed a settlement from the Neolithic period. The Thuringii inhabited the Erfurt area in c. 480 and gave their name to Thuringia in c. 500.
=== Middle Ages ===
The town is first mentioned in 742 under the name of "Erphesfurt": in that year, Saint Boniface wrote to Pope Zachary to inform him that he had established three dioceses in central Germany, one of them "in a place called Erphesfurt, which for a long time has been inhabited by pagan natives." All three dioceses (the other two were Würzburg and Büraburg) were confirmed by Zachary the next year, though in 755 Erfurt was brought into the diocese of Mainz. That the place was populous already is borne out by archeological evidence, which includes 23 graves and six horse burials from the sixth and seventh centuries.
Throughout the Middle Ages, Erfurt was an important trading town because of its location, near a ford across the Gera river. Together with the other five Thuringian woad towns of Gotha, Tennstedt, Arnstadt and Langensalza it was the centre of the German woad trade, which made those cities very wealthy. Erfurt was the junction of important trade routes: the Via Regia was one of the most used east–west roads between France and Russia (via Frankfurt, Erfurt, Leipzig and Wrocław) and another route in the north–south direction was the connection between the Baltic Sea ports (e. g. Lübeck) and the potent upper Italian city-states like Venice and Milan.
During the tenth and eleventh centuries both the Emperor and the Electorate of Mainz held some privileges in Erfurt. The German kings had an important monastery on Petersberg hill and the Archbishops of Mainz collected taxes from the people. Around 1100, some people became free citizens by paying the annual "" (liberation tax), which marks a first step in becoming an independent city. During the 12th century, as a sign of more and more independence, the citizens built a city wall around Erfurt (in the area of today's ). After 1200, independence was fulfilled and a city council was founded in 1217; the town hall was built in 1275. In the following decades, the council bought a city-owned territory around Erfurt which consisted at its height of nearly 100 villages and castles and even another small town (Sömmerda). Erfurt became an important regional power between the Landgraviate of Thuringia around, the Electorate of Mainz to the west and the Electorate of Saxony to the east. Between 1306 and 1481, Erfurt was allied with the two other major Thuringian cities (Mühlhausen and Nordhausen) in the Thuringian City Alliance and the three cities joined the Hanseatic League together in 1430. A peak in economic development was reached in the 15th century, when the city had a population of 20,000 making it one of the largest in Germany. Between 1432 and 1446, a second and higher city wall was established. In 1483, a first city fortress was built on Cyriaksburg hill in the southwestern part of the town.
In the year 1184, Erfurt was the location of a notable accident called the Erfurter Latrinensturz ('Erfurt latrine fall'). King Henry VI held council in a building of the Erfurt Cathedral to negotiate peace between two of his vassals, Archbishop Konrad I of Mainz and Landgrave Ludwig III of Thuringia. The amassed weight of all the gathered men proved too heavy for the floor to bear, which collapsed. According to contemporary accounts, dozens of people fell to their death into the latrine pit below. Ludwig III, Konrad I and Henry VI survived the affair.
The Jewish community of Erfurt was founded in the 11th century. Together with the Jewish communities in Mainz, Worms and Speyer, it became one of the most influential in Germany. The Old Synagogue is still extant and is a museum today, as is the mikveh at Gera river near . In 1349, during the wave of Black Death Jewish persecutions across Europe, the Jews of Erfurt were rounded up, with more than 100 killed and the rest driven from the city. Before the persecution, a wealthy Jewish merchant buried his property in the basement of his house. In 1998, this treasure was found during construction works. The Erfurt Treasure with various gold and silver objects is shown in the exhibition in the synagogue today. Only a few years after 1349, the Jews moved back to Erfurt and founded a second community, which was disbanded by the city council in 1454. Because of their exceptional testimony to the life of a medieval Jewish community, the Jewish sites in Erfurt were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2023.
In 1379, the University of Erfurt was founded. Together with the University of Cologne it was one of the first city-owned universities in Germany, while they were usually owned by the . Some buildings of this old university are extant or restored in the "Latin Quarter" in the northern city centre (like , student dorms "" and others, the hospital and the church of the university). The university quickly became a hotspot of German cultural life in Renaissance humanism with scholars like Ulrich von Hutten, Helius Eobanus Hessus and Justus Jonas.
=== Early modern period ===
In 1501 Martin Luther (1483–1546) moved to Erfurt and began his studies at the university. After 1505, he lived at St. Augustine's Monastery as a friar. In 1507 he was ordained as a priest in Erfurt Cathedral. He moved permanently to Wittenberg in 1511. Erfurt was an early adopter of the Protestant Reformation, in 1521.
In 1530, the city became one of the first in Europe to be officially bi-confessional with the Hammelburg Treaty. It kept that status through all the following centuries. The later 16th and the 17th century brought a slow economic decline of Erfurt. Trade shrank, the population was falling and the university lost its influence. The city's independence was endangered. In 1664, the city and surrounding area were brought under the dominion of the Electorate of Mainz and the city lost its independence. The Electorate built a huge fortress on Petersberg hill between 1665 and 1726 to control the city and instituted a governor to rule Erfurt.
In 1682 and 1683 Erfurt experienced the worst plague years in its history. In 1683 more than half of the population died because of the deadly disease.
In Erfurt, witch-hunts are known to have taken place from 1526 to 1705. Trial records are incomplete. Twenty people were involved in witch trials, and at least eight people died.
During the late 18th century, Erfurt saw another cultural peak. Governor Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg had close relations with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Johann Gottfried Herder, Christoph Martin Wieland and Wilhelm von Humboldt, who often visited him at his court in Erfurt.
=== Erfurt during the Napoleonic Wars ===
Erfurt became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1802, to compensate for territories Prussia lost to France on the Left Bank of the Rhine. In the Capitulation of Erfurt, the city, its 12,000 Prussian and Saxon defenders under William VI, Prince of Orange-Nassau, 65 artillery pieces, and the Petersberg Citadel and Cyriaksburg Citadel Cyriaksburg, were handed over to the French on 16 October 1806. At the time of the capitulation, Joachim Murat, Marshal of France, had about 16,000 troops near Erfurt. With the attachment of the Saxe-Weimar territory of Blankenhain, the city became part of the First French Empire in 1806 as the Principality of Erfurt, directly subordinate to Napoleon as an "imperial state domain" (), separate from the Confederation of the Rhine, which the surrounding Thuringian states had joined. Erfurt was administered by a civilian and military Senate ()
During their administration, the French introduced street lighting and a tax on foreign horses to pay for maintaining the road surface.
In 1811, to commemorate the birth of the Prince Imperial, a ceremonial column (') of wood and plaster was erected on the common. Similarly, the ' – a Greek-style temple topped by a winged victory with shield, sword and lance and containing a bust of Napoleon sculpted by Friedrich Döll – was erected in the ' woods, including a grotto with fountain and flower beds, using a large pond (') from the ,
Within a week of the Sixth Coalition's decisive victory at Leipzig (16–19 October 1813), however, Erfurt was besieged by Prussian, Austrian and Russian troops under the command of Prussian Lt Gen von Kleist. After a first capitulation signed by d'Alton on 20 December 1813 the French troops withdrew to the two fortresses of Petersberg and Cyriaksburg, the ' ceremonial column was burned and destroyed as a symbol of the citizens' oppression under the French; similarly the ' was burned on 1 November 1813 and completely destroyed by Erfurters and their besiegers in 1814.
The Industrial Revolution reached Erfurt in the 1840s, when the Thuringian Railway connecting Berlin and Frankfurt was built. During the following years, many factories in different sectors were founded. One of the biggest was the "Royal Gun Factory of Prussia" in 1862. After the Unification of Germany in 1871, Erfurt moved from the southern border of Prussia to the centre of Germany, so the fortifications of the city were no longer needed. The demolition of the city fortifications in 1873 led to a construction boom in Erfurt, because it was now possible to build in the area formerly occupied by the city walls and beyond. Many public and private buildings emerged and the infrastructure (such as a tramway, hospitals, and schools) improved rapidly. The number of inhabitants grew from 40,000 around 1870 to 130,000 in 1914, and the city expanded in all directions.
The "Erfurt Program" was adopted by the Social Democratic Party of Germany during its congress at Erfurt in 1891.
Between the wars, the city kept growing. Housing shortages were fought with building programmes and social infrastructure was broadened according to the welfare policy in the Weimar Republic. The Great Depression between 1929 and 1932 led to a disaster for Erfurt, nearly one out of three became unemployed. Conflicts between far-left and far-right-oriented milieus increased and many inhabitants supported the new Nazi government and Adolf Hitler. Others, especially some communist workers, put up resistance against the new administration. In 1938, the new synagogue was destroyed during the . Jews lost their property and emigrated or were deported to Nazi concentration camps (together with many communists). In 1914, the company Topf and Sons began the manufacture of crematoria later becoming the market leader in this industry. Under the Nazis, JA Topf & Sons supplied specially developed crematoria, ovens and associated plants to the Auschwitz-Birkenau, Buchenwald and Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camps. On 27 January 2011 a memorial and museum dedicated to the Holocaust victims was opened at the former company premises in Erfurt.
During World War II, Erfurt experienced more than 27 British and American air raids, about 1600 civilians died. Bombed as a target of the Oil Campaign of World War II, Erfurt suffered only limited damage and was captured on 12 April 1945, by the US 80th Infantry Division. On 3 July, American troops left the city, which then became part of the Soviet Zone of Occupation and eventually of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany). In 1948, Erfurt became the capital of Thuringia, replacing Weimar. In 1952, the in the GDR were dissolved in favour of centralization under the new socialist government. Erfurt then became the capital of a new "" (district). In 1953, the of education was founded, followed by the of medicine in 1954, the first academic institutions in Erfurt since the closing of the university in 1816.
On 19 March 1970, the East and West German heads of government Willi Stoph and Willy Brandt met in Erfurt, the first such meeting since the division of Germany. During the 1970s and 1980s, as the economic situation in GDR worsened, many old buildings in city centre decayed, while the government fought against the housing shortage by building large settlements in the periphery. The Peaceful Revolution of 1989/1990 led to German reunification.
With the re-formation of the state of Thuringia in 1990, the city became the state capital. After reunification, a deep economic crisis occurred in Eastern Germany. Many factories closed and many people lost their jobs and moved to the former West Germany. At the same time, many buildings were redeveloped and the infrastructure improved massively. In 1994, the new university was opened, as was the Fachhochschule in 1991. Between 2005 and 2008, the economic situation improved as the unemployment rate decreased and new enterprises developed. In addition, the population began to increase once again.
A school shooting occurred on 26 April 2002 at the Gutenberg-Gymnasium.
Since the 1990s, organized crime has gained a foothold in Erfurt, with several mafia groups, including the Armenian mafia present in the city. Among other events, there has been a robbery and an arson attack targeting the gastronomy sector and in 2014 there was a shoot-out in an open street.
== Geography ==
=== Topography ===
Erfurt is situated in the south of the Thuringian basin, a fertile agricultural area between the Harz mountains to the north and the Thuringian Forest to the southwest. Whereas the northern parts of the city area are flat, the southern ones consist of hilly landscape up to 430 m of elevation. In this part lies the municipal forest of with beeches and oaks as main tree species. To the east and to the west are some non-forested hills so that the Gera river valley within the town forms a basin. North of the city are some gravel pits in operation, while others are abandoned, flooded and used as leisure areas.
=== Climate ===
Erfurt has an oceanic climate (Cfb) bordering on a humid continental climate (Dfb) according to the Köppen climate classification system. Summers are warm and sometimes humid with average high temperatures of and lows of . Winters are relatively cold with average high temperatures of and lows of . The city's topography creates a microclimate caused by the location inside a basin with sometimes inversion in winter (quite cold nights under ) and inadequate air circulation in summer. Annual precipitation is only with moderate rainfall throughout the year. Light snowfall mainly occurs from December through February, but snow cover does not usually remain for long.
|-
! Nationality || Population
|-
|Ukraine || 3,596
|-
|Syria || 2,315
|-
|Poland || 2,025
|-
|Hungary || 1,435
|-
|Vietnam || 1,252
|-
|Italy || 1,143
|-
|Romania || 1,014
|-
|Afghanistan || 955
|-
|Bulgaria || 943
|-
|Serbia || 737
|}
Around the year 1500, the city had 18,000 inhabitants and was one of the largest cities in the Holy Roman Empire. The population then more or less stagnated until the 19th century. The population of Erfurt was 21,000 in 1820, and increased to 32,000 in 1847, the year of rail connection as industrialization began. In the following decades Erfurt grew up to 130,000 at the beginning of World War I and 190,000 inhabitants in 1950. A maximum was reached in 1988 with 220,000 persons. In 1991, after the German reunification and when Erfurt became the capital of Thuringia state, it had a population of about 205,000. The bad economic situation in eastern Germany after the reunification resulted in a decline in population, which fell to 200,000 in 2002 before rising again to 206,000 in 2011. The average growth of population between 2009 and 2012 was approximately 0.68 % p. a., whereas the population in bordering rural regions is shrinking with accelerating tendency. Suburbanization played only a small role in Erfurt. It occurred after reunification for a short time in the 1990s, but most of the suburban areas were situated within the administrative city borders. Erfurt is also the 10th-largest city in Germany by area with area of .
The birth deficit was 200 in 2012, this is −1.0 per 1,000 inhabitants (Thuringian average: −4.5; national average: −2.4). The net migration rate was +8.3 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2012 (Thuringian average: −0.8; national average: +4.6). The most important regions of origin of Erfurt migrants are rural areas of Thuringia, Saxony-Anhalt and Saxony as well as foreign countries like Poland, Russia, Syria, Afghanistan and Hungary. Erfurt is today one of the popular cities in former East Germany due to its universities and broadcasting companies.
Like other cities within the area of former East Germany, foreigners account only for a small share of Erfurt's population: 3.0 % are non-Germans by citizenship and overall 5.9 % are migrants (according to the 2011 European Union census).
Due to the official atheism of the former communist East German regime, most of the population is non-religious. 14.8 % are members of the Evangelical Church in Central Germany and 6.8 % are Catholics (according to the 2011 EU census). The Jewish community consists of 500 members. Most of them migrated to Erfurt from Russia and Ukraine in the 1990s.
== Culture, sights and cityscape ==
=== Residents notable in cultural history ===
The theologian, philosopher and mystic Meister Eckhart (c. 1260–1328) entered the Dominican monastery () in Erfurt when he was aged about 18 (around 1275). Eckhart was the Dominican prior at Erfurt from 1294 until 1298, and Vicar of Thuringia from 1298 to 1302. After a year in Paris, he returned to Erfurt in 1303 and administered his duties as Provincial of Saxony from there until 1311.
Martin Luther (1483–1546) studied law and philosophy at the University of Erfurt from 1501. He lived in St Augustine's Monastery in Erfurt, as a friar from 1505 to 1511.
Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706) served as organist at the (Preachers Church) in Erfurt from June 1678 until August 1690. Pachelbel composed approximately seventy pieces for organ while in Erfurt.
The city is the birthplace of one of Johann Sebastian Bach's cousins, Johann Bernhard Bach, as well as Johann Sebastian Bach's father Johann Ambrosius Bach. Bach's parents were married in 1668 in the (Merchant's Church) that still exists on the main square of .
Alexander Müller (1808–1863), pianist, conductor and composer, was born in Erfurt. He later moved to Zürich where he served as leader of the General Music Society's subscription concerts series.
Max Weber (1864–1920) was born in Erfurt. He was a sociologist, philosopher, lawyer, and political economist whose ideas have profoundly influenced modern social theory and social research.
After 1906 the composer Richard Wetz (1875–1935) lived in Erfurt and became the leading person in the city's musical life. His major works were written here, including three symphonies, a Requiem and a Christmas Oratorio.
The textile designer Margaretha Reichardt (1907–1984) was born and died in Erfurt. She studied at the Bauhaus from 1926 to 1930, and while there worked with Marcel Breuer on his innovative chair designs. Her former home and weaving workshop in Erfurt, the Margaretha Reichardt Haus, is now a museum, managed by the Angermuseum Erfurt.
Famous contemporary musicians from Erfurt are Clueso, the Boogie Pimps and Yvonne Catterfeld.
=== Museums ===
Erfurt has a great variety of museums:
The ' (municipal museum) shows aspects of Erfurt's history with a focus on the Middle Ages, early modern history, Martin Luther and the university. Other parts of the are the ' (new mill), an old water mill still in operation, and the (Benary's magazine) with an exhibition of old printing machines.
The (Old Synagogue) is one of the oldest synagogue buildings in Europe. It is now a museum of local Jewish history. It houses facsimiles of medieval Hebrew manuscripts and the Erfurt Treasure, a hoard of coins and goldsmiths' work that is assumed to have belonged to Jews who hid them in 1349 at the time of the Black Death pogroms.
The (Topf and Sons memorial) is on the site of the factory of the company which constructed crematoria for Auschwitz and other concentration camps. Its exhibitions explore the collaboration of a civilian company with the National Socialist regime in the Holocaust.
Memorial and Education Centre Andreasstrasse, (Stasi Museum). On the site of the former Erfurt Stasi prison, where over 5000 people were held. On 4 December 1989, the building was occupied by local residents. It was the first of many such takeovers of Stasi buildings in the former East Germany. Today it has exhibitions on the history of East Germany and the activities of its regime.
The Angermuseum is one of the main art museums of Erfurt, named after Anger Square, where it is located. It focuses on modern graphic arts, medieval sculpture and early modern artisanal handicraft.
The (Erfurt City Art Gallery) has exhibitions of contemporary art, of local, national and international artists.
The Margaretha Reichardt Haus is the home and workshop of the textile designer and former Bauhaus student, Margaretha Reichardt (1907–1984).
The (Saint Peter's church) houses an exhibition of concrete art, i.e. totally abstract art (not art made out of concrete).
The (German Horticulture Museum) is housed at the Cyriaksburg Citadel.
The (Natural History Museum) is situated in a medieval woad warehouse and explores Thuringian flora and fauna, geology and ecology.
The (Museum of Folk Art and Cultural Anthropology) looks at the ordinary life of people in Thuringia in the past and shows exhibits of peasant and artisan traditions.
The (Museum of Electrical Engineering) shows the history of electric engines, which have featured prominently in Erfurt's economy.
in the district of Molsdorf is a Baroque palace with an exhibition about the painter .
===Image gallery===
File:Erfurt Stadtmuseum Haus zum Stockfisch.jpg|
File:Angermuseum Erfurt2.JPG|
File:Naturkundemuseum Erfurt Eingangtor.jpg|
File:Defensionskaserne 3.jpg|
File:Erfurt, Museum für Thüringer Volkskunde.jpg|
File:Erinnerungsort Topf und Söhne Erfurt.JPG|J.A. Topf & Söhne museum and holocaust memorial site
File:Stasi Memorial Andreasstraße Erfurt.JPG|Memorial and Education Centre Andreasstrasse, former Stasi prison
File:Schloss Molsdorf 01.jpg|
=== Theatre ===
Since 2003, the modern opera house is home to Theater Erfurt and its Philharmonic Orchestra. The "grand stage" section has 800 seats and the "studio stage" can hold 200 spectators. In September 2005, the opera Waiting for the Barbarians by Philip Glass premiered in the opera house. The Erfurt Theatre has been a source of controversy. In 2005, a performance of Engelbert Humperdinck's opera stirred up the local press since the performance contained suggestions of pedophilia and incest. The opera was advertised in the programme with the addition "for adults only".
On 12 April 2008, a version of Verdi's opera directed by Johann Kresnik opened at the Erfurt Theatre. The production stirred deep controversy by featuring nude performers in Mickey Mouse masks dancing on the ruins of the World Trade Center and a female singer with a painted on Hitler toothbrush moustache performing a straight arm Nazi salute, along with sinister portrayals of American soldiers, Uncle Sam, and Elvis Presley impersonators. The director described the production as a populist critique of modern American society, aimed at showing up the disparities between rich and poor. The controversy prompted one local politician to call for locals to boycott the performances, but this was largely ignored and the première was sold out.
=== Sport ===
The Messe Erfurt serves as home court for the Oettinger Rockets, a professional basketball team in Germany's first division, the Basketball Bundesliga.
Notable types of sport in Erfurt are athletics, ice skating, cycling (with the oldest velodrome in use in the world, opened in 1885), swimming, handball, volleyball, tennis and football. The city's football club is member of and based in with a capacity of 20,000. The was the second indoor speed skating arena in Germany.
=== Cityscape ===
Erfurt's cityscape features a medieval core of narrow, curved alleys in the centre surrounded by a belt of architecture, created between 1873 and 1914. In 1873, the city's fortifications were demolished and it became possible to build houses in the area in front of the former city walls. In the following years, Erfurt saw a construction boom. In the northern area (districts Andreasvorstadt, Johannesvorstadt and Ilversgehofen) tenements for the factory workers were built whilst the eastern area (Krämpfervorstadt and Daberstedt) featured apartments for white-collar workers and clerks and the southwestern part (Löbervorstadt and Brühlervorstadt) with its beautiful valley landscape saw the construction of villas and mansions of rich factory owners and notables.
During the interwar period, some settlements in Bauhaus style were realized, often as housing cooperatives.
After World War II and over the whole GDR period, housing shortages remained a problem even though the government started a big apartment construction programme. Between 1970 and 1990 large settlements with high-rise blocks on the northern (for 50,000 inhabitants) and southeastern (for 40,000 inhabitants) periphery were constructed. After reunification the renovation of old houses in city centre and the areas was a big issue. The federal government granted substantial subsidies, so that many houses could be restored.
Compared to many other German cities, little of Erfurt was destroyed in World War II. This is one reason why the centre today offers a mixture of medieval, Baroque and Neoclassical architecture as well as buildings from the last 150 years.
Public green spaces are located along Gera river and in several parks like the ', the ' and the . The largest green area is the , a horticultural exhibition park and botanic garden established in 1961.
=== Sights and architectural heritage ===
==== Churches, monasteries and synagogues ====
The city centre has about 25 churches and monasteries, most of them in Gothic style, some also in Romanesque style or a mixture of Romanesque and Gothic elements, and a few in later styles. The various steeples characterize the medieval centre and led to one of Erfurt's nicknames as the "Thuringian Rome".
=====Catholic churches and monasteries=====
The (All Saints' Church) is a 14th-century Gothic church in (Market Street), which hosts a columbarium.
The (St Mary's Cathedral) perches above , the Cathedral Square. It is the episcopal see and one of the main sights of Erfurt. It combines Romanesque and Gothic elements and has the largest free-swinging medieval bell in the world, which is named Gloriosa. One of the works of art inside the cathedral is Lucas Cranach the Elder's 'The Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine' painted around 1520.
The (St Lawrence's Church) is a small 14th-century Gothic parish church at Square.
The (St Martin's Church) was built in the 15th century in Gothic style and in 1755–58 converted to Baroque style. It was both a Cistercian nunnery and a parish church of , a medieval suburban zone.
The ("church of the new facility", Holy Cross Church) is a 15th-century Gothic church at , that was later converted to Baroque style. Until the 13th century, it was used by a convent of Augustinian nuns.
The (Scots Monks' Church of St Nicholas and St James) is an 11th-century Romanesque monastery church with a Baroque façade, which was later used as a parish church.
The (St Severus' Church) is the second-largest parish church after the cathedral and stands next to it on the hill. It is in Gothic style and was built around 1300.
The , St Ursula's Church, is a Gothic church at Square. It is attached to the , St Ursula's Nunnery, founded in 1136.
The (St Wigbert's Church) is a 15th-century Gothic church near Square.
Allerheiligenkirche Erfurt.jpg|All Saints' Church
Erfurt Lorenzkirche vom Anger.jpg|St Lawrence's Church
Martinikirche.jpg|St Martin's Church
Erfurt - Neuwerkskirche.jpg|Holy Cross Church
Schottenkirche Erfurt.jpg|Schottenkirche
Erfurt, Severikirche vom Petersberg gesehen-002.jpg|St Severus' Church
Landtagprojekt Thueringen Erfurt 2011 (RaBoe) 110.jpg|Ursulines Church
Wigbertikirche Erfurt2.JPG|St Wigbert's Church
=====Protestant churches and monasteries=====
(St Giles' Church) is a 14th-century Gothic parish church at Square. It is the surviving one of formerly two bridge-head churches of the located on both ends of the bridge. As a result, the nave is on the first floor, while on ground level is a passage to the bridge. The steeple is open to the public and offers a good view over the city centre. Today, St Giles' Church is a Methodist parish church.
(St Andrew's Church) is a 14th-century Gothic parish church at (Andrew's Street). The old craftsmen's quarter around it is named after the church.
(St Augustine's Monastery) dates from 1277. Martin Luther lived there as a monk between 1505 and 1511. The site has had a varied history and the restored complex has both modern and medieval buildings. Today it belongs to the Protestant Church in Germany and as well as being a place of worship it is also a meeting and conference centre, and provides simple guest accommodation. In 2016, an application was made for it to be included in the already existing UNESCO World Heritage Site "Luther sites in Central Germany".
The (Merchant's Church of St Gregory) is a 14th-century Gothic parish church at square. It is one of the largest and most important original parish churches in Erfurt. The parents of Johann Sebastian Bach, Johann Ambrosius Bach and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt, married here in 1668.
(St Michael's Church) is a 13th-century Gothic parish church at . It became the church of the university in 1392. Erfurt's first Protestant sermon was preached here in 1521. The church tower contains Erfurt's oldest bell "Katharina", The baroque composer Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706) was organist at the church from 1678 until 1690.
The (Regulated St Augustine's Church) is a 12th-century Romanesque-Gothic monastery church of the Augustinians at (Station Street). After the Reformation, it became a Protestant parish church.
File:Erfurt kosciol sw Idziego 2.jpg|St Giles' Church
File:Erfurt, Andreaskirche-002.jpg|St Andrew's Church
File:Augustinerkirche Erfurt.jpg|St Augustine's Church
File:Erfurt, Kaufmannskirche 001.JPG|Merchants' Church
File:J24 082e Michaeliskirche.jpg|St Michael's Church
File:Erfurt Predigerkirche (2).JPG|Dominican Church
File:Reglerkirche Erfurt.jpg|Regulated St Augustine's Church
=====Former churches=====
The is a 14th-century Gothic mendicant church at . The former Franciscan monastery became a Protestant parish church after the Reformation. In 1944, the church was severely damaged by allied bombing. Its high choir was restored, but the nave's ruins have been preserved as a war memorial.
The (St Bartholomew's Church) was a Gothic parish church at Square. The church was demolished in 1715 and only the steeple remained. Today, the tower hosts a carillon with 60 bells.
The (St George's Church) was a parish church in Michaelisstraße. It was demolished in 1632 and only the church tower now remains.
The ' (Hospital Church) was the church of the former Great City Hospital at '. It is a 14th-century Gothic building and is used today as a depot by the Museum für Thüringer Volkskunde (Museum of Thuringian Ethnology).
The (St John's Church) was a parish church at John's Street. It was demolished in 1819, but the steeple remained.
The ' (Carthusian Church, Mount St Saviour) was a monastery church at '. The Baroque church was closed in 1803 and afterwards used for many different purposes. Today, it is part of a housing complex.
The (St Nicholas' Church) was a parish church in Augustine's Street. It was demolished in 1747 and only the steeple remained.
The (St Paul's Church) was a parish church in Paul's Street. It was demolished before 1759. The steeple remains and is in use as the belfry of the Prediger Church.
The (St Peter's Church) was built in the 12th century in Romanesque style as a church of the Benedictine monastery of St Peter and Paul on Petersberg hill, now the site of Petersberg Citadel. It was secularised in 1803 and used as a military store house. Today it houses an art gallery.
File:Barfüßerkirche Erfurt 2011-03-19.jpg|Ruins of the former Franciscan monastery's church
File:Bartholomäusturm Erfurt.jpg|St Bartholomew's steeple
File:Hospitalkirche "Zum Heiligen Geist" Erfurt 8.jpg|Hospital Church
File:Westportal-Kartaeuserkirche-Erfurt-2015-05.jpg|Carthusian Church
File:Nicolaiturm.jpg|St Nicholas' steeple
File:Paulsturm.jpg|St Paul's steeple
File:Peterskirche Erfurt 1.jpg|St Peter's Church
=====Synagogues=====
The oldest parts of Erfurt's Alte Synagoge (Old Synagogue) date to the 11th century. It was used until 1349 when the Jewish community was destroyed in a pogrom known as the Erfurt Massacre. The building had many other uses since then. It was conserved in the 1990s and in 2009 it became a museum of Jewish history. The Jewish heritage of Erfurt including the Old Synagogue and Mikveh became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in September 2023 and is the second Jewish heritage in Germany that is listed on UNESCO.
As religious freedom was granted in the 19th century, some Jews returned to Erfurt. They built their synagogue on the banks of the Gera river and used it from 1840 until 1884. The neoclassical building is known as the Kleine Synagoge (Small Synagogue). Today it is used an events centre. It is also open to visitors.
A larger synagogue, the Große Synagoge (Great Synagogue), was opened in 1884 because the community had become larger and wealthier. This moorish style building was destroyed during nationwide Nazi riots, known as on 9–10 November 1938.
In 1947 the land which the Great Synagogue had occupied was returned to the Jewish community and they built their current place of worship, the Neue Synagoge (New Synagogue) which opened in 1952. It was the only synagogue building erected under communist rule in East Germany.
File:Alte Synagoge Erfurt.JPG|Old Synagogue
File:Kleine Synagoge Erfurt2.JPG|Small Synagogue
File:Synagoge Erfurt.JPG|New Synagogue
==== Secular architecture ====
Besides the religious buildings there is a lot of historic secular architecture in Erfurt, mostly concentrated in the city centre, but some 19th- and 20th-century buildings are located on the outskirts.
=====Street and square ensembles=====
The (Merchants' bridge) is the most famous tourist attraction of Erfurt. This 15th-century bridge is completely covered with dwellings and unique in Europe north of the Alps. Today, there are some art handicraft and souvenir shops in the houses.
The ' (Cathedral Square) is the largest square in Erfurt and one of the largest historical market squares in Germany. The cathedral and St Severus' Church on its western side can be reached over the ', a wide flight of stairs. On the north side lies the courthouse, a historic building from 1880. The eastern and southern side is fronted by early-modern patrician houses. On the square are the Minerva Fountain from 1784 and the Erthal Obelisk from 1777. The Domplatz is the main setting of the Erfurt Christmas Market in December and the location for "DomStufen-Festival", an open-air theatre festival in summer.
The ' (Fish Market) is the central square of Erfurt's city centre. It is surrounded by renaissance-style patrician houses and the town hall, a neo-gothic building from 1882. In the middle of the square is a statue called ' (Roman), a symbol of the city's independence, erected by the citizens in 1591.
The (Minor Market) is a small square on the east side of the Gera river (opposite to the Fischmarkt on the west side), surrounded by early-modern patrician and merchants' houses. The fountain on this square with the sculpture "Scuffling Boys" was created in 1975. Today, square also has various cafés and bars. Next to the in is the building, a neoclassicistic event hall from 1831 (current building). The Congress of Erfurt took place here in 1808.
The (originally the German term for "village green") is a protracted square in the eastern city centre. All tram lines are linked here, so that it became the new city centre during the 20th century with many important buildings. On its northern side is the main post office, built in 1886 in neo-gothic style with its prominent clock tower. In the north-east there is the Martin Luther monument from 1889 in front of the Merchants' Church. Between the church and the Ursuline monastery lies the "Anger 1" department store from 1908. On the south side next to Station Street is the , the art history museum of Erfurt, inside a Baroque palace from 1711. The western part of Anger square is surrounded by large historicist business houses from the late 19th century. The west end of the square is marked by the Angerbrunnen fountain from 1890. The Jesuit College near was built in 1737 and used until the ban of the Jesuits in 1773.
The Willy Brandt Square is the southern gate to the city centre in front of the main station. Opposite to the station is the former hotel , where the first meeting of the East- and West-German heads of government took place in 1970. On the western side is the building of the old Erfurt station (1847–95) with a clock tower and the former offices of the Thuringian Railway Company.
The ' (Deer Garden) is a small park in front of the Thuringian government seat in the western city centre. The minister-president's seat is the ', a Renaissance-Baroque palace from the 17th century.
The (Michael's Street) is known as "the lithic chronicle of Erfurt", because of its mostly medieval buildings. It is the main street of the Latin quarter around the old university and today one of the favourite nightlife districts of the Erfurters with various bars, restaurants and cafés. The central building of the old university, , was built in 1515, destroyed by Allied bombs in 1945 and originally rebuilt in 1999.
The is an inner-city circular road following the former inner city wall. The road was set out in the 1890s by closing a branch of the Gera river. The buildings along the street originate from all periods of the 20th century, including some GDR-era highrise residence buildings. An old building complex here is the former Great Hospital, established in the 14th century. Today, it hosts the museum of popular art and cultural anthropology.
The (St Andrew's Quarter) is a small quarter in the northern part of the city centre between in the south-west and in the north-east. It was the former craftsmen quarter with narrow alleys and old (16th/17th century) little houses. During the 20th century, there were plans to demolish the quarter because of its bad housing conditions. After 1990, the houses were redeveloped by private individuals so that it is one of the favourite neighbourhoods today. The largest building here is the former Municipal Corn Storage in Gothic style from 1466 with a floor area of .
File:Krämerbrücke Erfurt II, Germany2.jpg|
File:P1010412-Montage.jpg|Christmas market at
File:Haus zum Roten Ochsen Fischmarkt.jpg|
File:Wenigemarkt Erfurt.JPG|
File:Hauptpost Erfurt2.JPG|Post office at
File:Angermuseum Erfurt2.JPG|
File:2011-05-19-erfurt-by-RalfR-44.jpg|
=====Fortifications=====
From 1066 until 1873 the old town of Erfurt was encircled by a fortified wall. About 1168 this was extended to run around the western side of Petersberg hill, enclosing it within the city boundaries.
After German Unification in 1871, Erfurt became part of the newly created German Empire. The threat to the city from its Saxon neighbours and from Bavaria was no longer present, so it was decided to dismantle the city walls. Only a few remnants remain today. A piece of inner wall can be found in a small park at the corner Juri-Gagarin-Ring and Johannesstraße and another piece at the flood ditch (Flutgraben) near Franckestraße. There is also a small restored part of the wall in the Brühler Garten, behind the Catholic orphanage. Only one of the wall's fortified towers was left standing, on Boyneburgufer, but this was destroyed in an air raid in 1944.
The is a smaller citadel south-west of the city centre, dating from 1480. Today, it houses the German horticulture museum.
=====19th- and 20th-century architecture in the outskirts=====
Between 1873 and 1914, a belt of ' architecture emerged around the city centre. The mansion district in the south-west around , and hosts some interesting ' and Art Nouveau buildings.
The "Mühlenviertel" ("mill quarter"), is an area of beautiful Art Nouveau apartment buildings, cobblestone streets and street trees just to the north of the old city, in the vicinity of Nord Park, bordered by the Gera river on its east side. The Schmale Gera stream runs through the area. In the Middle Ages numerous small enterprises using the power of water mills occupied the area, hence the name "Mühlenviertel", with street names such as Waidmühlenweg (woad, or indigo, mill way), Storchmühlenweg (stork mill way) and Papiermühlenweg (paper mill way).
The Bauhaus style is represented by some housing cooperative projects in the east around and and in the north around . Lutherkirke Church in (1927), is an Art Deco building.
The former malt factory "Wolff" at in the east of Erfurt is a large industrial complex built between 1880 and 1939, and in use until 2000. A new use has not been found yet, but the area is sometimes used as a location in movie productions because of its atmosphere.
Examples of Nazi architecture include the buildings of the (Thuringian parliament) and (an event hall) in the south at . While the building (1930s) represents more the neo-Roman/fascist style, (1940s) is marked by some neo-Germanic style elements.
The Stalinist early-GDR style is manifested in the main building of the university at (1953) and the later more international modern GDR style is represented by the horticultural exhibition centre "" at , the housing complexes like Rieth or and the redevelopment of and area along in the city centre.
The current international glass and steel architecture is dominant among most larger new buildings like the Federal Labour Court of Germany (1999), the new opera house (2003), the new main station (2007), the university library, the Erfurt Messe (convention centre) and the ice rink.
File:Ernst-Toller-Straße Erfurt.JPG| tenements in district
File:Brunnen Jacobsenviertel Erfurt.JPG|Cubistic fountain in a Bauhaus housing complex
File:Lutherkirche Erfurt2.JPG|Art Deco Luther's Church
File:ThüringerLandtag.jpg|Entrance of the Thuringian parliament
File:Audimax-Foyer der Universität Erfurt.jpg|Lobby of the university main building
File:Statue Johannesplatz Erfurt.JPG|GDR architecture in district
File:2011-05-19-bundesarbeitsgericht-by-RalfR-24.jpg|Inner yard of the Federal Labour Court
== Economy and infrastructure ==
During recent years, the economic situation of the city improved: the unemployment rate declined from 21% in 2005 to 9% in 2013. Nevertheless, some 14,000 households with 24,500 persons (12% of population) are dependent upon state social benefits (Hartz IV).
=== Agriculture, industry and services ===
Farming has a great tradition in Erfurt: the cultivation of woad made the city rich during the Middle Ages. Today, horticulture and the production of flower seeds is still an important business in Erfurt. There is also growing of fruits (like apples, strawberries and sweet cherries), vegetables (e.g. cauliflowers, potatoes, cabbage and sugar beets) and grain on more than 60% of the municipal territory.
=== Transport ===
==== By rail ====
The ICE railway network puts Erfurt 1 hours from Berlin, 2 hours from Frankfurt, 2 hours from Dresden, and 45 minutes from Leipzig. In 2017, the ICE line to Munich opened, making the trip to Erfurt main station only 2 hours.
There are regional trains from Erfurt to Weimar, Jena, Gotha, Eisenach, Bad Langensalza, Magdeburg, Nordhausen, Göttingen, Mühlhausen, Würzburg, Meiningen, Ilmenau, Arnstadt, and Gera.
In freight transport there is an intermodal terminal in the district of Vieselbach () with connections to rail and the autobahn.
==== By road ====
The two Autobahnen crossing each other nearby at Erfurter Kreuz are the Bundesautobahn 4 (Frankfurt–Dresden) and the Bundesautobahn 71 (Schweinfurt–Sangerhausen). Together with the east tangent both motorways form a circle road around the city and lead the interregional traffic around the centre. Whereas the A 4 was built in the 1930s, the A 71 came into being after the reunification in the 1990s and 2000s. In addition to both motorways there are two Bundesstraßen: the Bundesstraße 7 connects Erfurt parallel to A 4 with Gotha in the west and Weimar in the east. The Bundesstraße 4 is a connection between Erfurt and Nordhausen in the north. Its southern part to Coburg was annulled when A 71 was finished (in this section, the A 71 now effectively serves as B 4). Within the circle road, B 7 and B 4 are also annulled, so that the city government has to pay for maintenance instead of the German federal government. The access to the city is restricted as since 2012 for some vehicles. Large parts of the inner city are a pedestrian area which can not be reached by car (except for residents).
==== By light rail and bus ====
The Erfurt public transport system is marked by the area-wide (light rail) network, established as a tram system in 1883, upgraded to a light rail () system in 1997, and continually expanded and upgraded through the 2000s. Today, there are six Stadtbahn lines running every ten minutes on every light rail route.
Additionally, Erfurt operates a bus system, which connects the sparsely populated outer districts of the region to the city center. Both systems are organized by SWE EVAG, a transit company owned by the city administration. The public service, managed by SWE/EVAG, is guaranteed by buses and trams in service from morning until late evening, with a night service starting from midnight until 4AM.
==== By airplane ====
Erfurt-Weimar Airport lies west of the city centre. It is linked to the central train station via Stadtbahn (tram). It was significantly extended in the 1990s, with flights mostly to Mediterranean holiday destinations and to London during the peak Christmas market tourist season. Connections to longer haul flights are easily accessible via Frankfurt Airport, which can be reached in 2 hours via a direct train from Frankfurt Airport to Erfurt, and from Leipzig/Halle Airport, which can be reached within half an hour.
==== By bike ====
Biking is becoming increasingly popular since construction of high quality cycle tracks began in the 1990s. There are cycle lanes for general commuting within Erfurt city.
Long-distance trails, such as the Gera track and the (Thuringian cities trail), connect points of tourist interest. The former runs along the Gera river valley from the Thuringian Forest to the river Unstrut; the latter follows the medieval Via Regia from Eisenach to Altenburg via Gotha, Erfurt, Weimar, and Jena.
The Rennsteig Cycle Way was opened in 2000. This designated high-grade hiking and bike trail runs along the ridge of the Thuringian Central Uplands. The bike trail, about long, occasionally departs from the course of the historic Rennsteig hiking trail, which dates back to the 1300s, to avoid steep inclines. It is therefore about longer than the hiking trail.
The Rennsteig is connected to the E3 European long distance path, which goes from the Atlantic coast of Spain to the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria, and the E6 European long distance path, running from Arctic Finland to Turkey.
=== Education ===
After reunification, the educational system was reorganized. The University of Erfurt, founded in 1379 The university has an international reputation and participates in international student exchange programmes.
The Fachhochschule Erfurt, is a university of applied sciences, founded in 1991, which offers a combination of academic training and practical experience in subjects such as social work and social pedagogy, business studies, and engineering. There are nearly 5,000 students in six faculties, of which the faculty of landscaping and horticulture has a national reputation.
The International University of Applied Sciences Bad Honnef – Bonn (IUBH), is a privately run university with a focus on business and economics. It merged with the former Adam-Ries-Fachhochschule in 2013.
The world renowned Bauhaus design school was founded in 1919 in the city of Weimar, approximately from Erfurt, 12 minutes by train. The buildings are now part of a World Heritage Site and are today used by the Bauhaus-Universität Weimar, which teaches design, arts, media and technology-related subjects.
Furthermore, there are eight ', six state-owned, one Catholic and one Protestant (Evangelisches Ratsgymnasium Erfurt). One of the state-owned schools is a ', an elite boarding school for young talents in athletics, swimming, ice skating or football. Another state-owned school, , offers a focus in sciences as an elite boarding school in addition to the common curriculum.
=== Media ===
The German national public television children's channel KiKa is based in Erfurt.
MDR, Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk, a radio and television company, has a broadcast centre and studios in Erfurt.
The Thüringer Allgemeine is a statewide newspaper that is headquartered in the city.
== Politics ==
=== Mayor and city council ===
The first freely elected mayor after German reunification was Manfred Ruge of the Christian Democratic Union, who served from 1990 to 2006. From 2006 to 2024, Andreas Bausewein of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) was mayor. Andreas Horn (CDU) was elected in 2024. The most recent mayoral election was held on 26 May 2024, with a runoff held on 9 June, and the results were as follows:
! rowspan=2 colspan=2| Candidate
! rowspan=2| Party
! colspan=2| First round
! colspan=2| Second round
|-
! Votes
! %
! Votes
! %
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Andreas Horn
| align=left| Christian Democratic Union
| 28,224
| 28.4
| 59,913
| 64.2
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Andreas Bausewein
| align=left| Social Democratic Party
| 22,563
| 22.7
| 33,433
| 35.8
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Stefan Möller
| align=left| Alternative for Germany
| 19,275
| 19.4
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Matthias Bärwolff
| align=left| The Left
| 12,742
| 12.8
|-
|
| align=left| Jana Rötsch
| align=left| Better City Erfurt
| 12,447
| 12.5
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| David Maicher
| align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens
| 4,098
| 4.1
|-
! colspan=3| Valid votes
! 99,349
! 98.8
! 93,346
! 95.9
|-
! colspan=3| Invalid votes
! 1,196
! 1.2
! 3,831
! 4.1
|-
! colspan=3| Total
! 100,545
! 100.0
! 97,177
! 100.0
|-
! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout
! 169,899
! 59.2
! 169,569
! 57.3
|-
| colspan=7 align=right| Source: 1st round, 2nd round
|}
The most recent city council election was held on 9 June 2024, and the results were as follows:
! colspan=2| Party
! Lead candidate
! Votes
! %
! +/-
! Seats
! +/-
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
| align=left| Andreas Horn
| 71,551
| 24.8
| 5.2
| 12
| 2
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
| align=left| Stefan Möller
| 58,911
| 20.4
| 5.5
| 10
| 3
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
| align=left| Andreas Bausewein
| 46,834
| 16.2
| 0.9
| 8
| 1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
| align=left| Matthias Bärwolff
| 42,733
| 14.8
| 1.7
| 8
| 0
|-
|
| align=left| Better City Erfurt (M)
| align=left| Jana Rötsch
| 29,098
| 10.1
| 2.8
| 4
| 1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
| align=left| Laura Wahl
| 21,721
| 7.5
| 4.3
| 4
| 2
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
| align=left| Stefanie Hantke
| 7,296
| 2.5
| 2.9
| 1
| 2
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Free Voters (FW)
| align=left| Peter Stampf
| 6,111
| 2.1
| 2.9
| 1
| 1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Pirate Party/ÖDP (Piraten/ÖDP)
| align=left| Peter Städter
| 4,831
| 1.9
| 0.2
| 1
| 0
|-
! colspan=3| Valid votes
! 289,086
! 100.0
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=3| Total ballots
! 100,530
! 100.0
!
! 50
! ±0
|-
! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout
! 169,887
! 59.2
! 0.8
!
!
|-
| colspan=8| Source: Wahlen in Thüringen
|}
==Twin towns – sister cities==
Erfurt is twinned with:
Győr, Hungary (1971)
Vilnius, Lithuania (1972)
Kalisz, Poland (1982)
Mainz, Germany (1988)
Lille, France (1991)
Shawnee, United States (1993)
San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina (1993)
Lovech, Bulgaria (1996)
Haifa, Israel (2000)
Xuzhou, China (2005)
Kati, Mali (2011)
== Notable people ==
See: List of people from Erfurt
==Footnotes==
|
[
"Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor",
"Confederation of the Rhine",
"Bienstädt",
"Wilhelm von Humboldt",
"Great Depression",
"Dresden",
"Kleinmölsen",
"Saxony-Anhalt",
"Willy Brandt",
"Großmölsen",
"Győr",
"Munich",
"Kati",
"steeple",
"Basketball Bundesliga",
"Messe Erfurt",
"Electorate of Saxony",
"Xuzhou",
"German reunification",
"St Martin's Church, Erfurt",
"3. Fußball-Liga",
"Greek Revival architecture",
"Speyer",
"Alliance 90/The Greens",
"World Heritage List",
"church bell",
"Runes",
"Richard Wetz",
"Republic of Venice",
"Oil Campaign of World War II",
"Halle–Bebra railway",
"Johann Sebastian Bach",
"Augustinians",
"Büraburg",
"Thuringia",
"capital punishment",
"Baltic Sea",
"San Miguel de Tucumán",
"Altenburg",
"Helius Eobanus Hessus",
"Czech Republic",
"Sangerhausen",
"Kristallnacht",
"siege",
"Memorial and Education Centre Andreasstrasse",
"Mönchenholzhausen",
"Neoclassical architecture",
"Speed skating rink",
"German Empire",
"Peaceful Revolution",
"Free Voters",
"Magdeburg",
"Black Death",
"Weimar Republic",
"Ecological Democratic Party",
"Adolf Hitler",
"FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt",
"Giuseppe Verdi",
"Vilnius",
"Congress of Erfurt",
"Alexander Müller (composer)",
"Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz",
"Bad Langensalza",
"Gera",
"Erfurt school massacre",
"Born Feinkost",
"Ulrich von Hutten",
"Kaufmannskirche",
"Shawnee, Kansas",
"Christoph Martin Wieland",
"convent",
"Kassel",
"Christmas Oratorio",
"Cyriaksburg Citadel",
"Free Democratic Party (Germany)",
"2011 European Union census",
"St Andrew's Church, Erfurt",
"Max Weber",
"Lovech",
"Electorate of Mainz",
"Barfüßerkirche, Erfurt",
"Kalisz",
"Uncle Sam",
"Zimmernsupra",
"Gera (river)",
"Marshal of France",
"columbarium",
"Social Democratic Party of Germany",
"Erfurter Latrinensturz",
"Isatis tinctoria",
"Ancient Rome",
"Gothic architecture",
"Congress of Vienna",
"Meister Eckhart",
"synagogue",
"Erfurt Hauptbahnhof",
"Lucas Cranach the Elder",
"Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway",
"Johann Wolfgang von Goethe",
"Haifa",
"Bamberg",
"concrete art",
"Communism",
"Göttingen",
"Holy Roman Empire",
"Province of Saxony",
"Sömmerda (district)",
"Jewish-Medieval Heritage of Erfurt",
"de:s:Hauptschluß der außerordentlichen Reichsdeputation vom 25. Februar 1803",
"Pope Zachary",
"German Democratic Republic",
"Neuwerkskirche",
"column",
"Sister city",
"Methodism",
"Topf and Sons",
"Gymnasium (Germany)",
"Lille",
"Christian Democratic Union of Germany",
"Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg",
"Renaissance humanism",
"Boogie Pimps",
"Nuremberg",
"Leipzig",
"Schweinfurt",
"2022 European heatwaves",
"UNESCO",
"Auschwitz-Birkenau",
"Martin Luther",
"Revolutions of 1848 in the German states",
"World War I",
"Justus Jonas",
"The Daily Telegraph",
"Der Spiegel (website)",
"de:Thüringer Städtekette",
"Neolithic period",
"The Left (Germany)",
"Black Death Jewish persecutions",
"Protestantism",
"Ilmenau",
"Coburg",
"Alternative for Germany",
"Johann Bernhard Bach",
"Erfurt–Leipzig/Halle high-speed railway",
"Sömmerda",
"gravel pit",
"Friedrich Graf Kleist von Nollendorf",
"Zürich",
"Unstrut",
"Yvonne Catterfeld",
"Fachhochschule",
"Oettinger Rockets",
"Milan",
"Friedrich Wilhelm Eugen Döll",
"Erfurt Treasure",
"Evangelical Church in Central Germany",
"Elvis Presley",
"court-martial",
"Schottenkirche, Erfurt",
"Autobahn",
"Reglerkirche",
"University of Cologne",
"Erfurt Program",
"Schmale Gera",
"Auschwitz",
"Niederzimmern",
"Stasi",
"Nöda",
"Thüringer Allgemeine",
"J.A. Topf & Söhne",
"Bundesstraße 4",
"Weimarer Land",
"University of Erfurt",
"organ (music)",
"Steigerwaldstadion",
"East Germany",
"Mauthausen-Gusen",
"Riethnordhausen, Thuringia",
"wikt:sutler",
"World Heritage Site",
"Hänsel und Gretel (opera)",
"de:Kurmainzische Statthalterei",
"Ilm-Kreis",
"Bundesautobahn 4",
"Mendicant orders",
"E6 European long distance path",
"Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt",
"street light",
"road surface",
"Lionel Leventhal",
"Protestant Church in Germany",
"Alperstedt",
"Willi Stoph",
"Weimar",
"Buchenwald",
"Middle Ages",
"Nesse-Apfelstädt",
"Fibula (brooch)",
"St Severus' Church, Erfurt",
"Thuringian basin",
"Nohra",
"logistics",
"Nazism",
"Köppen climate classification",
"St Michael's Church, Erfurt",
"Central place theory",
"Holy Roman Emperor",
"Un ballo in maschera",
"Landgraviate of Thuringia",
"Napoleon II",
"Frankfurt Airport",
"Mühlhausen",
"Bad Tennstedt",
"Hartz concept",
"Johann Gottfried Herder",
"Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann",
"States of Germany",
"Petersberg Citadel",
"Industrial Revolution",
"Bauhaus-Universität Weimar",
"Udestedt",
"Predigerkirche (Erfurt)",
"Bundesautobahn 71",
"Reformation",
"St Bartholomew's Church, Erfurt",
"Armenian mafia",
"World Trade Center (1973–2001)",
"Mikveh",
"Erfurt massacre (1349)",
"Plattenbau",
"latrine",
"Walschleben",
"Saxe-Weimar",
"Braugold",
"Napoleon",
"Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach",
"Mickey Mouse",
"ford (river)",
"tenement",
"Andreas Bausewein",
"inversion (meteorology)",
"Erfurt–Weimar Airport",
"Harz",
"Blankenhain",
"Thuringian Forest",
"All Saints' Church, Erfurt",
"Erfurt Stadtbahn",
"Erfurt Cathedral",
"de:Belagerung von Erfurt (1813)",
"humid continental climate",
"Plzeň",
"Leipzig Halle Airport",
"Old Synagogue (Erfurt)",
"Engelbert Humperdinck (composer)",
"Alexander I of Russia",
"Frankfurt",
"bust (sculpture)",
"80th Infantry Division (United States)",
"Benedictine",
"List of people from Erfurt",
"West Germany",
"the Holocaust",
"woad",
"diocese",
"Marcel Breuer",
"Johann Pachelbel",
"Germanic peoples",
"Hanseatic League",
"Naturkundemuseum Erfurt",
"St. Augustine's Monastery (Erfurt)",
"Principality of Erfurt",
"War of the Sixth Coalition",
"Witterda",
"Hildesheim",
"Clueso",
"Saint Boniface",
"Hochschule",
"KiKa",
"Via Regia",
"Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk",
"Art Deco",
"Hanover",
"E3 European long distance path",
"Thuringian Basin",
"Romanesque architecture",
"Low-emission zone",
"Dominican Order",
"Catholic Church",
"Eisenach",
"Allied Occupation Zones in Germany",
"Bundesstraße",
"William I of the Netherlands",
"Waiting for the Barbarians (opera)",
"Fagus sylvatica",
"de:Zitadelle Cyriaksburg",
"common land",
"Rockhausen",
"Stefan Möller",
"Quercus robur",
"Braunschweig",
"First French Empire",
"St Wigbert's Church, Erfurt",
"International University of Applied Sciences Bad Honnef - Bonn",
"St Lawrence's Church, Erfurt",
"de:Peterskirche (Erfurt)",
"Intercity-Express",
"Bauhaus",
"Amt Wachsenburg",
"St Giles' Church, Erfurt",
"Rennsteig Cycle Way",
"Johann Ambrosius Bach",
"Maria Gloriosa",
"Territorial lord",
"National Library of Israel",
"Mainz",
"Meiningen",
"Friedrich Schiller",
"oceanic climate",
"Nazi concentration camps",
"Louis Spohr",
"Margaretha Reichardt",
"Bundesstraße 7",
"Kirchheim, Thuringia",
"Erfurt-Weimar Airport",
"Franciscans",
"intermodal freight transport",
"Pirate Party Germany",
"German Unification",
"light rail",
"Lübeck",
"Ducat",
"fr:Alexandre d'Alton",
"Kingdom of Prussia",
"Thuringii",
"episcopal see",
"Prior (ecclesiastical)",
"Erfurt Trade Fair",
"Halle (Saale)",
"capital (political)",
"nobility of the First French Empire",
"Angermuseum",
"Nottleben",
"battle of Leipzig",
"Krämerbrücke",
"Protestant Reformation",
"Wrocław",
"temple",
"Berlin",
"Hammelburg",
"World War II",
"Central Germany (cultural area)",
"Elxleben",
"Theater Erfurt",
"Klettbach",
"Würzburg",
"Cistercians",
"Gotha (district)",
"mikveh",
"carillon",
"Arnstadt",
"Baroque architecture",
"Großrudestedt",
"Jena",
"Prussia",
"witch-hunt",
"Philip Glass",
"village green",
"Worms, Germany",
"Gotha",
"Erfurt (Bezirk)",
"Nordhausen, Thuringia",
"Anthropomorphism",
"Gründerzeit",
"Gotha (town)",
"Thuringian Railway",
"Melchendorf",
"Wittenberg",
"Capitulation of Erfurt",
"Unification of Germany",
"Winged Victory of Samothrace",
"Saxony",
"Erfurt Union",
"Left Bank of the Rhine",
"Joachim Murat"
] |
9,482 |
Enya
|
Eithne Pádraigín Ní Bhraonáin (born 17 May 1961; anglicised as Enya Patricia Brennan) known mononymously as Enya, is an Irish singer and composer. With an estimated equivalent of over 90 million album sales worldwide, Enya is the best-selling Irish solo artist, and the second-best-selling music act from Ireland overall, after the rock band U2. Her music has been widely recognised for its use of multi-layers of her own vocals and instrumentation, lengthened reverb, and interwoven elements of Celtic music.
Raised in the Irish-speaking region of Gweedore, Enya began her musical career in 1980 playing alongside her family's Irish folk band Clannad. She left Clannad in 1982 to pursue a solo career, working with the former Clannad manager and producer, Nicky Ryan, and his wife Roma, as their lyricist. Over the following four years, Enya further developed her sound by combining multitracked vocals and keyboards with elements from a variety of musical genres, such as Celtic, classical, church, jazz, hip-hop, ambient, world, and Irish folk. Her earliest solo releases were two piano/synthesiser instrumentals for the Touch Travel T4 cassette compilation (1984) composed around 1982–83. The majority of the soundtrack for The Frog Prince (1985) was originally composed by Enya, and she sang two songs with lyrics for the project. Enya had also composed a body of work for a documentary series by the BBC named The Celts. A selection of Enya's pieces for The Celts were released as her self-titled debut album in 1986, with the documentary and BBC Records releases in 1987.
The chairman of Warner Music at the time, Rob Dickins, enjoyed listening to Enya's music for The Celts and signed her with Warner Music UK. The initial record deal granted her considerable artistic freedom and minimal interference. The success of her second studio album, Watermark (1988), propelled Enya to worldwide fame, primarily through her international hit single "Orinoco Flow (Sail Away)". In the following decade and up to the new millennium, she released the multi-million-selling albums Shepherd Moons (1991), The Memory of Trees (1995), and A Day Without Rain (2000). Sales of A Day Without Rain and its lead single, "Only Time", surged in the United States following its use in media coverage of the September 11 attacks. Her subsequent releases included Amarantine (2005), And Winter Came... (2008) and Dark Sky Island (2015).
"Boadicea", a track from her eponymous album, appeared in the soundtrack of Stephen King's 1992 horror film Sleepwalkers and has since been sampled in several hit songs, including "Ready or Not" (1996) by Fugees and "I Don't Wanna Know" (2004) featuring Mario Winans, which became the second Number 1 single featuring Enya, in the UK charts. The song, featuring both the synthesiser and Enya humming the melody, continues to be sampled almost 4 decades since its first release in 1986.
Enya's accolades include four Grammy Awards, six World Music Awards, and she holds the record as the most-nominated female Irish artist at the BRIT Awards, with four nominations. "May It Be", her composition from the soundtrack of The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), received a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. In March 2025, Enya received the RTÉ Choice Music Prize Classic Irish Album award, with her 1988 breakthrough album Watermark. Enya wrote a speech read on her behalf, notably thankful to the new generation of listeners to her music.
==Early life==
Eithne Pádraigín Ní Bhraonáin was born in the Dore area of Gaoth Dobhair (Gweedore) in County Donegal on 17 May 1961. She is the sixth of nine children in the Brennan family of musicians, born to Máire "Baba" and Leopold "Leo" Brennan. In 1968, the couple took ownership of a pub in Meenaleck, Co. Donegal, naming it Leo's Tavern. Leo Brennan was the leader of an Irish showband named the Slieve Foy Band, before performing solo. Baba Brennan (née Duggan) is said to have Spanish roots with ancestors who settled on Tory Island Enya's mother also taught music at Gweedore Community School.
thumb|left|Leo's Tavern, the pub owned by Enya's family, currently under the proprietorship of her younger brother Bartley. with "Enya" being the phonetic spelling of how "Eithne" is pronounced in the Donegal [[Ulster Irish|Ulster dialect.
The name Brennan was accidentally added to Leo's name at his birth registration in 1925; his family name was Hardin; Leo used Brennan for the surname of his children. In Irish, the surname is "Ó Braonáin"/"Ní" Bhraonáin - corresponding to "son of"/"daughter of Brennan". Leo's father Harry Hardin was a pianist, and he died performing on stage. Enya's paternal grandmother, Minna Lenehan, played the drums. They were both believed to have been born in England. Regarding Baba's parents, Enya's maternal grandfather, Aodh (anglicised as Hugh; affectionately addressed as Hughie or "Gog") was the headmaster of the primary school in Dore; her grandmother, Mháire Duggan (anglicised as Mary; née Gillespie) was a teacher. Aodh was also the founder of the Aisteoiri Ghaodobhair, the Gweedore Theatre company. Enya's songs "On Your Shore" and "Smaointe" (first released as the Orinoco Flow B-side track "Smaoitím") are dedicated to both her maternal grandmother and grandfather.
Along with the siblings' enjoyment of their childhood spent in Gweedore, they also grew up amid the Troubles. Enya recalls that when her family visited shops in Derry for instance, 'you’d be checked by people standing with guns', and even speaking in Irish in Derry was 'pinpointing where you came from, and it was too political at the time. Whereas for [Enya and siblings] it was our first language, and we didn’t see anything wrong with it.'
One particular memory of a very early public performance of singing at age five was recounted by Enya in her 2016 Wall Street Journal article. At the theatre, contestants would 'perform two songs, starting with a slow one and finishing with a fast one [...] songs we were taught in primary school.' Enya's mother was the pianist, and provided the starting notes for each person performing. By mistake, Enya 'began with the fast song. I didn’t realize my error until I saw my mother’s frown. I stopped singing and covered my mouth. There was silence, followed by laughter.' Enya then 'sang the right song. When I finished, there was a pause and I sang the fast song again. I won the contest [...] determined to get it right, and the audience’s laughter didn’t deter me.'
Enya's brother Ciarán also mentions that when the siblings were younger, before having a tape recorder, as Moya and Enya sang, he would play piano, 'give them two-part harmonies and say, "You go into the kitchen, you go into the bathroom" and they were fascinated by this because musically it was very melodic, even though they wouldn't finally hear their parts until they sang together.'
From the age of 11, Enya attended a convent boarding school in Milford, Milford College, Enya's education there was paid for by her grandfather.
==Career==
===1980–1982: Clannad===
In 1970, several members of Enya's family formed Clannad, a Celtic folk band. Clannad hired Nicky Ryan as their manager, sound engineer, and producer, and Ryan's girlfriend (later his wife) Roma as tour manager and administrator. In 1980, after a year at college, Enya decided not to go to university and pursue a music degree, and instead accepted Nicky Ryan's invitation to play alongside the band Clannad, with him having wanted to expand their sound with keyboards and an additional vocalist. Enya performed an uncredited role on their sixth studio album, Crann Úll (1980), with a line-up of her eldest siblings Moya, Pól, and Ciarán Brennan, and twin uncles Noel and Pádraig Duggan. She features in their follow-up, Fuaim (1982), singing lead vocals on the song "An Túll" (The Apple).
The membership status of Enya in Clannad is a matter of some dispute. In a late 2000s interview, Ciarán mentioned that Enya was a 'hired hand' and not a full member, commenting that 'she was 18, 19 and we were paying her £500 sterling a week.' In a BBC Radio Ulster interview with Moya in late 2023, she also noted that Enya was considered a hired hand with Clannad. Nicky Ryan also said it was not his intention to make Enya a permanent member, as she was 'fiercely independent [...] intent on playing her own music. She was just not sure of how to go about it.'
Nicky discussed the idea of layering vocals to create a "choir of one" with Enya, a concept inspired by Phil Spector's Wall of Sound technique that had interested them both. He recalled: 'It was short and only required a vote, I was a minority of one and lost. Roma and I were out. This left the question of what happened with Enya. I decided to stand back and say nothing.' The split caused some friction between the parties but, in time, they settled their differences. After their bank denied them a loan, Enya reportedly sold her saxophone, which she had been learning to play at the time, and also gave piano lessons as a source of income. Nicky Ryan used what they could afford to build a recording facility in the Ryans' garden shed, formerly a Scout hut, which they named "Aigle Studio", after the French word for eagle.
Shortly after leaving Clannad and thus the family home in Gweedore, Enya lived with the Ryans from 1982, until 1989, when she was able to buy a penthouse apartment in Killiney.
Enya and the Ryans rented out the original Aigle Studio out to other musicians to help recoup the costs. The trio formed a musical and business partnership, with Nicky as Enya's producer and arranger and Roma as her lyricist. In the following two years, Enya developed her technique and composition by listening to recordings of her reciting pieces of classical music and repeated this process until she started to improvise sections and develop her own arrangements.
Following her departure from Clannad in 1982, Enya (as Eithne Ní Bhraonáin) featured on tracks alongside a few artists, often on keyboards or backing vocals, with Nicky Ryan as producer. She played the Prophet-5 synthesiser on the group Altan's Ceol Aduaidh, led by Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and the late Frankie Kennedy.That year, Enya had the original offer from Mike Oldfield to sing on a new song of his, likely to have been "Moonlight Shadow". Supposedly due to existing contract clashes, she had to decline, so Oldfield later approached Scottish singer Maggie Reilly who sang on the record for Oldfield. An Irish folk-type song named "Bailieboro and Me", penned by Charlie McGettigan, features Enya singing backing vocals on a 1982 recording, primarily credited as Eithne Ní Bhraonáin playing the grand piano for the song.
Enya's first solo endeavours began around 1982-83, when she began to compose two piano instrumentals, "An Ghaoth Ón Ghrian" (Irish for "The Solar Wind") and "Miss Clare Remembers". Both were recorded at Windmill Lane Studios in Dublin and released on Touch Travel (1984), a limited-release cassette compilation of music from various artists on the UK Touch label. She is credited as Eithne Ní Bhraonáin in the liner notes.
After several months of preparation, Enya's first live solo performance took place at the National Stadium in Dublin on 23 September 1983, and was televised for RTÉ's music show Festival Folk. Niall Morris, a musician who worked with her during this time, recalled she 'was so nervous she could barely get on stage, and she cowered behind the piano until the gig was over.' Morris assisted Enya in the production of a demo tape, adding additional keyboards to her compositions.
Roma thought the music would suit accompanying visuals and sent it to various film producers. Among them was David Puttnam, after Roma had read an interview where he stated a particular interest in strong melodies. Puttnam liked the tape and offered Enya to compose the soundtrack to the upcoming romantic comedy film, The Frog Prince (1984), directed by Brian Gilbert. The spelling as "Enya" for her began in 1983. Nicky Ryan suggested this phonetic spelling of her name,
Enya's earliest interviews in English as a solo artist began in 1986. Whatever direction her music would take, she believed in being a 'true Celt at heart' and stated that 'any music I write, whether it be a pop song or a classical piece, would be Celtic music.'
===1985–1989: The Celts and Watermark===
In 1985, producer Tony McAuley asked Enya to contribute a track for the six-part BBC television documentary series The Celts. She had already written a Celtic-influenced song called "March of the Celts", and Nicky Ryan submitted it to the project. Each episode was to feature a different composer at first, but director David Richardson liked her track so much that he had Enya score the entire series. Enya recorded 72 minutes of music at Aigle Studio and the BBC studios in Wood Lane, London, without recording to the picture. She was required to portray certain themes and ideas that the producers wanted; however, in contrast with The Frog Prince, she worked with little interference, which granted her freedom to establish the sound
In March 1987, two months before The Celts aired, a 40-minute selection of Enya's score was released as her debut solo album, Enya, by BBC Records in the United Kingdom, "I Want Tomorrow" was released as Enya's first single. "Boadicea" was later sampled by the Fugees on their 1996 song "Ready or Not"; the group neither sought permission nor gave credit. Enya took legal action and the group subsequently gave her credit; they paid a fee of approximately $3 million. Later in 1987, Enya appeared on Sinéad O'Connor's debut album The Lion and the Cobra, reciting Psalm 91 in Irish on the track "Never Get Old" which Enya later posted the words of as her tribute message to Sinéad following her passing in July 2023.
Several weeks after the release of Enya, Enya secured a recording contract with Warner Music UK after Rob Dickins, the label's chairman and a fan of Clannad, took a liking to Enya and found himself playing it 'every night before I went to bed.' He later met Enya and the Ryans at a chance meeting at the Irish Recorded Music Association award ceremony in Dublin, where he learned that Enya had entered negotiations with a rival label. Dickins seized the opportunity and signed her, in doing so granting her wish to write and record with artistic freedom, minimal interference from the label, and without set deadlines to finish albums. Dickins said: 'Sometimes you sign an act to make money, and sometimes you sign an act to make music. This was the latter... I just wanted to be involved with this music.' Enya left Atlantic and signed with the Warner-led Geffen Records to handle her American distribution.
With the green light to produce a new album, Enya recorded Watermark from June 1987 to April 1988.
Watermark was released in September 1988 and became an unexpected hit, reaching number 5 in the United Kingdom Its lead single, "Orinoco Flow", was the last song written for the album. It was not intended to be a single at first, but Enya and the Ryans chose it after Dickins jokingly asked for a single; he knew that Enya's music was not made for the Top 40 chart. Dickins and engineer Ross Cullum are referenced in the song's lyrics. The new-found success propelled Enya to international fame and she received endorsement deals and offers to use her music in television commercials She spent a year traveling worldwide to promote the album which increased her exposure through interviews, appearances, and live performances.
=== 1989–1998: Shepherd Moons, The Memory of Trees and Paint the Sky with Stars ===
After promoting Watermark, Enya purchased new recording equipment and started work on her next album, Shepherd Moons. She found that the success of Watermark added a considerable amount of pressure when it came to writing new songs, stating, 'I kept thinking, "Would this have gone on Watermark? Is it as good?" Eventually I had to forget about this and start on a blank canvas and just really go with what felt right.'
Roma Ryan wrote songs based on several ideas, including diary entries from Enya, the Blitz in London, and her grandparents. Shepherd Moons was released in November 1991, her first album released under Warner-led Reprise Records in the United States. In 1993 Enya won her first Grammy Award in the Best New Age Album category for Shepherd Moons. Soon after, Enya and Nicky entered discussions with Industrial Light & Magic, founded by George Lucas, regarding an elaborate stage lighting system for a proposed concert tour, but nothing resulted from those discussions. In November 1992, Warner obtained the rights to Enya and re-released the album as The Celts with new artwork. It surpassed its initial sale performance, reaching number 10 in the UK. The new album was released in November 1995 and peaked at number 5 in the UK Enya was offered the opportunity to compose the film score for Titanic but declined as it would be a collaboration, rather than solely her composition and singing. A recording of her singing "Oíche Chiúin", an Irish-language version of "Silent Night", appeared on the charity album A Very Special Christmas 3, released in benefit of the Special Olympics in October 1997.
In early 1997, Enya began to select tracks for her first compilation album, 'trying to select the obvious ones, the hits, and others.' Released in November 1997, the album was a worldwide commercial success, reaching number 4 in the UK
===1998–2007: A Day Without Rain and Amarantine===
In 1998, Enya, Roma and Nicky Ryan received the Ivor Novello award for International Achievement. That year, Enya started work on her fifth studio album, titled A Day Without Rain. In a departure from her previous albums, Enya incorporated greater use of a synthesised string section into her compositions, something that was not a conscious decision at first, but Enya and Nicky Ryan agreed that it complemented the songs that were being written. The album was released in November 2000 and reached number 6 in the UK
In the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, US sales of the album and its lead single "Only Time" surged after the song was widely used during radio and television coverage of the events, The exposure caused A Day Without Rain to outperform its original chart performance to peak at number 2 on the Billboard 200,
In 2001, Enya agreed to write and perform on two tracks for the soundtrack of The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) at the request of director Peter Jackson. Composer Howard Shore 'imagined her voice' as he wrote the film's score, making an uncommon exception to include another artist in one of his soundtracks. After flying to New Zealand to observe the filming and to watch a rough cut of the film, Enya returned to Ireland and composed "Aníron" (the theme for Aragorn and Arwen), with lyrics by Roma in J. R. R. Tolkien's fictional Elvish language Sindarin, and "May It Be", sung in English and another Tolkien language, Quenya. Shore then based his orchestrations around Enya's recorded vocals and themes to create "a seamless sound". and later cited the moment as a career highlight. Her two songs for the film were recorded at Abbey Road Studios.
In 2004, Enya had another significant "Boadicea" sampling request from Diddy, for the song "I Don't Wanna Know" performed by Mario Winans. She said that the producer 'phoned the studio we were working in and Nicky took the call and he [Diddy] just said he had this fantastic singer that he was working with and it was Mario Winans. Immediately we said “send the song” and it was a great song.'
In September 2003, Enya returned to Aigle Studio to start work on her sixth studio album, Amarantine. Roma said the title means "everlasting". The lead single, "Amarantine", was released in December 2005. the first guitar solo on an Enya album since "I Want Tomorrow" from Enya. The lyrics also include some musical pop-culture references, such as The Beatles' famous photo shoot for the cover of Abbey Road, and the lyric "a rap on a rhapsody" possibly referring to "Bohemian Rhapsody" by Queen. Upon its release in November 2008, And Winter Came... reached number 6 in the UK,
After promoting And Winter Came, Enya took an extended break from writing and recording music. She spent her time resting, visiting family in Australia, and renovating her new home in the south of France. In March 2009, her first four studio albums were reissued in Japan in the Super High Material CD format with bonus tracks. Her second compilation album, The Very Best of Enya, was released in November 2009 and featured songs from 1987 to 2008, including a previously unreleased version of "Aníron" and a DVD compiling most of her music videos to date.
In 2012, Enya returned to the studio to record her eighth album, Dark Sky Island. Its name refers to the island of Sark, which became the first island to be designated a dark-sky preserve, and a series of poems on islands by Roma Ryan.
In 2013, "Only Time" was used in the "Epic Split" advertisement by Volvo Trucks starring Jean-Claude Van Damme, who does the splits while suspended between two lorries. As a result, Enya's song "Only Time" re-entered both the US Billboard 100 and UK Official Charts in November 2013.
Dark Sky Island was announced on Enya's website on 15 September 2015. Prior to this, guest musician Eddie Lee shared a post in August 2015, which indicated that new music by Enya was in progress.
Upon the album's streaming release on 20 November 2015, a week before physical release, Dark Sky Island went to number 4 in the UK album charts, Enya's highest charting studio album since Shepherd Moons went to number 1. Enya completed a promotional tour of the UK, Europe, the US, and Japan. During her visit to Japan, Enya performed "Orinoco Flow" and "Echoes in Rain" at the Universal Studios Japan Christmas show in Osaka. In Japan, in addition to performances of her music, she made several TV appearances featuring her partaking in Japanese culture, including wearing a kimono, walking through Maruyama Park in Kyoto, and visiting the top floor of the Tokyo Skytree.
On 22 July 2016, Bosnian-Swedish DJ Salvatore Ganacci released the single "Dive", which heavily samples "Boadicea" and features vocals from Alex Aris. The single peaked number 14 on the US Billboard Dance/Electronic Digital Songs Sales chart.
In December 2016, Enya appeared on the Irish television show Christmas Carols from Cork, marking her first Irish television appearance in over seven years. She sang "Adeste Fideles", "Oíche Chiúin", and "The Spirit of Christmas Past".
===2019–present; further acclaim and future projects===
Since late 2019, there had been a significant increase in activity from Enya's official social platforms. There have been more official Enya posts on Facebook, Instagram and Twitter, updates to Enya tracks and playlists on Spotify, Apple Music and Amazon Music, as well as YouTube channel updates and new content. Several music videos on Enya's official YouTube channel have undergone 4K/HD conversion since 2020. Numerous YouTube "watch party" videos and vinyl re-releases marking anniversaries of Enya's music albums and compilations have been released since. Regarding a new studio album, there have been mentions about Enya recording new music, according to several close sources. As of 2019, Enya's sister Moya Brennan had mentioned that Enya was recording music.
The first of these videos was in November 2020, posted on Enya's official YouTube channel to commemorate the 20th anniversary of A Day Without Rain. In addition to the individual tracks from the album, it included handwritten introductory messages from Enya and Roma Ryan, plus a closing message from Nicky Ryan. Some behind-the-scenes clips from the making-of the music videos for "Only Time" and "Wild Child", both directed by Graham Fink, were also included.
For the Shepherd Moons 30th Anniversary Watch Party video in November 2021, Nicky Ryan's introductory message noted that during the COVID-19 pandemic, Aigle Studio underwent some renovations, with new recording equipment and instruments installed, and that with this done, Enya and the Ryans were eager to start working on new music.
A 20th-anniversary vinyl picture disc re-release of the "May It Be" single was also released in late 2021.
Enya's music continues to be sampled or interpolated by many modern-day producers, particularly her 1986 humming song "Boadicea", in songs within the R&B or hip-hop genres. Enya had previously noted for her 2015 album Dark Sky Island, that 'several songs here have a stronger beat, and even a little hip-hop influence.'
In 2022, for Metro Boomin and The Weeknd's song "Creepin'" featuring samples from her 1987 song "Boadicea", Enya didn't approve of the song to be released under the working title "IDWK" (referring to the song I Don't Wanna Know). Metro reportedly asked Enya to select song titles that she would be happy with, which included "Undecided," "Creepin'", "Don't Come Back to Me", "Better Off That Way" and "Wanna Let You Know". Metro said '"Creepin'" was the one [...] It ended up being a blessing because it's the best name for it.'
In early December 2024, "Creepin'" won the BMI London Song of the Year, with composition credits and awards including both Enya and Nick [sic] Ryan.
In June 2023, Enya's 1997 limited compilation A Box of Dreams was re-issued on 6 vinyl LPs, featuring new liner notes. Nicky Ryan confirmed that the trio were working on a new album and floated the possibility of a book based on the trio's thoughts regarding the Oceans tracks. Enya's note, in Irish, read 'Beidh muid ag teacht le chéile gan mhoile', which roughly translates to 'We will meet again soon.' Roma Ryan also updated the liner notes with several newer thoughts about the songs, constellations, and poetry.
On 19 September 2023, a watch party video for the 35th anniversary of Watermark was also presented. Alongside this, vinyl LPs of Watermark and a Dolby Atmos upmixed audio for "Orinoco Flow" were also released.
Enya's official website was rebooted, returned to Warner ownership and stylised in September 2023. It has, however, lain dormant since.
On 20 February 2025, on the RTÉ Gold Breakfast Show, Enya was announced as the winner of the RTÉ Choice Music Prize Classic Irish Album, with her 1988 album Watermark.
Enya's award was celebrated at Vicar Street, Dublin, in the late hours of 6 March 2025. As Enya was not there in-person for the award, Priscilla Kotey, managing director of Warner Music Ireland, read out Enya's speech on her behalf.
==Artistry==
===Musical style===
thumb|upright=1.35|right|The [[Roland Juno-60, a favourite keyboard of Enya's that she used on Watermark. In 1989, she said: "We wouldn't part with it for anything in the world". a favourite composer of hers. Enya was also an early adopter of synthesiser music, a skilled synth player, which equalled the significance of her singing, especially on her album Watermark. Since 1982, Enya has recorded music with Nicky Ryan as her producer and arranger, and his wife Roma Ryan as lyricist. During her time with Clannad, Enya chose to work with Nicky as the two shared an interest in vocal harmonies, and Ryan, influenced by The Beach Boys and the "Wall of Sound" technique that Phil Spector pioneered, wanted to explore the idea of "the multi-vocals" for which her music became known. According to Enya, "Angeles" from Shepherd Moons has roughly 500 vocals recorded individually and layered. Enya performs all vocals and the majority of instruments in her songs, apart from guest musicians (some percussion, guitar, violin, uilleann pipes, cornet, and double bass). including the Yamaha KX88 Master, Yamaha DX7, Oberheim Matrix, Kurzweil K250, Fairlight III, E-mu Emulator II, Akai S900, PPG Wave Computer 360, Roland D-50 (with the "Pizzagogo" patch, famously used in "Orinoco Flow"), and the Roland Juno-60, the latter a particular favourite of hers. Her vast vocal range has been classified as mezzo-soprano.
Numerous critics and reviewers classify Enya's albums as new-age music and she has won four Grammy Awards in the category. However, Enya does not consider her music as part of the genre; 'the only way I can describe it [...] it's Enya music.' Nicky Ryan commented on the new age designation: 'Initially it was fine, but it's really not new age. Enya plays a whole lot of instruments, not just keyboards. Her melodies are strong and she sings a lot. So I can't see a comparison.' In 1988, Enya is believed to have said about New Age music 'it's air, thin air. It's a musical drug' and noted its often spineless nature, dissimilar to the approach taken in her own music. In an interview first published in 2017, Enya said that she 'felt that title [New-Age] was given to any musician whom critics didn't know how to pigeonhole.'
The inspirations behind several of the visuals accompanying Enya's music originate from old artwork. The 1991 music video for "Caribbean Blue", and the 1995 album cover artwork for The Memory of Trees both feature adapted works from artist Maxfield Parrish. In the 1996 music video for "On My Way Home", scenes of girls lighting paper lanterns to hang in flowery foliage were inspired by John Singer Sargent's painting Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose.
In addition to her native Irish, Enya has recorded songs in languages including English, French, Latin, Spanish, and Welsh. She has recorded music influenced by works from fantasy author J. R. R. Tolkien, including the instrumental "Lothlórien" from Shepherd Moons. For The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, she sang "May It Be" in English and Tolkien's fictional language Quenya, and she sang "Aníron" in another of Tolkien's fictional languages, Sindarin. Amarantine and Dark Sky Island include songs sung in Loxian, a fictional language created by Roma Ryan, that has no official syntax. Its vocabulary was formed by Enya singing the song's notes to which Roma wrote their phonetic spelling.
Enya adopted a composing and songwriting method that has deviated little throughout her career. At the start of the recording process for an album, she enters the studio, forgetting about her previous success, fame, and songs of hers that became hits. 'If I did that,' she said, 'I'd have to call it a day.' She then develops ideas on the piano, keeping note of any arrangement that can be worked on further. During her time writing the music, Enya works a five-day week, takes weekends off, and does not work on her music at home. With Irish as her first language, Enya initially records her songs in Irish as she can express 'feeling much more directly' in Irish than in English. After some time, Enya presents her ideas to Nicky to discuss what pieces work best, while Roma works in parallel to devise lyrics for the songs. Enya considered "Fallen Embers" from A Day Without Rain a perfect example of the lyrics exactly reflecting the feeling. In 2016, Enya spoke about the prospect of a live concert when she revealed talks with the Ryans during her three-year break after And Winter Came... (2008) to perform a show at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City that would be simulcast to cinemas worldwide. Before such an event could happen, Nicky suggested that she enter a studio and record "all the hits" live with an orchestra and choir to see how they would sound. In December 1995, she performed "Anywhere Is" at a Christmas concert at Vatican City with Pope John Paul II in attendance; he later met and thanked her for performing. In 1997, Enya participated in a live Christmas Eve broadcast in London and flew to County Donegal afterward to join her family for their annual midnight Mass choral performance, in which she participates each year. In March 2002, she performed "May It Be" with an orchestra at the year's Academy Awards/Oscars ceremony. Enya and her sisters performed as part of the local choir Cór Mhuire in July 2005 at St. Mary's church in Derrybeg, Gweedore, during the annual Earagail Arts Festival.
==Personal life==
Known for her private lifestyle alongside the music, Enya said in the mid-1990s, 'The music is what sells. Not me, or what I stand for... that's the way I've always wanted it.' In a German interview from 2005, Enya stated 'I have always been shy. In former times, I wasn’t happy with that, but today I accept it and live my life after it. And I dare to express something private like emotions in my music and make it visible for the public.' Enya later mentioned in 2008 that 'it’s more important to have my private life and freedom than come out and argue about how I’m seen', regarding it as 'a small disadvantage in trying to retain my privacy. I can live with it.' In 1991, she said, 'I'm afraid of marriage because I'm afraid someone might want me because of who I am instead of because they loved me... I wouldn't go rushing into anything unexpected, but I do think a great deal about this.' Press often alluded to a relationship ending for Enya in 1997, This occurred several weeks before the fatal car crash in Paris that took the life of Princess Diana. In November 1997, Enya mentioned upon news of her contributing to Diana's tribute album, 'I met Lady Diana twice and the second time we met she told me that my composition "Watermark" was a favourite melody of hers.' Enya's track "Watermark" was included on the end-of-year artist compilation album, Diana, Princess of Wales: Tribute.
At an auction in 1997, Enya spent £2.5 million on a 157-year-old Victorian listed castellated mansion in Killiney. Formerly known as Victoria Castle and Ayesha Castle, the house was renamed by Enya as Manderley Castle after the house featured in Daphne du Maurier's 1938 novel Rebecca . Prior to moving into the castle, Enya was believed to have resided in London, and spent time there throughout the 2000s. She spent several years renovating the castle, and installing considerable security measures because of threats from stalkers. Enya alerted police by raising an alarm from her safe room. Enya oversaw most of the interior design (decorations and furnishings of her castle) as she was 'not going to trust that to anyone else.' Enya also has an autographed picture of Sergei Rachmaninoff in her home. Enya has shown admiration for the literary works of both Wilde and J. R. R. Tolkien.
Visual-media-wise, Enya has mentioned watching operas, such as Madame Butterfly at the Sydney Opera House, especially as she frequently travels to Australia to visit her sister and other relatives, occasionally getting noticed 'at the most obscure places' she added in 2008. At the family pub Leo's Tavern, memorabilia that celebrates musical achievements of Enya and her siblings, notably those in Clannad, are displayed across the walls inside. Enya is admired by, and has influenced a number of artists from several genres, including Aurora, Weyes Blood, FKA Twigs, Grimes, Adam Young, Cynthia Erivo, and Nicki Minaj, who declared in a television interview: 'One of my biggest [musical influences] is Enya.' In 2016, Sunday Times Rich List estimated her fortune at £91 million, making her part of their Top 50 millionaire musicians in Britain and Ireland. and is one of the highest-certified music artists by album units in the U.S. Billboard Mark Dezzani commented in 1997, that she popularized conventional pop melodies and ethereal ethnic music, while Audio magazine credited her for helping popularize the "New Celtic" sound. Enya was described by National Geographic's Ireland (2022) book, as the 'Queen of ambient Celtic lullabies.'
In Lonely Planet's 2024 description of Donegal, the county in Ireland that Enya is from, Donegal was described by the Destination Editor as the 'wild child of Ireland', a likely reference to the single "Wild Child" by Enya in 2000. Two of Enya's albums, Paint the Sky with Stars: The Best of Enya (1997) and Themes from Calmi Cuori Appassionati (2001) have sold over a million copies in Japan, the latter a soundtrack of Enya's hits from 1986 to 2000 that was included in the Japanese film Calmi Cuori Appassionati.
Enya receiving the RTÉ Choice Music Prize for Classic Album in 2025 is testament to her lasting significance in Irish music and beyond.
The BBC producing a compilation of archive footage, Enya at the BBC (first aired 15th March 2025) also recognises Enya as an artist with a noteworthy repertoire and legacy.
In early 2025, Enya was announced as the winner of the 2025 RTÉ Choice Music Prize's Classic Irish Album, with her 1988 album Watermark. The announcement of her award was soon followed by Enya's statement: 'I am delighted to win the RTÉ Choice Music Classic Album Prize. Watermark has a special place in my heart - it was my second album and really launched my career internationally. It is wonderful that people are still discovering it today and it's an honour to be chosen for this prize recognising Irish music.' In Enya's winning speech, read out on her behalf, she expressed her excitement to have been able to make Watermark, and how she was 'so delighted that it has stood the test of time, and still resonates with so many people around the world.
===Honorary degrees and namings===
In 1991, a minor planet first discovered in 1978, 6433 Enya, was named after her. In June 2007, she received an honorary PhD doctorate from the National University of Ireland, Galway, for her contributions to music. A month later, she also received another honorary doctorate, a DLitt from Ulster University. In 2017, a newly discovered species of fish, Leporinus enyae, found in the Orinoco River drainage area, was named after Enya, in reference to her song, "Orinoco Flow".
|
[
"Contemporary art",
"Noel Duggan",
"Christmas music",
"kimono",
"Albert Goodwin (artist)",
"Grammy Awards",
"Billboard 200",
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"Jesus Christ Superstar (album)",
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"mezzo-soprano",
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"List of highest-certified music artists in the United States",
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"A Box of Dreams",
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"Irish Albums Chart",
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"Only If...",
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"Nicky Ryan",
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"List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart",
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"Jean-Claude Van Damme",
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"The Picture of Dorian Gray",
"Dark Sky Island",
"Irish traditional music",
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"Paint the Sky with Stars",
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"primary school",
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"Osaka",
"World Music Awards",
"Queen (band)",
"Maxfield Parrish",
"Salvatore Ganacci",
"Black-and-white",
"International Association of Firefighters",
"Pop music",
"Pope John Paul II",
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"Sisters of Loreto",
"Rob Dickins",
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"choir",
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"Stephen King",
"dark-sky preserve",
"RTÉ Choice Music Prize",
"BBC Records",
"Titanic (1997 film)",
"Weyes Blood",
"Geffen Records",
"Sean Combs",
"church music",
"Drum kit",
"Only Time: The Collection",
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"Máire Brennan",
"Fuaim",
"maxi single",
"Loxian",
"County Donegal",
"May It Be",
"Abbey Road Studios",
"And Winter Came...",
"Ordinary Man (Christy Moore album)",
"Split (gymnastics)",
"Kurzweil K250",
"new millennium",
"Oberheim Matrix synthesizers",
"Charlie McGettigan",
"Watercolor painting",
"Orinoco",
"Literature",
"Orinoco Studios",
"Jack Butler Yeats",
"Harmony",
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"A Day Without Rain",
"The Frog Prince (1984 film)",
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"Epic Split",
"Yamaha DX7",
"Irish showband",
"Pól Brennan",
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"world music",
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"Brian Gilbert (director)",
"cornet",
"Shepherd Moons",
"Amarantine (album)",
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"simulcast",
"Mike Oldfield",
"Prophet-5",
"The Wall Street Journal",
"Abbey Road (album)",
"picture disc",
"Elvish language",
"Yamaha Corporation",
"Pitchfork (website)",
"Roland Juno-60",
"UK Albums Chart",
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"new-age music",
"Quenya",
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"decade",
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"Classical music",
"Bohemian Rhapsody",
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"Peter Jackson",
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"Frankie Kennedy",
"Anywhere Is",
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"Sounds of the Season: The Enya Collection",
"Wild Child (Enya song)",
"The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (soundtrack)",
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"University of Galway",
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"crime drama",
"art",
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"Irish Recorded Music Association",
"Oscars",
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"first edition",
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"Diana, Princess of Wales: Tribute",
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"amateur",
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"Doctor of Music",
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"Sleepwalkers (1992 film)",
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"Paris",
"the Fugees",
"string section"
] |
9,483 |
East Berlin
|
East Berlin (; ) was the partially recognised capital of East Germany (GDR) from 1949 to 1990. From 1945, it was the Soviet occupation sector of Berlin. The American, British, and French sectors were known as West Berlin. From 13 August 1961 until 9 November 1989, East Berlin was separated from West Berlin by the Berlin Wall. The Western Allied powers did not recognize East Berlin as the GDR's capital, nor the GDR's authority to govern East Berlin. For most of its administrative existence, East Berlin was officially known as Berlin, capital of the GDR () by the GDR government. On 3 October 1990, the day Germany was officially reunified, East and West Berlin formally reunited as the city of Berlin.
==Overview==
With the London Protocol of 1944 signed on 12 September 1944, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union decided to divide Germany into three occupation zones and to establish a special area of Berlin, which was occupied by the three Allied Forces together. In May 1945, the Soviet Union installed a city government for the whole city that was called "Magistrate of Greater Berlin", which existed until 1947. After the war, the Allied Forces initially administered the city together within the Allied Kommandatura, which served as the governing body of the city. However, in 1948 the Soviet representative left the Kommandatura and the common administration broke apart during the following months. In the Soviet sector, a separate city government was established, which continued to call itself the "Magistrate of Greater Berlin".
When the German Democratic Republic was established in 1949, it immediately claimed East Berlin as its capital—a claim that was recognized by all communist countries. Nevertheless, East Berlin's representatives to the were not directly elected and did not have full voting rights until 1981.
In June 1948, all railways and roads leading to West Berlin were blocked, and East Berliners were not allowed to emigrate. Nevertheless, more than 1,000 East Germans were escaping to West Berlin each day by 1960, caused by the strains on the East German economy from war reparations owed to the Soviet Union, massive destruction of industry, and lack of assistance from the Marshall Plan. In August 1961, the East German Government tried to stop the population exodus by separating West Berlin by the Berlin Wall. It was very dangerous for fleeing residents to cross because armed soldiers were trained to shoot illegal emigrants.
East Germany was a socialist republic. Eventually, Christian churches were allowed to operate without restraint after years of harassment by authorities. In the 1970s, the wages of East Berliners rose and working hours fell.
The Soviet Union and the Communist Bloc recognized East Berlin as the GDR's capital. However, Western Allies (the United States, United Kingdom, and France) never formally acknowledged the authority of the East German government to govern East Berlin. Official Allied protocol recognized only the authority of the Soviet Union in East Berlin in accordance with the occupation status of Berlin as a whole. The United States Command Berlin, for example, published detailed instructions for U.S. military and civilian personnel wishing to visit East Berlin. In fact, the three Western commandants regularly protested against the presence of the East German National People's Army in East Berlin, particularly on the occasion of military parades. Nevertheless, the three Western Allies eventually established embassies in East Berlin in the 1970s, although they never recognized it as the capital of East Germany. Treaties instead used terms such as "seat of government".
On 3 October 1990, East and West Germany and East and West Berlin were reunited, thus formally ending the existence of East Berlin. Citywide elections in December 1990 resulted in the first "all-Berlin" mayor being elected to take office in January 1991, with the separate offices of mayors in East and West Berlin expiring at the time, and Eberhard Diepgen (a former mayor of West Berlin) became the first elected mayor of a reunited Berlin.
== Historical population ==
East Berlin reached its highest population in 1988 with 1.28 million. The lowest value was in 1961, the year the Berlin Wall was built, with under 1.06 million registered. The figures in the following table, unless otherwise indicated, are from the official central statistical office of East Germany.
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|}
==East Berlin today==
Since reunification, the German government has spent vast amounts of money on reintegrating the two halves of the city and bringing services and infrastructure in the former East Berlin up to the standard established in West Berlin.
After reunification, the East German economy suffered significantly. Under the adopted policy of privatization of state-owned firms under the auspices of the , many East German factories were shut down—which also led to mass unemployment—due to gaps in productivity with and investment compared to West German companies, as well as an inability to comply with West German pollution and safety standards in a way that was deemed cost-effective. Because of this, a massive amount of West German economic aid was poured into East Germany to revitalize it. This stimulus was part-funded through a 7.5% tax on income for individuals and companies (in addition to normal income tax or company tax) known as the (SolZG) or "solidarity surcharge", which though only in effect for 1991–1992 (later reintroduced in 1995 at 7.5 and then dropped down to 5.5% in 1998 and continues to be levied to this day) led to a great deal of resentment toward the East Germans.
Despite the large sums of economic aid poured into East Berlin, there still remain obvious differences between the former East and West Berlins. East Berlin has a distinct visual style; this is partly due to the greater survival of prewar façades and streetscapes, with some still showing signs of wartime damage. The unique look of Socialist Classicism that was used in East Berlin (along with the rest of the former GDR) also contrasts markedly with the urban development styles employed in the former West Berlin. Additionally, the former East Berlin (along with the rest of the former GDR) retains a small number of its GDR-era street and place names commemorating German socialist heroes, such as Karl-Marx-Allee, Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz, and Karl-Liebknecht-Straße. Many such names, however, were deemed inappropriate (for various reasons) and, through decommunization, changed after a long process of review (so, for instance, Leninallee reverted to Landsberger Allee in 1991, and Dimitroffstraße reverted to Danziger Straße in 1995).
Another symbolic icon of the former East Berlin (and of East Germany as a whole) is the (tr. "little traffic light men"), a stylized version of a fedora-wearing man crossing the street, which is found on traffic lights at many pedestrian crosswalks throughout the former East. Following a civic debate about whether the should be abolished or disseminated more widely (due to concerns of consistency), several crosswalks in some parts of the former West Berlin began to employ the .
Twenty-five years after the two cities were reunified, the people of East and West Berlin still had noticeable differences between them, and these differences became more apparent among the older generations. The two groups also had sometimes-derogatory slang terms to refer to each other. A former East Berliner (or East German) was known as an "'" (from the German word for east, '), and a former West Berliner (or West German) was known as a "'" (from the German word for west, '). Both sides also engaged in stereotyping the other. A stereotypical ' had little ambition or poor work ethic and was chronically bitter, while a stereotypical ' was arrogant, selfish, impatient and pushy.
==Boroughs==
At the time of German reunification, East Berlin comprised the boroughs of
Friedrichshain
Hellersdorf (since 1986)
Hohenschönhausen (since 1985)
Köpenick
Lichtenberg
Marzahn (since 1979)
Mitte
Pankow
Prenzlauer Berg
Treptow
Weißensee
==Images==
File:Marx-engels-platz.jpg|Marx-Engels-Platz and the Palace of the Republic in East Berlin in the summer of 1989. The (TV Tower) is visible in the background
File:Fehrnsehturm Palast.jpg|Easter Sunday, 1988, and Palace of the Republic
File:Karl-Marx-Allee Block C Nord Berlin April 2006 060.jpg|Karl-Marx-Allee apartments
File:Lenindecoration.JPG|Wall plaque of Lenin, off Wilhelmstrasse
File:Veggdekorasjon.JPG|GDR-era mural of Meissen porcelain on former Council of Ministers building, facing Leipziger Straße
File:Soviet War Memorial Park.JPG|The Soviet War Memorial in Treptower Park
File:Cafe Moskau.JPG|Cafe Moskau in Karl-Marx-Allee
File:Dismantling of the Palace of the Republic.JPG|The Palace of the Republic, being dismantled
File:New Synagogue, East Berlin.JPG|New Synagogue, Oranienburger Straße
File:Weberwiese Berlin April 2006 147.jpg|"Hochhaus" in Weberwiese, the first high-rise apartment built after the war
File:VolksbühBerlJan08.JPG|, Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz
File:Berlin Wilhelmstrasse.jpg|Late-1980s GDR apartment blocks on the Wilhelmstrasse
File:Strausberger Platz Berlin April 2006 117.jpg|Strausberger Platz with constructivism style building
File:Proletarian hero, Alexanderplatz june 2006.JPG|Proletarian hero,
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-U1109-022, Berlin, Sandmännchen.jpg|Gerhard Behrendt with . The show was recorded in East Berlin
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-41736-0005, Berlin, Bodemuseum, Monbijoubrücke.jpg|The Bode Museum at the northern end of the Museum Island, 1956
File:Haus der Schweiz, Unter den Linden at FriedrichStrasse, East Berlin, February 1975.jpg|, Unter der Linden at FriedrichStrasse, East Berlin, February 1975
File:Statues of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.JPG|Statues of Marx and Engels, Marx-Engels-Forum
|
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"Friedrich Ebert Jr.",
"Schießbefehl",
"Raintree Steck-Vaughn",
"Berlin Wall",
"Lichtenberg, Berlin",
"Pankow",
"communist countries",
"Bode Museum",
"Erhard Krack",
"Volkskammer",
"Günter Schabowski",
"United States Army Berlin",
"West Berlin",
"Treptow",
"Soviet occupation zone in Germany",
"Berlin",
"Border Troops of the German Democratic Republic",
"Federal Central Tax Office",
"Mises Institute",
"Hellersdorf",
"capital city",
"Leipziger Straße",
"Thomas Krüger",
"Christian Hartenhauer",
"Wilhelmstraße",
"West Germany",
"East Germany",
"Hans Jendretzky",
"Social Democratic Party in the GDR",
"Western Bloc",
"Karl-Marx-Allee",
"Treuhandanstalt",
"Herbert Fechner",
"Alexanderplatz",
"Prenzlauer Berg",
"Children's Press",
"Republikflucht",
"socialist republic",
"The New York Times",
"Eberhard Diepgen",
"Berlin Blockade",
"Friedrichshain",
"Ampelmännchen",
"Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz",
"Gerhard Behrendt",
"Marx-Engels-Forum"
] |
9,486 |
List of international environmental agreements
|
This is a list of international environmental agreements.
Most of the following agreements are legally binding for countries that have formally ratified them. Some, such as the Kyoto Protocol, differentiate between types of countries and each nation's respective responsibilities under the agreement. Several hundred international environmental agreements exist but most cover only a limited number of countries. These bilateral or sometimes trilateral agreements are only binding for the countries that have ratified them but are nevertheless essential in the international environmental regime. Including the major conventions listed below, more than 3,000 international environmental instruments have been identified by the IEA Database Project.
==Alphabetical order==
Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, Aarhus, 1998
Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds
Alpine Convention together with its nine protocols
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM Treaty) (ABMT)
ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution
Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate
Barcelona Convention for Protection against Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea, 1976
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, Basel, 1989
Biological Weapons Convention (Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological [Biological] and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction) (BWC)
Bonn Agreement
Carpathian Convention Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Carpathians
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
Chemical Weapons Convention
China Australia Migratory Bird Agreement
Coastal Marine and Island Biodiversity Conservation Project (Eritrea)
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), 1996
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), Canberra, 1980
Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region, Abidjan, 198
Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Cartagena de Indias, 1983
Convention of the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region, Nairobi, 1985
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-east Pacific, Lima, 1981
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-east Atlantic (OSPAR Convention), Paris, 1992
Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region, Nouméa, 1986
Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency (Assistance Convention), Vienna, 1986
Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movements and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa, Bamako, 1991
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Nairobi, 1992
Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons
Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Caused during Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road, Rail, and Inland Navigation Vessels (CRTD), Geneva, 1989
Convention on Cluster Munitions
Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), Bonn, 1979
Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (Notification Convention), Vienna, 1986
Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas
Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), Washington, DC, 1973
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
Convention on Nature Protection and Wild Life Preservation in the Western Hemisphere, Washington, DC, 1940
Convention on Nuclear Safety, Vienna, 1994
EMEP Protocol
Heavy Metals Protocol
Multi-effect Protocol (Gothenburg protocol)
Nitrogen Oxide Protocol
POP Air Pollution Protocol
Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocols 1985 and 1994
Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter
Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques
Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (ECE Water Convention), Helsinki, 1992
Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution, Bucharest, 1992
Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area 1992 Helsinki Convention, Helsinki, 1992
Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents, Helsinki, 1992
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat (notably not a Multilateral Environmental Agreement)
Convention to Ban the Importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within the South Pacific Region, Waigani, 1995
Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD), Paris, 1994
Conventions within the UNEP Regional Seas Programme
Directive on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions
Energy Community (Energy Community South East Europe Treaty) (ECSEE)
Espoo Convention Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, Espoo, 1991
European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Inland Waterways (ADN), Geneva, 2000
European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR), Geneva, 1957
FAO International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, Rome, 1985
FAO International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources, Rome, 1983
Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), New York, 1992
Geneva Protocol (Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare)
International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), Rio de Janeiro, 1966
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, London, 1954, 1962, 1969
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW), Washington, 1946
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
International Tropical Timber Agreement (expired), 1983
International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA), Geneva, 1994
Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, Kuwait, 1978
Kyoto Protocol - greenhouse gas emission reductions
Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918
Minamata Convention on Mercury, 2013
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Montreal, 1989
Nagoya Protocol
North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation
Paris Agreement, France, 2015
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
Putrajaya Declaration of Regional Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Seas of East Asia, Malaysia, 2003
Ramsar Convention Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat, Ramsar, 1971
Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden Environment, Jeddah, 1982
Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, Rotterdam, 1998
Stockholm Convention Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants Stockholm, 2001
Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna, 1985, including the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Montreal, 1987
Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, Vienna, 1963
Western Regional Climate Action Initiative
Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977
==Topic order==
===General ===
Aarhus Convention Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, Aarhus, 1998
Espoo Convention Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, Espoo, 1991
===Atmosphere===
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), Geneva, 1979
Environmental Protection: Aircraft Engine Emissions, Annex 16, vol. 2 to the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation, Montreal, 1981
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), New York, 1992, including the Kyoto Protocol, 1997, and the Paris Agreement, 2015
Georgia Basin-Puget Sound International Airshed Strategy, Vancouver, Statement of Intent, 2002
U.S.-Canada Air Quality Agreement (bilateral U.S.-Canadian agreement on acid rain), 1986
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna, 1985, including the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Montreal, 1987
===Freshwater resources===
Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (ECE Water Convention), Helsinki, 1992
===Hazardous substances===
Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Caused during Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road, Rail, and Inland Navigation Vessels (CRTD), Geneva, 1989
Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, Basel, 1989
Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movements and Management of Hazardous Wastes Within Africa, Bamako, 1991
Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, Rotterdam, 1998
Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents, Helsinki, 1992
European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Inland Waterways (AND), Geneva, 2000
European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR), Geneva, 1957
FAO International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, Rome, 1985
Minamata Convention on Mercury, Minamata, 2013
Stockholm Convention Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants Stockholm, 2001
Convention to Ban the Importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within the South Pacific Region, Waigani, 1995
===Marine environment – global conventions===
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention), London, 1972
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78), London, 1973 and 1978
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, London, 1954, 1962 and 1969
International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC), Brussels, 1969, 1976,1984 and 1992
International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage(FUND)1971 and 1992, Brussels, 1971/1992
International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea (HNS), London, 1996
International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC), London, 1990
International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties Intervention Convention, Brussels, 1969
Protocol on Preparedness, Response and Co-operation to Pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances OPRC-HNS Protocol, London, 2000
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea LOS Convention, Montego Bay, 1982
===Marine environment – regional conventions===
Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region, Abidjan, 1981
Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment and Coastal Region of the Mediterranean Sea Barcelona Convention, Barcelona, 1976
Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Cartagena de Indias, 1983
Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region (Nairobi Convention), Nairobi, 1985
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-east Pacific, Lima, 1981
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-east Atlantic OSPAR Convention, Paris, 1992
Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region, Nouméa, 1986
Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution, Bucharest, 1992
Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area Helsinki Convention (HELCOM), Helsinki, 1974, 1992
Conventions within the UNEP Regional Seas Programme
Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea
Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, Kuwait, 1978
Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden Environment, Jeddah, 1982
===Marine living resources===
Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels
Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and contiguous Atlantic area (ACCOBAMS), Monaco, 1996
Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (ASCOBANS), New York, 1992
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), Canberra, 1980
Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), Paris, 1994
Food and Agriculture Organization International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources, Rome, 1983
the 1983 "voluntary undertaking" was updated and strengthened as the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Madrid, 2001
International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA), Geneva, 1994
Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (Raptors MoU)
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat ( the Convention on Wetlands), Ramsar, 1971
UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ( the World Heritage Convention), Paris, 1972
===Noise pollution===
Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977
===Nuclear safety===
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, 1996
Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency (Assistance Convention), Vienna, 1986
Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (Notification Convention), Vienna, 1986
Convention on Nuclear Safety, Vienna, 1994
Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water
Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, Vienna, 1963
|
[
"Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water",
"Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (Raptors MoU)",
"Convention on Nuclear Safety",
"International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage",
"Waigani Convention",
"List of climate change initiatives",
"International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas",
"Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage",
"Framework Convention on Climate Change",
"Energy Community",
"Air quality law",
"Air Quality Agreement",
"Biological Weapons Convention",
"Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident",
"Barcelona Convention",
"Convention on Biological Diversity",
"Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Carpathians",
"Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety",
"Stockholm Convention",
"Conventions within the UNEP Regional Seas Programme",
"Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution",
"POP Air Pollution Protocol",
"International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties",
"Arms control",
"Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-east Atlantic",
"Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons",
"Waste management law",
"List of treaties",
"ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution",
"1992 Helsinki Convention",
"Kyoto Protocol",
"Montreal Protocol",
"International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil",
"international environmental agreement",
"Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context",
"Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels",
"Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization",
"Environmental tariff",
"Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977",
"North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation",
"Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden Environment",
"Earth Negotiations Bulletin",
"European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road",
"Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna",
"Intervention Convention",
"Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area",
"UNESCO",
"Environmental organizations",
"International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994",
"ACCOBAMS",
"Paris Agreement",
"Organization of American States",
"Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents",
"Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region",
"Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats",
"FAO International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides",
"MARPOL 73/78",
"International Tropical Timber Agreement",
"Climate target",
"European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Inland Waterways",
"ASCOBANS",
"Western Regional Climate Action Initiative",
"International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling",
"Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution",
"Heavy Metals Protocol",
"Nairobi Convention",
"Bonn Agreement (environment)",
"Convention of the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region",
"International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983",
"1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions",
"Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918",
"Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants",
"Carpathian Convention",
"Aarhus Convention",
"Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes",
"Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea",
"Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter",
"acid rain",
"Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage",
"Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas",
"ECE Water Convention",
"Chemical Weapons Convention",
"Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat",
"LOS Convention",
"Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region",
"Antarctic Treaty",
"International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture",
"Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol",
"United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea",
"OPRC-HNS Protocol",
"EMEP Protocol",
"FAO International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources",
"Multi-effect Protocol",
"International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation",
"Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter",
"Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency",
"Environmental law",
"Food and Agriculture Organization",
"Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty",
"International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea",
"Rotterdam Convention",
"Alpine Convention",
"Basel Convention",
"Nagoya Protocol",
"Espoo Convention",
"Minamata, Kumamoto",
"greenhouse gas emissions",
"List of supranational environmental agencies",
"China Australia Migratory Bird Agreement",
"List of environmental laws by country",
"OSPAR Convention",
"1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions",
"Multilateral Environmental Agreement",
"Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty",
"Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution",
"United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification",
"List of environmental lawsuits",
"Bamako Convention",
"Action for Climate Empowerment",
"Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate",
"Protocol on Preparedness, Response and Co-operation to Pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances",
"CITES",
"Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-east Pacific",
"Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring System",
"Directive on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions",
"International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships",
"United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change",
"International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement",
"Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region",
"Putrajaya Declaration of Regional Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Seas of East Asia",
"Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals",
"Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty",
"Nitrogen Oxide Protocol",
"Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora",
"Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation",
"Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer",
"Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment and Coastal Region of the Mediterranean Sea",
"Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals",
"International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage",
"Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources",
"Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques",
"Minamata Convention on Mercury",
"Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Caused during Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road, Rail, and Inland Navigation Vessels",
"Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat",
"Convention on Cluster Munitions",
"Geneva Protocol",
"Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer",
"Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds",
"Ramsar Convention",
"Convention to Combat Desertification",
"List of international animal welfare conventions"
] |
9,487 |
Epsilon
|
Epsilon (, ; uppercase ', lowercase ' or ; ) is the fifth letter of the Greek alphabet, corresponding phonetically to a mid front unrounded vowel or . In the system of Greek numerals it also has the value five. It was derived from the Phoenician letter He . Letters that arose from epsilon include the Roman E, Ë and Ɛ, and Cyrillic Е, È, Ё, Є and Э. The name of the letter was originally (), but it was later changed to ( 'simple e') in the Middle Ages to distinguish the letter from the digraph , a former diphthong that had come to be pronounced the same as epsilon.
The uppercase form of epsilon is identical to Latin but has its own code point in Unicode: . The lowercase version has two typographical variants, both inherited from medieval Greek handwriting. One, the most common in modern typography and inherited from medieval minuscule, looks like a reversed number "3" and is encoded . The other, also known as lunate or uncial epsilon and inherited from earlier uncial writing, looks like a semicircle crossed by a horizontal bar: it is encoded . While in normal typography these are just alternative font variants, they may have different meanings as mathematical symbols: computer systems therefore offer distinct encodings for them. but in version 1.0.0, was used. The lunate or uncial epsilon provided inspiration for the euro sign, .
There is also a 'Latin epsilon', or "open e", which looks similar to the Greek lowercase epsilon. It is encoded in Unicode as and and is used as an IPA phonetic symbol. This Latin uppercase epsilon, , is not to be confused with the Greek uppercase (sigma)
The lunate epsilon, , is not to be confused with the set membership symbol . The symbol \in, first used in set theory and logic by Giuseppe Peano and now used in mathematics in general for set membership ("belongs to"), evolved from the letter epsilon, since the symbol was originally used as an abbreviation for the Latin word . In addition, mathematicians often read the symbol as "element of", as in "1 is an element of the natural numbers" for 1\in\N, for example. As late as 1960, itself was used for set membership, while its negation "does not belong to" (now ) was denoted by (epsilon prime). Only gradually did a fully separate, stylized symbol take the place of epsilon in this role. In a related context, Peano also introduced the use of a backwards epsilon, , for the phrase "such that", although the abbreviation s.t. is occasionally used in place of in informal cardinals.
==History==
===Origin===
The letter was adopted from the Phoenician letter He () when Greeks first adopted alphabetic writing. In archaic Greek writing, its shape is often still identical to that of the Phoenician letter. Like other Greek letters, it could face either leftward or rightward (), depending on the current writing direction, but, just as in Phoenician, the horizontal bars always faced in the direction of writing. Archaic writing often preserves the Phoenician form with a vertical stem extending slightly below the lowest horizontal bar. In the classical era, through the influence of more cursive writing styles, the shape was simplified to the current glyph.
===Sound value===
While the original pronunciation of the Phoenician letter He was , the earliest Greek sound value of Ε was determined by the vowel occurring in the Phoenician letter name, which made it a natural choice for being reinterpreted from a consonant symbol to a vowel symbol denoting an sound. Besides its classical Greek sound value, the short phoneme, it could initially also be used for other -like sounds. For instance, in early Attic before , it was used also both for the long, open , and for the long close . In the former role, it was later replaced in the classic Greek alphabet by Eta (), which was taken over from eastern Ionic alphabets, while in the latter role it was replaced by the digraph ⟨ΕΙ⟩.
===Epichoric alphabets===
Some dialects used yet other ways of distinguishing between various e-like sounds.
In Corinth, the normal function of to denote and was taken by a glyph resembling a pointed B (), while was used only for long close . The letter Beta, in turn, took the deviant shape .
In Sicyon, a variant glyph resembling an () was used in the same function as Corinthian .
In Thespiai (Boeotia), a special letter form consisting of a vertical stem with a single rightward-pointing horizontal bar () was used for what was probably a raised variant of in pre-vocalic environments. This tack glyph was used elsewhere also as a form of "Heta", i.e. for the sound .
===Glyph variants===
After the establishment of the canonical Ionian (Euclidean) Greek alphabet, new glyph variants for Ε were introduced through handwriting. In the uncial script (used for literary papyrus manuscripts in late antiquity and then in early medieval vellum codices), the "lunate" shape () became predominant. In cursive handwriting, a large number of shorthand glyphs came to be used, where the cross-bar and the curved stroke were linked in various ways. Some of them resembled a modern lowercase Latin "e", some a "6" with a connecting stroke to the next letter starting from the middle, and some a combination of two small "c"-like curves. Several of these shapes were later taken over into minuscule book hand. Of the various minuscule letter shapes, the inverted-3 form became the basis for lower-case Epsilon in Greek typography during the modern era.
==Uses==
===International Phonetic Alphabet===
Despite its pronunciation as mid, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the Latin epsilon represents open-mid front unrounded vowel, as in the English word pet .
===Symbol===
The uppercase Epsilon is not commonly used outside of the Greek language because of its similarity to the Latin letter E. However, it is commonly used in structural mechanics with Young's Modulus equations for calculating tensile, compressive and areal strain.
The Greek lowercase epsilon , the lunate epsilon symbol , and the Latin lowercase epsilon (see above) are used in a variety of places:
In engineering mechanics, strain calculations ϵ = increase of length / original length. Usually this relates to extensometer testing of metallic materials.
In mathematics
(In early calculus or nonstandard analysis) An infinitesimally small positive quantity is commonly denoted ε.
(In analysis) By extension, a quantity thought of as "small," "negligible," or, especially, "arbitrarily small," is often denoted ε. For instance, quantities subject to a limit which takes them towards zero are often denoted ε; see (ε, δ)-definition of limit.
Hilbert introduced epsilon terms \epsilon x.\phi as an extension to first-order logic; see epsilon calculus.
it is used to represent the Levi-Civita symbol.
it is used to represent dual numbers: a+b \varepsilon, with \varepsilon^{2}=0 and \varepsilon \neq 0.
it is sometimes used to denote the Heaviside step function.
in set theory, the epsilon numbers are ordinal numbers that satisfy the fixed point ε = ωε. The first epsilon number, ε0, is the limit ordinal of the set {ω, ωω, ωωω, ...}.
in numerical analysis and statistics it is used as the error term
in group theory it is used as the idempotent group when e is in use as a variable name
In computer science
it often represents the empty string, though different writers use a variety of other symbols for the empty string as well; usually the lower-case Greek letter lambda (λ).
the machine epsilon indicates the upper bound on the relative error due to rounding in floating point arithmetic.
In physics,
it indicates the permittivity of a medium; with the subscript 0 (ε0) it is the permittivity of free space.
it can also indicate the strain of a material (a ratio of extensions).
in quantum field theory, it usually indicates the dimensional regularization parameter.
In automata theory, it shows a transition that involves no shifting of an input symbol.
In astronomy,
it stands for the fifth-brightest star in a constellation (see Bayer designation).
Epsilon is the name for the most distant and most visible ring of Uranus.
In planetary science, ε denotes the axial tilt.
In chemistry, it represents the molar extinction coefficient of a chromophore.
In economics, ε refers to elasticity.
In statistics,
it is used to refer to error terms.
it also can to refer to the degree of sphericity in repeated measures ANOVAs.
In agronomy, it is used to represent the "photosynthetic efficiency" of a particular plant or crop.
==Unicode==
For accented Greek characters, see Greek diacritics: Computer encoding.
( in TeX)
( in TeX)
==Initial==
File:Lectionary 226 GA 0020b Epsilon.JPG|Initial epsilon in Lectionary 226, folio 20 verso
File:Lectionary 226 (GA) Epsilon 0064b.JPG|folio 64 verso
File:Lectionary 226 GA 0125b Epsilon.JPG|folio 125 verso
|
[
"physics",
"set membership",
"first-order logic",
"Unicode",
"Sicyon",
"Attic Greek",
"uppercase",
"Boeotia",
"vellum",
"dual number",
"diphthong",
"Lectionary 226",
"Giuseppe Peano",
"Archaic Greek alphabets",
"error term",
"ordinal number",
"set theory",
"Heta",
"Uranus",
"close-mid vowel",
"Elasticity (economics)",
"idempotent",
"E (disambiguation)",
"chemistry",
"machine epsilon",
"constellation",
"uncial script",
"epsilon calculus",
"Young's Modulus",
"epsilon numbers (mathematics)",
"Romanization of Greek",
"Deformation (mechanics)",
"papyrus",
"Ancient Corinth",
"lunate",
"computer science",
"Fixed point (mathematics)",
"Ye with grave",
"David Hilbert",
"minuscule Greek",
"The Man Who Loved Only Numbers",
"Harlow",
"recto and verso",
"Ë",
"photosynthetic",
"е",
"Reversed Ze",
"euro sign",
"agronomy",
"Paul Hoffman (science writer)",
"Heaviside step function",
"Errors and residuals in statistics",
"astronomy",
"Ionic Greek",
"epsilon number",
"Eta",
"permittivity of free space",
"mid<!-- not close-mid, see Arvanti (1999) - Illustrations of the IPA: Modern Greek. --> front unrounded vowel",
"empty string",
"open-mid vowel",
"automata theory",
"structural mechanics",
"lambda",
"axial tilt",
"3",
"TeX",
"Е",
"Latin alphabet",
"open-mid front unrounded vowel",
"Ukrainian Ye",
"mid<!-- not close-mid, see (1999) - Illustrations of the IPA: Modern Greek. --> front unrounded vowel",
"Mathematical analysis",
"molar extinction coefficient",
"calculus",
"limit ordinal",
"Phoenician alphabet",
"statistics",
"quantum field theory",
"group theory",
"(ε, δ)-definition of limit",
"Greek lowercase",
"Bayer designation",
"nonstandard analysis",
"International Phonetic Alphabet",
"He (letter)",
"Repeated measures design",
"Ye (Cyrillic)",
"planetary science",
"Strain (materials science)",
"Greek numerals",
"Beta",
"history of the Greek alphabet",
"cursive",
"Longman",
"Initial",
"Limit (mathematics)",
"sigma",
"minuscule",
"Latin epsilon",
"Lunate epsilon",
"ϵ",
"Levi-Civita symbol",
"dimensional regularization",
"lowercase",
"Greek diacritics",
"Thespiae",
"chromophore",
"Mauchly's sphericity test",
"economics",
"permittivity",
"Greek alphabet",
"E (Cyrillic)",
"Yo (Cyrillic)",
"digraph (orthography)",
"code point",
"engineering mechanics",
"E",
"mathematics",
"close vowel"
] |
9,488 |
Eta
|
Eta ( ; uppercase ', lowercase '; ē̂ta or ita ) is the seventh letter of the Greek alphabet, representing the close front unrounded vowel, . Originally denoting the voiceless glottal fricative, , in most dialects of Ancient Greek, its sound value in the classical Attic dialect was a long open-mid front unrounded vowel, , which was raised to in Hellenistic Greek, a process known as iotacism or itacism.
In the ancient Attic number system (Herodianic or acrophonic numbers), the number 100 was represented by "", because it was the initial of , the ancient spelling of = "one hundred". In the later system of (Classical) Greek numerals eta represents 8.
Eta was derived from the Phoenician letter heth . Letters that arose from eta include the Latin H and the Cyrillic letters И and Й.
==History==
===Consonant h===
The letter shape 'H' was originally used in most Greek dialects to represent the voiceless glottal fricative, . In this function, it was borrowed in the 8th century BC by the Etruscan and other Old Italic alphabets, which were based on the Euboean form of the Greek alphabet. This also gave rise to the Latin alphabet with its letter H.
Other regional variants of the Greek alphabet (epichoric alphabets), in dialects that still preserved the sound , employed various glyph shapes for consonantal heta side by side with the new vocalic eta for some time. In the southern Italian colonies of Heraclea and Tarentum, the letter shape was reduced to a "half-heta" lacking the right vertical stem (Ͱ). From this sign later developed the sign for rough breathing or spiritus asper, which brought back the marking of the sound into the standardized post-classical (polytonic) orthography. Dionysius Thrax in the second century BC records that the letter name was still pronounced heta (ἥτα), correctly explaining this irregularity by stating "in the old days the letter Η served to stand for the rough breathing, as it still does with the Romans."
===Long e===
In the East Ionic dialect, however, the sound disappeared by the sixth century BC, and the letter was re-used initially to represent a development of a long open front unrounded vowel, , which later merged in East Ionic with the long open-mid front unrounded vowel, instead. In 403 BC, Athens took over the Ionian spelling system and with it the vocalic use of H (even though it still also had the sound itself at that time). This later became the standard orthography in all of Greece.
===Itacism===
During the time of post-classical Koiné Greek, the sound represented by eta was raised and merged with several other formerly distinct vowels, a phenomenon called iotacism or itacism, after the new pronunciation of the letter name as ita instead of eta.
Itacism is continued into Modern Greek, where the letter name is pronounced and represents the close front unrounded vowel, . It shares this function with several other letters (ι, υ) and digraphs (ει, οι, υι), which are all pronounced alike.
===Cyrillic script===
Eta was also borrowed with the sound value of into the Cyrillic script, where it gave rise to the Cyrillic letter И.
==Uses==
===Letter===
In Modern Greek, due to iotacism, the letter (pronounced ) represents a close front unrounded vowel, . In Classical Greek, it represented the long open-mid front unrounded vowel, .
===Symbol===
====Upper case====
The uppercase letter Η is used as a symbol in textual criticism for the Alexandrian text-type (from Hesychius, its once-supposed editor).
In chemistry, the letter H as symbol of enthalpy sometimes is said to be a Greek eta, but since enthalpy comes from ἐνθάλπος, which begins in a smooth breathing and epsilon, it is more likely a Latin H for 'heat'.
In information theory the uppercase Greek letter Η is used to represent the concept of entropy of a discrete random variable.
====Lower case====
The lowercase letter η is used as a symbol in:
Thermodynamics, the efficiency of a Carnot heat engine, or packing fraction.
Aeronautics, the propulsive efficiency, or percentage of chemical energy converted to kinetic energy.
Chemistry, the hapticity, or the number of atoms of a ligand attached to one coordination site of the metal in a coordination compound. For example, an allyl group can coordinate to palladium in the η¹ mode (only one atom of an allyl group attached to palladium) or the η³ mode (3 atoms attached to palladium).
Optics, the electromagnetic impedance of a medium, or the quantum efficiency of detectors.
Particle physics, to represent the η mesons.
Experimental particle physics, η stands for pseudorapidity.
Cosmology, η represents conformal time; dt = adη.
Cosmology, baryon–photon ratio.
Relativity and Quantum field theory (physics), η (with two subscripts) represents the metric tensor of Minkowski space (flat spacetime).
Statistics, η2 is the "partial regression coefficient". η is the symbol for the linear predictor of a generalized linear model, and can also be used to denote the median of a population, or thresholding parameter in Sparse Partial Least Squares regression.
Economics, η is the elasticity.
Astronomy, the seventh-brightest (usually) star in a constellation. See Bayer designation.
Mathematics, η-reduction in lambda calculus.
Mathematics, the Dirichlet eta function, Dedekind eta function, and Weierstrass eta function.
In category theory, the unit of an adjunction or monad is usually denoted η.
Biology, a DNA polymerase found in higher eukaryotes and implicated in Translesion Synthesis.
Neural network backpropagation, and stochastic gradient descent more generally, η stands for the learning rate.
Telecommunications, η stands for efficiency
Electronics, η stands for the ideality factor of a bipolar transistor, and has a value close to 1.000. It appears in contexts where the transistor is used as a temperature sensing device, e.g. the thermal "diode" transistor that is embedded within a computer's microprocessor.
Power electronics, η stands for the efficiency of a power supply, defined as the output power divided by the input power.
Atmospheric science, η represents absolute atmospheric vorticity.
Rheology, η represents viscosity.
Oceanography, η is the measurement (usually in metres) of sea-level height above or below the mean sea-level at that same location.
==Unicode==
( in TeX)
These characters are used only as mathematical symbols. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style:
|
[
"Athens",
"Iota",
"Attic Greek",
"Telecommunications",
"metric tensor (general relativity)",
"Oceanography",
"Carnot heat engine",
"Vorticity",
"Quantum field theory",
"Elasticity (economics)",
"Hypnos",
"Biology",
"pseudorapidity",
"Stoa of Attalus",
"Ionic dialect",
"Entropy (information theory)",
"Modern Greek",
"chemistry",
"Rheology",
"Calyx (mythology)",
"Vowel height",
"lambda calculus",
"constellation",
"Chemistry",
"Weierstrass eta function",
"power supply",
"Power electronics",
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"open front unrounded vowel",
"Theory of relativity",
"krater",
"generalized linear model",
"Dirichlet eta function",
"Artificial neural network",
"backpropagation",
"eukaryotes",
"Koiné Greek",
"voiceless glottal fricative",
"H",
"category theory",
"Ancient Greek",
"Optics",
"propulsive efficiency",
"Dedekind eta function",
"allyl group",
"conformal time",
"ideality factor",
"Adjoint functors",
"stochastic gradient descent",
"Hesychius of Alexandria",
"ostrakon",
"epichoric alphabets",
"Big Bang nucleosynthesis",
"I (Cyrillic)",
"bipolar transistor",
"hapticity",
"open-mid front unrounded vowel",
"Attic numerals",
"Thermodynamics",
"Electronics",
"velar nasal",
"Hermes",
"Phoenician alphabet",
"Short I",
"Upsilon",
"Hurricane Eta",
"palladium",
"Atmospheric science",
"Dionysius Thrax",
"Bayer designation",
"rough breathing",
"Old Italic alphabet",
"Aeronautics",
"packing density",
"DNA polymerase",
"viscosity",
"Greek numerals",
"Heraclea Lucania",
"electromagnetic impedance",
"Hellenistic Greek",
"Minkowski space",
"Alexandrian text-type",
"Astronomy",
"Cyrillic script",
"Taranto",
"Economics",
"coordination compound",
"Monad (category theory)",
"Ancient Greek language",
"learning rate",
"Statistics",
"Greek diacritics",
"enthalpy",
"quantum efficiency",
"close front unrounded vowel",
"Cosmology",
"heth",
"Cumaean alphabet",
"Digraph (orthography)",
"Greek alphabet",
"Megacles",
"Particle physics",
"itacism",
"η meson",
"textual criticism"
] |
9,491 |
Eskimo
|
Eskimo () is an exonym that refers to two closely related Indigenous peoples: Inuit (including the Alaska Native Iñupiat, the Canadian Inuit, and the Greenlandic Inuit) and the Yupik (or Yuit) of eastern Siberia and Alaska. A related third group, the Aleut, who inhabit the Aleutian Islands, are generally excluded from the definition of Eskimo. The three groups share a relatively recent common ancestor, and speak related languages belonging to the family of Eskaleut languages.
These circumpolar peoples have traditionally inhabited the Arctic and subarctic regions from eastern Siberia (Russia) to Alaska (United States), Northern Canada, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, and Greenland.
Some Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and other individuals consider the term Eskimo, which is of a disputed etymology, to be pejorative or even offensive. and the United States have made moves to cease using the term Eskimo in official documents, but it has not been eliminated, as the word is in some places written into tribal, and therefore national, legal terminology. Canada officially uses the term Inuit to describe the indigenous Canadian people who are living in the country's northern sectors and are not First Nations or Métis. The United States government legally uses Alaska Native Other non-enrolled individuals also claim Eskimo/Aleut descent, making it the world's "most widespread aboriginal group".
There are between 171,000 and 187,000 Inuit and Yupik, the majority of whom live in or near their traditional circumpolar homeland. Of these, 53,785 (2010) live in the United States, 70,545 (2021) in Canada, 51,730 (2021) in Greenland and 1,657 (2021) in Russia. In addition, 16,730 people living in Denmark were born in Greenland. The Inuit Circumpolar Council, a non-governmental organization (NGO), claims to represent 180,000 people.
In the Eskaleut language family, the Eskimo or Eskimoan branch has an Inuit language sub-branch, and a sub-branch of four Yupik languages. Two Yupik languages are used in the Russian Far East as well as on St. Lawrence Island, and two in western Alaska, southwestern Alaska, and western Southcentral Alaska. The extinct Sirenik language also belongs to the Eskimoan branch.
== Nomenclature ==
=== Etymology ===
A variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origin of the word Eskimo. According to Smithsonian linguist Ives Goddard, etymologically the word derives from the Innu-aimun (Montagnais) word , meaning 'a person who laces a snowshoe', and is related to husky (a breed of dog). The word means 'she laces a snowshoe' in Innu, and Innu language speakers refer to the neighbouring Mi'kmaq people using words that sound like eskimo. This interpretation is generally confirmed by more recent academic sources.
In 1978, José Mailhot, a Quebec anthropologist who speaks Innu-aimun (Montagnais), published a paper suggesting that Eskimo meant 'people who speak a different language'. 'eaters of raw meat' in Algonquian languages common to people along the Atlantic coast. An unnamed Cree speaker suggested the original word that became corrupted to Eskimo might have been (meaning 'he eats it raw'); Inuit are referred to in some Cree texts as (meaning 'eats something raw'). Regardless, the term still carries a derogatory connotation for many Inuit and Yupik.
One of the first printed uses of the French word comes from Samuel Hearne's A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean in the Years 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772 first published in 1795.
=== Usage ===
The term Eskimo is still used by people to encompass Inuit and Yupik, as well as other Indigenous or Alaska Native and Siberian peoples. In the 21st century, usage in North America has declined. or terms specific to a particular group or community. This has resulted in a trend whereby some non-Indigenous people believe that they should use Inuit even for Yupik who are non-Inuit. Greenlandic Inuit belong to three groups: the Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut; In Canada's Central Arctic, is the preferred term, and in the eastern Canadian Arctic . The language is often called Inuktitut, though other local designations are also used.
Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and section 35 of the Canadian Constitution Act of 1982 recognized Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Although Inuit can be applied to all of the Eskimo peoples in Canada and Greenland, that is not true in Alaska and Siberia. In Alaska, the term Eskimo is still used because it includes both Iñupiat (singular: Iñupiaq), who are Inuit, and Yupik, who are not. indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and the Alaskan Athabaskans, such as the Eyak people. The term Alaska Native has important legal usage in Alaska and the rest of the United States as a result of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971. It does not apply to Inuit or Yupik originating outside the state. As a result, the term Eskimo is still in use in Alaska. Alternative terms, such as Inuit-Yupik, have been proposed, but none has gained widespread acceptance. Early 21st century population estimates registered more than 135,000 individuals of Eskimo descent, with approximately 85,000 living in North America, 50,000 in Greenland, and the rest residing in Siberia. Even at that time, such a designation was not accepted by all. As a result, the Canadian government usage has replaced the term Eskimo with ( in singular).
The ICC charter defines Inuit as including "the Inupiat, Yupik (Alaska), Inuit, Inuvialuit (Canada), Kalaallit (Greenland) and Yupik (Russia)". Despite the ICC's 1977 decision to adopt the term Inuit, this has not been accepted by all or even most Yupik people.
==== Academic response ====
In a 2015 commentary in the journal Arctic, Canadian archaeologist Max Friesen argued fellow Arctic archaeologists should follow the ICC and use Paleo-Inuit instead of Paleo-Eskimo. In 2016, Lisa Hodgetts and Arctic editor Patricia Wells wrote: "In the Canadian context, continued use of any term that incorporates Eskimo is potentially harmful to the relationships between archaeologists and the Inuit and Inuvialuit communities who are our hosts and increasingly our research partners."
Hodgetts and Wells suggested using more specific terms when possible (e.g., Dorset and Groswater) and agreed with Frieson in using the Inuit tradition to replace Neo-Eskimo, although they noted replacement for Palaeoeskimo was still an open question and discussed Paleo-Inuit, Arctic Small Tool Tradition, and pre-Inuit, as well as Inuktitut loanwords like and , as possibilities.
In 2020, Katelyn Braymer-Hayes and colleagues argued in the Journal of Anthropological Archaeology that there is a "clear need" to replace the terms Neo-Eskimo and Paleo-Eskimo, citing the ICC resolution, but finding a consensus within the Alaskan context particularly is difficult, since Alaska Natives do not use the word Inuit to describe themselves nor is the term legally applicable only to Iñupiat and Yupik in Alaska, and as such, terms used in Canada like Paleo Inuit and Ancestral Inuit would not be acceptable.
American linguist Lenore Grenoble has also explicitly deferred to the ICC resolution and used Inuit–Yupik instead of Eskimo with regards to the language branch.
== History ==
Genetic evidence suggests that the Americas were populated from northeastern Asia in multiple waves. While the great majority of indigenous American peoples can be traced to a single early migration of Paleo-Indians, the Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit admixture from distinct populations that migrated into America at a later date and are closely linked to the peoples of far northeastern Asia (e.g. Chukchi), and only more remotely to the majority indigenous American type. For modern Eskimo–Aleut speakers, this later ancestral component makes up almost half of their genomes. The ancient Paleo-Eskimo population was genetically distinct from the modern circumpolar populations, but eventually derives from the same far northeastern Asian cluster. It is believed that ancestors of the Aleut people inhabited the Aleutian Chain 10,000 years ago.
The earliest positively identified Paleo-Eskimo cultures (Early Paleo-Eskimo) date to 5,000 years ago. Several earlier indigenous peoples existed in the northern circumpolar regions of eastern Siberia, Alaska, and Canada (although probably not in Greenland). The Paleo-Eskimo peoples appear to have developed in Alaska from people related to the Arctic small tool tradition in eastern Asia, whose ancestors had probably migrated to Alaska at least 3,000 to 5,000 years earlier.
The Yupik languages and cultures in Alaska evolved in place, beginning with the original pre-Dorset Indigenous culture developed in Alaska. At least 4,000 years ago, the Unangan culture of the Aleut became distinct. It is not generally considered an Eskimo culture. However, there is some possibility of an Aleutian origin of the Dorset people,
== Languages ==
=== Language family ===
The Eskimo–Aleut (also known as Eskaleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan) family of languages includes two cognate branches: the Aleut (Unangan) branch and the Inuit–Yupik branch.
The number of cases varies, with Aleut languages having a greatly reduced case system compared to those of the Inuit–Yupik subfamily. Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages possess voiceless plosives at the bilabial, coronal, velar and uvular positions in all languages except Aleut, which has lost the bilabial stops but retained the nasal. In the Inuit–Yupik subfamily a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is also present.
The Inuit–Yupik sub-family consists of the Inuit and Yupik language sub-groups. The Sirenik language, which is virtually extinct, is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Inuit–Yupik language family. Other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch.
Inuit languages comprise a dialect continuum, or dialect chain, that stretches from Unalakleet and Norton Sound in Alaska, across northern Alaska and Canada, and east to Greenland. Changes from western (Iñupiaq) to eastern dialects are marked by the dropping of vestigial Yupik-related features, increasing consonant assimilation (e.g., kumlu, meaning "thumb", changes to kuvlu, changes to kublu, changes to kulluk, changes to kulluq,) and increased consonant lengthening, and lexical change. Thus, speakers of two adjacent Inuit dialects would usually be able to understand one another, but speakers from dialects distant from each other on the dialect continuum would have difficulty understanding one another.
An overview of the Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages family is given below:
Inuit–Yupik–Unangan
Aleut or Unangan
Western-Central dialects: Atkan, Attuan, Unangan, Bering (60–80 speakers)
Eastern dialect: Unalaskan, Pribilof (400 speakers)
Inuit–Yupik or Eskimo (Yup'ik, Yuit, and Inuit)
Yupik
Central Alaskan Yup'ik (10,000 speakers)
Alutiiq or Pacific Gulf Yup'ik (400 speakers)
Central Siberian Yupik or Yuit (Chaplinon and St Lawrence Island, 1,400 speakers)
Naukan (700 speakers)
Inuit or Inupik (75,000 speakers)
Greenlandic (Greenland, 47,000 speakers)
Kalaallisut (West Greenlandic, 44,000-52,000 speakers)
Tunumiisut (East Greenlandic, 3,500 speakers)
Iñupiaq (northern Alaska, 3,500 speakers)
Inuvialuktun (western Canada; together with Siglitun, Natsilingmiutut, Inuinnaqtun and Uummarmiutun 765 speakers)
Inuktitut (eastern Canada; together with Inuktun and Inuinnaqtun, 30,000 speakers)
Inuktun (Avanersuarmiutut, Thule dialect or Polar Eskimo, approximately 1,000 speakers)
Sirenik (Sirenikskiy)
American linguist Lenore Grenoble has explicitly deferred to the ICC resolution and used Inuit–Yupik instead of Eskimo with regards to the language branch.
== Diet ==
== Inuit ==
Inuit inhabit the Arctic and northern Bering Sea coasts of Alaska in the United States, and Arctic coasts of the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Quebec, and Labrador in Canada, and Greenland (associated with Denmark). Until fairly recent times, there has been a remarkable homogeneity in the culture throughout this area, which traditionally relied on fish, marine mammals, and land animals for food, heat, light, clothing, and tools. Their food sources primarily relied on seals, whales, whale blubber, walrus, and fish, all of which they hunted using harpoons on the ice. They maintain a unique Inuit culture.
=== Greenland's Inuit ===
Greenlandic Inuit make up 90% of Greenland's population.
=== Alaska's Iñupiat ===
The Iñupiat are Inuit of Alaska's Northwest Arctic and North Slope boroughs and the Bering Straits region, including the Seward Peninsula. Utqiaġvik, the northernmost city in the United States, is above the Arctic Circle and in the Iñupiat region. Their language is known as Iñupiaq. Their current communities include 34 villages across Iñupiat Nunaŋat (Iñupiaq lands) including seven Alaskan villages in the North Slope Borough, affiliated with the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation; eleven villages in Northwest Arctic Borough; and sixteen villages affiliated with the Bering Straits Regional Corporation.
== Yupik ==
The Yupik are indigenous or aboriginal peoples who live along the coast of western Alaska, especially on the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta and along the Kuskokwim River (Central Alaskan Yup'ik); in southern Alaska (the Alutiiq); and along the eastern coast of Chukotka in the Russian Far East and St. Lawrence Island in western Alaska (the Siberian Yupik). The Yupik economy has traditionally been strongly dominated by the harvest of marine mammals, especially seals, walrus, and whales.
=== Alutiiq ===
The Alutiiq language is relatively close to that spoken by the Yupik in the Bethel, Alaska area. But, it is considered a distinct language with two major dialects: the Koniag dialect, spoken on the Alaska Peninsula and on Kodiak Island, and the Chugach dialect, spoken on the southern Kenai Peninsula and in Prince William Sound. Residents of Nanwalek, located on southern part of the Kenai Peninsula near Seldovia, speak what they call Sugpiaq. They are able to understand those who speak Yupik in Bethel. With a population of approximately 3,000, and the number of speakers in the hundreds, Alutiiq communities are working to revitalize their language.
=== Central Alaskan Yup'ik ===
Yup'ik, with an apostrophe, denotes the speakers of the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language, who live in western Alaska and southwestern Alaska from southern Norton Sound to the north side of Bristol Bay, on the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta, and on Nelson Island. The use of the apostrophe in the name Yup'ik is a written convention to denote the long pronunciation of the p sound; but it is spoken the same in other Yupik languages. Of all the Alaska Native languages, Central Alaskan Yup'ik has the most speakers, with about 10,000 of a total Yup'ik population of 21,000 still speaking the language. The five dialects of Central Alaskan Yup'ik include General Central Yup'ik, and the Egegik, Norton Sound, Hooper Bay-Chevak, and Nunivak dialects. In the latter two dialects, both the language and the people are called Cup'ik.
===Siberian Yupik===
Siberian Yupik reside along the Bering Sea coast of the Chukchi Peninsula in Siberia in the Russian Far East The Central Siberian Yupik spoken on the Chukchi Peninsula and on St. Lawrence Island is nearly identical. About 1,050 of a total Alaska population of 1,100 Siberian Yupik people in Alaska speak the language. It is the first language of the home for most St. Lawrence Island children. In Siberia, about 300 of a total of 900 Siberian Yupik people still learn and study the language, though it is no longer learned as a first language by children. They lived in neighborhoods with Siberian Yupik and Chukchi peoples.
As early as in 1895, Imtuk was a settlement with a mixed population of Sireniki and Ungazigmit (the latter belonging to Siberian Yupik). Sirenik culture has been influenced by that of Chukchi, and the language shows Chukchi language influences. Folktale motifs also show the influence of Chuckchi culture.
The above peculiarities of this (already extinct) Inuit–Yupik language amounted to mutual unintelligibility even with its nearest language relatives: in the past, Sireniki had to use the unrelated Chukchi language as a lingua franca for communicating with Siberian Yupik. but even the grammar has several peculiarities distinct not only among Inuit–Yupik languages, but even compared to Aleut. For example, dual number is not known in Sirenik, while most Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages have dual, including its neighboring Siberian Yupikax relatives.
Little is known about the origin of this diversity. The peculiarities of this language may be the result of a supposed long isolation from other Inuit and Yupik groups, and being in contact only with speakers of unrelated languages for many centuries. The influence of the Chukchi language is clear. Sireniki language is sometimes regarded as a third branch of Inuit–Yupik (at least, its possibility is mentioned). Sometimes it is regarded rather as a group belonging to the Yupik branch.
|
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"Inuit Nunangat",
"Nature (journal)",
"Inuvialuit Settlement Region",
"Kudlik",
"Saqqaq culture",
"Eskaleut languages",
"Labrador",
"Northern Canada",
"Alaskan Creole people",
"walrus",
"Oxford University Press",
"Greenlandic language",
"Alutiiq language",
"Inuinnaqtun",
"North Slope Borough, Alaska",
"Eskimo–Aleut",
"Norton Sound",
"Alaska Native religion",
"Aleutian Islands",
"Yup'ik language",
"Alaska Native languages",
"Kalaallit",
"Tunu",
"pre-Dorset",
"Disc number",
"Palgrave Macmillan",
"McGill-Queen's Press",
"Paleo-Eskimo",
"University of Alaska Fairbanks",
"Innu",
"Indigenous peoples in Canada",
"Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982",
"Aleut language",
"Alaska Native Language Center",
"University College London",
"Sireniki",
"Yupik languages",
"Kodiak Island",
"Russian Orthodox Church",
"Nanwalek, Alaska",
"Paleo-Indians",
"Yukon",
"Google Books",
"Houghton Mifflin Harcourt",
"Routledge",
"Inupiaq language",
"Siberian Yupik",
"Statistics Denmark",
"marine mammal",
"indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast",
"Inuvialuktun",
"Bering Straits Regional Corporation",
"ABC-CLIO",
"Fricative consonant",
"Iñupiat",
"Statistics Canada",
"Utqiaġvik, Alaska",
"Greenlandic Inuit",
"The World Factbook",
"Indigenous peoples",
"Christianity",
"Birnirk culture",
"First Nations in Canada",
"Bering Sea",
"Alaska Natives",
"Tlingit",
"Eyak people",
"non-governmental organization",
"Thule people",
"Quebec",
"Haida people",
"Tsimshian",
"Tunumiit dialect",
"Bering Strait",
"Gambell, Alaska",
"Innu-aimun",
"Eskimo archery",
"Shamanism among Alaska Natives",
"Arctic",
"Innu language",
"Unalakleet, Alaska",
"Grammatical case",
"Inuit culture",
"Prince William Sound",
"Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act",
"Russian Academy of Sciences",
"Inuit languages",
"National Museum of Denmark",
"Samuel Hearne",
"Global News",
"snowshoe",
"Alutiiq",
"Eskimo kissing",
"List of Alaska Native tribal entities",
"Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta",
"Department of Justice (Canada)",
"Amundsen Gulf",
"Eskimo kinship",
"Dual (grammatical number)",
"Provinces and territories of Canada",
"English language",
"Sirenik language",
"Early Paleo-Eskimo",
"Edinburgh University Press",
"Dorset culture",
"Siglitun",
"Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms",
"Inuvialuit",
"Utqiaġvik",
"Scientific Reports",
"Walter de Gruyter",
"Science (journal)",
"Lenore Grenoble",
"Bethel, Alaska",
"Kuskokwim River",
"Alaska",
"Alaskan Athabaskans",
"Inuktun",
"Bureau of Indian Affairs",
"West Greenlandic",
"Seldovia, Alaska",
"Bristol Bay",
"bilabial consonant",
"Nanook of the North",
"Russian language",
"Alaska Native",
"Inuit",
"Netsilik dialect",
"Arctic (journal)",
"Canadian Geographic",
"Yup'ik",
"Northwest Territories",
"Library and Archives Canada",
"Velar consonant",
"NPR",
"Groswater Bay",
"Yukon River",
"Arctic Archipelago",
"Southcentral Alaska",
"Mi'kmaq",
"Waveland Press",
"José Mailhot",
"Journal of Anthropological Archaeology",
"Nunatsiavut",
"Alveolar consonant",
"Alaska Peninsula",
"language shift",
"De Gruyter",
"Tunumiisut",
"Church of Denmark",
"Arctic Slope Regional Corporation",
"Inughuit",
"Indigenous peoples of Siberia",
"Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms",
"language family",
"Savoonga, Alaska",
"Cree",
"Pinniped",
"St. Lawrence Island"
] |
9,496 |
Epiphenomenalism
|
Epiphenomenalism is a position in the philosophy of mind on the mind–body problem. It holds that subjective mental events are completely dependent for their existence on corresponding physical and biochemical events within the human body, but do not themselves influence physical events. According to epiphenomenalism, the appearance that subjective mental states (such as intentions) influence physical events is an illusion, with consciousness being a by-product of physical states of the world. For instance, fear seems to make the heart beat faster, but according to epiphenomenalism the biochemical secretions of the brain and nervous system (such as adrenaline)—not the experience of fear—is what raises the heartbeat. Because mental events are a kind of overflow that cannot cause anything physical, yet have non-physical properties, epiphenomenalism is viewed as a form of property dualism.
== Development ==
During the 17th century, René Descartes argued that animals are subject to mechanical laws of nature. He defended the idea of automatic behavior, or the performance of actions without conscious thought. Descartes questioned how the immaterial mind and the material body can interact causally. His interactionist model (1649) held that the body relates to the mind through the pineal gland. La Mettrie, Leibniz, and Spinoza all in their own way began this way of thinking. The idea that even if the animal were conscious nothing would be added to the production of behavior, even in animals of the human type, was first voiced by La Mettrie (1745), and then by Cabanis (1802), and was further explicated by Hodgson (1870) and Thomas Henry Huxley (1874).
Thomas Henry Huxley agreed with Descartes that behavior is determined solely by physical mechanisms, but he also believed that humans enjoy an intelligent life. In 1874, Huxley argued, in the Presidential Address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, that animals are conscious automata. Huxley proposed that psychical changes are collateral products of physical changes. Like the bell of a clock that has no role in keeping the time, consciousness has no role in determining behavior. By the 1960s, scientific behaviorism met substantial difficulties and eventually gave way to the cognitive revolution. Participants in that revolution, such as Jerry Fodor, reject epiphenomenalism and insist upon the efficacy of the mind. Fodor even speaks of "epiphobia"—fear that one is becoming an epiphenomenalist.
However, since the cognitive revolution, there have been several who have argued for a version of epiphenomenalism. In 1970, Keith Campbell proposed his "new epiphenomenalism", which states that the body produces a spiritual mind that does not act on the body. How the brain causes a spiritual mind, according to Campbell, is destined to remain beyond our understanding forever. In 2001, David Chalmers and Frank Jackson argued that claims about conscious states should be deduced a priori from claims about physical states alone. They offered that epiphenomenalism bridges, but does not close, the explanatory gap between the physical and the phenomenal realms. These more recent versions maintain that only the subjective, qualitative aspects of mental states are epiphenomenal. Imagine both Pierre and a robot eating a cupcake. Unlike the robot, Pierre is conscious of eating the cupcake while the behavior is under way. This subjective experience is often called a quale (plural qualia), and it describes the private "raw feel" or the subjective "what-it-is-like" that is the inner accompaniment of many mental states. Thus, while Pierre and the robot are both doing the same thing, only Pierre has the inner conscious experience.
Frank Jackson (1982), for example, once espoused the following view:
Some thinkers draw distinctions between different varieties of epiphenomenalism. In Consciousness Explained, Daniel Dennett distinguishes between a purely metaphysical sense of epiphenomenalism, in which the epiphenomenon has no causal impact at all, and Huxley's "steam whistle" epiphenomenalism, in which effects exist but are not functionally relevant.
== Arguments for ==
Some neurophysiological data has been proffered in support of epiphenomenalism. Some of the oldest such data is the Bereitschaftspotential or "readiness potential" in which electrical activity related to voluntary actions can be recorded up to two seconds before the subject is aware of making a decision to perform the action. More recently Benjamin Libet et al. (1979) have shown that it can take 0.5 seconds before a stimulus becomes part of conscious experience even though subjects can respond to the stimulus in reaction time tests within 200 milliseconds. The methods and conclusions of this experiment have received much criticism (e.g., see the many critical commentaries in Libet's (1985) target article), including fairly recently by neuroscientists such as Peter Tse, who claim to show that the readiness potential has nothing to do with consciousness at all.
== Arguments against ==
The most powerful argument against epiphenomenalism is that it is self-contradictory: if we have knowledge about epiphenomenalism, then our brains know about the existence of the mind, but if epiphenomenalism were correct, then our brains should not have any knowledge about the mind, because the mind does not affect anything physical.
However, some philosophers do not accept this as a rigorous refutation. For example, philosopher Victor Argonov states that epiphenomenalism is a questionable, but experimentally falsifiable theory. He argues that the personal mind is not the only source of knowledge about the existence of mind in the world. A creature (even a philosophical zombie) could have knowledge about the mind and the mind-body problem by virtue of some innate knowledge. The information about the mind (and its problematic properties such as qualia and the hard problem of consciousness) could have been, in principle, implicitly "written" in the material world since its creation. Epiphenomenalists can say that God created an immaterial mind and a detailed "program" of material human behavior that makes it possible to speak about the mind–body problem. That version of epiphenomenalism seems highly exotic, but it cannot be excluded from consideration by pure theory. However, Argonov suggests that experiments could refute epiphenomenalism. In particular, epiphenomenalism could be refuted if neural correlates of consciousness can be found in the human brain, and it is proven that human speech about consciousness is caused by them.
Some philosophers, such as Daniel Dennett, reject both epiphenomenalism and the existence of qualia with the same charge that Gilbert Ryle leveled against a Cartesian "ghost in the machine", that they too are category mistakes. A quale or conscious experience would not belong to the category of objects of reference on this account, but rather to the category of ways of doing things.
Functionalists assert that mental states are well described by their overall role, their activity in relation to the organism as a whole. "This doctrine is rooted in Aristotle's conception of the soul, and has antecedents in Hobbes's conception of the mind as a 'calculating machine', but it has become fully articulated (and popularly endorsed) only in the last third of the 20th century." In so far as it mediates stimulus and response, a mental function is analogous to a program that processes input/output in automata theory. In principle, multiple realisability would guarantee platform dependencies can be avoided, whether in terms of hardware and operating system or, ex hypothesi, biology and philosophy. Because a high-level language is a practical requirement for developing the most complex programs, functionalism implies that a non-reductive physicalism would offer a similar advantage over a strictly eliminative materialism.
Eliminative materialists believe "folk psychology" is so unscientific that, ultimately, it will be better to eliminate primitive concepts such as mind, desire and belief, in favor of a future neuroscientific account. A more moderate position such as J. L. Mackie's error theory suggests that false beliefs should be stripped away from a mental concept without eliminating the concept itself, the legitimate core meaning being left intact.
Benjamin Libet's results are quoted in favor of epiphenomenalism, but he believes subjects still have a "conscious veto", since the readiness potential does not invariably lead to an action. In Freedom Evolves, Daniel Dennett argues that a no-free-will conclusion is based on dubious assumptions about the location of consciousness, as well as questioning the accuracy and interpretation of Libet's results. Similar criticism of Libet-style research has been made by neuroscientist Adina Roskies and cognitive theorists Tim Bayne and Alfred Mele.
Others have argued that data such as the Bereitschaftspotential undermine epiphenomenalism for the same reason, that such experiments rely on a subject reporting the point in time at which a conscious experience and a conscious decision occurs, thus relying on the subject to be able to consciously perform an action. That ability would seem to be at odds with early epiphenomenalism, which according to Huxley is the broad claim that consciousness is "completely without any power… as the steam-whistle which accompanies the work of a locomotive engine is without influence upon its machinery". Mind–body dualists reject epiphenomenalism on the same grounds.
Adrian G. Guggisberg and Annaïs Mottaz have also challenged those findings.
A study by Aaron Schurger and colleagues published in PNAS challenged assumptions about the causal nature of the readiness potential itself (and the "pre-movement buildup" of neural activity in general), thus denying the conclusions drawn from studies such as Libet's and Fried's.
In favor of interactionism, Celia Green (2003) argues that epiphenomenalism does not even provide a satisfactory solution to the problem of interaction posed by substance dualism. Although it does not entail substance dualism, according to Green, epiphenomenalism implies a one-way form of interactionism that is just as hard to conceive of as the two-way form embodied in substance dualism. Green suggests the assumption that it is less of a problem may arise from the unexamined belief that physical events have some sort of primacy over mental ones.
A number of scientists and philosophers, including William James, Karl Popper, John C. Eccles and Donald Symons, dismiss epiphenomenalism from an evolutionary perspective. They point out that the view that mind is an epiphenomenon of brain activity is not consistent with evolutionary theory, because if mind were functionless, it would have disappeared long ago, as it would not have been favoured by evolution.
|
[
"British Association for the Advancement of Science",
"Dualism (philosophy of mind)",
"Spinoza",
"Thomas Nagel",
"eliminativism",
"Cartesianism",
"Eliminative materialism",
"La Mettrie",
"Emergentism",
"nervous system",
"Keith Campbell (philosopher)",
"Functionalism (philosophy of mind)",
"high-level language",
"David Chalmers",
"Philosophy Now",
"Shadworth Hodgson",
"non-reductive physicalism",
"Franco-Prussian war",
"Problem of mental causation",
"Physicalism",
"Adina Roskies",
"property dualism",
"Karl Popper",
"Daniel Dennett",
"Conscious automatism",
"Mind–body dualism",
"folk psychology",
"Universal Turing machine",
"input/output",
"qualia",
"Interactionism",
"Property dualism",
"adrenaline",
"brain",
"Qualia",
"mind–body problem",
"Donald Symons",
"fear",
"Benjamin Libet",
"René Descartes",
"scientists",
"Victor Argonov",
"mental event",
"William James",
"intention",
"John C. Eccles",
"automata theory",
"pineal gland",
"category mistake",
"automatic behavior",
"philosophy of mind",
"explanatory gap",
"Frank Cameron Jackson",
"animal",
"evolution",
"fictionalism",
"Philosophy",
"Biochemistry",
"Gilbert Ryle",
"philosophical zombie",
"Leibniz",
"Specious present",
"17th century",
"Function (computer science)",
"Scientific method",
"Daniel Wegner",
"John B. Watson",
"behaviorists",
"Thomas Henry Huxley",
"Pierre Jean George Cabanis",
"Alfred Mele",
"B. F. Skinner",
"neurophysiology",
"Philosophy of mind",
"Freedom Evolves",
"ghost in the machine",
"Ivan Pavlov",
"neuroscientist",
"cognitive revolution",
"J. L. Mackie",
"Jerry Fodor",
"by-product",
"George Santayana",
"hard problem of consciousness",
"Consciousness Explained",
"multiple realisability",
"Bereitschaftspotential",
"Anomalous monism",
"Supervenience",
"Celia Green",
"Peter Tse"
] |
9,498 |
Esperantujo
|
Esperantujo () or Esperantio () is the community of speakers of the Esperanto language and their culture, as well as the places and institutions where the language is used. The term is used "as if it were a country."
Although it does not occupy its own area of Earth's surface, it can be said to constitute the 120 countries which have their own national Esperanto association.
== Etymology and terminology ==
The word is formed analogously to country names. In Esperanto, the names of countries were traditionally formed from the ethnic name of their inhabitants plus the suffix -ujo. For example, "France" was , from (a Frenchman).
The term analogous to Francujo would be Esperantistujo (Esperantist-nation). However, that would convey the idea of a physical body of people, whereas using the name of the language as the basis of the word gives it the more abstract connotation of a cultural sphere.
Currently, names of nation states are often formed with the suffix -io (traditionally reserved for deriving country names from geographic features — e.g. instead of ), and recently the form Esperantio has been used, among others, in the Pasporta Servo and the Esperanto Citizens' Community.
== History ==
In 1908, Dr. Wilhelm Molly attempted to create an Esperanto state in the Prussian-Belgian condominium of Neutral Moresnet, known as "Amikejo" (place of friendship). What became of it is unclear, and Neutral Moresnet was annexed to Belgium in the Treaty of Versailles, 1919.
During the 1960s came a new effort of creating an Esperanto state, which this time was called the Republic of Rose Island. The state island stood in the Adriatic Sea near Italy.
In Europe, on 2 June 2001, a number of organizations (they prefer to call themselves establishments) founded the Esperanta Civito, which "aims to be a subject of international law" and "aims to consolidate the relations between the Esperantists who feel themselves belonging to the diaspora language group which does not belong to any country". Esperanto Civito always uses the name Esperantujo (introduced by Hector Hodler in 1908), which itself is defined according to their interpretation of raumism, and the meaning, therefore, may differ from the traditional Esperanto understanding of the word Esperantujo.
A language learning partner application called Amikumu was launched in 2017, allowing Esperanto speakers to find each other.
== Geography ==
Esperantujo includes any physical place where Esperanto speakers meet, such as Esperanto gatherings or virtual networks. Sometimes it is said that it is everywhere where Esperanto speakers are connected.
Although Esperantujo does not have its own official territory, a number of places around the world are owned by Esperanto organizations or are otherwise permanently connected to the Esperanto language and its community:
Białystok, the birthplace of L. L. Zamenhof (the creator of Esperanto), and very much the place which inspired him to create an international auxiliary language and facilitate communication across language barriers.
The German city Herzberg am Harz is home to the Interkultura Centro Herzberg, and, since 12 July 2006, advertises itself as "Esperanto city" (, ). There are bilingual signs and pointers, in both German and Esperanto.
The Château de Grésillon () in France is owned by the non-profit organization "Cultural House of Esperanto" (), which hosts various Esperanto events in the summer and during French school holidays.
The Esperanto Museum and Collection of Planned Languages, a department of the Austrian National Library, is a museum for Esperanto and other constructed languages, located in Vienna.
Zamenhof-Esperanto objects can be found all over the world. These are places and objects — such as streets, memorials, public spaces, buildings, vehicles, or even geographic features — that are named after, or otherwise linked to the language, its creator L. L. Zamenhof, or its community of speakers.
The countries with the most members of the World Esperanto Association are (in descending order): Brazil, Germany, Japan, France, the United States, China, Italy.
== Politics ==
=== Associations ===
There is no governmental system in Esperantujo because it is not a true state. However, there is a social hierarchy of associations:
Universal Esperanto Association (UEA) is the principal association created in 1908, its central office is located in Rotterdam. The aim of the UEA is to promote the use of Esperanto, to strive for the solution of the language problem in international relations, to encourage all types of spiritual and material relations among people and to nurture among its members a strong sense of solidarity, and to develop in them understanding and respect for other peoples.
Sometimes there are associations by continent, for example, the European Esperanto Union. On the same level there are UEA commissions dedicated to promoting the spread of Esperanto in Africa, America (North & South), Asia, the Middle East, and Oceania.
In at least 120 countries in the world there are national associations: Brazilian Esperanto League, the German Esperanto Association, Japanese Esperanto Association, Esperanto-USA and Australian Esperanto Association are examples from all continents across the world. The goals are usually to help teach the language and use of Esperanto in the country.
Finally, there are local associations or Esperanto clubs where volunteers or activists offer courses to learn the language or get to know more about the culture of Esperanto. Sometimes they teach Esperanto in universities or schools.
Also there are thematic associations worldwide, which are concerned with spirituality, hobbies, science or bringing together Esperantists who share common interests.
There is also a number of global organizations, such as Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda (SAT), or the World Esperanto Youth Organization (TEJO), which has 46 national sections.
=== Foreign relations ===
Universal Esperanto Association is not a governmental system; however, the association represents Esperanto worldwide. In addition to the United Nations and UNESCO, the UEA has consultative relationships with UNICEF and the Council of Europe and general cooperative relations with the Organization of American States. UEA officially collaborates with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) by means of an active connection to the ISO Committee on terminology (ISO/TC 37). The association is active for information on the European Union and other interstate and international organizations and conferences. UEA is a member of European Language Council, a joint forum of universities and linguistic associations to promote the knowledge of languages and cultures within and outside the European Union. Moreover, on 10 May 2011, the UEA and the International Information Centre for Terminology (Infoterm) signed an Agreement on Cooperation, its objectives are inter exchange information, support each other and help out for projects, meetings, publications in the field of terminology and by which the UEA become Associate Member of Infoterm.
=== Political movement ===
In 2003 there was a European political movement called Europe–Democracy–Esperanto created. Within it is found a European federation that brings together local associations whose statutes depends on the countries. The working language of the movement is Esperanto. The goal is "to provide the European Union with the necessary tools to set up member rights democracy". The international language is a tool to enable cross-border political and social dialogue and actively contribute to peace and understanding between peoples. The original idea in the first ballot was mainly to spread the existence and the use of Esperanto to the general public. However, in France voices have grown steadily: 25067 (2004) 28944 (2009) and 33115 (2014). In this country there are a number of movements which support the issue: France Équité, Europe-Liberté, and Politicat.
=== Symbols ===
The flag of Esperanto is called Verda Flago (Green Flag). It consists of:
a rectangular shape, officially with a 2:3 ratio.
a green field, where the green color symbolizes hope. There is no indication that any "official" color was ever chosen. The shade used varies in different sources, yet the color is most often used.
a white, square canton (upper hoist quarter), measuring exactly half the hoist, where the white color symbolizes peace and neutrality.
in the canton, a green five-pointed star known as Verda Stelo (Green Star), which symbolizes the five continents.
The anthem is called La Espero since 1891: it is a poem written by L. L. Zamenhof. The song is usually sung to the triumphal march composed by Félicien Menu de Ménil in 1909.
The Jubilee symbol represents the language internally, while the flag represents the Esperanto movement. It contains the Latin letter E (Esperanto) and the Cyrillic letter Э (Эсперанто) symbolizing the unification of West and East. The Jubilee symbol has been controversial, with some Esperantists derisively calling it "the melon."
In addition, Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof, the initiator of the language, is often used as a symbol. Sometimes he is even called "Uncle Zam", referring to the cartoon incarnation of American Uncle Sam.
== Population ==
=== Education ===
In addition to textbooks, including the Fundamento de Esperanto by Zamenhof, the Assimil-methods and the video-methods such as Muzzy in Gondoland of the BBC and Pasporto al la tuta mondo, there are many courses for learning online. Moreover, some universities teach Esperanto, and the Higher Foreign Language training (University Eötvös Loránd) delivers certificates in accordance with the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). The International League of Esperanto Teachers (ILEI) is also working to publish learning materials for teachers.
The University of Esperanto offers video lectures in Esperanto, for specialties like Confronting War, Informational Technologies and Astronomy. Courses are also held during the World Esperanto Congress in the framework of the Internacia Kongresa Universitato (IKU). After that, UEA uploads the related documents on its website.
Science is an appropriate department for works in Esperanto. For example, the Conference on the Application of Esperanto in Science and Technology (KAEST) occurs in November every year since 1998 in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Personal initiatives are also common: Doctor of mathematics Ulrich Matthias created a document about the foundations of Linear Algebra and the American group of Maine (USA) wrote a guidebook to learn the programming language Python.
In general, Esperanto is used as a lingua franca in some websites aiming teaching of other languages, such as German, Slovak, Swahili, Wolof or Toki Pona.
=== Media ===
Since 1889 when La Esperantisto appeared, and soon other magazines in Esperanto throughout many countries in the world. Some of them are information media of Esperanto associations (Esperanto, Sennaciulo and Kontakto). Online Esperanto magazines like Libera Folio, launched in 2003, offer independent view of the Esperanto movement, aiming to soberly and critically shed light on current development. Most of the magazines deal with current events; one of such magazines is Monato, which is read in more than 60 countries. Its articles are written by correspondents from 40 countries, which know the local situation very well. Other most popular Esperanto newspapers are La Ondo de Esperanto, Beletra Almanako, Literatura Foiro, and Heroldo de Esperanto. Often national associations magazines are also published in order to inform about the movement in the country, such as Le Monde de l'espéranto of Espéranto-France. There are also scientific journals, such as Scienca Revuo of Internacia Scienca Asocio Esperantista (ISAE).
Muzaiko is a radio that has broadcast an all-day international program of songs, interviews and current events in Esperanto since 2011. The latest two can be downloaded as podcasts. Besides Muzaiko, these other stations offer an hour of Esperanto-language broadcasting of various topics: Radio Libertaire, Polskie Radio, Vatican Radio, Varsovia Vento, Radio Verda and Kern.punkto.
=== Internet ===
Spread of the Internet has enabled more efficient communication among Esperanto speakers and slightly replaced slower media such as mail. Many massively used websites such as Facebook or Google offer Esperanto interface. On 15 December 2009, on the occasion of the jubilee of 150th birthday of L. L. Zamenhof, Google additionally made visible the Esperanto flag as a part of their Google Doodles. Media as Twitter, Telegram, Reddit or Ipernity also contain a significant number of people in this community. In addition, content-providers such as WordPress and YouTube also enable bloggers write in Esperanto. Esperanto versions of programs such as the office suite LibreOffice and Mozilla Firefox browser, or the educational program about programming Scratch are also available. Additionally, online games like Minecraft offer complete Esperanto interface.
Monero, an anonymous cryptocurrency, was named after the Esperanto word for "coin" and its official wallet is available in Esperanto. The same applies to Monerujo ("Monero container").
=== Sport ===
Although Esperantujo is not a country, there is an Esperanto football team, which has existed since 2014 and participates in matches during World Esperanto Congresses. The team is part of the N.F.-Board and not of FIFA, and have played against the teams of Armenian-originating Argentine Community in 2014 and the team from Western Sahara in 2015.
=== Esperanto speakers and Esperantists ===
Initially, Esperanto speakers learned the language as it was described by L. L. Zamenhof. In 1905, the Fundamento de Esperanto put together the first Esperanto textbook, an exercise book and a universal dictionary.
The "Declaration about the essence of Esperantism" (1905) defines an "Esperantist" to be anyone who speaks and uses Esperanto. "Esperantism" was defined to be a movement to promote the widespread use of Esperanto as a supplement to mother tongues in international and inter-ethnic contexts. As the word "esperantist" is linked with this "esperantism" (the Esperanto movement) and as -ists and -isms are linked with ideologies, today many people who speak Esperanto prefer to be called "Esperanto speaker".
The monthly magazine La Ondo de Esperanto every year since 1998 proclaims an 'Esperantist of the year', who remarkably contributed to the spreading of the language during the year.
== Economy ==
=== Businesses ===
Publishing and selling books, the so-called book services, is the main market and is often the first expenditure of many Esperanto associations. Some companies are already well known: for example Vinilkosmo, which publishes and makes popular Esperanto music since 1990. Then there are initiatives such as the job-seeking website Eklaboru, created by Chuck Smith, for job offers and candidates within Esperanto associations or Esperanto meetings.
=== Currency ===
In 1907, René de Saussure proposed the spesmilo ⟨₷⟩ as an international currency. It had some use before the First World War.
In 1942 a currency called the stelo ("star"; plural, steloj) was created. It was used at meetings of the Universala Ligo and in Esperanto environments such as the annual Universal Congress. Over the years it slowly became unusable and at the official closing of the Universala Ligo in the 1990s, the remaining steloj coins were handed over to the UEA. They can be bought at the UEA's book service as souvenirs.
The current steloj are made of plastic; they are used in a number of meetings, especially among young people. The currency is maintained by Stelaro, which calculates the rates, keeps the stock, and opened branches in various e-meetings. Currently, there are stelo-coins of 1 ★, 3 ★ and 10 ★. The exchange rate at 31 December 2014 was 1 EUR = 4.189 ★.
== Culture ==
=== Architectural heritage ===
There exist Zamenhof-Esperanto objects (ZEOs), scattered in numerous countries around the world, which are the things named in honor of L. L. Zamenhof or Esperanto: monuments, street names, places and so on. There also exists a UEA-committee for ZEOs.
In addition, in several countries there are also sites dedicated to Esperanto: meetup places, workshops, seminars, festivals, Esperanto houses. These places provide attractions for Esperantists. Here are two: the Castle of Grésilion in France and the Department of Planned Languages and Esperanto Museum in Vienna (Austria).
=== Cultural heritage ===
Esperanto literary heritage is the richest and the most diverse of any constructed language. There are over 25,000 Esperanto books (originals and translations) as well as over a hundred regularly distributed Esperanto magazines.
There are also a number of movies which have been published in Esperanto. Moreover, Esperanto itself was used in numerous movies.
=== Celebrations ===
Many public holidays recognized by Esperanto speakers are celebrated internationally, having gained full acceptance by organizations such as UN and UNESCO, and are also publicly observed in select countries that are UN members. This is largely a byproduct of the influence the Esperanto community once had on organizations that worked in the field of international relations (including the United Nations) in the mid-20th century. Here are the celebrations proposed as international holidays by the UEA since 2010:
=== Cultural events ===
Every year numerous meetings of Esperanto speakers in different topics around the world take place. They mobilize Esperanto-speakers which share the same will about a specific topic. The main example is the Universal Congress of Esperanto (UK), a week-long summer conference organized annually by the UEA. Other events:
SAT-Kongreso, annually organized by Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda;
International Youth Congress of Esperanto (IJK), official annual congress of TEJO;
Internacia Infana Kongreseto (IIK), arrangement for children between 6 and 16 years that occur simultaneously with and close to the Universal Congress of Esperanto;
Somera Esperanto-Studado (SES), the largest international Esperanto meeting aimed at learning of Esperanto.
Next to these globally comprising meetings there are also local events such as New Year's Gathering (NR) or Esperanto Youth Week (JES), which occur during the last days of December and first days of January. These meetings seem to have been successful during the last 20 years.
Due to the fact that there are a lot of Esperanto meetings around the globe, there are websites which aim to list and share them. Eventa Servo provides an up-to-date list of online meetings and in-person events happening each week. Eventoj.hu describes events with a list and dates, and contains an archive until 1996.
|
[
"Herzberg am Harz",
"Varsovia Vento",
"Google",
"Heroldo de Esperanto",
"Esperantopark",
"La Esperantisto",
"Esperanta Civito",
"List of Esperanto magazines",
"Declaration of Boulogne",
"France",
"L. L. Zamenhof",
"Esperanto Museum and Collection of Planned Languages",
"France Équité",
"Infoterm",
"Wolof language",
"ELTE-ITK",
"Western Sahara",
"lingua franca",
"international auxiliary language",
"LibreOffice",
"Mozilla Firefox",
"Vinilkosmo",
"FIFA",
"Esperanto Day",
"flag of Esperanto",
"International Youth Congress of Esperanto",
"World Esperanto Association",
"stelo",
"Internet",
"Lille",
"Cryptocurrency wallet",
"Monero (cryptocurrency)",
"Polskie Radio",
"Hector Hodler",
"Star (heraldry)",
"cryptocurrency",
"BBC",
"Scienca Revuo",
"Zamenhof-Esperanto object",
"Brazilian Esperanto League",
"Belgium",
"Telegram (software)",
"Reddit",
"Unua Libro",
"Treaty of Versailles, 1919",
"UNESCO",
"Universala Kongreso de Esperanto",
"WordPress",
"Esperanto national football team",
"nation state",
"Organization of American States",
"Monato",
"Radio Verda",
"Libera Folio",
"Internacia Kongresa Universitato",
"Esperanto",
"raumism",
"language barrier",
"Europe-Liberté",
"Esperanto movement",
"Pasporto al la tuta mondo",
"Council of Europe",
"European Union",
"Literatura Foiro",
"Czech Republic",
"Vatican Radio",
"Internacia Infana Kongreseto",
"International League of Esperanto Teachers",
"German Esperanto Association",
"Slovakia",
"Esperanto-USA",
"Politicat",
"Canton (flag)",
"Ulrich Matthias",
"Minecraft",
"Pasporta Servo",
"Outline of Esperanto",
"Esperanto culture",
"TEJO",
"Esperanto Youth Week",
"Félicien Menu de Ménil",
"Swahili language",
"Universal Congress of Esperanto",
"Kern.punkto",
"European Esperanto Union",
"Wilhelm Molly",
"Common European Framework of Reference for Languages",
"First language",
"Internacia Scienca Asocio Esperantista",
"Amikumu",
"Week of International Friendship",
"Beletra Almanako",
"Scratch (programming language)",
"Neutral Moresnet",
"Somera Esperanto-Studado",
"Universala Ligo",
"Twitter",
"Universal Esperanto Association",
"YouTube",
"René de Saussure",
"Italy",
"UNICEF",
"Esperanto (magazine)",
"Muzzy in Gondoland",
"La Espero",
"Python (programming language)",
"Slovak language",
"La Ondo de Esperanto",
"International Organization for Standardization",
"Google Doodles",
"Białystok",
"SAT-Kongreso",
"United Nations",
"spesmilo",
"Maine",
"Kraków",
"Facebook",
"Esperanto club",
"World Esperanto Congress",
"German language",
"International Day of Peace",
"Château de Grésillon",
"Fundamento de Esperanto",
"World Esperanto Youth Organization",
"European Day of Languages",
"Conference on the Application of Esperanto in Science and Technology",
"Ipernity",
"Toki Pona",
"Republic of Rose Island",
"Radio Libertaire",
"N.F.-Board",
"Eklaboru",
"ethnologue:epo",
"Rotterdam",
"Espéranto-France",
"UN",
"Kontakto",
"Australian Esperanto Association",
"Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda",
"International Mother Language Day",
"Japanese Esperanto Association",
"Uncle Sam",
"mail",
"constructed language",
"Department of Planned Languages and Esperanto Museum",
"Austria",
"Zamenhof Day",
"Assimil",
"Novjara Renkontiĝo",
"Adriatic Sea",
"Sennaciulo",
"Castle of Grésilion",
"Austrian National Library",
"European Language Council",
"Europe–Democracy–Esperanto",
"List of Esperanto-language films",
"Vienna"
] |
9,499 |
Ethernet
|
Ethernet ( ) is a family of wired computer networking technologies commonly used in local area networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN) and wide area networks (WAN). It was commercially introduced in 1980 and first standardized in 1983 as IEEE 802.3. Ethernet has since been refined to support higher bit rates, a greater number of nodes, and longer link distances, but retains much backward compatibility. Over time, Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies such as Token Ring, FDDI and ARCNET.
The original 10BASE5 Ethernet uses a thick coaxial cable as a shared medium. This was largely superseded by 10BASE2, which used a thinner and more flexible cable that was both cheaper and easier to use. More modern Ethernet variants use twisted pair and fiber optic links in conjunction with switches. Over the course of its history, Ethernet data transfer rates have been increased from the original to the latest Terabit Ethernet|, with rates up to under development. The Ethernet standards include several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical layer.
Systems communicating over Ethernet divide a stream of data into shorter pieces called frames. Each frame contains source and destination addresses, and error-checking data so that damaged frames can be detected and discarded; most often, higher-layer protocols trigger retransmission of lost frames. Per the OSI model, Ethernet provides services up to and including the data link layer. The 48-bit MAC address was adopted by other IEEE 802 networking standards, including IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), as well as by FDDI. EtherType values are also used in Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) headers.
Ethernet is widely used in homes and industry, and interworks well with wireless Wi-Fi technologies. The Internet Protocol is commonly carried over Ethernet and so it is considered one of the key technologies that make up the Internet.
==History==
Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC between 1973 and 1974 as a means to allow Alto computers to communicate with each other. It was inspired by ALOHAnet, which Robert Metcalfe had studied as part of his PhD dissertation and was originally called the Alto Aloha Network.
In 1975, Xerox filed a patent application listing Metcalfe, David Boggs, Chuck Thacker, and Butler Lampson as inventors. In 1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Metcalfe and Boggs published a seminal paper. Ron Crane, Yogen Dalal, Robert Garner, Hal Murray, Roy Ogus, Dave Redell and John Shoch facilitated the upgrade from the original 2.94 Mbit/s protocol to the 10 Mbit/s protocol, which was released to the market in 1980.
Metcalfe left Xerox in June 1979 to form 3Com. The first standard was published on September 30, 1980, as "The Ethernet, A Local Area Network. Data Link Layer and Physical Layer Specifications". This so-called DIX standard (Digital Intel Xerox) specified 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, with 48-bit destination and source addresses and a global 16-bit Ethertype-type field. Version 2 was published in November 1982 and defines what has become known as Ethernet II. Formal standardization efforts proceeded at the same time and resulted in the publication of IEEE 802.3 on June 23, 1983.
Ethernet initially competed with Token Ring and other proprietary protocols. Ethernet was able to adapt to market needs, and with 10BASE2 shift to inexpensive thin coaxial cable, and from 1990 to the now-ubiquitous twisted pair with 10BASE-T. By the end of the 1980s, Ethernet was clearly the dominant network technology. This was followed quickly by DEC's Unibus to Ethernet adapter, which DEC sold and used internally to build its own corporate network, which reached over 10,000 nodes by 1986, making it one of the largest computer networks in the world at that time. An Ethernet adapter card for the IBM PC was released in 1982, and, by 1985, 3Com had sold 100,000. In addition to computers, Ethernet is now used to interconnect appliances and other personal devices. By 2010, the market for Ethernet equipment amounted to over $16 billion per year.
==Standardization==
In February 1980, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) started project 802 to standardize local area networks (LAN). The DIX group with Gary Robinson (DEC), Phil Arst (Intel), and Bob Printis (Xerox) submitted the so-called Blue Book CSMA/CD specification as a candidate for the LAN specification.
Delays in the standards process put at risk the market introduction of the Xerox Star workstation and 3Com's Ethernet LAN products. With such business implications in mind, David Liddle (General Manager, Xerox Office Systems) and Metcalfe (3Com) strongly supported a proposal of Fritz Röscheisen (Siemens Private Networks) for an alliance in the emerging office communication market, including Siemens' support for the international standardization of Ethernet (April 10, 1981). Ingrid Fromm, Siemens' representative to IEEE 802, quickly achieved broader support for Ethernet beyond IEEE by the establishment of a competing Task Group "Local Networks" within the European standards body ECMA TC24. In March 1982, ECMA TC24 with its corporate members reached an agreement on a standard for CSMA/CD based on the IEEE 802 draft.
Approval of Ethernet on the international level was achieved by a similar, cross-partisan action with Fromm as the liaison officer working to integrate with International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Technical Committee 83 and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical Committee 97 Sub Committee 6. The ISO 8802-3 standard was published in 1989.
==Evolution==
Ethernet has evolved to include higher bandwidth, improved medium access control methods, and different physical media. The multidrop coaxial cable was replaced with physical point-to-point links connected by Ethernet repeaters or switches.
Ethernet stations communicate by sending each other data packets: blocks of data individually sent and delivered. As with other IEEE 802 LANs, adapters come programmed with globally unique 48-bit MAC address so that each Ethernet station has a unique address. The MAC addresses are used to specify both the destination and the source of each data packet. Ethernet establishes link-level connections, which can be defined using both the destination and source addresses. On reception of a transmission, the receiver uses the destination address to determine whether the transmission is relevant to the station or should be ignored. A network interface normally does not accept packets addressed to other Ethernet stations.
An EtherType field in each frame is used by the operating system on the receiving station to select the appropriate protocol module (e.g., an Internet Protocol version such as IPv4). Ethernet frames are said to be self-identifying, because of the EtherType field. Self-identifying frames make it possible to intermix multiple protocols on the same physical network and allow a single computer to use multiple protocols together. Despite the evolution of Ethernet technology, all generations of Ethernet (excluding early experimental versions) use the same frame formats. Mixed-speed networks can be built using Ethernet switches and repeaters supporting the desired Ethernet variants.
Due to the ubiquity of Ethernet, and the ever-decreasing cost of the hardware needed to support it, by 2004 most manufacturers built Ethernet interfaces directly into PC motherboards, eliminating the need for a separate network card.
=== Shared medium ===
Ethernet was originally based on the idea of computers communicating over a shared coaxial cable acting as a broadcast transmission medium. The method used was similar to those used in radio systems, with the common cable providing the communication channel likened to the Luminiferous aether in 19th-century physics, and it was from this reference that the name Ethernet was derived.
Original Ethernet's shared coaxial cable (the shared medium) traversed a building or campus to every attached machine. A scheme known as carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) governed the way the computers shared the channel. This scheme was simpler than competing Token Ring or Token Bus technologies. Computers are connected to an Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) transceiver, which is in turn connected to the cable (with thin Ethernet the transceiver is usually integrated into the network adapter). While a simple passive wire is highly reliable for small networks, it is not reliable for large extended networks, where damage to the wire in a single place, or a single bad connector, can make the whole Ethernet segment unusable.
Through the first half of the 1980s, Ethernet's 10BASE5 implementation used a coaxial cable in diameter, later called thick Ethernet or thicknet. Its successor, 10BASE2, called thin Ethernet or thinnet, used the RG-58 coaxial cable. The emphasis was on making installation of the cable easier and less costly.
Since all communication happens on the same wire, any information sent by one computer is received by all, even if that information is intended for just one destination. The network interface card interrupts the CPU only when applicable packets are received: the card ignores information not addressed to it. Use of a single cable also means that the data bandwidth is shared, such that, for example, available data bandwidth to each device is halved when two stations are simultaneously active.
A collision happens when two stations attempt to transmit at the same time. They corrupt transmitted data and require stations to re-transmit. The lost data and re-transmission reduces throughput. In the worst case, where multiple active hosts connected with maximum allowed cable length attempt to transmit many short frames, excessive collisions can reduce throughput dramatically. However, a Xerox report in 1980 studied performance of an existing Ethernet installation under both normal and artificially generated heavy load. The report claimed that 98% throughput on the LAN was observed. This is in contrast with token passing LANs (Token Ring, Token Bus), all of which suffer throughput degradation as each new node comes into the LAN, due to token waits. This report was controversial, as modeling showed that collision-based networks theoretically became unstable under loads as low as 37% of nominal capacity. Many early researchers failed to understand these results. Performance on real networks is significantly better.
In a modern Ethernet, the stations do not all share one channel through a shared cable or a simple repeater hub; instead, each station communicates with a switch, which in turn forwards that traffic to the destination station. In this topology, collisions are only possible if station and switch attempt to communicate with each other at the same time, and collisions are limited to this link. Furthermore, the 10BASE-T standard introduced a full duplex mode of operation which became common with Fast Ethernet and the de facto standard with Gigabit Ethernet. In full duplex, switch and station can send and receive simultaneously, and therefore modern Ethernets are completely collision-free.
File:Bustopologie.png|The original Ethernet implementation: shared medium, collision-prone. All computers trying to communicate share the same cable, and so compete with each other.
File:HUB SWITCH 6.jpg|Modern Ethernet implementation: switched connection, collision-free. Each computer communicates only with its own switch, without competition for the cable with others.
===Repeaters and hubs===
For signal degradation and timing reasons, coaxial Ethernet segments have a restricted size. Somewhat larger networks can be built by using an Ethernet repeater. Early repeaters had only two ports, allowing, at most, a doubling of network size. Once repeaters with more than two ports became available, it was possible to wire the network in a star topology. Early experiments with star topologies (called Fibernet) using optical fiber were published by 1978.
Shared cable Ethernet is always hard to install in offices because its bus topology is in conflict with the star topology cable plans designed into buildings for telephony. Modifying Ethernet to conform to twisted-pair telephone wiring already installed in commercial buildings provided another opportunity to lower costs, expand the installed base, and leverage building design, and, thus, twisted-pair Ethernet was the next logical development in the mid-1980s.
Ethernet on unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP) began with StarLAN at 1 Mbit/s in the mid-1980s. In 1987 SynOptics introduced the first twisted-pair Ethernet at 10 Mbit/s in a star-wired cabling topology with a central hub, later called LattisNet. These evolved into 10BASE-T, which was designed for point-to-point links only, and all termination was built into the device. This changed repeaters from a specialist device used at the center of large networks to a device that every twisted pair-based network with more than two machines had to use. The tree structure that resulted from this made Ethernet networks easier to maintain by preventing most faults with one peer or its associated cable from affecting other devices on the network.
Despite the physical star topology and the presence of separate transmit and receive channels in the twisted pair and fiber media, repeater-based Ethernet networks still use half-duplex and CSMA/CD, with only minimal activity by the repeater, primarily generation of the jam signal in dealing with packet collisions. Every packet is sent to every other port on the repeater, so bandwidth and security problems are not addressed. The total throughput of the repeater is limited to that of a single link, and all links must operate at the same speed. This reduces the forwarding latency. One drawback of this method is that it does not readily allow a mixture of different link speeds. Another is that packets that have been corrupted are still propagated through the network. The eventual remedy for this was a return to the original store and forward approach of bridging, where the packet is read into a buffer on the switch in its entirety, its frame check sequence verified and only then the packet is forwarded. This doubles the aggregate bandwidth of the link and is sometimes advertised as double the link speed (for example, 200 Mbit/s for Fast Ethernet). The elimination of the collision domain for these connections also means that all the link's bandwidth can be used by the two devices on that segment and that segment length is not limited by the constraints of collision detection.
Since packets are typically delivered only to the port they are intended for, traffic on a switched Ethernet is less public than on shared-medium Ethernet. Despite this, switched Ethernet should still be regarded as an insecure network technology, because it is easy to subvert switched Ethernet systems by means such as ARP spoofing and MAC flooding.
The bandwidth advantages, the improved isolation of devices from each other, the ability to easily mix different speeds of devices and the elimination of the chaining limits inherent in non-switched Ethernet have made switched Ethernet the dominant network technology.
===Advanced networking===
Simple switched Ethernet networks, while a great improvement over repeater-based Ethernet, suffer from single points of failure, attacks that trick switches or hosts into sending data to a machine even if it is not intended for it, scalability and security issues with regard to switching loops, broadcast radiation, and multicast traffic.
Advanced networking features in switches use Shortest Path Bridging (SPB) or the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) to maintain a loop-free, meshed network, allowing physical loops for redundancy (STP) or load-balancing (SPB). Shortest Path Bridging includes the use of the link-state routing protocol IS-IS to allow larger networks with shortest path routes between devices.
Advanced networking features also ensure port security, provide protection features such as MAC lockdown and broadcast radiation filtering, use VLANs to keep different classes of users separate while using the same physical infrastructure, employ multilayer switching to route between different classes, and use link aggregation to add bandwidth to overloaded links and to provide some redundancy.
In 2016, Ethernet replaced InfiniBand as the most popular system interconnect of TOP500 supercomputers.
==Varieties==
The Ethernet physical layer evolved over a considerable time span and encompasses coaxial, twisted pair and fiber-optic physical media interfaces, with speeds from to . The first introduction of twisted-pair CSMA/CD was StarLAN, standardized as 802.3 1BASE5. While 1BASE5 had little market penetration, it defined the physical apparatus (wire, plug/jack, pin-out, and wiring plan) that would be carried over to 10BASE-T through 10GBASE-T.
The most common forms used are 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, and 1000BASE-T. All three use twisted-pair cables and 8P8C modular connectors. They run at , , and , respectively.
Fiber optic variants of Ethernet (that commonly use SFP modules) are also very popular in larger networks, offering high performance, better electrical isolation and longer distance (tens of kilometers with some versions). In general, network protocol stack software will work similarly on all varieties.
==Frame structure==
In IEEE 802.3, a datagram is called a packet or frame. Packet is used to describe the overall transmission unit and includes the preamble, start frame delimiter (SFD) and carrier extension (if present). The frame begins after the start frame delimiter with a frame header featuring source and destination MAC addresses and the EtherType field giving either the protocol type for the payload protocol or the length of the payload. The middle section of the frame consists of payload data including any headers for other protocols (for example, Internet Protocol) carried in the frame. The frame ends with a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check, which is used to detect corruption of data in transit. Notably, Ethernet packets have no time-to-live field, leading to possible problems in the presence of a switching loop.
==Autonegotiation==
Autonegotiation is the procedure by which two connected devices choose common transmission parameters, e.g. speed and duplex mode. Autonegotiation was initially an optional feature, first introduced with 100BASE-TX (1995 IEEE 802.3u Fast Ethernet standard), and is backward compatible with 10BASE-T. The specification was improved in the 1998 release of IEEE 802.3. Autonegotiation is mandatory for 1000BASE-T and faster.
==Error conditions==
===Switching loop===
A switching loop or bridge loop occurs in computer networks when there is more than one Layer 2 (OSI model) path between two endpoints (e.g. multiple connections between two network switches or two ports on the same switch connected to each other). The loop creates broadcast storms as broadcasts and multicasts are forwarded by switches out every port, the switch or switches will repeatedly rebroadcast the broadcast messages flooding the network. Since the Layer 2 header does not support a time to live (TTL) value, if a frame is sent into a looped topology, it can loop forever.
A physical topology that contains switching or bridge loops is attractive for redundancy reasons, yet a switched network must not have loops. The solution is to allow physical loops, but create a loop-free logical topology using the SPB protocol or the older STP on the network switches.
===Jabber===
A node that is sending longer than the maximum transmission window for an Ethernet packet is considered to be jabbering. Depending on the physical topology, jabber detection and remedy differ somewhat.
An MAU is required to detect and stop abnormally long transmission from the DTE (longer than 20–150 ms) in order to prevent permanent network disruption.
On an electrically shared medium (10BASE5, 10BASE2, 1BASE5), jabber can only be detected by each end node, stopping reception. No further remedy is possible.
A repeater/repeater hub uses a jabber timer that ends retransmission to the other ports when it expires. The timer runs for 25,000 to 50,000 bit times for 1 Mbit/s, 40,000 to 75,000 bit times for 10 and 100 Mbit/s, and 80,000 to 150,000 bit times for 1 Gbit/s. Jabbering ports are partitioned off the network until a carrier is no longer detected.
End nodes utilizing a MAC layer will usually detect an oversized Ethernet frame and cease receiving. A bridge/switch will not forward the frame.
A non-uniform frame size configuration in the network using jumbo frames may be detected as jabber by end nodes. Jumbo frames are not part of the official IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard.
A packet detected as jabber by an upstream repeater and subsequently cut off has an invalid frame check sequence and is dropped.
===Runt frames===
Runts are packets or frames smaller than the minimum allowed size. They are dropped and not propagated.
|
[
"Communications of the ACM",
"Google",
"Alto computer",
"Chuck Thacker",
"parallel port",
"VLAN",
"Ethernet II",
"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers",
"start frame delimiter",
"Spanning Tree Protocol",
"Layer 2",
"Ethernet Alliance",
"TOP500",
"Fiber optic",
"BNC connector",
"5-4-3 rule",
"Sneakernet",
"Hardcopy (magazine)",
"Subnetwork Access Protocol",
"application-specific integrated circuit",
"Fast Ethernet",
"Fiber media converter",
"Vanguard Managed Solutions",
"Internet",
"link-state routing protocol",
"Ethernet frame",
"vampire tap",
"local area network",
"Token Ring",
"star topology",
"time to live",
"optical fiber",
"promiscuous mode",
"metropolitan area network",
"Wake-on-LAN",
"Physical coding sublayer",
"multilayer switch",
"VAX",
"Ethernet physical layer",
"Ethernet segment",
"ARP spoofing",
"backward compatibility",
"IBM PC Network",
"Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet",
"datagram",
"Full-duplex Ethernet",
"Frame (networking)",
"General Motors",
"standing wave",
"David Boggs",
"PHY",
"Broadcasting (networking)",
"Industrial Ethernet",
"Internet Protocol",
"Multibus",
"retransmission (data networks)",
"LocalTalk",
"PhD",
"jam signal",
"8P8C modular connector",
"multidrop",
"ISO/IEC 11801",
"10BASE-T",
"Xerox Star",
"John Shoch",
"Ethernet crossover cable",
"Attachment Unit Interface",
"N connector",
"cut-through switching",
"ARCNET",
"Ethertype",
"Small form-factor pluggable transceiver",
"IEEE 802.11",
"Parallel port",
"shared medium",
"patch field",
"Network switch",
"SynOptics",
"workstation",
"twisted pair",
"network interface card",
"EtherType",
"collisions",
"MAC flooding",
"broadcast radiation",
"link aggregation",
"IEEE Standards Association",
"hop count",
"Kalpana (company)",
"computer network",
"Xerox",
"CSMA/CD",
"PDP-11",
"data in transit",
"fiber optic",
"CPU",
"Ars Technica",
"data link layer",
"International Data Group",
"Ethernet over twisted pair",
"mobile device",
"repeater hub",
"IS-IS",
"Intel",
"10BASE2",
"David Liddle",
"InfiniBand",
"store and forward",
"Data terminal equipment",
"IEEE Spectrum",
"Xerox PARC",
"full-duplex",
"8P8C",
"Link Layer Discovery Protocol",
"Wi-Fi",
"FDDI",
"Ron Crane (engineer)",
"ISO",
"collision domain",
"Medium Attachment Unit",
"Ethernet Technology Consortium",
"Gigabit Ethernet",
"International Electrotechnical Commission",
"International Organization for Standardization",
"IEEE 802.3",
"MAC address",
"carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection",
"StarLAN",
"Chaosnet",
"partisan (political)",
"3Com",
"locally administered address",
"Terabit Ethernet",
"LattisNet",
"Power over Ethernet",
"10BASE5",
"multicast",
"List of interface bit rates",
"thin Ethernet",
"Network World",
"switching loop",
"proprietary protocol",
"wide area network",
"RG-58",
"medium access control",
"Digital Equipment Corporation",
"Category:Ethernet standards",
"bit rate",
"protocol stack",
"Robert Metcalfe",
"IEEE 802",
"Network Interface Controller",
"preamble (communication)",
"Shortest Path Bridging",
"data packet",
"Ethernet repeater",
"wire speed",
"Siemens",
"Yogen Dalal",
"Token Bus",
"ALOHAnet",
"Unibus",
"OSI model",
"Computer port (hardware)",
"cyclic redundancy check",
"jumbo frame",
"IEEE",
"network switch",
"Physical layer",
"Butler Lampson",
"PC motherboard",
"modular connector",
"coaxial cable",
"full duplex",
"frame check sequence",
"luminiferous aether",
"liaison officer",
"Sun Microsystems",
"token passing",
"transceiver",
"IPv4",
"PS/2 port"
] |
9,502 |
List of explorations
|
This is a list of some of the most important explorations of State Societies, in chronological order:
|
[
"Diogo Cão",
"Central America",
"Paraguay",
"Apollo 11",
"Greenland",
"Siberia",
"Willem Barents",
"William John Wills",
"James Cook",
"Rapa Nui",
"Circumnavigation",
"Edmund Hillary",
"Andrés de Urdaneta",
"Henry Hudson",
"Europe",
"Thule (myth)",
"Timor",
"Australia (continent)",
"Namibia",
"Red Sea",
"Pedro Álvares Cabral",
"Hernán Cortés",
"West Africa",
"Aleixo Garcia",
"Galápagos Islands",
"de:Entdeckungsreise",
"Angola",
"Alistair Mackay",
"António de Abreu",
"Hawaiian Islands",
"Mars",
"Lewis and Clark Expedition",
"Brazil",
"Hanno the Navigator",
"Africa",
"Hudson Bay",
"Mexico",
"Ferdinand Magellan",
"Makassan contact with Australia",
"Americas",
"Hawaiʻiloa",
"Burke and Wills expedition",
"Sahelian kingdoms",
"South Pole",
"Topa Inca Yupanqui",
"Andes",
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"Edgeworth David",
"Canada",
"space agency",
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"Moon",
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"Robert Falcon Scott",
"North Magnetic Pole",
"Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau",
"Mediterranean Sea",
"North Atlantic Gyre",
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"Latin America",
"Bartolomeu Dias",
"Bab-el-Mandeb",
"Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada",
"Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld",
"Indian Ocean",
"India",
"Saint Lawrence River",
"Exploration",
"hr:Zemljopisna otkrića",
"Serpa Pinto",
"Bolivia",
"António Raposo Tavares",
"Geographical exploration",
"Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca",
"Age of Discovery",
"Tenzing Norgay",
"Himilco the Navigator",
"Buzz Aldrin",
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"Spanish conquest of the Muisca",
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"Inca",
"exploration",
"Robert O'Hara Burke",
"Robert Peary",
"Ibn Battuta",
"Asia",
"Francisco Serrão",
"Amazon River",
"es:Cronología de las exploraciones",
"Northern Sea Route",
"Francisco Pizarro",
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"List of explorers",
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"Faroe Islands",
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"Moluccas",
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Ivan Yuryevich Moskvitin",
"Douglas Mawson",
"Henry the Navigator",
"Madeira",
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"Vasco da Gama",
"Abel Tasman",
"Madagascar",
"James Clark Ross",
"List of Russian explorers",
"Río de la Plata Basin",
"South Africa",
"Alaska",
"Chronology of European exploration of Asia",
"South Magnetic Pole",
"Abu Bakr II",
"Jacques Cartier",
"South America",
"Gunnbjörn Ulfsson",
"Michael Collins (astronaut)",
"Portugal in the period of discoveries",
"North",
"NASA",
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"Colombia",
"North Pole",
"Peru",
"Ecuador",
"Neil Armstrong",
"Exploration of the High Alps",
"Congo River",
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"European maritime exploration of Australia",
"David Livingstone",
"Venezuela",
"Alexander von Humboldt",
"bs:Istraživanja",
"North America",
"Complex society",
"Juan Sebastián Elcano",
"Pytheas",
"Francisco de Orellana"
] |
9,505 |
Elias Canetti
|
Elias Canetti (; 25 July 1905 – 14 August 1994; ; ) was a German-language writer, known as a modernist novelist, playwright, memoirist, and nonfiction writer. Born in Ruse, Bulgaria, to a Sephardic Jewish family, he later lived in England, Austria, Germany, and Switzerland. He won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Literature, "for writings marked by a broad outlook, a wealth of ideas and artistic power". He is noted for his nonfiction book Crowds and Power, among other works.
==Early life==
Born in 1905 to businessman Jacques Canetti and Mathilde née Arditti in Ruse, a city on the Danube in Bulgaria, Canetti was the eldest of three sons. His ancestors were Sephardic Jews. His paternal ancestors settled in Ruse from Ottoman Adrianople. Canetti's mother descended from the Arditti family, one of the oldest Sephardic families in Bulgaria, who were among the founders of the Ruse Jewish colony in the late 18th century. The Ardittis can be traced to the 14th century, when they were court physicians and astronomers to the Aragonese royal court of Alfonso IV and Pedro IV. Before settling in Ruse, they had migrated to Italy and lived in Livorno in the 17th century.
Canetti spent his childhood years, from 1905 to 1911, in Ruse until the family moved to Manchester, England, where Canetti's father joined a business established by his wife's brothers. In 1912, his father suddenly died, and his mother moved with their children first to Lausanne, and later in the same year, when Canetti was seven, to Vienna. His mother insisted that he learn and speak German. By this time, Canetti already spoke Ladino (his native language), Bulgarian, English, and some French; the last two he studied in the year he spent in Britain. Subsequently, the family moved first (from 1916 to 1921) to Zürich and then (until 1924) to Frankfurt, where Canetti graduated from high school.
Canetti went back to Vienna in 1924 in order to study chemistry. However, his primary interests during his years in Vienna became philosophy and literature.
==Career==
Introduced into the literary circles of First Republic Vienna, he started writing. Politically leaning towards the left, he was present at the July Revolt of 1927, came near to the action accidentally, was most impressed by the burning of books (recalled frequently in his writings) and left the place quickly with his bicycle. He received a doctorate in chemistry from the University of Vienna in 1929 but never worked as a chemist.
He published two works in Vienna, Komödie der Eitelkeit 1934 (The Comedy of Vanity) and Die Blendung 1935 (Auto-da-Fé, 1935), before escaping to Great Britain. He reflected on the experiences of Nazi Germany and political chaos in his works, especially exploring mob action and group thinking in the novel Die Blendung and in the non-fiction Crowds and Power (1960). He wrote several volumes of memoirs, contemplating the influence of his multi-lingual background and childhood.
==Personal life==
In 1934 in Vienna he married Veza (Venetiana) Taubner-Calderon (1897–1963), who acted as his muse and devoted literary assistant. Canetti remained open to relationships with other women. He had a short affair with the sculptor Anna Mahler, the daughter of the composer Gustav Mahler. In 1938, after the Anschluss with Germany, the Canettis moved to London. He became closely involved with the painter Marie-Louise von Motesiczky, who was to remain a close companion for many years. He also had a close relationship with the writer Frieda Benedikt (1916-1953) (pseudonym Anna Sebastian), whom Canetti had already met in Vienna in 1936. He was one of Iris Murdoch's lovers. Her husband John Bayley's memoir refers to him variously as 'the Dichter', 'sage', and 'the monster of Hampstead'. Canetti, who demanded submission from women, later mercilessly skewered Murdoch in his posthumous memoir Party im Blitz (2003).
After Veza died in 1963, Canetti married Hera Buschor (1933–1988), with whom he had a daughter, Johanna, in 1972. Canetti's brother Jacques Canetti settled in Paris, where he championed a revival of French chanson. Despite being a German-language writer, Canetti settled in Britain until the 1970s, receiving British citizenship in 1952. For his last 20 years, Canetti lived mostly in Zürich.
==Awards==
A writer in German, Canetti won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1981, "for writings marked by a broad outlook, a wealth of ideas and artistic power". He is known chiefly for his celebrated trilogy of autobiographical memoirs of his childhood and of pre-Anschluss Vienna: Die Gerettete Zunge (The Tongue Set Free); Die Fackel im Ohr (The Torch in My Ear), and Das Augenspiel (The Play of the Eyes); for his modernist novel Auto-da-Fé (Die Blendung); and for Crowds and Power, a psychological study of crowd behaviour as it manifests itself in human activities ranging from mob violence to religious congregations.
==Death==
In the 1970s, Canetti began to travel more frequently to Zurich, where he settled and lived for his last 20 years. He died in Zürich in 1994.
==Honours and awards==
Grand Austrian State Prize for Literature (1967)
Literature Award of the Bavarian Academy of the Fine Arts (1969)
Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (1972)
Georg Büchner Prize (German Academy for Language and Literature, 1972)
German recording prize, for reading "Ohrenzeuge" (Deutscher Schallplattenpreis) (1975)
Nelly Sachs Prize (1975)
Gottfried-Keller-Preis (1977)
Pour le Mérite (1979)
Johann-Peter-Hebel-Preis (Baden-Württemberg, 1980)
Franz Kafka Prize of the city of Klosterneuburg (1981)
Nobel Prize in Literature (1981)
In 1975, Canetti was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Manchester and another from the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, in 1976.
Canetti Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica, is named after him.
==Works==
Komödie der Eitelkeit 1934 (The Comedy of Vanity)
Die Blendung 1935 (Auto-da-Fé, novel, tr. by Cicely Wedgwood (Jonathan Cape, Ltd., 1946). The first American edition of Wedgwood's translation was titled The Tower of Babel (Alfred A. Knopf, 1947).
Die Befristeten 1956 (1956 premiere of the play in Oxford) (Their Days are Numbered)
Masse und Macht 1960 (Crowds and Power, study, tr. 1962 by Carol Stewart, published in Hamburg)
Aufzeichnungen 1942 – 1948 (1965) (Sketches)
Die Stimmen von Marrakesch 1968 published by Hanser in Munich (The Voices of Marrakesh, travelogue, tr. 1978 by J. A. Underwood)
Der andere Prozess 1969 Kafkas Briefe an Felice (Kafka's Other Trial, tr. 1974 by Christopher Middleton)
Hitler nach Speer (Essay)
Die Provinz des Menschen Aufzeichnungen 1942 – 1972 (The Human Province, tr. 1978)
Der Ohrenzeuge. Fünfzig Charaktere 1974 ("Ear Witness: Fifty Characters", tr. 1979).
Das Gewissen der Worte 1975. Essays (The Conscience of Words)
Die Gerettete Zunge 1977 (The Tongue Set Free, memoir, tr. 1979 by Joachim Neugroschel)
Die Fackel im Ohr 1980 Lebensgeschichte 1921 – 1931 (The Torch in My Ear, memoir, tr. 1982 by Joachim Neugroschel)
Das Augenspiel 1985 Lebensgeschichte 1931 – 1937 (The Play of the Eyes, memoir, tr. 1990 by Ralph Mannheim)
The Memoirs of Elias Canetti 1999, consisting of The Tongue Set Free, The Torch in My Ear, and The Play of the Eyes
Das Geheimherz der Uhr: Aufzeichnungen 1987 (The Secret Heart of the Clock, tr. 1989)
Die Fliegenpein (The Agony of Flies, 1992)
Nachträge aus Hampstead (Notes from Hampstead, 1994)
The Voices of Marrakesh (published posthumously, Arion Press, 2001, with photographs by Karl Bissinger and etchings by William T. Wiley )
Party im Blitz; Die englischen Jahre 2003 (Party in the Blitz, memoir, published posthumously, tr. 2005)
Aufzeichnungen für Marie-Louise (written 1942, compiled and published posthumously, 2005)
Das Buch gegen den Tod (The Book Against Death; published posthumously, 2014; tr. 2024)
==Reviews==
Stevenson, Randall (1982), The Privacy Industry of Franz Kafka, a review of Kafka's Other Trial: The Letters to Felice, in Cencrastus No. 9, Summer 1982, pp. 45 & 46,
|
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] |
9,506 |
Edward Jenner
|
Edward Jenner (17 May 1749 – 26 January 1823) was an English physician and scientist who pioneered the concept of vaccines and created the smallpox vaccine, the world's first vaccine. The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae ('pustules of the cow'), the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1798 in the title of his Inquiry into the Variolae vaccinae known as the Cow Pox, in which he described the protective effect of cowpox against smallpox.
Jenner is often called "the father of immunology", In 1821, he was appointed physician to King George IV, and was also made mayor of Berkeley and justice of the peace. He was a member of the Royal Society. In the field of zoology, he was among the first modern scholars to describe the brood parasitism of the cuckoo (Aristotle also noted this behaviour in his History of Animals). In 2002, Jenner was named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons.
==Early life==
Edward Jenner was born on 17 May 1749 During this time, he was inoculated (by variolation) for smallpox, which had a lifelong effect upon his general health. William Osler records that Hunter gave Jenner William Harvey's advice, well known in medical circles (and characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment), "Don't think; try."
He became a master mason on 30 December 1802, in Lodge of Faith and Friendship #449. From 1812 to 1813, he served as worshipful master of Royal Berkeley Lodge of Faith and Friendship.
== Zoology ==
Jenner was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1788, following his publication of a careful study of the previously misunderstood life of the nested cuckoo, a study that combined observation, experiment, and dissection.
Jenner described how the newly hatched cuckoo pushed its host's eggs and fledgling chicks out of the nest (contrary to existing belief that the adult cuckoo did it). Having observed this behaviour, Jenner demonstrated an anatomical adaptation for itthe baby cuckoo has a depression in its back, not present after 12 days of life, that enables it to cup eggs and other chicks. The adult does not remain long enough in the area to perform this task. Jenner's findings were published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1788.
"The singularity of its shape is well adapted to these purposes; for, different from other newly hatched birds, its back from the scapula downwards is very broad, with a considerable depression in the middle. This depression seems formed by nature for the design of giving a more secure lodgement to the egg of the Hedge-sparrow, or its young one, when the young Cuckoo is employed in removing either of them from the nest. When it is about twelve days old, this cavity is quite filled up, and then the back assumes the shape of nestling birds in general." Jenner's nephew assisted in the study. He was born on 30 June 1737.
Jenner's understanding of the cuckoo's behaviour was not entirely believed until the artist Jemima Blackburn, a keen observer of birdlife, saw a blind nestling pushing out a host's egg. Blackburn's description and illustration were enough to convince Charles Darwin to revise a later edition of On the Origin of Species.
Jenner's interest in zoology played a large role in his first experiment with inoculation. Not only did he have a profound understanding of human anatomy due to his medical training, but he also understood animal biology and its role in human-animal trans-species boundaries in disease transmission. At the time, there was no way of knowing how important this connection would be to the history and discovery of vaccinations. We see this connection now; many present-day vaccinations include animal parts from cows, rabbits, and chicken eggs, which can be attributed to the work of Jenner and his cowpox/smallpox vaccination.
==Marriage and human medicine==
Jenner married Catherine Kingscote (who died in 1815 from tuberculosis) in March 1788. He might have met her while he and other fellows were experimenting with balloons. Jenner's trial balloon descended into Kingscote Park, Gloucestershire, owned by Catherine's father Anthony Kingscote. They had three children: Edward Robert (1789–1810), Robert Fitzharding (1792–1854) and Catherine (1794–1833).
He earned his MD from the University of St Andrews in 1792. He is credited with advancing the understanding of angina pectoris. In his correspondence with Heberden, he wrote: "How much the heart must suffer from the coronary arteries not being able to perform their functions".
==Invention of the vaccine==
Inoculation was already a standard practice in Asian and African medicine but involved serious risks, including the possibility that those inoculated would become contagious and spread the disease to others. In 1721, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu had imported variolation to Britain after having observed it in Constantinople. While Johnnie Notions had great success with his self-devised inoculation (and was reputed not to have lost a single patient), his method's practice was limited to the Shetland Islands. Voltaire wrote that at this time 60% of the population caught smallpox and 20% of the population died from it. He also stated that the Circassians used the inoculation from times immemorial, and that the Turks may have borrowed the custom from them. In 1766, Daniel Bernoulli analysed smallpox morbidity and mortality data to demonstrate the efficacy of inoculation.
By 1768, English physician John Fewster had realised that prior infection with cowpox rendered a person immune to smallpox. In the years following 1770, at least five investigators in England and Germany (Sevel, Jensen, Jesty 1774, Rendell, Plett 1791) successfully tested a cowpox vaccine against smallpox in humans. successfully vaccinated with cowpox and presumably induced immunity in his wife and two children during the 1774 smallpox epidemic, though it was not until Jenner's work that the procedure became widely understood. Jenner may have been aware of Jesty's procedures and success. In 1780, Jacques Antoine Rabaut-Pommier made similar observations in France.
Jenner postulated that the pus in blisters from sufferers of cowpox (a disease similar to smallpox but much less virulent) protected them from smallpox. On 14 May 1796, Jenner tested his hypothesis by inoculating James Phipps, the eight-year-old son of Jenner's gardener. He scraped pus from cowpox blisters on the hands of Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid who had caught cowpox from a cow called Blossom
Jenner inoculated Phipps in both arms that day; this led to a fever and some uneasiness but no full-blown infection. Later, Jenner injected Phipps with variolous material, the routine method of immunization at that time and again no disease followed. The boy was later challenged with variolous material and again showed no sign of infection. There were no unexpected side effects, and neither Phipps nor any other recipients underwent any future 'breakthrough' cases.
Jenner's biographer John Baron later speculated that it was Jenner's observation of the unblemished complexion of milkmaids that led to his understanding that it was possible to be inoculated against smallpox by being exposed to cowpox, that is he did not build on the work of his predecessors. The milkmaid story is still widely repeated even though it appears to be a myth.
US physician Donald Hopkins has written, "Jenner's unique contribution was not that he inoculated a few persons with cowpox, but that he then proved [by subsequent challenges] that they were immune to smallpox. Moreover, he demonstrated that the protective cowpox pus could be effectively inoculated from person to person, not just directly from cattle." Some of his conclusions were correct, some erroneous; modern microbiological and microscopic methods would make his studies easier to reproduce. The medical establishment deliberated at length over his findings before accepting them. Eventually, vaccination was accepted, and in 1840, the British government banned variolationthe use of smallpox to induce immunityand provided vaccination using cowpox free of charge (see Vaccination Act).
The success of Jenner's discovery soon spread around Europe and was used en masse in the Spanish Balmis Expedition (1803–1806), a three-year-long mission to the Americas, the Philippines, Macao and China led by Francisco Javier de Balmis with the aim of giving the smallpox vaccine to thousands. The expedition was successful, and Jenner wrote: "I don't imagine the annals of history furnish an example of philanthropy so noble, so extensive as this". Napoleon, who at the time was at war with Britain, had all his French troops vaccinated, awarded Jenner a medal, and at Jenner's request, released two English prisoners of war, allowing them to their return home. Napoleon remarked he could not "refuse anything to one of the greatest benefactors of mankind".
Jenner's continuing work on vaccination prevented him from continuing his ordinary medical practice. He was supported by his colleagues and King George III in petitioning Parliament, and in 1802 was granted £10,000 for his work on vaccination. and a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1806. In 1803 in London, he became president of the Jennerian Society, concerned with promoting vaccination to eradicate smallpox. The Jennerian ceased operations in 1809. Jenner became a member of the Medical and Chirurgical Society on its founding in 1805 (now the Royal Society of Medicine) and presented several papers there. In 1808, with government aid, the National Vaccine Establishment was founded, but Jenner felt dishonoured by the men selected to run it and resigned his directorship.
Returning to London in 1811, Jenner observed a significant number of cases of smallpox after vaccination. He found that in these cases the severity of the illness was notably diminished by previous vaccination. In 1821, he was appointed physician extraordinary to King George IV, and was also made mayor of Berkeley
Jenner was a Freemason.
== Death ==
Jenner was found in a state of apoplexy on 25 January 1823, with his right side paralysed. He did not recover and died the next day of an apparent stroke, his second, on 26 January 1823, aged 73. He was buried in the family vault at the Church of St Mary, Berkeley.
== Religious views ==
Neither fanatic nor lax, Jenner was a Christian who in his personal correspondence showed himself quite spiritual. Some days before his death, he stated to a friend: "I am not surprised that men are not grateful to me; but I wonder that they are not grateful to God for the good which He has made me the instrument of conveying to my fellow creatures".
== Legacy ==
In 1980, the World Health Organization declared smallpox an eradicated disease. This was the result of coordinated public health efforts, but vaccination was an essential component. Although the disease was declared eradicated, some pus samples still remain in laboratories in Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta in the US, and in State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia.
Jenner's vaccine laid the foundation for contemporary discoveries in immunology. Commemorated on postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail, in 1999 he featured in their World Changers issue along with Charles Darwin, Michael Faraday and Alan Turing. The lunar crater Jenner is named in his honour.
== Monuments and buildings ==
Jenner's house in the village of Berkeley, Gloucestershire, is now a small museum,
Another statue was erected in Trafalgar Square and later moved to Kensington Gardens.
London's St. George's Hospital Medical School has a Jenner Pavilion, where his bust may be found.
Jennersville, Pennsylvania, is located in Chester County.
The Edward Jenner Institute for Vaccine Research is an infectious disease vaccine research centre, also the Jenner Institute part of the University of Oxford.
A section at Gloucestershire Royal Hospital is known as the Edward Jenner Unit; it is where blood is drawn.
A ward at Northwick Park Hospital is called Jenner Ward.
Jenner Gardens at Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, opposite one of the scientist's former offices, is a small garden and cemetery.
A statue of Jenner was erected at the Tokyo National Museum in 1896 to commemorate the centenary of Jenner's discovery of vaccination.
A monument outside the walls of the upper town of Boulogne sur Mer, France.
A street in Stoke Newington, north London: Jenner Road, N16
Built around 1970, The Jenner Health Centre, 201 Stanstead Road, Forest Hill, London, SE23 1HU
Jenner's name is featured on the Frieze of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. Twenty-three names of public health and tropical medicine pioneers were chosen to feature on the Keppel Street building when it was constructed in 1926.
Minor planet 5168 Jenner is named in his honour.
File:Edward Jenner Museum, The Chantry, Church Lane, Berkeley, England-9March2010.jpg|Jenner's House, The Chantry, Church Lane, Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England
File:Jenner statue, Kensington Gdns.JPG|Bronze statue of Jenner in Kensington Gardens, London
File:Edward Jenner's name on the Frieze of the LSHTM.jpg|alt=Edward Jenner's name as it appears on the Frieze of the LSHTM Keppel Street building|Edward Jenner's name as it appears on the Frieze of the LSHTM Keppel Street building
== Publications ==
1798 An Inquiry Into the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ
1799 Further Observations on the Variolæ Vaccinæ, or Cow-Pox
1800 A Continuation of Facts and Observations relative to the Variolæ Vaccinæ 40pp.
1801 The Origin of the Vaccine Inoculation
|
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] |
9,508 |
Encyclopædia Britannica
|
The is a general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1768, although the company has changed ownership seven times. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, which spans 32 volumes and by its fourth edition (1801–1810), it had expanded to 20 volumes. Its rising stature as a scholarly work helped recruit eminent contributors, and the 9th (1875–1889) and 11th editions (1911) are landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style. Starting with the 11th edition and following its acquisition by an American firm, the Britannica shortened and simplified articles to broaden its appeal to the North American market.
In 1936, the Britannica became the first encyclopaedia to adopt "continuous revision", in which the encyclopaedia is reprinted annually with articles updated on a schedule.
In the 21st century, the Britannica suffered first from competition with the digital multimedia encyclopaedia Microsoft Encarta, and later with the online peer-produced encyclopaedia Wikipedia.
In March 2012, it announced it would no longer publish printed editions and would focus instead on the online version.
The 15th edition (1974–2010) has a three-part structure: a 12-volume of short articles (generally fewer than 750 words), a 17-volume of long articles (two to 310 pages), and a single volume to give a hierarchical outline of knowledge. The was meant for quick fact-checking and as a guide to the ; readers are advised to study the outline to understand a subject's context and to find more detailed articles. Over 70 years, the size of the Britannica has remained steady, with about 40 million words on half a million topics. Though published in the United States since 1901, the Britannica has for the most part maintained British English spelling.
== History ==
Past owners have included, in chronological order, the Edinburgh, Scotland-based printers Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, Scottish bookseller Archibald Constable, Scottish publisher A & C Black, Horace Everett Hooper, Sears Roebuck, William Benton, and Jacqui Safra, a Swiss billionaire of New York.
Recent advances in information technology and the rise of electronic encyclopaedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, Encarta and Wikipedia have reduced the demand for print encyclopaedias.
=== Editions ===
The Encyclopaedia Britannica has been issued in 15 editions, with multi-volume supplements to the 3rd and 4th editions (see the Table below). The 5th and 6th editions were reprints of the 4th, and the 10th edition was only a supplement to the 9th, just as the 12th and 13th editions were supplements to the 11th. The 15th underwent massive reorganization in 1985, but the updated, current version is still known as the 15th. The 14th and 15th editions were edited every year throughout their runs, so that later printings of each were entirely different from early ones.
Throughout history, the Britannica has had two aims: to be an excellent reference book, and to provide educational material. In 1974, the 15th edition adopted a third goal: to systematize all human knowledge. The history of the Britannica can be divided into five eras, punctuated by changes in management, or reorganization of the dictionary.
==== 1768–1826 ====
In the first era (1st–6th editions, 1768–1826), the Britannica was managed and published by its founders, Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, by Archibald Constable, and by others. The Britannica was first published between December 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh as the Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, compiled upon a New Plan. In part, it was conceived in reaction to the French Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (published 1751–1772), which had been inspired by Chambers's Cyclopaedia (first edition 1728). It went on sale 10 December.
The Britannica of this period was primarily a Scottish enterprise, and it is one of the most enduring legacies of the Scottish Enlightenment. In this era, the Britannica moved from being a three-volume set (1st edition) compiled by one young editor—William Smellie—to a 20-volume set written by numerous authorities. After 1880, Baynes was assisted by William Robertson Smith. No biographies of living persons were included. James Clerk Maxwell and Thomas Huxley were special advisors on science. However, by the close of the 19th century, the 9th edition was outdated, and the Britannica faced financial difficulties.
==== 1901–1973 ====
In the third era (10th–14th editions, 1901–1973), the Britannica was managed by American businessmen who introduced direct marketing and door-to-door sales. The American owners gradually simplified articles, making them less scholarly for a mass market. The 10th edition was an eleven-volume supplement (including one each of maps and an index) to the 9th, numbered as volumes 25–35, but the 11th edition was a completely new work; its owner, Horace Hooper, lavished enormous effort on the project. Benton became chairman of the board and managed the Britannica until his death in 1973. Benton set up the Benton Foundation, which managed the Britannica until 1996, and whose sole beneficiary was the University of Chicago. In 1968, the Britannica celebrated its bicentennial.
==== 1974–1994 ====
In the fourth era (1974–1994), the Britannica introduced its 15th edition, which was reorganized into three parts: the , the , and the . Under Mortimer J. Adler (member of the Board of Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica since its inception in 1949, and its chair from 1974; director of editorial planning for the 15th edition of Britannica from 1965), the Britannica sought not only to be a good reference work and educational tool, but to systematize all human knowledge. The absence of a separate index and the grouping of articles into parallel encyclopaedias (the and ) provoked a "firestorm of criticism" of the initial 15th edition. In response, the 15th edition was completely reorganized and indexed for a re-release in 1985. This second version of the 15th edition continued to be published and revised through the release of the 2010 print version. The official title of the 15th edition is the New Encyclopædia Britannica, although it has also been promoted as Britannica 3.
==== 1994–present ====
In the fifth era (1994–present), digital versions have been developed and released on optical media and online.
In 1996, the Britannica was bought by Jacqui Safra at well below its estimated value, owing to the company's financial difficulties. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. split in 1999. One part retained the company name and developed the print version, and the other, Britannica.com Incorporated, developed digital versions. Since 2001, the two companies have shared a CEO, Ilan Yeshua, who has continued Powell's strategy of introducing new products with the Britannica name. In March 2012, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that it would not produce any new print editions of the encyclopaedia, with the 2010 15th edition being the last. The company will focus only on the online edition and other educational tools.
Britannica final print edition was in 2010, a 32-volume set.
=== Dedications ===
The Britannica was dedicated to the reigning British monarch from 1788 to 1901 and then, upon its sale to an American partnership, to the British monarch and the President of the United States. The order of the dedications has changed with the relative power of the United States and Britain, and with relative sales; the 1954 version of the 14th edition is "Dedicated by Permission to the Heads of the Two English-Speaking Peoples, Dwight David Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth the Second."
== Print version ==
From 1985, the Britannica consisted of four parts: the , the , the , and a two-volume index. The Britannica articles are contained in the and , which encompass 12 and 17 volumes, respectively, each volume having roughly one thousand pages. The 2007 has 699 in-depth articles, ranging in length from two pages to 310 pages, with references and named contributors. In contrast, the 2007 has roughly 65,000 articles, the vast majority (about 97%) of which contain fewer than 750 words, no references, and no named contributors.
Information can be found in the Britannica by following the cross-references in the and ; these are sparse, however, averaging one cross-reference per page.
The core of the is its "Outline of Knowledge", which aims to provide a logical framework for all human knowledge. The contains colour transparencies of human anatomy and several appendices listing the staff members, advisors, and contributors to all three parts of the Britannica.
Taken together, the and comprise roughly 40 million words and 24,000 images. Common alternative spellings are provided with cross-references such as "Color: see Colour."
Since 1936, the Britannica has been revised on a regular schedule, with at least 10% of the articles considered for revision each year. however, according to another Britannica website, only 35% of the articles were revised over the same period.
The alphabetization of articles in the and follows strict rules. Diacritical marks and non-English letters are ignored, while numerical entries such as "1812, War of" are alphabetized as if the number had been written out ("Eighteen-twelve, War of"). Articles with identical names are ordered first by persons, then by places, then by things. Rulers with identical names are organized first alphabetically by country and then by chronology; thus, Charles III of France precedes Charles I of England, listed in Britannica as the ruler of Great Britain and Ireland. (That is, they are alphabetized as if their titles were "Charles, France, 3" and "Charles, Great Britain and Ireland, 1".) Similarly, places that share names are organized alphabetically by country, then by ever-smaller political divisions.
In March 2012, the company announced that the 2010 edition would be the last printed version. This was part of a move by the company to adapt to the times and focus on its future using digital distribution. The peak year for the printed encyclopaedia was 1990, when 120,000 sets were sold, but sales had dropped to 40,000 per annum by 1996. There were 12,000 sets of the 2010 edition printed, of which 8,000 had been sold by March 2012. By late April 2012, the remaining copies of the 2010 edition had sold out at Britannica's online store. , a replica of Britannica's 1768 first edition is available via the online store.
=== Related printed material ===
Britannica Junior was first published in 1934 as 12 volumes. It was expanded to 15 volumes in 1947, and renamed Britannica Junior Encyclopædia in 1963. It was taken off the market after the 1984 printing.
A British Children's Britannica edited by John Armitage was issued in London in 1960. Its contents were determined largely by the eleven-plus standardized tests given in Britain. Britannica introduced the Children's Britannica to the US market in 1988, aimed at ages seven to 14.
In 1961, a 16-volume Young Children's Encyclopaedia was issued for children just learning to read. Compton's by Britannica, first published in 2007, incorporating the former Compton's Encyclopedia, is aimed at 10- to 17-year-olds and consists of 26 volumes and 11,000 pages.
There have been, and are, several abridged Britannica encyclopaedias. The single-volume Britannica Concise Encyclopædia has 28,000 short articles condensing the larger 32-volume Britannica; there are authorized translations in languages such as Chinese created by Encyclopedia of China Publishing House and Vietnamese.
Since 1938, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has published annually a Book of the Year covering the past year's events. A given edition of the Book of the Year is named in terms of the year of its publication, though the edition actually covers the events of the previous year. The company also publishes several specialized reference works, such as Shakespeare: The Essential Guide to the Life and Works of the Bard (Wiley, 2006).
== Optical disc, online, and mobile versions ==
The Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2012 DVD contains over 100,000 articles. This includes regular Britannica articles, as well as others drawn from the Britannica Student Encyclopædia, and the Britannica Elementary Encyclopædia. The package includes a range of supplementary content including maps, videos, sound clips, animations and web links. It also offers study tools and dictionary and thesaurus entries from Merriam-Webster.
Britannica Online is a website with more than 120,000 articles and is updated regularly. It has daily features, updates and links to news reports from The New York Times and the BBC. , roughly 60% of Encyclopædia Britannica's revenue came from online operations, of which around 15% came from subscriptions to the consumer version of the websites. , subscriptions were available on a yearly, monthly or weekly basis. Special subscription plans are offered to schools, colleges and libraries; such institutional subscribers constitute an important part of Britannica's business. Beginning in early 2007, the Britannica made articles freely available if they are hyperlinked from an external site. Non-subscribers are served pop-ups and advertising.
On 20 February 2007, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that it was working with mobile phone search company AskMeNow to launch a mobile encyclopaedia. Users would be able to send a question via text message, and AskMeNow would search Britannica 28,000-article concise encyclopaedia to return an answer to the query. Daily topical features sent directly to users' mobile phones were also planned.
On 3 June 2008, an initiative to facilitate collaboration between online expert and amateur scholarly contributors for Britannica's online content (in the spirit of a wiki), with editorial oversight from Britannica staff, was announced. Approved contributions would be credited, though contributing automatically grants Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. perpetual, irrevocable licence to those contributions.
On 22 January 2009, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that the company would be accepting edits and additions to the online Britannica website from the public. The published edition of the encyclopaedia would not be affected by the changes. All edits submitted would be reviewed and checked and will have to be approved by the encyclopaedia's professional staff. as would content submitted by non-Britannica scholars. Official Britannica material would carry a "Britannica Checked" stamp, to distinguish it from the user-generated content.
On 14 September 2010, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced a partnership with mobile phone development company Concentric Sky to launch a series of iPhone products aimed at the K–12 market. On 20 July 2011, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that Concentric Sky had ported the Britannica Kids product line to Intel's Intel Atom-based Netbooks and on 26 October 2011 that it had launched its encyclopaedia as an iPad app. In 2010, Britannica released Britannica ImageQuest, a database of images.
In March 2012, it was announced that the company would cease printing the encyclopaedia set, and that it would focus on its online version.
On 7 June 2018, Britannica released a Google Chrome extension, "Britannica Insights", which shows snippets of information from Britannica Online whenever the user performs a Google Search, in a box to the right of Google's results. Britannica Insights was also available as a Firefox extension but this was taken down due to a code review issue.
== Personnel and management ==
=== Contributors ===
The print version of the Britannica has 4,411 contributors, many eminent in their fields, such as Nobel laureate economist Milton Friedman, astronomer Carl Sagan, and surgeon Michael DeBakey. Roughly a quarter of the contributors are deceased, some as long ago as 1947 (Alfred North Whitehead), while another quarter are retired or emeritus. Most (approximately 98%) contribute to only a single article; however, 64 contributed to three articles, 23 contributed to four articles, 10 contributed to five articles, and 8 contributed to more than five articles. An exceptionally prolific contributor is Christine Sutton of the University of Oxford, who contributed 24 articles on particle physics.
While Britannica authors have included writers such as Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, and Leon Trotsky, some have been criticized for lack of expertise. In 1911, the historian George L. Burr wrote:
=== Staff ===
in the 15th edition of Britannica, Dale Hoiberg, a sinologist, was listed as Britannica Senior Vice President and editor-in-chief. Among his predecessors as editors-in-chief were Hugh Chisholm (1902–1924), James Louis Garvin (1926–1932), Franklin Henry Hooper (1932–1938), Walter Yust (1938–1960), Harry Ashmore (1960–1963), Warren E. Preece (1964–1968, 1969–1975), Sir William Haley (1968–1969), Philip W. Goetz (1979–1991), and Robert McHenry (1992–1997).
The 2007 editorial staff of the Britannica included five Senior Editors and nine Associate Editors, supervised by Dale Hoiberg and four others. The editorial staff helped to write the articles of the and some sections of the .
=== Editorial advisors ===
As of 2012, Britannica had an editorial board of advisors, which included a number of distinguished figures, primarily scholars from a variety of disciplines.
The Propædia and its Outline of Knowledge were produced by dozens of editorial advisors under the direction of Mortimer J. Adler. Roughly half of these advisors have since died, including some of the Outline's chief architects – Rene Dubos (d. 1982), Loren Eiseley (d. 1977), Harold D. Lasswell (d. 1978), Mark Van Doren (d. 1972), Peter Ritchie Calder (d. 1982) and Mortimer J. Adler (d. 2001). The also lists just under 4,000 advisors who were consulted for the unsigned articles.
=== Corporate structure ===
During much of the 20th century, the Britannica had a significant ownership stake from the University of Chicago, with many people associated with the university serving senior positions in the organisation. who serves as its current chair of the board. In 1997, Don Yannias, a long-time associate and investment advisor of Safra, became CEO of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
In 1999, a new company, Britannica.com Incorporated, was created to develop digital versions of the Britannica; Yannias assumed the role of CEO in the new company, while his former position at the parent company remained vacant for two years. Yannias' tenure at Britannica.com Incorporated was marked by missteps, considerable lay-offs, and financial losses. In 2001, Yannias was replaced by Ilan Yeshua, who reunited the leadership of the two companies. Yannias later returned to investment management, but remains on the Britannica Board of Directors.
In 2003, former management consultant Jorge Aguilar-Cauz was appointed President of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Cauz is the senior executive and reports directly to the Britannica Board of Directors. Cauz has been pursuing alliances with other companies and extending the Britannica brand to new educational and reference products, continuing the strategy pioneered by former CEO Elkan Harrison Powell in the mid-1930s.
In the fall of 2017, Karthik Krishnan was appointed global chief executive officer of the Encyclopædia Britannica Group. Krishnan brought a varied perspective to the role based on several high-level positions in digital media, including RELX (formerly known as Reed Elsevier, and one of the constituents of the FTSE 100 Index) and Rodale, in which he was responsible for "driving business and cultural transformation and accelerating growth".
Taking the reins of the company as it was preparing to mark its 250th anniversary and define the next phase of its digital strategy for consumers and K–12 schools, Krishnan launched a series of new initiatives in his first year.
First was Britannica Insights, a free, downloadable software extension to the Google Chrome browser that served up edited, fact-checked Britannica information with queries on search engines such as Google, Yahoo, and Bing. Its purpose, the company said, was to "provide trusted, verified information" in conjunction with search results that were thought to be increasingly unreliable in the era of misinformation and "fake news."
The product was quickly followed by Britannica School Insights, which provided similar content for subscribers to Britannica's online classroom products, and a partnership with YouTube in which verified Britannica content appeared on the site as an antidote to user-generated video content that could be false or misleading.
=== Sales and marketing ===
Although prior to 1920 the Britannica was primarily sold by mail-order, after that time the Britannica was almost exclusively sold by door-to-door salesmen,317-330 from which they gained a significant commission, which in the United States in 1971 was $120–200 (around $-$ adjusted for inflation) per sale. These high-pressure sales tactics resulted in high levels of turnover among Britannica salesmen, with the company often exaggerating the ease of making a sale to employees, as well as engaging in deceptive job advertising in order to entice people to become salesmen.
While early on the Britannica was marketed to adults and in particular during the 19th and early 20th centuries, to an elite educated audience,
The Internet tends to provide more current coverage than print media, due to the ease with which material on the Internet can be updated. In rapidly changing fields such as science, technology, politics, culture and modern history, the Britannica has struggled to stay up to date, a problem first analysed systematically by its former editor Walter Yust.
=== Print encyclopaedias ===
The has been compared with other print encyclopaedias, both qualitatively and quantitatively.
=== Digital encyclopaedias on optical media ===
The most notable competitor of the Britannica among CD/DVD-ROM digital encyclopaedias was Encarta, Both occupied the same price range, with the 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate CD or DVD costing US$40–50 and the Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007 DVD costing US$45.
The Britannica disc contains 100,000 articles and Merriam-Webster's Dictionary and Thesaurus (US only) and offers primary and secondary school editions. Like the Britannica, Encarta was available online by subscription, although some content could be accessed for free.
=== Wikipedia ===
The main online alternative to Britannica is Wikipedia. The key differences between the two lie in accessibility; the model of participation they bring to an encyclopedic project; their respective style sheets and editorial policies; relative ages; the number of subjects treated; the number of languages in which articles are written and made available; and their underlying economic models: unlike Britannica, Wikipedia is not-for-profit, does not carry advertising on its site, and is not connected with traditional profit- and contract-based publishing distribution networks.
Britannicas articles either have known authorship or a set of possible authors (the editorial staff). With the exception of the editorial staff, most Britannica contributors are experts in their field—some are Nobel laureates.
In 2005, the journal Nature chose articles from both websites in a wide range of science topics and sent them to what it called "relevant" field experts for peer review. The experts then compared the competing articles—one from each site on a given topic—side by side, but were not told which article came from which site. Nature got back 42 usable reviews. The journal found just eight serious errors, such as general misunderstandings of vital concepts: four from each site. It also discovered many factual errors, omissions or misleading statements: 162 in Wikipedia and 123 in Britannica, an average of 3.86 mistakes per article for Wikipedia and 2.92 for Britannica.
Although Britannica was revealed as the more accurate encyclopaedia, with fewer errors, in its rebuttal, it called Nature's study flawed and misleading and called for a "prompt" retraction. It noted that two of the articles in the study were taken from a Britannica yearbook and not the encyclopaedia, and another two were from Compton's Encyclopedia (called the Britannica Student Encyclopedia on the company's website).
Nature defended its story and declined to retract, stating that, as it was comparing Wikipedia with the web version of Britannica, it used whatever relevant material was available on Britannica website. Interviewed in February 2009, the managing director of Britannica UK said:
| Colin Macfarquhar and George Gleig
| £42,000 profit on 10,000 copies sold; first dedication to monarch; pirated by Moore in Dublin and Thomas Dobson in Philadelphia
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| supplement to 3rd
| 1801, revised in 1803
| 2 volumes, 1,624 pages, 50 plates
|
| George Gleig
| Copyright owned by Thomas Bonar
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 4th
| 1801–1810
| 20 volumes, 16,033 pages, 581 plates
| 4,000
| James Millar
| Authors first allowed to retain copyright. Material in the supplement to 3rd not incorporated due to copyright issues.
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 5th
| 1815–1817
| 20 volumes, 16,017 pages, 582 plates
|
| James Millar
| Reprint of the 4th edition. Financial losses by Millar and Andrew Bell's heirs; EB rights sold to Archibald Constable
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| supplement to 4th, 5th, and 6th
| 1816–1824
| 6 volumes, 4,933 pages, 125 plates1
| 10,500 Most sources estimate there were 500,000 pirated sets.}} plus 500,000 pirated sets
| Thomas Spencer Baynes (1875–80); then W. Robertson Smith
| Some carry-over from 8th edition, but mostly a new work; high point of scholarship; 10,000 sets sold by Britannica and 45,000 authorized sets made in the US by Little, Brown in Boston and Schribners' Sons in NY, but pirated widely (500,000 sets) in the US.3
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 10th,supplement to 9th
| 1902–1903
| 11 volumes, plus the 24 volumes of the 9th. Volume 34 containing 124 detailed country maps with index of 250,000 names4
| 70,000
| Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace and Hugh Chisholm in London; Arthur T. Hadley and Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City
| American partnership bought EB rights on 9 May 1901; high-pressure sales methods
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 11th
| 1910–1911 || 28 volumes, plus volume 29 index
| 1,000,000
| Hugh Chisholm in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City
| Another high point of scholarship and writing; more articles than the 9th, but shorter and simpler; financial difficulties for owner, Horace Everett Hooper; EB rights sold to Sears Roebuck in 1920
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 12th,supplement to 11th
| 1921–1922
| 3 volumes with own index, plus the 29 volumes of the 11th5
|
| Hugh Chisholm in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City
| Summarized state of the world before, during, and after World War I
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 13th,supplement to 11th
| 1926
| 3 volumes with own index, plus the 29 volumes of the 11th6
|
| James Louis Garvin in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City
| Replaced 12th edition volumes; improved perspective of the events of 1910–1926
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 14th
| 1929–1933
| 24 volumes7
|
| James Louis Garvin in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City
| Publication just before Great Depression was financially catastrophic
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| revised 14th
| 1933–1973
| 24 volumes7
|
| Franklin Henry Hooper until 1938; then Walter Yust, Harry Ashmore, Warren E. Preece, William Haley
| Began continuous revision in 1936: every article revised at least twice every decade
|-
! style="text-align:right;" rowspan="2"| 15th
| 1974–1984
| 30 volumes8
|
| Warren E. Preece, then Philip W. Goetz
| Introduced three-part structure; division of articles into and ; Outline of Knowledge; separate index eliminated
|-
| | 1985–2010 || 32 volumes9
|
| Philip W. Goetz, then Robert McHenry, currently Dale Hoiberg
| Restored two-volume index; some Micropædia and Macropædia articles merged; slightly longer overall; new versions were issued every few years. This edition is the last printed edition.
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| Global
| 2009
| 30 compact volumes
|
| Dale Hoiberg
| Unlike the 15th edition, it did not contain Macro- and Micropedia sections, but ran A through Z as all editions up to the 14th had.
|}
|
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9,509 |
Endometrium
|
The endometrium is the inner epithelial layer, along with its mucous membrane, of the mammalian uterus. It has a basal layer and a functional layer: the basal layer contains stem cells which regenerate the functional layer. The functional layer thickens and then is shed during menstruation in humans and some other mammals, including other apes, Old World monkeys, some species of bat, the elephant shrew and the Cairo spiny mouse. In most other mammals, the endometrium is reabsorbed in the estrous cycle. During pregnancy, the glands and blood vessels in the endometrium further increase in size and number. Vascular spaces fuse and become interconnected, forming the placenta, which supplies oxygen and nutrition to the embryo and fetus. The speculated presence of an endometrial microbiota
has been argued against.
==Structure==
The endometrium consists of a single layer of columnar epithelium plus the stroma on which it rests. The stroma is a layer of connective tissue that varies in thickness according to hormonal influences. In the uterus, simple tubular glands reach from the endometrial surface through to the base of the stroma, which also carries a rich blood supply provided by the spiral arteries. In women of reproductive age, two layers of endometrium can be distinguished. These two layers occur only in the endometrium lining the cavity of the uterus, and not in the lining of the fallopian tubes where a potentially life-threatening ectopic pregnancy may occur nearby. Just over 100 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the endometrium with only a handful genes being highly endometrium specific. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in the glandular and stromal cells of the endometrial mucosa. The expression of many of these proteins vary depending on the menstrual cycle, for example the progesterone receptor and thyrotropin-releasing hormone both expressed in the proliferative phase, and PAEP expressed in the secretory phase. Other proteins such as the HOX11 protein that is required for female fertility, is expressed in endometrial stroma cells throughout the menstrual cycle. Certain specific proteins such as the estrogen receptor are also expressed in other types of female tissue types, such as the cervix, fallopian tubes, ovaries and breast.
===Microbiome speculation===
The uterus and endometrium was for a long time thought to be sterile. The cervical plug of mucosa was seen to prevent the entry of any microorganisms ascending from the vagina. In the 1980s this view was challenged when it was shown that uterine infections could arise from weaknesses in the barrier of the cervical plug. Organisms from the vaginal microbiota could enter the uterus during uterine contractions in the menstrual cycle. Further studies sought to identify microbiota specific to the uterus which would be of help in identifying cases of unsuccessful IVF and miscarriages. Their findings were seen to be unreliable due to the possibility of cross-contamination in the sampling procedures used. The well-documented presence of Lactobacillus species, for example, was easily explained by an increase in the vaginal population being able to seep into the cervical mucous. During the menstrual cycle or estrous cycle, the endometrium grows to a thick, blood vessel-rich, glandular tissue layer. This represents an optimal environment for the implantation of a blastocyst upon its arrival in the uterus. The endometrium is central, echogenic (detectable using ultrasound scanners), and has an average thickness of 6.7 mm.
During pregnancy, the glands and blood vessels in the endometrium further increase in size and number. Vascular spaces fuse and become interconnected, forming the placenta, which supplies oxygen and nutrition to the embryo and fetus.
===Cycle===
The functional layer of the endometrial lining undergoes cyclic regeneration from stem cells in the basal layer.
In humans, the cycle of building and shedding the endometrial lining lasts an average of 28 days. The endometrium develops at different rates in different mammals. Various factors including the seasons, climate, and stress can affect its development. The endometrium itself produces certain hormones at different stages of the cycle and this affects other parts of the reproductive system.
==Diseases related with endometrium==
Chorionic tissue can result in marked endometrial changes, known as an Arias-Stella reaction, that have an appearance similar to cancer. Historically, this change was diagnosed as endometrial cancer and it is important only in so far as it should not be misdiagnosed as cancer.
Adenomyosis is the growth of the endometrium into the muscle layer of the uterus (the myometrium).
Endometriosis is the growth of tissue similar to the endometrium, outside the uterus.
Endometrial hyperplasia
Endometrial cancer is the most common cancer of the human female genital tract.
Asherman's syndrome, also known as intrauterine adhesions, occurs when the basal layer of the endometrium is damaged by instrumentation (e.g., D&C) or infection (e.g., endometrial tuberculosis) resulting in endometrial sclerosis and adhesion formation partially or completely obliterating the uterine cavity.
Thin endometrium may be defined as an endometrial thickness of less than 8 mm. It usually occurs after menopause. Treatments that can improve endometrial thickness include Vitamin E, L-arginine and sildenafil citrate.
Gene expression profiling using cDNA microarray can be used for the diagnosis of endometrial disorders.
The European Menopause and Andropause Society (EMAS) released Guidelines with detailed information to assess the endometrium.
===Embryo transfer===
An endometrial thickness (EMT) of less than 7 mm decreases the pregnancy rate in in vitro fertilization by an odds ratio of approximately 0.4 compared to an EMT of over 7 mm. However, such low thickness rarely occurs, and any routine use of this parameter is regarded as not justified. The optimal endometrial thickness is 10mm. Nevertheless, in human a perfect synchrony is not necessary; if the endometrium is not ready to receive the embryo an ectopic pregnancy may occur. This consist of the implantation of the blast outside the uterus, which can be extremely dangerous.
Observation of the endometrium by transvaginal ultrasonography is used when administering fertility medication, such as in in vitro fertilization. At the time of embryo transfer, it is favorable to have an endometrium of a thickness of between 7 and 14 mm with a triple-line configuration, which means that the endometrium contains a hyperechoic (usually displayed as light) line in the middle surrounded by two more hypoechoic (darker) lines. A triple-line endometrium reflects the separation of the basal layer and the functional layer, and is also observed in the periovulatory period secondary to rising estradiol levels, and disappears after ovulation.
Endometrial thickness is also associated with live births in IVF. The live birth rate in a normal endometrium is halved when the thickness is
Image:Endometrial adenocarcinoma (1).jpg|Endometrioid adenocarcinoma from biopsy. H&E stain.
Image:Endometrium_ocp_use2.jpg|Micrograph of decidualized endometrium due to exogenous progesterone. H&E stain.
Image:Endometrium_ocp_use1.jpg|Micrograph of decidualized endometrium due to exogenous progesterone. H&E stain.
Image:Endometrial stromal condensation high mag.jpg|Micrograph showing endometrial stromal condensation, a finding seen in menses.
|
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] |
9,510 |
Electronic music
|
Electronic music broadly is a group of music genres that employ electronic musical instruments, circuitry-based music technology and software, or general-purpose electronics (such as personal computers) in its creation. It includes both music made using electronic and electromechanical means (electroacoustic music). Pure electronic instruments depend entirely on circuitry-based sound generation, for instance using devices such as an electronic oscillator, theremin, or synthesizer: no acoustic waves need to be previously generated by mechanical means and then converted into electrical signals. On the other hand, electromechanical instruments have mechanical parts such as strings or hammers that generate the sound waves, together with electric elements including magnetic pickups, power amplifiers and loudspeakers that convert the acoustic waves into electrical signals, process them and convert them back into sound waves. Such electromechanical devices include the telharmonium, Hammond organ, electric piano and electric guitar.
The first electronic musical devices were developed at the end of the 19th century. During the 1920s and 1930s, some electronic instruments were introduced and the first compositions featuring them were written. By the 1940s, magnetic audio tape allowed musicians to tape sounds and then modify them by changing the tape speed or direction, leading to the development of electroacoustic tape music in the 1940s in Egypt and France. Musique concrète, created in Paris in 1948, was based on editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds. Music produced solely from electronic generators was first produced in Germany in 1953 by Karlheinz Stockhausen. Electronic music was also created in Japan and the United States beginning in the 1950s and algorithmic composition with computers was first demonstrated in the same decade.
During the 1960s, digital computer music was pioneered, innovation in live electronics took place, and Japanese electronic musical instruments began to influence the music industry. In the early 1970s, Moog synthesizers and drum machines helped popularize synthesized electronic music. The 1970s also saw electronic music begin to have a significant influence on popular music, with the adoption of polyphonic synthesizers, electronic drums, drum machines, and turntables, through the emergence of genres such as disco, krautrock, new wave, synth-pop, hip hop, and electronic dance music (EDM). In the early 1980s, mass-produced digital synthesizers such as the Yamaha DX7 became popular, and MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) was developed. In the same decade, with a greater reliance on synthesizers and the adoption of programmable drum machines, electronic popular music came to the fore. During the 1990s, with the proliferation of increasingly affordable music technology, electronic music production became an established part of popular culture. In Berlin starting in 1989, the Love Parade became the largest street party with over 1 million visitors, inspiring other such popular celebrations of electronic music.
Contemporary electronic music includes many varieties and ranges from experimental art music to popular forms such as electronic dance music. In recent years, electronic music has gained popularity in the Middle East, with artists from Iran and Turkey blending traditional instruments with ambient and techno influences. Pop electronic music is most recognizable in its 4/4 form and more connected with the mainstream than preceding forms which were popular in niche markets.
==Origins: late 19th century to early 20th century==
At the turn of the 20th century, experimentation with emerging electronics led to the first electronic musical instruments. These initial inventions were not sold, but were instead used in demonstrations and public performances. The audiences were presented with reproductions of existing music instead of new compositions for the instruments. While some were considered novelties and produced simple tones, the Telharmonium synthesized the sound of several orchestral instruments with reasonable precision. It achieved viable public interest and made commercial progress into streaming music through telephone networks.
Critics of musical conventions at the time saw promise in these developments. Ferruccio Busoni encouraged the composition of microtonal music allowed for by electronic instruments. He predicted the use of machines in future music, writing the influential Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music (1907). Futurists such as Francesco Balilla Pratella and Luigi Russolo began composing music with acoustic noise to evoke the sound of machinery. They predicted expansions in timbre allowed for by electronics in the influential manifesto The Art of Noises (1913).
=== Early compositions ===
Developments of the vacuum tube led to electronic instruments that were smaller, amplified, and more practical for performance. In particular, the theremin, ondes Martenot and trautonium were commercially produced by the early 1930s.
From the late 1920s, the increased practicality of electronic instruments influenced composers such as Joseph Schillinger and Maria Schuppel to adopt them. They were typically used within orchestras, and most composers wrote parts for the theremin that could otherwise be performed with string instruments. that were exploited by advocates of microtonal music such as Charles Ives, Dimitrios Levidis, Olivier Messiaen and Edgard Varèse. Further, Percy Grainger used the theremin to abandon fixed tonation entirely, while Russian composers such as Gavriil Popov treated it as a source of noise in otherwise-acoustic noise music.
=== Recording experiments ===
Developments in early recording technology paralleled that of electronic instruments. The first means of recording and reproducing audio was invented in the late 19th century with the mechanical phonograph. Record players became a common household item, and by the 1920s composers were using them to play short recordings in performances.
The introduction of electrical recording in 1925 was followed by increased experimentation with record players. Paul Hindemith and Ernst Toch composed several pieces in 1930 by layering recordings of instruments and vocals at adjusted speeds. Influenced by these techniques, John Cage composed Imaginary Landscape No. 1 in 1939 by adjusting the speeds of recorded tones.
Composers began to experiment with newly developed sound-on-film technology. Recordings could be spliced together to create sound collages, such as those by Tristan Tzara, Kurt Schwitters, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Walter Ruttmann and Dziga Vertov. Further, the technology allowed sound to be graphically created and modified. These techniques were used to compose soundtracks for several films in Germany and Russia, in addition to the popular Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde in the United States. Experiments with graphical sound were continued by Norman McLaren from the late 1930s.
==Development: 1940s to 1950s==
=== Electroacoustic tape music ===
The first practical audio tape recorder was unveiled in 1935. Improvements to the technology were made using the AC biasing technique, which significantly improved recording fidelity. As early as 1942, test recordings were being made in stereo. Although these developments were initially confined to Germany, recorders and tapes were brought to the United States following the end of World War II. These were the basis for the first commercially produced tape recorder in 1948.
In 1944, before the use of magnetic tape for compositional purposes, Egyptian composer Halim El-Dabh, while still a student in Cairo, used a cumbersome wire recorder to record sounds of an ancient zaar ceremony. Using facilities at the Middle East Radio studios El-Dabh processed the recorded material using reverberation, echo, voltage controls and re-recording. What resulted is believed to be the earliest tape music composition. The resulting work was entitled The Expression of Zaar and it was presented in 1944 at an art gallery event in Cairo. While his initial experiments in tape-based composition were not widely known outside of Egypt at the time, El-Dabh is also known for his later work in electronic music at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in the late 1950s.
=== Musique concrète ===
Following his work with Studio d'Essai at Radiodiffusion Française (RDF), during the early 1940s, Pierre Schaeffer is credited with originating the theory and practice of musique concrète. In the late 1940s, experiments in sound-based composition using shellac record players were first conducted by Schaeffer. In 1950, the techniques of musique concrete were expanded when magnetic tape machines were used to explore sound manipulation practices such as speed variation (pitch shift) and tape splicing.
On 5 October 1948, RDF broadcast Schaeffer's Etude aux chemins de fer. This was the first "movement" of Cinq études de bruits, and marked the beginning of studio realizations and musique concrète (or acousmatic art). Schaeffer employed a disc cutting lathe, four turntables, a four-channel mixer, filters, an echo chamber, and a mobile recording unit. Not long after this, Pierre Henry began collaborating with Schaeffer, a partnership that would have profound and lasting effects on the direction of electronic music. Another associate of Schaeffer, Edgard Varèse, began work on Déserts, a work for chamber orchestra and tape. The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer's studio and were later revised at Columbia University.
In 1950, Schaeffer gave the first public (non-broadcast) concert of musique concrète at the École Normale de Musique de Paris. "Schaeffer used a PA system, several turntables, and mixers. The performance did not go well, as creating live montages with turntables had never been done before." Later that same year, Pierre Henry collaborated with Schaeffer on Symphonie pour un homme seul (1950) the first major work of musique concrete. In Paris in 1951, in what was to become an important worldwide trend, RTF established the first studio for the production of electronic music. Also in 1951, Schaeffer and Henry produced an opera, Orpheus, for concrete sounds and voices.
By 1951 the work of Schaeffer, composer-percussionist Pierre Henry, and sound engineer Jacques Poullin had received official recognition and The Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrète, Club d 'Essai de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française was established at RTF in Paris, the ancestor of the ORTF.
===Elektronische Musik, Germany===
Karlheinz Stockhausen worked briefly in Schaeffer's studio in 1952, and afterward for many years at the WDR Cologne's Studio for Electronic Music.
1954 saw the advent of what would now be considered authentic electric plus acoustic compositions—acoustic instrumentation augmented/accompanied by recordings of manipulated or electronically generated sound. Three major works were premiered that year: Varèse's Déserts, for chamber ensemble and tape sounds, and two works by Otto Luening and Vladimir Ussachevsky: Rhapsodic Variations for the Louisville Symphony and A Poem in Cycles and Bells, both for orchestra and tape. Because he had been working at Schaeffer's studio, the tape part for Varèse's work contains much more concrete sounds than electronic. "A group made up of wind instruments, percussion and piano alternate with the mutated sounds of factory noises and ship sirens and motors, coming from two loudspeakers."
At the German premiere of Déserts in Hamburg, which was conducted by Bruno Maderna, the tape controls were operated by Karlheinz Stockhausen. on two occasions combining electronically generated sounds with relatively conventional orchestras—in Mixtur (1964) and Hymnen, dritte Region mit Orchester (1967). Stockhausen stated that his listeners had told him his electronic music gave them an experience of "outer space", sensations of flying, or being in a "fantastic dream world".
===United States===
In the United States, electronic music was being created as early as 1939, when John Cage published Imaginary Landscape, No. 1, using two variable-speed turntables, frequency recordings, muted piano, and cymbal, but no electronic means of production. Cage composed five more "Imaginary Landscapes" between 1942 and 1952 (one withdrawn), mostly for percussion ensemble, though No. 4 is for twelve radios and No. 5, written in 1952, uses 42 recordings and is to be realized as a magnetic tape. According to Otto Luening, Cage also performed Williams Mix at Donaueschingen in 1954, using eight loudspeakers, three years after his alleged collaboration. Williams Mix was a success at the Donaueschingen Festival, where it made a "strong impression".
The Music for Magnetic Tape Project was formed by members of the New York School (John Cage, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff, David Tudor, and Morton Feldman), and lasted three years until 1954. Cage wrote of this collaboration: "In this social darkness, therefore, the work of Earle Brown, Morton Feldman, and Christian Wolff continues to present a brilliant light, for the reason that at the several points of notation, performance, and audition, action is provocative."
Cage completed Williams Mix in 1953 while working with the Music for Magnetic Tape Project. The group had no permanent facility, and had to rely on borrowed time in commercial sound studios, including the studio of Bebe and Louis Barron.
===Columbia-Princeton Center===
In the same year Columbia University purchased its first tape recorder—a professional Ampex machine—to record concerts. Vladimir Ussachevsky, who was on the music faculty of Columbia University, was placed in charge of the device, and almost immediately began experimenting with it.
Herbert Russcol writes: "Soon he was intrigued with the new sonorities he could achieve by recording musical instruments and then superimposing them on one another." Ussachevsky said later: "I suddenly realized that the tape recorder could be treated as an instrument of sound transformation."
Just three months later, in August 1952, Ussachevsky traveled to Bennington, Vermont, at Luening's invitation to present his experiments. There, the two collaborated on various pieces. Luening described the event: "Equipped with earphones and a flute, I began developing my first tape-recorder composition. Both of us were fluent improvisors and the medium fired our imaginations." was entirely composed using custom-built electronic circuits and tape recorders in 1956 (but no synthesizers in the modern sense of the word).
=== USSR ===
In 1929, Nikolai Obukhov invented the "sounding cross" (la croix sonore), comparable to the principle of the theremin. In the 1930s, Nikolai Ananyev invented "sonar", and engineer Alexander Gurov — neoviolena, I. Ilsarov — ilston., and A. Ivanov — .
In 1956 Vyacheslav Mescherin created the , which used theremins, electric harps, electric organs, the first synthesizer in the USSR "Ekvodin", In the mid-1970s, composer Alexander Zatsepin designed an "orchestrolla" – a modification of the mellotron.
The Baltic Soviet Republics also had their own pioneers: in Estonian SSR — Sven Grunberg, in Lithuanian SSR — Gedrus Kupriavicius, in Latvian SSR — Opus and Zodiac. The music program was written by Christopher Strachey.
===Japan===
{{multiple image |direction=horizontal |align=right
| image1 = Yamaha Magna Organ (1935) Console.jpg |width1=114
| image2 = Yamaha Magna Organ (1935) Tone Cabinet.jpg |width2=102
| footer = Yamaha Magna Organ and the designated tone cabinet (1935) After World War II, Japanese composers such as Minao Shibata began to learn of the development of electronic musical instruments in other countries. By the late 1940s, Japanese composers began experimenting with electronic music, and institutional sponsorship enabled them to experiment with advanced equipment. Their infusion of Asian music into the emerging genre would eventually support Japan's popularity in the development of music technology several decades later.
Following the foundation of electronics company Sony in 1946, composers Toru Takemitsu and Minao Shibata independently explored possible uses for electronic technology to produce music. Takemitsu had ideas similar to musique concrète, which he was unaware of, while Shibata foresaw the development of synthesizers and predicted a drastic change in music. Sony began producing popular magnetic tape recorders for government and public use.
The avant-garde collective Jikken Kōbō (Experimental Workshop), founded in 1950, was offered access to emerging audio technology by Sony. The company hired Toru Takemitsu to demonstrate their tape recorders with compositions and performances of electronic tape music. The first electronic tape pieces by the group were "Toraware no Onna" ("Imprisoned Woman") and "Piece B", composed in 1951 by Kuniharu Akiyama. Many of the electroacoustic tape pieces they produced were used as incidental music for radio, film, and theatre. They also held concerts employing a slide show synchronized with a recorded soundtrack. Composers outside of the Jikken Kōbō, such as Yasushi Akutagawa, Saburo Tominaga, and Shirō Fukai, were also experimenting with radiophonic tape music between 1952 and 1953. However, Schaeffer's concept of sound object was not influential among Japanese composers, who were mainly interested in overcoming the restrictions of human performance. This led to several Japanese electroacoustic musicians making use of serialism and twelve-tone techniques,
Modelling the NWDR studio in Cologne, an NHK electronic music studio was established by Mayuzumi in Tokyo in 1954, which became one of the world's leading electronic music facilities. The studio was equipped with technologies such as tone-generating and audio processing equipment, recording and radiophonic equipment, ondes Martenots, Monochords and Melochords, sine-wave oscillators, tape recorders, ring modulators, band-pass filters, and four- and eight-channel mixers. Musicians associated with the studio included Toshiro Mayuzumi, Minao Shibata, Joji Yuasa, Toshi Ichiyanagi, and Toru Takemitsu. The studio's first electronic compositions were completed in 1955, including Mayuzumi's five-minute pieces "Studie I: Music for Sine Wave by Proportion of Prime Number", "Music for Modulated Wave by Proportion of Prime Number" and "Invention for Square Wave and Sawtooth Wave" produced using the studio's various tone-generating capabilities, and Shibata's 20-minute stereo piece "Musique Concrète for Stereophonic Broadcast".
===Mid-to-late 1950s===
The impact of computers continued in 1956. Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson composed Illiac Suite for string quartet, the first complete work of computer-assisted composition using algorithmic composition. "... Hiller postulated that a computer could be taught the rules of a particular style and then called on to compose accordingly." Later developments included the work of Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories, who developed the influential MUSIC I program in 1957, one of the first computer programs to play electronic music. Vocoder technology was also a major development in this early era. In 1956, Stockhausen composed Gesang der Jünglinge, the first major work of the Cologne studio, based on a text from the Book of Daniel. An important technological development of that year was the invention of the Clavivox synthesizer by Raymond Scott with subassembly by Robert Moog.
In 1957, Kid Baltan (Dick Raaymakers) and Tom Dissevelt released their debut album, Song Of The Second Moon, recorded at the Philips studio in the Netherlands. The public remained interested in the new sounds being created around the world, as can be deduced by the inclusion of Varèse's Poème électronique, which was played over four hundred loudspeakers at the Philips Pavilion of the 1958 Brussels World Fair. That same year, Mauricio Kagel, an Argentine composer, composed Transición II. The work was realized at the WDR studio in Cologne. Two musicians performed on the piano, one in the traditional manner, the other playing on the strings, frame, and case. Two other performers used tape to unite the presentation of live sounds with the future of prerecorded materials from later on and its past of recordings made earlier in the performance.
In 1958, Columbia-Princeton developed the RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer, the first programmable synthesizer. Prominent composers such as Vladimir Ussachevsky, Otto Luening, Milton Babbitt, Charles Wuorinen, Halim El-Dabh, Bülent Arel and Mario Davidovsky used the RCA Synthesizer extensively in various compositions. One of the most influential composers associated with the early years of the studio was Egypt's Halim El-Dabh who, after having developed the earliest known electronic tape music in 1944, was Workshop staffer Delia Derbyshire, who is now famous for her 1963 electronic realisation of the iconic Doctor Who theme, composed by Ron Grainer. Other composers of electronic music active in the UK included Ernest Berk (who established his first studio in 1955), Tristram Cary, Hugh Davies, Brian Dennis, George Newson, Daphne Oram and Peter Zinovieff.
During the time of the UNESCO fellowship for studies in electronic music (1958) Israeli composer Josef Tal went on a study tour in the US and Canada. He summarized his conclusions in two articles that he submitted to UNESCO. In 1961, he established the Centre for Electronic Music in Israel at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 1962, Canadian composer Hugh Le Caine arrived in Jerusalem to install his Creative Tape Recorder in the centre. In the 1990s Tal conducted, together with Dr. Shlomo Markel, in cooperation with the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology and the Volkswagen Foundation, a research project ('Talmark') aimed at the development of a novel musical notation system for electronic music.
Milton Babbitt composed his first electronic work using the synthesizer—his Composition for Synthesizer (1961)—which he created using the RCA synthesizer at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center.
Collaborations also occurred across oceans and continents. In 1961, American composer Vladimir Ussachevsky invited Edgar Varèse from France to the Columbia-Princeton Studio (CPEMC). Upon arrival, Varèse embarked upon a revision of his work Déserts. He was assisted by Mario Davidovsky and Bülent Arel.
The intense activity occurring at CPEMC and elsewhere inspired the establishment of the San Francisco Tape Music Center in 1963 by Morton Subotnick, with additional members Pauline Oliveros, Ramon Sender, Anthony Martin, and Terry Riley.
Later, the Center moved to Mills College, directed by Pauline Oliveros, and has since been renamed Center for Contemporary Music.
Pietro Grossi was an Italian pioneer of computer composition and tape music, who first experimented with electronic techniques in the early sixties. Grossi was a cellist and composer, born in Venice in 1917. He founded the S 2F M (Studio de Fonologia Musicale di Firenze) in 1963 to experiment with electronic sound and composition.
Simultaneously in San Francisco, composer Stan Shaff and equipment designer Doug McEachern, presented the first "Audium" concert at San Francisco State College (1962), followed by work at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA, 1963), conceived of as in time, controlled movement of sound in space. Twelve speakers surrounded the audience, and four speakers were mounted on a rotating, mobile-like construction above. In an SFMOMA performance the following year (1964), the San Francisco Chronicle music critic Alfred Frankenstein commented, "the possibilities of the space-sound continuum have seldom been so extensively explored". Through weekly programs (over 4,500 in 40 years), Shaff "sculpts" sound, performing now-digitized spatial works live through 176 speakers.
Jean-Jacques Perrey experimented with Pierre Schaeffer's techniques on tape loops and was among the first to use the recently released Moog synthesizer developed by Robert Moog. With this instrument he composed some works with Gershon Kingsley and solo. A well-known example of the use of Moog's full-sized Moog modular synthesizer is the 1968 Switched-On Bach album by Wendy Carlos, which triggered a craze for synthesizer music. In 1969 David Tudor brought a Moog modular synthesizer and Ampex tape machines to the National Institute of Design in Ahmedabad with the support of the Sarabhai family, forming the foundation of India's first electronic music studio. Here a group of composers Jinraj Joshipura, Gita Sarabhai, SC Sharma, IS Mathur and Atul Desai developed experimental sound compositions between 1969 and 1973.
===Computer music===
Musical melodies were first generated by the computer CSIRAC in Australia in 1950. There were newspaper reports from America and England (early and recently) that computers may have played music earlier, but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports (some of which were obviously speculative). Research has shown that people speculated about computers playing music, possibly because computers would make noises, but there is no evidence that they actually did it.
The world's first computer to play music was CSIRAC, which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard in the 1950s. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played the "Colonel Bogey March" of which no known recordings exist.
However, CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice which is current computer-music practice.
The first music to be performed in England was a performance of the British National Anthem that was programmed by Christopher Strachey on the Ferranti Mark I, late in 1951. Later that year, short extracts of three pieces were recorded there by a BBC outside broadcasting unit: the National Anthem, "Ba, Ba Black Sheep", and "In the Mood" and this is recognised as the earliest recording of a computer to play music. This recording can be heard at this Manchester University site. Researchers at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch declicked and restored this recording in 2016 and the results may be heard on SoundCloud.
Cosey Fanni Tutti's performance art and musical career explored the concept of 'acceptable' music and she went on to explore the use of sound as a means of desire or discomfort.
Wendy Carlos performed selections from her album Switched-On Bach on stage with a synthesizer with the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra; another live performance was with Kurzweil Baroque Ensemble for "Bach at the Beacon" in 1997. In June 2018, Suzanne Ciani released LIVE Quadraphonic, a live album documenting her first solo performance on a Buchla synthesizer in 40 years. It was one of the first quadraphonic vinyl releases in over 30 years.
===Japanese instruments===
In the 1950s, Japanese electronic musical instruments began influencing the international music industry. Ikutaro Kakehashi, who founded Ace Tone in 1960, developed his own version of electronic percussion that had been already popular on the overseas electronic organ. At the 1964 NAMM Show, he revealed it as the R-1 Rhythm Ace, a hand-operated percussion device that played electronic drum sounds manually as the user pushed buttons, in a similar fashion to modern electronic drum pads.
In 1963, Korg released the Donca-Matic DA-20, an electro-mechanical drum machine. Korg released the Donca-Matic DC-11 electronic drum machine in 1966, which they followed with the Korg Mini Pops, which was developed as an option for the Yamaha Electone electric organ. Korg's Stageman and Mini Pops series were notable for "natural metallic percussion" sounds and incorporating controls for drum "breaks and fill-ins." similar to the Seeburg's prior filed in 1964 (See Drum machine#History), which he released as the FR-1 Rhythm Ace drum machine the same year. The first direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at Matsushita (now Panasonic), based in Osaka, Japan. It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests. In 1969, Matsushita released it as the SP-10, and the first in their influential Technics series of turntables.
===Jamaican dub music===
In Jamaica, a form of popular electronic music emerged in the 1960s, dub music, rooted in sound system culture. Dub music was pioneered by studio engineers, such as Sylvan Morris, King Tubby, Errol Thompson, Lee "Scratch" Perry, and Scientist, producing reggae-influenced experimental music with electronic sound technology, in recording studios and at sound system parties. Their experiments included forms of tape-based composition comparable to aspects of musique concrète, an emphasis on repetitive rhythmic structures (often stripped of their harmonic elements) comparable to minimalism, the electronic manipulation of spatiality, the sonic electronic manipulation of pre-recorded musical materials from mass media, deejays toasting over pre-recorded music comparable to live electronic music, and the mixing and scratching of vinyl.
Despite the limited electronic equipment available to dub pioneers such as King Tubby and Lee "Scratch" Perry, their experiments in remix culture were musically cutting-edge. King Tubby, for example, was a sound system proprietor and electronics technician, whose small front-room studio in the Waterhouse ghetto of western Kingston was a key site of dub music creation.
==Late 1960s to early 1980s==
===Rise of popular electronic music===
In the late 1960s, pop and rock musicians, including the Beach Boys and the Beatles, began to use electronic instruments, like the theremin and Mellotron, to supplement and define their sound. The first bands to utilize the Moog synthesizer would be the Doors on Strange Days as well as the Monkees on Pisces, Aquarius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. In his book Electronic and Experimental Music, Thom Holmes recognises the Beatles' 1966 recording "Tomorrow Never Knows" as the song that "ushered in a new era in the use of electronic music in rock and pop music" due to the band's incorporation of tape loops and reversed and speed-manipulated tape sounds.
Also in the late 1960s, the music duos Silver Apples, Beaver and Krause, and experimental rock bands like White Noise, the United States of America, Fifty Foot Hose, and Gong are regarded as pioneers in the electronic rock and electronica genres for their work in melding psychedelic rock with oscillators and synthesizers. The 1969 instrumental "Popcorn" written by Gershon Kingsley for Music To Moog By became a worldwide success due to the 1972 version made by Hot Butter.
The Moog synthesizer was brought to the mainstream in 1968 by Switched-On Bach, a bestselling album of Bach compositions arranged for Moog synthesizer by American composer Wendy Carlos. The album achieved critical and commercial success, winning the 1970 Grammy Awards for Best Classical Album, Best Classical Performance – Instrumental Soloist or Soloists (With or Without Orchestra), and Best Engineered Classical Recording.
In 1969, David Borden formed the world's first synthesizer ensemble called the Mother Mallard's Portable Masterpiece Company in Ithaca, New York.
By the end of the 1960s, the Moog synthesizer took a leading place in the sound of emerging progressive rock with bands including Pink Floyd, Yes, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, and Genesis making them part of their sound. Instrumental prog rock was particularly significant in continental Europe, allowing bands like Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, Cluster, Can, Neu!, and Faust to circumvent the language barrier. Their synthesiser-heavy "krautrock", along with the work of Brian Eno (for a time the keyboard player with Roxy Music), would be a major influence on subsequent electronic rock.
Ambient dub was pioneered by King Tubby and other Jamaican sound artists, using DJ-inspired ambient electronics, complete with drop-outs, echo, equalization and psychedelic electronic effects. It featured layering techniques and incorporated elements of world music, deep basslines and harmonic sounds. Techniques such as a long echo delay were also used. Other notable artists within the genre include Dreadzone, Higher Intelligence Agency, The Orb, Ott, Loop Guru, Woob and Transglobal Underground.
Dub music influenced electronic musical techniques later adopted by hip hop music when Jamaican immigrant DJ Kool Herc in the early 1970s introduced Jamaica's sound system culture and dub music techniques to America. One such technique that became popular in hip hop culture was playing two copies of the same record on two turntables in alternation, extending the b-dancers' favorite section. The turntable eventually went on to become the most visible electronic musical instrument, and occasionally the most virtuosic, in the 1980s and 1990s. The mid-1970s saw the rise of electronic art music musicians such as Jean Michel Jarre, Vangelis, Tomita and Klaus Schulze who were significant influences on the development of new-age music. or Jarre with Oxygène. Between 1977 and 1981, Kraftwerk released albums such as Trans-Europe Express, The Man-Machine and Computer World, which influenced subgenres of electronic music.
In this era, the sound of rock musicians like Mike Oldfield and The Alan Parsons Project (who is credited the first rock song to feature a digital vocoder in 1975, The Raven) used to be arranged and blended with electronic effects and/or music as well, which became much more prominent in the mid-1980s. Jeff Wayne achieved a long-lasting success with his 1978 electronic rock musical version of The War of the Worlds.
Film scores also benefit from the electronic sound. During the 1970s and 1980s, Wendy Carlos composed the score for A Clockwork Orange, The Shining and Tron. In 1977, Gene Page recorded a disco version of the hit theme by John Williams from Steven Spielberg film Close Encounters of the Third Kind. Page's version peaked on the R&B chart at #30. The score of 1978 film Midnight Express composed by Italian synth-pioneer Giorgio Moroder won the Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1979, as did it again in 1981 the score by Vangelis for Chariots of Fire. After the arrival of punk rock, a form of basic electronic rock emerged, increasingly using new digital technology to replace other instruments. The American duo Suicide, who arose from the punk scene in New York, utilized drum machines and synthesizers in a hybrid between electronics and punk on their eponymous 1977 album.
Synth-pop pioneering bands which enjoyed success for years included Ultravox with their 1977 track "Hiroshima Mon Amour" on Ha!-Ha!-Ha!, Yellow Magic Orchestra with their self-titled album (1978), The Buggles with their prominent 1979 debut single Video Killed the Radio Star, Gary Numan with his solo debut album The Pleasure Principle and single Cars in 1979, Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark with their 1979 single Electricity featured on their eponymous debut album, Depeche Mode with their first single Dreaming of Me recorded in 1980 and released in 1981 album Speak & Spell, A Flock of Seagulls with their 1981 single Talking, New Order with Ceremony in 1981, and The Human League with their 1981 hit Don't You Want Me from their third album Dare.
The definition of MIDI and the development of digital audio made the development of purely electronic sounds much easier, with audio engineers, producers and composers exploring frequently the possibilities of virtually every new model of electronic sound equipment launched by manufacturers. Synth-pop sometimes used synthesizers to replace all other instruments, but it was more common that bands had one or more keyboardists in their line-ups along with guitarists, bassists, and/or drummers. These developments led to the growth of synth-pop, which after it was adopted by the New Romantic movement, allowed synthesizers to dominate the pop and rock music of the early 1980s until the style began to fall from popularity in the mid-to-end of the decade. by Van Halen and 1986 The Final Countdown by Europe, which feature synths prominently.
===Proliferation of electronic music research institutions===
(EMS), formerly known as Electroacoustic Music in Sweden, is the Swedish national centre for electronic music and sound art. The research organisation started in 1964 and is based in Stockholm.
STEIM (1969-2021) was a center for research and development of new musical instruments in the electronic performing arts, located in Amsterdam, Netherlands. It was founded by Misha Mengelberg, Louis Andriessen, Peter Schat, Dick Raaymakers, , Reinbert de Leeuw, and Konrad Boehmer. This group of Dutch composers had fought for the reformation of Amsterdam's feudal music structures; they insisted on Bruno Maderna's appointment as musical director of the Concertgebouw Orchestra and enforced the first public fundings for experimental and improvised electronic music in the Netherlands. From 1981-2008, Michel Waisvisz was artistic director, and his live-electronic instruments like the Cracklebox or The Hands inspired international artists to work at STEIM which entertained a residency program since 1992.
IRCAM in Paris became a major center for computer music research and realization and development of the Sogitec 4X computer system, featuring then revolutionary real-time digital signal processing. Pierre Boulez's Répons (1981) for 24 musicians and 6 soloists used the 4X to transform and route soloists to a loudspeaker system.
Barry Vercoe describes one of his experiences with early computer sounds:
===Keyboard synthesizers===
Released in 1970 by Moog Music, the Mini-Moog was among the first widely available, portable, and relatively affordable synthesizers. It became once the most widely used synthesizer at that time in both popular and electronic art music.
Patrick Gleeson, playing live with Herbie Hancock at the beginning of the 1970s, pioneered the use of synthesizers in a touring context, where they were subject to stresses the early machines were not designed for.
In 1974, the WDR studio in Cologne acquired an EMS Synthi 100 synthesizer, which many composers used to produce notable electronic works—including Rolf Gehlhaar's Fünf deutsche Tänze (1975), Karlheinz Stockhausen's Sirius (1975–1976), and John McGuire's Pulse Music III (1978).
Thanks to miniaturization of electronics in the 1970s, by the start of the 1980s keyboard synthesizers, became lighter and affordable, integrating into a single slim unit all the necessary audio synthesis electronics and the piano-style keyboard itself, in sharp contrast with the bulky machinery and "cable spaguetty" employed along with the 1960s and 1970s. First, with analog synthesizers, the trend followed with digital synthesizers and samplers as well (see below).
===Digital synthesizers===
In 1975, the Japanese company Yamaha licensed the algorithms for frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis) from John Chowning, who had experimented with it at Stanford University since 1971. Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the "key scaling" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during frequency modulation.
In 1980, Yamaha eventually released the first FM digital synthesizer, the Yamaha GS-1, but at an expensive price. In 1983, Yamaha introduced the first stand-alone digital synthesizer, the DX7, which also used FM synthesis and would become one of the best-selling synthesizers of all time. the Synclavier I using FM synthesis, re-licensed from Yamaha, and sold mostly to universities, proved to be highly influential among both electronic music composers and music producers, including Mike Thorne, an early adopter from the commercial world, due to its versatility, its cutting-edge technology, and distinctive sounds.
The first polyphonic digital sampling synthesizer was the Australian-produced Fairlight CMI, first available in 1979. These early sampling synthesizers used wavetable sample-based synthesis.
===Birth of MIDI===
In 1980, a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface that new instruments could use to communicate control instructions with other instruments and computers. This standard was dubbed Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) and resulted from a collaboration between leading manufacturers, initially Sequential Circuits, Oberheim, Roland—and later, other participants that included Yamaha, Korg, and Kawai. A paper was authored by Dave Smith of Sequential Circuits and proposed to the Audio Engineering Society in 1981. Then, in August 1983, the MIDI Specification 1.0 was finalized.
MIDI technology allows a single keystroke, control wheel motion, pedal movement, or command from a microcomputer to activate every device in the studio remotely and synchrony, with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer.
MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals. Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios via sampling and sampled-ROM-based instruments.
Miller Puckette developed graphic signal-processing software for 4X called Max (after Max Mathews) and later ported it to Macintosh (with Dave Zicarelli extending it for Opcode) for real-time MIDI control, bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background.
===Sequencers and drum machines===
The early 1980s saw the rise of bass synthesizers, the most influential being the Roland TB-303, a bass synthesizer and sequencer released in late 1981 that later became a fixture in electronic dance music, particularly acid house. Music sequencers began being used around the mid 20th century, and Tomita's albums in mid-1970s being later examples. In 1978, Yellow Magic Orchestra were using computer-based technology in conjunction with a synthesiser to produce popular music, making their early use of the microprocessor-based Roland MC-8 Microcomposer sequencer.
Drum machines, also known as rhythm machines, also began being used around the late-1950s, with a later example being Osamu Kitajima's progressive rock album Benzaiten (1974), which used a rhythm machine along with electronic drums and a synthesizer.
===Chiptunes===
The characteristic lo-fi sound of chip music was initially the result of early computer's sound chips and sound cards' technical limitations; however, the sound has since become sought after in its own right.
Common cheap popular sound chips of the first home computers of the 1980s include the SID of the Commodore 64 and General Instrument AY series and clones (like the Yamaha YM2149) used in the ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, MSX compatibles and Atari ST models, among others.
==Late 1980s to 1990s==
=== Rise of dance music ===
Synth-pop continued into the late 1980s, with a format that moved closer to dance music, including the work of acts such as British duos Pet Shop Boys, Erasure and The Communards, achieving success along much of the 1990s.
The trend has continued to the present day with modern nightclubs worldwide regularly playing electronic dance music (EDM). Today, electronic dance music has radio stations, websites, and publications like Mixmag dedicated solely to the genre. Despite the industry's attempt to create a specific EDM brand, the initialism remains in use as an umbrella term for multiple genres, including dance-pop, house, techno, electro, and trance, as well as their respective subgenres. Moreover, the genre has found commercial and cultural significance in the United States and North America, thanks to the wildly popular big room house/EDM sound that has been incorporated into the U.S. pop music and the rise of large-scale commercial raves such as Electric Daisy Carnival, Tomorrowland and Ultra Music Festival.
===Electronica===
On the other hand, a broad group of electronic-based music styles intended for listening rather than strictly for dancing became known under the "electronica" umbrella which was also a music scene in the early 1990s in the United Kingdom. has been used to refer to a wave of groups with roots in independent rock who embraced electronic elements (such as synthesizers, samplers, drum machines, and computer programs) and influences such as early electronic composition, krautrock, synth-pop, and dance music. Recordings are commonly made on laptops using digital audio workstations. Such tools provide viable and cost-effective alternatives to typical hardware-based production studios, and thanks to advances in microprocessor technology, it is now possible to create high-quality music using little more than a single laptop computer. Such advances have democratized music creation, leading to a massive increase in the amount of home-produced electronic music available to the general public via the internet. Software-based instruments and effect units (so-called "plugins") can be incorporated in a computer-based studio using the VST platform. Some of these instruments are more or less exact replicas of existing hardware (such as the Roland D-50, ARP Odyssey, Yamaha DX7, or Korg M1).
===Circuit bending===
Circuit bending is the modification of battery-powered toys and synthesizers to create new unintended sound effects. It was pioneered by Reed Ghazala in the 1960s and Reed coined the name "circuit bending" in 1992.
===Modular synth revival===
Following the circuit bending culture, musicians also began to build their own modular synthesizers, causing a renewed interest in the early 1960s designs. Eurorack became a popular system.
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9,514 |
Edvard Grieg
|
Edvard Hagerup Grieg ( , ; 15 June 18434 September 1907) was a Norwegian composer and pianist. He is widely considered one of the leading Romantic era composers, and his music is part of the standard classical repertoire worldwide. His use of Norwegian folk music in his own compositions brought the music of Norway to fame, as well as helping to develop a national identity, much as Jean Sibelius did in Finland and Bedřich Smetana in Bohemia.
Grieg is the most celebrated person from the city of Bergen, with numerous statues that depict his image and many cultural entities named after him: the city's largest concert building (Grieg Hall), its most advanced music school (Grieg Academy) and its professional choir (Edvard Grieg Kor). The Edvard Grieg Museum at Grieg's former home, Troldhaugen, is dedicated to his legacy.
==Background==
Edvard Hagerup Grieg was born in Bergen, Norway. His parents were Alexander Grieg (1806–1875), a merchant and the British Vice-Consul in Bergen, and Gesine Judithe Hagerup (1814–1875), a music teacher and daughter of solicitor and politician Edvard Hagerup. The family name, originally spelled Greig, is associated with the Scottish Clann Ghriogair (Clan Gregor). After the Battle of Culloden in Scotland in 1746, Grieg's great-grandfather, Alexander Greig (1739–1803), travelled widely before settling in Norway about 1770 and establishing business interests in Bergen. Grieg's paternal great-great-grandparents, John (1702–1774) and Anne (1704–1784), are buried in the abandoned churchyard of the ruined Church of St Ethernan in Rathen, Aberdeenshire, Scotland.
Edvard Grieg was raised in a musical family. His mother was his first piano teacher and taught him to play when he was age six. He studied in several schools, including Tanks Upper Secondary School.
During the summer of 1858, Grieg met the eminent Norwegian violinist Ole Bull, who was a family friend; Bull's brother was married to Grieg's aunt. Bull recognized the 15-year-old boy's talent and persuaded his parents to send him to the Leipzig Conservatory,
Grieg enrolled in the conservatory, concentrating on piano, and enjoyed the many concerts and recitals given in Leipzig. He disliked the discipline of the conservatory course of study. An exception was the organ, which was mandatory for piano students. About his study in the conservatory, he wrote to his biographer, Aimar Grønvold, in 1881: "I must admit, unlike Svendsen, that I left Leipzig Conservatory just as stupid as I entered it. Naturally, I did learn something there, but my individuality was still a closed book to me."
During the spring of 1860, he survived two life-threatening lung diseases, pleurisy and tuberculosis. Throughout his life, Grieg's health was impaired by a destroyed left lung and considerable deformity of his thoracic spine. He suffered from numerous respiratory infections, and ultimately developed combined lung and heart failure. Grieg was admitted many times to spas and sanatoria both in Norway and abroad. Several of his doctors became his friends.
==Career==
During 1861, Grieg made his debut as a concert pianist in Karlshamn, Sweden. In 1862, he finished his studies in Leipzig and had his first concert in his hometown, where his program included Beethoven's Pathétique sonata.
In 1863, Grieg went to Copenhagen, Denmark, and stayed there for three years. He met the Danish composers J. P. E. Hartmann and Niels Gade. He also met his fellow Norwegian composer Rikard Nordraak (composer of the Norwegian national anthem), who became a good friend and source of inspiration. Nordraak died in 1866, and Grieg composed a funeral march in his honor.
On 11 June 1867, Grieg married his first cousin, Nina Hagerup (1845–1935), a lyric soprano. The next year, their only child, Alexandra, was born. Alexandra died in 1869 from meningitis. During the summer of 1868, Grieg wrote his Piano Concerto in A minor while on holiday in Denmark. Edmund Neupert gave the concerto its premiere performance on 3 April 1869 at the Casino Theatre in Copenhagen. Grieg himself was unable to be there due to conducting commitments in Christiania (now Oslo).
During 1868, Franz Liszt, who had not yet met Grieg, wrote a testimonial for him to the Norwegian Ministry of Education, which resulted in Grieg's obtaining a travel grant. The two men met in Rome in 1870. During Grieg's first visit, they examined Grieg's Violin Sonata No. 1, which pleased Liszt greatly. On his second visit in April, Grieg brought with him the manuscript of his Piano Concerto, which Liszt proceeded to sightread (including the orchestral arrangement). Liszt's rendition greatly impressed his audience, although Grieg said gently to him that he played the first movement too quickly. Liszt also gave Grieg some advice on orchestration (for example, to give the melody of the second theme in the first movement to a solo trumpet, which Grieg himself chose not to accept).
In the 1870s, he became friends with poet Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, who shared his interests in Norwegian self-government. Grieg set several of his poems to music, including Landkjenning and Sigurd Jorsalfar. Eventually, they decided on an opera based on King Olav Trygvason, but a dispute as to whether the music or lyrics should be created first led to Grieg being diverted to working on incidental music for Henrik Ibsen's play Peer Gynt, which naturally offended Bjørnson. Eventually, their friendship resumed.
The incidental music composed for Peer Gynt at the request of the author contributed to its success and separately became some of the composer's most familiar music arranged as orchestral suites.
Grieg had close ties with the Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra (Harmonien), and later became music director of the orchestra from 1880 to 1882. In 1888, Grieg met Tchaikovsky in Leipzig. Grieg was impressed by Tchaikovsky, who thought very highly of Grieg's music, praising its beauty, originality and warmth.
On 6 December 1897, Grieg and his wife performed some of his music at a private concert at Windsor Castle for Queen Victoria and her court.
Grieg was awarded two honorary doctorates, first by the University of Cambridge in 1894 and the next from the University of Oxford in 1906.
===Later years===
The Norwegian government provided Grieg with a pension as he reached retirement age. During the spring of 1903, Grieg made nine 78-rpm gramophone recordings of his piano music in Paris. All of these discs have been reissued on both LPs and CDs, despite limited fidelity. Grieg recorded player piano music rolls for the Hupfeld Phonola piano-player system and Welte-Mignon reproducing system, all of which survive and can be heard today. He also worked with the Aeolian Company for its 'Autograph Metrostyle' piano roll series wherein he indicated the tempo mapping for many of his pieces.
In 1899, Grieg cancelled his concerts in France in protest of the Dreyfus affair, an antisemitic scandal that was roiling French politics at the time. Regarding this scandal, Grieg had written that he hoped that the French might "Soon return to the spirit of 1789, when the French republic declared that it would defend basic human rights." As a result of his statements concerning the affair, he became the target of much French hate mail that day.
During 1906, he met the composer and pianist Percy Grainger in London. Grainger was a great admirer of Grieg's music and a strong empathy was quickly established. In a 1907 interview, Grieg stated: "I have written Norwegian Peasant Dances that no one in my country can play, and here comes this Australian who plays them as they ought to be played! He is a genius that we Scandinavians cannot do other than love."
Edvard Grieg died at the Municipal Hospital in Bergen, Norway on 4 September 1907 at age 64 from heart failure. He had suffered a long period of illness. His last words were "Well, if it must be so."
The funeral drew between 30,000 and 40,000 people to the streets of his home town to honor him. Obeying his wish, his own Funeral March in Memory of Rikard Nordraak was played with orchestration by his friend Johan Halvorsen, who had married Grieg's niece. In addition, the Funeral March movement from Chopin's Piano Sonata No. 2 was played. Grieg was cremated in the first Norwegian crematorium opened in Bergen just that year, and his ashes were entombed in a mountain crypt near his house, Troldhaugen. After the death of his wife, her ashes were placed alongside his.
A century after his death, Grieg's legacy extends beyond the field of music. There is a large sculpture of Grieg in Seattle, while one of the largest hotels in Bergen (his hometown) is named Quality Hotel Edvard Grieg and a large crater on the planet Mercury is named after Grieg.
==Music==
Some of Grieg's early works include a symphony (which he later suppressed) and a piano sonata. He wrote three violin sonatas and a cello sonata.
Grieg's Holberg Suite was originally written for the piano, and later arranged by the composer for string orchestra. Grieg wrote songs in which he set lyrics by poets Heinrich Heine, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Henrik Ibsen, Hans Christian Andersen, Rudyard Kipling and others. Russian composer Nikolai Myaskovsky used a theme by Grieg for the variations with which he closed his Third String Quartet. Norwegian pianist Eva Knardahl recorded the composer's complete piano music on 13 LPs for BIS Records from 1977 to 1980. The recordings were reissued during 2006 on 12 compact discs, also on BIS Records. Grieg himself recorded many of these piano works before his death in 1907. Pianist Bertha Tapper edited Grieg's piano works for publication in America by Oliver Ditson.
==List of selected works==
Piano Sonata in E minor, Op. 7
Violin Sonata No. 1 in F major, Op. 8
Concert Overture In Autumn, Op. 11
Violin Sonata No. 2 in G major, Op. 13
Piano Concerto in A minor, Op. 16
Incidental music to Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson's play Sigurd Jorsalfar, Op. 22
Incidental music to Henrik Ibsen's play Peer Gynt, Op. 23
Ballade in the Form of Variations on a Norwegian Folk Song in G minor, Op. 24
String Quartet in G minor, Op. 27
Two Elegiac Melodies for strings or piano, Op. 34
Four Norwegian Dances for piano four hands, Op. 35 (better known in orchestrations by Hans Sitt and others)
Cello Sonata in A minor, Op. 36
Holberg Suite for piano, later arr. for string orchestra, Op. 40
Violin Sonata No. 3 in C minor, Op. 45
Peer Gynt Suite No. 1, Op. 46
Lyric Suite for orchestra, Op. 54 (orchestration of four Lyric Pieces)
Peer Gynt Suite No. 2, Op. 55
Four Symphonic Dances for piano, later arr. for orchestra, Op. 64
Haugtussa Song Cycle after Arne Garborg, Op. 67
Sixty-six Lyric Pieces for piano in ten books, Opp. 12, 38, 43, 47, 54, 57, 62, 65, 68 and 71, including: Arietta, To the Spring, Little Bird, Butterfly, Notturno, Wedding Day at Troldhaugen, At Your Feet, Longing For Home, March of the Dwarfs, Poème érotique and Gone.
|
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9,515 |
Emancipation Proclamation
|
The Emancipation Proclamation, officially Proclamation 95, was a presidential proclamation and executive order issued by United States President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the American Civil War. The Proclamation had the effect of changing the legal status of more than 3.5 million enslaved African Americans in the secessionist Confederate states from enslaved to free. As soon as slaves escaped the control of their enslavers, either by fleeing to Union lines or through the advance of federal troops, they were permanently free. In addition, the Proclamation allowed for former slaves to "be received into the armed service of the United States". The Emancipation Proclamation played a significant part in the end of slavery in the United States.
On September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. Its third paragraph begins:
On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the final Emancipation Proclamation. It stated:
Lincoln then listed the ten states still in rebellion, excluding parts of states under Union control, and continued:
The proclamation provided that the executive branch, including the Army and Navy, "will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons". Even though it excluded states not in rebellion, as well as parts of Louisiana and Virginia under Union control, it still applied to more than 3.5 million of the 4 million enslaved people in the country. Around 25,000 to 75,000 were immediately emancipated in those regions of the Confederacy where the US Army was already in place. It could not be enforced in the areas still in rebellion, The Proclamation lifted the spirits of African Americans, both free and enslaved. It encouraged many to escape from slavery and flee toward Union lines, where many joined the Union Army. The Emancipation Proclamation became a historic document because it "would redefine the Civil War, turning it [for the North] from a struggle [solely] to preserve the Union to one [also] focused on ending slavery, and set a decisive course for how the nation would be reshaped after that historic conflict."
The Emancipation Proclamation was never challenged in court. To ensure the abolition of slavery in all of the U.S., Lincoln also insisted that Reconstruction plans for Southern states require them to enact laws abolishing slavery (which occurred during the war in Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana); Lincoln encouraged border states to adopt abolition (which occurred during the war in Maryland, Missouri, and West Virginia) and pushed for passage of the 13th Amendment. The Senate passed the 13th Amendment by the necessary two-thirds vote on April 8, 1864; the House of Representatives did so on January 31, 1865; and the required three-fourths of the states ratified it on December 6, 1865. The amendment made slavery and involuntary servitude unconstitutional, "except as a punishment for a crime".
==Authority==
The United States Constitution of 1787 did not use the word "slavery" but included several provisions about unfree persons. The Three-Fifths Compromise (in Article I, Section 2) allocated congressional representation based "on the whole Number of free Persons" and "three-fifths of all other Persons". Under the Fugitive Slave Clause (Article IV, Section 2), "No person held to Service or Labour in one State" would become legally free by escaping to another. Article I, Section 9 allowed Congress to pass legislation to outlaw the "Importation of Persons", but not until 1808. However, for purposes of the Fifth Amendment—which states, "No person shall ... be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law"—slaves were understood to be property. Although abolitionists used the Fifth Amendment to argue against slavery, it was made part of the legal basis for treating slaves as property by Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857). Slavery was also supported in law and in practice by a pervasive culture of white supremacy. Nonetheless, between 1777 and 1804, every Northern state provided for the immediate or gradual abolition of slavery. No Southern state did so, and the slave population of the South continued to grow, peaking at almost four million people at the beginning of the Civil War, when most slave states sought to break away from the United States.
Lincoln accepted the conventional interpretation of the Constitution before 1865 as limiting the federal government's power to end slavery in peacetime and committing the issue to individual states. During the Civil War, however, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation under his authority as "Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy" under Article II, section 2 of the United States Constitution. As such, in the Emancipation Proclamation he claimed to have the authority to free persons held as slaves in those states that were in rebellion "as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said rebellion". In the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln said "attention is hereby called" to two 1862 statutes, namely "An Act to Make an Additional Article of War" and the Confiscation Act of 1862, but he didn't mention any statute in the Final Emancipation Proclamation and, in any event, the source of his authority to issue the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation and the Final Emancipation Proclamation was his "joint capacity as President and Commander-in-Chief". Lincoln therefore did not have such authority over the four border slave-holding states that were not in rebellion—Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland and Delaware—so those states were not named in the Proclamation. The fifth border jurisdiction, West Virginia, where slavery remained legal but was in the process of being abolished, was, in January 1863, still part of the legally recognized "reorganized" state of Virginia, based in Alexandria, which was in the Union (as opposed to the Confederate state of Virginia, based in Richmond).
==Coverage==
The Emancipation Proclamation applied in the ten states that were still in rebellion on January 1, 1863, but it did not cover the nearly 500,000 slaves in the slaveholding border states (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware) or in parts of Virginia and Louisiana that were no longer in rebellion. Those slaves were freed by later state and federal actions. The areas covered were "Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the Parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terrebonne, Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty-eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Ann, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth)."
The state of Tennessee had already mostly returned to Union control, under a recognized Union government, so it was not named and was exempted. Virginia was named, but exemptions were specified for the 48 counties then in the process of forming the new state of West Virginia, and seven additional counties and two cities in the Union-controlled Tidewater region of Virginia. Also specifically exempted were New Orleans and 13 named parishes of Louisiana, which were mostly under federal control at the time of the Emancipation Proclamation. These exemptions left unemancipated an additional 300,000 slaves.
The Emancipation Proclamation has been ridiculed, notably by Richard Hofstadter, who wrote that it "had all the moral grandeur of a bill of lading" and "declared free all slaves ... precisely where its effect could not reach". Disagreeing with Hofstadter, William W. Freehling wrote that Lincoln's asserting his power as Commander-in-Chief to issue the proclamation "reads not like an entrepreneur's bill for past services but like a warrior's brandishing of a new weapon".
The Emancipation Proclamation resulted in the emancipation of a substantial percentage of the slaves in the Confederate states as the Union armies advanced through the South and slaves escaped to Union lines, or slave owners fled, leaving slaves behind. The Emancipation Proclamation also committed the Union to ending slavery in addition to preserving the Union.
Although the Emancipation Proclamation resulted in the gradual freeing of most slaves, it did not make slavery illegal. Of the states that were exempted from the Emancipation Proclamation, Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee, and West Virginia prohibited slavery before the war ended. In 1863, President Lincoln proposed a moderate plan for the Reconstruction of the captured Confederate State of Louisiana. Only 10 percent of the state's electorate had to take the loyalty oath. The state was also required to accept the Emancipation Proclamation and abolish slavery in its new constitution. By December 1864, the Lincoln plan abolishing slavery had been enacted not only in Louisiana, but also in Arkansas and Tennessee. In Kentucky, Union Army commanders relied on the proclamation's offer of freedom to slaves who enrolled in the Army and provided freedom for an enrollee's entire family; for this and other reasons, the number of slaves in the state fell by more than 70 percent during the war. However, in Delaware and Kentucky, slavery continued to be legal until December 18, 1865, when the Thirteenth Amendment went into effect.
==Background==
===Military action prior to emancipation===
The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 required individuals to return runaway slaves to their owners. During the war, in May 1861, Union general Benjamin Butler declared that three slaves who escaped to Union lines were contraband of war, and accordingly he refused to return them, saying to a man who sought their return, "I am under no constitutional obligations to a foreign country, which Virginia now claims to be". On May 30, after a cabinet meeting called by President Lincoln, "Simon Cameron, the secretary of war, telegraphed Butler to inform him that his contraband policy 'is approved.'" This decision was controversial because it could have been taken to imply recognition of the Confederacy as a separate, independent sovereign state under international law, a notion that Lincoln steadfastly denied. In addition, as contraband, these people were legally designated as "property" when they crossed Union lines and their ultimate status was uncertain.
===Governmental action toward emancipation===
Image:Emancipation proclamation.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln by Francis Bicknell Carpenter (1864) |alt=A dark-haired, bearded, middle-aged man holding documents is seated among seven other men.]]
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In December 1861, Lincoln sent his first annual message to Congress (the State of the Union Address, but then typically given in writing and not referred to as such). In it he praised the free labor system for respecting human rights over property rights; he endorsed legislation to address the status of contraband slaves and slaves in loyal states, possibly through buying their freedom with federal money; and he endorsed federal funding of voluntary colonization. In January 1862, Thaddeus Stevens, the Republican leader in the House, called for total war against the rebellion to include emancipation of slaves, arguing that emancipation, by forcing the loss of enslaved labor, would ruin the rebel economy. On March 13, 1862, Congress approved an Act Prohibiting the Return of Slaves, which prohibited "All officers or persons in the military or naval service of the United States" from returning fugitive slaves to their owners. Pursuant to a law signed by Lincoln, slavery was abolished in the District of Columbia on April 16, 1862, and owners were compensated.
On June 19, 1862, Congress prohibited slavery in all current and future United States territories (though not in the states), and President Lincoln quickly signed the legislation. This act effectively repudiated the 1857 opinion of the Supreme Court of the United States in the Dred Scott case that Congress was powerless to regulate slavery in U.S. territories. It also rejected the notion of popular sovereignty that had been advanced by Stephen A. Douglas as a solution to the slavery controversy, while completing the effort first legislatively proposed by Thomas Jefferson in 1784 to confine slavery within the borders of existing states.
On August 6, 1861, the First Confiscation Act freed the slaves who were employed "against the Government and lawful authority of the United States." On July 17, 1862, the Second Confiscation Act freed the slaves "within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by forces of the United States." The Second Confiscation Act, unlike the First Confiscation Act, explicitly provided that all slaves covered by it would be permanently freed, stating in section 10 that "all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the government of the United States, or who shall in any way give aid or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and taking refuge within the lines of the army; and all slaves captured from such persons or deserted by them and coming under the control of the government of the United States; and all slaves of such person found on [or] being within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the United States, shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude, and not again held as slaves." However, Lincoln's position continued to be that, although Congress lacked the power to free the slaves in rebel-held states, he, as commander in chief, could do so if he deemed it a proper military measure. By this time, in the summer of 1862, Lincoln had drafted the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which he issued on September 22, 1862. It declared that, on January 1, 1863, he would free the slaves in states still in rebellion. Lincoln responded in his open letter to Horace Greeley of August 22, 1862:
Lincoln scholar Harold Holzer wrote about Lincoln's letter: "Unknown to Greeley, Lincoln composed this after he had already drafted a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which he had determined to issue after the next Union military victory. Therefore, this letter, was in truth, an attempt to position the impending announcement in terms of saving the Union, not freeing slaves as a humanitarian gesture. It was one of Lincoln's most skillful public relations efforts, even if it has cast longstanding doubt on his sincerity as a liberator." Historian Richard Striner argues that "for years" Lincoln's letter has been misread as "Lincoln only wanted to save the Union." However, within the context of Lincoln's entire career and pronouncements on slavery this interpretation is wrong, according to Striner. Rather, Lincoln was softening the strong Northern white supremacist opposition to his imminent emancipation by tying it to the cause of the Union. This opposition would fight for the Union but not to end slavery, so Lincoln gave them the means and motivation to do both, at the same time. Each of these envoys carried with him a letter from Lincoln stating that if the people of their state desired "to avoid the unsatisfactory" terms of the Final Emancipation Proclamation "and to have peace again upon the old terms" (i.e., with slavery intact), they should rally "the largest number of the people possible" to vote in "elections of members to the Congress of the United States ... friendly to their object". Later, in his Annual Message to Congress of December 1, 1862, Lincoln proposed an amendment to the U.S. Constitution providing that any state that abolished slavery before January 1, 1900, would receive compensation from the United States in the form of interest-bearing U.S. bonds. Adoption of this amendment, in theory, could have ended the war without ever permanently ending slavery, because the amendment provided, "Any State having received bonds ... and afterwards reintroducing or tolerating slavery therein, shall refund to the United States the bonds so received, or the value thereof, and all interest paid thereon".
In his 2014 book, Lincoln's Gamble, journalist and historian Todd Brewster asserted that Lincoln's desire to reassert the saving of the Union as his sole war goal was, in fact, crucial to his claim of legal authority for emancipation. Since slavery was protected by the Constitution, the only way that he could free the slaves was as a tactic of war—not as the mission itself. But that carried the risk that when the war ended, so would the justification for freeing the slaves. Late in 1862, Lincoln asked his Attorney General, Edward Bates, for an opinion as to whether slaves freed through a war-related proclamation of emancipation could be re-enslaved once the war was over. Bates had to work through the language of the Dred Scott decision to arrive at an answer, but he finally concluded that they could indeed remain free. Still, a complete end to slavery would require a constitutional amendment.
Conflicting advice as to whether to free the slaves was presented to Lincoln in public and private. Thomas Nast, a cartoon artist during the Civil War and the late 1800s considered "Father of the American Cartoon", composed many works, including a two-sided spread that showed the transition from slavery into civilization after President Lincoln signed the Proclamation. Nast believed in equal opportunity and equality for all people, including enslaved Africans or free blacks. A mass rally in Chicago on September 7, 1862, demanded immediate and universal emancipation of slaves. A delegation headed by William W. Patton met the president at the White House on September 13. Lincoln had declared in peacetime that he had no constitutional authority to free the slaves. Even used as a war power, emancipation was a risky political act. Public opinion as a whole was against it. There would be strong opposition among Copperhead Democrats and an uncertain reaction from loyal border states. Delaware and Maryland already had a high percentage of free blacks: 91.2% and 49.7%, respectively, in 1860.
==Drafting and issuance of the proclamation==
Lincoln first discussed the proclamation with his cabinet in July 1862. He drafted his preliminary proclamation and read it to Secretary of State William Seward and Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, on July 13. Seward and Welles were at first speechless, then Seward referred to possible anarchy throughout the South and resulting foreign intervention; Welles apparently said nothing. On July 22, Lincoln presented it to his entire cabinet as something he had determined to do and he asked their opinion on wording. Although Secretary of War Edwin Stanton supported it, Seward advised Lincoln to issue the proclamation after a major Union victory, or else it would appear as if the Union was giving "its last shriek of retreat". Walter Stahr, however, writes, "There are contemporary sources, however, that suggest others were involved in the decision to delay", and Stahr quotes them.
In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam gave Lincoln the victory he needed to issue the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. In the battle, though the Union suffered heavier losses than the Confederates and General McClellan allowed the escape of Robert E. Lee's retreating troops, Union forces turned back a Confederate invasion of Maryland, eliminating more than a quarter of Lee's army in the process. This marked a turning point in the Civil War.
On September 22, 1862, five days after Antietam, and while residing at the Soldier's Home, Lincoln called his cabinet into session and issued the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. According to Civil War historian James M. McPherson, Lincoln told cabinet members, "I made a solemn vow before God, that if General Lee was driven back from Pennsylvania, I would crown the result by the declaration of freedom to the slaves." Lincoln had first shown an early draft of the proclamation to Vice President Hannibal Hamlin, an ardent abolitionist, who was more often kept in the dark on presidential decisions. Lincoln issued the final proclamation, as he had promised in the preliminary proclamation, on January 1, 1863. Although implicitly granted authority by Congress, Lincoln used his powers as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy to issue the proclamation "as a necessary war measure." Therefore, it was not the equivalent of a statute enacted by Congress or a constitutional amendment, because Lincoln or a subsequent president could revoke it. One week after issuing the final Proclamation, Lincoln wrote to Major General John McClernand: "After the commencement of hostilities I struggled nearly a year and a half to get along without touching the 'institution'; and when finally I conditionally determined to touch it, I gave a hundred days fair notice of my purpose, to all the States and people, within which time they could have turned it wholly aside, by simply again becoming good citizens of the United States. They chose to disregard it, and I made the peremptory proclamation on what appeared to me to be a military necessity. And being made, it must stand". Lincoln continued, however, that the states included in the proclamation could "adopt systems of apprenticeship for the colored people, conforming substantially to the most approved plans of gradual emancipation; and ... they may be nearly as well off, in this respect, as if the present trouble had not occurred". He concluded by asking McClernand not to "make this letter public".
Initially, the Emancipation Proclamation effectively freed only a small percentage of the slaves, namely those who were behind Union lines in areas not exempted. Most slaves were still behind Confederate lines or in exempted Union-occupied areas. Secretary of State William H. Seward commented, "We show our sympathy with slavery by emancipating slaves where we cannot reach them and holding them in bondage where we can set them free." Had any slave state ended its secession attempt before January 1, 1863, it could have kept slavery, at least temporarily. The Proclamation freed the slaves only in areas of the South that were still in rebellion on January 1, 1863. But as the Union army advanced into the South, slaves fled to behind its lines, and "[s]hortly after issuing the Emancipation Proclamation, the Lincoln administration lifted the ban on enticing slaves into Union lines." These events contributed to the destruction of slavery.
The Emancipation Proclamation also allowed for the enrollment of freed slaves into the United States military. During the war nearly 200,000 black men, most of them ex-slaves, joined the Union Army. Their contributions were significant in winning the war. The Confederacy did not allow slaves in their army as soldiers until the last month before its defeat.
Though the counties of Virginia that were soon to form West Virginia were specifically exempted from the Proclamation (Jefferson County being the only exception), a condition of the state's admittance to the Union was that its constitution provide for the gradual abolition of slavery (an immediate emancipation of all slaves was also adopted there in early 1865). Slaves in the border states of Maryland and Missouri were also emancipated by separate state action before the Civil War ended. In Maryland, a new state constitution abolishing slavery in the state went into effect on November 1, 1864. The Union-occupied counties of eastern Virginia and parishes of Louisiana, which had been exempted from the Proclamation, both adopted state constitutions that abolished slavery in April 1864. In early 1865, Tennessee adopted an amendment to its constitution prohibiting slavery.
==Implementation==
The Proclamation was issued in a preliminary version and a final version. The former, issued on September 22, 1862, was a preliminary announcement outlining the intent of the latter, which took effect 100 days later on January 1, 1863, during the second year of the Civil War. The preliminary Emancipation Proclamation was Abraham Lincoln's declaration that all slaves would be permanently freed in all areas of the Confederacy that were still in rebellion on January 1, 1863. The ten affected states were individually named in the final Emancipation Proclamation (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina). Not included were the Union slave states of Maryland, Delaware, Missouri and Kentucky. Also not named was the state of Tennessee, in which a Union-controlled military government had already been set up, based in the capital, Nashville. Specific exemptions were stated for areas also under Union control on January 1, 1863, namely 48 counties that would soon become West Virginia, seven other named counties of Virginia including Berkeley and Hampshire counties, which were soon added to West Virginia, New Orleans and 13 named parishes nearby.
Union-occupied areas of the Confederate states where the proclamation was put into immediate effect by local commanders included Winchester, Virginia, Corinth, Mississippi, the Sea Islands along the coasts of the Carolinas and Georgia, Key West, Florida, and Port Royal, South Carolina.
===Immediate impact===
On New Year's Eve in 1862, African Americans – enslaved and free – gathered across the United States to hold Watch Night ceremonies for "Freedom's Eve", looking toward the stroke of midnight and the promised fulfillment of the Proclamation. It has been inaccurately claimed that the Emancipation Proclamation did not free a single slave; historian Lerone Bennett Jr. alleged that the proclamation was a hoax deliberately designed not to free any slaves. However, as a result of the Proclamation, most slaves became free during the course of the war, beginning on the day it took effect; eyewitness accounts at places such as Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, and Port Royal, South Carolina This Union-occupied zone where freedom began at once included parts of eastern North Carolina, the Mississippi Valley, northern Alabama, the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, a large part of Arkansas, and the Sea Islands of Georgia and South Carolina. Although some counties of Union-occupied Virginia were exempted from the Proclamation, the lower Shenandoah Valley and the area around Alexandria were covered.
On the other hand, Robert Gould Shaw wrote to his mother on September 25, 1862, "So the 'Proclamation of Emancipation' has come at last, or rather, its forerunner. I suppose you all are very much excited about it. For my part, I can't see what practical good it can do now. Wherever our army has been, there remain no slaves, and the Proclamation will not free them where we don't go." Ten days later, he wrote her again, "Don't imagine, from what I said in my last that I thought Mr. Lincoln's 'Emancipation Proclamation' not right ... but still, as a war-measure, I don't see the immediate benefit of it, ... as the slaves are sure of being free at any rate, with or without an Emancipation Act."
Booker T. Washington, as a boy of 9 in Virginia, remembered the day in early 1865:
Runaway slaves who had escaped to Union lines had previously been held by the Union Army as "contraband of war" under the Confiscation Acts. The Sea Islands off the coast of Georgia had been occupied by the Union Navy earlier in the war. The whites had fled to the mainland while the blacks stayed. An early program of Reconstruction was set up for the former slaves, including schools and training. Naval officers read the proclamation and told them they were free. George Washington Albright, a teenage slave in Mississippi, recalled that like many of his fellow slaves, his father escaped to join Union forces. According to Albright, plantation owners tried to keep news of the Proclamation from slaves, but they learned of it through the grapevine. The young slave became a "runner" for an informal group they called the 4Ls ("Lincoln's Legal Loyal League") bringing news of the proclamation to secret slave meetings at plantations throughout the region.
Confederate general Robert E. Lee saw the Emancipation Proclamation as a way for the Union to increase the number of soldiers it could place on the field, making it imperative for the Confederacy to increase its own numbers. Writing on the matter after the sack of Fredericksburg, Lee wrote, "In view of the vast increase of the forces of the enemy, of the savage and brutal policy he has proclaimed, which leaves us no alternative but success or degradation worse than death, if we would save the honor of our families from pollution [and] our social system from destruction, let every effort be made, every means be employed, to fill and maintain the ranks of our armies, until God in his mercy shall bless us with the establishment of our independence."
The Emancipation Proclamation marked a significant turning point in the war as it made the goal of the North not only preserving the Union, but also freeing the slaves. The Proclamation also rallied support from abolitionists and Europeans, while encouraging enslaved individuals to escape to the North. This weakened the South's labor force while bolstering the North's ranks.
===Political impact===
The Proclamation was immediately denounced by Copperhead Democrats, who opposed the war and advocated restoring the union by allowing slavery. Horatio Seymour, while running for governor of New York, cast the Emancipation Proclamation as a call for slaves to commit extreme acts of violence on all white southerners, saying it was "a proposal for the butchery of women and children, for scenes of lust and rapine, and of arson and murder, which would invoke the interference of civilized Europe". The Copperheads also saw the Proclamation as an unconstitutional abuse of presidential power. Editor Henry A. Reeves wrote in Greenport's Republican Watchman that "In the name of freedom for Negroes, [the proclamation] imperils the liberty of white men; to test an utopian theory of equality of races which Nature, History and Experience alike condemn as monstrous, it overturns the Constitution and Civil Laws and sets up Military Usurpation in their stead." The Copperheads saw the Proclamation as irrefutable proof of their position and the beginning of a political rise for their members; in Connecticut, H. B. Whiting wrote that the truth was now plain even to "those stupid thickheaded persons who persisted in thinking that the President was a conservative man and that the war was for the restoration of the Union under the Constitution."
Historians James M. McPherson and Allan Nevins state that though the results looked very troubling, they could be seen favorably by Lincoln; his opponents did well only in their historic strongholds and "at the national level their gains in the House were the smallest of any minority party's in an off-year election in nearly a generation. Michigan, California, and Iowa all went Republican.... Moreover, the Republicans picked up five seats in the Senate." It intensified the fear of slaves revolting and undermined morale, especially spurring fear among slave owners who saw it as a threat to their business. In an August 1863 letter to President Lincoln, U.S. Army general Ulysses S. Grant observed that the proclamation's "arming the negro", together with "the emancipation of the negro, is the heavyest [sic] blow yet given the Confederacy. The South rave a greatdeel [sic] about it and profess to be very angry." In May 1863, a few months after the Proclamation took effect, the Confederacy passed a law demanding "full and ample retaliation" against the U.S. for such measures. The Confederacy stated that black U.S. soldiers captured while fighting against the Confederacy would be tried as slave insurrectionists in civil courts—a capital offense with an automatic sentence of death. Less than a year after the law's passage, the Confederates massacred black U.S. soldiers at Fort Pillow.
Confederate President Jefferson Davis reacted to the Emancipation Proclamation with outrage and in an address to the Confederate Congress on January 12 threatened to send any U.S. military officer captured in Confederate territory covered by the proclamation to state authorities to be charged with "exciting servile insurrection", which was a capital offense.
Confederate General Robert E. Lee called the Proclamation a "savage and brutal policy he has proclaimed, which leaves us no alternative but success or degradation worse than death."
However, some Confederates welcomed the Proclamation, because they believed it would strengthen pro-slavery sentiment in the Confederacy and thus lead to greater enlistment of white men into the Confederate army. According to one Confederate cavalry sergeant from Kentucky, "The Proclamation is worth three hundred thousand soldiers to our Government at least.... It shows exactly what this war was brought about for and the intention of its damnable authors." Even some Union soldiers concurred with this view and expressed reservations about the Proclamation, not on principle, but rather because they were afraid it would increase the Confederacy's determination to fight on and maintain slavery. One Union soldier from New York stated worryingly after the Proclamation's issuance, "I know enough of the southern spirit that I think they will fight for the institution of slavery even to extermination."
As a result of the Proclamation, the price of slaves in the Confederacy increased in the months after its issuance, with one Confederate from South Carolina opining in 1865 that "now is the time for Uncle to buy some negro women and children...."
===International impact===
As Lincoln had hoped, the proclamation turned foreign popular opinion in favor of the Union by gaining the support of anti-slavery countries and countries that had already abolished slavery (especially the developed countries in Europe such as the United Kingdom and France). This shift ended the Confederacy's hopes of gaining official recognition.
Since the Emancipation Proclamation made the eradication of slavery an explicit Union war goal, it linked support for the South to support for slavery. Public opinion in Britain would not tolerate support for slavery. As Henry Adams noted, "The Emancipation Proclamation has done more for us than all our former victories and all our diplomacy." In Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi hailed Lincoln as "the heir of the aspirations of John Brown". On August 6, 1863, Garibaldi wrote to Lincoln: "Posterity will call you the great emancipator, a more enviable title than any crown could be, and greater than any merely mundane treasure".
Mayor Abel Haywood, a representative for workers from Manchester, England, wrote to Lincoln saying, "We joyfully honor you for many decisive steps toward practically exemplifying your belief in the words of your great founders: 'All men are created free and equal.'" The Emancipation Proclamation served to ease tensions with Europe over the North's conduct of the war, and combined with the recent failed Southern offensive at Antietam, to remove any practical chance for the Confederacy to receive foreign military intervention in the war.
However, in spite of the Emancipation Proclamation, arms sales to the Confederacy through blockade running, from British firms and dealers, continued, with knowledge of the British government. The Confederacy was able to sustain the fight for two more years largely thanks to the weapons supplied by British blockade runners. As a result, the blockade runners operating from Britain were responsible for killing 400,000 additional soldiers and civilians on both sides.
==Gettysburg Address==
Lincoln's Gettysburg Address on November 19, 1863 made indirect reference to the Proclamation and the ending of slavery as a war goal with the phrase "new birth of freedom". The Proclamation solidified Lincoln's support among the rapidly growing abolitionist elements of the Republican Party and ensured that they would not block his renomination in 1864.
==Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (1863)==
In December 1863, Lincoln issued his Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, which dealt with the ways the rebel states could reconcile with the Union. Key provisions required that the states accept the Emancipation Proclamation and thus the freedom of their slaves, and accept the Confiscation Acts, as well as the Act banning slavery in United States territories.
==Postbellum==
Near the end of the war, abolitionists were concerned that the Emancipation Proclamation would be construed solely as a war measure, as Lincoln intended, and would no longer apply once fighting ended. They also were increasingly anxious to secure the freedom of all slaves, not just those freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Thus pressed, Lincoln staked a large part of his 1864 presidential campaign on a constitutional amendment to abolish slavery throughout the United States. Lincoln's campaign was bolstered by votes in both Maryland and Missouri to abolish slavery in those states. Maryland's new constitution abolishing slavery took effect on November 1, 1864. Slavery in Missouri ended on January 11, 1865, when a state convention approved an ordinance abolishing slavery by a vote of 60-4, and later the same day, Governor Thomas C. Fletcher followed up with his own "Proclamation of Freedom."
Winning re-election, Lincoln pressed the lame duck 38th Congress to pass the proposed amendment immediately rather than wait for the incoming 39th Congress to convene. In January 1865, Congress sent to the state legislatures for ratification what became the Thirteenth Amendment, banning slavery in all U.S. states and territories, except as punishment for a crime. The amendment was ratified by the legislatures of enough states by December 6, 1865, and proclaimed 12 days later. There were approximately 40,000 slaves in Kentucky and 1,000 in Delaware who were liberated then.
==Critiques==
Lincoln's proclamation has been called "one of the most radical emancipations in the history of the modern world." Nonetheless, as over the years American society continued to be deeply unfair towards black people, cynicism towards Lincoln and the Emancipation Proclamation increased. One attack was Lerone Bennett's Forced into Glory: Abraham Lincoln's White Dream (2000), which claimed that Lincoln was a white supremacist who issued the Emancipation Proclamation in lieu of the real racial reforms for which radical abolitionists pushed. To this, one scholarly review states that "Few Civil War scholars take Bennett and DiLorenzo seriously, pointing to their narrow political agenda and faulty research." In his Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, Allen C. Guelzo noted professional historians' lack of substantial respect for the document, since it has been the subject of few major scholarly studies. He argued that Lincoln was the U.S.'s "last Enlightenment politician" and as such had "allegiance to 'reason, cold, calculating, unimpassioned reason'.... But the most important among the Enlightenment's political virtues for Lincoln, and for his Proclamation, was prudence".
Other historians have given more credit to Lincoln for what he accomplished toward ending slavery and for his own growth in political and moral stature. More might have been accomplished if he had not been assassinated. As Eric Foner wrote:
Lincoln was not an abolitionist or Radical Republican, a point Bennett reiterates innumerable times. He did not favor immediate abolition before the war, and held racist views typical of his time. But he was also a man of deep convictions when it came to slavery, and during the Civil War displayed a remarkable capacity for moral and political growth.
Kal Ashraf wrote:
Perhaps in rejecting the critical dualism—Lincoln as individual emancipator pitted against collective self-emancipators—there is an opportunity to recognise the greater persuasiveness of the combination. In a sense, yes: a racist, flawed Lincoln did something heroic, and not in lieu of collective participation, but next to, and enabled, by it. To venerate a singular 'Great Emancipator' may be as reductive as dismissing the significance of Lincoln's actions. Who he was as a man, no one of us can ever really know. So it is that the version of Lincoln we keep is also the version we make.
==Legacy in the civil rights era==
===Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.===
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. made many references to the Emancipation Proclamation during the civil rights movement. These include an "Emancipation Proclamation Centennial Address" he gave in New York City on September 12, 1962, in which he placed the Proclamation alongside the Declaration of Independence as an "imperishable" contribution to civilization and added, "All tyrants, past, present and future, are powerless to bury the truths in these declarations...." He lamented that despite a history where the United States "proudly professed the basic principles inherent in both documents," it "sadly practiced the antithesis of these principles." He concluded, "There is but one way to commemorate the Emancipation Proclamation. That is to make its declarations of freedom real; to reach back to the origins of our nation when our message of equality electrified an unfree world, and reaffirm democracy by deeds as bold and daring as the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation."
King's most famous invocation of the Emancipation Proclamation was in a speech from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial at the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (often referred to as the "I Have a Dream" speech). King began the speech saying "Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity. But one hundred years later, we must face the tragic fact that the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination."
====The "Second Emancipation Proclamation"====
In the early 1960s, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and his associates called on President John F. Kennedy to bypass Southern segregationist opposition in the Congress by issuing an executive order to put an end to segregation. This envisioned document was referred to as the "Second Emancipation Proclamation". Kennedy, however, did not issue a second Emancipation Proclamation "and noticeably avoided all centennial celebrations of emancipation." Historian David W. Blight points out that, although the idea of an executive order to act as a second Emancipation Proclamation "has been virtually forgotten," the manifesto that King and his associates produced calling for an executive order showed his "close reading of American politics" and recalled how moral leadership could have an effect on the American public through an executive order. Despite its failure "to spur a second Emancipation Proclamation from the White House, it was an important and emphatic attempt to combat the structured forgetting of emancipation latent within Civil War memory."
===President John F. Kennedy===
On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy spoke on national television about civil rights. Kennedy, who had been routinely criticized as timid by some civil rights activists, reminded Americans that two black students had been peacefully enrolled in the University of Alabama with the aid of the National Guard, despite the opposition of Governor George Wallace.
John Kennedy called it a "moral issue."}}
In the same speech, Kennedy announced he would introduce a comprehensive civil rights bill in the United States Congress, which he did a week later. Kennedy pushed for its passage until he was assassinated on November 22, 1963. Historian Peniel E. Joseph holds Lyndon Johnson's ability to get that bill, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, signed into law on July 2, 1964, to have been aided by "the moral forcefulness of the June 11 speech", which had turned "the narrative of civil rights from a regional issue into a national story promoting racial equality and democratic renewal."
===President Lyndon B. Johnson===
During the civil rights movement of the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson invoked the Emancipation Proclamation, holding it up as a promise yet to be fully implemented.
As vice president, while speaking from Gettysburg on May 30, 1963 (Memorial Day), during the centennial year of the Emancipation Proclamation, Johnson connected it directly with the ongoing civil rights struggles of the time, saying "One hundred years ago, the slave was freed. One hundred years later, the Negro remains in bondage to the color of his skin.... In this hour, it is not our respective races which are at stake—it is our nation. Let those who care for their country come forward, North and South, white and Negro, to lead the way through this moment of challenge and decision.... Until justice is blind to color, until education is unaware of race, until opportunity is unconcerned with color of men's skins, emancipation will be a proclamation but not a fact. To the extent that the proclamation of emancipation is not fulfilled in fact, to that extent we shall have fallen short of assuring freedom to the free."
As president, Johnson again invoked the proclamation in a speech presenting the Voting Rights Act at a joint session of Congress on Monday, March 15, 1965. This was one week after violence had been inflicted on peaceful civil rights marchers during the Selma to Montgomery marches. Johnson said "it's not just Negroes, but really it's all of us, who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice. And we shall overcome. As a man whose roots go deeply into Southern soil, I know how agonizing racial feelings are. I know how difficult it is to reshape the attitudes and the structure of our society. But a century has passed—more than 100 years—since the Negro was freed. And he is not fully free tonight. It was more than 100 years ago that Abraham Lincoln—a great President of another party—signed the Emancipation Proclamation. But emancipation is a proclamation and not a fact. A century has passed—more than 100 years—since equality was promised, and yet the Negro is not equal. A century has passed since the day of promise, and the promise is unkept. The time of justice has now come, and I tell you that I believe sincerely that no force can hold it back. It is right in the eyes of man and God that it should come, and when it does, I think that day will brighten the lives of every American."
==In popular culture==
In the 1963 episode of The Andy Griffith Show, "Andy Discovers America", Andy asks Barney to explain the Emancipation Proclamation to Opie who is struggling with history at school. Barney brags about his history expertise, yet it is apparent he cannot answer Andy's question. He finally becomes frustrated and explains it is a proclamation for certain people who wanted emancipation. In addition, the Emancipation Proclamation was also a main item of discussion in the movie Lincoln (2012) directed by Steven Spielberg.
The Emancipation Proclamation is celebrated around the world, including on stamps of nations such as the Republic of Togo. The United States commemorative was issued on August 16, 1963, the opening day of the Century of Negro Progress Exposition in Chicago, Illinois. Designed by Georg Olden, an initial printing of 120 million stamps was authorized.
|
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Erwin Rommel
|
Johannes Erwin Eugen Rommel (; 15 November 1891 – 14 October 1944), popularly known as The Desert Fox (, ), was a German Generalfeldmarschall (field marshal) during World War II. He served in the Wehrmacht (armed forces) of Nazi Germany, as well as in the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic, and the army of Imperial Germany.
Rommel was a highly decorated officer in World War I and was awarded the Pour le Mérite for his actions on the Italian Front. In 1937, he published his classic book on military tactics, Infantry Attacks, drawing on his experiences in that war. In World War II, he commanded the 7th Panzer Division during the 1940 invasion of France. His leadership of German and Italian forces in the North African campaign established his reputation as one of the ablest tank commanders of the war, and earned him the nickname der Wüstenfuchs, "the Desert Fox". Among his British adversaries he had a reputation for chivalry, and his phrase "war without hate" has been uncritically used to describe the North African campaign. Other historians have since rejected the phrase as a myth, citing exploitation of North African Jewish populations during the conflict. Other historians note that there is no clear evidence Rommel was involved in or aware of these crimes, with some pointing out that the war in the desert, as fought by Rommel and his opponents, still came as close to a clean fight as there was in World War II. He later commanded the German forces opposing the Allied cross-channel invasion of Normandy in June 1944.
After the Nazis gained power in Germany, Rommel gradually accepted the new regime. Historians have given different accounts of the specific period and his motivations. He was a supporter of Adolf Hitler, at least until near the end of the war, if not necessarily sympathetic to the party and the paramilitary forces associated with it. In 1944, Rommel was implicated in the 20 July plot to assassinate Hitler. Because of Rommel's status as a national hero, Hitler wanted to eliminate him quietly instead of having him immediately executed, as many other plotters were. Rommel was given a choice between suicide, in return for assurances that his reputation would remain intact and that his family would not be persecuted following his death, or facing a trial that would result in his disgrace and execution; he chose the former and took a cyanide pill. Rommel was given a state funeral, and it was announced that he had succumbed to his injuries from the strafing of his staff car in Normandy.
Rommel became a larger-than-life figure in both Allied and Nazi propaganda, and in postwar popular culture. Numerous authors portray him as an apolitical, brilliant commander and a victim of Nazi Germany, although other authors have contested this assessment and called it the "Rommel myth". Rommel's reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interest of the West German rearmament and reconciliation between the former enemies – the United Kingdom and the United States on one side and the new Federal Republic of Germany on the other. Several of Rommel's former subordinates, notably his chief of staff Hans Speidel, played key roles in German rearmament and integration into NATO in the postwar era. The German Army's largest military base, the Field Marshal Rommel Barracks, Augustdorf, and a third ship of Lütjens-class destroyer of the German Navy are both named in his honour. His son Manfred Rommel was the longtime mayor of Stuttgart, Germany and namesake of Stuttgart Airport.
== Early life and career ==
Rommel was born on 15 November 1891 in Heidenheim, from Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg, Southern Germany, then part of the German Empire. He was the third of five children to Erwin Rommel Senior (1860–1913) and his wife Helene von Luz. Her father, Karl von Luz, headed the local government council. As a young man, Rommel's father had been an artillery lieutenant. Rommel had one older sister who was an art teacher and his favourite sibling, one older brother named Manfred who died in infancy, and two younger brothers, of whom one became a successful dentist and the other an opera singer.
At age 18, Rommel joined the Württemberg Infantry Regiment No. 124 in Weingarten as a Fähnrich (ensign), in 1910, studying at the Officer Cadet School in Danzig. He graduated in November 1911 and was commissioned as a lieutenant in January 1912 and was assigned to the 124th Infantry in Weingarten. He was posted to Ulm in March 1914 to the 49th Field Artillery Regiment, XIII (Royal Württemberg) Corps, as a battery commander. He returned to the 124th when war was declared. While at Cadet School, Rommel met his future wife, 17-year-old Lucia (Lucie) Maria Mollin (1894–1971), of Italian and Polish descent.
== World War I ==
During World War I, Rommel fought in France as well as in the Romanian (notably at the Second Battle of the Jiu Valley) and Italian campaigns. He successfully employed the tactics of penetrating enemy lines with heavy covering fire coupled with rapid advances, as well as moving forward rapidly to a flanking position to arrive at the rear of hostile positions, to achieve tactical surprise. His first combat experience was on 22 August 1914 as a platoon commander near Verdun, when – catching a French garrison unprepared – Rommel and three men opened fire on them without ordering the rest of his platoon forward. The armies continued to skirmish in open engagements throughout September, as the static trench warfare typical of the First World War was still in the future. For his actions in September 1914 and January 1915, Rommel was awarded the Iron Cross, Second Class. Rommel was promoted to Oberleutnant (first lieutenant) and transferred to the newly created Royal Wurttemberg Mountain Battalion of the Alpenkorps in September 1915, as a company commander. In November 1916 in Danzig, Rommel and Lucia married.
In August 1917, his unit was involved in the battle for Mount Cosna, a heavily fortified objective on the border between Hungary and Romania, which they took after two weeks of difficult uphill fighting. The Mountain Battalion was next assigned to the Isonzo front, in a mountainous area in Italy. The offensive, known as the Battle of Caporetto, began on 24 October 1917. Rommel's battalion, consisting of three rifle companies and a machine gun unit, was part of an attempt to take enemy positions on three mountains: Kolovrat, Matajur, and Stol. In two and a half days, from 25 to 27 October, Rommel and his 150 men captured 81 guns and 9,000 men (including 150 officers), at a loss of six dead and 30 wounded. Rommel achieved this remarkable success by taking advantage of the terrain to outflank the Italian forces, attacking from unexpected directions or behind enemy lines, and taking the initiative to attack when he had orders to the contrary. In one instance, the Italian forces, taken by surprise and believing that their lines had collapsed, surrendered after a brief firefight. In this battle, Rommel helped pioneer infiltration tactics, a new form of manoeuvre warfare just being adopted by German armies, and later by foreign armies, and later described by some as Blitzkrieg without tanks. However, he played no role in the early adoption of Blitzkrieg in World War II.
Acting as advance guard in the capture of Longarone on 9 November, Rommel again decided to attack with a much smaller force. Convinced that they were surrounded by an entire German division, the 1st Italian Infantry Division – 10,000 men – surrendered to Rommel. For this and his actions at Matajur, he received the order of Pour le Mérite.
In January 1918, Rommel was promoted to Hauptmann (captain) and assigned to a staff position in the 64th Army Corps, where he served for the remainder of the war.
== Between the wars ==
Rommel remained with the 124th Regiment until October 1920. The regiment was involved in quelling riots and civil disturbances that were occurring throughout Germany at this time. Wherever possible, Rommel avoided the use of force in these confrontations. In 1919, he was briefly sent to Friedrichshafen on Lake Constance, where he restored order by "sheer force of personality" in the 32nd Internal Security Company, which was composed of rebellious and pro-communist sailors. He decided against storming the nearby city of Lindau, which had been taken by revolutionary communists. Instead, Rommel negotiated with the city council and managed to return it to the legitimate government through diplomatic means. This was followed by his defence of Schwäbisch Gmünd, again bloodless. He was then posted to the Ruhr, where a Red Army was responsible for fomenting unrest. Historian praises Rommel as a coolheaded and moderate mind, exceptional amid the many takeovers of revolutionary cities by regular and irregular units and the associated massive violence.
According to Reuth, this period gave Rommel the indelible impression that "Everyone in this Republic was fighting each other", along with the direct experience of people who attempted to convert Germany into a socialist republic on Soviet lines. There are similarities with Hitler's experiences: like Rommel, Hitler had known the solidarity of trench warfare and then had participated in the Reichswehr's suppression of the First and Second Bavarian Soviet Republics. The need for national unity thus became a decisive legacy of the first World War. Brighton notes that while both believed in the Stab-in-the-back myth, Rommel was able to succeed using peaceful methods because he saw the problem as related to economic problems and empty stomachs, rather than to Judeo-Bolshevism – which right-wing soldiers such as Hitler blamed for the chaos in Germany.
On 1 October 1920, Rommel was appointed to a company command with the 13th Infantry Regiment in Stuttgart, a post he held for the next nine years. He was then assigned to an instruction position at the Dresden Infantry School from 1929 to 1933; during this time, in April 1932, he was promoted to major. While at Dresden, he wrote a manual on infantry training, published in 1934. In October 1933, he was promoted to Oberstleutnant (lieutenant colonel) and given his next command, the 3rd Jäger Battalion, 17th Infantry Regiment, stationed at Goslar. Here he first met Hitler, who inspected his troops on 30 September 1934.
In September 1935, Rommel was moved to the War Academy in Potsdam as an instructor, serving for the next three years. His book Infanterie greift an (Infantry Attacks), a description of his wartime experiences along with his analysis, was published in 1937. It became a best-seller, which, according to Scheck, later "enormously influenced" many armies of the world. Adolf Hitler was one of many people who owned a copy.
Hearing of Rommel's reputation as an outstanding military instructor, in February 1937 Hitler assigned him as the War Ministry liaison officer to the Hitler Youth in charge of military training. Here Rommel clashed with Baldur von Schirach, the Hitler Youth leader, over the training that the boys should receive. Trying to fulfil a mission assigned to him by the Ministry of War, Rommel had twice proposed a plan that would have effectively subordinated Hitler Youth to the army, removing it from NSDAP control. That went against Schirach's express wishes. Schirach appealed directly to Hitler; consequently, Rommel was quietly removed from the project in 1938. He had been promoted to Oberst (colonel), on 1 August 1937, and in 1938, following the Anschluss, he was appointed commandant of the Theresian Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt.
In October 1938, Hitler specially requested that Rommel be seconded to command the Führerbegleitbatallion (his escort battalion). This unit accompanied Hitler whenever he travelled outside of Germany. During this period, Rommel indulged his interest in engineering and mechanics by learning about the inner workings and maintenance of internal combustion engines and heavy machine guns. He memorised logarithm tables in his spare time, and enjoyed skiing and other outdoor sports. Ian F. Beckett writes that by 1938, Rommel drifted towards uncritical acceptance of the Nazi regime, quoting Rommel's letter to his wife in which he stated "The German Wehrmacht is the sword of the new German world view", as a reaction to a speech by Hitler.
During his visit to Switzerland in 1938, Rommel reported that Swiss soldiers who he met showed "remarkable understanding of our Jewish problem". American writer and Rommel biographer Daniel Allen Butler comments that he did share the view (popular in Germany and many European countries during that time) that as a people, the Jews were loyal to themselves rather than the nations in which they lived. Despite this fact, other pieces of evidence show that he considered the Nazi racial ideologies to be rubbish. Historian Alaric Searle comments that Rommel knew the official stand of the regime, but in this case, the phrase was ambiguous and there is no evidence after or before this event that he ever sympathised with the antisemitism of the Nazi movement. Rommel's son Manfred Rommel stated in the documentary The Real Rommel, released in 2001 by Channel 4, that his father would "look the other way" when faced with anti-Jewish violence on the streets. But, according to the documentary, Rommel requested proof of "Aryan descent" from the Italian boyfriend of his illegitimate daughter Gertrud. According to Remy, during the time Rommel was posted in Goslar, he repeatedly clashed with the SA whose members terrorised the Jews and dissident Goslar citizens. After the Röhm Purge, he mistakenly believed that the worst was over, although restrictions on Jewish businesses were still being imposed and agitation against their community continued. According to Remy, Manfred Rommel recounts that his father knew about and privately disagreed with the government's antisemitism, but by this time, he had not actively campaigned on behalf of the Jews. However, Uri Avnery notes that even when Rommel was a low-ranking officer, he protected the Jews who lived in his district. Manfred Rommel tells the Stuttgarter Nachrichten that their family lived in isolated military lands but knew about the discrimination against the Jews which was occurring on the outside. They could not foresee the enormity of the impending atrocities, about which they only knew much later.
At one point, Rommel wrote to his wife that Hitler had a "magnetic, maybe hypnotic, strength" that had its origin in Hitler's belief that he "was called upon by God", and Hitler sometimes "spoke from the depth of his being [...] like a prophet".
== World War II ==
=== Poland 1939 ===
Rommel was promoted to Generalmajor on 23 August 1939 and assigned as commander of the Führerbegleitbatallion, tasked with guarding Hitler and his field headquarters during the invasion of Poland, which began on 1 September. According to Remy, Rommel's private letters at this time show that he did not understand Hitler's true nature and intentions, as he quickly went from predicting a swift peaceful settlement of tensions to approving Hitler's reaction ("bombs will be retaliated with bombs") to the Gleiwitz incident (a false flag operation staged by Hitler and used as a pretext for the invasion). Hitler took a personal interest in the campaign, often moving close to the front in the Führersonderzug (headquarters train). Rommel attended Hitler's daily war briefings and accompanied him everywhere, making use of the opportunity to observe first-hand the use of tanks and other motorised units. On 26 September Rommel returned to Berlin to set up a new headquarters for his unit in the Reich Chancellery. Rommel briefly returned to occupied Warsaw on 5 October in order to prepare for the German victory parade. In a letter to his wife he claimed that the occupation by Nazi Germany was "probably welcomed with relief" by the inhabitants of the ruined city and that they were "rescued".
=== France 1940 ===
==== Promotion to armoured division commander ====
Following the invasion of Poland, Rommel began lobbying for command of one of Germany's panzer divisions, of which there were then only ten. Rommel's successes in World War I were based on surprise and manoeuvre, two elements for which the new panzer units were ideally suited. Rommel received a promotion to a general's rank from Hitler ahead of more senior officers. Rommel obtained the command he aspired to, despite having been earlier turned down by the army's personnel office, which had offered him command of a mountain division instead. According to Peter Caddick-Adams, he was backed by Hitler, the influential Fourteenth Army commander Wilhelm List (a fellow Württemberger middle-class "military outsider") and likely Heinz Guderian, the commander of XIX Army Corps, as well.
Going against military protocol, this promotion added to Rommel's growing reputation as one of Hitler's favoured commanders, although his later outstanding leadership in France quelled complaints about his self-promotion and political scheming. The 7th Panzer Division had recently been converted to an armoured division consisting of 218 tanks in three battalions (thus, one tank regiment, instead of the two assigned to a standard panzer division), with two rifle regiments, a motorcycle battalion, an engineer battalion, and an anti-tank battalion. Upon taking command on 10 February 1940, Rommel quickly set his unit to practising the manoeuvres they would need in the upcoming campaign.
==== Invasion of the Netherlands, Belgium and France ====
The invasion began on 10 May 1940. By the third day Rommel and the advance elements of his division, together with a detachment of the 5th Panzer Division, had reached the Meuse, where they found the bridges had already been destroyed (Guderian and Georg-Hans Reinhardt reached the river on the same day). Rommel was active in the forward areas, directing the efforts to make a crossing, which were initially unsuccessful because of suppressive fire by the French on the other side of the river. Rommel brought up tanks and flak units to provide counter-fire and had nearby houses set on fire to create a smokescreen. He sent infantry across in rubber boats, appropriated the bridging tackle of the 5th Panzer Division, personally grabbed a light machine gun to fight off a French counterattack supported by tanks, and went into the water himself, encouraging the sappers and helping lash together the pontoons. By 16 May Rommel reached Avesnes, and contravening orders, he pressed on to Cateau. That night, the French II Army Corps was shattered and on 17 May, Rommel's forces took 10,000 prisoners, losing 36 men in the process. He was surprised to find out only his vanguard had followed his tempestuous surge. The High Command and Hitler had been extremely nervous about his disappearance, although they awarded him the Knight's Cross. Rommel's (and Guderian's) successes and the new possibilities offered by the new tank arm were welcomed by a small number of generals, but worried and paralysed the rest.
On 20 May, Rommel reached Arras. General Hermann Hoth received orders that the town should be bypassed and its British garrison thus isolated. He ordered the 5th Panzer Division to move to the west and the 7th Panzer Division to the east, flanked by the SS Division Totenkopf. The following day, the British launched a counterattack in the Battle of Arras. It failed and the British withdrew.
On 24 May, Generaloberst (Colonel General) Gerd von Rundstedt and Generaloberst Günther von Kluge issued a halt order, which Hitler approved. The reason for this decision is still a matter of debate. The halt order was lifted on 26 May. 7th Panzer continued its advance, reaching Lille on 27 May. The Siege of Lille continued until 31 May, when the French garrison of 40,000 men surrendered. Rommel was summoned to Berlin to meet with Hitler. He was the only divisional commander present at the planning session for Fall Rot (Case Red), the second phase of the invasion of France. By this time the Dunkirk evacuation was complete; over 338,000 Allied troops had been evacuated across the Channel, though they had to leave behind all their heavy equipment and vehicles.
==== Drive for the Channel ====
Rommel, resuming his advance on 5 June, drove for the River Seine to secure the bridges near Rouen. Advancing in two days, the division reached Rouen to find it defended by three French tanks which managed to destroy a number of German tanks before being taken out. The German force, enraged by this resistance, forbade fire brigades access to the burning district of the old Norman capital, and as a result, most of the historic quarter was reduced to ashes. According to David Fraser, Rommel instructed the German artillery to bombard the city as a "fire demonstration". According to one witness report, the smoke from burning Rouen was intense enough that it reached Paris. Daniel Allen Butler states that the bridges to the city were already destroyed. After the fall of the city, both black civilians and colonial troops were summarily executed on 9 June by unknown German units. The number of black civilians and prisoners killed is estimated at 100. According to Butler and Showalter, Rouen fell to the 5th Panzer Division, while Rommel advanced from the Seine towards the Channel. On 10 June, Rommel reached the coast near Dieppe, sending Hoth the message "Bin an der Küste" ("Am on the coast"). On 17 June, 7th Panzer was ordered to advance on Cherbourg, where additional British evacuations were under way. The division advanced in 24 hours, and after two days of shelling, the French garrison surrendered on 19 June. The speed and surprise that it was consistently able to achieve, to the point at which both the enemy and the Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH; German "High Command of the Army") at times lost track of its whereabouts, earned the 7th Panzers the nickname Gespensterdivision ("ghost division").
After the armistice with the French was signed on 22 June, the division was placed in reserve, being sent first to the Somme and then to Bordeaux to re-equip and prepare for Unternehmen Seelöwe (Operation Sea Lion), the planned invasion of Britain. This invasion was later cancelled, as Germany was not able to acquire the air superiority needed for a successful outcome, while the Kriegsmarine was massively outnumbered by the Royal Navy.
=== North Africa 1941–1943 ===
On 6 February 1941, Rommel was appointed commander of the new Afrika Korps (Deutsches Afrika Korps; DAK), consisting of the 5th Light Division (later renamed 21st Panzer Division) and of the 15th Panzer Division. He was promoted to Generalleutnant three days later and flew to Tripoli on 12 February. The DAK had been sent to Libya in Operation Sonnenblume to support Italian troops who had been roundly defeated by British Commonwealth forces in Operation Compass. His efforts in the Western Desert Campaign earned Rommel the nickname the "Desert Fox" from journalists on both sides of the war. Allied troops in Africa were commanded by General Archibald Wavell, Commander-in-Chief, Middle East Command.
==== First Axis offensive ====
Rommel and his troops were technically subordinate to Italian commander-in-chief General Italo Gariboldi. Disagreeing with the orders of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW, German armed forces high command) to assume a defensive posture along the front line at Sirte, Rommel resorted to subterfuge and insubordination to take the war to the British. According to Remy, the General Staff tried to slow him down but Hitler encouraged him to advance—an expression of the conflict that had existed between Hitler and the army leadership since the invasion of Poland. He decided to launch a limited offensive on 24 March with the 5th Light Division, supported by two Italian divisions. This thrust was not anticipated by the British, who had Ultra intelligence showing that Rommel had orders to remain on the defensive until at least May when the 15th Panzer Division were due to arrive.
The British Western Desert Force had meanwhile been weakened by the transfer in mid-February of three divisions for the Battle of Greece. They fell back to Mersa El Brega and started constructing defensive works. After a day of fierce fighting on 31 March, the Germans captured Mersa El Brega. Splitting his force into three groups, Rommel resumed the advance on 3 April. Benghazi fell that night as the British pulled out of the city. Gariboldi, who had ordered Rommel to stay in Mersa El Brega, was furious. Rommel was equally forceful in his response, telling Gariboldi, "One cannot permit unique opportunities to slip by for the sake of trifles." A signal arrived from General Franz Halder reminding Rommel that he was to halt in Mersa El Brega. Knowing Gariboldi could not speak German, Rommel told him the message gave him complete freedom of action. Gariboldi backed down. Throughout the campaign, fuel supply was problematic, as no petrol was available locally; it had to be brought from Europe by tanker and then carried by road to where it was needed. Food and fresh water were also in short supply, and it was difficult to move tanks and other equipment off-road through the sand. Cyrenaica was captured by 8 April, except for the port city of Tobruk, which was besieged on 11 April.
==== Siege of Tobruk ====
The siege of Tobruk was not technically a siege, as the defenders were still able to move supplies and reinforcements into the city via the port. Rommel knew that by capturing the port he could greatly reduce the length of his supply lines and increase his overall port capacity, which was insufficient even for day-to-day operations and only half that needed for offensive operations. The city, which had been heavily fortified by the Italians during their 30-year occupation, was garrisoned by 36,000 Commonwealth troops, commanded by Australian Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead. Hoping to catch the defenders off-guard, Rommel launched a failed attack on 14 April.
Rommel requested reinforcements, but the OKW, then completing preparations for Operation Barbarossa, refused. General Friedrich Paulus, head of the Operations Branch of the OKH, arrived on 25 April to review the situation. He was present for a second failed attack on the city on 30 April. On 4 May, Paulus ordered that no further attempts should be made to take Tobruk via a direct assault. Following a failed counter-attack in Operation Brevity in May, Wavell launched Operation Battleaxe on 15 June; this attack was also defeated. The defeat resulted in Churchill replacing Wavell with General Claude Auchinleck as theatre commander.
In August, Rommel was appointed commander of the newly created Panzer Army Africa, with Fritz Bayerlein as his chief of staff. The Afrika Korps, comprising the 15th Panzer Division and the 5th Light Division, now reinforced and redesignated 21st Panzer Division, was put under command of Generalleutnant Ludwig Crüwell. In addition to the Afrika Korps, Rommel's Panzer Group had the 90th Light Division and four Italian divisions, three infantry divisions investing Tobruk, and one holding Bardia. The two Italian armoured divisions, formed into the Italian XX Motorized Corps under the command of General Gastone Gambara, were under Italian control. Two months later Hitler decided he must have German officers in better control of the Mediterranean theatre, and appointed Field Marshal Albert Kesselring as Commander in Chief, South. Kesselring was ordered to get control of the air and sea between Africa and Italy.
Following his success in Battleaxe, Rommel returned his attention to the capture of Tobruk. He made preparations for a new offensive, to be launched between 15 and 20 November. Meanwhile, Auchinleck reorganised Allied forces and strengthened them to two corps, XXX and XIII, which formed the British Eighth Army. It was placed under the command of Alan Cunningham. Auchinleck launched Operation Crusader, a major offensive to relieve Tobruk, on 18 November 1941. Rommel reluctantly decided on 20 November to call off his planned attack on Tobruk.
In four days of heavy fighting, the Eighth Army lost 530 tanks and Rommel only 100. Wanting to exploit the British halt and their apparent disorganisation, on 24 November Rommel counterattacked near the Egyptian border in an operation that became known as the "dash to the wire". Cunningham asked Auchinleck for permission to withdraw into Egypt, but Auchinleck refused and soon replaced Cunningham as commander of the Eighth Army with Major General Neil Ritchie. The German counterattack stalled as it outran its supplies and met stiffening resistance, and was criticised by the German High Command and some of Rommel's staff officers.
While Rommel drove into Egypt, the remaining Commonwealth forces east of Tobruk threatened the weak Axis lines there. Unable to reach Rommel for several days, Rommel's Chief of Staff, Siegfried Westphal, ordered the 21st Panzer Division to withdraw to support the siege of Tobruk. On 27 November, the British attack on Tobruk linked up with the defenders, and Rommel, having suffered losses that could not easily be replaced, had to concentrate on regrouping the divisions that had attacked into Egypt. By 7 December, Rommel fell back to a defensive line at Gazala, just west of Tobruk, all the while under heavy attack from the Desert Air Force. The Allies kept up the pressure, and Rommel was forced to retreat all the way back to the starting positions he had held in March, reaching El Agheila in December 1941. The British had retaken almost all of Cyrenaica, but Rommel's retreat dramatically shortened his supply lines.
==== Battle of Gazala and capture of Tobruk ====
On 5 January 1942, the Afrika Korps received 55 tanks and new supplies and Rommel started planning a counterattack, which he launched on 21 January. Caught by surprise, the Allies lost over 110 tanks and other heavy equipment. The Axis forces retook Benghazi on 29 January and Timimi on 3 February, with the Allies pulling back to a defensive line just before the Tobruk area south of the coastal town of Gazala. Between December 1941 and June 1942, Rommel had excellent information about the disposition and intentions of the Commonwealth forces. Bonner Fellers, US military attaché in Egypt, was sending detailed reports to the US State Department using a compromised code.
Following Kesselring's successes in creating local air superiority around the British naval and air bases at Malta in April 1942, an increased flow of supplies reached the Axis forces in Africa. With his forces strengthened, Rommel contemplated a major offensive operation for the end of May. He knew the British were planning offensive operations as well, and he hoped to pre-empt them. Early in the afternoon of 26 May 1942, Rommel attacked first and the Battle of Gazala commenced. Under the cover of darkness, the bulk of Rommel's motorised and armoured forces drove south to skirt the left flank of the British, coming up behind them and attacking to the north the following morning.
On 30 May, Rommel resumed the offensive, and on 1 June, Rommel accepted the surrender of some 3,000 Commonwealth soldiers. On 6 June, Rommel's forces assaulted the Free French strongpoint in the Battle of Bir Hakeim, but the defenders continued to thwart the attack until finally evacuating on 10 June. Rommel then shifted his attack north; threatened with being completely cut off, the British began a retreat eastward toward Egypt on 14 June, the so-called "Gazala Gallop".
The assault on Tobruk proper began at dawn on 20 June, and the British surrendered at dawn the following day. Rommel's forces captured 32,000 Commonwealth troops, the port, and huge quantities of supplies. Only at the fall of Singapore, earlier that year, had more British Commonwealth troops been captured at one time. On 22 June, Hitler promoted Rommel to Generalfeldmarschall for this victory. Following his success at Gazala and Tobruk, Rommel wanted to seize the moment and not allow the 8th Army a chance to regroup. He strongly argued that the Panzerarmee should advance into Egypt and drive on to Alexandria and the Suez Canal, as this would place almost all the Mediterranean coastline in Axis hands and, according to Rommel, potentially lead to the capture from the south of the oil fields in the Caucasus and Middle East.
Rommel's success at Tobruk worked against him, as Hitler no longer felt it was necessary to proceed with Operation Herkules, the proposed attack on Malta. Auchinleck relieved Ritchie of command of the Eighth Army on 25 June, and temporarily took command himself. Rommel knew that delay would only benefit the British, who continued to receive supplies at a faster rate than Rommel could hope to achieve. He pressed an attack on the heavily fortified town of Mersa Matruh, which Auchinleck had designated as the fall-back position, surrounding it on 28 June. The fortress fell to the Germans on 29 June. In addition to stockpiles of fuel and other supplies, the British abandoned hundreds of tanks and trucks. Those that were functional were put into service by the Panzerarmee which by now relied on British trucks for half its transport.
==== El Alamein ====
===== First Battle of El Alamein =====
Rommel continued his pursuit of the Eighth Army, which had fallen back to heavily prepared defensive positions at El Alamein. This region is a natural choke point, where the Qattara Depression creates a relatively short line to defend that could not be outflanked to the south because of the steep escarpment. During this time Germans prepared numerous propaganda postcards and leaflets for the Egyptian and Syrian populations urging them to "chase English out of the cities", warning them about "Jewish peril" and with one leaflet printed in 296,000 copies and aimed at Syria stating among others
On 1 July, the First Battle of El Alamein began. Rommel had around 100 available tanks. The Allies were able to achieve local air superiority, with heavy bombers attacking the 15th and 21st Panzers, who had also been delayed by a sandstorm. The 90th Light Division veered off course and were pinned down by South African artillery fire. Rommel continued to attempt to advance for two more days, but repeated sorties by the Desert Air Force meant he could make no progress. On 3 July, he wrote in his diary that his strength had "faded away". Attacks by 21st Panzer on 13 and 14 July were repulsed, and an Australian attack on 16–17 July was held off with difficulty. Throughout the first half of July, Auchinleck concentrated attacks on the Italian 60th Infantry Division Sabratha at Tel el Eisa. The ridge was captured by the 26th Australian Brigade on 16 July. Both sides suffered similar losses throughout the month, but the Axis supply situation remained less favourable. Rommel realised that the tide was turning. A break in the action took place at the end of July as both sides rested and regrouped.
Preparing for a renewed drive, the British replaced Auchinleck with General Harold Alexander on 8 August. Bernard Montgomery was made the new commander of the Eighth Army that same day. The Eighth Army had initially been assigned to General William Gott, but he was killed when his plane was shot down on 7 August. Rommel knew that a British convoy carrying over 100,000 tons of supplies was due to arrive in September. He decided to launch an attack at the end of August with the 15th and 21st Panzer Division, 90th Light Division, and the Italian XX Motorized Corps in a drive through the southern flank of the El Alamein lines. Expecting an attack sooner rather than later, Montgomery fortified the Alam el Halfa ridge with the 44th Division, and positioned the 7th Armoured Division about to the south.
===== Battle of Alam El Halfa =====
The Battle of Alam el Halfa was launched on 30 August. The terrain left Rommel with no choice but to follow a similar tactic as he had at previous battles: the bulk of the forces attempted to sweep around from the south while secondary attacks were launched on the remainder of the front. It took much longer than anticipated to get through the minefields in the southern sector, and the tanks got bogged down in unexpected patches of quicksand (Montgomery had arranged for Rommel to acquire a falsified map of the terrain). Under heavy fire from British artillery and aircraft, and in the face of well-prepared positions that Rommel could not hope to outflank for lack of fuel, the attack stalled. By 2 September, Rommel realised the battle was unwinnable, and decided to withdraw.
On the night of 3 September, the 2nd New Zealand Division and 7th Armoured Division positioned to the north engaged in an assault, but they were repelled in a fierce rearguard action by the 90th Light Division. Montgomery called off further action to preserve his strength and allow for further desert training for his forces. In the attack, Rommel had suffered 2,940 casualties and lost 50 tanks, a similar number of guns, and 400 lorries, vital for supplies and movement. The British losses, except tank losses of 68, were much less, further adding to the numerical inferiority of Panzer Army Africa. The Desert Air Force inflicted the highest proportions of damage on Rommel's forces. He now realised the war in Africa could not be won. Physically exhausted and suffering from a liver infection and low blood pressure, Rommel flew home to Germany to recover his health. General Georg Stumme was left in command in Rommel's absence.
===== Second Battle of El Alamein =====
Improved decoding by British intelligence (see Ultra) meant that the Allies had advance knowledge of virtually every Mediterranean convoy, and only 30 per cent of shipments were getting through. In addition, Mussolini diverted supplies intended for the front to his garrison at Tripoli and refused to release any additional troops to Rommel. The increasing Allied air superiority and lack of fuel meant Rommel was forced to take a more defensive posture than he would have liked for the second Battle of El Alamein. The German defences to the west of the town included a minefield deep with the main defensive line—itself several thousand yards deep—to its west. This, Rommel hoped, would allow his infantry to hold the line at any point until motorised and armoured units in reserve could move up and counterattack any Allied breaches. The British offensive began on 23 October. Stumme, in command in Rommel's absence, died of an apparent heart attack while examining the front on 24 October, and Rommel was ordered to return from his medical leave, arriving on the 25th. Montgomery's intention was to clear a narrow path through the minefield at the northern part of the defences, at the area called Kidney Ridge, with a feint to the south. By the end of 25 October, the 15th Panzer, the defenders in this sector, had only 31 serviceable tanks remaining of their initial force of 119. Rommel brought the 21st Panzer and Ariete Divisions north on 26 October, to bolster the sector. On 28 October, Montgomery shifted his focus to the coast, ordering his 1st and 10th Armoured Divisions to attempt to swing around and cut off Rommel's line of retreat. Meanwhile, Rommel concentrated his attack on the Allied salient at Kidney Ridge, inflicting heavy losses. However, Rommel had only 150 operational tanks remaining, and Montgomery had 800, many of them Shermans.
Montgomery, seeing his armoured brigades losing tanks at an alarming rate, stopped major attacks until the early hours of 2 November, when he opened Operation Supercharge, with a massive artillery barrage. Due to heavy losses in tanks, towards the end of the day, Rommel ordered his forces to disengage and begin to withdraw. At midnight, he informed the OKW of his decision, and received a reply directly from Hitler the following afternoon: he ordered Rommel and his troops to hold their position to the last man. Rommel, who believed that the lives of his soldiers should never be squandered needlessly, was stunned. Rommel initially complied with the order, but after discussions with Kesselring and others, he issued orders for a retreat on 4 November. The delay proved costly in terms of his ability to get his forces out of Egypt. He later said the decision to delay was what he most regretted from his time in Africa. Meanwhile, the British 1st and 7th Armoured Division had broken through the German defences and were preparing to swing north and surround the Axis forces. On the evening of the 4th, Rommel finally received word from Hitler authorising the withdrawal.
==== End of Africa campaign ====
As Rommel attempted to withdraw his forces before the British could cut off his retreat, he fought a series of delaying actions. Heavy rains slowed movements and grounded the Desert Air Force, which aided the withdrawal, yet Rommel's troops were under pressure from the pursuing Eighth Army and had to abandon the trucks of the Italian forces, leaving them behind. Rommel continued to retreat west, aiming for 'Gabes gap' in Tunisia. Kesselring strongly criticised Rommel's decision to retreat all the way to Tunisia, as each airfield the Germans abandoned extended the range of the Allied bombers and fighters. Rommel defended his decision, pointing out that if he tried to assume a defensive position the Allies would destroy his forces and take the airfields anyway; the retreat saved the lives of his remaining men and shortened his supply lines. By now, Rommel's remaining forces fought in reduced-strength combat groups, whereas the Allied forces had great numerical superiority and control of the air. On his arrival in Tunisia, Rommel noted with some bitterness the reinforcements, including the 10th Panzer Division, arriving in Tunisia following the Allied invasion of Morocco.
Having reached Tunisia, Rommel launched an attack against the U.S. II Corps which was threatening to cut his lines of supply north to Tunis. Rommel inflicted a sharp defeat on the American forces at the Kasserine Pass in February, his last battlefield victory of the war, and his first engagement against the United States Army.
Rommel immediately turned back against the British forces, occupying the Mareth Line (old French defences on the Libyan border). While Rommel was at Kasserine at the end of January 1943, the Italian General Giovanni Messe was appointed commander of Panzer Army Africa, renamed the Italo-German Panzer Army in recognition of the fact that it consisted of one German and three Italian corps. Though Messe replaced Rommel, he diplomatically deferred to him, and the two coexisted in what was theoretically the same command. On 23 February Army Group Afrika was created with Rommel in command. It included the Italo-German Panzer Army under Messe (renamed 1st Italian Army) and the German 5th Panzer Army in the north of Tunisia under General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim.
The last Rommel offensive in North Africa was on 6 March 1943, when he attacked the Eighth Army at the Battle of Medenine. The attack was made with 10th, 15th, and 21st Panzer Divisions. Alerted by Ultra intercepts, Montgomery deployed large numbers of anti-tank guns in the path of the offensive. After losing 52 tanks, Rommel called off the assault. On 9 March he returned to Germany. Command was handed over to General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim. Rommel never returned to Africa. The fighting there continued for another two months, until 13 May 1943, when Messe surrendered the army group to the Allies.
=== Italy 1943 ===
On 23 July 1943, Rommel was moved to Greece as commander of Army Group E to counter a possible British invasion. He arrived in Greece on 25 July but was recalled to Berlin the same day following Mussolini's dismissal from office. This caused the German High Command to review the defensive integrity of the Mediterranean and it was decided that Rommel should be posted to Italy as commander of the newly formed Army Group B. On 16 August 1943, Rommel's headquarters moved to Lake Garda in northern Italy and he formally assumed command of the group, consisting of the 44th Infantry Division, the 26th Panzer Division and the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler. When Italy announced its armistice with the Allies on 8 September, Rommel's group took part in Operation Achse, disarming the Italian forces.
Hitler met with Rommel and Kesselring to discuss future operations in Italy on 30 September 1943. Rommel insisted on a defensive line north of Rome, while Kesselring was more optimistic and advocated holding a line south of Rome. Hitler preferred Kesselring's recommendation, and therefore revoked his previous decision for the subordination of Kesselring's forces to Rommel's army group. On 19 October, Hitler decided that Kesselring would be the overall commander of the forces in Italy, sidelining Rommel.
Rommel had wrongly predicted that the collapse of the German line in Italy would be fast. On 21 November, Hitler gave Kesselring overall command of the Italian theatre, moving Rommel and Army Group B to Normandy in France with responsibility for defending the French coast against the long-anticipated Allied invasion.
=== Atlantic Wall 1944 ===
On 4 November 1943, Rommel became General Inspector of the Western Defences. He was given a staff that befitted an army group commander, and the powers to travel, examine and make suggestions on how to improve the defences. Hitler, who was having a disagreement with him over military matters, intended to use Rommel as a psychological trump card.
There was broad disagreement in the German High Command as to how best to meet the expected Allied invasion of Northern France. The Commander-in-Chief West, Gerd von Rundstedt, believed there was no way to stop the invasion near the beaches because of the Allied navies' firepower, as had been experienced at Salerno. He argued that the German armour should be held in reserve well inland near Paris, where they could be used to counter-attack in force in a more traditional military doctrine. The allies could be allowed to extend themselves deep into France, where a battle for control would be fought, allowing the Germans to envelop the allied forces in a pincer movement, cutting off their avenue of retreat. He feared the piecemeal commitment of their armoured forces would cause them to become caught in a battle of attrition which they could not hope to win.
The notion of holding the armour inland to use as a mobile reserve force from which they could mount a powerful counterattack applied the classic use of armoured formations as seen in France in 1940. These tactics were still effective on the Eastern Front, where control of the air was important but did not dominate the action. Rommel's own experiences at the end of the North African campaign revealed to him that the Germans would not be able to preserve their armour from air attack for this type of mass assault. Rommel believed their only opportunity would be to oppose the landings directly at the beaches, and to counterattack there before the invaders could become well-established. Though there had been some defensive positions established and gun emplacements made, the Atlantic Wall was a token defensive line. Rundstedt had confided to Rommel that it was for propaganda purposes only.
Upon arriving in Northern France, Rommel was dismayed by the lack of completed works. According to Ruge, Rommel was in a staff position and could not issue orders, but he made every effort to explain his plan to commanders down to the platoon level, who took up his words eagerly, but "more or less open" opposition from the above slowed down the process.
He and his staff set out to improve the fortifications along the Atlantic Wall with great energy and engineering skill. This was a compromise: Rommel now commanded the 7th and 15th armies; he also had authority over a 20-kilometre-wide strip of coastal land between Zuiderzee and the mouth of the Loire. The chain of command was convoluted: the air force and navy had their own chiefs, as did the South and Southwest France and the Panzer group; Rommel also needed Hitler's permission to use the tank divisions. Rommel had millions of mines laid and thousands of tank traps and obstacles set up on the beaches and throughout the countryside, including in fields suitable for glider aircraft landings, the so-called Rommel's asparagus (the Allies would later counter these with Hobart's Funnies). In April 1944, Rommel promised Hitler that the preparations would be complete by 1 May, a promise he failed to deliver. By the time of the Allied invasion, the preparations were far from finished. The quality of some of the troops manning them was poor and many bunkers lacked sufficient stocks of ammunition.
Rundstedt expected the Allies to invade in the Pas-de-Calais because it was the shortest crossing point from Britain, its port facilities were essential to supplying a large invasion force, and the distance from Calais to Germany was relatively short. Rommel and Hitler's views on the matter are a matter of debate between authors, with both seeming to change their positions.
Hitler vacillated between the two strategies. In late April, he ordered the I SS Panzer Corps placed near Paris, far enough inland to be useless to Rommel, but not far enough for Rundstedt. Rommel moved those armoured formations under his command as far forward as possible, ordering General Erich Marcks, commanding the 84th Corps defending the Normandy section, to move his reserves into the frontline. Rundstedt was willing to delegate a majority of the responsibilities to Rommel (the central reserve was Rundstedt's idea but he did not oppose some form of coastal defence), Rommel's strategy of an armour-supported coastal defence line was opposed by some officers, most notably Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg, who was supported by Guderian. Hitler compromised and gave Rommel three divisions (the 2nd, the 21st and the 116th Panzer), let Rundstedt retain four and turned the other three to Army Group G, pleasing no one.
The Allies staged elaborate deceptions for D-Day (see Operation Fortitude), giving the impression that the landings would be at Calais. Although Hitler himself expected a Normandy invasion for a while, Rommel and most Army commanders in France believed there would be two invasions, with the main invasion coming at the Pas-de-Calais. Rommel drove defensive preparations all along the coast of Northern France, particularly concentrating on fortification building in the River Somme estuary. By D-Day on 6 June 1944 nearly all the German staff officers, including Hitler's staff, believed that Pas-de-Calais was going to be the main invasion site, and continued to believe so even after the landings in Normandy had occurred.
The 5 June storm in the channel seemed to make a landing very unlikely, and a number of the senior officers left their units for training exercises and various other efforts. On 4 June the chief meteorologist of the 3 Air Fleet reported that weather in the channel was so poor there could be no landing attempted for two weeks. Rommel left France on 5 June, and on the next day he was at home celebrating his wife's 50th birthday. He was recalled and returned to his headquarters at 10pm. Meanwhile, earlier in the day, Rundstedt had requested the reserves be transferred to his command. At 10am Keitel advised that Hitler declined to release the reserves but that Rundstedt could move the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend closer to the coast, with the Panzer-Lehr-Division placed on standby. Later in the day, Rundstedt received authorisation to move additional units in preparation for a counterattack, which Rundstedt decided to launch on 7 June. Upon arrival, Rommel concurred with the plan. By nightfall, Rundstedt, Rommel and Speidel continued to believe that the Normandy landing might have been a diversionary attack, as the Allied deception measures still pointed towards Calais. The 7 June counterattack did not take place because Allied air bombardments prevented the 12th SS's timely arrival. All this made the German command structure in France in disarray during the opening hours of the D-Day invasion.
The Allies secured five beachheads by nightfall of 6 June, landing 155,000 troops. The Allies pushed ashore and expanded their beachhead despite strong German resistance. Rommel believed that if his armies pulled out of range of Allied naval fire, it would give them a chance to regroup and re-engage them later with a better chance of success. While he managed to convince Rundstedt, they still needed to win over Hitler. At a meeting with Hitler at his Wolfsschlucht II headquarters in Margival in northern France on 17 June, Rommel warned Hitler about the inevitable collapse in the German defences but was rebuffed and told to focus on military operations.
By mid-July the German position was crumbling. On 17 July 1944, as Rommel was returning from visiting the headquarters of the I SS Panzer Corps, a fighter plane piloted by either Charley Fox of 412 Squadron RCAF, Jacques Remlinger of No. 602 Squadron RAF, or Johannes Jacobus le Roux of No. 602 Squadron RAF strafed his staff car near Sainte-Foy-de-Montgommery. The driver sped up and attempted to get off the main roadway, but a 20 mm round shattered his left arm, causing the vehicle to veer off the road and crash into trees. Rommel was thrown from the car, suffering injuries to the left side of his face from glass shards and three fractures to his skull. This conversation occurred about a month before Rommel was coerced into suicide.
Other notable evidence includes the papers of Rudolf Hartmann (who survived the later purge) and Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel, who were among the leaders of the military resistance (alongside Rommel's chief of staff General Hans Speidel, Colonel Karl-Richard Koßmann, Colonel Eberhard Finckh and Lieutenant Colonel Caesar von Hofacker). These papers, accidentally discovered by historian Christian Schweizer in 2018 while doing research on Rudolf Hartmann, include Hartmann's eyewitness account of a conversation between Rommel and Stülpnagel in May 1944, as well as photos of the mid-May 1944 meeting between the inner circle of the resistance and Rommel at Koßmann's house. According to Hartmann, by the end of May, in another meeting at Hartmann's quarters in Mareil–Marly, Rommel showed "decisive determination" and clear approval of the inner circle's plan. In a post-war account by Karl Strölin, three of Rommel's friends—the Oberbürgermeister of Stuttgart, Strölin (who had served with Rommel in the First World War), Alexander von Falkenhausen and Stülpnagel—began efforts to bring Rommel into the anti-Hitler conspiracy in early 1944. According to Strölin, sometime in February, Rommel agreed to lend his support to the resistance.
On 15 April 1944, Rommel's new chief of staff, Hans Speidel, arrived in Normandy and reintroduced Rommel to Stülpnagel. Speidel had previously been connected to Carl Goerdeler, the civilian leader of the resistance, but not to the plotters led by Claus von Stauffenberg, and came to Stauffenberg's attention only upon his appointment to Rommel's headquarters. The conspirators felt they needed the support of a field marshal on active duty. Erwin von Witzleben, who would have become commander-in-chief of the Wehrmacht had the plot succeeded, was a field marshal, but had been inactive since 1942. The conspirators gave instructions to Speidel to bring Rommel into their circle. Speidel met with former foreign minister Konstantin von Neurath and Strölin on 27 May in Germany, ostensibly at Rommel's request, although the latter was not present. Neurath and Strölin suggested opening immediate surrender negotiations in the West, and, according to Speidel, Rommel agreed to further discussions and preparations. Around the same timeframe, the plotters in Berlin were not aware that Rommel had allegedly decided to take part in the conspiracy. On 16 May, they informed Allen Dulles, through whom they hoped to negotiate with the Western Allies, that Rommel could not be counted on for support.
At least initially, Rommel opposed assassinating Hitler. According to some authors, he gradually changed his attitude. After the war, his widow—among others—maintained that Rommel believed an assassination attempt would spark a civil war in Germany and Austria, and Hitler would have become a martyr for a lasting cause. Instead, Rommel reportedly suggested that Hitler be arrested and brought to trial for his crimes; he did not attempt to implement this plan when Hitler visited Margival, France, on 17 June. The arrest plan would have been highly improbable as Hitler's security was extremely tight. Rommel would have known this, having commanded Hitler's army protection detail in 1939. He was in favour of peace negotiations and repeatedly urged Hitler to negotiate with the Allies which is dubbed by some as "hopelessly naive" considering no one would trust Hitler. "As naive as it was idealistic, the attitude he showed to the man he had sworn loyalty".
According to Reuth, the reason Lucie Rommel did not want her husband to be associated with any conspiracy was that even after the war, the German population neither grasped nor wanted to comprehend the reality of the genocide, thus conspirators were still treated as traitors and outcasts. On the other hand, the resistance depended on the reputation of Rommel to win over the population. Some officers who had worked with Rommel also recognised the relationship between Rommel and the resistance: Westphal said that Rommel did not want any more senseless sacrifices. Butler, using Ruge's recollections, reports that when told by Hitler himself that "no one will make peace with me", Rommel told Hitler that if he was the obstacle to peace, he should resign or kill himself, but Hitler insisted on fanatical defence.
Reuth, based on Jodl's testimony, reports that Rommel forcefully presented the situation and asked for political solutions from Hitler, who rebuffed that Rommel should leave politics to him. Brighton comments that Rommel seemed devoted, even though he did not have much faith in Hitler anymore considering he kept informing Hitler in person and by letter about his changing beliefs despite facing a military dilemma as well as a personal struggle. Lieb remarks that Rommel's attitude in describing the situation honestly and requiring political solutions was almost without precedent and contrary to the attitude of many other generals. Various authors report that many German generals in Normandy, including some SS officers like Hausser, Bittrich, Dietrich (a hard-core Nazi and Hitler's long-time supporter) and Rommel's former opponent Geyr von Schweppenburg, pledged support to him even against Hitler's orders, while Kluge supported him with much hesitation. Rundstedt encouraged Rommel to carry out his plans but refused to do anything himself, remarking that it had to be a man who was still young and loved by the people, while Erich von Manstein was also approached by Rommel but categorically refused, although he did not report them to Hitler either. Peter Hoffmann reports that he also attracted into his orbit officials who had previously refused to support the conspiracy, like Julius Dorpmüller and Karl Kaufmann (according to Russell A. Hart, reliable details of the conversations are now lost, although they certainly met).
On 17 July 1944, Rommel was incapacitated by an Allied air attack, which many authors describe as a fateful event that drastically altered the outcome of the bomb plot. Writer Ernst Jünger commented: "The blow that felled Rommel ... robbed the plan of the shoulders that were to be entrusted the double weight of war and civil war—the only man who had enough naivety to counter the simple terror that those he was about to go against possessed." After the failed bomb attack of 20 July, many conspirators were arrested and the dragnet expanded to thousands. Rommel was first implicated when Stülpnagel, after his suicide attempt, repeatedly muttered "Rommel" in delirium. Under torture, Hofacker named Rommel as one of the participants. Additionally, Goerdeler had written down Rommel's name on a list as potential Reich President (according to Stroelin. They had not managed to announce this intention to Rommel yet and he probably never heard of it until the end of his life).
On 27 September, Martin Bormann submitted to Hitler a memorandum which claimed that "the late General Stülpnagel, Colonel Hofacker, Kluge's nephew who has been executed, Lieutenant Colonel Rathgens, and several ... living defendants have testified that Field Marshal Rommel was perfectly in the picture about the assassination plan and has promised to be at the disposal of the New Government." Gestapo agents were sent to Rommel's house in Ulm and placed him under surveillance. Historian Peter Lieb considers the memorandum, as well as Eberbach's conversation and the testimonies of surviving resistance members (including Hartmann), to be the three key sources that indicate Rommel's support of the assassination plan. He further notes that while Speidel had an interest in promoting his own post-war career, his testimonies should not be dismissed, considering his bravery as an early resistance figure. Remy writes that even more important than Rommel's attitude to the assassination is the fact Rommel had his own plan to end the war. He began to contemplate this plan some months after El Alamein and carried it out with a lonely decision and conviction, and in the end, had managed to bring military leaders in the West to his side.
== Death ==
Rommel's case was turned over to the "Court of Military Honour"—a drumhead court-martial convened to decide the fate of officers involved in the conspiracy. The court included Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel, Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt, Generaloberst Heinz Guderian, General der Infanterie Walther Schroth and Generalleutnant Karl-Wilhelm Specht, with General der Infanterie Karl Kriebel and Generalleutnant Heinrich Kirchheim (whom Rommel had fired after Tobruk in 1941) as deputy members and Generalmajor Ernst Maisel as protocol officer. The Court acquired information from Speidel, Hofacker and others that implicated Rommel, with Keitel and Ernst Kaltenbrunner assuming that he had taken part in the subversion. Keitel and Guderian then made the decision that favoured Speidel's case and at the same time shifted the blame to Rommel. By normal procedure, this would lead to Rommel's being brought to Roland Freisler's People's Court, a kangaroo court that always decided in favour of the prosecution. However, Hitler knew that having Rommel branded and executed as a traitor would severely damage morale on the home front. He thus decided to offer Rommel the chance to take his own life.
Two generals from Hitler's headquarters, Wilhelm Burgdorf and Ernst Maisel, visited Rommel at his home on 14 October 1944. Burgdorf informed him of the charges against him and offered him three options: (a.) he could choose to defend himself personally in front of Hitler in Berlin, or he could refuse to do so (but, having done so, would be taken as an admission of guilt); (b.) he could face the People's Court (which would have been tantamount to a death sentence); or (c.) choose death by suicide. In the former case (b.), his family would have suffered even before the all-but-certain conviction and execution, and his staff would have been arrested and executed as well. In the latter case (c.), the government would claim that he died a hero and bury him with full military honours, and his family would receive full pension payments. In support of the suicide option, Burgdorf had brought a cyanide capsule.
Rommel chose suicide, and explained his decision to his wife and son. Wearing his Afrika Korps jacket and carrying his field marshal's baton, he got into Burgdorf's car, driven by SS-Stabsscharführer Heinrich Doose, and was driven out of the village. After stopping, Doose and Maisel walked away from the car leaving Rommel with Burgdorf. Five minutes later Burgdorf gestured to the two men to return to the car, and Doose noticed that Rommel was slumped over, having taken the cyanide. He died before being taken to the Wagner-Schule field hospital. Ten minutes later, the group telephoned Rommel's wife to inform her of his death.
The official notice of Rommel's death as reported to the public stated that he had died of either a heart attack or a cerebral embolism—a complication of the skull fractures he had suffered in the earlier strafing of his staff car. To strengthen the story, Hitler ordered an official day of mourning in commemoration of his death. As promised, Rommel was given a state funeral, but it was held in Ulm instead of Berlin as had been requested by Rommel. Hitler sent Field Marshal Rundstedt (who was unaware that Rommel had died as a result of Hitler's orders) as his representative to the funeral.
The truth behind Rommel's death became known to the Allies when intelligence officer Charles Marshall interviewed Rommel's widow, Lucia Rommel, as well as from a letter by Rommel's son Manfred in April 1945.
Rommel's grave is located in Herrlingen, a short distance west of Ulm. For decades after the war on the anniversary of his death, veterans of the Africa campaign, including former opponents, would gather at his tomb in Herrlingen.
== Style as military commander ==
On the Italian front in the First World War, Rommel was a successful tactician in fast-developing mobile battle and this shaped his subsequent style as a military commander. He found that taking initiative and not allowing the enemy forces to regroup led to victory. Some authors argue that his enemies were often less organised, second-rate, or depleted, and his tactics were less effective against adequately led, trained and supplied opponents and proved insufficient in the later years of the war. Others point out that through his career, he frequently fought while outnumbered and outgunned, sometimes overwhelmingly so, while having to deal with internal opponents in Germany who hoped that he would fail.
Rommel is praised by numerous authors as a great leader of men. The historian and journalist Basil Liddell Hart concludes that he was a strong leader worshipped by his troops, respected by his adversaries and deserving to be named as one of the "Great Captains of History". Owen Connelly concurs, writing that "No better exemplar of military leadership can be found" and quoting Friedrich von Mellenthin on the inexplicable mutual understanding that existed between Rommel and his troops. Hitler, though, remarked that, "Unfortunately Field-Marshal Rommel is a very great leader full of drive in times of success, but an absolute pessimist when he meets the slightest problems." Telp criticises Rommel for not extending the benevolence he showed in promoting his own officers' careers to his peers, whom he ignored or slighted in his reports.
Taking his opponents by surprise and creating uncertainty in their minds were key elements in Rommel's approach to offensive warfare: he took advantage of sand storms and the dark of night to conceal the movement of his forces. He was aggressive and often directed the battle from the front or piloted a reconnaissance aircraft over the lines to get a view of the situation. When the British mounted a commando raid deep behind German lines in an effort to kill Rommel and his staff on the eve of their Crusader offensive, Rommel was indignant that the British expected to find his headquarters behind his front. Mellenthin and Harald Kuhn write that at times in North Africa his absence from a position of communication made command of the battles of the Afrika Korps difficult. Mellenthin lists Rommel's counterattack during Operation Crusader as one such instance. Butler concurred, saying that leading from the front is a good concept but Rommel took it so far—he frequently directed the actions of a single company or battalion—that he made communication and coordination between units problematic, as well as risking his life to the extent that he could easily have been killed even by his own artillery. Albert Kesselring also complained about Rommel cruising about the battlefield like a division or corps commander; but Gause and Westphal, supporting Rommel, replied that in the African desert, only this method would work and that it was useless to try to restrain Rommel anyway. His staff officers, although admiring towards their leader, complained about the self-destructive Spartan lifestyle that made life harder, diminished his effectiveness and forced them to "bab[y] him as unobtrusively as possible".
For his leadership during the French campaign, Rommel received both praise and criticism. Many, such as General Georg Stumme, who had previously commanded the 7th Panzer Division, were impressed with the speed and success of Rommel's drive. Others were reserved or critical: Kluge, his commanding officer, argued that Rommel's decisions were impulsive and that he claimed too much credit, by falsifying diagrams or by not acknowledging contributions of other units, especially the Luftwaffe. Some pointed out that Rommel's division took the highest casualties in the campaign. Others point out that in exchange for 2,160 casualties and 42 tanks, it captured more than 100,000 prisoners and destroyed nearly two divisions' worth of enemy tanks (about 450 tanks), vehicles and guns.
Rommel spoke German with a pronounced southern German or Swabian accent. He was not a part of the Prussian aristocracy that dominated the German high command, and as such was looked upon somewhat suspiciously by the Wehrmacht's traditional power structure. Rommel felt a commander should be physically more robust than the troops he led, and should always show them an example. He expected his subordinate commanders to do the same.
Rommel was direct, unbending, tough in his manners, to superiors and subordinates alike, and disobedient even to Hitler whenever he saw fit, although gentle and diplomatic to the lower ranks. Despite being publicity-friendly, he was also shy, introverted, clumsy and overly formal even to his closest aides, judging people only on their merits, although loyal and considerate to those who had proved reliability, and he displayed a surprisingly passionate and devoted side to a very small few (including Hitler) with whom he had dropped the seemingly impenetrable barriers.
=== Relationship with Italian forces ===
Rommel's relationship with the Italian High Command in North Africa was generally poor. Although he was nominally subordinate to the Italians, he enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy from them; since he was directing their troops in battle as well as his own, this was bound to cause hostility among Italian commanders. Conversely, as the Italian command had control over the supplies of the forces in Africa, they resupplied Italian units preferentially, which was a source of resentment for Rommel and his staff. Rommel's direct and abrasive manner did nothing to smooth these issues.
While certainly much less proficient than Rommel in their leadership, aggression, tactical outlook and mobile warfare skills, Italian commanders were competent in logistics, strategy and artillery doctrine: their troops were ill-equipped but well-trained. As such, the Italian commanders were repeatedly at odds with Rommel over concerns with issues of supply. Field Marshal Kesselring was assigned Supreme Commander Mediterranean, at least in part to alleviate command problems between Rommel and the Italians. This effort resulted only in partial success, with Kesselring's own relationship with the Italians being unsteady and Kesselring claiming Rommel ignored him as readily as he ignored the Italians. Rommel often went directly to Hitler with his needs and concerns, taking advantage of the favouritism that the Führer displayed towards him and adding to the distrust that Kesselring and the German High Command already had of him.
According to Scianna, the opinion among the Italian military leaders was not unanimous. In general, Rommel was a target of criticism and a scapegoat for defeat rather than a glorified figure, with certain generals also trying to replace him as the heroic leader or hijack the Rommel myth for their own benefit. Nevertheless, he never became a hated figure, although the "abandonment myth", despite being repudiated by officers of the X Corps themselves, was long-lived. Many found Rommel's chaotic leadership and emotional character hard to work with, yet the Italians held him in higher regard than other German senior commanders, militarily and personally.
Very different, however, was the perception of Rommel by Italian common soldiers and NCOs, who, like the German field troops, had the deepest trust and respect for him. Paolo Colacicchi, an officer in the Italian Tenth Army recalled that Rommel "became sort of a myth to the Italian soldiers". Rommel himself held a much more generous view about the Italian soldier than about their leadership, towards whom his disdain, deeply rooted in militarism, was not atypical, although unlike Kesselring he was incapable of concealing it. Unlike many of his superiors and subordinates who held racist views, he was usually "kindly disposed" to the Italians in general.
James J. Sadkovich cites examples of Rommel abandoning his Italian units, refusing cooperation, rarely acknowledging their achievements and other improper behaviour towards his Italian allies, Giuseppe Mancinelli, who was the liaison between German and Italian command, accused Rommel of blaming Italians for his own errors. Sadkovich names Rommel as arrogantly ethnocentric and disdainful towards Italians.
=== Views on the conduct of war ===
==== Combat ====
Many authors describe Rommel as having a reputation of being a chivalrous, humane, and professional officer, and that he earned the respect of both his own troops and his enemies.
Gerhard Schreiber quotes Rommel's orders, issued together with Kesselring: "Sentimentality concerning the Badoglio following gangs ("Banden" in the original, indicating a mob-like crowd) in the uniforms of the former ally is misplaced. Whoever fights against the German soldier has lost any right to be treated well and shall experience toughness reserved for the rabble which betrays friends. Every member of the German troop has to adopt this stance."
Schreiber writes that this is exceptionally harsh and, according to him, "hate fuelled" order brutalised the war and was clearly aimed at Italian soldiers, not just partisans. Dennis Showalter writes that "Rommel was not involved in Italy's partisan war, though the orders he issued prescribing death for Italian soldiers taken in arms and Italian civilians sheltering escaped British prisoners do not suggest he would have behaved significantly different from his Wehrmacht counterparts."
According to Maurice Remy, orders issued by Hitler during Rommel's stay in a hospital resulted in massacres in the course of Operation Achse, disarming the Italian forces after the armistice with the Allies in 1943. Remy also states that Rommel treated his Italian opponents with his usual fairness, requiring that the prisoners should be accorded the same conditions as German civilians. Remy opines that an order in which Rommel, in contrast to Hitler's directives, called for no "sentimental scruples" against "Badoglio-dependent bandits in uniforms of the once brothers-in-arms" should not be taken out of context. Peter Lieb agrees that the order did not radicalise the war and that the disarmament in Rommel's area of responsibility happened without major bloodshed. Italian internees were sent to Germany for forced labour, but Rommel was unaware of this. Klaus Schmider comments that the writings of Lieb and others succeed in vindicating Rommel "both with regards to his likely complicity in the July plot as well as his repeated refusal to carry out illegal orders."
Rommel withheld Hitler's Commando Order to execute captured commandos from his Army Group B, with his units reporting that they were treating commandos as regular POWs. It is likely that he had acted similarly in North Africa. Historian Szymon Datner argues that Rommel may have been simply trying to conceal the atrocities of Nazi Germany from the Allies. Remy states that although Rommel had heard rumours about massacres while fighting in Africa, his personality, combined with special circumstances, meant that he was not fully confronted with the reality of atrocities before 1944. When Rommel learned about the atrocities that SS Division Leibstandarte committed in Italy in September 1943, he allegedly forbade his son from joining the Waffen-SS.
==== Attitude toward colonial troops ====
By the time of the Second World War, French colonial troops were portrayed as a symbol of French depravity in Nazi propaganda; Canadian historian Myron Echenberg writes that Rommel, just like Hitler, viewed black French soldiers with particular disdain. According to author Ward Rutherford, Rommel also held racist views towards British colonial troops from India; Rutherford in his The biography of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel writes: "Not even his most sycophantic apologists have been able to evade the conclusion, fully demonstrated by his later behaviour, that Rommel was a racist who, for example, thought it desperately unfair that the British should employ 'black'—by which he meant Indian—troops against a white adversary." Vaughn Raspberry writes that Rommel and other officers considered it an insult to fight against black Africans because they considered black people to be members of "inferior races".
Bruce Watson comments that whatever racism Rommel might have had in the beginning, it was washed away when he fought in the desert. When he saw that they were fighting well, he gave the members of the 4th Division of the Indian Army high praise. Rommel and the Germans acknowledge the Gurkhas' fighting ability, although their style leaned more towards ferocity. Once he witnessed German soldiers with throats cut by a khukri knife. Originally, he did not want Chandra Bose's Indian formation (composed of the Allied Indian soldiers), captured by his own troops, to work under his command. In Normandy though, when they had already become the Indische Freiwilligen Legion der Waffen SS, he visited them and praised them for their efforts (while they still suffered general disrespect within the Wehrmacht). A review on Rutherford's book by the Pakistan Army Journal says that the statement is one of many that Rutherford uses, which lack support in authority and analysis. Rommel saying that using the Indians was unfair should also be put in perspective, considering the disbandment of the battle-hardened 4th Division by the Allies. Rommel praised the colonial troops in the battle of France: "The (French) colonial troops fought with extraordinary determination. The anti-tank teams and tank crews performed with courage and caused serious losses," though that might be an example of generals honouring their opponents so that "their own victories appear the more impressive." Reuth comments that Rommel ensured that he and his command would act decently (shown by his treatment of the Free French prisoners who were considered partisans by Hitler, the Jews and the coloured men), while he was distancing himself from Hitler's racist war in the East and deluding himself into believing that Hitler was good, only the Party big shots were evil. The black South African soldiers recount that when they were held as POWs after they were captured by Rommel, they initially slept and queued for food away from the whites, until Rommel saw this and told them that brave soldiers should all queue together. Finding this strange coming from a man fighting for Hitler, they adopted this behaviour until they went back to the Union of South Africa, where they were separated again.
There are reports that Rommel acknowledged the Maori soldiers' fighting skills, yet at the same time he complained about their methods which were unfair from the European perspective. When he asked the commander of the New Zealand 6th Infantry Brigade about his division's massacres of the wounded and POWs, the commander attributed these incidents to the Maoris in his unit. Hew Strachan notes that lapses in practising the warriors' code of war were usually attributed to ethnic groups which lived outside Europe with the implication that those ethnic groups which lived in Europe knew how to behave (although Strachan opines that such attributions were probably true). Nevertheless, according to the website of the 28th Maori Battalion, Rommel always treated them fairly and he also showed understanding with regard to war crimes.
==== Politics ====
Some authors cite, among other cases, Rommel's naive reaction to events in Poland while he was there: he paid a visit to his wife's uncle, famous Polish priest and patriotic leader, who was murdered within days, but Rommel never understood this and, at his wife's urgings, kept writing letter after letter to Himmler's adjutants asking them to keep track and take care of their relative. Knopp and Mosier agree that he was naive politically, citing his request for a Jewish Gauleiter in 1943. Despite this, Lieb finds it hard to believe that a man in Rommel's position could have known nothing about atrocities, while accepting that locally he was separated from the places where these atrocities occurred. Gershom reports that the recommendation came from officers "speaking for Rommel", and comments, "Perhaps Rommel did not know or care about the specifics; perhaps his motivation was not hate but dispassionate efficiency. The distinctions would have escaped the men hanging from hooks."
In his article Im Rücken Rommels. Kriegsverbrechen, koloniale Massengewalt und Judenverfolgung in Nordafrika, Bernhard writes that North African campaign was hardly "war without hate" as Rommel described it, and points out rapes of women, ill-treatment and executions of captured POWs, as well as racially motivated murders of Arabs, Berbers and Jews, in addition to the establishment of concentration camps. Bernhard again cites discussion among the German and Italian authorities about Rommel's position regarding countermeasures against local insurrection (according to them, Rommel wanted to eliminate the danger at all costs) to show that Rommel fundamentally approved of Italian policy in the matter. Bernhard opines that Rommel had informal power over the matter because his military success brought him influence on the Italian authorities.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum describes relationship between Rommel and the proposed Einsatzgruppen Egypt as "problematic". The Museum states that this unit was to be tasked with murdering the Jewish population of North Africa, and Palestine, and it was to be attached directly to Rommel's Afrika Korps. According to the museum Rauff met with Rommel's staff in 1942 as part of preparations for this plan. The Museum states that Rommel was certainly aware that planning was taking place, even if his reaction to it isn't recorded, and while the main proposed Einsatzgruppen were never set in action, smaller units did murder Jews in North Africa.
On the other hand, Christopher Gabel remarks that Richards Evans seems to attempt to prove that Rommel was a war criminal by association but fails to produce evidence that he had actual or constructive knowledge about said crimes. Ben H. Shepherd comments that Rommel showed insight and restraint when dealing with the nomadic Arabs, the only civilians who occasionally intervened in the war and thus risked reprisals as a result. Shepherd cites a request by Rommel to the Italian High Command, in which he complained about excesses against the Arabic population and noted that reprisals without identifying the real culprits were never expedient.
The documentary Rommel's War (Rommels Krieg), made by Caron and Müllner with advice from Sönke Neitzel, states that even though it is not clear whether Rommel knew about the crimes (in Africa) or not, "his military success made possible forced labour, torture and robbery. Rommel's war is always part of Hitler's war of worldviews, whether Rommel wanted it or not." More specifically, several German historians have revealed the existence of plans to exterminate Jews in Egypt and Palestine, if Rommel had succeeded in his goal of invading the Middle East during 1942 by SS unit embedded to Afrika Korps.
According to Mallmann and Cüppers, a post-war CIA report described Rommel as having met with Walther Rauff, who was responsible for the unit, and been disgusted after learning about the plan from him and as having sent him on his way; but they conclude that such a meeting is hardly possible as Rauff was sent to report to Rommel at Tobruk on 20 July and Rommel was then 500 km away conducting the First El Alamein. On 29 July, Rauff's unit was sent to Athens, expecting to enter Africa when Rommel crossed the Nile. However, in view of the Axis' deteriorating situation in Africa it returned to Germany in September.
Historian Jean-Christoph Caron opines that there is no evidence that Rommel knew or would have supported Rauff's mission; he also believes Rommel bore no direct responsibility regarding the SS's looting of gold in Tunisia. Historian Haim Saadon, Director of the Center of Research on North African Jewry in WWII, goes further, stating that there was no extermination plan: Rauff's documents show that his foremost concern was helping the Wehrmacht to win, and he came up with the idea of forced labour camps in the process. By the time these labour camps were in operation, according to Ben H. Shepherd, Rommel had already been retreating and there is no proof of his contact with the Einsatzkommando.
Haaretz comments that the CIA report is most likely correct regarding both the interaction between Rommel and Rauff and Rommel's objections to the plan: Rauff's assistant Theodor Saevecke, and declassified information from Rauff's file, both report the same story. Haaretz also remarks that Rommel's influence probably softened the Nazi authorities' attitude to the Jews and to the civilian population generally in North Africa.
Rolf-Dieter Müller comments that the war in North Africa, while as bloody as any other war, differed considerably from the war of annihilation in eastern Europe, because it was limited to a narrow coastline and hardly affected the population.
Showalter writes that:
Joachim Käppner writes that while the conflict in North Africa was not as bloody as in Eastern Europe, the Afrika Korps committed some war crimes. Historian Martin Kitchen states that the reputation of the Afrika Korps was preserved by circumstances: The sparsely populated desert areas did not lend themselves to ethnic cleansing; the German forces never reached the large Jewish populations in Egypt and Palestine; and in the urban areas of Tunisia and Tripolitania the Italian government constrained the German efforts to discriminate against or eliminate Jews who were Italian citizens. Despite this, the North African Jews themselves believed that it was Rommel who prevented the "Final Solution" from being carried out against them when Germany might dominate North Africa from Egypt to Morocco. According to Curtis and Remy, 120,000 Jews lived in Algeria, 200,000 in Morocco, about 80,000 in Tunisia. Remy writes that this number was unchanged following the German invasion of Tunisia in 1942 while Curtis notes that 5000 of these Jews would be sent to forced labour camps. and 26,000 in Libya.
Hein Klemann writes that the confiscations in the "foraging zone" of Afrika Korps threatened the survival chances of local civilians, just as plunder enacted by the Wehrmacht in the Soviet Union.
In North Africa, Rommel's troops laid down landmines, which in decades to come killed and maimed thousands of civilians. Since statistics started in the 1980s, 3,300 people have lost their lives, and 7,500 maimed There are disputed whether the landmines in El Alamein, which constitute the most notable portion of landmines left over from World War II, were left by the Afrika Korps or the British Army led by Field Marshal Montgomery. Egypt has not joined the Mine Ban Treaty until this day.
Rommel sharply protested the Jewish policies and other immoralities and was an opponent of the Gestapo He also refused to comply with Hitler's order to execute Jewish POWs. Controversial author Bryan Mark Rigg writes: "The only place in the army where one might find a place of refuge was in the Deutsches Afrika-Korps (DAK) under the leadership of the 'Desert Fox,' Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. According to this study's files, his half-Jews were not as affected by the racial laws as most others serving on the European continent." He notes, though, that "Perhaps Rommel failed to enforce the order to discharge half-Jews because he was unaware of it".
Captain Horst van Oppenfeld (a staff officer to Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg and a quarter-Jew) says that Rommel did not concern himself with the racial decrees and he had never experienced any trouble caused by his ancestry during his time in the DAK even if Rommel never personally interfered on his behalf. Another quarter-Jew, Fritz Bayerlein, became a famous general and Rommel's chief-of-staff, despite also being a bisexual, which made his situation even more precarious.
Building the Atlantic Wall was officially the responsibility of the Organisation Todt, which was not under Rommel's command, but he enthusiastically joined the task, protesting slave labour and suggesting that they should recruit French civilians and pay them good wages. Despite this, French civilians and Italian prisoners of war held by the Germans were forced by officials under the Vichy government, the Todt Organization and the SS forces to work on building some of the defences Rommel requested, in appalling conditions according to historian Will Fowler. Although they got basic wages, the workers complained because it was too little and there was no heavy equipment.
German troops worked almost round-the-clock under very harsh conditions, with Rommel's rewards being accordions.
Rommel was one of the commanders who protested the Oradour-sur-Glane massacre.
== Reputation as a military commander ==
Rommel was famous in his lifetime, including among his adversaries. His tactical prowess and decency in the treatment of Allied prisoners earned him the respect of opponents including Claude Auchinleck, Archibald Wavell, George S. Patton, and Bernard Montgomery.
Rommel's military reputation has been controversial. While nearly all military practitioners acknowledge Rommel's excellent tactical skills and personal bravery, some, such as U.S. major general and military historian David T. Zabecki of the United States Naval Institute, consider Rommel's performance as an operational level commander to be highly overstated and that other officers share this belief. General Klaus Naumann, who served as Chief of Staff of the Bundeswehr, agrees with the military historian Charles Messenger that Rommel had challenges at the operational level, and states that Rommel's violation of the unity of command principle, bypassing the chain of command in Africa, was unacceptable and contributed to the eventual operational and strategic failure in North Africa. The German biographer Wolf Heckmann describes Rommel as "the most overrated commander of an army in world history".
Nevertheless, there is also a notable number of officers who admire his methods, like Norman Schwarzkopf who described Rommel as a genius at battles of movement saying "Look at Rommel. Look at North Africa, the Arab-Israeli wars, and all the rest of them. A war in the desert is a war of mobility and lethality. It's not a war where straight lines are drawn in the sand and [you] say, 'I will defend here or die." Ariel Sharon deemed the German military model used by Rommel to be superior to the British model used by Montgomery. His compatriot Moshe Dayan likewise considered Rommel a model and icon. Wesley Clark states that "Rommel's military reputation, though, has lived on, and still sets the standard for a style of daring, charismatic leadership to which most officers aspire." During the recent desert wars, Rommel's military theories and experiences attracted great interest from policymakers and military instructors. Chinese military leader Sun Li-jen had the laudatory nickname "Rommel of the East".
Certain modern military historians, such as Larry T. Addington, Niall Barr, Douglas Porch and Robert Citino, are sceptical of Rommel as an operational, let alone strategic level commander. They point to Rommel's lack of appreciation for Germany's strategic situation, his misunderstanding of the relative importance of his theatre to the German High Command, his poor grasp of logistical realities, and, according to the historian Ian Beckett, his "penchant for glory hunting". Citino credits Rommel's limitations as an operational level commander as "materially contributing" to the eventual demise of the Axis forces in North Africa, while Addington focuses on the struggle over strategy, whereby Rommel's initial brilliant success resulted in "catastrophic effects" for Germany in North Africa. Porch highlights Rommel's "offensive mentality", symptomatic of the Wehrmacht commanders as a whole in the belief that the tactical and operational victories would lead to strategic success. Compounding the problem was the Wehrmacht's institutional tendency to discount logistics, industrial output and their opponents' capacity to learn from past mistakes.
The historian Geoffrey P. Megargee points out Rommel's playing the German and Italian command structures against each other to his advantage. Rommel used the confused structure—the High command of the armed forces, the OKH (Supreme High Command of the Army) and the Comando Supremo (Italian Supreme Command)—to disregard orders that he disagreed with or to appeal to whatever authority he felt would be most sympathetic to his requests.
Some historians take issue with Rommel's absence from Normandy on the day of the Allied invasion, 6 June 1944. He had left France on 5 June and was at home on the 6th celebrating his wife's birthday. (According to Rommel, he planned to proceed to see Hitler the next day to discuss the situation in Normandy). Zabecki calls his decision to leave the theatre in view of an imminent invasion "an incredible lapse of command responsibility". Lieb remarks that Rommel displayed real mental agility, but the lack of an energetic commander, together with other problems, caused the battle largely not to be conducted in his concept (which is the opposite of the German doctrine), although the result was still better than Geyr's plan. Lieb also opines that while his harshest critics (who mostly came from the General Staff) often said that Rommel was overrated or not suitable for higher commands, envy was a big factor here.
T.L. McMahon argues that while Rommel no doubt possessed operational vision, he did not have the strategic resources to effect his operational choices while his forces provided the tactical ability to accomplish his goals, and the German staff and system of staff command were designed for commanders who led from the front, and in some cases he might have chosen the same options as Montgomery (a reputedly strategy-oriented commander) had he been put in the same conditions. According to Steven Zaloga, tactical flexibility was a great advantage of the German system, but in the final years of the war, Hitler and his cronies like Himmler and Goering had usurped more and more authority at the strategic level, leaving professionals like Rommel increasing constraints on their actions. Martin Blumenson considers Rommel a general with a compelling view of strategy and logistics, which was demonstrated through his many arguments with his superiors over such matters, although Blumenson also thinks that what distinguished Rommel was his boldness, his intuitive feel for the battlefield.)
Joseph Forbes comments that: "The complex, conflict-filled interaction between Rommel and his superiors over logistics, objectives and priorities should not be used to detract from Rommel's reputation as a remarkable military leader", because Rommel was not given powers over logistics, and because if only generals who attain strategic-policy goals are great generals, such highly regarded commanders as Robert E. Lee, Hannibal, Charles XII would have to be excluded from that list. General Siegfried F. Storbeck, Deputy Inspector General of the Bundeswehr (1987–1991), remarks that, Rommel's leadership style and offensive thinking, although carrying inherent risks like losing the overview of the situation and creating overlapping of authority, have been proved effective, and have been analysed and incorporated in the training of officers by "us, our Western allies, the Warsaw Pact, and even the Israel Defense Forces". Maurice Remy defends his strategic decision regarding Malta as, although risky, the only logical choice.
Rommel was among the few Axis commanders (the others being Isoroku Yamamoto and Reinhard Heydrich) who were targeted for assassination by Allied planners. Two attempts were made, the first being Operation Flipper in North Africa in 1941, and the second being Operation Gaff in Normandy in 1944.
Research by Norman Ohler claims that Rommel's behaviours were heavily influenced by Pervitin which he reportedly took in heavy doses, to such an extent that Ohler refers to him as "the Crystal Fox" ("Kristallfuchs")—playing off the nickname "Desert Fox" famously given to him by the British.
==Debate about atrocities==
=== Executions of prisoners in France ===
In France, Rommel ordered the execution of one French officer who refused three times to cooperate when being taken prisoner; there are disputes as to whether this execution was justified. Caddick-Adams comments that this would make Rommel a war criminal condemned by his own hand, and that other authors overlook this episode. Butler notes that the officer refused to surrender three times and thus died in a courageous but foolhardy way. French historian Petitfrère remarks that Rommel was in a hurry and had no time for useless palavers, although this act was still debatable. Telp remarks that, "he treated prisoners of war with consideration. On one occasion, he was forced to order the shooting of a French lieutenant-colonel for refusing to obey his captors." Scheck says, "Although there is no evidence incriminating Rommel himself, his unit did fight in areas where German massacres of black French prisoners of war were extremely common in June 1940."
Historian David Stone notes that acts of shooting surrendered prisoners were carried out by Rommel's 7th Panzer Division and observes contradictory statements in Rommel's account of the events; Rommel initially wrote that "any enemy troops were wiped out or forced to withdraw" but also added that "many prisoners taken were hopelessly drunk." Stone attributes the massacres of soldiers from the 53ème Regiment d'Infanterie Coloniale (N'Tchoréré's unit) on 7 June to the 5th Infantry Division. Historian Daniel Butler agrees that it was possible that the massacre at Le Quesnoy happened given the existence of Nazis, such as Hanke, in Rommel's division, while stating that in comparison with other German units, few sources regarding such actions of the men of the 7th Panzer exist. Butler believes that "it's almost impossible to imagine" Rommel authorising or countenancing such actions. He also writes that "Some accusers have twisted a remark in Rommel's own account of the action in the village of Le Quesnoy as proof that he at least tacitly condoned the executions—'any enemy troops were either wiped out or forced to withdraw'—but the words themselves as well as the context of the passage hardly support the contention."
===Treatment of Jews and other civilians in North Africa===
Giordana Terracina writes that: "On April 3, the Italians recaptured Benghazi and a few months later the Afrika Korps led by Rommel was sent to Libya and began the deportation of the Jews of Cyrenaica in the Giado concentration camp and other smaller towns in Tripolitania. This measure was accompanied by shooting, also in Benghazi, of some Jews guilty of having welcomed the British troops, on their arrival, treating them as liberators." Gershom states that Italian authorities were responsible for bringing Jews into their concentration camps, which were "not built to exterminate its inmates", yet as the water and food supply was meagre, were not built to keep humans alive either. Also according to Gershom, the German consul in Tripoli knew about the process and trucks used to transport supplies to Rommel were sometimes used to transport Jews, despite all the problems the German forces were having. The Jerusalem Post's review of Gershom Gorenberg's War of shadows writes that: "The Italians were far more brutal with civilians, including Libyan Jews, than Rommel’s Afrika Korps, which by all accounts abided by the laws of war. But nobody worried that the Italians who sent Jews to concentration camps in Libya, would invade British-held Egypt, let alone Mandatory Palestine."
According to German historian , Rommel forbade his soldiers from buying anything from the Jewish population of Tripoli, used Jewish slave labour and commanded Jews to clear out minefields by walking on them ahead of his forces. According to Proske, some of the Libyan Jews were eventually sent to concentration camps. Historians Christian Schweizer and Peter Lieb note that: "Over the last few years, even though the social science teacher Wolfgang Proske has sought to participate in the discussion [on Rommel] with very strong opinions, his biased submissions are not scientifically received." The Heidenheimer Zeitung notes that Proske was the publisher of his main work Täter, Helfer, Trittbrettfahrer – NS-Belastete von der Ostalb, after failing to have it published by another publisher.
According to historian Michael Wolffsohn, during the Africa campaign, preparations for committing genocide against the North African Jews were in full swing and a thousand of them were transported to East European concentration camps. At the same time, he recommends the Bundeswehr to keep the names and traditions associated with Rommel (although Wolffsohn opines that focus should be put on the politically thoughtful soldier he became at the end of his life, rather than the swashbuckler and the humane rogue).
Robert Satloff writes in his book Among the Righteous: Lost Stories from the Holocaust's Long Reach into Arab Lands that as the German and Italian forces retreated across Libya towards Tunisia, the Jewish population became victim upon which they released their anger and frustration. According to Satloff Afrika Korps soldiers plundered Jewish property all along the Libyan coast. This violence and persecution only came to an end with the arrival of General Montgomery in Tripoli on 23 January 1943. According to Maurice Remy, although there were antisemitic individuals in the Afrika Korps, actual cases of abuse are not known, even against the Jewish soldiers of the Eighth Army. Remy quotes Isaac Levy, the Senior Jewish Chaplain of the Eighth Army, as saying that he had never seen "any sign or hint that the soldiers [of the Afrika Korps] are antisemitic.". The Telegraph comments: "Accounts suggest that it was not Field Marshal Erwin Rommel but the ruthless SS colonel Walter Rauff who stripped Tunisian Jews of their wealth."
Commenting on Rommel's conquest of Tunisia, Marvin Perry writes that: "The bridgehead Rommel established in Tunisia enabled the SS to herd Jews into slave labor camps."
Jan Friedmann writes that: "The SS had established a network of labor camps in Tunisia. More than 2,500 Tunisian Jews died in six months of German rule, and the regular army was also involved in executions." Caron writes in Der Spiegel that the camps were organised in early December 1942 by Nehring, the commander in Tunisia, and Rauff, while Rommel was retreating. According to Caddick-Adams, no Waffen-SS served under Rommel in Africa at any time and most of the activities of Rauff's detachment happened after Rommel's departure. Shepherd notes that during this time Rommel was retreating and there is no evidence that he had contact with the Einsatzkommando. Addressing the call of some authors to contextualise Rommel's actions in Italy and North Africa, Wolfgang Mährle argues that while it is undeniable that Rommel played the role of a Generalfeldmarschall in a criminal war, this only illustrates in a limited way his personal attitude and the actions resulted from that.
===Alleged treasure and spoils===
According to several historians, allegations and stories that associate Rommel and the Afrika Korps with the harassing and plundering of Jewish gold and property in Tunisia are usually known under the name "Rommel's treasure" or "Rommel's gold". Michael FitzGerald comments that the treasure should be named more accurately as Rauff's gold, as Rommel had nothing to do with its acquisition or removal. Jean-Christoph Caron comments that the treasure legend has a real core and that Jewish property was looted by the SS in Tunisia and later might have been hidden or sunken around the port city of Corsica, where Rauff was stationed in 1943. The person who gave birth to the full-blown legend was the SS soldier Walter Kirner, who presented a false map to the French authorities. Claudia Hecht also explains that although the Stuttgart and Ulm authorities did arrange for the Rommel family to use a villa whose Jewish owners had been forced out two years earlier, for a brief period after their own house had been destroyed by Allied bombing, ownership of it was never transferred to them. Butler notes that Rommel was one of the few who refused large estates and gifts of cash Hitler gave to his generals.
== In Nazi and Allied propaganda ==
At the beginning, although Hitler and Goebbels took particular notice of Rommel, the Nazi elites had no intent to create one major war symbol (partly out of fear that he would offset Hitler), generating huge propaganda campaigns for not only Rommel but also Gerd von Rundstedt, Walther von Brauchitsch, Eduard Dietl, Sepp Dietrich (the latter two were party members and also strongly supported by Hitler), etc. Nevertheless, a multitude of factors—including Rommel's unusual charisma, his talents both in military matters and public relations,, the efforts of Goebbels's propaganda machine, and the Allies' participation in mythologising his life (either for political benefits,)—gradually contributed to Rommel's fame. Spiegel wrote, "Even back then his fame outshone that of all other commanders."
Rommel's victories in France were featured in the German press and in the February 1941 film Sieg im Westen (Victory in the West), in which Rommel personally helped direct a segment re-enacting the crossing of the Somme River.According to Scheck, although there is no evidence of Rommel committing crimes, during the shooting of the movie, African prisoners of war, were forced to take part in its making, and forced to carry out humiliating acts. Stills from the re-enactment are found in "Rommel Collection"; it was filmed by Hans Ertl, assigned to this task by Dr. Kurt Hesse, a personal friend of Rommel, who worked for Wehrmacht Propaganda Section V Rommel's victories in 1941 were played up by the Nazi propaganda, even though his successes in North Africa were achieved in arguably one of Germany's least strategically important theatres of World War II. In November 1941, Reich Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels wrote about "the urgent need" to have Rommel "elevated to a kind of popular hero." Rommel, with his innate abilities as a military commander and love of the spotlight, was a perfect fit for the role Goebbels designed for him.
=== Successes in North Africa ===
In North Africa, Rommel received help in cultivating his image from Alfred Ingemar Berndt, a senior official at the Reich Propaganda Ministry who had volunteered for military service. Seconded by Goebbels, Berndt was assigned to Rommel's staff and became one of his closest aides. Berndt often acted as a liaison between Rommel, the Propaganda Ministry, and the Führer Headquarters. He directed Rommel's photo shoots and filed radio dispatches describing the battles.
In the spring of 1941, Rommel's name began to appear in the British media. In the autumn of 1941 and early winter of 1941/1942, he was mentioned in the British press almost daily. Toward the end of the year, the Reich propaganda machine also used Rommel's successes in Africa as a diversion from the Wehrmacht's challenging situation in the Soviet Union with the stall of Operation Barbarossa. The American press soon began to take notice of Rommel as well, following the country's entry into the war on 11 December 1941, writing that "The British (...) admire him because he beat them and were surprised to have beaten in turn such a capable general." General Auchinleck distributed a directive to his commanders seeking to dispel the notion that Rommel was a "superman". Rommel, no matter how hard the situation was, made a deliberate effort at always spending some time with soldiers and patients, his own and POWs alike, which contributed greatly to his reputation of not only being a great commander but also "a decent chap" among the troops.
The attention of the Western and especially the British press thrilled Goebbels, who wrote in his diary in early 1942: "Rommel continues to be the recognized darling of even the enemies' news agencies." The Field Marshal was pleased by the media attention, although he knew the downsides of having a reputation. Hitler took note of the British propaganda as well, commenting in the summer of 1942 that Britain's leaders must have hoped "to be able to explain their defeat to their own nation more easily by focusing on Rommel".
The Field Marshal was the German commander most frequently covered in the German media and the only one to be given a press conference, which took place in October 1942. The press conference was moderated by Goebbels and was attended by both domestic and foreign media. Rommel declared: "Today we (...) have the gates of Egypt in hand, and with the intent to act!" Keeping the focus on Rommel distracted the German public from Wehrmacht losses elsewhere as the tide of the war began to turn. He became a symbol that was used to reinforce the German public's faith in an ultimate Axis victory.
=== Military reverses ===
In the wake of the successful British offensive in November 1942 and other military reverses, the Propaganda Ministry directed the media to emphasise Rommel's invincibility. The charade was maintained until the spring of 1943, even as the German situation in Africa became increasingly precarious. To ensure that the inevitable defeat in Africa would not be associated with Rommel's name, Goebbels had the Army High Command announce in May 1943 that Rommel was on a two-month leave for health reasons. Instead, the campaign was presented by Berndt, who resumed his role in the Propaganda Ministry, as a ruse to tie down the British Empire while Germany was turning Europe into an impenetrable fortress with Rommel at the helm of this success. After the radio programme ran in May 1943, Rommel sent Berndt a case of cigars as a sign of his gratitude.
Although Rommel then entered a period without a significant command, he remained a household name in Germany, synonymous with the aura of invincibility. Hitler then made Rommel part of his defensive strategy for Fortress Europe (Festung Europa) by sending him to the West to inspect fortifications along the Atlantic Wall. Goebbels supported the decision, noting in his diary that Rommel was "undoubtedly the suitable man" for the task. The propaganda minister expected the move to reassure the German public and at the same time to have a negative impact on the Allied forces' morale.
In France, a Wehrmacht propaganda company frequently accompanied Rommel on his inspection trips to document his work for both domestic and foreign audiences. In May 1944 the German newsreels reported on Rommel's speech at a Wehrmacht conference, where he stated his conviction that "every single German soldier will make his contribution against the Anglo-American spirit that it deserves for its criminal and bestial air war campaign against our homeland." The speech led to an upswing in morale and sustained confidence in Rommel.
When Rommel was seriously wounded on 17 July 1944, the Propaganda Ministry undertook efforts to conceal the injury so as not to undermine domestic morale. Despite those, the news leaked to the British press. To counteract the rumours of a serious injury and even death, Rommel was required to appear at a 1 August press conference. On 3 August, the German press published an official report that Rommel had been injured in a car accident. Rommel noted in his diary his dismay at this twisting of the truth, belatedly realising how much the Reich propaganda was using him for its own ends.
=== Rommel's views on propaganda ===
Rommel was interested in propaganda beyond the promotion of his own image. In 1944, after visiting Rommel in France and reading his proposals on counteracting Allied propaganda, Alfred-Ingemar Berndt remarked: "He is also interested in this propaganda business and wants to develop it by all means. He has even thought and brought out practical suggestions for each program and subject."
Rommel saw the propaganda and education values in his and his nation's deeds (He also did value justice itself; according to Admiral Ruge's diary, Rommel told Ruge: "Justice is the indispensable foundation of a nation. Unfortunately, the higher-ups are not clean. The slaughterings are grave sins.") The key to the successful creating of an image, according to Rommel, was leading by example: He urged Axis authorities to treat the Arab with the utmost respect to prevent uprisings behind the front. He protested the use of propaganda at the cost of explicit military benefits though, criticising Hitler's headquarters for being unable to tell the German people and the world that El Alamein had been lost and preventing the evacuation of the German forces in Northern Africa in the process. Ruge suggests that his chief treated his own fame as a kind of weapon.
== Relationship with Nazism ==
Rommel was not a member of the Nazi Party. Rommel and Hitler had a close and genuine, if complicated, personal relationship. Rommel, as other Wehrmacht officers, welcomed the Nazi rise to power. Numerous historians state that Rommel was one of Hitler's favourite generals and that his close relationship with the dictator benefited both his inter-war and war-time career. Robert Citino describes Rommel as "not apolitical" and writes that he owed his career to Hitler, to whom Rommel's attitude was "worshipful", with Messenger agreeing that Rommel owed his tank command, his hero status and other promotions to Hitler's interference and support.
Kesselring described Rommel's own power over Hitler as "hypnotic". In 1944, Rommel himself told Ruge and his wife that Hitler had a kind of irresistible magnetic aura ("Magnetismus") and was always seemingly in an intoxicated condition. Maurice Remy identifies that the point at which their relationship became a personal one was 1939 when Rommel proudly announced to his friend Kurt Hesse that he had "sort of forced Hitler to go with me (to the Hradschin Castle in Prague, in an open top car, without another bodyguard), under my personal protection ... He had entrusted himself to me and would never forget me for my excellent advice."
The close relationship between Rommel and Hitler continued following the Western campaign; after Rommel sent him a specially prepared diary on the 7th Division, he received a letter of thanks from the dictator. (According to Speer, he would normally send extremely unclear reports which annoyed Hitler greatly.) According to Maurice Remy, the relationship, which Remy calls "a dream marriage", showed the first crack only in 1942, and later gradually turned into, in the words of German writer Ernst Jünger (in contact with Rommel in Normandy), "Haßliebe" (a love-hate relationship). Ruge's diary and Rommel's letters to his wife show his mood fluctuating wildly regarding Hitler: while he showed disgust towards the atrocities and disappointment towards the situation, he was overjoyed to welcome a visit from Hitler, only to return to depression the next day when faced with reality.
Hitler displayed the same emotions. Amid growing doubts and differences, he would remain eager for Rommel's calls (they had almost daily, hour-long, highly animated conversations, with the preferred topic being technical innovations): he once almost grabbed the telephone out of Linge's hand. But, according to Linge, seeing Rommel's disobedience Hitler also realised his mistake in building up Rommel, whom not only the Afrika Korps but also the German people in general now considered the German God. Hitler tried to fix the dysfunctional relationship many times without results, with Rommel calling his attempts "Sunlamp Treatment", although later he said that "Once I have loved the Führer, and I still do." Remy and Der Spiegel remark that the statement was very much genuine, while Watson notes that Rommel believed he deserved to die for his treasonable plan.
Rommel was an ambitious man who took advantage of his proximity to Hitler and willingly accepted the propaganda campaigns designed for him by Goebbels. On one hand, he wanted personal promotion and the realisation of his ideals. On the other hand, being elevated by the traditional system that gave preferential treatment to aristocratic officers would be betrayal of his aspiration "to remain a man of the troops". In 1918, Rommel refused an invitation to a prestigious officer training course, and with it, the chance to be promoted to general. Additionally, he had no inclination towards the political route, preferring to remain a soldier ("Nur-Soldat"). He was thus attracted by the Common Man theme which promised to level German society, the glorification of the national community, and the idea of a soldier of common background who served the Fatherland with talent and got rewarded by another common man who embodied the will of the German people. While he had much indignation towards Germany's contemporary class problem, this self-association with the Common Man went along well with his desire to simulate the knights of the past, who also led from the front. Rommel seemed to enjoy the idea of peace, as shown by his words to his wife in August 1939: "You can trust me, we have taken part in one World War, but as long as our generation live, there will not be a second", as well as his letter sent to her the night before the Invasion of Poland, in which he expressed (in Maurice Remy's phrase) "boundless optimism": "I still believe the atmosphere will not become more bellicose." Butler remarks that Rommel was centre in his politics, leaning a little to the left in his attitude.
Messenger argues that Rommel's attitude towards Hitler changed only after the Allied invasion of Normandy when Rommel came to realise that the war could not be won, while Maurice Remy suggests that Rommel never truly broke away from the relationship with Hitler but praises him for "always [having] the courage to oppose him whenever his conscience required so". The historian Peter Lieb states that it was not clear whether the threat of defeat was the only reason Rommel wanted to switch sides.
Rommel's political inclinations were a controversial matter even among the contemporary Nazi elites. Rommel himself, while showing support to some facets of the Nazi ideology The Nazi elites were not comfortable with the idea of a national icon who did not wholeheartedly support the regime. Hitler and Goebbels, his main supporters, tended to defend him. When Rommel was being considered for appointment as Commander-in-Chief of the Army in the summer of 1942, Goebbels wrote in his diary that Rommel "is ideologically sound, is not just sympathetic to the National Socialists. He is a National Socialist; he is a troop leader with a gift for improvisation, personally courageous and extraordinarily inventive. These are the kinds of soldiers we need." Despite this, they gradually saw that his grasp of political realities and his views could be very different from theirs. Hitler knew, though, that Rommel's optimistic and combative character was indispensable for his war efforts. When Rommel lost faith in the final victory and Hitler's leadership, Hitler and Goebbels tried to find an alternative in Manstein to remedy the fighting will and "political direction" of other generals but did not succeed.
Meanwhile, officials who did not like Rommel, such as Bormann and Schirach, whispered to each other that he was not a Nazi at all. Rommel's relationship to the Nazi elites, other than Hitler and Goebbels, was mostly hostile, although even powerful people like Bormann and Himmler had to tread carefully around Rommel. Himmler, who played a decisive role in Rommel's death, tried to blame Keitel and Jodl for the deed. And in fact the deed was initiated by them. They deeply resented Rommel's meteoric rise and had long feared that he would become the Commander-in-Chief. Rommel for his part was highly critical of Himmler, Halder, the High Command and particularly Goering who Rommel at one point called his "bitterest enemy". Hitler realised that Rommel attracted the elites' negative emotions to himself, in the same way he generated optimism in the common people. Depending on the case, Hitler manipulated or exacerbated the situation in order to benefit himself, although he originally had no intent of pushing Rommel to the point of destruction.) Ultimately Rommel's enemies worked together to bring him down.
Maurice Remy concludes that, unwillingly and probably without ever realising it, Rommel was part of a murderous regime, although he never actually grasped the core of Nazism. Peter Lieb sees Rommel as a person who could not be put into a single drawer, although problematic by modern moral standards, and suggests people should personally decide for themselves whether Rommel should remain a role model or not. Historian Cornelia Hecht remarks "It is really hard to know who the man behind the myth was," noting that in numerous letters he wrote to his wife during their almost 30-year marriage, he commented little on political issues as well as his personal life as a husband and a father.
== Rommel myth ==
According to some revisionist authors, an assessment of Rommel's role in history has been hampered by views of Rommel that were formed, at least in part, for political reasons, creating what these historians have called the "Rommel myth". The interpretation considered by some historians to be a myth is the depiction of the Field Marshal as an apolitical, brilliant commander and a victim of Nazi Germany who participated in the 20 July plot against Adolf Hitler. There are a notable number of authors who refer to "Rommel Myth" or "Rommel Legend" in a neutral or positive manner though. The seeds of the myth can be found first in Rommel's drive for success as a young officer in World War I and then in his popular 1937 book Infantry Attacks, which was written in a style that diverged from the German military literature of the time and became a best-seller.
The myth then took shape during the opening years of World War II, as a component of Nazi propaganda to praise the Wehrmacht and instil optimism in the German public, with Rommel's willing participation. When Rommel came to North Africa, it was picked up and disseminated in the West by the British press as the Allies sought to explain their continued inability to defeat the Axis forces in North Africa. The British military and political figures contributed to the heroic image of the man as Rommel resumed offensive operations in January 1942 against the British forces weakened by redeployments to the Far East. During parliamentary debate following the fall of Tobruk, Churchill described Rommel as an "extraordinary bold and clever opponent" and a "great field commander".
According to Der Spiegel following the war's end, West Germany yearned for father figures who were needed to replace the former ones who had been unmasked as criminals. Rommel was chosen because he embodied the decent soldier, cunning yet fair-minded, and if guilty by association, not so guilty that he became unreliable, and additionally, former comrades reported that he was close to the Resistance. While everyone else was disgraced, his star became brighter than ever, and he made the historically unprecedented leap over the threshold between eras: from Hitler's favourite general to the young republic's hero. Cornelia Hecht notes that despite the change of times, Rommel has become the symbol of different regimes and concepts, which is paradoxical, whoever the man he really was.
At the same time, the Western Allies, and particularly the British, depicted Rommel as the "good German". His reputation for conducting a clean war was used in the interest of the West German rearmament and reconciliation between the former enemies—Britain and the United States on one side and the new Federal Republic of Germany on the other. When Rommel's alleged involvement in the plot to kill Hitler became known after the war, his stature was enhanced in the eyes of his former adversaries. Rommel was often cited in Western sources as a patriotic German willing to stand up to Hitler. Churchill wrote about him in 1950: "[Rommel] (...) deserves our respect because, although a loyal German soldier, he came to hate Hitler and all his works and took part in the conspiracy of 1944 to rescue Germany by displacing the maniac and tyrant."
== Family life ==
While at Cadet School in 1911, Rommel met and became engaged to 17-year-old Lucia (Lucie) Maria Mollin (1894–1971). While stationed in Weingarten in 1913, Rommel developed a relationship with Walburga Stemmer, which produced a daughter, Gertrud, born 8 December 1913. Because of elitism in the officer corps, Stemmer's working-class background made her unsuitable as an officer's wife, and Rommel felt honour-bound to uphold his previous commitment to Mollin. With Mollin's cooperation, he accepted financial responsibility for the child. Rommel and Mollin were married in November 1916 in Danzig. Rommel's marriage was a happy one, and he wrote his wife at least one letter every day while he was in the field.
After the end of the First World War, the couple settled initially in Stuttgart, and Stemmer and her child lived with them. Gertrud was referred to as Rommel's niece, a fiction that went unquestioned because of the enormous number of women widowed during the war. Walburga died suddenly in October 1928, and Gertrud remained a member of the household until Rommel's death in 1944. The incident with Walburga seemed to affect Rommel for the rest of his life: he would always keep women distant. A son, Manfred Rommel, was born on 24 December 1928, and later served as Mayor of Stuttgart from 1974 to 1996.
== Awards ==
Military Merit Order (Württemberg)
Friedrich Order Knight 1st Class (Württemberg)
Military Merit Cross, 3rd class with war decoration and swords (Austria-Hungary)
Military Merit Order (Bavaria) 4th Class with Swords
Iron Cross 2nd Class on 24 September 1914 and 1st Class on 29 January 1915
Pour le Mérite on 18 December 1917
Wound Badge 1918 in Silver
Clasp to the Iron Cross 2nd Class on 13 May 1940 and 1st Class on 15 May 1940
Panzer Badge In Silver
Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds
Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 27 May 1940 as commander of the 7th Panzer-Division
Oak Leaves (10th recipient) on 20 March 1941 as commander of the 7th Panzer-Division
Swords (sixth recipient) on 20 January 1942 as commander of the Panzer Group Afrika
Diamonds (sixth recipient) on 11 March 1943 as commander in chief of the Army Group Afrika
Grand Officer of the Military Order of Savoy on 11 May 1941
Knight Grand Cross in the summer of 1942
Italian Gold Medal of Military Valour in February 1942
Knight of the Colonial Order of the Star of Italy in February 1942
== Commemoration ==
The German Army's largest base, the Field Marshal Rommel Barracks, Augustdorf, is named in his honour; at the dedication in 1961, his widow Lucie and son Manfred Rommel were guests of honour. The Rommel Barracks, Dornstadt, was also named for him in 1965.
The Rommel Memorial was erected in Heidenheim in 1961. In 2020, a sculpture of a landmine victim was placed next to the Rommel Memorial in Heidenheim. The city mayor Bernhard Ilg comments that, regarding "the great son of Heidenheim", "there are many opinions". Heidenheim eventually dedicated the Memorial towards a stand against war, militarism and extremism, stating that when the memorial was erected in 1961, statements were added that now are not compatible with modern knowledge about Rommel. Deutsche Welle noted that the 17 million mines the British, Italian, and German armies left continue to claim lives to this day.
In Aalen, after a discussion on renaming a street named after him, a new place of commemoration was created, where stelae with information on the lives of Rommel and three opponents of the regime (Eugen Bolz, Friedrich Schwarz and Karl Mikeller) stand together (Rommel's stele is dark blue and rusty red while the others are light-coloured). The History Association of Aalen, together with an independent commission of historians from Düsseldorf, welcomes the keeping of the street's name and notes that Rommel was neither a war criminal nor a resistance fighter, but a perpetrator and victim at the same time – he willingly served as figurehead for the regime, then lately recognised his mistake and paid for that with his life. An education program named "Erwin Rommel and Aalen" for schoolchildren in Aalen is also established.
In 2021, the Student Council of the Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU) decided to change the name of their Süd-Campus (South Campus, Erlangen) into Rommel-Campus, emphasising that the city of Erlangen stands behind the name and the university needs to do the same. The university's branch of the Education and Science Workers' Union (GEW) describes the decision as problematic considering Rommel's history of supporting the Nazi regime militarily and propagandistically.
Numerous streets in Germany, especially in Rommel's home state of Baden-Württemberg, are named in his honour, including the street near where his last home was located. The Rommel Museum opened in 1989 in the Villa Lindenhof in Herrlingen. The museum now operates under the name Museum Lebenslinien (Lifelines Museum), which presents the lives of Rommel and other notable residents of Herrlingen, including the poet Gertrud Kantorowicz (whose collection is presented together with the Rommel Archive inside a building on a road named after Rommel), the educators Anna Essinger and Hugo Rosenthal. There is also a Rommel Museum in Mersa Matruh in Egypt which opened in 1977, and which is located in one of Rommel's former headquarters; various other localities and establishments in Mersa Matruh, including Rommel Beach, are also named for Rommel. The reason for the naming is that he respected the Bedouins' traditions and the sanctity of their homes (he always kept his troops at least 2 kilometres from their houses) and refused to poison the wells against the Allies, fearing doing so would harm the population.
In Italy, the annual marathon tour "Rommel Trail", which is sponsored by the Protezione Civile and the autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia through its tourism agency, celebrates Rommel and the Battle of Caporetto. The naming and sponsoring (at that time by the centre-left PD) was criticised by the politician Giuseppe Civati in 2017.
==Portrayals==
Erich von Stroheim (1943) (Five Graves to Cairo)
James Mason (1951) (The Desert Fox: The Story of Rommel)
James Mason (1953) (The Desert Rats)
Paul Klinger (1959) (Rommel Calls Cairo)
Werner Hinz (1962) (The Longest Day)
Christopher Plummer (1967) (The Night of the Generals)
Robert Hossein (1969) (The Battle of El Alamein)
Karl Michael Vogler (1970) (Patton)
Wolfgang Preiss (1971) (Raid on Rommel)
Ulrich Tukur (2012) (Rommel)
Robert Pike Daniel (2014) (P-51 Dragon Fighter)
|
[
"Wolfgang Preiss",
"Bonner Fellers",
"Dresden",
"Rommel (film)",
"Paul Hausser",
"Italian campaign (World War I)",
"Wilhelm Keitel",
"Rudolf Hartmann",
"Tobruk",
"Owen Connelly",
"Theresian Military Academy",
"Sepp Dietrich",
"Poland campaign",
"Steven Zaloga",
"Operation Gaff",
"Führersonderzug",
"siege of Tobruk",
"German Army (1935–1945)",
"Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg",
"OKH",
"Margival",
"Infantry Attacks",
"Caucasus",
"British Eighth Army",
"Western Desert Force",
"Battle of Gazala",
"Chief of Staff, Bundeswehr",
"Oradour-sur-Glane massacre",
"Gold Medal of Military Valour",
"Baden-Württemberg",
"Giovanni Messe",
"Mussolini",
"D-Day",
"Walter Rauff",
"James Mason",
"Bribery of senior Wehrmacht officers",
"Deutsches Historisches Museum",
"Walburga Stemmer",
"infiltration tactics",
"Oberstleutnant",
"Nazi racial theories",
"The National WWII Museum",
"Martin Kitchen",
"Pas-de-Calais",
"Wilhelm Burgdorf",
"United States Army Combined Arms Center",
"Racism",
"Rommel Museum, Mersa Matruh",
"Patton (film)",
"Uri Avnery",
"XIX Army Corps",
"26th Panzer Division",
"Eduard Dietl",
"Hans Freiherr von Funck",
"Meuse",
"Hugo Rosenthal",
"Kolovrat (mountain ridge)",
"Protezione Civile",
"Suez Canal",
"Methamphetamine",
"Libya",
"German Empire",
"Joseph Goebbels",
"Arras",
"River Seine",
"German resistance to Nazism",
"Praeger Publishers",
"Caesar von Hofacker",
"Weimar Republic",
"Adolf Hitler",
"Infanterie greift an",
"Military Merit Order (Württemberg)",
"Gertrud Stemmer",
"Walther von Brauchitsch",
"Charley Fox",
"Kingdom of Italy",
"Holocaust",
"Reinhard Heydrich",
"second Battle of El Alamein",
"Military Order of Savoy",
"Erwin von Witzleben",
"Operation Flipper",
"History (U.S. TV channel)",
"Nazi Party",
"Robert Hossein",
"20 July plot",
"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum",
"Dieppe",
"North African campaign",
"Weingarten, Württemberg",
"Oberleutnant",
"Lieutenant General",
"Hitler Youth",
"Operation Achse",
"SS Division Totenkopf",
"Dmitri Shostakovich",
"List of covers of Time magazine (1940s)",
"Gertrud Kantorowicz",
"Mersa El Brega",
"Commando Order",
"Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr.",
"Norman Ohler",
"Bavarian Soviet Republic",
"David Fraser (British Army officer)",
"Dunkirk evacuation",
"Rommel Calls Cairo",
"Baldur von Schirach",
"Harold Alexander",
"unity of command",
"Karl-Richard Koßmann",
"invasion of Normandy",
"Ulrich Tukur",
"Karl Kaufmann",
"Friedrich Paulus",
"Hew Strachan",
"Jäger (infantry)",
"Ultra (cryptography)",
"Günther von Kluge",
"Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel",
"flak",
"Anschluss",
"Ulm",
"Mersa Matruh",
"Prussian aristocracy",
"Panzer-Lehr-Division",
"Herrlingen",
"Führer Begleit Brigade",
"Battle of Greece",
"44th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)",
"LeMO",
"15th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)",
"Georg Stumme",
"Friedrich Ruge",
"Moshe Dayan",
"M4 Sherman",
"Geoffrey P. Megargee",
"Karl Hanke",
"Ludwig Crüwell",
"Christopher Plummer",
"Reich Chancellery",
"Rick Atkinson",
"Friedrich von Mellenthin",
"Organisation Todt",
"Lille",
"Longarone",
"Leslie Morshead",
"suicide",
"Gleiwitz incident",
"No. 602 Squadron RAF",
"Erich von Manstein",
"Prague Castle",
"David T. Zabecki",
"Alfred Gause",
"Manfred Rommel",
"Allen Dulles",
"Operation Barbarossa",
"The Night of the Generals",
"Wilhelm List",
"Clasp to the Iron Cross",
"90th Light Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)",
"Army of Württemberg",
"14th Army (Wehrmacht)",
"Erich Marcks",
"World War I",
"Sirte",
"The Longest Day (film)",
"Operation Sonnenblume",
"Bryan Mark Rigg",
"trench warfare",
"German destroyer Rommel",
"El Agheila",
"Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds",
"Fritz Bayerlein",
"accordion",
"Palgrave Macmillan",
"El Alamein",
"Comando Supremo",
"Battle of Singapore",
"University of Erlangen–Nuremberg",
"Johannes Jacobus le Roux",
"4th Indian Division",
"Stab-in-the-back myth",
"Gerhard Schreiber",
"Operation Battleaxe",
"state funeral",
"Martin Blumenson",
"Ernst Maisel",
"Army Group E",
"Ariel Sharon",
"antisemitism",
"Sönke Neitzel",
"Heinrich Eberbach",
"Michael Wolffsohn",
"Battle of Arras (1940)",
"Friedrich Schwarz",
"Siegfried Westphal",
"Paul Klinger",
"Battle of Alam Halfa",
"Kingdom of Württemberg",
"Oberkommando der Wehrmacht",
"Nazi propaganda",
"Alexander von Falkenhausen",
"Robert Satloff",
"Heinrich Kirchheim",
"cyanide pill",
"Second Battle of the Jiu Valley",
"Swabian German",
"First Battle of El Alamein",
"Basil Liddell Hart",
"Western Desert Campaign",
"Italian Front (World War I)",
"Oberkommando des Heeres",
"5th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)",
"Douglas Porch",
"Neil Ritchie",
"Romania during World War I",
"Third Battle of Oituz",
"Operation Sea Lion",
"Iron Cross",
"Ben H. Shepherd",
"logarithm tables",
"Battle of Alam el Halfa",
"Middle East Command",
"Operation Crusader",
"Heinz Guderian",
"Peter Caddick-Adams",
"Dennis Showalter",
"Military Merit Order (Bavaria)",
"The Desert Rats (film)",
"Stuttgart Airport",
"1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler",
"Wiener Neustadt",
"Wiederbewaffnung",
"I SS Panzer Corps",
"60th Infantry Division Sabratha",
"Walther Schroth",
"Tripoli, Libya",
"Lindau",
"Blitzkrieg",
"Strategic Studies Institute",
"Schutzstaffel",
"Hans Speidel",
"Rommel Barracks, Dornstadt",
"Forced suicide",
"Night of the Long Knives",
"Daniel Allen Butler",
"Siege of Lille (1940)",
"France",
"Sieg im Westen",
"Der Spiegel",
"Naval War College",
"field marshal",
"Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross",
"People's Court (German)",
"The American Flag",
"Channel 4",
"Werner Hinz",
"Cyanide poisoning",
"prophet",
"Alfred Ingemar Berndt",
"Normandy",
"Roland Freisler",
"Wolfsschlucht II",
"Battle of Bir Hakeim",
"Nazi Germany",
"Rommel myth",
"Reich Propaganda Ministry",
"Nigel Hamilton (author)",
"Generalmajor",
"embolism",
"Battle of the Kasserine Pass",
"Tunisia",
"Indian Legion",
"Rommel Museum, Blaustein",
"7th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)",
"Gastone Gambara",
"Panzer Army Africa",
"U-boat",
"Lake Garda",
"Carl Goerdeler",
"The Desert Fox: The Story of Rommel",
"Führer Headquarters",
"United States",
"Sainte-Foy-de-Montgommery",
"drumhead court-martial",
"Georg-Hans Reinhardt",
"Stackpole Books",
"Waffen-SS",
"Kriegsmarine",
"Karl Michael Vogler",
"Nolo contendere",
"Eugen Bolz",
"Benghazi",
"United Kingdom",
"Egypt",
"HMSO",
"Anna Essinger",
"Gauleiter",
"invasion of Poland",
"Goslar",
"6th Infantry Brigade (New Zealand)",
"Romanian Campaign (World War I)",
"Konstantin von Neurath",
"Volksgemeinschaft",
"William Gott",
"Raid on Rommel",
"12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend",
"Wolf Heckmann",
"George S. Patton",
"Southern Germany",
"fr:Jacques Remlinger",
"Ernst Kaltenbrunner",
"Malta",
"Italo Gariboldi",
"Desert Air Force",
"Stol (Karawanks)",
"Battle of Caporetto",
"Peter Lieb",
"Operation Fortitude",
"The Battle of El Alamein (film)",
"Isoroku Yamamoto",
"Die Welt",
"Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein",
"Szymon Datner",
"War in History",
"Wound Badge",
"Erich von Stroheim",
"University Press of Kansas",
"P-51 Dragon Fighter",
"XIII (Royal Württemberg) Corps",
"Qattara Depression",
"lieutenant",
"Avesnes",
"Hobart's Funnies",
"Siege of Tobruk",
"Stuttgarter Nachrichten",
"Franz Halder",
"Karl Strölin",
"Giado concentration camp",
"Nazi rise to power",
"Operation Herkules",
"Colonial Order of the Star of Italy",
"US State Department",
"Battle of Medenine",
"Sun Li-jen",
"Pour le Mérite",
"Hans-Jürgen von Arnim",
"Claude Auchinleck",
"Stele",
"26th Brigade (Australia)",
"Hermann Hoth",
"First Battle of the Argonne",
"Wilhelm Bittrich",
"Operation Compass",
"Lütjens-class destroyer",
"Stuttgart",
"Salient (military)",
"Danzig",
"Second Battle of El Alamein",
"Albert Kesselring",
"Alan Cunningham",
"United States Naval Institute",
"Reichswehr",
"Middle East",
"Afrika Korps",
"Generalleutnant",
"Klaus Naumann",
"Greece",
"Sippenhaft",
"Führerbegleitbrigade",
"Panzerarmee",
"Archibald Wavell",
"Julius Dorpmüller",
"Karl Kriebel",
"Italian XX Motorized Corps",
"Rolf-Dieter Müller",
"Imperial German Army",
"U.S. II Corps",
"NATO",
"10th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)",
"Fortress Europe",
"XIII Corps (United Kingdom)",
"Education and Science Workers' Union (Germany)",
"Generalfeldmarschall",
"Eberhard Finckh",
"Friedrich Order",
"Walther Rauff",
"SS Division Leibstandarte",
"Military Merit Cross (Austria-Hungary)",
"panzer division",
"Claus von Stauffenberg",
"kangaroo court",
"Commonwealth of Nations",
"Deutsche Welle",
"Zuiderzee",
"Allied invasion of Italy",
"La Rochelle",
"Federal Republic of Germany",
"Field Marshal Rommel Barracks, Osterode",
"64th Corps (German Empire)",
"Giuseppe Civati",
"Battle of El Agheila",
"Matajur",
"Army Group B",
"Invasion of Normandy",
"Friuli-Venezia Giulia",
"Oberst",
"Schwäbisch Gmünd",
"Cherbourg-en-Cotentin",
"Timimi",
"412 Transport Squadron",
"German Peace Society",
"Peter Hoffmann (historian)",
"Battle of France",
"Allies of World War II",
"Robert Citino",
"Panzer Badge",
"World War II",
"Rommel's asparagus",
"Field Marshal Rommel Barracks, Augustdorf",
"21st Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)",
"Hauptmann",
"Atlantic Wall",
"Army Group Africa",
"Einsatzgruppe Egypt",
"Karl-Wilhelm Specht",
"Generaloberst",
"Ernst Jünger",
"Fähnrich",
"Ensign (rank)",
"Einsatzkommando",
"Armistice of Cassibile",
"Alpenkorps (German Empire)",
"Operational art",
"Karl von Luz",
"Five Graves to Cairo",
"Bernard Montgomery",
"Gerd von Rundstedt",
"Wehrmacht",
"Operation Brevity",
"Heidenheim an der Brenz",
"Mareth Line",
"Fall Rot",
"Paris",
"Wesley Clark",
"Richard J. Evans",
"River Somme",
"Rouen",
"XXX Corps (United Kingdom)"
] |
9,518 |
Edmund Husserl
|
Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl ( , ; ; 8 April 1859 – 27 April 1938) was an Austrian-German philosopher and mathematician who established the school of phenomenology.
In his early work, he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic based on analyses of intentionality. In his mature work, he sought to develop a systematic foundational science based on the so-called phenomenological reduction. Arguing that transcendental consciousness sets the limits of all possible knowledge, Husserl redefined phenomenology as a transcendental-idealist philosophy. Husserl's thought profoundly influenced 20th-century philosophy, and he remains a notable figure in contemporary philosophy and beyond.
Husserl studied mathematics, taught by Karl Weierstrass and Leo Königsberger, and philosophy taught by Franz Brentano and Carl Stumpf. He taught philosophy as a Privatdozent at Halle from 1887, then as professor, first at Göttingen from 1901, then at Freiburg from 1916 until he retired in 1928, after which he remained highly productive. In 1933, under racial laws of the Nazi Party, Husserl was banned from using the library of the University of Freiburg due to his Jewish family background and months later resigned from the Deutsche Akademie. Following an illness, he died in Freiburg in 1938.
== Life and career ==
=== Youth and education ===
Husserl was born in 1859 in Proßnitz in the Margraviate of Moravia in the Austrian Empire (today Prostějov in the Czech Republic). He was born into a Jewish family, the second of four children. His father was a milliner. His childhood was spent in Prostějov, where he attended the secular primary school. Then Husserl traveled to Vienna to study at the Realgymnasium there, followed next by the Staatsgymnasium in Olmütz.
At the University of Leipzig from 1876 to 1878, Husserl studied mathematics, physics, and astronomy. At Leipzig, he was inspired by philosophy lectures given by Wilhelm Wundt, one of the founders of modern psychology. Then he moved to the Frederick William University of Berlin (the present-day Humboldt University of Berlin) in 1878, where he continued his study of mathematics under Leopold Kronecker and Karl Weierstrass. In Berlin, he found a mentor in Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (then a former philosophy student of Franz Brentano and later the first president of Czechoslovakia) and attended Friedrich Paulsen's philosophy lectures. In 1881, he left for the University of Vienna to complete his mathematics studies under the supervision of Leo Königsberger (a former student of Weierstrass). At Vienna in 1883, he obtained his PhD with the work Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung (Contributions to the Calculus of variations).
Following his PhD in mathematics, Husserl returned to Berlin to work as the assistant to Karl Weierstrass. Yet already Husserl had felt the desire to pursue philosophy. Then Weierstrass became very ill. Husserl became free to return to Vienna, where, after serving a short military duty, he devoted his attention to philosophy. In 1884, at the University of Vienna he attended the lectures of Franz Brentano on philosophy and philosophical psychology. Brentano introduced him to the writings of Bernard Bolzano, Hermann Lotze, J. Stuart Mill, and David Hume. Husserl was so impressed by Brentano that he decided to dedicate his life to philosophy; indeed, Franz Brentano is often credited as being his most important influence, e.g., with regard to intentionality. Following academic advice, two years later in 1886 Husserl followed Carl Stumpf, a former student of Brentano, to the University of Halle, seeking to obtain his habilitation which would qualify him to teach at the university level. There, under Stumpf's supervision, he wrote his habilitation thesis, Über den Begriff der Zahl (On the Concept of Number), in 1887, which would serve later as the basis for his first important work, Philosophie der Arithmetik (1891).
In 1887, Husserl married Malvine Steinschneider, a union that would last over fifty years. In 1892, their daughter Elizabeth was born, in 1893 their son Gerhart, and in 1894 their son Wolfgang. Elizabeth would marry in 1922, and Gerhart in 1923; Wolfgang, however, became a casualty of the First World War.
=== Professor of philosophy ===
Following his marriage, Husserl began his long teaching career in philosophy. He started in 1887 as a Privatdozent at the University of Halle. In 1891, he published his Philosophie der Arithmetik. Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen which, drawing on his prior studies in mathematics and philosophy, proposed a psychological context as the basis of mathematics. It drew the adverse notice of Gottlob Frege, who criticized its psychologism.
In 1901, Husserl with his family moved to the University of Göttingen, where he taught as extraordinarius professor. Just prior to this, a major work of his, Logische Untersuchungen (Halle, 1900–1901), was published. Volume One contains seasoned reflections on "pure logic" in which he carefully refutes "psychologism". This work was well received and became the subject of a seminar given by Wilhelm Dilthey; Husserl in 1905 traveled to Berlin to visit Dilthey. Two years later, in Italy, he paid a visit to Franz Brentano, his inspiring old teacher, and to the mathematician Constantin Carathéodory. Kant and Descartes were also now influencing his thought. In 1910, he became joint editor of the journal Logos. During this period, Husserl had delivered lectures on internal time consciousness, which several decades later his former students Edith Stein and Martin Heidegger edited for publication.
In 1912, in Freiburg, the journal Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Phänomenologische Forschung ("Yearbook for Philosophy and Phenomenological Research") was founded by Husserl and his school, which published articles of their phenomenological movement from 1913 to 1930. His important work Ideen was published in its first issue (Vol. 1, Issue 1, 1913). Before beginning Ideen, Husserl's thought had reached the stage where "each subject is 'presented' to itself, and to each all others are 'presentiated' (Vergegenwärtigung), not as parts of nature but as pure consciousness". Ideen advanced his transition to a "transcendental interpretation" of phenomenology, a view later criticized by, among others, Jean-Paul Sartre. In Ideen Paul Ricœur sees the development of Husserl's thought as leading "from the psychological cogito to the transcendental cogito". As phenomenology further evolves, it leads (when viewed from another vantage point in Husserl's 'labyrinth') to "transcendental subjectivity". Also in Ideen Husserl explicitly elaborates the phenomenological and eidetic reductions. Ivan Ilyin and Karl Jaspers visited Husserl at Göttingen.
In October 1914, both his sons were sent to fight on the Western Front of World War I, and the following year, one of them, Wolfgang Husserl, was badly injured. On 8 March 1916, on the battlefield of Verdun, Wolfgang was killed in action. The next year, his other son, Gerhart Husserl was wounded in the war but survived. His own mother, Julia, died. In November 1917, one of his outstanding students and later a noted philosophy professor in his own right, Adolf Reinach, was killed in the war while serving in Flanders. Edith Stein served as his personal assistant during his first few years in Freiburg, followed later by Martin Heidegger from 1920 to 1923. The mathematician Hermann Weyl began corresponding with him in 1918. Husserl gave four lectures on the phenomenological method at University College London in 1922. The University of Berlin in 1923 called on him to relocate there, but he declined the offer. In 1926, Heidegger dedicated his book Sein und Zeit (Being and Time) to him "in grateful respect and friendship." Husserl remained in his professorship at Freiburg until he requested retirement, teaching his last class on 25 July 1928. A Festschrift to celebrate his seventieth birthday was presented to him on 8 April 1929.
Despite retirement, Husserl gave several notable lectures. The first, at Paris in 1929, led to Méditations cartésiennes (Paris 1931). Husserl here reviews the phenomenological epoché (or phenomenological reduction), presented earlier in his pivotal Ideen (1913), in terms of a further reduction of experience to what he calls a 'sphere of ownness.' From within this sphere, which Husserl enacts to show the impossibility of solipsism, the transcendental ego finds itself always already paired with the lived body of another ego, another monad. This 'a priori' interconnection of bodies, given in perception, is what founds the interconnection of consciousnesses known as transcendental intersubjectivity, which Husserl would go on to describe at length in volumes of unpublished writings. There has been a debate over whether or not Husserl's description of ownness and its movement into intersubjectivity is sufficient to reject the charge of solipsism, to which Descartes, for example, was subject. One argument against Husserl's description works this way: instead of infinity and the Deity being the ego's gateway to the Other, as in Descartes, Husserl's ego in the Cartesian Meditations itself becomes transcendent. It remains, however, alone (unconnected). Only the ego's grasp "by analogy" of the Other (e.g., by conjectural reciprocity) allows the possibility for an 'objective' intersubjectivity, and hence for community.
In 1933, the racial laws of the new National Socialist German Workers Party were enacted. On 6 April Husserl was banned from using the library at the University of Freiburg, or any other academic library; the following week, after a public outcry, he was reinstated. Yet his colleague Heidegger was elected Rector of the university on 21–22 April, and joined the Nazi Party. By contrast, in July Husserl resigned from the Deutsche Akademie. Husserl describes here the cultural crisis gripping Europe, then approaches a philosophy of history, discussing Galileo, Descartes, several British philosophers, and Kant. The apolitical Husserl before had specifically avoided such historical discussions, pointedly preferring to go directly to an investigation of consciousness. Merleau-Ponty and others question whether Husserl here does not undercut his own position, in that Husserl had attacked in principle historicism, while specifically designing his phenomenology to be rigorous enough to transcend the limits of history. On the contrary, Husserl may be indicating here that historical traditions are merely features given to the pure ego's intuition, like any other. A longer section follows on the "lifeworld" [Lebenswelt], one not observed by the objective logic of science, but a world seen through subjective experience. Yet a problem arises similar to that dealing with 'history' above, a chicken-and-egg problem. Does the lifeworld contextualize and thus compromise the gaze of the pure ego, or does the phenomenological method nonetheless raise the ego up transcendent? These last writings presented the fruits of his professional life. Since his university retirement, Husserl had "worked at a tremendous pace, producing several major works." Gerhard Ritter was the only Freiburg faculty member to attend the funeral, as an anti-Nazi protest.
=== Heidegger and the Nazi era ===
Husserl was rumoured to have been denied the use of the library at Freiburg as a result of the anti-Jewish legislation of April 1933. Relatedly, among other disabilities, Husserl was unable to publish his works in Nazi Germany [see above footnote to Die Krisis (1936)]. It was also rumoured that his former pupil Martin Heidegger informed Husserl that he was discharged, but it was actually the previous rector.
Apparently, Husserl and Heidegger had moved apart during the 1920s, which became clearer after 1928 when Husserl retired and Heidegger succeeded to his university chair. In the summer of 1929 Husserl had studied carefully selected writings of Heidegger, coming to the conclusion that on several of their key positions they differed: e.g., Heidegger substituted Dasein ["Being-there"] for the pure ego, thus transforming phenomenology into an anthropology, a type of psychologism strongly disfavored by Husserl. Such observations of Heidegger, along with a critique of Max Scheler, were put into a lecture Husserl gave to various Kant Societies in Frankfurt, Berlin, and Halle during 1931 entitled Phänomenologie und Anthropologie.
In the wartime 1941 edition of Heidegger's primary work, Being and Time (, first published in 1927), the original dedication to Husserl was removed. This was not due to a negation of the relationship between the two philosophers, however, but rather was the result of a suggested censorship by Heidegger's publisher who feared that the book might otherwise be banned by the Nazi regime. The dedication can still be found in a footnote on page 38, thanking Husserl for his guidance and generosity. Husserl had died three years earlier. In post-war editions of Sein und Zeit the dedication to Husserl is restored. The complex, troubled, and sundered philosophical relationship between Husserl and Heidegger has been widely discussed.After his death, Husserl's manuscripts, amounting to approximately 40,000 pages of "Gabelsberger" stenography and his complete research library, were in 1939 smuggled to the Catholic University of Leuven in Belgium by the Franciscan priest Herman Van Breda. There they were deposited at Leuven to form the Husserl-Archives of the Higher Institute of Philosophy. Much of the material in his research manuscripts has since been published in the Husserliana critical edition series.
== Development of his thought ==
=== Several early themes ===
In his first works, Husserl combined mathematics, psychology, and philosophy with the goal of providing a sound foundation for mathematics. He analyzed the psychological process needed to obtain the concept of number and then built up a theory on this analysis. He used methods and concepts taken from his teachers. From Weierstrass, he derived the idea of generating
the concept of number by counting a certain collection of objects. From Brentano and Stumpf, he took the distinction between proper and improper presenting. In an example, Husserl explained this in the following way: if someone is standing in front of a house, they have a proper, direct presentation of that house, but if they are looking for it and ask for directions, then these directions (e.g. the house on the corner of this and that street) are an indirect, improper presentation. In other words, the person can have a proper presentation of an object if it is actually present, and an improper (or symbolic, as Husserl also calls it) one if they only can indicate that object through signs, symbols, etc. Husserl's Logical Investigations (1900–1901) is considered the starting point for the formal theory of wholes and their parts known as mereology.
Another important element that Husserl took over from Brentano was intentionality, the notion that the main characteristic of consciousness is that it is always intentional. While often simplistically summarised as "aboutness" or the relationship between mental acts and the external world, Brentano defined it as the main characteristic of mental phenomena, by which they could be distinguished from physical phenomena. Every mental phenomenon, every psychological act, has a content, is directed at an object (the intentional object). Every belief, desire, etc. has an object that it is about: the believed, the wanted. Brentano used the expression "intentional inexistence" to indicate the status of the objects of thought in the mind. The property of being intentional, of having an intentional object, was the key feature to distinguish mental phenomena and physical phenomena, because physical phenomena lack intentionality altogether.
=== The elaboration of phenomenology ===
Some years after the 1900–1901 publication of his main work, the Logische Untersuchungen (Logical Investigations), Husserl made some key conceptual elaborations which led him to assert that to study the structure of consciousness, one would have to distinguish between the act of consciousness and the phenomena at which it is directed (the objects as intended). Knowledge of essences would only be possible by "bracketing" all assumptions about the existence of an external world. This procedure he called "epoché". These new concepts prompted the publication of the Ideen (Ideas) in 1913, in which they were at first incorporated, and a plan for a second edition of the Logische Untersuchungen.
From the Ideen onward, Husserl concentrated on the ideal, essential structures of consciousness. The metaphysical problem of establishing the reality of what people perceive, as distinct from the perceiving subject, was of little interest to Husserl in spite of his being a transcendental idealist. Husserl proposed that the world of objects—and of ways in which people direct themselves toward and perceive those objects—is normally conceived of in what he called the "natural attitude", which is characterized by a belief that objects exist distinct from the perceiving subject and exhibit properties that people see as emanating from them (this attitude is also called physicalist objectivism). Husserl proposed a radical new phenomenological way of looking at objects by examining how people, in their many ways of being intentionally directed toward them, actually "constitute" them (to be distinguished from materially creating objects or objects merely being figments of the imagination); in the Phenomenological standpoint, the object ceases to be something simply "external" and ceases to be seen as providing indicators about what it is, and becomes a grouping of perceptual and functional aspects that imply one another under the idea of a particular object or "type". The notion of objects as real is not expelled by phenomenology, but "bracketed" as a way in which people regard objectsinstead of a feature that inheres in an object's essence, founded in the relation between the object and the perceiver. To better understand the world of appearances and objects, phenomenology attempts to identify the invariant features of how objects are perceived and pushes attributions of reality into their role as an attribution about the things people perceive (or an assumption underlying how people perceive objects). The major dividing line in Husserl's thought is the turn to transcendental idealism.
In a later period, Husserl began to wrestle with the complicated issues of intersubjectivity, specifically, how communication about an object can be assumed to refer to the same ideal entity (Cartesian Meditations, Meditation V). Husserl tries new methods of bringing his readers to understand the importance of phenomenology to scientific inquiry (and specifically to psychology) and what it means to "bracket" the natural attitude. The Crisis of the European Sciences is Husserl's unfinished work that deals most directly with these issues. In it, Husserl for the first time attempts a historical overview of the development of Western philosophy and science, emphasizing the challenges presented by their increasingly one-sided empirical and naturalistic orientation. Husserl declares that mental and spiritual reality possess their own reality independent of any physical basis, and that a science of the mind ('Geisteswissenschaft') must be established on as scientific a foundation as the natural sciences have managed: "It is my conviction that intentional phenomenology has for the first time made spirit as spirit the field of systematic scientific experience, thus effecting a total transformation of the task of knowledge."
== Husserl's thought ==
Husserl's thought is revolutionary in several ways, most notably in the distinction between "natural" and "phenomenological" modes of understanding. In the former, sense-perception in correspondence with the material realm constitutes the known reality, and understanding is premised on the accuracy of the perception and the objective knowability of what is called the "real world". Phenomenological understanding strives to be rigorously "presuppositionless" by means of what Husserl calls "phenomenological reduction". This reduction is not conditioned but rather transcendental: in Husserl's terms, pure consciousness of absolute Being. In Husserl's work, consciousness of any given thing calls for discerning its meaning as an "intentional object". Such an object does not simply strike the senses, to be interpreted or misinterpreted by mental reason; it has already been selected and grasped, grasping being an etymological connotation, of percipere, the root of "perceive".
=== Meaning and object ===
From Logical Investigations (1900/1901) to Experience and Judgment (published in 1939), Husserl expressed clearly the difference between meaning and object. He identified several different kinds of names. For example, there are names that have the role of properties that uniquely identify an object. Each of these names expresses a meaning and designates the same object. Examples of this are "the victor in Jena" and "the loser in Waterloo", or "the equilateral triangle" and "the equiangular triangle"; in both cases, both names express different meanings, but designate the same object. There are names which have no meaning, but have the role of designating an object: "Aristotle", "Socrates", and so on. Finally, there are names which designate a variety of objects. These are called "universal names"; their meaning is a "concept" and refers to a series of objects (the extension of the concept). The way people know sensible objects is called "sensible intuition".
Husserl also identifies a series of "formal words" which are necessary to form sentences and have no sensible correlates. Examples of formal words are "a", "the", "more than", "over", "under", "two", "group", and so on. Every sentence must contain formal words to designate what Husserl calls "formal categories". There are two kinds of categories: meaning categories and formal-ontological categories. Meaning categories relate judgments; they include forms of conjunction, disjunction, forms of plural, among others. Formal-ontological categories relate objects and include notions such as set, cardinal number, ordinal number, part and whole, relation, and so on. The way people know these categories is through a faculty of understanding called "categorial intuition".
Through sensible intuition, consciousness constitutes what Husserl calls a "situation of affairs" (). It is a passive constitution where objects themselves are presented. To this situation of affairs, through categorial intuition, people are able to constitute a "state of affairs" (). One situation of affairs, through objective acts of consciousness (acts of constituting categorially) can serve as the basis for constituting multiple states of affairs. For example, suppose a and b are two sensible objects in a certain situation of affairs. It can be used as the basis to say, "aa", two judgments which designate the same state of affairs. For Husserl, a sentence has a proposition or judgment as its meaning, and refers to a state of affairs which has a situation of affairs as a reference base.
=== Formal and regional ontology ===
Husserl sees ontology as a science of essences. Husserl distinguishes between formal ontology, which investigates the essence of objectivity in general, and regional ontologies, which study regional essences that are shared by all entities belonging to the region. Regions correspond to the highest genera of concrete entities: material nature, personal consciousness, and interpersonal spirit. Husserl's method for studying ontology and sciences of essence in general is called eidetic variation. It involves imagining an object of the kind under investigation and varying its features. The changed feature is inessential to this kind if the object can survive its change, otherwise it belongs to the kind's essence. For example, a triangle remains a triangle if one of its sides is extended, but it ceases to be a triangle if a fourth side is added. Regional ontology involves applying this method to the essences corresponding to the highest genera.
=== Philosophy of logic and mathematics ===
Husserl believed that truth-in-itself has as ontological correlate being-in-itself, just as meaning categories have formal-ontological categories as correlates. Logic is a formal theory of judgment, that studies the formal a priori relations among judgments using meaning categories. Mathematics, on the other hand, is formal ontology; it studies all the possible forms of being (of objects). Hence, for both logic and mathematics, the different formal categories are the objects of study, not the sensible objects themselves. The problem with the psychological approach to mathematics and logic is that it fails to account for the fact that this approach is about formal categories, and not simply about abstractions from sensibility alone. The reason why sensible objects are not dealt with in mathematics is because of another faculty of understanding called "categorial abstraction." Through this faculty, people are able to get rid of sensible components of judgments, and just focus on formal categories themselves.
Thanks to "eidetic reduction" (or "essential intuition"), people are able to grasp the possibility, impossibility, necessity, and contingency among concepts and among formal categories. Categorial intuition, along with categorial abstraction and eidetic reduction, are the basis for logical and mathematical knowledge.
Husserl criticized the logicians of his day for not focusing on the relation between subjective processes that offer objective knowledge of pure logic. All subjective activities of consciousness need an ideal correlate, and objective logic (constituted noematically), as it is constituted by consciousness, needs a noetic correlate (the subjective activities of consciousness).
Husserl stated that logic has three strata, each further away from consciousness and psychology than those that precede it.
The first stratum is what Husserl called a "morphology of meanings" concerning a priori ways to relate judgments to make them meaningful. In this stratum, people elaborate a "pure grammar" or a logical syntax, and he would call its rules "laws to prevent non-sense", which would be similar to what logic calls today "formation rules". Mathematics, as logic's ontological correlate, also has a similar stratum, a "morphology of formal-ontological categories".
The second stratum would be called by Husserl "logic of consequence" or the "logic of non-contradiction" which explores all possible forms of true judgments. He includes here syllogistic classic logic, propositional logic, and that of predicates. This is a semantic stratum, and the rules of this stratum would be the "laws to avoid counter-sense" or "laws to prevent contradiction". They are very similar to today's logic "transformation rules". Mathematics also has a similar stratum which is based, among others, on the pure theory of pluralities and a pure theory of numbers. They provide a science of the conditions of possibility of any theory whatsoever. Husserl also talked about what he called "logic of truth," which consists of the formal laws of possible truth and its modalities, and precedes the third logical stratum.
The third stratum is metalogical, what he called a "theory of all possible forms of theories." It explores all possible theories in an a priori fashion, rather than the possibility of theory in general. Theories of possible relations between pure forms of theories could be established; these logical relations could, in turn, be investigated using deduction. The logician is free to see the extension of this deductive, theoretical sphere of pure logic.
The ontological correlate to the third stratum is the "theory of manifolds". In formal ontology, it is a free investigation where a mathematician can assign several meanings to several symbols, and all their possible valid deductions in a general and indeterminate manner. It is, properly speaking, the most universal mathematics of all. Through the positing of certain indeterminate objects (formal-ontological categories) as well as any combination of mathematical axioms, mathematicians can explore the apodeictic connections between them, as long as consistency is preserved.
According to Husserl, this view of logic and mathematics accounted for the objectivity of a series of mathematical developments of his time, such as n-dimensional manifolds (both Euclidean and non-Euclidean), Hermann Grassmann's theory of extensions, William Rowan Hamilton's Hamiltonians, Sophus Lie's theory of transformation groups, and Cantor's set theory.
Jacob Klein was one student of Husserl who pursued this line of inquiry, seeking to "desedimentize" mathematics and the mathematical sciences.
== Husserl and psychologism ==
=== Philosophy of arithmetic and Frege ===
After obtaining his PhD in mathematics, Husserl began analyzing the foundations of mathematics from a psychological point of view. In his On the Concept of Number (1887) and in his Philosophy of Arithmetic (1891), Husserl sought, by employing Brentano's descriptive psychology, to define the natural numbers in a way that advanced the methods and techniques of Karl Weierstrass, Richard Dedekind, Georg Cantor, Gottlob Frege, and other contemporary mathematicians. Later, in the first volume of his Logical Investigations, the Prolegomena of Pure Logic, Husserl, while attacking the psychologistic point of view in logic and mathematics, also appears to reject much of his early work, although the forms of psychologism analysed and refuted in the Prolegomena did not apply directly to his Philosophy of Arithmetic. Some scholars question whether Frege's negative review of the Philosophy of Arithmetic helped turn Husserl towards modern Platonism, but he had already discovered the work of Bernard Bolzano independently around 1890/91. In his Logical Investigations, Husserl explicitly mentioned Bolzano, G. W. Leibniz and Hermann Lotze as inspirations for his newer position.
Husserl's review of Ernst Schröder, published before Frege's landmark 1892 article, clearly distinguishes sense from reference; thus, Husserl's notions of noema and object also arose independently. For example, the review falsely accuses Husserl of subjectivizing everything, so that no objectivity is possible, and falsely attributes to him a notion of abstraction whereby objects disappear until all that remains are numbers as mere ghosts. Contrary to what Frege states, in Husserl's Philosophy of Arithmetic, there are already two different kinds of representations: subjective and objective. Moreover, objectivity is clearly defined in that work. Frege's attack seems to be directed at certain foundational doctrines then current in Weierstrass's Berlin School, of which Husserl and Cantor cannot be said to be orthodox representatives.
Furthermore, various sources indicate that Husserl changed his mind about psychologism as early as 1890, a year before he published the Philosophy of Arithmetic. Husserl stated that by the time he published that book, he had already changed his mind—that he had doubts about psychologism from the very outset. He attributed this change of mind to his reading of Leibniz, Bolzano, Lotze, and David Hume. Husserl makes no mention of Frege as a decisive factor in this change. In his Logical Investigations, Husserl mentions Frege only twice, once in a footnote to point out that he had retracted three pages of his criticism of Frege's The Foundations of Arithmetic, and again to question Frege's use of the word to designate "reference" rather than "meaning" (sense).
In a letter dated 24 May 1891, Frege thanked Husserl for sending him a copy of the Philosophy of Arithmetic and Husserl's review of Ernst Schröder's . In the same letter, Frege used the review of Schröder's book to analyze Husserl's notion of the sense of reference of concept words. Hence Frege recognized, as early as 1891, that Husserl distinguished between sense and reference. Consequently, Frege and Husserl independently elaborated a theory of sense and reference before 1891.
Commentators argue that Husserl's notion of noema has nothing to do with Frege's notion of sense, because noemata are necessarily fused with noeses, which are the conscious activities of consciousness. Noemata have three different levels:
The substratum, which is never presented to consciousness, and is the support of all the properties of the object;
The noematic senses, which are the different ways the objects are presented to us;
The modalities of being (possible, doubtful, existent, non-existent, absurd, and so on).
Consequently, in intentional activities, even non-existent objects can be constituted, and form part of the whole noema. Frege, however, did not conceive of objects as forming parts of senses: If a proper name denotes a non-existent object, it does not have a reference, hence, concepts with no objects have no truth value in arguments. Moreover, Husserl did not maintain that predicates of sentences designate concepts. According to Frege, the reference of a sentence is a truth value; for Husserl, it is a "state of affairs." Frege's notion of "sense" is unrelated to Husserl's noema, while the latter's notions of "meaning" and "object" differ from those of Frege.
In detail, Husserl's conception of logic and mathematics differs from that of Frege, who held that arithmetic could be derived from logic. For Husserl, this is not the case: mathematics (with the exception of geometry) is the ontological correlate of logic, and while both fields are related, neither one is strictly reducible to the other.
=== Husserl's criticism of psychologism ===
Reacting against authors such as John Stuart Mill, Christoph von Sigwart and his own former teacher Brentano, Husserl criticised their psychologism in mathematics and logic, i.e. their conception of these abstract and a priori sciences as having an essentially empirical foundation and a prescriptive or descriptive nature. According to psychologism, logic would not be an autonomous discipline, but a branch of psychology, either proposing a prescriptive and practical "art" of correct judgement (as Brentano and some of his more orthodox students did) or a description of the factual processes of human thought. Husserl pointed out that the failure of anti-psychologists to defeat psychologism was a result of being unable to distinguish between the foundational, theoretical side of logic, and the applied, practical side. Pure logic does not deal at all with "thoughts" or "judgings" as mental episodes but with a priori laws and conditions for any theory and any judgments whatsoever, conceived as propositions in themselves.
"Here 'Judgement' has the same meaning as 'proposition', understood, not as a grammatical, but as an ideal unity of meaning. This is the case with all the distinctions of acts or forms of judgement, which provide the foundations for the laws of pure logic. Categorial, hypothetical, disjunctive, existential judgements, and however else we may call them, in pure logic are not names for classes of judgements, but for ideal forms of propositions."
Since "truth-in-itself" has "being-in-itself" as ontological correlate, and since psychologists reduce truth (and hence logic) to empirical psychology, the inevitable consequence is scepticism. Psychologists have not been successful either in showing how induction or psychological processes can justify the absolute certainty of logical principles, such as the principles of identity and non-contradiction. It is therefore futile to base certain logical laws and principles on uncertain processes of the mind.
This confusion made by psychologism (and related disciplines such as biologism and anthropologism) can be due to three specific prejudices:
The first prejudice is the supposition that logic is somehow normative in nature. Husserl argues that logic is theoretical, i.e., that logic itself proposes a priori laws which are themselves the basis of the normative side of logic. Since mathematics is related to logic, he cites an example from mathematics: a formula like "(a + b)(a – b) = a² – b²" does not offer any insight into how to think mathematically. It just expresses a truth. A proposition that says: "The product of the sum and the difference of a and b should give the difference of the squares of a and b" does express a normative proposition, but this normative statement is based on the theoretical statement "(a + b)(a – b) = a² – b²".
For psychologists, the acts of judging, reasoning, deriving, and so on, are all psychological processes. Therefore, it is the role of psychology to provide the foundation of these processes. Husserl states that this effort made by psychologists is a "metábasis eis állo génos" (). It is a metábasis because psychology cannot provide any foundations for a priori laws which themselves are the basis for all correct thought. Psychologists have the problem of confusing intentional activities with the object of these activities. It is important to distinguish between the act of judging and the judgment itself, the act of counting and the number itself, and so on. Counting five objects is undeniably a psychological process, but the number 5 is not.
Judgments can be true or not true. Psychologists argue that judgments are true because they become "evidently" true to us. This evidence, a psychological process that "guarantees" truth, is indeed a psychological process. Husserl responds by saying that truth itself, as well as logical laws, always remain valid regardless of psychological "evidence" that they are true. No psychological process can explain the a priori objectivity of these logical truths.
From this criticism to psychologism, the distinction between psychological acts and their intentional objects, and the difference between the normative side of logic and the theoretical side, derives from a Platonist conception of logic. This means that logical and mathematical laws should be regarded as being independent of the human mind, and also as an autonomy of meanings. It is essentially the difference between the real (everything subject to time) and the ideal or irreal (everything that is atemporal), such as logical truths, mathematical entities, mathematical truths, and meanings in general.
== Influence ==
David Carr commented on Husserl following in his 1970 dissertation at Yale: "It is well known that Husserl was always disappointed at the tendency of his students to go their own way, to embark upon fundamental revisions of phenomenology rather than engage in the communal task" as originally intended by the radical new science. Notwithstanding, he did attract philosophers to phenomenology.
Martin Heidegger is the best known of Husserl's students, the one whom Husserl chose as his successor at Freiburg. Heidegger's magnum opus Being and Time was dedicated to Husserl. They shared their thoughts and worked alongside each other for over a decade at the University of Freiburg, Heidegger being Husserl's assistant during 1920–1923. Heidegger's early work followed his teacher, but with time he began to develop new insights distinctively variant. Husserl became increasingly critical of Heidegger's work, especially in 1929, and included pointed criticism of Heidegger in lectures he gave during 1931. Heidegger, while acknowledging his debt to Husserl, followed a political position offensive and harmful to Husserl after the Nazis came to power in 1933, Husserl being of Jewish origin and Heidegger infamously being then a Nazi proponent. Academic discussion of Husserl and Heidegger is extensive.
At Göttingen in 1913, Adolf Reinach "was now Husserl's right hand. He was above all the mediator between Husserl and the students, for he understood extremely well how to deal with other persons, whereas Husserl was pretty much helpless in this respect." He was an original editor of Husserl's new journal, Jahrbuch; one of his works (giving a phenomenological analysis of the law of obligations) appeared in its first issue. Reinach was widely admired and a remarkable teacher. Husserl, in his 1917 obituary, wrote, "He wanted to draw only from the deepest sources, he wanted to produce only work of enduring value. And through his wise restraint, he succeeded in this."
Edith Stein was Husserl's student at Göttingen and Freiburg while she wrote her doctoral thesis The Empathy Problem as it Developed Historically and Considered Phenomenologically (1916). She then became his assistant at Freiburg in 1916–18. She later adapted her phenomenology to the modern school of modern Thomism.
Ludwig Landgrebe became assistant to Husserl in 1923. From 1939, he collaborated with Eugen Fink at the Husserl-Archives in Leuven. In 1954, he became the leader of the Husserl-Archives. Landgrebe is known as one of Husserl's closest associates, but also for his independent views relating to history, religion, and politics as seen from the viewpoints of existentialist philosophy and metaphysics.
Eugen Fink was a close associate of Husserl during the 1920s and 1930s. He wrote the Sixth Cartesian Meditation which Husserl said was the truest expression and continuation of his own work. Fink delivered the eulogy for Husserl in 1938. Although Scheler later criticised Husserl's idealistic logical approach and proposed instead a "phenomenology of love", he states that he remained "deeply indebted" to Husserl throughout his work.
Nicolai Hartmann was once thought to be at the center of phenomenology, but perhaps no longer. In 1921, the prestige of Hartmann, the neo-Kantian, who was Professor of Philosophy at the University of Marburg, was added to the Movement; he "publicly declared his solidarity with the actual work of die Phänomenologie." Yet Hartmann's connections were with Max Scheler and the Munich circle; Husserl himself evidently did not consider him a phenomenologist. His philosophy, however, is said to include an innovative use of the method.
Emmanuel Levinas in 1929 gave a presentation at one of Husserl's last seminars in Freiburg. Also that year, he wrote on Husserl's Ideen (1913) a long review published by a French journal. With Gabrielle Peiffer, Levinas translated into French Husserl's Méditations cartésiennes (1931). He was at first impressed with Heidegger and began a book on him, but broke off the project when Heidegger became involved with the Nazis. After the war he wrote on Jewish spirituality; most of his family had been murdered by the Nazis in Lithuania. Levinas then began to write works that would become widely known and admired.
Alfred Schutz's Phenomenology of the Social World seeks to rigorously ground Max Weber's interpretive sociology in Husserl's phenomenology. Husserl was impressed by this work and asked Schutz to be his assistant.
Jean-Paul Sartre was also largely influenced by Husserl, although he later came to disagree with key points in his analyses. Sartre rejected Husserl's transcendental interpretations begun in his Ideen (1913) and instead followed Heidegger's ontology.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty's Phenomenology of Perception is influenced by Edmund Husserl's work on perception, intersubjectivity, intentionality, space, and temporality, including Husserl's theory of retention and protention. Merleau-Ponty's description of 'motor intentionality' and sexuality, for example, retains the important structure of the noetic/noematic correlation of Ideen I, yet further concretizes what it means for Husserl when consciousness particularizes itself into modes of intuition. Merleau-Ponty's most clearly Husserlian work is, perhaps, "the Philosopher and His Shadow." Depending on the interpretation of Husserl's accounts of eidetic intuition, given in Husserl's Phenomenological Psychology and Experience and Judgment, it may be that Merleau-Ponty did not accept the "eidetic reduction" nor the "pure essence" said to result. Merleau-Ponty was the first student to study at the Husserl-archives in Leuven.
Gabriel Marcel explicitly rejected existentialism, due to Sartre, but not phenomenology, which has enjoyed a wide following among French Catholics. He appreciated Husserl, Scheler, and (but with apprehension) Heidegger. His expressions like "ontology of sensability" when referring to the body, indicate influence by phenomenological thought.
Kurt Gödel is known to have read Cartesian Meditations. He expressed very strong appreciation for Husserl's work, especially with regard to "bracketing" or "epoché".
Hermann Weyl's interest in intuitionistic logic and impredicativity appears to have resulted from his reading of Husserl. He was introduced to Husserl's work through his wife, Helene Joseph, herself a student of Husserl at Göttingen.
Colin Wilson has used Husserl's ideas extensively in developing his "New Existentialism," particularly in regards to his "intentionality of consciousness," which he mentions in a number of his books.
Rudolf Carnap was also influenced by Husserl, not only concerning Husserl's notion of essential insight that Carnap used in his Der Raum, but also his notion of "formation rules" and "transformation rules" is founded on Husserl's philosophy of logic.
Karol Wojtyla, who would later become Pope John Paul II, was influenced by Husserl. Phenomenology appears in his major work, The Acting Person (1969). Originally published in Polish, it was translated by Andrzej Potocki and edited by Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka in the Analecta Husserliana. The Acting Person combines phenomenological work with Thomistic ethics.
Paul Ricœur has translated many works of Husserl into French and has also written many of his own studies of the philosopher. Among other works, Ricœur employed phenomenology in his Freud and Philosophy (1965).
Jacques Derrida wrote several critical studies of Husserl early in his academic career. These included his dissertation, The Problem of Genesis in Husserl's Philosophy, and also his introduction to The Origin of Geometry. Derrida continued to make reference to Husserl in works such as Of Grammatology.
Stanisław Leśniewski and Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz were inspired by Husserl's formal analysis of language. Accordingly, they employed phenomenology in the development of categorial grammar.
José Ortega y Gasset visited Husserl at Freiburg in 1934. He credited phenomenology for having 'liberated him' from a narrow neo-Kantian thought. While perhaps not a phenomenologist himself, he introduced the philosophy to Iberia and Latin America.
Wilfrid Sellars, an influential figure in the so-called "Pittsburgh School" (Robert Brandom, John McDowell) had been a student of Marvin Farber, a pupil of Husserl, and was influenced by phenomenology through him:
In his 1942 essay The Myth of Sisyphus, absurdist philosopher Albert Camus acknowledges Husserl as a previous philosopher who described and attempted to deal with the feeling of the absurd, but claims he committed "philosophical suicide" by elevating reason and ultimately arriving at ubiquitous Platonic forms and an abstract god.
Hans Blumenberg received his habilitation in 1950, with a dissertation on ontological distance, an inquiry into the crisis of Husserl's phenomenology.
Roger Scruton, despite some disagreements with Husserl, drew upon his work in Sexual Desire (1986).
The influence of the Husserlian phenomenological tradition in the 21st century extends beyond the confines of the European and North American legacies. It has already started to impact (indirectly) scholarship in Eastern and Oriental thought, including research on the impetus of philosophical thinking in the history of ideas in Islam.
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"Paris",
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"Transcendental idealism",
"Kurt Gödel"
] |
9,531 |
Electrical engineering
|
Electrical engineering is an engineering discipline concerned with the study, design, and application of equipment, devices, and systems that use electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. It emerged as an identifiable occupation in the latter half of the 19th century after the commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone, and electrical power generation, distribution, and use.
Electrical engineering is divided into a wide range of different fields, including computer engineering, systems engineering, power engineering, telecommunications, radio-frequency engineering, signal processing, instrumentation, photovoltaic cells, electronics, and optics and photonics. Many of these disciplines overlap with other engineering branches, spanning a huge number of specializations including hardware engineering, power electronics, electromagnetics and waves, microwave engineering, nanotechnology, electrochemistry, renewable energies, mechatronics/control, and electrical materials science.
Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in electrical engineering, electronic or electrical and electronic engineering. Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be members of a professional body or an international standards organization. These include the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET, formerly the IEE).
Electrical engineers work in a very wide range of industries and the skills required are likewise variable. These range from circuit theory to the management skills of a project manager. The tools and equipment that an individual engineer may need are similarly variable, ranging from a simple voltmeter to sophisticated design and manufacturing software.
==History==
Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century. William Gilbert was a prominent early electrical scientist, and was the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity. He is credited with establishing the term "electricity". He also designed the versorium: a device that detects the presence of statically charged objects. In 1762 Swedish professor Johan Wilcke invented a device later named electrophorus that produced a static electric charge. By 1800 Alessandro Volta had developed the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery.
===19th century===
In the 19th century, research into the subject started to intensify. Notable developments in this century include the work of Hans Christian Ørsted, who discovered in 1820 that an electric current produces a magnetic field that will deflect a compass needle; of William Sturgeon, who in 1825 invented the electromagnet; of Joseph Henry and Edward Davy, who invented the electrical relay in 1835; of Georg Ohm, who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the electric current and potential difference in a conductor; of Michael Faraday, the discoverer of electromagnetic induction in 1831; and of James Clerk Maxwell, who in 1873 published a unified theory of electricity and magnetism in his treatise Electricity and Magnetism.
In 1782, Georges-Louis Le Sage developed and presented in Berlin probably the world's first form of electric telegraphy, using 24 different wires, one for each letter of the alphabet. This telegraph connected two rooms. It was an electrostatic telegraph that moved gold leaf through electrical conduction.
In 1795, Francisco Salva Campillo proposed an electrostatic telegraph system. Between 1803 and 1804, he worked on electrical telegraphy, and in 1804, he presented his report at the Royal Academy of Natural Sciences and Arts of Barcelona. Salva's electrolyte telegraph system was very innovative though it was greatly influenced by and based upon two discoveries made in Europe in 1800—Alessandro Volta's electric battery for generating an electric current and William Nicholson and Anthony Carlyle's electrolysis of water. Electrical telegraphy may be considered the first example of electrical engineering. Electrical engineering became a profession in the later 19th century. Practitioners had created a global electric telegraph network, and the first professional electrical engineering institutions were founded in the UK and the US to support the new discipline. Francis Ronalds created an electric telegraph system in 1816 and documented his vision of how the world could be transformed by electricity. Over 50 years later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers (soon to be renamed the Institution of Electrical Engineers) where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort. By the end of the 19th century, the world had been forever changed by the rapid communication made possible by the engineering development of land-lines, submarine cables, and, from about 1890, wireless telegraphy.
Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for standardized units of measure. They led to the international standardization of the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad, and henry. This was achieved at an international conference in Chicago in 1893. The publication of these standards formed the basis of future advances in standardization in various industries, and in many countries, the definitions were immediately recognized in relevant legislation.
During these years, the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of physics since early electrical technology was considered electromechanical in nature. The Technische Universität Darmstadt founded the world's first department of electrical engineering in 1882 and introduced the first-degree course in electrical engineering in 1883. The first electrical engineering degree program in the United States was started at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the physics department under Professor Charles Cross, though it was Cornell University to produce the world's first electrical engineering graduates in 1885. The first course in electrical engineering was taught in 1883 in Cornell's Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanic Arts.
In about 1885, Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the first Department of Electrical Engineering in the United States. In the same year, University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University of Missouri established the electrical engineering department in 1886. Afterwards, universities and institutes of technology gradually started to offer electrical engineering programs to their students all over the world.
During these decades the use of electrical engineering increased dramatically. In 1882, Thomas Edison switched on the world's first large-scale electric power network that provided 110 volts—direct current (DC)—to 59 customers on Manhattan Island in New York City. In 1884, Sir Charles Parsons invented the steam turbine allowing for more efficient electric power generation. Alternating current, with its ability to transmit power more efficiently over long distances via the use of transformers, developed rapidly in the 1880s and 1890s with transformer designs by Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri (later called ZBD transformers), Lucien Gaulard, John Dixon Gibbs and William Stanley Jr. Practical AC motor designs including induction motors were independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla and further developed into a practical three-phase form by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky and Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown. Charles Steinmetz and Oliver Heaviside contributed to the theoretical basis of alternating current engineering. The spread in the use of AC set off in the United States what has been called the war of the currents between a George Westinghouse backed AC system and a Thomas Edison backed DC power system, with AC being adopted as the overall standard.
===Early 20th century===
During the development of radio, many scientists and inventors contributed to radio technology and electronics. The mathematical work of James Clerk Maxwell during the 1850s had shown the relationship of different forms of electromagnetic radiation including the possibility of invisible airborne waves (later called "radio waves"). In his classic physics experiments of 1888, Heinrich Hertz proved Maxwell's theory by transmitting radio waves with a spark-gap transmitter, and detected them by using simple electrical devices. Other physicists experimented with these new waves and in the process developed devices for transmitting and detecting them. In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi began work on a way to adapt the known methods of transmitting and detecting these "Hertzian waves" into a purpose-built commercial wireless telegraphic system. Early on, he sent wireless signals over a distance of one and a half miles. In December 1901, he sent wireless waves that were not affected by the curvature of the Earth. Marconi later transmitted the wireless signals across the Atlantic between Poldhu, Cornwall, and St. John's, Newfoundland, a distance of .
Millimetre wave communication was first investigated by Jagadish Chandra Bose during 18941896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of up to 60GHz in his experiments. He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves, when he patented the radio crystal detector in 1901.
In 1897, Karl Ferdinand Braun introduced the cathode-ray tube as part of an oscilloscope, a crucial enabling technology for electronic television. John Fleming invented the first radio tube, the diode, in 1904. Two years later, Robert von Lieben and Lee De Forest independently developed the amplifier tube, called the triode.
In 1920, Albert Hull developed the magnetron which would eventually lead to the development of the microwave oven in 1946 by Percy Spencer. In 1934, the British military began to make strides toward radar (which also uses the magnetron) under the direction of Dr Wimperis, culminating in the operation of the first radar station at Bawdsey in August 1936.
In 1941, Konrad Zuse presented the Z3, the world's first fully functional and programmable computer using electromechanical parts. In 1943, Tommy Flowers designed and built the Colossus, the world's first fully functional, electronic, digital and programmable computer. In 1946, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) of John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic performance of these machines allowed engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve new objectives.
In 1948, Claude Shannon published "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" which mathematically describes the passage of information with uncertainty (electrical noise).
===Solid-state electronics ===
The first working transistor was a point-contact transistor invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain while working under William Shockley at the Bell Telephone Laboratories (BTL) in 1947. They then invented the bipolar junction transistor in 1948. While early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, they opened the door for more compact devices.
The first integrated circuits were the hybrid integrated circuit invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments in 1958 and the monolithic integrated circuit chip invented by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959.
The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at BTL in 1959. It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world.
The MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuit chips. MOS technology enabled Moore's law, the doubling of transistors on an IC chip every two years, predicted by Gordon Moore in 1965. Silicon-gate MOS technology was developed by Federico Faggin at Fairchild in 1968. Since then, the MOSFET has been the basic building block of modern electronics. The mass-production of silicon MOSFETs and MOS integrated circuit chips, along with continuous MOSFET scaling miniaturization at an exponential pace (as predicted by Moore's law), has since led to revolutionary changes in technology, economy, culture and thinking.
The Apollo program which culminated in landing astronauts on the Moon with Apollo 11 in 1969 was enabled by NASA's adoption of advances in semiconductor electronic technology, including MOSFETs in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP) and silicon integrated circuit chips in the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC).
The development of MOS integrated circuit technology in the 1960s led to the invention of the microprocessor in the early 1970s. The first single-chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004, released in 1971. The microprocessor led to the development of microcomputers and personal computers, and the microcomputer revolution.
==Subfields==
One of the properties of electricity is that it is very useful for energy transmission as well as for information transmission. These were also the first areas in which electrical engineering was developed. Today, electrical engineering has many subdisciplines, the most common of which are listed below. Although there are electrical engineers who focus exclusively on one of these subdisciplines, many deal with a combination of them. Sometimes, certain fields, such as electronic engineering and computer engineering, are considered disciplines in their own right.
===Power and energy===
Power & Energy engineering deals with the generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity as well as the design of a range of related devices. These include transformers, electric generators, electric motors, high voltage engineering, and power electronics. In many regions of the world, governments maintain an electrical network called a power grid that connects a variety of generators together with users of their energy. Users purchase electrical energy from the grid, avoiding the costly exercise of having to generate their own. Power engineers may work on the design and maintenance of the power grid as well as the power systems that connect to it. The tuned circuit, which allows the user of a radio to filter out all but a single station, is just one example of such a circuit. Another example to research is a pneumatic signal conditioner.
Prior to the Second World War, the subject was commonly known as radio engineering and basically was restricted to aspects of communications and radar, commercial radio, and early television. For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control.
===Computers===
Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and computer systems. This may involve the design of new hardware. Computer engineers may also work on a system's software. However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of software engineering, which is usually considered a separate discipline. Desktop computers represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a range of embedded devices including video game consoles and DVD players. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing. Robots are one of the applications of computer engineering.
===Photonics and optics===
Photonics and optics deals with the generation, transmission, amplification, modulation, detection, and analysis of electromagnetic radiation. The application of optics deals with design of optical instruments such as lenses, microscopes, telescopes, and other equipment that uses the properties of electromagnetic radiation. Other prominent applications of optics include electro-optical sensors and measurement systems, lasers, fiber-optic communication systems, and optical disc systems (e.g. CD and DVD). Photonics builds heavily on optical technology, supplemented with modern developments such as optoelectronics (mostly involving semiconductors), laser systems, optical amplifiers and novel materials (e.g. metamaterials).
==Related disciplines==
Mechatronics is an engineering discipline that deals with the convergence of electrical and mechanical systems. Such combined systems are known as electromechanical systems and have widespread adoption. Examples include automated manufacturing systems, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems, and various subsystems of aircraft and automobiles.
Electronic systems design is the subject within electrical engineering that deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electrical and mechanical systems.
The term mechatronics is typically used to refer to macroscopic systems but futurists have predicted the emergence of very small electromechanical devices. Already, such small devices, known as microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), are used in automobiles to tell airbags when to deploy, in digital projectors to create sharper images, and in inkjet printers to create nozzles for high definition printing. In the future it is hoped the devices will help build tiny implantable medical devices and improve optical communication.
In aerospace engineering and robotics, an example is the most recent electric propulsion and ion propulsion.
==Education==
Electrical engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in electrical engineering, electronics engineering, electrical engineering technology, or electrical and electronic engineering. The same fundamental principles are taught in all programs, though emphasis may vary according to title. The length of study for such a degree is usually four or five years and the completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Science in Electrical/Electronics Engineering Technology, Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Technology, or Bachelor of Applied Science, depending on the university. The bachelor's degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, computer science, project management, and a variety of topics in electrical engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the subdisciplines of electrical engineering.
At many schools, electronic engineering is included as part of an electrical award, sometimes explicitly, such as a Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical and Electronic), but in others, electrical and electronic engineering are both considered to be sufficiently broad and complex that separate degrees are offered.
Some electrical engineers choose to study for a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering/Master of Science (MEng/MSc), a Master of Engineering Management, a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Engineering, an Engineering Doctorate (Eng.D.), or an Engineer's degree. The master's and engineer's degrees may consist of either research, coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy and Engineering Doctorate degrees consist of a significant research component and are often viewed as the entry point to academia. In the United Kingdom and some other European countries, Master of Engineering is often considered to be an undergraduate degree of slightly longer duration than the Bachelor of Engineering rather than a standalone postgraduate degree.
==Professional practice==
In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience requirements) before being certified. Once certified the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), Chartered engineer or Incorporated Engineer (in India, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) or European Engineer (in much of the European Union).
The advantages of licensure vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may seal engineering work for public and private clients". This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act. In other countries, no such legislation exists. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion. In this way these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, the charge of criminal negligence. An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations, such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law.
Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). The IEEE claims to produce 30% of the world's literature in electrical engineering, has over 360,000 members worldwide and holds over 3,000 conferences annually. The IET publishes 21 journals, has a worldwide membership of over 150,000, and claims to be the largest professional engineering society in Europe. Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electrical engineers. Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency. An MIET(Member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology) is recognised in Europe as an Electrical and computer (technology) engineer.
In Australia, Canada, and the United States, electrical engineers make up around 0.25% of the labor force.
==Tools and work==
From the Global Positioning System to electric power generation, electrical engineers have contributed to the development of a wide range of technologies. They design, develop, test, and supervise the deployment of electrical systems and electronic devices. For example, they may work on the design of telecommunications systems, the operation of electric power stations, the lighting and wiring of buildings, the design of household appliances, or the electrical control of industrial machinery.
Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics and mathematics as these help to obtain both a qualitative and quantitative description of how such systems will work. Today most engineering work involves the use of computers and it is commonplace to use computer-aided design programs when designing electrical systems. Nevertheless, the ability to sketch ideas is still invaluable for quickly communicating with others.
Although most electrical engineers will understand basic circuit theory (that is, the interactions of elements such as resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, and inductors in a circuit), the theories employed by engineers generally depend upon the work they do. For example, quantum mechanics and solid state physics might be relevant to an engineer working on VLSI (the design of integrated circuits), but are largely irrelevant to engineers working with macroscopic electrical systems. Even circuit theory may not be relevant to a person designing telecommunications systems that use off-the-shelf components. Perhaps the most important technical skills for electrical engineers are reflected in university programs, which emphasize strong numerical skills, computer literacy, and the ability to understand the technical language and concepts that relate to electrical engineering.
A wide range of instrumentation is used by electrical engineers. For simple control circuits and alarms, a basic multimeter measuring voltage, current, and resistance may suffice. Where time-varying signals need to be studied, the oscilloscope is also an ubiquitous instrument. In RF engineering and high-frequency telecommunications, spectrum analyzers and network analyzers are used. In some disciplines, safety can be a particular concern with instrumentation. For instance, medical electronics designers must take into account that much lower voltages than normal can be dangerous when electrodes are directly in contact with internal body fluids. Power transmission engineering also has great safety concerns due to the high voltages used; although voltmeters may in principle be similar to their low voltage equivalents, safety and calibration issues make them very different. Many disciplines of electrical engineering use tests specific to their discipline. Audio electronics engineers use audio test sets consisting of a signal generator and a meter, principally to measure level but also other parameters such as harmonic distortion and noise. Likewise, information technology have their own test sets, often specific to a particular data format, and the same is true of television broadcasting.
For many engineers, technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time may also be spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing budgets and determining project schedules. Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians or other engineers and for this reason project management skills are important. Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and strong written communication skills are therefore very important.
The workplaces of engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do. Electrical engineers may be found in the pristine lab environment of a fabrication plant, on board a Naval ship, the offices of a consulting firm or on site at a mine. During their working life, electrical engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range of individuals including scientists, electricians, computer programmers, and other engineers.
Electrical engineering has an intimate relationship with the physical sciences. For instance, the physicist Lord Kelvin played a major role in the engineering of the first transatlantic telegraph cable. Conversely, the engineer Oliver Heaviside produced major work on the mathematics of transmission on telegraph cables. Electrical engineers are often required on major science projects. For instance, large particle accelerators such as CERN need electrical engineers to deal with many aspects of the project including the power distribution, the instrumentation, and the manufacture and installation of the superconducting electromagnets.
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"thermocouple"
] |
9,532 |
Electromagnetism
|
In physics, electromagnetism is an interaction that occurs between particles with electric charge via electromagnetic fields. The electromagnetic force is one of the four fundamental forces of nature. It is the dominant force in the interactions of atoms and molecules. Electromagnetism can be thought of as a combination of electrostatics and magnetism, which are distinct but closely intertwined phenomena. Electromagnetic forces occur between any two charged particles. Electric forces cause an attraction between particles with opposite charges and repulsion between particles with the same charge, while magnetism is an interaction that occurs between charged particles in relative motion. These two forces are described in terms of electromagnetic fields. Macroscopic charged objects are described in terms of Coulomb's law for electricity and Ampère's force law for magnetism; the Lorentz force describes microscopic charged particles.
The electromagnetic force is responsible for many of the chemical and physical phenomena observed in daily life. The electrostatic attraction between atomic nuclei and their electrons holds atoms together. Electric forces also allow different atoms to combine into molecules, including the macromolecules such as proteins that form the basis of life. Meanwhile, magnetic interactions between the spin and angular momentum magnetic moments of electrons also play a role in chemical reactivity; such relationships are studied in spin chemistry. Electromagnetism also plays several crucial roles in modern technology: electrical energy production, transformation and distribution; light, heat, and sound production and detection; fiber optic and wireless communication; sensors; computation; electrolysis; electroplating; and mechanical motors and actuators.
Electromagnetism has been studied since ancient times. Many ancient civilizations, including the Greeks and the Mayans, created wide-ranging theories to explain lightning, static electricity, and the attraction between magnetized pieces of iron ore. However, it was not until the late 18th century that scientists began to develop a mathematical basis for understanding the nature of electromagnetic interactions. In the 18th and 19th centuries, prominent scientists and mathematicians such as Coulomb, Gauss and Faraday developed namesake laws which helped to explain the formation and interaction of electromagnetic fields. This process culminated in the 1860s with the discovery of Maxwell's equations, a set of four partial differential equations which provide a complete description of classical electromagnetic fields. Maxwell's equations provided a sound mathematical basis for the relationships between electricity and magnetism that scientists had been exploring for centuries, and predicted the existence of self-sustaining electromagnetic waves. Maxwell postulated that such waves make up visible light, which was later shown to be true. Gamma-rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, visible, infrared radiation, microwaves and radio waves were all determined to be electromagnetic radiation differing only in their range of frequencies.
In the modern era, scientists continue to refine the theory of electromagnetism to account for the effects of modern physics, including quantum mechanics and relativity. The theoretical implications of electromagnetism, particularly the requirement that observations remain consistent when viewed from various moving frames of reference (relativistic electromagnetism) and the establishment of the speed of light based on properties of the medium of propagation (permeability and permittivity), helped inspire Einstein's theory of special relativity in 1905. Quantum electrodynamics (QED) modifies Maxwell's equations to be consistent with the quantized nature of matter. In QED, changes in the electromagnetic field are expressed in terms of discrete excitations, particles known as photons, the quanta of light.
==History==
===Ancient world===
Investigation into electromagnetic phenomena began about 5,000 years ago. There is evidence that the ancient Chinese, Mayan, and potentially even Egyptian civilizations knew that the naturally magnetic mineral magnetite had attractive properties, and many incorporated it into their art and architecture. Ancient people were also aware of lightning and static electricity, although they had no idea of the mechanisms behind these phenomena. The Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus discovered around 600 B.C.E. that amber could acquire an electric charge when it was rubbed with cloth, which allowed it to pick up light objects such as pieces of straw. Thales also experimented with the ability of magnetic rocks to attract one other, and hypothesized that this phenomenon might be connected to the attractive power of amber, foreshadowing the deep connections between electricity and magnetism that would be discovered over 2,000 years later. Despite all this investigation, ancient civilizations had no understanding of the mathematical basis of electromagnetism, and often analyzed its impacts through the lens of religion rather than science (lightning, for instance, was considered to be a creation of the gods in many cultures).
===19th century===
Electricity and magnetism were originally considered to be two separate forces. This view changed with the publication of James Clerk Maxwell's 1873 A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in which the interactions of positive and negative charges were shown to be mediated by one force. There are four main effects resulting from these interactions, all of which have been clearly demonstrated by experiments:
Electric charges ' or ' one another with a force inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them: opposite charges attract, like charges repel.
Magnetic poles (or states of polarization at individual points) attract or repel one another in a manner similar to positive and negative charges and always exist as pairs: every north pole is yoked to a south pole.
An electric current inside a wire creates a corresponding circumferential magnetic field outside the wire. Its direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise) depends on the direction of the current in the wire.
A current is induced in a loop of wire when it is moved toward or away from a magnetic field, or a magnet is moved towards or away from it; the direction of current depends on that of the movement. Soon thereafter he published his findings, proving that an electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire. The CGS unit of magnetic induction (oersted) is named in honor of his contributions to the field of electromagnetism.
His findings resulted in intensive research throughout the scientific community in electrodynamics. They influenced French physicist André-Marie Ampère's developments of a single mathematical form to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors. Ørsted's discovery also represented a major step toward a unified concept of energy.
This unification, which was observed by Michael Faraday, extended by James Clerk Maxwell, and partially reformulated by Oliver Heaviside and Heinrich Hertz, is one of the key accomplishments of 19th-century mathematical physics. It has had far-reaching consequences, one of which was the understanding of the nature of light. Unlike what was proposed by the electromagnetic theory of that time, light and other electromagnetic waves are at present seen as taking the form of quantized, self-propagating oscillatory electromagnetic field disturbances called photons. Different frequencies of oscillation give rise to the different forms of electromagnetic radiation, from radio waves at the lowest frequencies, to visible light at intermediate frequencies, to gamma rays at the highest frequencies.
Ørsted was not the only person to examine the relationship between electricity and magnetism. In 1802, Gian Domenico Romagnosi, an Italian legal scholar, deflected a magnetic needle using a Voltaic pile. The factual setup of the experiment is not completely clear, nor if current flowed across the needle or not. An account of the discovery was published in 1802 in an Italian newspaper, but it was largely overlooked by the contemporary scientific community, because Romagnosi seemingly did not belong to this community.
An earlier (1735), and often neglected, connection between electricity and magnetism was reported by a Dr. Cookson. The account stated:A tradesman at Wakefield in Yorkshire, having put up a great number of knives and forks in a large box ... and having placed the box in the corner of a large room, there happened a sudden storm of thunder, lightning, &c. ... The owner emptying the box on a counter where some nails lay, the persons who took up the knives, that lay on the nails, observed that the knives took up the nails. On this the whole number was tried, and found to do the same, and that, to such a degree as to take up large nails, packing needles, and other iron things of considerable weight ... E. T. Whittaker suggested in 1910 that this particular event was responsible for lightning to be "credited with the power of magnetizing steel; and it was doubtless this which led Franklin in 1751 to attempt to magnetize a sewing-needle by means of the discharge of Leyden jars."
== A fundamental force ==
The electromagnetic force is the second strongest of the four known fundamental forces and has unlimited range.
All other forces, known as non-fundamental forces. (e.g., friction, contact forces) are derived from the four fundamental forces. At high energy, the weak force and electromagnetic force are unified as a single interaction called the electroweak interaction.
Most of the forces involved in interactions between atoms are explained by electromagnetic forces between electrically charged atomic nuclei and electrons. The electromagnetic force is also involved in all forms of chemical phenomena.
Electromagnetism explains how materials carry momentum despite being composed of individual particles and empty space. The forces we experience when "pushing" or "pulling" ordinary material objects result from intermolecular forces between individual molecules in our bodies and in the objects.
The effective forces generated by the momentum of electrons' movement is a necessary part of understanding atomic and intermolecular interactions. As electrons move between interacting atoms, they carry momentum with them. As a collection of electrons becomes more confined, their minimum momentum necessarily increases due to the Pauli exclusion principle. The behavior of matter at the molecular scale, including its density, is determined by the balance between the electromagnetic force and the force generated by the exchange of momentum carried by the electrons themselves.
==Classical electrodynamics==
In 1600, William Gilbert proposed, in his De Magnete, that electricity and magnetism, while both capable of causing attraction and repulsion of objects, were distinct effects. Mariners had noticed that lightning strikes had the ability to disturb a compass needle. The link between lightning and electricity was not confirmed until Benjamin Franklin's proposed experiments in 1752 were conducted on 10May 1752 by Thomas-François Dalibard of France using a iron rod instead of a kite and he successfully extracted electrical sparks from a cloud.
One of the first to discover and publish a link between human-made electric current and magnetism was Gian Romagnosi, who in 1802 noticed that connecting a wire across a voltaic pile deflected a nearby compass needle. However, the effect did not become widely known until 1820, when Ørsted performed a similar experiment. Ørsted's work influenced Ampère to conduct further experiments, which eventually gave rise to a new area of physics: electrodynamics. By determining a force law for the interaction between elements of electric current, Ampère placed the subject on a solid mathematical foundation.
A theory of electromagnetism, known as classical electromagnetism, was developed by several physicists during the period between 1820 and 1873, when James Clerk Maxwell's treatise was published, which unified previous developments into a single theory, proposing that light was an electromagnetic wave propagating in the luminiferous ether. In classical electromagnetism, the behavior of the electromagnetic field is described by a set of equations known as Maxwell's equations, and the electromagnetic force is given by the Lorentz force law.
One of the peculiarities of classical electromagnetism is that it is difficult to reconcile with classical mechanics, but it is compatible with special relativity. According to Maxwell's equations, the speed of light in vacuum is a universal constant that is dependent only on the electrical permittivity and magnetic permeability of free space. This violates Galilean invariance, a long-standing cornerstone of classical mechanics. One way to reconcile the two theories (electromagnetism and classical mechanics) is to assume the existence of a luminiferous aether through which the light propagates. However, subsequent experimental efforts failed to detect the presence of the aether. After important contributions of Hendrik Lorentz and Henri Poincaré, in 1905, Albert Einstein solved the problem with the introduction of special relativity, which replaced classical kinematics with a new theory of kinematics compatible with classical electromagnetism. (For more information, see History of special relativity.)
In addition, relativity theory implies that in moving frames of reference, a magnetic field transforms to a field with a nonzero electric component and conversely, a moving electric field transforms to a nonzero magnetic component, thus firmly showing that the phenomena are two sides of the same coin. Hence the term "electromagnetism". (For more information, see Classical electromagnetism and special relativity and Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism.)
Today few problems in electromagnetism remain unsolved. These include: the lack of magnetic monopoles, Abraham–Minkowski controversy, the location in space of the electromagnetic field energy, and the mechanism by which some organisms can sense electric and magnetic fields.
==Extension to nonlinear phenomena==
The Maxwell equations are linear, in that a change in the sources (the charges and currents) results in a proportional change of the fields. Nonlinear dynamics can occur when electromagnetic fields couple to matter that follows nonlinear dynamical laws. This is studied, for example, in the subject of magnetohydrodynamics, which combines Maxwell theory with the Navier–Stokes equations. Another branch of electromagnetism dealing with nonlinearity is nonlinear optics.
==Quantities and units==
Here is a list of common units related to electromagnetism:
ampere (electric current, SI unit)
coulomb (electric charge)
farad (capacitance)
henry (inductance)
ohm (resistance)
siemens (conductance)
tesla (magnetic flux density)
volt (electric potential)
watt (power)
weber (magnetic flux)
In the electromagnetic CGS system, electric current is a fundamental quantity defined via Ampère's law and takes the permeability as a dimensionless quantity (relative permeability) whose value in vacuum is unity. As a consequence, the square of the speed of light appears explicitly in some of the equations interrelating quantities in this system.
Formulas for physical laws of electromagnetism (such as Maxwell's equations) need to be adjusted depending on what system of units one uses. This is because there is no one-to-one correspondence between electromagnetic units in SI and those in CGS, as is the case for mechanical units. Furthermore, within CGS, there are several plausible choices of electromagnetic units, leading to different unit "sub-systems", including Gaussian, "ESU", "EMU", and Heaviside–Lorentz. Among these choices, Gaussian units are the most common today, and in fact the phrase "CGS units" is often used to refer specifically to CGS-Gaussian units.
== Applications ==
The study of electromagnetism informs electric circuits, magnetic circuits, and semiconductor devices' construction.
|
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] |
9,534 |
Euphemism
|
A euphemism ( ) is an innocuous word or expression used in place of one that is deemed offensive or suggests something unpleasant. Some euphemisms are intended to amuse, while others use bland, inoffensive terms for concepts that the user wishes to downplay. Euphemisms may be used to mask profanity or refer to topics some consider taboo such as mental or physical disability, sexual intercourse, bodily excretions, pain, violence, illness, or death in a polite way.
==Etymology==
Euphemism comes from the Greek word () which refers to the use of 'words of good omen'; it is a compound of (), meaning 'good, well', and (), meaning 'prophetic speech; rumour, talk'. Eupheme is a reference to the female Greek spirit of words of praise and positivity, etc. The term euphemism itself was used as a euphemism by the ancient Greeks; with the meaning "to keep a holy silence" (speaking well by not speaking at all).
==Purpose==
===Avoidance===
Reasons for using euphemisms vary by context and intent. Commonly, euphemisms are used to avoid directly addressing subjects that might be deemed negative or embarrassing, such as death, sex, and excretory bodily functions. They may be created for innocent, well-intentioned purposes or nefariously and cynically, intentionally to deceive, confuse or deny. Euphemisms which emerge as dominant social euphemisms are often created to serve progressive causes. The Oxford University Press's Dictionary of Euphemisms identifies "late" as an occasionally ambiguous term, whose nature as a euphemism for dead and an adjective meaning overdue, can cause confusion in listeners.
===Mitigation===
Euphemisms are also used to mitigate, soften or downplay the gravity of large-scale injustices, war crimes, or other events that warrant a pattern of avoidance in official statements or documents. For instance, one reason for the comparative scarcity of written evidence documenting the exterminations at Auschwitz, relative to their sheer number, is "directives for the extermination process obscured in bureaucratic euphemisms". Another example of this is during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, where Russian President Vladimir Putin, in his speech starting the invasion, called the invasion a "special military operation".
Euphemisms are sometimes used to lessen the opposition to a political move. For example, according to linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu used the neutral Hebrew lexical item (literally 'beatings (of the heart)'), rather than ('withdrawal'), to refer to the stages in the Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank , in order to lessen the opposition of right-wing Israelis to such a move. was thus used as a euphemism for 'withdrawal'.
Enhanced interrogation is a euphemism for torture. For example, columnist David Brooks called the use of this term for practices at Abu Ghraib, Guantanamo Bay and elsewhere an effort to "dull the moral sensibility".
===Online===
The use of euphemism online is known as "algospeak" when used to evade automated online moderation techniques used on Meta and TikTok's platforms. Algospeak has been used in debate about the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.
==Formation methods==
===Pronunciation (phonetic modification)===
Phonetic euphemism is used to replace profanities and blasphemies, diminishing their intensity. To alter the pronunciation or spelling of a taboo word (such as profanity) to form a euphemism is known as taboo deformation, or a minced oath. Such modifications include:
Shortening or "clipping" the term, such as Jeez ('Jesus') and what the— ('what the hell').
Mispronunciations, such as oh my gosh ('oh my God'), frickin ('fucking'), darn ('damn') or oh shoot ('oh shit'). This is also referred to as a minced oath. Feck is a minced oath for 'fuck', originating in Hiberno-English and popularised outside of Ireland by the British sitcom Father Ted.
Using acronyms as replacements, such as SOB ('son of a bitch'). Sometimes, the word word or bomb is added after it, such as F-word ('fuck'), etc. Also, the letter can be phonetically respelled.
===Understatement===
Euphemisms formed from understatements include asleep for dead and drinking for consuming alcohol. "Tired and emotional" is a notorious British euphemism for "drunk", one of many recurring jokes popularized by the satirical magazine Private Eye; it has been used by MPs to avoid unparliamentary language.
===Substitution===
Pleasant, positive, worthy, neutral, or nondescript terms are often substituted for explicit or unpleasant ones, with many substituted terms deliberately coined by sociopolitical movements, marketing, public relations, or advertising initiatives, including:
meat packing company for 'slaughterhouse' (avoids entirely the subject of killing); natural issue or love child for 'bastard'; let go for 'fired/sacked', etc.
Some examples of Cockney rhyming slang may serve the same purpose: to call a person a berk sounds less offensive than to call a person a cunt, though berk is short for Berkeley Hunt, which rhymes with cunt.
===Metaphor===
Metaphors (beat the meat, choke the chicken, or jerkin' the gherkin for 'masturbation'; take a dump and take a leak for 'defecation' and 'urination', respectively)
Comparisons (buns for 'buttocks', weed for 'cannabis')
Metonymy (men's room for 'men's restroom/toilet')
===Slang===
The use of a term with a softer connotation, though it shares the same meaning. For instance, screwed up is a euphemism for 'fucked up'; hook-up and laid are euphemisms for 'sexual intercourse'.
===Foreign words===
Expressions or words from a foreign language may be imported for use as euphemism. For example, the French word was sometimes used instead of the English word pregnant; for slaughterhouse, although in French the word retains its explicit violent meaning 'a place for beating down', conveniently lost on non-French speakers. Entrepreneur for businessman, adds glamour; douche (French for 'shower') for vaginal irrigation device; bidet ('little pony') for vessel for anal washing. Ironically, although in English physical "handicaps" are almost always described with euphemism, in French the English word handicap is used as a euphemism for their problematic words or .
===Periphrasis/circumlocution===
Periphrasis, or circumlocution, is one of the most common: to "speak around" a given word, implying it without saying it. Over time, circumlocutions become recognized as established euphemisms for particular words or ideas.
==Doublespeak==
Bureaucracies frequently spawn euphemisms intentionally, as doublespeak expressions. For example, in the past, the US military used the term "sunshine units" for contamination by radioactive isotopes. The United States Central Intelligence Agency refers to systematic torture as "enhanced interrogation techniques". An effective death sentence in the Soviet Union during the Great Purge often used the clause "imprisonment without right to correspondence": the person sentenced would be shot soon after conviction. As early as 1939, Nazi official Reinhard Heydrich used the term Sonderbehandlung ("special treatment") to mean summary execution of persons viewed as "disciplinary problems" by the Nazis even before commencing the systematic extermination of the Jews. Heinrich Himmler, aware that the word had come to be known to mean murder, replaced that euphemism with one in which Jews would be "guided" (to their deaths) through the slave-labor and extermination camps after having been "evacuated" to their doom. Such was part of the formulation of Endlösung der Judenfrage (the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question"), which became known to the outside world during the Nuremberg Trials.
== Lifespan ==
Frequently, over time, euphemisms themselves become taboo words, through the linguistic process of semantic change known as pejoration, which University of Oregon linguist Sharon Henderson Taylor dubbed the "euphemism cycle" in 1974, also frequently referred to as the "euphemism treadmill", as worded by Steven Pinker. For instance, the place of human defecation is a needy candidate for a euphemism in all eras. Toilet is an 18th-century euphemism, replacing the older euphemism house-of-office, which in turn replaced the even older euphemisms privy-house and bog-house. In the 20th century, where the old euphemisms lavatory (a place where one washes) and toilet (a place where one dresses) had grown from widespread usage (e.g., in the United States) to being synonymous with the crude act they sought to deflect, they were sometimes replaced with bathroom (a place where one bathes), washroom (a place where one washes), or restroom (a place where one rests) or even by the extreme form powder room (a place where one applies facial cosmetics). The form water closet, often shortened to W.C., is a less deflective form. The word shit appears to have originally been a euphemism for defecation in Pre-Germanic, as the Proto-Indo-European root *, from which it was derived, meant 'to cut off'.
Another example in American English is the replacement of "colored people" with "Negro" (euphemism by foreign language), which itself came to be replaced by either "African American" or "Black". Also in the United States the term "ethnic minorities" in the 2010s has been replaced by "people of color".
Intellectually-disabled people were originally defined with words such as "morons" or "imbeciles", which then became commonly used insults. The medical diagnosis was changed to "mentally retarded", which morphed into the pejorative, "retard", against those with intellectual disabilities. To avoid the negative connotations of their diagnoses, students who need accommodations because of such conditions are often labeled as "special needs" instead, although the words "special" or "SPED" (short for "special education") have long been schoolyard insults. As of August 2013, the Social Security Administration replaced the term "mental retardation" with "intellectual disability". Since 2012, that change in terminology has been adopted by the National Institutes of Health and the medical industry at large. There are numerous disability-related euphemisms that have negative connotations.
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"Tired and emotional"
] |
9,536 |
Edmund Spenser
|
Edmund Spenser (; 1552/1553 – 13 January 1599 O.S.) was an English poet best known for The Faerie Queene, an epic poem and fantastical allegory celebrating the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I. He is recognized as one of the premier craftsmen of nascent Modern English verse, and he is considered one of the great poets in the English language.
==Life==
Edmund Spenser was born in East Smithfield, London, around the year 1552; however, there is still some ambiguity as to the exact date of his birth. His parenthood is obscure, but he was probably the son of John Spenser, a journeyman clothmaker. As a young boy, he was educated in London at the Merchant Taylors' School and matriculated as a sizar at Pembroke College, Cambridge. While at Cambridge he became a friend of Gabriel Harvey and later consulted him, despite their differing views on poetry. In 1578, he became for a short time secretary to John Young, Bishop of Rochester. In 1579, he published The Shepheardes Calender and around the same time married his first wife, Machabyas Childe. They had two children, Sylvanus (d. 1638) and Katherine.
In July 1580, Spenser went to Ireland in service of the newly appointed Lord Deputy, Arthur Grey, 14th Baron Grey de Wilton. Spenser served under Lord Grey with Walter Raleigh at the Siege of Smerwick massacre. When Lord Grey was recalled to England, Spenser stayed on in Ireland, having acquired other official posts and lands in the Munster Plantation. Raleigh acquired other nearby Munster estates confiscated in the Second Desmond Rebellion. Sometime between 1587 and 1589, Spenser acquired his main estate at Kilcolman, near Doneraile in North Cork. He later bought a second holding to the south, at Rennie, on a rock overlooking the river Blackwater in North Cork. Its ruins are still visible today. A short distance away grew a tree, locally known as "Spenser's Oak" until it was destroyed in a lightning strike in the 1960s. Local legend claims that he penned some of The Faerie Queene under this tree.
In 1590, Spenser brought out the first three books of his most famous work, The Faerie Queene, having travelled to London to publish and promote the work, with the likely assistance of Raleigh. He was successful enough to obtain a life pension of £50 a year from the Queen. He probably hoped to secure a place at court through his poetry, but his next significant publication boldly antagonised the queen's principal secretary, Lord Burghley (William Cecil), through its inclusion of the satirical Mother Hubberd's Tale. He returned to Ireland. He was at the centre of a literary circle whose members included his lifelong friend Lodowick Bryskett and Dr. John Longe, Archbishop of Armagh.
In 1591, Spenser published a translation in verse of Joachim Du Bellay's sonnets, Les Antiquités de Rome, which had been published in 1558. Spenser's version, Ruines of Rome: by Bellay, may also have been influenced by Latin poems on the same subject, written by Jean or Janis Vitalis and published in 1576.
By 1594, Spenser's first wife had died, and in that year he married a much younger Elizabeth Boyle, a relative of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork. He addressed to her the sonnet sequence Amoretti. The marriage was celebrated in Epithalamion. They had a son named Peregrine.
In 1598, during the Nine Years' War, Spenser was driven from his home by the native Irish forces of Hugh O'Neill. His castle at Kilcolman was burned, and Ben Jonson, who may have had private information, asserted that one of his infant children died in the blaze.
In the year after being driven from his home, 1599, Spenser travelled to London, where he died at the age of forty-six – "for want of bread", according to Ben Jonson; one of Jonson's more doubtful statements, since Spenser had a payment to him authorised by the government and was due his pension. His coffin was carried to his grave, deliberately near that of Geoffrey Chaucer, in what became known as Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey by other poets, probably including Shakespeare, who threw many pens and pieces of poetry into his grave. His second wife survived him and remarried twice. His sister Sarah, who had accompanied him to Ireland, married into the Travers family, and her descendants were prominent landowners in Cork for centuries.
==Rhyme and reason==
Thomas Fuller, in Worthies of England, included a story where the Queen told her treasurer, William Cecil, to pay Spenser £100 for his poetry. The treasurer, however, objected that the sum was too much. She said, "Then give him what is reason". Without receiving his payment in due time, Spenser gave the Queen this quatrain on one of her progresses:
I was promis'd on a time,
To have a reason for my rhyme:
From that time unto this season,
I receiv'd nor rhyme nor reason.
She immediately ordered the treasurer to pay Spenser the original £100.
This story seems to have attached itself to Spenser from Thomas Churchyard, who apparently had difficulty in getting payment of his pension, the only other pension Elizabeth awarded to a poet. Spenser seems to have had no difficulty in receiving payment when it was due as the pension was being collected for him by his publisher, Ponsonby.
==The Shepheardes Calender==
The Shepheardes Calender is Edmund Spenser's first major work, which appeared in 1579. It emulates Virgil's Eclogues of the first century BCE and the Eclogues of Mantuan by Baptista Mantuanus, a late medieval, early renaissance poet. An eclogue is a short pastoral poem that is in the form of a dialogue or soliloquy. Although all the months together form an entire year, each month stands alone as a separate poem. Editions of the late 16th and early 17th centuries include woodcuts for each month/poem, and thereby have a slight similarity to an emblem book which combines a number of self-contained pictures and texts, usually a short vignette, saying, or allegory with an accompanying illustration.
==The Faerie Queene==
Spenser's masterpiece is the epic poem The Faerie Queene. The first three books of The Faerie Queene were published in 1590, and the second set of three books was published in 1596. Spenser originally indicated that he intended the poem to consist of twelve books, so the version of the poem we have today is incomplete. Despite this, it remains one of the longest poems in the English language. It is an allegorical work, and can be read (as Spenser presumably intended) on several levels of allegory, including as praise of Queen Elizabeth I. In a completely allegorical context, the poem follows several knights in an examination of several virtues. In Spenser's "A Letter of the Authors", he states that the entire epic poem is "cloudily enwrapped in allegorical devises", and that the aim behind The Faerie Queene was to "fashion a gentleman or noble person in virtuous and gentle discipline".
==Shorter poems==
Spenser published numerous relatively short poems in the last decade of the 16th century, almost all of which consider love or sorrow. In 1591, he published Complaints, a collection of poems that express complaints in mournful or mocking tones. Four years later, in 1595, Spenser published Amoretti and Epithalamion. This volume contains eighty-eight sonnets commemorating his courtship of Elizabeth Boyle. In Amoretti, Spenser uses subtle humour and parody while praising his beloved, reworking Petrarchism in his treatment of longing for a woman. Epithalamion, similar to Amoretti, deals in part with the unease in the development of a romantic and sexual relationship. It was written for his wedding to his young bride, Elizabeth Boyle. Some have speculated that the attention to disquiet, in general, reflects Spenser's personal anxieties at the time, as he was unable to complete his most significant work, The Faerie Queene. In the following year, Spenser released Prothalamion, a wedding song written for the daughters of a duke, allegedly in hopes to gain favour in the court.
==The Spenserian stanza and sonnet==
Spenser used a distinctive verse form, called the Spenserian stanza, in several works, including The Faerie Queene. The stanza's main metre is iambic pentameter with a final line in iambic hexameter (having six feet or stresses, known as an Alexandrine), and the rhyme scheme is . He also used his own rhyme scheme for the sonnet. In a Spenserian sonnet, the last line of every quatrain is linked with the first line of the next one, yielding the rhyme scheme . "Men Call you Fayre" is a fine Sonnet from Amoretti. The poet presents the concept of true beauty in the poem. He addresses the sonnet to his beloved, Elizabeth Boyle, and presents his courtship. Like all Renaissance men, Edmund Spenser believed that love is an inexhaustible source of beauty and order. In this Sonnet, the poet expresses his idea of true beauty. The physical beauty will finish after a few days; it is not a permanent beauty. He emphasises beauty of mind and beauty of intellect. He considers his beloved is not simply flesh but is also a spiritual being. The poet opines that he is beloved born of heavenly seed and she is derived from fair spirit. The poet states that because of her clean mind, pure heart and sharp intellect, men call her fair and she deserves it. At the end, the poet praises her spiritual beauty and he worships her because of her Divine Soul.
==Influences==
Though Spenser was well-read in classical literature, scholars have noted that his poetry does not rehash tradition, but rather is distinctly his. This individuality may have resulted, to some extent, from a lack of comprehension of the classics. Spenser strove to emulate such ancient Roman poets as Virgil and Ovid, whom he studied during his schooling, but many of his best-known works are notably divergent from those of his predecessors. The language of his poetry is purposely archaic, reminiscent of earlier works such as The Canterbury Tales of Geoffrey Chaucer and Il Canzoniere of Petrarch, whom Spenser greatly admired.
An Anglican and a devotee of the Protestant Queen Elizabeth, Spenser was particularly offended by the anti-Elizabethan propaganda that some Catholics circulated. Like most Protestants near the time of the Reformation, Spenser saw a Catholic church full of corruption, and he determined that it was not only the wrong religion but the anti-religion. This sentiment is an important backdrop for the battles of The Faerie Queene.
Spenser was called "the Poet's Poet" by Charles Lamb, and was admired by John Milton, William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, Lord Byron, Alfred Tennyson and others. Among his contemporaries Walter Raleigh wrote a commendatory poem to The Faerie Queene in 1590 in which he claims to admire and value Spenser's work more so than any other in the English language. John Milton in his Areopagitica mentions "our sage and serious poet Spenser, whom I dare be known to think a better teacher than Scotus or Aquinas". In the 18th century, Alexander Pope compared Spenser to "a mistress, whose faults we see, but love her with them all".
==A View of the Present State of Irelande==
In his work A View of the Present State of Irelande (1596), Spenser discussed future plans to establish control over Ireland, the most recent Irish uprising, led by Hugh O'Neill having demonstrated the futility of previous efforts. The work is partly a defence of Lord Arthur Grey de Wilton, who was appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1580, and who greatly influenced Spenser's thinking on Ireland.
The goal of the piece was to show that Ireland was in great need of reform. Spenser believed that "Ireland is a diseased portion of the State, it must first be cured and reformed, before it could be in a position to appreciate the good sound laws and blessings of the nation". In A View of the Present State of Ireland, Spenser categorises the "evils" of the Irish people into three prominent categories: laws, customs and religion. According to Spenser, these three elements worked together in creating the supposedly "disruptive and degraded people" who inhabited the country. One example given in the work is the Irish law system termed "Brehon law", which at the time trumped the established law as dictated by the Crown. The Brehon system had its own court and methods of punishing infractions committed. Spenser viewed this system as a backward custom which contributed to the "degradation" of the Irish people. A particular legal punishment viewed with distaste by Spenser was the Brehon method of dealing with murder, which was to impose an éraic (fine) on the murderer's family. From Spenser's viewpoint, the appropriate punishment for murder was capital punishment. Spenser also warned of the dangers that allowing the education of children in the Irish language would bring: "Soe that the speach being Irish, the hart must needes be Irishe; for out of the aboundance of the hart, the tonge speaketh".
1579:
The Shepheardes Calender, published under the pseudonym "Immerito" (entered into the Stationers' Register in December
Daphnaïda. An Elegy upon the Death of the Noble and Vertuous Douglas Howard, Daughter and Heire of Henry Lord Howard, Viscount Byndon, and Wife of Arthure Gorges Esquier (published in London in January, according to one source;
1595:
Amoretti and Epithalamion, containing:
"Amoretti"
1611: First folio edition of Spenser's collected works first published by Sir James Ware (historian) entitled The Historie of Ireland (Spenser's work was entered into the Stationer's Register in 1598 and circulated in manuscript but not published until it was edited by Ware)
|
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9,540 |
Electricity generation
|
Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary energy. For utilities in the electric power industry, it is the stage prior to its delivery (transmission, distribution, etc.) to end users or its storage, using for example, the pumped-storage method.
Consumable electricity is not freely available in nature, so it must be "produced", transforming other forms of energy to electricity. Production is carried out in power stations, also called "power plants". Electricity is most often generated at a power plant by electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat engines fueled by combustion or nuclear fission, but also by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power. There are exotic and speculative methods to recover energy, such as proposed fusion reactor designs which aim to directly extract energy from intense magnetic fields generated by fast-moving charged particles generated by the fusion reaction (see magnetohydrodynamics).
Phasing out coal-fired power stations and eventually gas-fired power stations, or, if practical, capturing their greenhouse gas emissions, is an important part of the energy transformation required to limit climate change. Vastly more solar power and wind power is forecast to be required, with electricity demand increasing strongly with further electrification of transport, homes and industry. However, in 2023, it was reported that the global electricity supply was approaching peak CO2 emissions thanks to the growth of solar and wind power.
== History ==
The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered in the 1820s and early 1830s by British scientist Michael Faraday. His method, still used today, is for electricity to be generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or Faraday disc, between the poles of a magnet. Central power stations became economically practical with the development of alternating current (AC) power transmission, using power transformers to transmit power at high voltage and with low loss.
Commercial electricity production started with the coupling of the dynamo to the hydraulic turbine. The mechanical production of electric power began the Second Industrial Revolution and made possible several inventions using electricity, with the major contributors being Thomas Alva Edison and Nikola Tesla. Previously the only way to produce electricity was by chemical reactions or using battery cells, and the only practical use of electricity was for the telegraph.
Electricity generation at central power stations started in 1882, when a steam engine driving a dynamo at Pearl Street Station produced a DC current that powered public lighting on Pearl Street, New York. The new technology was quickly adopted by many cities around the world, which adapted their gas-fueled street lights to electric power. Soon after electric lights would be used in public buildings, in businesses, and to power public transport, such as trams and trains.
The first power plants used water power or coal. Today a variety of energy sources are used, such as coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, wind, and oil, as well as solar energy, tidal power, and geothermal sources.
In the 1880s the popularity of electricity grew massively with the introduction of the Incandescent light bulb. Although there are 22 recognised inventors of the light bulb prior to Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison, Edison and Swan's invention became by far the most successful and popular of all. During the early years of the 19th century, massive jumps in electrical sciences were made. And by the later 19th century the advancement of electrical technology and engineering led to electricity being part of everyday life. With the introduction of many electrical inventions and their implementation into everyday life, the demand for electricity within homes grew dramatically. With this increase in demand, the potential for profit was seen by many entrepreneurs who began investing into electrical systems to eventually create the first electricity public utilities. This process in history is often described as electrification.
The earliest distribution of electricity came from companies operating independently of one another. A consumer would purchase electricity from a producer, and the producer would distribute it through their own power grid. As technology improved so did the productivity and efficiency of its generation. Inventions such as the steam turbine had a massive impact on the efficiency of electrical generation but also the economics of generation as well. This conversion of heat energy into mechanical work was similar to that of steam engines, however at a significantly larger scale and far more productively. The improvements of these large-scale generation plants were critical to the process of centralised generation as they would become vital to the entire power system that we now use today.
Throughout the middle of the 20th century many utilities began merging their distribution networks due to economic and efficiency benefits. Along with the invention of long-distance power transmission, the coordination of power plants began to form. This system was then secured by regional system operators to ensure stability and reliability. The electrification of homes began in Northern Europe and in the Northern America in the 1920s in large cities and urban areas. It was not until the 1930s that rural areas saw the large-scale establishment of electrification.
== Methods of generation ==
Several fundamental methods exist to convert other forms of energy into electrical energy. Utility-scale generation is achieved by rotating electric generators or by photovoltaic systems. A small proportion of electric power distributed by utilities is provided by batteries. Other forms of electricity generation used in niche applications include the triboelectric effect, the piezoelectric effect, the thermoelectric effect, and betavoltaics.
=== Generators ===
Electric generators transform kinetic energy into electricity. This is the most used form for generating electricity based on Faraday's law. It can be seen experimentally by rotating a magnet within closed loops of conducting material, e.g. copper wire. Almost all commercial electrical generation uses electromagnetic induction, in which mechanical energy forces a generator to rotate.
=== Electrochemistry ===
Electrochemistry is the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in a battery. Electrochemical electricity generation is important in portable and mobile applications. Currently, most electrochemical power comes from batteries. Primary cells, such as the common zinc–carbon batteries, act as power sources directly, but secondary cells (i.e. rechargeable batteries) are used for storage systems rather than primary generation systems. Open electrochemical systems, known as fuel cells, can be used to extract power either from natural fuels or from synthesized fuels. Osmotic power is a possibility at places where salt and fresh water merge.
=== Photovoltaic effect ===
The photovoltaic effect is the transformation of light into electrical energy, as in solar cells. Photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly to DC electricity. Power inverters can then convert that to AC electricity if needed. Although sunlight is free and abundant, solar power electricity is still usually more expensive to produce than large-scale mechanically generated power due to the cost of the panels. Low-efficiency silicon solar cells have been decreasing in cost and multijunction cells with close to 30% conversion efficiency are now commercially available. Over 40% efficiency has been demonstrated in experimental systems.
Until recently, photovoltaics were most commonly used in remote sites where there is no access to a commercial power grid, or as a supplemental electricity source for individual homes and businesses. Recent advances in manufacturing efficiency and photovoltaic technology, combined with subsidies driven by environmental concerns, have dramatically accelerated the deployment of solar panels. Installed capacity is growing by around 20% per year
Nuclear power plants can produce a huge amount of power from a single unit. However, nuclear disasters have raised concerns over the safety of nuclear power, and the capital cost of nuclear plants is very high.
Hydroelectric power plants are located in areas where the potential energy from falling water can be harnessed for moving turbines and the generation of power. It may not be an economically viable single source of production where the ability to store the flow of water is limited and the load varies too much during the annual production cycle.
==Generating equipment==
Electric generators were known in simple forms from the discovery of electromagnetic induction in the 1830s. In general, some form of prime mover such as an engine or the turbines described above, drives a rotating magnetic field past stationary coils of wire thereby turning mechanical energy into electricity. The only commercial scale forms of electricity production that do not employ a generator are photovoltaic solar and fuel cells.
=== Turbines ===
Almost all commercial electrical power on Earth is generated with a turbine, driven by wind, water, steam or burning gas. The turbine drives a generator, thus transforming its mechanical energy into electrical energy by electromagnetic induction. There are many different methods of developing mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind and tidal power. Most electric generation is driven by heat engines.
The combustion of fossil fuels supplies most of the energy to these engines, with a significant fraction from nuclear fission and some from renewable sources. The modern steam turbine, invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, currently generates about 80% of the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources. Turbine types include:
Steam
Water is boiled by coal burned in a thermal power plant. About 41% of all electricity is generated this way.
Nuclear fission heat created in a nuclear reactor creates steam. Less than 15% of electricity is generated this way.
Renewable energy. The steam is generated by biomass, solar thermal energy, or geothermal power.
Natural gas: turbines are driven directly by gases produced by combustion. Combined cycle are driven by both steam and natural gas. They generate power by burning natural gas in a gas turbine and use residual heat to generate steam. At least 20% of the world's electricity is generated by natural gas.
Water Energy is captured by a water turbine from the movement of water - from falling water, the rise and fall of tides or ocean thermal currents (see ocean thermal energy conversion). Currently, hydroelectric plants provide approximately 16% of the world's electricity.
The windmill was a very early wind turbine. In 2018 around 5% of the world's electricity was produced from wind
Turbines can also use other heat-transfer liquids than steam. Supercritical carbon dioxide based cycles can provide higher conversion efficiency due to faster heat exchange, higher energy density and simpler power cycle infrastructure. Supercritical carbon dioxide blends, that are currently in development, can further increase efficiency by optimizing its critical pressure and temperature points.
Although turbines are most common in commercial power generation, smaller generators can be powered by gasoline or diesel engines. These may used for backup generation or as a prime source of power within isolated villages.
== World production ==
thumb|upright=1.5| Yearly generation by source
=== Production by country ===
China produced a third of the world's electricity in 2021, largely from coal. The United States produces half as much as China but uses far more natural gas and nuclear. The cleanliness of electricity depends on its source. [[Methane leaks (from natural gas to fuel gas-fired power plants) and carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel-based electricity generation account for a significant portion of world greenhouse gas emissions. In the United States, fossil fuel combustion for electric power generation is responsible for 65% of all emissions of sulfur dioxide, the main component of acid rain. Electricity generation is the fourth highest combined source of NOx, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter in the US.
According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), low-carbon electricity generation needs to account for 85% of global electrical output by 2040 in order to ward off the worst effects of climate change. Like other organizations including the Energy Impact Center (EIC) and the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), the IEA has called for the expansion of nuclear and renewable energy to meet that objective. Some, like EIC founder Bret Kugelmass, believe that nuclear power is the primary method for decarbonizing electricity generation because it can also power direct air capture that removes existing carbon emissions from the atmosphere. Nuclear power plants can also create district heating and desalination projects, limiting carbon emissions and the need for expanded electrical output.
A fundamental issue regarding centralised generation and the current electrical generation methods in use today is the significant negative environmental effects that many of the generation processes have. Processes such as coal and gas not only release carbon dioxide as they combust, but their extraction from the ground also impacts the environment. Open pit coal mines use large areas of land to extract coal and limit the potential for productive land use after the excavation. Natural gas extraction releases large amounts of methane into the atmosphere when extracted from the ground greatly increase global greenhouse gases. Although nuclear power plants do not release carbon dioxide through electricity generation, there are risks associated with nuclear waste and safety concerns associated with the use of nuclear sources.
Per unit of electricity generated coal and gas-fired power life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions are almost always at least ten times that of other generation methods.
==Centralised and distributed generation==
Centralised generation is electricity generation by large-scale centralised facilities, sent through transmission lines to consumers. These facilities are usually located far away from consumers and distribute the electricity through high voltage transmission lines to a substation, where it is then distributed to consumers; the basic concept being that multi-megawatt or gigawatt scale large stations create electricity for a large number of people. The vast majority of electricity used is created from centralised generation. Most centralised power generation comes from large power plants run by fossil fuels such as coal or natural gas, though nuclear or large hydroelectricity plants are also commonly used.
Centralised generation is fundamentally the opposite of distributed generation. Distributed generation is the small-scale generation of electricity to smaller groups of consumers. This can also include independently producing electricity by either solar or wind power. In recent years distributed generation as has seen a spark in popularity due to its propensity to use renewable energy generation methods such as rooftop solar.
== Technologies==
Centralised energy sources are large power plants that produce huge amounts of electricity to a large number of consumers. Most power plants used in centralised generation are thermal power plants meaning that they use a fuel to heat steam to produce a pressurised gas which in turn spins a turbine and generates electricity. This is the traditional way of producing energy. This process relies on several forms of technology to produce widespread electricity, these being natural coal, gas and nuclear forms of thermal generation. More recently solar and wind have become large scale.
=== Solar ===
=== Wind ===
=== Coal===
=== Natural gas===
Natural gas is ignited to create pressurised gas which is used to spin turbines to generate electricity. Natural gas plants use a gas turbine where natural gas is added along with oxygen which in turn combusts and expands through the turbine to force a generator to spin.
Natural gas power plants are more efficient than coal power generation, they however contribute to climate change, but not as highly as coal generation. Not only do they produce carbon dioxide from the ignition of natural gas, the extraction of gas when mined releases a significant amount of methane into the atmosphere.
=== Nuclear===
Nuclear power plants create electricity through steam turbines where the heat input is from the process of nuclear fission. Currently, nuclear power produces 11% of all electricity in the world. Most nuclear reactors use uranium as a source of fuel. In a process called nuclear fission, energy, in the form of heat, is released when nuclear atoms are split. Electricity is created through the use of a nuclear reactor where heat produced by nuclear fission is used to produce steam which in turn spins turbines and powers the generators. Although there are several types of nuclear reactors, all fundamentally use this process.
Normal emissions due to nuclear power plants are primarily waste heat and radioactive spent fuel. In a reactor accident, significant amounts of radioisotopes can be released to the environment, posing a long term hazard to life. This hazard has been a continuing concern of environmentalists. Accidents such as the Three Mile Island accident, Chernobyl disaster and the Fukushima nuclear disaster illustrate this problem.
== Electricity generation capacity by country ==
The table lists 45 countries with their total electricity capacities. The data is from 2022.
According to the Energy Information Administration, the total global electricity capacity in 2022 was nearly 8.9 terawatt (TW), more than four times the total global electricity capacity in 1981. The global average per-capita electricity capacity was about 1,120 watts in 2022, nearly two and a half times the global average per-capita electricity capacity in 1981.
Iceland has the highest installed capacity per capita in the world, at about 8,990 watts. All developed countries have an average per-capita electricity capacity above the global average per-capita electricity capacity, with the United Kingdom having the lowest average per-capita electricity capacity of all other developed countries.
|
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"Cogeneration",
"heat engine",
"Pearl Street Station",
"Pearl Street (Manhattan)",
"power transmission",
"Norway",
"terawatt",
"diesel engine",
"Charles Algernon Parsons",
"France",
"Incandescent light bulb",
"magnetohydrodynamics",
"Faraday disc",
"Geothermal power",
"Gigawatt",
"Nuclear fission",
"turbine",
"NOx",
"electromagnetic induction",
"Poland",
"nuclear power",
"fossil fuel",
"Denmark",
"solar energy",
"electricity storage",
"distributed generation",
"secondary cell",
"Thomas Edison",
"Glossary of power generation",
"Israel",
"transmission line",
"Netherlands",
"Brazil",
"Electric power distribution",
"New York City",
"hydroelectric",
"water turbine",
"steam engine",
"Mexico",
"Nuclear power plant",
"Greece",
"biomass",
"carbon dioxide emissions",
"Energy Impact Center",
"Taiwan",
"fuel cell",
"Three Mile Island accident",
"Germany",
"Spain",
"Saudi Arabia",
"energy transformation",
"Generation expansion planning",
"Coal phase-out",
"Argentina",
"power station",
"Kazakhstan",
"combustion",
"photovoltaic effect",
"nuclear power plant",
"Grid energy storage",
"windmill",
"Canada",
"Ukraine",
"desalination",
"Diesel generator",
"alternating current",
"New Zealand",
"United States",
"Algeria",
"Supercritical carbon dioxide blend",
"wind power",
"Climate change mitigation",
"Atmospheric particulate matter",
"European Union",
"Vietnam",
"Chile",
"nuclear reactor",
"Low-carbon economy",
"Turkey",
"hydroelectricity",
"India",
"World energy supply and consumption",
"transformer",
"triboelectric effect",
"coal",
"Electric vehicle",
"renewable source",
"United Kingdom",
"photovoltaics",
"Photovoltaic power station",
"thermal power plant",
"Egypt",
"Engine–generator",
"betavoltaics",
"base load",
"sulfur dioxide",
"chemical energy",
"magnet",
"South Korea",
"piezoelectric effect",
"Methane leaks",
"Michael Faraday",
"Chernobyl disaster",
"tidal power",
"Primary cell",
"Power station",
"kinetic energy",
"Faraday's law of induction",
"Osmotic power",
"uranium",
"geothermal power",
"Hydroelectric plant",
"methane",
"hydrogen fuel cell power plant",
"Electrochemistry",
"nuclear fission",
"direct air capture",
"Electric power transmission",
"battery (electricity)",
"Supercritical carbon dioxide",
"Pumped-storage hydroelectricity",
"China",
"fossil fuels",
"Italy",
"Power inverter",
"Electromagnetism",
"solar power",
"telegraph",
"carbon monoxide",
"photovoltaic",
"Nikola Tesla",
"fusion reactor",
"Petroleum",
"Carbon capture and storage",
"steam turbine",
"electric power",
"electromechanical",
"Switzerland",
"electrification",
"Thomas Alva Edison",
"Wind power",
"greenhouse gas emissions",
"Energy Information Administration",
"Thailand",
"Steam–electric power station",
"Gas-fired power plant",
"United Arab Emirates",
"Iceland",
"gasoline",
"Photovoltaic panel",
"Fukushima nuclear disaster",
"Russia",
"DC current",
"thermoelectric effect",
"Combined cycle",
"ocean thermal energy conversion",
"primary energy",
"Cost of electricity by source",
"Zinc–carbon battery",
"Joseph Swan",
"South Africa",
"electric utility",
"wind turbine",
"natural gas",
"hydroelectric power",
"Australia",
"electric power industry",
"district heating",
"electric generator",
"United Nations Economic Commission for Europe",
"Rooftop solar power",
"Malaysia",
"solar thermal energy",
"Finland",
"Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources",
"Iran",
"Second Industrial Revolution",
"electricity demand",
"Thermal power station",
"International Energy Agency",
"renewable energy",
"Electric generator",
"Austria",
"Sweden",
"Venezuela",
"solar cell",
"gas turbine",
"Japan",
"Electricity delivery",
"Ireland",
"mechanical energy",
"watt",
"Pakistan"
] |
9,541 |
Design of experiments
|
The design of experiments (DOE), also known as experiment design or experimental design, is the design of any task that aims to describe and explain the variation of information under conditions that are hypothesized to reflect the variation. The term is generally associated with experiments in which the design introduces conditions that directly affect the variation, but may also refer to the design of quasi-experiments, in which natural conditions that influence the variation are selected for observation.
In its simplest form, an experiment aims at predicting the outcome by introducing a change of the preconditions, which is represented by one or more independent variables, also referred to as "input variables" or "predictor variables." The change in one or more independent variables is generally hypothesized to result in a change in one or more dependent variables, also referred to as "output variables" or "response variables." The experimental design may also identify control variables that must be held constant to prevent external factors from affecting the results. Experimental design involves not only the selection of suitable independent, dependent, and control variables, but planning the delivery of the experiment under statistically optimal conditions given the constraints of available resources. There are multiple approaches for determining the set of design points (unique combinations of the settings of the independent variables) to be used in the experiment.
Main concerns in experimental design include the establishment of validity, reliability, and replicability. For example, these concerns can be partially addressed by carefully choosing the independent variable, reducing the risk of measurement error, and ensuring that the documentation of the method is sufficiently detailed. Related concerns include achieving appropriate levels of statistical power and sensitivity.
Correctly designed experiments advance knowledge in the natural and social sciences and engineering, with design of experiments methodology recognised as a key tool in the successful implementation of a Quality by Design (QbD) framework. Other applications include marketing and policy making. The study of the design of experiments is an important topic in metascience.
==History==
===Statistical experiments, following Charles S. Peirce===
A theory of statistical inference was developed by Charles S. Peirce in "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" (1877–1878) and "A Theory of Probable Inference" (1883), two publications that emphasized the importance of randomization-based inference in statistics.
====Randomized experiments====
Charles S. Peirce randomly assigned volunteers to a blinded, repeated-measures design to evaluate their ability to discriminate weights.
Peirce's experiment inspired other researchers in psychology and education, which developed a research tradition of randomized experiments in laboratories and specialized textbooks in the 1800s. A pioneering optimal design for polynomial regression was suggested by Gergonne in 1815. In 1918, Kirstine Smith published optimal designs for polynomials of degree six (and less).
===Sequences of experiments===
The use of a sequence of experiments, where the design of each may depend on the results of previous experiments, including the possible decision to stop experimenting, is within the scope of sequential analysis, a field that was pioneered by Abraham Wald in the context of sequential tests of statistical hypotheses. Herman Chernoff wrote an overview of optimal sequential designs, One specific type of sequential design is the "two-armed bandit", generalized to the multi-armed bandit, on which early work was done by Herbert Robbins in 1952.
==Fisher's principles==
A methodology for designing experiments was proposed by Ronald Fisher, in his innovative books: The Arrangement of Field Experiments (1926) and The Design of Experiments (1935). Much of his pioneering work dealt with agricultural applications of statistical methods. As a mundane example, he described how to test the lady tasting tea hypothesis, that a certain lady could distinguish by flavour alone whether the milk or the tea was first placed in the cup. These methods have been broadly adapted in biological, psychological, and agricultural research.
Comparison
In some fields of study it is not possible to have independent measurements to a traceable metrology standard. Comparisons between treatments are much more valuable and are usually preferable, and often compared against a scientific control or traditional treatment that acts as baseline.
Randomization
Random assignment is the process of assigning individuals at random to groups or to different groups in an experiment, so that each individual of the population has the same chance of becoming a participant in the study. The random assignment of individuals to groups (or conditions within a group) distinguishes a rigorous, "true" experiment from an observational study or "quasi-experiment". There is an extensive body of mathematical theory that explores the consequences of making the allocation of units to treatments by means of some random mechanism (such as tables of random numbers, or the use of randomization devices such as playing cards or dice). Assigning units to treatments at random tends to mitigate confounding, which makes effects due to factors other than the treatment to appear to result from the treatment.
The risks associated with random allocation (such as having a serious imbalance in a key characteristic between a treatment group and a control group) are calculable and hence can be managed down to an acceptable level by using enough experimental units. However, if the population is divided into several subpopulations that somehow differ, and the research requires each subpopulation to be equal in size, stratified sampling can be used. In that way, the units in each subpopulation are randomized, but not the whole sample. The results of an experiment can be generalized reliably from the experimental units to a larger statistical population of units only if the experimental units are a random sample from the larger population; the probable error of such an extrapolation depends on the sample size, among other things.
Statistical replication
Measurements are usually subject to variation and measurement uncertainty; thus they are repeated and full experiments are replicated to help identify the sources of variation, to better estimate the true effects of treatments, to further strengthen the experiment's reliability and validity, and to add to the existing knowledge of the topic. However, certain conditions must be met before the replication of the experiment is commenced: the original research question has been published in a peer-reviewed journal or widely cited, the researcher is independent of the original experiment, the researcher must first try to replicate the original findings using the original data, and the write-up should state that the study conducted is a replication study that tried to follow the original study as strictly as possible.
Blocking
Blocking is the non-random arrangement of experimental units into groups (blocks) consisting of units that are similar to one another. Blocking reduces known but irrelevant sources of variation between units and thus allows greater precision in the estimation of the source of variation under study.
Orthogonality
Orthogonality concerns the forms of comparison (contrasts) that can be legitimately and efficiently carried out. Contrasts can be represented by vectors and sets of orthogonal contrasts are uncorrelated and independently distributed if the data are normal. Because of this independence, each orthogonal treatment provides different information to the others. If there are T treatments and T – 1 orthogonal contrasts, all the information that can be captured from the experiment is obtainable from the set of contrasts.
Multifactorial experiments
Use of multifactorial experiments instead of the one-factor-at-a-time method. These are efficient at evaluating the effects and possible interactions of several factors (independent variables). Analysis of experiment design is built on the foundation of the analysis of variance, a collection of models that partition the observed variance into components, according to what factors the experiment must estimate or test.
==Example==
This example of design experiments is attributed to Harold Hotelling, building on examples from Frank Yates. The experiments designed in this example involve combinatorial designs.
Weights of eight objects are measured using a pan balance and set of standard weights. Each weighing measures the weight difference between objects in the left pan and any objects in the right pan by adding calibrated weights to the lighter pan until the balance is in equilibrium. Each measurement has a random error. The average error is zero; the standard deviations of the probability distribution of the errors is the same number σ on different weighings; errors on different weighings are independent. Denote the true weights by
\theta_1, \dots, \theta_8.\,
We consider two different experiments:
Weigh each object in one pan, with the other pan empty. Let Xi be the measured weight of the object, for i = 1, ..., 8.
Do the eight weighings according to the following schedule—a weighing matrix:
\begin{array}{lcc}
& \text{left pan} & \text{right pan} \\
\hline
\text{1st weighing:} & 1\ 2\ 3\ 4\ 5\ 6\ 7\ 8 & \text{(empty)} \\
\text{2nd:} & 1\ 2\ 3\ 8\ & 4\ 5\ 6\ 7 \\
\text{3rd:} & 1\ 4\ 5\ 8\ & 2\ 3\ 6\ 7 \\
\text{4th:} & 1\ 6\ 7\ 8\ & 2\ 3\ 4\ 5 \\
\text{5th:} & 2\ 4\ 6\ 8\ & 1\ 3\ 5\ 7 \\
\text{6th:} & 2\ 5\ 7\ 8\ & 1\ 3\ 4\ 6 \\
\text{7th:} & 3\ 4\ 7\ 8\ & 1\ 2\ 5\ 6 \\
\text{8th:} & 3\ 5\ 6\ 8\ & 1\ 2\ 4\ 7
\end{array}
Let Yi be the measured difference for i = 1, ..., 8. Then the estimated value of the weight θ1 is
\widehat{\theta}_1 = \frac{Y_1 + Y_2 + Y_3 + Y_4 - Y_5 - Y_6 - Y_7 - Y_8}{8}.
Similar estimates can be found for the weights of the other items:
\begin{align}
\widehat{\theta}_2 & = \frac{Y_1 + Y_2 - Y_3 - Y_4 + Y_5 + Y_6 - Y_7 - Y_8} 8. \\[5pt]
\widehat{\theta}_3 & = \frac{Y_1 + Y_2 - Y_3 - Y_4 - Y_5 - Y_6 + Y_7 + Y_8} 8. \\[5pt]
\widehat{\theta}_4 & = \frac{Y_1 - Y_2 + Y_3 - Y_4 + Y_5 - Y_6 + Y_7 - Y_8} 8. \\[5pt]
\widehat{\theta}_5 & = \frac{Y_1 - Y_2 + Y_3 - Y_4 - Y_5 + Y_6 - Y_7 + Y_8} 8. \\[5pt]
\widehat{\theta}_6 & = \frac{Y_1 - Y_2 - Y_3 + Y_4 + Y_5 - Y_6 - Y_7 + Y_8} 8. \\[5pt]
\widehat{\theta}_7 & = \frac{Y_1 - Y_2 - Y_3 + Y_4 - Y_5 + Y_6 + Y_7 - Y_8} 8. \\[5pt]
\widehat{\theta}_8 & = \frac{Y_1 + Y_2 + Y_3 + Y_4 + Y_5 + Y_6 + Y_7 + Y_8} 8.
\end{align}
The question of design of experiments is: which experiment is better?
The variance of the estimate X1 of θ1 is σ2 if we use the first experiment. But if we use the second experiment, the variance of the estimate given above is σ2/8. Thus the second experiment gives us 8 times as much precision for the estimate of a single item, and estimates all items simultaneously, with the same precision. What the second experiment achieves with eight would require 64 weighings if the items are weighed separately. However, note that the estimates for the items obtained in the second experiment have errors that correlate with each other.
Many problems of the design of experiments involve combinatorial designs, as in this example and others.
Use of double-blind designs can prevent biases potentially leading to false positives in the data collection phase. When a double-blind design is used, participants are randomly assigned to experimental groups but the researcher is unaware of what participants belong to which group. Therefore, the researcher can not affect the participants' response to the intervention.
Experimental designs with undisclosed degrees of freedom are a problem, in that they can lead to conscious or unconscious "p-hacking": trying multiple things until you get the desired result. It typically involves the manipulation – perhaps unconsciously – of the process of statistical analysis and the degrees of freedom until they return a figure below the p<.05 level of statistical significance.
P-hacking can be prevented by preregistering researches, in which researchers have to send their data analysis plan to the journal they wish to publish their paper in before they even start their data collection, so no data manipulation is possible.
Another way to prevent this is taking a double-blind design to the data-analysis phase, making the study triple-blind, where the data are sent to a data-analyst unrelated to the research who scrambles up the data so there is no way to know which participants belong to before they are potentially taken away as outliers.
==Discussion topics when setting up an experimental design==
An experimental design or randomized clinical trial requires careful consideration of several factors before actually doing the experiment. An experimental design is the laying out of a detailed experimental plan in advance of doing the experiment. Some of the following topics have already been discussed in the principles of experimental design section:
How many factors does the design have, and are the levels of these factors fixed or random?
Are control conditions needed, and what should they be?
Manipulation checks: did the manipulation really work?
What are the background variables?
What is the sample size? How many units must be collected for the experiment to be generalisable and have enough power?
What is the relevance of interactions between factors?
What is the influence of delayed effects of substantive factors on outcomes?
How do response shifts affect self-report measures?
How feasible is repeated administration of the same measurement instruments to the same units at different occasions, with a post-test and follow-up tests?
What about using a proxy pretest?
Are there confounding variables?
Should the client/patient, researcher or even the analyst of the data be blind to conditions?
What is the feasibility of subsequent application of different conditions to the same units?
How many of each control and noise factors should be taken into account?
The independent variable of a study often has many levels or different groups. In a true experiment, researchers can have an experimental group, which is where their intervention testing the hypothesis is implemented, and a control group, which has all the same element as the experimental group, without the interventional element. Thus, when everything else except for one intervention is held constant, researchers can certify with some certainty that this one element is what caused the observed change. In some instances, having a control group is not ethical. This is sometimes solved using two different experimental groups. In some cases, independent variables cannot be manipulated, for example when testing the difference between two groups who have a different disease, or testing the difference between genders (obviously variables that would be hard or unethical to assign participants to). In these cases, a quasi-experimental design may be used.
==Causal attributions==
In the pure experimental design, the independent (predictor) variable is manipulated by the researcher – that is – every participant of the research is chosen randomly from the population, and each participant chosen is assigned randomly to conditions of the independent variable. Only when this is done is it possible to certify with high probability that the reason for the differences in the outcome variables are caused by the different conditions. Therefore, researchers should choose the experimental design over other design types whenever possible. However, the nature of the independent variable does not always allow for manipulation. In those cases, researchers must be aware of not certifying about causal attribution when their design doesn't allow for it. For example, in observational designs, participants are not assigned randomly to conditions, and so if there are differences found in outcome variables between conditions, it is likely that there is something other than the differences between the conditions that causes the differences in outcomes, that is – a third variable. The same goes for studies with correlational design.
==Statistical control==
It is best that a process be in reasonable statistical control prior to conducting designed experiments. When this is not possible, proper blocking, replication, and randomization allow for the careful conduct of designed experiments.
To control for nuisance variables, researchers institute control checks as additional measures. Investigators should ensure that uncontrolled influences (e.g., source credibility perception) do not skew the findings of the study. A manipulation check is one example of a control check. Manipulation checks allow investigators to isolate the chief variables to strengthen support that these variables are operating as planned.
One of the most important requirements of experimental research designs is the necessity of eliminating the effects of spurious, intervening, and antecedent variables. In the most basic model, cause (X) leads to effect (Y). But there could be a third variable (Z) that influences (Y), and X might not be the true cause at all. Z is said to be a spurious variable and must be controlled for. The same is true for intervening variables (a variable in between the supposed cause (X) and the effect (Y)), and anteceding variables (a variable prior to the supposed cause (X) that is the true cause). When a third variable is involved and has not been controlled for, the relation is said to be a zero order relationship. In most practical applications of experimental research designs there are several causes (X1, X2, X3). In most designs, only one of these causes is manipulated at a time.
==Experimental designs after Fisher==
Some efficient designs for estimating several main effects were found independently and in near succession by Raj Chandra Bose and K. Kishen in 1940 at the Indian Statistical Institute, but remained little known until the Plackett–Burman designs were published in Biometrika in 1946. About the same time, C. R. Rao introduced the concepts of orthogonal arrays as experimental designs. This concept played a central role in the development of Taguchi methods by Genichi Taguchi, which took place during his visit to Indian Statistical Institute in early 1950s. His methods were successfully applied and adopted by Japanese and Indian industries and subsequently were also embraced by US industry albeit with some reservations.
In 1950, Gertrude Mary Cox and William Gemmell Cochran published the book Experimental Designs, which became the major reference work on the design of experiments for statisticians for years afterwards.
Developments of the theory of linear models have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers. Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in linear algebra, algebra and combinatorics.
As with other branches of statistics, experimental design is pursued using both frequentist and Bayesian approaches: In evaluating statistical procedures like experimental designs, frequentist statistics studies the sampling distribution while Bayesian statistics updates a probability distribution on the parameter space.
Some important contributors to the field of experimental designs are C. S. Peirce, R. A. Fisher, F. Yates, R. C. Bose, A. C. Atkinson, R. A. Bailey, D. R. Cox, G. E. P. Box, W. G. Cochran, W. T. Federer, V. V. Fedorov, A. S. Hedayat, J. Kiefer, O. Kempthorne, J. A. Nelder, Andrej Pázman, Friedrich Pukelsheim, D. Raghavarao, C. R. Rao, Shrikhande S. S., J. N. Srivastava, William J. Studden, G. Taguchi and H. P. Wynn.
The textbooks of D. Montgomery, R. Myers, and G. Box/W. Hunter/J.S. Hunter have reached generations of students and practitioners. Furthermore, there is ongoing discussion of experimental design in the context of model building for models either static or dynamic models, also known as system identification.
==Human participant constraints==
Laws and ethical considerations preclude some carefully designed
experiments with human subjects. Legal constraints are dependent on
jurisdiction. Constraints may involve
institutional review boards, informed consent
and confidentiality affecting both clinical (medical) trials and
behavioral and social science experiments.
In the field of toxicology, for example, experimentation is performed
on laboratory animals with the goal of defining safe exposure limits
for humans. Balancing
the constraints are views from the medical field. Regarding the randomization of patients,
"... if no one knows which therapy is better, there is no ethical
imperative to use one therapy or another." (p 380) Regarding
experimental design, "...it is clearly not ethical to place subjects
at risk to collect data in a poorly designed study when this situation
can be easily avoided...". (p 393)
|
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"econometrics",
"Bayesian probability",
"peer-review",
"Control variable",
"Instrument effect",
"William G. Cochran",
"Bayesian statistics",
"methodology",
"Raj Chandra Bose",
"Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism",
"linear algebra",
"Taguchi methods",
"quasi-experiment",
"Randomization",
"statistical inference",
"statistical significance",
"Adversarial collaboration",
"H. P. Wynn",
"Plackett–Burman design",
"Ronald Fisher",
"data collection",
"Replication (statistics)",
"W. T. Federer",
"repeated measures design",
"Sampling (statistics)",
"Law of large numbers",
"multi-armed bandit",
"Fractional factorial design",
"Interaction (statistics)",
"orthogonal array",
"confirmation bias",
"Randomized controlled trial",
"Clinical study design",
"Genichi Taguchi",
"experiment",
"Bayesian experimental design",
"false positives",
"Central composite design",
"Robust parameter design (RPD)",
"D. Raghavarao",
"statistical power",
"weighing matrix",
"Charles Sanders Peirce",
"Frank Yates",
"System identification",
"Grey box model",
"combinatorial design",
"Standard (metrology)",
"Publish or perish",
"Reliability (statistics)",
"Jack Kiefer (mathematician)",
"confidentiality",
"Randomized block design",
"intervening variable",
"pan balance",
"naturalistic observation",
"confounding",
"measurement uncertainty",
"analysis of variance",
"V. V. Fedorov",
"Quasi-experimental design",
"Harold Hotelling",
"Andrej Pázman",
"StatPearls Publishing",
"degrees of freedom",
"Biometrika",
"system identification",
"statistical analysis",
"response surface",
"Confounding",
"statistical independence",
"Survey sampling",
"Friedrich Pukelsheim",
"Human subject research",
"Orthogonality",
"scientific control",
"G. E. P. Box",
"A. C. Atkinson",
"manipulation checks",
"C. R. Rao",
"sampling distribution",
"Validity (statistics)",
"standard deviation",
"Joseph Diaz Gergonne",
"False positive",
"Shrikhande S. S.",
"Optimal design",
"Kishen",
"Jagdish N. Srivastava",
"William J. Studden",
"Industrial engineering"
] |
9,545 |
Empirical research
|
Empirical research is research using empirical evidence. It is also a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience. Empiricism values some research more than other kinds. Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations or experiences) can be analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively. Quantifying the evidence or making sense of it in qualitative form, a researcher can answer empirical questions, which should be clearly defined and answerable with the evidence collected (usually called data). Research design varies by field and by the question being investigated. Many researchers combine qualitative and quantitative forms of analysis to better answer questions that cannot be studied in laboratory settings, particularly in the social sciences and in education.
In some fields, quantitative research may begin with a research question (e.g., "Does listening to vocal music during the learning of a word list have an effect on later memory for these words?") which is tested through experimentation. Usually, the researcher has a certain theory regarding the topic under investigation. Based on this theory, statements or hypotheses will be proposed (e.g., "Listening to vocal music has a negative effect on learning a word list."). From these hypotheses, predictions about specific events are derived (e.g., "People who study a word list while listening to vocal music will remember fewer words on a later memory test than people who study a word list in silence."). These predictions can then be tested with a suitable experiment. Depending on the outcomes of the experiment, the theory on which the hypotheses and predictions were based will be supported or not, or may need to be modified and then subjected to further testing.
== History ==
The experimental method has evolved over the ages, with many scientists contributing to its foundation and development. In ancient times, Greek philosophers, such as Aristotle, relied on observation and rational inference in their studies. Aristotle, for example, rejected exclusive reliance on logical deduction, emphasizing the importance of observation in understanding nature.
During the Middle Ages, Muslim scientists significantly advanced the experimental method. Jabir ibn Hayyan, known as the father of chemistry, introduced experimental methodology into chemistry and developed chemical processes such as crystallization, calcination, and distillation. He also discovered important acids like sulfuric and nitric acid, expanding the possibilities of chemical experiments. The famous optics scientist Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) was among the first to rely on experimentation in studying light and vision. In his book Book of Optics, he employed a scientific method based on observation, experimentation, and mathematical proof, making him a pioneer of the modern scientific method.
These scientific approaches were transmitted to Europe through translations, influencing the development of modern scientific methodology. European scientists, such as Francis Bacon, were inspired by the works of Muslim scholars in refining the experimental method. The researcher Robert Briffault, in his book Making of Humanity, states:
"It was under their successors at Oxford School (that is, successors to the Muslims of Spain) that Roger Bacon learned Arabic and Arabic Sciences. Neither Roger Bacon nor later namesake has any title to be credited with having introduced the experimental method. Roger Bacon was no more than one of apostles of Muslim Science and Method to Christian Europe".
==Terminology==
The term empirical was originally used to refer to certain ancient Greek practitioners of medicine who rejected adherence to the dogmatic doctrines of the day, preferring instead to rely on the observation of phenomena as perceived in experience. Later empiricism referred to a theory of knowledge in philosophy which adheres to the principle that knowledge arises from experience and evidence gathered specifically using the senses. In scientific use, the term empirical refers to the gathering of data using only evidence that is observable by the senses or in some cases using calibrated scientific instruments. What early philosophers described as empiricist and empirical research have in common is the dependence on observable data to formulate and test theories and come to conclusions.
==Usage==
The researcher attempts to describe accurately the interaction between the instrument (or the human senses) and the entity being observed. If instrumentation is involved, the researcher is expected to calibrate his/her instrument by applying it to known standard objects and documenting the results before applying it to unknown objects. In other words, it describes the research that has not taken place before and their results.
In practice, the accumulation of evidence for or against any particular theory involves planned research designs for the collection of empirical data, and academic rigor plays a large part of judging the merits of research design. Several typologies for such designs have been suggested, one of the most popular of which comes from Campbell and Stanley. They are responsible for popularizing the widely cited distinction among pre-experimental, experimental, and quasi-experimental designs and are staunch advocates of the central role of randomized experiments in educational research.
=== Scientific research ===
Accurate analysis of data using standardized statistical methods in scientific studies is critical to determining the validity of empirical research. Statistical formulas such as regression, uncertainty coefficient, t-test, chi square, and various types of ANOVA (analyses of variance) are fundamental to forming logical, valid conclusions. If empirical data reach significance under the appropriate statistical formula, the research hypothesis is supported. If not, the null hypothesis is supported (or, more accurately, not rejected), meaning no effect of the independent variable(s) was observed on the dependent variable(s).
The result of empirical research using statistical hypothesis testing is never proof. It can only support a hypothesis, reject it, or do neither. These methods yield only probabilities. Among scientific researchers, empirical evidence (as distinct from empirical research) refers to objective evidence that appears the same regardless of the observer. For example, a thermometer will not display different temperatures for each individual who observes it. Temperature, as measured by an accurate, well calibrated thermometer, is empirical evidence. By contrast, non-empirical evidence is subjective, depending on the observer. Following the previous example, observer A might truthfully report that a room is warm, while observer B might truthfully report that the same room is cool, though both observe the same reading on the thermometer. The use of empirical evidence negates this effect of personal (i.e., subjective) experience or time.
The varying perception of empiricism and rationalism shows concern with the limit to which there is dependency on experience of sense as an effort of gaining knowledge. According to rationalism, there are a number of different ways in which sense experience is gained independently for the knowledge and concepts. According to empiricism, sense experience is considered as the main source of every piece of knowledge and the concepts.
In general, rationalists are known for the development of their own views following two different way. First, the key argument can be placed that there are cases in which the content of knowledge or concepts end up outstripping the information. This outstripped information is provided by the sense experience (Hjørland, 2010, 2). Second, there is construction of accounts as to how reasoning helps in the provision of addition knowledge about a specific or broader scope. Empiricists are known to be presenting complementary senses related to thought.
First, there is development of accounts of how there is provision of information by experience that is cited by rationalists. This is insofar for having it in the initial place. At times, empiricists tend to be opting skepticism as an option of rationalism. If experience is not helpful in the provision of knowledge or concept cited by rationalists, then they do not exist (Pearce, 2010, 35). Second, empiricists have a tendency of attacking the accounts of rationalists, while considering reasoning to be an important source of knowledge or concepts.
The overall disagreement between empiricists and rationalists shows major concerns about how knowledge is gained with respect to the sources of knowledge and concepts. In some of the cases, disagreement on the point of gaining knowledge results in the provision of conflicting responses to other aspects as well. There might be a disagreement in the overall feature of warrant, while limiting the knowledge and thought. Empiricists are known for sharing the view that there is no existence of innate knowledge and rather that is derivation of knowledge out of experience. These experiences are either reasoned using the mind or sensed through the five senses human possess (Bernard, 2011, 5). On the other hand, rationalists are known to be sharing the view that there is existence of innate knowledge and this is different for the objects of innate knowledge being chosen.
In order to follow rationalism, there must be adoption of one of the three claims related to the theory that are deduction or intuition, innate knowledge, and innate concept. The more there is removal of concept from mental operations and experience, there can be performance over experience with increased plausibility in being innate. Further ahead, empiricism in context with a specific subject provides a rejection of the corresponding version related to innate knowledge and deduction or intuition (Weiskopf, 2008, 16). Insofar as there is acknowledgement of concepts and knowledge within the area of subject, the knowledge has major dependence on experience through human senses.
==Empirical cycle==
A.D. de Groot's empirical cycle:
Observation: The observation of a phenomenon and inquiry concerning its causes.
Induction: The formulation of hypotheses - generalized explanations for the phenomenon.
Deduction: The formulation of experiments that will test the hypotheses (i.e. confirm them if true, refute them if false).
Testing: The procedures by which the hypotheses are tested and data are collected.
Evaluation: The interpretation of the data and the formulation of a theory - an abductive argument that presents the results of the experiment as the most reasonable explanation for the phenomenon.
|
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] |