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8,886	Deconstruction	In philosophy, deconstruction is a loosely-defined set of approaches to understanding the relationship between text and meaning. The concept of deconstruction was introduced by the philosopher Jacques Derrida, who described it as a turn away from Platonism's ideas of "true" forms and essences which are valued above appearances. Since the 1980s, these proposals of language's fluidity instead of being ideally static and discernible have inspired a range of studies in the humanities, including the disciplines of law, anthropology, historiography, linguistics, sociolinguistics, psychoanalysis, LGBT studies, and feminism. Deconstruction also inspired deconstructivism in architecture and remains important within art, music, and literary criticism. ==Overview== Jacques Derrida's 1967 book Of Grammatology introduced the majority of ideas influential within deconstruction. Derrida published a number of other works directly relevant to the concept of deconstruction, such as Différance, Speech and Phenomena, and Writing and Difference. To Derrida, According to Derrida, and taking inspiration from the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, language as a system of signs and words only has meaning because of the contrast between these signs. Further, Derrida contends that "in a classical philosophical opposition we are not dealing with the peaceful coexistence of a vis-a-vis, but rather with a violent hierarchy. One of the two terms governs the other (axiologically, logically, etc.), or has the upper hand": signified over signifier; intelligible over sensible; speech over writing; activity over passivity, etc. The first task of deconstruction is, according to Derrida, to find and overturn these oppositions inside a text or texts; but the final objective of deconstruction is not to surpass all oppositions, because it is assumed they are structurally necessary to produce sense: the oppositions simply cannot be suspended once and for all, as the hierarchy of dual oppositions always reestablishes itself (because it is necessary for meaning). Deconstruction, Derrida says, only points to the necessity of an unending analysis that can make explicit the decisions and hierarchies intrinsic to all texts. Nietzsche's point in Daybreak is that standing at the end of modern history, modern thinkers know too much to continue to be deceived by an illusory grasp of satisfactorily complete reason. Mere proposals of heightened reasoning, logic, philosophizing and science are no longer solely sufficient as the royal roads to truth. Nietzsche disregards Platonism to revisualize the history of the West as the self-perpetuating history of a series of political moves, that is, a manifestation of the will to power, that at bottom have no greater or lesser claim to truth in any noumenal (absolute) sense. By calling attention to the fact that he has assumed the role of a subterranean Trophonius, in dialectical opposition to Plato, Nietzsche hopes to sensitize readers to the political and cultural context, and the political influences that impact authorship. Where Nietzsche did not achieve deconstruction, as Derrida sees it, is that he missed the opportunity to further explore the will to power as more than a manifestation of the sociopolitically effective operation of writing that Plato characterized, stepping beyond Nietzsche's penultimate revaluation of all Western values, to the ultimate, which is the emphasis on "the role of writing in the production of knowledge". Saussure is considered one of the fathers of structuralism when he explained that terms get their meaning in reciprocal determination with other terms inside language: In language there are only differences. Even more important: a difference generally implies positive terms between which the difference is set up; but in language there are only differences without positive terms. Whether we take the signified or the signifier, language has neither ideas nor sounds that existed before the linguistic system, but only conceptual and phonic differences that have issued from the system. The idea or phonic substance that a sign contains is of less importance than the other signs that surround it. [...] A linguistic system is a series of differences of sound combined with a series of differences of ideas; but the pairing of a certain number of acoustical signs with as many cuts made from the mass thought engenders a system of values. ===Basic philosophical concerns=== Derrida's concerns flow from a consideration of several issues: A desire to contribute to the re-evaluation of all Western values, a re-evaluation built on the 18th-century Kantian critique of pure reason, and carried forward to the 19th century, in its more radical implications, by Kierkegaard and Nietzsche. An assertion that texts outlive their authors, and become part of a set of cultural habits equal to, if not surpassing, the importance of authorial intent. A re-valuation of certain classic western dialectics: poetry vs. philosophy, reason vs. revelation, structure vs. creativity, episteme vs. techne, etc. To this end, Derrida follows a long line of modern philosophers, who look backwards to Plato and his influence on the Western metaphysical tradition. Like Nietzsche, Derrida suspects Plato of dissimulation in the service of a political project, namely the education, through critical reflections, of a class of citizens more strategically positioned to influence the polis. However, unlike Nietzsche, Derrida is not satisfied with such a merely political interpretation of Plato, because of the particular dilemma in which modern humans find themselves. His Platonic reflections are inseparably part of his critique of modernity, hence his attempt to be something beyond the modern, because of his Nietzschean sense that the modern has lost its way and become mired in nihilism. === === is the observation that the meanings of words come from their synchrony with other words within the language and their diachrony between contemporary and historical definitions of a word. Understanding language, according to Derrida, requires an understanding of both viewpoints of linguistic analysis. The focus on diachrony has led to accusations against Derrida of engaging in the etymological fallacy. There is one statement by Derrida—in an essay on Rousseau in Of Grammatology—which has been of great interest to his opponents. According to Derrida, his statement simply refers to the unavoidability of context that is at the heart of . For example, the word house derives its meaning more as a function of how it differs from shed, mansion, hotel, building, etc. (form of content, which Louis Hjelmslev distinguished from form of expression) than how the word house may be tied to a certain image of a traditional house (i.e., the relationship between signified and signifier), with each term being established in reciprocal determination with the other terms than by an ostensive description or definition: when can one talk about a house or a mansion or a shed? The same can be said about verbs in all languages: when should one stop saying walk and start saying run? The same happens, of course, with adjectives: when must one stop saying yellow and start saying orange, or exchange past for present? Not only are the topological differences between the words relevant here, but the differentials between what is signified is also covered by . Thus, complete meaning is always "differential" and postponed in language; there is never a moment when meaning is complete and total. A simple example would consist of looking up a given word in a dictionary, then proceeding to look up the words found in that word's definition, etc., also comparing with older dictionaries. Such a process would never end. ===Metaphysics of presence=== Derrida describes the task of deconstruction as the identification of metaphysics of presence, or logocentrism in western philosophy. Metaphysics of presence is the desire for immediate access to meaning, the privileging of presence over absence. This means that there is an assumed bias in certain binary oppositions where one side is placed in a position over another, such as good over bad, speech over the written word, male over female. Derrida writes, {{blockquote\|Without a doubt, Aristotle thinks of time on the basis of ousia as parousia, on the basis of the now, the point, etc. And yet an entire reading could be organized that would repeat in Aristotle's text both this limitation and its opposite. ===Deconstruction and dialectics=== In the deconstruction procedure, one of the main concerns of Derrida is to not collapse into Hegel's dialectic, where these oppositions would be reduced to contradictions in a dialectic that has the purpose of resolving it into a synthesis. Derrida states that deconstruction is not an analysis, a critique, or a method Beardsworth here explains that it would be irresponsible to undertake a deconstruction with a complete set of rules that need only be applied as a method to the object of deconstruction, because this understanding would reduce deconstruction to a thesis of the reader that the text is then made to fit. This would be an irresponsible act of reading, because it becomes a prejudicial procedure that only finds what it sets out to find. ====Not a critique==== Derrida states that deconstruction is not a critique in the Kantian sense. ===Alternative definitions=== The popularity of the term deconstruction, combined with the technical difficulty of Derrida's primary material on deconstruction and his reluctance to elaborate his understanding of the term, has meant that many secondary sources have attempted to give a more straightforward explanation than Derrida himself ever attempted. Secondary definitions are therefore an interpretation of deconstruction by the person offering them rather than a summary of Derrida's actual position. Paul de Man was a member of the Yale School and a prominent practitioner of deconstruction as he understood it. His definition of deconstruction is that, "[i]t's possible, within text, to frame a question or undo assertions made in the text, by means of elements which are in the text, which frequently would be precisely structures that play off the rhetorical against grammatical elements." Richard Rorty was a prominent interpreter of Derrida's philosophy. His definition of deconstruction is that, "the term 'deconstruction' refers in the first instance to the way in which the 'accidental' features of a text can be seen as betraying, subverting, its purportedly 'essential' message." According to John D. Caputo, the very meaning and mission of deconstruction is:"to show that things - texts, institutions, traditions, societies, beliefs, and practices of whatever size and sort you need - do not have definable meanings and determinable missions, that they are always more than any mission would impose, that they exceed the boundaries they currently occupy" Niall Lucy points to the impossibility of defining the term at all, stating: "While in a sense it is impossibly difficult to define, the impossibility has less to do with the adoption of a position or the assertion of a choice on deconstruction's part than with the impossibility of every 'is' as such. Deconstruction begins, as it were, from a refusal of the authority or determining power of every 'is', or simply from a refusal of authority in general. While such refusal may indeed count as a position, it is not the case that deconstruction holds this as a sort of 'preference' ". David B. Allison, an early translator of Derrida, states in the introduction to his translation of Speech and Phenomena: [Deconstruction] signifies a project of critical thought whose task is to locate and 'take apart' those concepts which serve as the axioms or rules for a period of thought, those concepts which command the unfolding of an entire epoch of metaphysics. 'Deconstruction' is somewhat less negative than the Heideggerian or Nietzschean terms 'destruction' or 'reversal'; it suggests that certain foundational concepts of metaphysics will never be entirely eliminated...There is no simple 'overcoming' of metaphysics or the language of metaphysics. Paul Ricœur defines deconstruction as a way of uncovering the questions behind the answers of a text or tradition. ===Popular definitions=== A survey of the secondary literature reveals a wide range of heterogeneous arguments. Particularly problematic are the attempts to give neat introductions to deconstruction by people trained in literary criticism who sometimes have little or no expertise in the relevant areas of philosophy in which Derrida is working. These secondary works (e.g. Deconstruction for Beginners and Deconstructions: A User's Guide) have attempted to explain deconstruction while being academically criticized for being too far removed from the original texts and Derrida's actual position. Cambridge Dictionary states that deconstruction is "the act of breaking something down into its separate parts in order to understand its meaning, especially when this is different from how it was previously understood". The Merriam-Webster dictionary states that deconstruction is "the analytic examination of something (such as a theory) often in order to reveal its inadequacy". ==Application== Derrida's observations have greatly influenced literary criticism and post-structuralism. ===Literary criticism=== Derrida's method consisted of demonstrating all the forms and varieties of the originary complexity of semiotics, and their multiple consequences in many fields. His way of achieving this was by conducting readings of philosophical and literary texts, with the goal to understand what in those texts runs counter to their apparent systematicity (structural unity) or intended sense (authorial genesis). By demonstrating the aporias and ellipses of thought, Derrida hoped to show the infinitely subtle ways that this originary complexity, which by definition cannot ever be completely known, works its structuring and destructuring effects. Deconstruction denotes the pursuing of the meaning of a text to the point of exposing the supposed contradictions and internal oppositions upon which it is founded—supposedly showing that those foundations are irreducibly complex, unstable, or impossible. It is an approach that may be deployed in philosophy, in literary analysis, and even in the analysis of scientific writings. Deconstruction generally tries to demonstrate that any text is not a discrete whole but contains several irreconcilable and contradictory meanings; that any text therefore has more than one interpretation; that the text itself links these interpretations inextricably; that the incompatibility of these interpretations is irreducible; and thus that an interpretative reading cannot go beyond a certain point. Derrida refers to this point as an "aporia" in the text; thus, deconstructive reading is termed "aporetic". He insists that meaning is made possible by the relations of a word to other words within the network of structures that language is. Derrida initially resisted granting to his approach the overarching name deconstruction, on the grounds that it was a precise technical term that could not be used to characterize his work generally. Nevertheless, he eventually accepted that the term had come into common use to refer to his textual approach, and Derrida himself increasingly began to use the term in this more general way. Derrida's deconstruction strategy is also used by postmodernists to locate meaning in a text rather than discover meaning due to the position that it has multiple readings. There is a focus on the deconstruction that denotes the tearing apart of a text to find arbitrary hierarchies and presuppositions for the purpose of tracing contradictions that shadow a text's coherence. Here, the meaning of a text does not reside with the author or the author's intentions because it is dependent on the interaction between reader and text. ===Critique of structuralism=== Derrida's lecture at Johns Hopkins University, "Structure, Sign, and Play in the Human Sciences", often appears in collections as a manifesto against structuralism. Derrida's essay was one of the earliest to propose some theoretical limitations to structuralism, and to attempt to theorize on terms that were clearly no longer structuralist. Structuralism viewed language as a number of signs, composed of a signified (the meaning) and a signifier (the word itself). Derrida proposed that signs always referred to other signs, existing only in relation to each other, and there was therefore no ultimate foundation or centre. This is the basis of . ==Development after Derrida== ===The Yale School=== Between the late 1960s and the early 1980s, many thinkers were influenced by deconstruction, including Paul de Man, Geoffrey Hartman, and J. Hillis Miller. This group came to be known as the Yale school and was especially influential in literary criticism. Derrida and Hillis Miller were subsequently affiliated with the University of California, Irvine. Miller has described deconstruction this way: "Deconstruction is not a dismantling of the structure of a text, but a demonstration that it has already dismantled itself. Its apparently solid ground is no rock, but thin air." ===Critical legal studies movement=== Arguing that law and politics cannot be separated, the founders of the Critical Legal Studies movement found it necessary to criticize the absence of the recognition of this inseparability at the level of theory. To demonstrate the indeterminacy of legal doctrine, these scholars often adopt a method, such as structuralism in linguistics, or deconstruction in Continental philosophy, to make explicit the deep structure of categories and tensions at work in legal texts and talk. The aim was to deconstruct the tensions and procedures by which they are constructed, expressed, and deployed. For example, Duncan Kennedy, in explicit reference to semiotics and deconstruction procedures, maintains that various legal doctrines are constructed around the binary pairs of opposed concepts, each of which has a claim upon intuitive and formal forms of reasoning that must be made explicit in their meaning and relative value, and criticized. Self and other, private and public, subjective and objective, freedom and control are examples of such pairs demonstrating the influence of opposing concepts on the development of legal doctrines throughout history. ===The Ethics of Deconstruction=== Simon Critchley argues, in his 1992 book The Ethics of Deconstruction, that Derrida's deconstruction is an intrinsically ethical practice. Critchley argues that deconstruction involves an openness to the Other that makes it ethical in the Levinasian understanding of the term. ===Derrida and the Political=== Jacques Derrida has had a great influence on contemporary political theory and political philosophy. Derrida's thinking has inspired Slavoj Zizek, Richard Rorty, Ernesto Laclau, Judith Butler and many more contemporary theorists who have developed a deconstructive approach to politics. Because deconstruction examines the internal logic of any given text or discourse it has helped many authors to analyse the contradictions inherent in all schools of thought; and, as such, it has proved revolutionary in political analysis, particularly ideology critiques. Richard Beardsworth, developing from Critchley's Ethics of Deconstruction, argues, in his 1996 Derrida and the Political, that deconstruction is an intrinsically political practice. He further argues that the future of deconstruction faces a perhaps undecidable choice between a theological approach and a technological approach, represented first of all by the work of Bernard Stiegler. ===Faith=== The term "deconstructing faith" has been used to describe processes of critically examining one's religious beliefs with the possibility of rejecting them, taking individual responsibility for beliefs acquired from others, or reconstructing more nuanced or mature faith. This use of the term has been particularly prominent in American Evangelical Christianity in the 2020s. Author David Hayward said he "co-opted the term" deconstruction because he was reading the work of Derrida at the time his religious beliefs came into question. Others had earlier used the term "faith deconstruction" to describe similar processes, and theologian James W. Fowler articulated a similar concept as part of his faith stages theory. ===Cuisine=== Leading Spanish chef Ferran Adrià coined "deconstruction" as a style of cuisine, which he described as drawing from the creative principles of Spanish modernists like Salvador Dalí and Antoni Gaudí to deconstruct conventional cooking techniques in the modern era. Deconstructed recipes typically preserve the core ingredients and techniques of an established dish, but prepare components of a dish separately while experimenting radically with its flavor, texture, ratios, and assembly to culminate in a stark, minimalist style of presentation with similarly minimal portion sizes. ==Criticisms== Derrida was involved in a number of high-profile disagreements with prominent philosophers, including Michel Foucault, John Searle, Willard Van Orman Quine, Peter Kreeft, and Jürgen Habermas. Most of the criticisms of deconstruction were first articulated by these philosophers and then repeated elsewhere. ===John Searle=== In the early 1970s, Searle had a brief exchange with Jacques Derrida regarding speech-act theory. The exchange was characterized by a degree of mutual hostility between the philosophers, each of whom accused the other of having misunderstood his basic points. have considered the exchange to be a series of elaborate misunderstandings rather than a debate, while others have seen either Derrida or Searle gaining the upper hand. The debate began in 1972, when, in his paper "Signature Event Context", Derrida analyzed J. L. Austin's theory of the illocutionary act. While sympathetic to Austin's departure from a purely denotational account of language to one that includes "force", Derrida was sceptical of the framework of normativity employed by Austin. Derrida argued that Austin had missed the fact that any speech event is framed by a "structure of absence" (the words that are left unsaid due to contextual constraints) and by "iterability" (the constraints on what can be said, imposed by what has been said in the past). Derrida argued that the focus on intentionality in speech-act theory was misguided because intentionality is restricted to that which is already established as a possible intention. He also took issue with the way Austin had excluded the study of fiction, non-serious, or "parasitic" speech, wondering whether this exclusion was because Austin had considered these speech genres as governed by different structures of meaning, or had not considered them due to a lack of interest. In his brief reply to Derrida, "Reiterating the Differences: A Reply to Derrida", Searle argued that Derrida's critique was unwarranted because it assumed that Austin's theory attempted to give a full account of language and meaning when its aim was much narrower. Searle considered the omission of parasitic discourse forms to be justified by the narrow scope of Austin's inquiry. Searle agreed with Derrida's proposal that intentionality presupposes iterability, but did not apply the same concept of intentionality used by Derrida, being unable or unwilling to engage with the continental conceptual apparatus. Some critics ===Jürgen Habermas=== In The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, Jürgen Habermas criticized what he considered Derrida's opposition to rational discourse. Further, in an essay on religion and religious language, Habermas criticized what he saw as Derrida's emphasis on etymology and philology ===In popular media=== Popular criticism of deconstruction intensified following the Sokal affair, which many people took as an indicator of the quality of deconstruction as a whole, despite the absence of Derrida from Sokal's follow-up book Impostures intellectuelles. Chip Morningstar holds a view critical of deconstruction, believing it to be "epistemologically challenged". He claims the humanities are subject to isolation and genetic drift due to their unaccountability to the world outside academia. During the Second International Conference on Cyberspace (Santa Cruz, California, 1991), he reportedly heckled deconstructionists off the stage. He subsequently presented his views in the article "How to Deconstruct Almost Anything", where he stated, "Contrary to the report given in the 'Hype List' column of issue #1 of Wired ('Po-Mo Gets Tek-No', page 87), we did not shout down the postmodernists. We made fun of them."	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Caputo", "techne", "wikt:phenomenological", "feminism", "Text (literary theory)", "Hermeneutics", "deconstructed cuisine", "humanities", "List of deconstructionists", "Deconstruction (fashion)", "Limited Inc", "Signified and signifier", "Salvador Dalí", "semiology", "Jean-Paul Sartre", "Other (philosophy)", "Judith Butler", "Ferran Adrià", "Rationality", "Roland Barthes", "Toshihiko Izutsu", "Platonism", "sense", "Meaning (linguistics)", "Merriam-Webster", "Eyes of the University: Right to Philosophy 2", "Jacques Lacan", "sociolinguistics", "etymological fallacy", "wikt:vis-à-vis", "University of California Irvine", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau", "Non-essentialism", "law", "political theory", "will to power", "Duncan Kennedy (legal philosopher)", "Nakedpastor", "Simon Critchley", "existentialism", "Alun Munslow", "New Literary History", "Sokal affair", "Psychoanalytic theory", "Destruktion", "literary criticism", "Yale school (deconstruction)", "discourse", "difference (philosophy)", "Kantianism", "Platonic Form", "Michel Foucault", "Speech and Phenomena", "structuralism", "philology", "Deconstructivism (architecture)", "Johns Hopkins University", "art", "Writing and Difference", "literary analysis", "Jacques Derrida", "Axiology", "The Humanist", "Continental philosophy", "Etymological fallacy", "minimalist", "Indeterminacy (philosophy)", "critique", "idea", "secondary literature", "Being and Time", "essence", "James W. Fowler", "Søren Kierkegaard", "Theology", "Emmanuel Levinas", "LGBT studies", "Martin Heidegger", "epistemology", "Critique of Pure Reason", "performativity", "linguistics", "etymology", "Edmund Husserl", "Walter A. Davis", "good and evil", "University of Paris IV: Paris-Sorbonne", "Jürgen Habermas", "Post-structuralism", "presentation (cuisine)", "Hegelian dialectic", "Bertrand Russell", "Willy Maley", "type–token distinction", "Geoffrey Hartman", "Platonic forms", "Synchrony and diachrony", "wikt:originary", "Positive deconstruction", "modernity", "Alexandre Kojève", "music", "parousia", "wikt:apophatic", "Jonathan Culler", "signified and signifier", "binary opposition", "dogmatism", "ready-to-hand", "architecture", "Heckler", "Pharmakon (philosophy)", "The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity", "nihilism", "Bernard Stiegler", "Louis Hjelmslev", "Marxism", "sous rature", "Faith deconstruction", "John Searle", "archi-writing", "anthropology", "psychoanalysis", "Roncero, Paco", "différance", "J. Hillis Miller", "illocutionary act", "Ferdinand de Saussure", "ousia", "logocentrism", "Niall Lucy", "Ernesto Laclau", "limited liability company", "translation", "Slavoj Žižek", "Trophonius", "Santa Cruz, California" ]
8,887	Direct product	In mathematics, a direct product of objects already known can often be defined by giving a new one. That induces a structure on the Cartesian product of the underlying sets from that of the contributing objects. More abstractly, the product in category theory is mentioned, which formalizes those notions. Examples are the product of sets, groups (described below), rings, and other algebraic structures. The product of topological spaces is another instance. There is also the direct sum, which in some areas used interchangeably but in others is a different concept. == Examples == If \R is thought of as the set of real numbers without further structure, the direct product \R \times \R is just the Cartesian product \{(x,y) : x,y \in \R\}. If \R is thought of as the group of real numbers under addition, the direct product \R\times \R still has \{(x,y) : x,y \in \R\} as its underlying set. The difference between this and the preceding examples is that \R \times \R is now a group and so how to add their elements must also be stated. That is done by defining (a,b) + (c,d) = (a+c, b+d). If \R is thought of as the ring of real numbers, the direct product \R\times \R again has \{(x,y) : x,y \in \R\} as its underlying set. The ring structure consists of addition defined by (a,b) + (c,d) = (a+c, b+d) and multiplication defined by (a,b) (c,d) = (ac, bd). Although the ring \R is a field, \R \times \R is not because the nonzero element (1,0) does not have a multiplicative inverse. In a similar manner, the direct product of finitely many algebraic structures can be talked about; for example, \R \times \R \times \R \times \R. That relies on the direct product being associative up to isomorphism. That is, (A \times B) \times C \cong A \times (B \times C) for any algebraic structures A, B, and C of the same kind. The direct product is also commutative up to isomorphism; that is, A \times B \cong B \times A for any algebraic structures A and B of the same kind. Even the direct product of infinitely many algebraic structures can be talked about; for example, the direct product of countably many copies of \mathbb R, is written as \R \times \R \times \R \times \dotsb. == Direct product of groups == In group theory, define the direct product of two groups (G, \circ) and (H, \cdot), can be denoted by G \times H. For abelian groups that are written additively, it may also be called the direct sum of two groups, denoted by G \oplus H. It is defined as follows: the set of the elements of the new group is the Cartesian product of the sets of elements of G \text{ and } H, that is \{(g, h) : g \in G, h \in H\}; on these elements put an operation, defined element-wise: (g, h) \times \left(g', h'\right) = \left(g \circ g', h \cdot h'\right) Note that (G, \circ) may be the same as (H, \cdot). The construction gives a new group, which has a normal subgroup that is isomorphic to G (given by the elements of the form (g, 1)) and one that is isomorphic to H (comprising the elements (1, h)). The reverse also holds in the recognition theorem. If a group K contains two normal subgroups G \text{ and } H, such that K = GH and the intersection of G \text{ and } H contains only the identity, K is isomorphic to G \times H. A relaxation of those conditions by requiring only one subgroup to be normal gives the semidirect product. For example, G \text{ and } H are taken as two copies of the unique (up to isomorphisms) group of order 2, C^2: say \{1, a\} \text{ and } \{1, b\}. Then, C_2 \times C_2 = \{(1,1), (1,b), (a,1), (a,b)\}, with the operation element by element. For instance, (1,b)^* (a,1) = \left(1^* a, b^* 1\right) = (a, b), and(1,b)^* (1, b) = \left(1, b^2\right) = (1, 1). With a direct product, some natural group homomorphisms are obtained for free: the projection maps defined by \begin{align} \pi_1: G \times H \to G, \ \ \pi_1(g, h) &= g \\ \pi_2: G \times H \to H, \ \ \pi_2(g, h) &= h \end{align} are called the coordinate functions. Also, every homomorphism f to the direct product is totally determined by its component functions f_i = \pi_i \circ f. For any group (G, \circ) and any integer n \geq 0, repeated application of the direct product gives the group of all n-tuples G^n (for n = 0, that is the trivial group); for example, \Z^n and \R^n. == Direct product of modules == The direct product for modules (not to be confused with the tensor product) is very similar to the one that is defined for groups above by using the Cartesian product with the operation of addition being componentwise, and the scalar multiplication just distributing over all the components. Starting from \R, Euclidean space \R^n is gotten, the prototypical example of a real n-dimensional vector space. The direct product of \R^m and \R^n is \R^{m+n}. A direct product for a finite index \prod_{i=1}^n X_i is canonically isomorphic to the direct sum \bigoplus_{i=1}^n X_i. The direct sum and the direct product are not isomorphic for infinite indices for which the elements of a direct sum are zero for all but for a finite number of entries. They are dual in the sense of category theory: the direct sum is the coproduct, and the direct product is the product. For example, for X = \prod_{i=1}^\infty \R and Y = \bigoplus_{i=1}^\infty \R, the infinite direct product and direct sum of the real numbers. Only sequences with a finite number of non-zero elements are in Y. For example, (1, 0, 0, 0, \ldots) is in Y but (1, 1, 1, 1, \ldots) is not. Both sequences are in the direct product X; in fact, Y is a proper subset of X (that is, Y \subset X). == Topological space direct product == The direct product for a collection of topological spaces X_i for i in I, some index set, once again makes use of the Cartesian product \prod_{i \in I} X_i. Defining the topology is a little tricky. For finitely many factors, it is the obvious and natural thing to do: simply take as a basis of open sets to be the collection of all Cartesian products of open subsets from each factor: \mathcal B = \left\{U_1 \times \cdots \times U_n\ : \ U_i\ \mathrm{open\ in}\ X_i\right\}. That topology is called the product topology. For example, by directly defining the product topology on \R^2 by the open sets of \R (disjoint unions of open intervals), the basis for that topology would consist of all disjoint unions of open rectangles in the plane (as it turns out, it coincides with the usual metric topology). The product topology for infinite products has a twist, which has to do with being able to make all the projection maps continuous and to make all functions into the product continuous if and only if all its component functions are continuous (that is, to satisfy the categorical definition of product: the morphisms here are continuous functions). The basis of open sets is taken to be the collection of all Cartesian products of open subsets from each factor, as before, with the proviso that all but finitely many of the open subsets are the entire factor: \mathcal B = \left\{ \prod_{i \in I} U_i\ : \ (\exists j_1,\ldots,j_n)(U_{j_i}\ \mathrm{open\ in}\ X_{j_i})\ \mathrm{and}\ (\forall i \neq j_1,\ldots,j_n)(U_i = X_i) \right\}. The more natural-sounding topology would be, in this case, to take products of infinitely many open subsets as before, which yields a somewhat interesting topology, the box topology. However, it is not too difficult to find an example of bunch of continuous component functions whose product function is not continuous (see the separate entry box topology for an example and more). The problem that makes the twist necessary is ultimately rooted in the fact that the intersection of open sets is guaranteed to be open only for finitely many sets in the definition of topology. Products (with the product topology) are nice with respect to preserving properties of their factors; for example, the product of Hausdorff spaces is Hausdorff, the product of connected spaces is connected, and the product of compact spaces is compact. That last one, called Tychonoff's theorem, is yet another equivalence to the axiom of choice. For more properties and equivalent formulations, see product topology. == Direct product of binary relations == On the Cartesian product of two sets with binary relations R \text{ and } S, define (a, b) T (c, d) as a R c \text{ and } b S d. If R \text{ and } S are both reflexive, irreflexive, transitive, symmetric, or antisymmetric, then T will be also. Similarly, totality of T is inherited from R \text{ and } S. If the properties are combined, that also applies for being a preorder and being an equivalence relation. However, if R \text{ and } S are connected relations, T need not be connected; for example, the direct product of \,\leq\, on \N with itself does not relate (1, 2) \text{ and } (2, 1). == Direct product in universal algebra == If \Sigma is a fixed signature, I is an arbitrary (possibly infinite) index set, and \left(\mathbf{A}_i\right)_{i \in I} is an indexed family of \Sigma algebras, the direct product \mathbf{A} = \prod_{i \in I} \mathbf{A}_i is a \Sigma algebra defined as follows: The universe set A of \mathbf{A} is the Cartesian product of the universe sets A_i of \mathbf{A}_i, formally: A = \prod_{i \in I} A_i. For each n and each n-ary operation symbol f \in \Sigma, its interpretation f^{\mathbf{A}} in \mathbf{A} is defined componentwise, formally. For all a_1, \dotsc, a_n \in A and each i \in I, the ith component of f^{\mathbf{A}}\!\left(a_1, \dotsc, a_n\right) is defined as f^{\mathbf{A}_i}\!\left(a_1(i), \dotsc, a_n(i)\right). For each i \in I, the ith projection \pi_i : A \to A_i is defined by \pi_i(a) = a(i). It is a surjective homomorphism between the \Sigma algebras \mathbf{A} \text{ and } \mathbf{A}_i. As a special case, if the index set I = \{1, 2\}, the direct product of two \Sigma algebras \mathbf{A}_1 \text{ and } \mathbf{A}_2 is obtained, written as \mathbf{A} = \mathbf{A}_1 \times \mathbf{A}_2. If \Sigma contains only one binary operation f, the above definition of the direct product of groups is obtained by using the notation A_1 = G, A_2 = H, f^{A_1} = \circ, \ f^{A_2} = \cdot, \ \text{ and } f^A = \times. Similarly, the definition of the direct product of modules is subsumed here. == Categorical product == The direct product can be abstracted to an arbitrary category. In a category, given a collection of objects (A_i)_{i \in I} indexed by a set I, a product of those objects is an object A together with morphisms p_i \colon A \to A_i for all i \in I, such that if B is any other object with morphisms f_i \colon B \to A_i for all i \in I, there is a unique morphism B \to A whose composition with p_i equals f_i for every i. Such A and (p_i)_{i \in I} do not always exist. If they exist, then (A,(p_i)_{i \in I}) is unique up to isomorphism, and A is denoted \prod_{i \in I} A_i. In the special case of the category of groups, a product always exists. The underlying set of \prod_{i \in I} A_i is the Cartesian product of the underlying sets of the A_i, the group operation is componentwise multiplication, and the (homo)morphism p_i \colon A \to A_i is the projection sending each tuple to its ith coordinate. == Internal and external direct product == Some authors draw a distinction between an internal direct product and an external direct product. For example, if A and B are subgroups of an additive abelian group G such that A + B = G and A \cap B = \{0\}, A \times B \cong G, and it is said that G is the internal direct product of A and B. To avoid ambiguity, the set \{\, (a,b) \mid a \in A, \, b \in B \,\} can be referred to as the external direct product of A and B.	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8,888	Déjà vu	Déjà vu ( , ; "already seen") is the phenomenon of feeling like one has lived through the present situation in the past. It is an illusion of memory whereby—despite a strong sense of recollection—the time, place, and context of the "previous" experience are uncertain or impossible. Approximately two-thirds of surveyed populations report experiencing déjà vu at least one time in their lives. The phenomenon manifests occasionally as a symptom of seizure auras, and some researchers have associated chronic/frequent "pathological" déjà vu with neurological or psychiatric illness. Experiencing déjà vu has been correlated with higher socioeconomic status, better educational attainment, and lower ages. == History == The term was first used by Émile Boirac in 1876. Boirac was a French philosopher whose book L'avenir des sciences psychiques () included the sensation of déjà vu. Déjà vu has been presented by Émile as a reminiscence of memories, "These experiments have led scientists to suspect that déjà vu is a memory phenomenon. We encounter a situation that is similar to an actual memory but we can’t fully recall that memory." This evidence, found by Émile Boirac, helps the public understand what déjà vu can entail on the average brain. It was also stated by Boirac, "Our brain recognizes the similarities between our current experience and one in the past ... left with a feeling of familiarity that we can't quite place." Throughout history, there have been many theories on what causes déjà vu. ==Medical disorders== Déjà vu is associated with temporal lobe epilepsy. This experience is a neurological anomaly related to epileptic electrical discharge in the brain, creating a strong sensation that an event or experience currently being experienced has already been experienced in the past. Migraines with aura are also associated with déjà vu. Early researchers tried to establish a link between déjà vu and mental disorders such as anxiety, dissociative identity disorder and schizophrenia but failed to find correlations of any diagnostic value. No special association has been found between déjà vu and schizophrenia. A 2008 study found that déjà vu experiences are unlikely to be pathological dissociative experiences. Some research has looked into genetics when considering déjà vu. Although there is not currently a gene associated with déjà vu, the LGI1 gene on chromosome 10 is being studied for a possible link. Certain forms of the gene are associated with a mild form of epilepsy, and, though by no means a certainty, déjà vu, along with jamais vu, occurs often enough during seizures (such as simple partial seizures) that researchers have reason to suspect a link. ==Pharmacology== Certain combinations of medical drugs have been reported to increase the chances of déjà vu occurring in the user. Taiminen and Jääskeläinen (2001) explored the case of an otherwise healthy person who started experiencing intense and recurrent sensations of déjà vu upon taking the drugs amantadine and phenylpropanolamine together to relieve flu symptoms. Because of the dopaminergic action of the drugs and previous findings from electrode stimulation of the brain (e.g. Bancaud, Brunet-Bourgin, Chauvel, & Halgren, 1994), Tamminen and Jääskeläinen speculated that déjà vu occurs as a result of hyperdopaminergic action in the medial temporal areas of the brain. A similar case study by Karla, Chancellor, and Zeman (2007) suggests a link between déjà vu and the serotonergic system, after an otherwise healthy woman began experiencing similar symptoms while taking a combination of 5-hydroxytryptophan and carbidopa. ==Explanations== === Split perception explanation === Déjà vu may happen if a person experienced the current sensory experience twice successively. The first input experience is brief, degraded, occluded, or distracted. Immediately following that, the second perception might be familiar because the person naturally related it to the first input. One possibility behind this mechanism is that the first input experience involves shallow processing, which means that only some superficial physical attributes are extracted from the stimulus. === Memory-based explanation === ====Implicit memory==== Research has associated déjà vu experiences with good memory functions, particularly long-term implicit memory. Recognition memory enables people to realize the event or activity that they are experiencing has happened before. When people experience déjà vu, they may have their recognition memory triggered by certain situations which they have never encountered. Thus, encountering something that evokes the implicit associations of an experience or sensation that cannot be remembered may lead to déjà vu. In an effort to reproduce the sensation experimentally, Banister and Zangwill (1941) used hypnosis to give participants posthypnotic amnesia for material they had already seen. When this was later re-encountered, the restricted activation caused thereafter by the posthypnotic amnesia resulted in three of the 10 participants reporting what the authors termed "paramnesias". Two approaches are used by researchers to study feelings of previous experience, with the process of recollection and familiarity. Recollection-based recognition refers to an ostensible realization that the current situation has occurred before. Familiarity-based recognition refers to the feeling of familiarity with the current situation without being able to identify any specific memory or previous event that could be associated with the sensation. In 2010, O'Connor, Moulin, and Conway developed another laboratory analog of déjà vu based on two contrast groups of carefully selected participants, a group under posthypnotic amnesia condition (PHA) and a group under posthypnotic familiarity condition (PHF). The idea of PHA group was based on the work done by Banister and Zangwill (1941), and the PHF group was built on the research results of O'Connor, Moulin, and Conway (2007). They applied the same puzzle game for both groups, "Railroad Rush Hour", a game in which one aims to slide a red car through the exit by rearranging and shifting other blocking trucks and cars on the road. After completing the puzzle, each participant in the PHA group received a posthypnotic amnesia suggestion to forget the game in the hypnosis. Then, each participant in the PHF group was not given the puzzle but received a posthypnotic familiarity suggestion that they would feel familiar with this game during the hypnosis. After the hypnosis, all participants were asked to play the puzzle (the second time for PHA group) and reported the feelings of playing. In the PHA condition, if a participant reported no memory of completing the puzzle game during hypnosis, researchers scored the participant as passing the suggestion. In the PHF condition, if participants reported that the puzzle game felt familiar, researchers scored the participant as passing the suggestion. It turned out that, both in the PHA and PHF conditions, five participants passed the suggestion and one did not, which is 83.33% of the total sample. More participants in PHF group felt a strong sense of familiarity, for instance, comments like "I think I have done this several years ago." Furthermore, more participants in PHF group experienced a strong déjà vu, for example, "I think I have done the exact puzzle before." Three out of six participants in the PHA group felt a sense of déjà vu, and none of them experienced a strong sense of it. These figures are consistent with Banister and Zangwill's findings. Some participants in PHA group related the familiarity when completing the puzzle with an exact event that happened before, which is more likely to be a phenomenon of source amnesia. Other participants started to realize that they may have completed the puzzle game during hypnosis, which is more akin to the phenomenon of breaching. In contrast, participants in the PHF group reported that they felt confused about the strong familiarity of this puzzle, with the feeling of playing it just sliding across their minds. Overall, the experiences of participants in the PHF group is more likely to be the déjà vu in life, while the experiences of participants in the PHA group is unlikely to be real déjà vu. A 2012 study in the journal Consciousness and Cognition, that used virtual reality technology to study reported déjà vu experiences, supported this idea. This virtual reality investigation suggested that similarity between a new scene's spatial layout and the layout of a previously experienced scene in memory (but which fails to be recalled) may contribute to the déjà vu experience. When the previously experienced scene fails to come to mind in response to viewing the new scene, that previously experienced scene in memory can still exert an effect—that effect may be a feeling of familiarity with the new scene that is subjectively experienced as a feeling that an event or experience currently being experienced has already been experienced in the past, or of having been there before despite knowing otherwise. In 2018 a study examined volunteers' brains under experimentally induced déjà vu through the use of fMRI brain scans. The induced "deja vu" state was created by getting them to look at a series of logically related and unrelated words. The researchers would then ask the participants how many words starting with a specific letter they saw. With related words such as "door, shutter, screen, breeze", the participants would be asked if they saw any words that started with "W" (i.e. Window, a term that was not presented to the participants). If they did note that they thought they saw a word that wasn't presented to them, then déjà vu was induced. The researchers would then examine the volunteers' brains at the moment of induced déjà vu. From these scans, they noticed that there was visible activity in regions of the brain associated with mnemonic conflict. This finding suggests that more research regarding memory conflict may be important in better understanding déjà vu. ====Cryptomnesia==== Another possible explanation for the phenomenon of déjà vu is the occurrence of cryptomnesia, which is where information learned is forgotten but nevertheless stored in the brain, and similar occurrences invoke the contained knowledge, leading to a feeling of familiarity because the event or experience being experienced has already been experienced in the past, known as "déjà vu". Some experts suggest that memory is a process of reconstruction, rather than a recollection of fixed, established events. This reconstruction comes from stored components, involving emotions, distortions, and omissions. Each successive recall of an event is merely a recall of the last reconstruction. The proposed sense of recognition (déjà vu) involves achieving a good match between the present experience and the stored data. This reconstruction, however, may now differ so much from the original event it is as though it had never been experienced before, even though it seems similar. ====Dual neurological processing==== In 1965, Robert Efron of Boston's Veterans Hospital proposed that déjà vu is caused by dual neurological processing caused by delayed signals. Efron found that the brain's sorting of incoming signals is done in the temporal lobe of the brain's left hemisphere. However, signals enter the temporal lobe twice before processing, once from each hemisphere of the brain, normally with a slight delay of milliseconds between them. Efron proposed that if the two signals were occasionally not synchronized properly, then they would be processed as two separate experiences, with the second seeming to be a re-living of the first. ===Dream-based explanation=== Dreams can also be used to explain the experience of déjà vu, and they are related in three different aspects. Firstly, some déjà vu experiences duplicate the situation in dreams instead of waking conditions, according to the survey done by Brown (2004). Twenty percent of the respondents reported their déjà vu experiences were from dreams and 40% of the respondents reported from both reality and dreams. Secondly, people may experience déjà vu because some elements in their remembered dreams were shown. Research done by Zuger (1966) supported this idea by investigating the relationship between remembered dreams and déjà vu experiences, and suggested that there is a strong correlation. Thirdly, people may experience déjà vu during a dream state, which links déjà vu with dream frequency. Some researchers, including Swiss scientist Arthur Funkhouser, firmly believe that precognitive dreams are the source of many déjà vu experiences. Researchers also connected evidence of precognitive dreams experiences to déjà vu experiences that occurred anywhere from one day to eight years later. ===Collective unconscious=== Collective Unconscious is a controversial theory created by Carl Jung that has been used to explain the phenomenon of déjà vu. His theory was that all people have a shared pool of knowledge that has been passed down through generations and we can unconsciously access this knowledge. Some of said knowledge would be about certain archetypes like mother, father and hero or possibly about basic situations, emotions or other patterns. If we can access shared knowledge déjà vu could potentially be an effect of recognizing one of the collectively stored patterns. ==Related terms== ===Jamais vu=== Jamais vu (from French, meaning "never seen") is any familiar situation which is not recognized by the observer. Often described as the opposite of déjà vu, jamais vu involves a sense of eeriness and the observer's impression of seeing the situation for the first time, despite rationally knowing that they have been in the situation before. Jamais vu is most commonly experienced when a person momentarily does not recognize a word, person or place that they already know. Jamais vu is sometimes associated with certain types of aphasia, amnesia, and epilepsy. Theoretically, a jamais vu feeling in someone with a delirious disorder or intoxication could result in a delirious explanation of it, such as in the Capgras delusion, in which the patient takes a known person for a false double or impostor. === Déjà vécu === Déjà vécu (from French, meaning "already lived") is an intense, but false, feeling of having already lived through the present situation. Recently, it has been considered a pathological form of déjà vu. However, unlike déjà vu, déjà vécu has behavioral consequences. Patients with déjà vécu often cannot tell that this feeling of familiarity is not real. Because of the intense feeling of familiarity, patients experiencing déjà vécu may withdraw from their current events or activities. Patients may justify their feelings of familiarity with beliefs bordering on delusion. ===Presque vu=== Presque vu (, from French, meaning "almost seen") is the intense feeling of being on the very brink of a powerful epiphany, insight, or revelation, without actually achieving the revelation. The feeling is often therefore associated with a frustrating, tantalizing sense of incompleteness or near-completeness. ===Déjà rêvé=== Déjà rêvé (from French, meaning "already dreamed") is the feeling of having already dreamed something that is currently being experienced. ===Déjà entendu=== Déjà entendu (literally "already heard") is the experience of feeling sure about having already heard something, even though the exact details are uncertain or were perhaps imagined.	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8,892	Dionysius Thrax	Dionysius Thrax ( Dionýsios ho Thrâix, 170–90 BC) was a Greek grammarian and a pupil of Aristarchus of Samothrace. He was long considered to be the author of the earliest grammatical text on the Greek language, one that was used as a standard manual for perhaps some 1,500 years, and which was until recently regarded as the groundwork of the entire Western grammatical tradition. ==Life== His place of origin was not Thrace, as the epithet "Thrax" denotes, but probably Alexandria. His Thracian background was inferred from the name of his father Tērēs (Τήρης), which is considered to be a Thracian name. One of his co-students during his studies in Alexandria under Aristarchus was Apollodorus of Athens, who also became a distinguished grammarian. Rudolf Pfeiffer dates his shift to the isle of Rhodes to , when political upheavals associated with the policies of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II are thought to have led to his exile. According to a report in Athenaeus' Deipnosophistae (11,489a, b), his Rhodian pupils, grateful for his learning, gathered enough silver to enable him to fashion a cup whose shape aspired to recreate that of Nestor mentioned in the Iliad (Book 11, lines 632–637). Dionysius was primarily a Homeric scholar, which was integral to his training under Aristarchus in Alexandria. His work shows some influence of earlier Stoic grammatical theory, particularly on word classes. He is also reported by Varro to have been an erudite analyst of Greek lyric poetry, perhaps referring to his linguistic and prosodic use of that material. He wrote prolifically in three genres: philological questions (γραμματικά); running commentaries (ὑπομνήματα) and treatises (συνταγματικά). Of the last genre, he wrote a polemical monograph criticizing the Homeric interpretations of Krates. Another work he is said to have written was the Περὶ ποσοτήτων (On quantities). From the scholia preserved from the critical works of Aristonicus and Didymus who excerpted Dionysius' work it is clear that he was decidedly independent in his textual judgements on the Homeric corpus, since he frequently contradicts his master's known readings. His teaching may have exercised a formative impact on the rise of Roman grammatical studies if as an entry in the Suda suggests, the elder Tyrannion was one of his pupils. The founder of classical scholarship in Rome, L. Aelius Stilo, may have profited from Dionysius' instruction, since he accompanied to Rhodes Q. Metellus Numidicus when the latter went into voluntary exile, and while Dionysius was still teaching there. ==Tékhnē grammatikē== Dionysius Thrax was credited traditionally as the author of the first extant grammar of Greek, Art of Grammar (, Tékhnē grammatikē). The Greek text, in August Immanuel Bekker's edition, runs to fifty pages. Its importance in Byzantine scholarship is attested by the fact that commentaries on it by Byzantine scholiasts run to some 600 pages. The text itself was thought to be the unique extant example of a work by Hellenistic scholars. This general consensus began to break down when examinations of grammatical texts datable to a later period emerged among the finds of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri which, until relatively late, showed no awareness of key elements in the text attributed to Dionysius Thrax. It concerns itself primarily with a morphological description of Greek, lacking any treatment of syntax. The work was translated into Armenian sometime around the 5th to 6th centuries AD, and into Syriac by Joseph Huzaya around that same period. Dionysius defines grammar at the beginning of the Tékhnē as "the empirical knowledge of what is for the most part being said by poets and prose writers". He states that grammatikē, what we might nowadays call "literary criticism", comprises six parts: Grammatikḗ (a) ἀνάγνωσις ἐντριβὴς κατὰ προσῳδίαν (anagnōsis...): reading aloud with correct pronunciation, accent and punctuation. (b) ἐξήγησις κατὰ τοὺς ἐνυπάρχοντας ποιητικοὺς τρόπους (exēgēsis...): exposition of the tropes/τρόποι, the figurative language of texts. (c) ἀπόδοσις πρόχειρος γλωσσῶν τε καὶ ἰστοριῶν (apodosis...): common exposition of obsolete words and subject matter. (d) εὕρεσις ἐτυμολογίας (heuresis...): finding the correct meaning of words according to their origin (etymology). (e) ἐκλογισμὸς ἀναλογίας (eklogismos...): setting forth or considering analogies. (f) κρίσις ποιημάτων (krisis...): critical judgement of the works examined. Paragraph 6 outlines the στοιχεῖα (stoikheia) or letters of the alphabet, together with the divisions into vowels, diphthongs and consonants. Paragraphs 7–10 deal with syllables, long (μακραὶ συλλαβαί), short (βραχεῖαι συλλαβαί) and anceps (κοιναὶ συλλαβαί). Paragraph 11 treats the eight-word classes, though strong doubts exist as to whether or not this division goes back to Dionysius Thrax, since ancient testimonies assert that he conflated proper nouns and appellatives, and classified the article together with pronouns. In the text attributed to Dionysius, the eight classes, which Di Benedetto and others argue was probably developed by Tryphon several decades after Dionysius, are as follows: (a) the 'name' (ὄνομα ónoma), translated as noun: a part of speech inflected for case. Its three genders: masculine (ἀρσενικόν), feminine (θηλυκόν) and neutral (οὐδέτερον) are distinguished, together with the five case endings. He also notes however that two other terms are also in use: κοινόν (common) designating those words whose gender varies depending on the sex of the creature, such as ἵππος (hippos 'horse') and ἐπίκοινον (epicene) used to define words whose gender is stable, but which can refer to either sex, instancing χελιδών (khelidōn 'swallow'). The name includes various species like nouns, adjectives, proper nouns, appellatives, collectives, ordinals, numerals and more. For example, the appellative (προσηγορία), which he considers a species (εἶδος) of the proper noun, not a distinct part of speech. (b) the verb (ῥῆμα) with its tenses. (c) the participle (μετοχή) (d) the article (ἄρθρον) (e) the pronoun (ἀντωνυμία) (f) the preposition (πρόθεσις) (g) the adverb (ἐπίρρημα) (h) the conjunction (σύνδεσμος) Paragraphs 12-20 then elaborate successively on the parts of speech. ==Authorship== Modern scepticism over the attribution is associated with the pioneering work of Vincenzo Di Benedetto in particular, though as early as 1822 Karl Wilhelm Göttling, by analyzing the scholia on the text that had recently been collected and published by A. I. Bekker, concluded that the text as we have it was to be dated, not to the Hellenistic period but rather to the Byzantine period. Göttling's thesis convinced neither Moritz Schmidt nor Gustav Uhlig, and disappeared from view. In 1958/1959, Di Benedetto revived doubts by comparing the received text with ancient grammatical papyri that had since come to light. He argued that before the 3rd to 4th centuries AD, no papyri on Greek grammar reveal material structured in a way similar to the exposition we have in Dionysius's treatise, that the surviving witnesses for the period before that late date, namely authors such as Sextus Empiricus, Aelius Herodianus, Apollonius Dyscolus and Quintilian, fail to cite him, and that Dionysius's work only begins to receive explicit mention in the works written from the 5th century onwards by such scholars as Timotheus of Gaza, Ammonius Hermiae and Priscian. Di Benedetto concluded that only the first five paragraphs of the treatise came from Dionysius' hand. Though initially rebuffed by scholars of the calibre of Pfeiffer and Hartmut Erbse, Di Benedetto's argument has found general acceptance today among specialists.	[ "Aristonicus of Alexandria", "Vincenzo Di Benedetto", "Tyrannion of Amisus", "Varro", "Part of speech", "Trope (philosophy)", "Homeric scholarship", "de:Glotta", "syntax", "Timotheus of Gaza", "Armenian language", "Centre national de la recherche scientifique", "Nestor's Cup (mythology)", "Clarendon Press", "Harvard University Press", "Crates of Mallus", "Thrace", "Ancient Greece", "Aristotle", "Rhodes", "Greek language", "Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus", "Deipnosophistae", "Nestor (mythology)", "Metre (poetry)", "Brill Publishers", "scholia", "adjective", "Quintilian", "Prosody (Greek)", "Aelius Herodianus", "BRILL Publishers", "de:Moritz Schmidt", "Suda", "Article (grammar)", "Ptolemy VIII Physcon", "Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa", "nominative case", "pronoun", "Syriac language", "Gustav Uhlig", "Ashgate Publishing", "Iliad", "Librairie philosophique J. Vrin", "Oxyrhynchus Papyri", "Rutgers University Press", "Ammonius Hermiae", "Byzantine Empire", "wikt:onoma", "Apollodorus of Athens", "it:Edizioni ETS", "morphology (linguistics)", "Rudolf Pfeiffer", "Hellenistic period", "Apollonius Dyscolus", "Alexandria", "University of Michigan Press", "Stoic logic", "Aristarchus of Samothrace", "grammatical case", "anceps", "Hartmut Erbse", "Cambridge University Press", "Athenaeus", "Tryphon (grammarian)", "Didymus Chalcenterus", "Karl Wilhelm Göttling", "Leuven University Press", "Art of Grammar", "Sextus Empiricus", "Priscian", "John Benjamins Publishing", "The Internet Archive", "Rhetoric (Aristotle)", "Grammarian (Greco-Roman)", "August Immanuel Bekker", "noun", "Theory of forms", "Lucius Aelius Stilo Praeconinus", "Protagoras", "Joseph Huzaya" ]
8,893	December 29	==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 1170 – Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, is assassinated inside Canterbury Cathedral by followers of King Henry II; he subsequently becomes a saint and martyr in the Anglican Communion and the Catholic Church. 1503 – The Battle of Garigliano was fought between a Spanish army under Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba and a French army commanded by Ludovico II, Marquess of Saluzzo. ===1601–1900=== 1607 – According to John Smith, Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan leader Wahunsenacawh, successfully pleads for his life after tribal leaders attempt to execute him. 1778 – American Revolutionary War: British forces under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell defeat American forces under Major General Robert Howe and capture the port city of Savannah, Georgia. 1812 – , under the command of Captain William Bainbridge, captures off the coast of Brazil after a three-hour battle. 1835 – The Treaty of New Echota is signed, ceding all the lands of the Cherokee east of the Mississippi River to the United States. 1845 – The United States annexes the Republic of Texas and admits it as the 28th state. 1860 – The launch of , with her combination of screw propeller, iron hull and iron armour, renders all previous warships obsolete. 1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Chickasaw Bayou ends in a Union defeat as forces under General William T. Sherman are repulsed with heavy losses by Confederate troops under General John C. Pemberton. 1874 – The military coup of Gen. Martinez Campos in Sagunto ends the failed First Spanish Republic and the monarchy is restored as Prince Alfonso is proclaimed King of Spain. 1876 – The Ashtabula River railroad disaster occurs, leaving 64 injured and 92 dead at Ashtabula, Ohio. 1890 – Wounded Knee Massacre: On Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, 300 Lakota are killed by the United States 7th Cavalry Regiment. ===1901–present=== 1911 – Mongolia gains independence from the Qing dynasty, enthroning 8th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu as Khagan of Mongolia. 1913 – Cecil B. DeMille starts filming Hollywood's first feature film, The Squaw Man. 1930 – Sir Muhammad Iqbal's presidential address in Allahabad introduces the two-nation theory and outlines a vision for the creation of Pakistan. 1934 – Japan renounces the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 and the London Naval Treaty of 1930. 1937 – The Irish Free State is replaced by a new state called Ireland with the adoption of a new constitution. 1940 – In the Second Great Fire of London, the Luftwaffe fire-bombs London, England, killing almost 200 civilians during World War II. 1972 – Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 (a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar) crashes in the Florida Everglades on approach to Miami International Airport, Florida, killing 101 of the 176 people on board. 1975 – A bomb explodes at LaGuardia Airport in New York City, killing 11 people and injuring more than 75. 1989 – Czech writer, philosopher and dissident Václav Havel is elected the first post-communist President of Czechoslovakia. 1989 – The Nikkei 225 for the Tokyo Stock Exchange hits its all-time intra-day high of 38,957.44 and closing high at 38,915.87, serving as the apex of the Japanese asset price bubble. 1992 – Fernando Collor de Mello, president of Brazil, tries to resign amidst corruption charges, but is then impeached. 1994 – Turkish Airlines Flight 278 (a Boeing 737-400) crashes on approach to Van Ferit Melen Airport in Van, Turkey, killing 57 of the 76 people on board. 1996 – Guatemala and leaders of Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity sign a peace accord ending a 36-year civil war. 1998 – Leaders of the Khmer Rouge apologize for the Cambodian genocide that claimed over one million lives. 2003 – The last known speaker of Akkala Sami dies, rendering the language extinct. 2006 – The UK settles its Anglo-American loan, post-WWII loan debt. 2012 – A Tupolev Tu-204 airliner crashes in a ditch between the airport fence and the M3 highway after overshooting a runway at Vnukovo International Airport in Moscow, Russia, killing five people and leaving three others critically injured. 2013 – A suicide bomb attack at the Volgograd-1 railway station in the southern Russian city of Volgograd kills at least 18 people and wounds 40 others. 2013 – Seven-time Formula One champion Michael Schumacher suffers a massive head injury while skiing in the French Alps. 2020 – A magnitude 6.4 earthquake hits near the town of Petrinja in Sisak-Moslavina County, Croatia, killing seven people. 2024 – Jeju Air Flight 2216 crashes into a wall in Muan, South Korea, killing 179 of the 181 occupants. It is the worst aircraft accident on South Korean soil in history. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 1536 – Henry VI, German nobleman (d. 1572) 1550 – García de Silva Figueroa, Spanish diplomat and traveller (d. 1624) ===1601–1900=== 1633 – Johannes Zollikofer, Swiss vicar (d. 1692) 1721 – Madame de Pompadour, mistress of King Louis XV (d. 1764) 1746 – Saverio Cassar, Maltese priest and rebel leader (d. 1805) 1766 – Charles Macintosh, Scottish chemist and the inventor of waterproof fabric (d. 1843) 1788 – Christian Jürgensen Thomsen, Danish antiquarian (d. 1865) 1796 – Johann Christian Poggendorff, German physicist and journalist (d. 1877) 1800 – Charles Goodyear, American chemist and engineer (d. 1860) 1804 – John Langdon Sibley, American librarian (d. 1885) 1808 – Andrew Johnson, American general and politician, 17th President of the United States (d. 1875) 1809 – George Washington Baines, American politician, journalist and educator (d. 1882) 1809 – William Ewart Gladstone, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1898) 1811 – Francisco Palau, Catalan Discalced Carmelite friar and priest (d. 1872) 1816 – Carl Ludwig, German physician and physiologist (d. 1895) 1844 – Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee, Indian barrister and first president of Indian National Congress (d. 1906) 1855 – August Kitzberg, Estonian author and poet (d. 1927) 1856 – Thomas Joannes Stieltjes, Dutch-French mathematician and academic (d. 1894) 1857 – Sydney Young, English chemist (d. 1937) 1859 – Venustiano Carranza, Mexican soldier and politician, 37th President of Mexico (d. 1920) 1870 – Earl Gregg Swem, American historian, bibliographer and librarian (d. 1965) 1876 – Pablo Casals, Catalan cellist and conductor (d. 1973) 1876 – Lionel Tertis, English violist (d. 1975) 1879 – Billy Mitchell, American general and pilot (d. 1936) 1881 – Jess Willard, American boxer (d. 1968) 1886 – Georg Hermann Struve, German astronomer (d. 1933) 1894 – J. Lister Hill, American politician (d. 1984) 1896 – David Alfaro Siqueiros, Mexican painter (d. 1974) ===1901–present=== 1903 – Candido Portinari, Brazilian painter (d. 1962) 1904 – Kuvempu, Indian author and poet (d. 1994) 1908 – Helmut Gollwitzer, German theologian and author (d. 1993) 1908 – Magnus Pyke, English scientist and author (d. 1992) 1910 – Ronald Coase, English-American economist, author, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013) 1911 – Klaus Fuchs, German physicist and spy (d. 1988) 1914 – Zainul Abedin, Bangladeshi painter and academic (d. 1976) 1914 – Billy Tipton, American pianist and saxophonist (d. 1989) 1914 – Albert Tucker, Australian painter and illustrator (d. 1999) 1915 – Robert Ruark, American hunter and author (d. 1965) 1915 – Jo Van Fleet, American actress (d. 1996) 1917 – Tom Bradley, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 38th Mayor of Los Angeles (d. 1998) 1917 – Ramanand Sagar, Indian director and producer (d. 2005) 1919 – Alfred de Grazia, American political scientist and author (d. 2014) 1919 – Roman Vlad, Italian pianist and composer (d. 2013) 1920 – Viveca Lindfors, Swedish-American actress, singer and poet (d. 1995) 1921 – Dobrica Ćosić, Serbian politician, 1st President of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (d. 2014) 1921 – Michael Horne, English structural engineer, scientist and academic (d. 2000) 1922 – Little Joe Cook, American singer-songwriter (d. 2014) 1922 – William Gaddis, American author and academic (d. 1998) 1923 – Cheikh Anta Diop, Senegalese historian, anthropologist, and physicist (d. 1986) 1923 – Lily Ebert, Hungarian-born Holocaust survivor (d. 2024) 1923 – Morton Estrin, American pianist and educator (d. 2017) 1923 – Dina Merrill, American actress, game show panelist, socialite, heiress, and businesswoman (d. 2017) 1923 – Shlomo Venezia, Greek-Italian author and Holocaust survivor (d. 2012) 1924 – Joe Allbritton, American businessman and publisher, founded the Allbritton Communications Company (d. 2012) 1924 – Kim Song-ae, Korean politician (d. 2014) 1925 – Pete Dye, American golfer and architect (d. 2020) 1928 – Bernard Cribbins, British actor (d. 2022) 1932 – Inga Swenson, American actress and singer (d. 2023) 1933 – Samuel Brittan, English journalist and author (d. 2020) 1934 – Ed Flanders, American actor (d. 1995) 1936 – Mary Tyler Moore, American actress and producer (d. 2017) 1936 – Ray Nitschke, American football player (d. 1998) 1937 – Wayne Huizenga, American businessman, founded AutoNation (d. 2018) 1938 – Jon Voight, American actor and producer 1939 – Ed Bruce, American country music singer-songwriter (d. 2021) 1941 – Ray Thomas, English singer-songwriter and flute player (d. 2018) 1942 – Rajesh Khanna, Indian actor (d. 2012) 1942 – Dorothy Morkis, American equestrian 1943 – Bill Aucoin, American talent manager (d. 2010) 1943 – Molly Bang, American author and illustrator 1943 – Rick Danko, Canadian singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer (d. 1999) 1944 – Andrew Foster, British public servant 1944 – Gerard Windsor, Australian author and literary critic 1945 – Keith Milow, British artist 1946 – Marianne Faithfull, English singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2025) 1946 – Paul Trible, American attorney, politician and academic administrator 1947 – Richard Crandall, American physicist and computer scientist (d. 2012) 1947 – Ted Danson, American actor and producer 1947 – Leonhard Lapin, Estonian architect and poet (d. 2022) 1947 – Cozy Powell, English drummer, songwriter, and producer (d. 1998) 1947 – Vincent Winter, Scottish actor, director, and production manager (d. 1998) 1948 – Jacky Clark Chisholm, American gospel singer 1948 – Peter Robinson, Northern Irish politician, 3rd First Minister of Northern Ireland 1949 – Ian Livingstone, English fantasy author and entrepreneur 1949 – David Topliss, English rugby league player and coach (d. 2008) 1950 – Jon Polito, American actor (d. 2016) 1951 – Willem de Blécourt, Dutch historical anthropologist 1951 – Yvonne Elliman, American singer-songwriter and actress 1952 – Gelsey Kirkland, American ballerina and choreographer 1953 – Alan Rusbridger, Zambian-English journalist and academic 1953 – Stanley Williams, American gang leader, co-founded the Crips (d. 2005) 1954 – Albrecht Böttcher, German mathematician 1955 – Chris Goodall, English businessman and author 1955 – Donald D. Hoffman, American quantitative psychologist and author 1956 – Zaki Chehab, Lebanese-British journalist 1956 – Katy Munger, American writer 1957 – Brad Grey, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2017) 1957 – Paul Rudnick, American author, playwright, and screenwriter 1958 – Tyrone Benskin, English-Canadian actor, theatre director and politician 1958 – Nancy J. Currie-Gregg, American colonel, engineer, and astronaut 1959 – Patricia Clarkson, American actress 1959 – Ann Demeulemeester, Belgian fashion designer 1959 – Paula Poundstone, American comedian and author 1960 – Brian A. Hopkins, American author 1960 – David Boon, Australian cricketer 1960 – Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Congolese militia leader, founded the Union of Congolese Patriots 1960 – Michael James Pappas, American politician 1961 – Kevin Granata, American engineer and academic (d. 2007) 1962 – Leza Lowitz, American author 1962 – Carles Puigdemont, Catalan politician and journalist, former president 1963 – Sean Payton, American football player and coach 1963 – Ulf Kristersson, Swedish politician, Leader of the Swedish Moderate Party and 35th Prime Minister of Sweden 1964 – Michael Cudlitz, American actor 1964 – Josh Harris, American investor and sports team owner 1965 – Dexter Holland, American musician, singer, songwriter, and biologist 1965 – John Newton, American actor 1966 – Jason Gould, American actor and singer 1966 – Christian Kracht, Swiss author 1967 – Lilly Wachowski, American director, screenwriter and producer 1968 – James Mouton, American baseball player 1969 – Jason Cook, English footballer 1969 – Jennifer Ehle, American actress 1969 – Scott Patterson, American financial journalist and author 1970 – Kevin Weisman, American actor 1971 – Mike Pesca, American radio journalist and podcaster 1972 – Andreas Dackell, Swedish ice hockey player 1972 – Jude Law, English actor 1973 – Theo Epstein, American businessman 1973 – Jenny Lawson, American journalist and author 1974 – Maria Dizzia, American actress 1974 – Twinkle Khanna, Indian actress and writer 1974 – Mahal, Filipino actress, comedian and vlogger (d. 2021) 1974 – Mekhi Phifer, American actor 1974 – Ryan Shore, Canadian composer and producer 1975 – Shawn Hatosy, American actor 1976 – Filip Kuba, Czech ice hockey player 1976 – Danny McBride, American actor, producer and screenwriter 1976 – Katherine Moennig, American actress 1978 – Kieron Dyer, English footballer and coach 1978 – Danny Higginbotham, English footballer and journalist 1979 – Diego Luna, Mexican actor, director and producer 1979 – Reihan Salam, American political commentator, columnist and author 1981 – Shizuka Arakawa, Japanese figure skater and sportscaster 1981 – Janice Lynn Mather, Bahamian-Canadian author 1981 – Anna Woltz, Dutch author 1982 – Alison Brie, American actress 1982 – Julia Wertz, American cartoonist, writer and urban explorer 1983 – Jessica Andrews, American singer and songwriter 1984 – Branden Jacobs-Jenkins, American playwright 1985 – Alexa Ray Joel, American singer-songwriter 1986 – Derek Ryan, American ice hockey player 1987 – Iain De Caestecker, Scottish actor 1988 – Eric Berry, American football player 1988 – Christen Press, American footballer 1988 – Ágnes Szávay, Hungarian tennis player 1989 – Jane Levy, American actress 1989 – Kei Nishikori, Japanese tennis player 1989 – Harri Säteri, Finnish ice hockey player 1991 – Steven Caulker, English footballer 1991 – Patrick Feeney, American sprinter 1992 – Mislav Oršić, Croatian footballer 1993 – Gabby May, Canadian artistic gymnast 1994 – Princess Kako of Akishino, Japanese princess 1995 – Myles Garrett, American football player 1995 – Ross Lynch, American singer and actor 1996 – Sana Minatozaki, Japanese singer 1996 – Dylan Minnette, American actor, musician and singer 1998 – Seamus Davey-Fitzpatrick, American actor 1998 – Victor Osimhen, Nigerian footballer 1998 – Brandon Thomas-Asante, Ghanaian footballer 1999 – Andreas Skov Olsen, Danish footballer 1999 – Francisco Trincão, Portuguese footballer 2000 – Orkun Kökçü, Dutch-Turkish footballer 2000 – Julio Rodríguez, Dominican baseball player 2006 – Ethan Mbappé, French footballer ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 1170 – Thomas Becket, English archbishop and saint (b. 1118) 1208 – Emperor Zhangzong of Jin, (b. 1168) 1380 – Elizabeth of Poland, queen consort of Hungary (b. 1305) 1550 – Bhuvanaikabahu VII, King of Kotte (b. 1468) 1563 – Sebastian Castellio, French preacher and theologian (b. 1515) ===1601–1900=== 1606 – Stephen Bocskai, Prince of Transylvania (b. 1557) 1661 – Antoine Girard de Saint-Amant, French poet (b. 1594) 1689 – Thomas Sydenham, English physician and author (b. 1624) 1720 – Maria Margaretha Kirch, German astronomer and educator (b. 1670) 1731 – Brook Taylor, English mathematician and theorist (b. 1685) 1785 – Johann Heinrich Rolle, German composer (b. 1716) 1785 – Johan Herman Wessel, Norwegian-Danish poet and playwright (b. 1742) 1807 – Diogo de Carvalho e Sampayo, Portuguese diplomat and scientist (b. 1750) 1825 – Jacques-Louis David, French painter and illustrator (b. 1748) 1838 – Søren Christian Sommerfelt, Norwegian priest and botanist (b. 1794) 1890 – Spotted Elk, American tribal leader (b. 1826) 1890 – Octave Feuillet, French novelist and dramatist (b. 1821) 1891 – Leopold Kronecker, Polish-German mathematician and academic (b. 1823) 1894 – Christina Rossetti, English poet and hymn-writer (b. 1830) 1897 – William James Linton, English-American painter, author, and activist (b. 1812) 1898 – Ilia Solomonovich Abelman, Russian astronomer (b. 1866) 1900 – John Henry Leech, English entomologist (b. 1862) ===1901–present=== 1905 – Charles Yerkes, American financier (b. 1837) 1910 – Samuel Butcher, Anglo-Irish classical scholar and politician (b. 1850) 1910 – Reginald Doherty, English tennis player (b. 1872) 1911 – Rosamund Marriott Watson, English poet, author and critic (b. 1860) 1918 – Abby Leach, American educator (b. 1855) 1919 – William Osler, Canadian physician and professor (b. 1849) 1921 – Hermann Paul, German philologist, linguist and lexicographer (b. 1846) 1924 – Carl Spitteler, Swiss poet and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1845) 1925 – Félix Vallotton, Swiss-French painter (b. 1865) 1926 – Rainer Maria Rilke, Austrian poet and author (b. 1875) 1929 – Wilhelm Maybach, German engineer and businessman, founded Maybach (b. 1846) 1929 – Edward Christopher Williams, American librarian (b. 1871) 1937 – Don Marquis, American journalist, author, and playwright (b. 1878) 1939 – Kelly Miller, American mathematician, sociologist, essayist, newspaper columnist and author (b. 1863) 1939 – Madeleine Pelletier, French psychiatrist, feminist and political activist (b. 1874) 1940 – Stephen Birch, American businessman (b. 1873) 1941 – Louis Eilshemius, American painter (b. 1864) 1941 – Tullio Levi-Civita, Italian mathematician and scholar (b. 1873) 1943 – Art Young, American cartoonist and writer (b. 1866) 1944 – Khasan Israilov, Chechen rebel (b. 1910) 1945 – Beulah Dark Cloud, American actress (b. 1887) 1946 – Camillo Schumann, German composer and organist (b. 1872) 1948 – Harry Farjeon, British composer and music teacher (b. 1878) 1949 – Tyler Dennett, American historian and author (b. 1883) 1952 – Fletcher Henderson, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b. 1897) 1952 – Beryl Rubinstein, American pianist, composer and teacher (b. 1898) 1954 – William Merriam Burton, American chemist (b. 1865) 1956 – Miles Vandahurst Lynk, American physician and author (b. 1871) 1958 – Doris Humphrey, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1895) 1959 – Robin Milford, English soldier and composer (b. 1903) 1960 – Eden Phillpotts, English author and poet (b. 1862) 1965 – Frank Nugent, American screenwriter, journalist and film reviewer (b. 1908) 1965 – Kōsaku Yamada, Japanese composer and conductor (b. 1886) 1967 – Paul Whiteman, American violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1890) 1968 – Austin Farrer, English theologian and philosopher (b. 1904) 1970 – William King Gregory, American zoologist and anatomist (b. 1876) 1970 – Marie Menken, American director and painter (b. 1909) 1971 – John Marshall Harlan II, American lawyer and jurist (b. 1899) 1972 – Joseph Cornell, American sculptor and director (b. 1903) 1975 – Euell Gibbons, American author and naturalist (b. 1911) 1976 – Ivo Van Damme, Belgian runner (b. 1954) 1979 – F. Edward Hébert, American journalist and politician (b. 1901) 1979 – Richard Tecwyn Williams, Welsh biochemist (b. 1909) 1980 – Nadezhda Mandelstam, Russian author and educator (b. 1899) 1980 – Irvin F. Westheimer, American businessman and social reformer (b. 1879) 1981 – Philip Handler, American nutritionist, and biochemist (b. 1917) 1981 – Miroslav Krleža, Croatian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1893) 1984 – P. H. Polk, American photographer (b. 1898) 1984 – Leo Robin, American composer, lyricist and songwriter (b. 1900) 1986 – Harold Macmillan, English captain and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1894) 1986 – Andrei Tarkovsky, Russian director and screenwriter (b. 1932) 1987 – Jun Ishikawa, Japanese author (b. 1899) 1987 – Wilbert E. Moore, American sociologist (b. 1914) 1988 – Mike Beuttler, Egyptian race car driver (b. 1940) 1988 – Ieuan Maddock, Welsh scientist and nuclear researcher (b. 1917) 1992 – Vivienne Segal, American actress and singer (b. 1897) 1994 – Frank Thring, Australian actor (b. 1926) 1995 – Hans Henkemans, Dutch pianist, composer and psychiatrist (b. 1913) 1996 – Pennar Davies, Welsh clergyman and author (b. 1911) 1996 – Mireille Hartuch, French singer-songwriter and actress (b. 1906) 1996 – Peggy Herbison, Scottish politician (b. 1907) 1998 – Ralph Siu, American scholar, military and civil servant, and author (b. 1917) 1998 – Don Taylor, American actor and film director (b. 1920) 1999 – Leon Radzinowicz, Polish-English criminologist and academic (b. 1906) 2001 – Takashi Asahina, Japanese conductor (b. 1908) 2001 – György Kepes, Hungarian painter, photographer, designer, educator and art theorist (b. 1906) 2002 – Lloyd Barbee, American lawyer and politician (b. 1925) 2003 – Dinsdale Landen, English actor (b. 1932) 2003 – Bob Monkhouse, English comedian, actor, and game show host (b. 1928) 2004 – Julius Axelrod, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1912) 2004 – Peter Davison, American poet, essayist, teacher, lecturer, editor and publisher (b. 1928) 2005 – Cyril Philips, British historian and academic director (b. 1912) 2005 – Basil William Robinson, British art scholar and author (b. 1912) 2007 – Phil O'Donnell, Scottish footballer (b. 1972) 2007 – Phil Dusenberry, American advertising executive (b. 1936) 2008 – Freddie Hubbard, American trumpet player and composer (b. 1938) 2008 – Victor H. Krulak, American soldier (b. 1913) 2009 – Janina Bauman, Polish journalist and writer (b. 1926) 2009 – David Levine, American artist and illustrator (b. 1926) 2010 – Avi Cohen, Israeli footballer and manager (b. 1956) 2010 – Bill Erwin, American actor and cartoonist (b. 1914) 2011 – Constance Bartlett Hieatt, American scholar (b. 1928) 2012 – Tony Greig, South African-Australian cricketer and sportscaster (b. 1946) 2012 – William Rees-Mogg, British newspaper journalist (b. 1928) 2013 – C. T. Hsia, Chinese-American critic and scholar (b. 1921) 2013 – Benjamin Curtis, American guitarist, drummer, and songwriter (b. 1978) 2013 – Connie Dierking, American basketball player (b. 1936) 2013 – Wojciech Kilar, Polish classical and film music composer (b. 1932) 2014 – Hari Harilela, Indian-Hong Kong businessman and philanthropist (b. 1922) 2014 – Juanito Remulla, Sr., Filipino lawyer and politician, Governor of Cavite (b. 1933) 2015 – Om Prakash Malhotra, Indian general and politician, 25th Governor of Punjab (b. 1922) 2015 – Pavel Srníček, Czech footballer and coach (b. 1968) 2016 – Keion Carpenter, American football defensive back (b. 1977) 2016 – LaVell Edwards, American football head coach (b. 1930) 2017 – Peggy Cummins, Irish actress (b. 1925) 2017 – John C. Portman Jr., American neofuturistic architect and real estate developer (b. 1924) 2018 – Brian Garfield, American novelist, historian and screenwriter (b. 1939) 2018 – Rosenda Monteros, Mexican actress (b. 1935) 2019 – Alasdair Gray, Scottish writer and artist (b. 1934) 2019 – Neil Innes, English writer, comedian and musician (b. 1944) 2020 – Pierre Cardin, Italian-French fashion designer (b. 1922) 2020 – Joe Louis Clark, American educator (b. 1937) 2021 – Peter Klatzow, South African composer (b. 1945) 2022 – Pelé, Brazilian footballer (b. 1940) 2022 – Edgar Savisaar, Estonian politician, Estonian Minister of the Interior (b. 1950) 2022 – Vivienne Westwood, English fashion designer (b. 1941) 2023 – Gil de Ferran, French-born Brazilian racing driver, CART champion (2000, 2001), 2003 Indianapolis 500 winner (b. 1967) 2024 – Aaron Brown, American journalist and academic (b. 1948) 2024 – Jimmy Carter, American politician, 39th President of the United States (b. 1924) 2024 – Linda Lavin, American actress and singer (b. 1937) 2024 – Tomiko Itooka, Japanese supercentenarian (b. 1908) ==Holidays and observances== Christian feast day: Ebrulf Thomas Becket December 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Constitution Day (Ireland) Independence Day (Mongolia) The fifth day of Christmas (Western Christianity) The fourth day of Kwanzaa (United States)	[ "1940", "1921", "Christen Press", "Alfred de Grazia", "Andreas Dackell", "1886", "1982", "Kwanzaa", "Euell Gibbons", "Jude Law", "Battle of Garigliano (1503)", "Sagunto", "The Plain Dealer", "1816", "Ludovico II, Marquess of Saluzzo", "Muan International Airport", "Confederate States of America", "Reginald Doherty", "F. Edward Hébert", "2001 CART season", "Joe Allbritton", "Andrew Johnson", "LaGuardia Airport", "Guatemalan Civil War", "1788", "1910", "David Levine", "Jessica Andrews", "Khmer Rouge", "1208", "two-nation theory", "Elizabeth of Poland", "Brad Grey", "2015", "William Tecumseh Sherman", "Imperial House of Japan", "2000 CART season", "The Atlanta Journal-Constitution", "1924", "1380", "Miroslav Krleža", "C. T. Hsia", "Sean Payton", "Mahal (actress)", "Peggy Cummins", "List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions", "Calendar of saints", "Danny Higginbotham", "1879", "Alasdair Gray", "National Hockey League", "1964", "Magnus Pyke", "Iain De Caestecker", "Mike Pesca", "Leza Lowitz", "List of governors of Punjab (India)", "2003 Indianapolis 500", "Allbritton Communications Company", "1898", "Avi Cohen", "Mekhi Phifer", "2020", "Tony Greig", "Cyril Philips", "Earl Gregg Swem", "1881", "1975 LaGuardia Airport bombing", "1928", "1915", "David Boon", "1981", "2008", "Molly Bang", "Jane Levy", "Beulah Dark Cloud", "Charles Macintosh", "President of the United States", "1946", "Tupolev Tu-204", "1950", "Ieuan Maddock", "Nikkei 225", "Anna Woltz", "Cambodian genocide", "Miami International Airport", "Eastern Air Lines Flight 401", "Carl Spitteler", "Constitution of Ireland", "William King Gregory", "quantitative psychology", "Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity", "Lily Ebert", "1979", "P. H. Polk", "Major general (United States)", "1994", "George Washington Baines", "William Rees-Mogg", "Václav Havel", "Alexa Ray Joel", "Pelé", "Bogd Khan", "Jo Van Fleet", "Basil William Robinson", "Hari Harilela", "1972", "2016", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "Ted Danson", "Félix Vallotton", "Johann Heinrich Rolle", "1766", "Derek Ryan (ice hockey)", "Pavel Srníček", "London", "Tokyo Stock Exchange", "1943", "Archbishop of Canterbury", "Prime Minister of Sweden", "1954", "Chechen people", "Søren Christian Sommerfelt", "Associated Press", "Scott Patterson (author)", "1860", "1606", "Samuel Butcher (classicist)", "Tomiko Itooka", "Venustiano Carranza", "Janice Lynn Mather", "Diogo de Carvalho e Sampayo", "Ray Thomas", "Victor H. Krulak", "Edward Christopher Williams", "William Merriam Burton", "1811", "Johann Christian Poggendorff", "Jacky Clark Chisholm", "Powhatan (Native American leader)", "Republic of Ireland", "The Washington Post", "Boeing 737 Classic", "William James Linton", "Michael Schumacher", "Carles Puigdemont", "Pocahontas", "1689", "Zainul Abedin", "1947", "Lloyd Barbee", "Leonhard Lapin", "Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences", "Kevin Granata", "1922", "Lakota people", "Guatemala", "1838", "The New York Times", "1920", "Dobrica Ćosić", "August Kitzberg", "Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba", "Madame de Pompadour", "The Squaw Man (1914 film)", "1992", "1633", "William Gaddis", "1800", "2013", "Ian Livingstone", "Dylan Minnette", "Billy Tipton", "John C. Pemberton", "2020 Petrinja earthquake", "1953", "1933", "Ann Demeulemeester", "Pine Ridge Indian Reservation", "1825", "Henry VI, Burgrave of Plauen", "Sisak-Moslavina County", "Mayor of Los Angeles", "Leopold Kronecker", "1932", "Alan Rusbridger", "1951", "President of Mexico", "1970", "Peter Davison (poet)", "John C. Portman Jr.", "Akkala Sami language", "Ramanand Sagar", "Marianne Faithfull", "Joseph Cornell", "2009", "Louis Eilshemius", "2021", "Myles Garrett", "1985", "2010", "Ross Lynch", "1870", "Little Joe Cook", "1808", "Restoration (Spain)", "Linda Lavin", "Kuvempu", "1855", "Fletcher Henderson", "Spain", "Frank Nugent", "1961", "Danny McBride", "Patrick Feeney", "Wilhelm Maybach", "Christian Jürgensen Thomsen", "Art Young", "Joe Louis Clark", "Saverio Cassar", "1966", "1926", "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "Gabby May", "Rajesh Khanna", "Kōsaku Yamada", "Frank Thring", "2023", "1938", "CNN", "György Kepes", "1999", "1925", "Francisco Palau", "Charles Yerkes", "John Langdon Sibley", "2019", "Kevin Weisman", "1978", "Tyler Dennett", "Alfonso XII of Spain", "Andrei Tarkovsky", "Paula Poundstone", "1965", "Irvin F. Westheimer", "Hans Henkemans", "1987", "Jimmy Carter", "1919", "1939", "Ilia Solomonovich Abelman", "1804", "2002", "2001", "Hermann Paul", "Minister of the Interior (Estonia)", "Vivienne Segal", "1993", "Canterbury Cathedral", "ESPN", "Capture of Savannah", "Morton Estrin", "Dexter Holland", "The Guardian", "Qing dynasty", "2003", "1563", "Antoine Girard de Saint-Amant", "1976", "Paul Trible", "Rosen Publishing", "Twinkle Khanna", "Keith Milow", "Sana Minatozaki", "Om Prakash Malhotra", "2018", "Ashtabula, Ohio", "2012", "Patricia Clarkson", "Shizuka Arakawa", "Ethan Mbappé", "Neil Innes", "1796", "Paul Rudnick", "AutoNation", "BET", "William Bainbridge", "American Revolutionary War", "Hollywood, Los Angeles", "1170", "1989", "Tullio Levi-Civita", "2000", "Christina Rossetti", "Michael James Pappas", "Lilly Wachowski", "Lockheed L-1011 TriStar", "1967", "Camillo Schumann", "Billy Mitchell", "Peter Robinson (Northern Ireland politician)", "Van, Turkey", "Yvonne Elliman", "Ironclad warship", "James Mouton", "Pablo Casals", "Katherine Moennig", "Governor of Cavite", "Captain (United States O-6)", "Viveca Lindfors", "Cozy Powell", "1971", "Gil de Ferran", "Formula One", "1904", "Stephen Birch", "1952", "Leo Robin", "1894", "Thomas Sydenham", "Willem de Blécourt", "Gelsey Kirkland", "1984", "Stephen Bocskai", "Allahabad", "Petrinja", "J. Lister Hill", "Philip Handler", "1845", "Rainer Maria Rilke", "Savannah, Georgia", "Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee", "David Alfaro Siqueiros", "Michael Cudlitz", "1923", "1937", "Seamus Davey-Fitzpatrick", "Herman Rosenthal", "1913", "1996", "Wounded Knee Massacre", "Andrew Foster (British public servant)", "1963", "Mary Tyler Moore", "Bill Aucoin", "1975", "Battle of Chickasaw Bayou", "Luftwaffe", "1844", "Florida", "Tyrone Benskin", "Khagan of Mongolia", "1958", "Van Ferit Melen Airport", "Theo Epstein", "Jun Ishikawa", "Brian Garfield", "1941", "Independence Day (Mongolia)", "Store norske leksikon", "1778", "Sydney Young (chemist)", "1908", "Maxim (magazine)", "Albert Tucker (artist)", "Connie Dierking", "supercentenarian", "Peter Klatzow", "First Minister of Northern Ireland", "1949", "Benjamin Curtis (musician)", "1607", "1809", "Charles Goodyear", "Edgar Savisaar", "1969", "7th Cavalry Regiment", "1934", "BBC", "1731", "1962", "Josh Harris (businessman)", "Eden Phillpotts", "Dinsdale Landen", "Union of Congolese Patriots", "2007", "Jon Polito", "Ebrulf", "Phil O'Donnell (footballer)", "1891", "London Naval Treaty", "Francisco Trincão", "Thomas Lubanga Dyilo", "1957", "Jennifer Ehle", "Ray Nitschke", "Diego Luna", "Henry II of England", "Kelly Miller (scientist)", "Jess Willard", "Vivienne Westwood", "Harry Farjeon", "1746", "Premier League", "Maria Dizzia", "December 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "Lionel Tertis", "Muhammad Iqbal", "Spotted Elk", "Jacques-Louis David", "Archibald Campbell (British Army officer, born 1739)", "Khasan Israilov", "1876", "Nobel Prize in Literature", "Julia Wertz", "2004", "Croatia", "Georg Hermann Struve", "Miles Vandahurst Lynk", "Donald D. Hoffman", "1859", "Robert Ruark", "Branden Jacobs-Jenkins", "Pennar Davies", "1929", "2022", "Brook Taylor", "Thomas Becket", "Union (American Civil War)", "Bernard Cribbins", "Rosenda Monteros", "1862", "Mongolia", "John Newton (actor)", "Princess Kako of Akishino", "William Osler", "December 2013 Volgograd bombings", "1896", "Madeleine Pelletier", "Takashi Asahina", "Volgograd railway station", "Turkish Airlines Flight 278", "Samuel Brittan", "Mississippi River", "Ed Bruce", "1995", "Powhatan", "Chris Goodall", "Austin Farrer", "Andreas Skov Olsen", "Orkun Kökçü", "Jason Gould", "Nancy J. Currie-Gregg", "Jason Cook (footballer)", "Major League Baseball", "William Ewart Gladstone", "Michael Horne (engineer)", "Gerard Windsor", "Bob Monkhouse", "1942", "1903", "John Marshall Harlan II", "Ivo Van Damme", "John Smith (explorer)", "Wilbert E. Moore", "Candido Portinari", "Championship Auto Racing Teams", "Jeju Air Flight 2216", "M3 highway (Russia)", "Texas annexation", "Christian Kracht", "First Spanish Republic", "Western Christianity", "Ronald Coase", "Stanley Williams", "2006", "propeller", "Treaty of New Echota", "American Civil War", "Mireille Hartuch", "1900", "Don Marquis", "Thomas Joannes Stieltjes", "1905", "Brian A. Hopkins", "Harri Säteri", "Vincent Winter", "1998", "1917", "Pakistan", "Kieron Dyer", "Shlomo Venezia", "Catholic Church", "Bill Erwin", "1983", "Julius Axelrod", "1890", "Shawn Hatosy", "Beryl Rubinstein", "Kim Song-ae", "Phil Dusenberry", "1986", "Eric Berry", "Ulf Kristersson", "2024", "Constance Bartlett Hieatt", "Jenny Lawson", "Mislav Oršić", "Helmut Gollwitzer", "Dina Merrill", "Nadezhda Mandelstam", "Juanito Remulla, Sr.", "Octave Feuillet", "Mike Beuttler", "1536", "the Indian National Congress", "Japanese asset price bubble", "1897", "President of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "Twelve Days of Christmas", "1812", "1955", "Victor Osimhen", "Richard Tecwyn Williams", "García de Silva Figueroa", "Jon Voight", "Katy Munger", "Zaki Chehab", "2005", "Cherokee", "Freddie Hubbard", "Klaus Fuchs", "Brandon Thomas-Asante", "1956", "Washington Naval Treaty", "Second Great Fire of London", "Inga Swenson", "Richard Crandall", "Rosamund Marriott Watson", "Constitution Day (Ireland)", "Cecil B. DeMille", "1991", "Marie Menken", "1930", "2014", "1968", "Sebastian Castellio", "Emperor Zhangzong of Jin", "Janina Bauman", "Red Wings Airlines Flight 9268", "Reihan Salam", "Anglican Communion", "Leon Radzinowicz", "Dorothy Morkis", "Bhuvanaikabahu VII of Kotte", "Robert Howe (Continental Army officer)", "Vnukovo International Airport", "1936", "1973", "Harold Macmillan", "South Korea", "Sports Business Journal", "Carl Ludwig", "Ralph Siu", "Peggy Herbison", "Pierre Cardin", "1944", "Arsenio Martínez-Campos y Antón", "Ashtabula River railroad disaster", "Florida Everglades", "Republic of Texas", "1503", "1785", "Paul Whiteman", "Aaron Brown (journalist)", "Wayne Huizenga", "Alison Brie", "1918", "1835", "Rick Danko", "1911", "Trophimus of Arles", "LaVell Edwards", "David Topliss", "Anglo-American loan", "World War II", "Irish Free State", "John Henry Leech", "1960", "1948", "1550", "1856", "Holocaust survivor", "Robin Milford", "Czechoslovakia", "Doris Humphrey", "Pete Dye", "Johannes Zollikofer", "Volgograd", "Steven Caulker", "Tom Bradley (American politician)", "Maria Margaretha Kirch", "1945", "1857", "Ed Flanders", "Internet Speculative Fiction Database", "Ryan Shore", "2017", "Albrecht Böttcher", "1980", "1974", "1988", "1661", "Filip Kuba", "1874", "Crips", "Kei Nishikori", "Abby Leach", "Wojciech Kilar", "Julio Rodríguez", "Johan Herman Wessel", "Don Taylor (American filmmaker)", "2011", "1721", "Maybach", "Lieutenant colonel (United Kingdom)", "1959", "1914", "Keion Carpenter", "Office of the Federal Register", "Cheikh Anta Diop", "1807", "Roman Vlad", "1720", "Ágnes Szávay", "Fernando Collor de Mello" ]
8,895	Despina	Despina may refer to: == People == Despina Achladiotou, the Lady of Ro (c1890–1982), Greek patriot Despina Chatzivassiliou-Tsovilis (born 1967), Secretary General of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) Despina Delios, American beauty pageant contestant Despina Georgiadou (born 1991), Greek fencer Mary Despina Lekas (1928–2023), American surgeon Despina Louca, Cypriot-American physicist Debbie Matenopolous, born Despina Matenopoulos (born 1974), American television host Despina Montagas (born 1961), Greek wrestler Despina Olympiou (born 1975), Greek-Cypriot singer Despina Papadopoulou (born 1979), Greek footballer Despina Papamichail (born 1993), Greek tennis player Despina Stokou (born 1978), Greek artist based in Los Angeles Despina Storch (1894 or 1895–1918), Greek woman suspected of spying for Germany in World War I Despina Stratigakos (born 1963), Canadian-born architectural historian and academic Despina Vandi (born 1969), Greek singer Despoina Vavatsi (born 1978), Greek athlete Olivera Despina ( – after 1444), Serbian princess and Ottoman queen consort Milica Despina of Wallachia ( – 1554), Princess consort of Wallachia == Other uses == Despoina, a figure in Greek mythology Despina (moth), a genus of moth Despina (moon), a moon of Neptune Despina, a character in Mozart's opera Così fan tutte "Despoina", a song by Nikos Karvelas	[ "Despina Storch", "Despina Stokou", "Despina Louca", "Despina Papadopoulou", "Milica Despina of Wallachia", "Despina Stratigakos", "Despina Papamichail", "Miss Massachusetts USA", "Nikos Karvelas", "Despina Montagas", "Despina Vandi", "Così fan tutte", "Debbie Matenopoulos", "Despina (moth)", "Despina Olympiou", "Despina (moon)", "Despina Chatzivassiliou-Tsovilis", "Despina Georgiadou", "Despoina", "Mary Despina Lekas", "Lady of Ro", "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe", "Despoina Vavatsi", "Olivera Despina" ]
8,900	Discrimination	Discrimination is the process of making unfair or prejudicial distinctions between people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong, such as race, gender, age, class, religion, or sexual orientation. Discrimination typically leads to groups being unfairly treated on the basis of perceived statuses based on ethnic, racial, gender or religious categories. It involves depriving members of one group of opportunities or privileges that are available to members of another group. Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices and laws exist in many countries and institutions in all parts of the world, including some, where such discrimination is generally decried. In some places, countervailing measures such as quotas have been used to redress the balance in favor of those who are believed to be current or past victims of discrimination. These attempts have often been met with controversy, and sometimes been called reverse discrimination. ==Etymology== The term discriminate appeared in the early 17th century in the English language. It is from the Latin discriminat- 'distinguished between', from the verb discriminare, from discrimen 'distinction', from the verb discernere (corresponding to "to discern"). Since the American Civil War the term "discrimination" generally evolved in American English usage as an understanding of prejudicial treatment of an individual based solely on their race, later generalized as membership in a certain socially undesirable group or social category. Before this sense of the word became almost universal, it was a synonym for discernment, tact and culture as in "taste and discrimination", generally a laudable attribute; to "discriminate against" being commonly disparaged. ==Definitions== Moral philosophers have defined discrimination using a moralized definition. Under this approach, discrimination is defined as acts, practices, or policies that wrongfully impose a relative disadvantage or deprivation on persons based on their membership in a salient social group. This is a comparative definition. An individual need not be actually harmed in order to be discriminated against. They just needs to be treated worse than others for some arbitrary reason. If someone decides to donate to help orphan children, but decides to donate less, say, to children of a particular race out of a racist attitude, they will be acting in a discriminatory way even if they actually benefit the people they discriminate against by donating some money to them. Discrimination also develops into a source of oppression, the action of recognizing someone as 'different' so much that they are treated inhumanly and degraded. This moralized definition of discrimination is distinct from a non-moralized definition - in the former, discrimination is wrong by definition, whereas in the latter, this is not the case. The United Nations stance on discrimination includes the statement: "Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection." The United Nations Human Rights Council and other international bodies work towards helping ending discrimination around the world. ==Types== ===Age=== Ageism or age discrimination is discrimination and stereotyping based on the grounds of someone's age. It is a set of beliefs, norms, and values which used to justify discrimination or subordination based on a person's age. Ageism is most often directed toward elderly people, or adolescents and children. Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States. Joanna Lahey, professor at The Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M, found that firms are more than 40% more likely to interview a young adult job applicant than an older job applicant. In Europe, Stijn Baert, Jennifer Norga, Yannick Thuy and Marieke Van Hecke, researchers at Ghent University, measured comparable ratios in Belgium. They found that age discrimination is heterogeneous by the activity older candidates undertook during their additional post-educational years. In Belgium, they are only discriminated if they have more years of inactivity or irrelevant employment. In a survey for the University of Kent, England, 29% of respondents stated that they had suffered from age discrimination. This is a higher proportion than for gender or racial discrimination. Dominic Abrams, social psychology professor at the university, concluded that ageism is the most pervasive form of prejudice experienced in the UK population. ===Caste=== According to UNICEF and Human Rights Watch, caste discrimination affects an estimated 250 million people worldwide and is mainly prevalent in parts of Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Japan) and Africa. , there were 200 million Dalits or Scheduled Castes (formerly known as "untouchables") in India. ===Class=== ===Disability=== Discrimination against people with disabilities in favor of people who are not is called ableism or disablism. Disability discrimination, which treats non-disabled individuals as the standard of 'normal living', results in public and private places and services, educational settings, and social services that are built to serve 'standard' people, thereby excluding those with various disabilities. Studies have shown that disabled people not only need employment in order to be provided with the opportunity to earn a living but they also need employment in order to sustain their mental health and well-being. Work fulfils a number of basic needs for an individual such as collective purpose, social contact, status, and activity. A person with a disability is often found to be socially isolated and work is one way to reduce his or her isolation. In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act mandates the provision of equality of access to both buildings and services and is paralleled by similar acts in other countries, such as the Equality Act 2010 in the UK. ===Excellence=== ===Language=== ===Name=== Discrimination based on a person's name may also occur, with researchers suggesting that this form of discrimination is present based on a name's meaning, its pronunciation, its uniqueness, its gender affiliation, and its racial affiliation. Research has further shown that real world recruiters spend an average of just six seconds reviewing each résumé before making their initial "fit/no fit" screen-out decision and that a person's name is one of the six things they focus on most. France has made it illegal to view a person's name on a résumé when screening for the initial list of most qualified candidates. Great Britain, Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands have also experimented with name-blind summary processes. Some apparent discrimination may be explained by other factors such as name frequency. The effects of name discrimination based on a name's fluency is subtle, small and subject to significantly changing norms. ===Nationality=== The Anti-discrimination laws of most countries allow and make exceptions for discrimination based on nationality and immigration status. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) does not prohibit discrimination by nationality, citizenship or naturalization but forbids discrimination "against any particular nationality". Discrimination on the basis of nationality is usually included in employment laws (see above section for employment discrimination specifically). It is sometimes referred to as bound together with racial discrimination although it can be separate. It may vary from laws that stop refusals of hiring based on nationality, asking questions regarding origin, to prohibitions of firing, forced retirement, compensation and pay, etc., based on nationality. Discrimination on the basis of nationality may show as a "level of acceptance" in a sport or work team regarding new team members and employees who differ from the nationality of the majority of team members. In the GCC states, in the workplace, preferential treatment is given to full citizens, even though many of them lack experience or motivation to do the job. State benefits are also generally available for citizens only. Westerners might also get paid more than other expatriates. ===Race or ethnicity=== Racial and ethnic discrimination differentiates individuals on the basis of real and perceived racial and ethnic differences and leads to various forms of the ethnic penalty. It can also refer to the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to physical appearance and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. It may also mean prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of a different race or ethnicity. It has been official government policy in several countries, such as South Africa during the apartheid era. Discriminatory policies towards ethnic minorities include the race-based discrimination against ethnic Indians and Chinese in Malaysia The concept of multiracism has been used to explain the varieties of race discrimination. After the Vietnam War, many Vietnamese refugees moved to Australia and the United States, where they faced discrimination. ===Region=== Regional or geographic discrimination is a form of discrimination that is based on the region in which a person lives or the region in which a person was born. It differs from national discrimination because it may not be based on national borders or the country in which the victim lives, instead, it is based on prejudices against a specific region of one or more countries. Examples include discrimination against Chinese people who were born in regions of the countryside that are far away from cities that are located within China, and discrimination against Americans who are from the southern or northern regions of the United States. It is often accompanied by discrimination that is based on accent, dialect, or cultural differences. ===Religious beliefs=== Religious discrimination is valuing or treating people or groups differently because of what they do or do not believe in or because of their feelings towards a given religion. For instance, the Jewish population of Germany, and indeed a large portion of Europe, was subjected to discrimination under Adolf Hitler and his Nazi party between 1933 and 1945. They were forced to live in ghettos, wear an identifying star of David on their clothes, and sent to concentration and death camps in rural Germany and Poland, where they were to be tortured and killed, all because of their Jewish religion. Many laws (most prominently the Nuremberg Laws of 1935) separated those of Jewish faith as supposedly inferior to the Christian population. Restrictions on the types of occupations that Jewish people could hold were imposed by Christian authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed many professions to religious Jews, pushing them into marginal roles that were considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and moneylending, occupations that were only tolerated as a "necessary evil". The number of Jews who were permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were concentrated in ghettos and banned from owning land. In Saudi Arabia, non-Muslims are not allowed to publicly practice their religions and they cannot enter Mecca and Medina. In Maldives, non-Muslims living and visiting the country are prohibited from openly expressing their religious beliefs, holding public congregations to conduct religious activities, or involving Maldivians in such activities. Those expressing religious beliefs other than Islam may face imprisonment of up to five years or house arrest, fines ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 rufiyaa ($320 to $1,300), and deportation. In a 1979 consultation on the issue, the United States commission on civil rights defined religious discrimination in relation to the civil rights which are guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment. Whereas religious civil liberties, such as the right to hold or not to hold a religious belief, are essential for Freedom of Religion (in the United States as secured by the First Amendment), religious discrimination occurs when someone is denied "equal protection under the law, equality of status under the law, equal treatment in the administration of justice, and equality of opportunity and access to employment, education, housing, public services and facilities, and public accommodation because of their exercise of their right to religious freedom". ===Sex, sex characteristics, gender, and gender identity === Sexism is a form of discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment, rape, and other forms of sexual violence. Gender discrimination may encompass sexism and is discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. Gender discrimination is especially defined in terms of workplace inequality. Intersex persons experience discrimination due to innate, atypical sex characteristics. Multiple jurisdictions now protect individuals on grounds of intersex status or sex characteristics. South Africa was the first country to explicitly add intersex to legislation, as part of the attribute of 'sex'. Australia was the first country to add an independent attribute, of 'intersex status'. Malta was the first to adopt a broader framework of 'sex characteristics', through legislation that also ended modifications to the sex characteristics of minors undertaken for social and cultural reasons. Global efforts such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 is also aimed at ending all forms of discrimination on the basis of gender and sex. ===Sexual orientation=== One's sexual orientation is a "predilection for homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality". Like most minority groups, homosexuals and bisexuals are vulnerable to prejudice and discrimination from the majority group. They may experience hatred from others because of their sexuality; a term for such hatred based upon one's sexual orientation is often called homophobia. Many continue to hold negative feelings towards those with non-heterosexual orientations and will discriminate against people who have them or are thought to have them. People of other uncommon sexual orientations also experience discrimination. One study found its sample of heterosexuals to be more prejudiced against asexual people than against homosexual or bisexual people. Employment discrimination based on sexual orientation varies by country. Revealing a lesbian sexual orientation (by means of mentioning an engagement in a rainbow organisation or by mentioning one's partner name) lowers employment opportunities in Cyprus and Greece but overall, it has no negative effect in Sweden and Belgium. In the latter country, even a positive effect of revealing a lesbian sexual orientation is found for women at their fertile ages. Besides these academic studies, in 2009, ILGA published a report based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College in Stockholm, Sweden. This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider homosexuality illegal, five carry the death penalty for homosexual activity, and two do in some regions of the country. In the report, this is described as "State sponsored homophobia". This happens in Islamic states, or in two cases regions under Islamic authority. On February 5, 2005, the IRIN issued a reported titled "Iraq: Male homosexuality still a taboo". The article stated, among other things that honor killings by Iraqis against a gay family member are common and given some legal protection. In August 2009, Human Rights Watch published an extensive report detailing torture of men accused of being gay in Iraq, including the blocking of men's anuses with glue and then giving the men laxatives. Although gay marriage has been legal in South Africa since 2006, same-sex unions are often condemned as "un-African". Research conducted in 2009 shows 86% of black lesbians from the Western Cape live in fear of sexual assault. A number of countries, especially those in the Western world, have passed measures to alleviate discrimination against sexual minorities, including laws against anti-gay hate crimes and workplace discrimination. Some have also legalized same-sex marriage or civil unions in order to grant same-sex couples the same protections and benefits as opposite-sex couples. In 2011, the United Nations passed its first resolution recognizing LGBT rights. ===Reverse discrimination=== Reverse discrimination is discrimination against members of a dominant or majority group, in favor of members of a minority or historically disadvantaged group. This discrimination may seek to redress social inequalities under which minority groups have had less access to privileges enjoyed by the majority group. In such cases it is intended to remove discrimination that minority groups may already face. Reverse discrimination can be defined as the unequal treatment of members of the majority groups resulting from preferential policies, as in college admissions or employment, intended to remedy earlier discrimination against minorities. Conceptualizing affirmative action as reverse discrimination became popular in the early- to mid-1970s, a time period that focused on under-representation and action policies intended to remedy the effects of past discrimination in both government and the business world. ==Anti-discrimination legislation== === Australia === Racial Discrimination Act 1975 Sex Discrimination Act 1984 Disability Discrimination Act 1992 Age Discrimination Act 2004 === Canada === Ontario Human Rights Code 1962 Canadian Human Rights Act 1977 === Hong Kong === Sex Discrimination Ordinance (1996) === India === Article 15 of the Constitution of India prohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of caste, religion, sex, race or place of birth etc. Similarly, the Constitution of India guarantees several rights to all citizens irrespective of gender, such as right to equality under Article 14, right to life and personal liberty under Article 21. Indian Penal Code, 1860 (Section 153 A) - Criminalises the use of language that promotes discrimination or violence against people on the basis of race, caste, sex, place of birth, religion, gender identity, sexual orientation or any other category. === Israel === Prohibition of Discrimination in Products, Services and Entry into Places of Entertainment and Public Places Law, 2000 Employment (Equal Opportunities) Law, 1988 Law of Equal Rights for Persons with Disabilities, 1998 === Netherlands === Article 137c, part 1 of Wetboek van Strafrecht prohibits insults towards a group because of its race, religion, sexual orientation (straight or gay), handicap (somatically, mental or psychiatric) in public or by speech, by writing or by a picture. Maximum imprisonment one year of imprisonment or a fine of the third category. Part 2 increases the maximum imprisonment to two years and the maximum fine category to 4, when the crime is committed as a habit or is committed by two or more persons. Article 137d prohibits provoking to discrimination or hate against the group described above. Same penalties apply as in article 137c. Article 137e part 1 prohibits publishing a discriminatory statement, other than in formal message, or hands over an object (that contains discriminatory information) otherwise than on his request. Maximum imprisonment is 6 months or a fine of the third category. Part 2 increases the maximum imprisonment to one year and the maximum fine category to 4, === United Kingdom === Equal Pay Act 1970 – provides for equal pay for comparable work. Sex Discrimination Act 1975 – makes discrimination against women or men, including discrimination on the grounds of marital status, illegal in the workplace. Human Rights Act 1998 – provides more scope for redressing all forms of discriminatory imbalances. Equality Act 2010 – consolidates, updates and supplements the prior Acts and Regulations that formed the basis of anti-discrimination law. === United States === Equal Pay Act of 1963 – (part of the Fair Labor Standards Act) – prohibits wage discrimination by employers and labor organizations based on sex. Civil Rights Act of 1964 – many provisions, including broadly prohibiting discrimination in the workplace including hiring, firing, workforce reduction, benefits, and sexually harassing conduct. Fair Housing Act of 1968 prohibited discrimination in the sale or rental of housing based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, or disability. The Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity is charged with administering and enforcing the Act. Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, which amended Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 – covers discrimination based upon pregnancy in the workplace. Violence Against Women Act of 1994 Many states have anti-discrimination laws, such as Florida's civil rights laws found in State Statute 760. ===United Nations documents=== Important UN documents addressing discrimination include: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. It states that:" Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status." The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) is a United Nations convention. The Convention commits its members to the elimination of racial discrimination. The convention was adopted and opened for signature by the United Nations General Assembly on December 21, 1965, and entered into force on January 4, 1969. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) is an international treaty adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly. Described as an international bill of rights for women, it came into force on September 3, 1981. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an international human rights instrument treaty of the United Nations. Parties to the convention are required to promote, protect, and ensure the full enjoyment of human rights by persons with disabilities and ensure that they enjoy full equality under the law. The text was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 13, 2006, and opened for signature on March 30, 2007. Following ratification by the 20th party, it came into force on May 3, 2008. == International cooperation == Global Forum against Racism and Discrimination The International Coalition of Inclusive and Sustainable Cities (ICCAR) launched by UNESCO in 2004 Routes of Enslaved Peoples project ==Theories and philosophy== Social theories such as egalitarianism assert that social equality should prevail. In some societies, including most developed countries, each individual's civil rights include the right to be free from government sponsored social discrimination. Due to a belief in the capacity to perceive pain or suffering shared by all animals, abolitionist or vegan egalitarianism maintains that the interests of every individual (regardless of their species), warrant equal consideration with the interests of humans, and that not doing so is speciesist. Philosophers have debated as to how inclusive the definition of discrimination should be. Some philosophers have argued that discrimination should only refer to wrongful or disadvantageous treatment in the context of a socially salient group (such as race, gender, sexuality etc.) within a given context. Under this view, failure to limit the concept of discrimination would lead to it being overinclusive; for example, since most murders occur because of some perceived difference between the perpetrator and the victim, many murders would constitute discrimination if the social salience requirement is not included. Thus this view argues that making the definition of discrimination overinclusive renders it meaningless. Conversely, other philosophers argue that discrimination should simply refer to wrongful disadvantageous treatment regardless of the social salience of the group, arguing that limiting the concept only to socially salient groups is arbitrary, as well as raising issues of determining which groups would count as socially salient. The issue of which groups should count has caused many political and social debates. and social-identity theory, Rubin and Hewstone have highlighted a distinction among three types of discrimination: Realistic competition is driven by self-interest and is aimed at obtaining material resources (e.g., food, territory, customers) for the in-group (e.g., favoring an in-group in order to obtain more resources for its members, including the self). Social competition is driven by the need for self-esteem and is aimed at achieving a positive social status for the in-group relative to comparable out-groups (e.g., favoring an in-group in order to make it better than an out-group). Consensual discrimination is driven by the need for accuracy and reflects stable and legitimate intergroup status hierarchies (e.g., favoring a high-status in-group because it is high status). ===Labeling theory=== Discrimination, in labeling theory, takes form as mental categorization of minorities and the use of stereotype. This theory describes difference as deviance from the norm, which results in internal devaluation and social stigma that may be seen as discrimination. It is started by describing a "natural" social order. It is distinguished between the fundamental principle of fascism and social democracy. The Nazis in 1930s-era Germany and the pre-1990 Apartheid government of South Africa used racially discriminatory agendas for their political ends. This practice continues with some present day governments. ===Game theory=== Economist Yanis Varoufakis (2013) argues that "discrimination based on utterly arbitrary characteristics evolves quickly and systematically in the experimental laboratory", and that neither classical game theory nor neoclassical economics can explain this. In 2002, Varoufakis and Shaun Hargreaves-Heap ran an experiment where volunteers played a computer-mediated, multiround hawk-dove game. At the start of each session, each participant was assigned a color at random, either red or blue. At each round, each player learned the color assigned to his or her opponent, but nothing else about the opponent. Hargreaves-Heap and Varoufakis found that the players' behavior within a session frequently developed a discriminatory convention, giving a Nash equilibrium where players of one color (the "advantaged" color) consistently played the aggressive "hawk" strategy against players of the other, "disadvantaged" color, who played the acquiescent "dove" strategy against the advantaged color. Players of both colors used a mixed strategy when playing against players assigned the same color as their own. The experimenters then added a cooperation option to the game, and found that disadvantaged players usually cooperated with each other, while advantaged players usually did not. They state that while the equilibria reached in the original hawk-dove game are predicted by evolutionary game theory, game theory does not explain the emergence of cooperation in the disadvantaged group. Citing earlier psychological work of Matthew Rabin, they hypothesize that a norm of differing entitlements emerges across the two groups, and that this norm could define a "fairness" equilibrium within the disadvantaged group. ==Effects on health==	[ "prejudice", "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "The Slave Route Project", "Equal opportunity", "French language", "Social group", "sexual orientation", "homosexuality", "Florida", "Apartheid", "Sexual orientation discrimination", "Bush School of Government and Public Service", "Human Rights Act 1998", "Violence Against Women Act", "hawk-dove game", "Matthew Rabin", "The Economic Journal", "First Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Mecca", "Fair Labor Standards Act", "University of Kent", "Americans", "Racial Discrimination Act 1975", "Civil and political rights", "American English", "W. W. Norton & Company", "neoclassical economics", "honor killings", "reverse discrimination", "social stigma", "Dalit", "antithesis", "disablism", "religious police", "Equal Pay Act of 1963", "mixed strategy", "religion", "oppression", "Class discrimination", "Indian Penal Code", "Morality", "sexual violence", "Social theories", "Race (human categorization)", "Classicide", "Western world", "Human Rights Watch", "Sex Discrimination Act 1975", "Sandra Mackey", "stereotype", "The New Humanitarian", "Pregnancy Discrimination Act", "ethnicity", "sexual harassment", "Religious discrimination", "ethnic penalty", "North Carolina", "Northern United States", "American Journal of Psychiatry", "Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity", "social actions", "Amnesty International", "American Psychological Association", "Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS", "Cultural assimilation", "rape", "Economic discrimination", "Ageism", "Medina", "Pattaya Beach", "Discrimination against intersex people", "Capital punishment", "social inequalities", "ghetto", "Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Bill", "bill of rights", "Vietnamese boat people", "Racism", "gender role", "Texas A&M", "Equality Act 2010", "Fair Housing Act", "sex characteristics", "Canadian Human Rights Act", "Dehumanization", "Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf", "Routledge", "Americans with Disabilities Act", "Supremacism", "Veganism", "Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities", "caste", "Southern United States", "United Nations General Assembly", "social equality", "Scheduled Castes", "Muslim", "homophobia", "Abolitionism (animal rights)", "speciesist", "Bhutan", "Discrimination against drug addicts", "Equality before the law", "Jews", "racial discrimination", "Oklahoma City", "Racial discrimination", "Civil Rights Act of 1964", "Sexism", "racism", "LGBT rights in Iraq", "Lithuania", "Adolf Hitler", "Discrimination against asexual people", "Nash equilibrium", "Yanis Varoufakis", "right to equality", "Prohibition of Discrimination in Products, Services and Entry into Places of Entertainment and Public Places Law, 2000", "labeling theory", "political systems", "UNICEF", "egalitarianism", "Stockholm, Sweden", "he:חוק שוויון זכויות לאנשים עם מוגבלות", "International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association", "Dominic Abrams", "Equal Pay Act 1970", "affirmative action", "Sex Discrimination Act 1984", "Ontario Human Rights Code", "United Nations", "Nur für Deutsche", "Article 15 of the Constitution of India", "institution", "Disability Discrimination Act 1992", "Thailand", "Sustainable Development Goal 5", "pure strategy", "workplace inequality", "Reverse discrimination", "Disability", "moneylending", "Intersex", "prisoners' dilemma", "Distinction (sociology)", "Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women", "gender identity", "toleration", "Discrimination of excellence", "South Africa", "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "hate crimes", "Global Action for Trans Equality", "Cultural appropriation", "nationality", "equal consideration of interests", "Constitution of India", "Employment discrimination", "Nazis", "Organisation Intersex International Australia", "Cultural genocide", "ableism", "game theory", "asexuality", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights", "Wetboek van Strafrecht", "Malaysian Indian", "Freedom of Religion", "Dignity", "Employment (Equal Opportunities) Law, 1988", "LGBT rights by country or territory", "Latin language", "Western Cape", "anti-discrimination law", "necessary evil", "Discrimination against members of the armed forces in the United Kingdom", "Discrimination against atheists", "American Civil War", "Cyprus", "United Nations Human Rights Council", "Ghent University", "apartheid", "Age Discrimination Act 2004", "evolutionary game theory", "List of largest LGBT events", "International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination", "Discrimination based on skin color", "Vietnam War", "Normalization of antisemitism" ]
8,904	Double-ended queue	In computer science, a double-ended queue (abbreviated to deque, ) is an abstract data type that generalizes a queue, for which elements can be added to or removed from either the front (head) or back (tail). It is also often called a head-tail linked list, though properly this refers to a specific data structure implementation of a deque (see below). ==Naming conventions== Deque is sometimes written dequeue, but this use is generally deprecated in technical literature or technical writing because dequeue is also a verb meaning "to remove from a queue". Nevertheless, several libraries and some writers, such as Aho, Hopcroft, and Ullman in their textbook Data Structures and Algorithms, spell it dequeue. John Mitchell, author of Concepts in Programming Languages, also uses this terminology. ==Distinctions and sub-types== This differs from the queue abstract data type or first in first out list (FIFO), where elements can only be added to one end and removed from the other. This general data class has some possible sub-types: An input-restricted deque is one where deletion can be made from both ends, but insertion can be made at one end only. An output-restricted deque is one where insertion can be made at both ends, but deletion can be made from one end only. Both the basic and most common list types in computing, queues and stacks can be considered specializations of deques, and can be implemented using deques. A deque is a data structure that allows users to perform push and pop operations at both ends, providing flexibility in managing the order of elements. == Operations == The basic operations on a deque are enqueue and dequeue on either end. Also generally implemented are peek operations, which return the value at that end without dequeuing it. Names vary between languages; major implementations include: == Implementations == There are at least two common ways to efficiently implement a deque: with a modified dynamic array or with a doubly linked list. The dynamic array approach uses a variant of a dynamic array that can grow from both ends, sometimes called array deques. These array deques have all the properties of a dynamic array, such as constant-time random access, good locality of reference, and inefficient insertion/removal in the middle, with the addition of amortized constant-time insertion/removal at both ends, instead of just one end. Three common implementations include: Storing deque contents in a circular buffer, and only resizing when the buffer becomes full. This decreases the frequency of resizings. Allocating deque contents from the center of the underlying array, and resizing the underlying array when either end is reached. This approach may require more frequent resizings and waste more space, particularly when elements are only inserted at one end. Storing contents in multiple smaller arrays, allocating additional arrays at the beginning or end as needed. Indexing is implemented by keeping a dynamic array containing pointers to each of the smaller arrays. ===Purely functional implementation=== Double-ended queues can also be implemented as a purely functional data structure. Two versions of the implementation exist. The first one, called 'real-time deque, is presented below. It allows the queue to be persistent with operations in worst-case time, but requires lazy lists with memoization. The second one, with no lazy lists nor memoization is presented at the end of the sections. Its amortized time is if the persistency is not used; but the worst-time complexity of an operation is where is the number of elements in the double-ended queue. Let us recall that, for a list l, \|l\| denotes its length, that NIL represents an empty list and CONS(h, t) represents the list whose head is h and whose tail is t. The functions drop(i, l) and take(i, l) return the list l without its first i elements, and the first i elements of l, respectively. Or, if \|l\| < i, they return the empty list and l respectively. ==== Real-time deques via lazy rebuilding and scheduling ==== A double-ended queue is represented as a sextuple (len_front, front, tail_front, len_rear, rear, tail_rear) where front is a linked list which contains the front of the queue of length len_front. Similarly, rear is a linked list which represents the reverse of the rear of the queue, of length len_rear. Furthermore, it is assured that \|front\| ≤ 2\|rear\|+1 and \|rear\| ≤ 2\|front\|+1 - intuitively, it means that both the front and the rear contains between a third minus one and two thirds plus one of the elements. Finally, tail_front and tail_rear are tails of front and of rear, they allow scheduling the moment where some lazy operations are forced. Note that, when a double-ended queue contains n elements in the front list and n elements in the rear list, then the inequality invariant remains satisfied after i insertions and d deletions when (i+d) ≤ n/2. That is, at most n/2 operations can happen between each rebalancing. Let us first give an implementation of the various operations that affect the front of the deque - cons, head and tail. Those implementations do not necessarily respect the invariant. In a second time we'll explain how to modify a deque which does not satisfy the invariant into one which satisfies it. However, they use the invariant, in that if the front is empty then the rear has at most one element. The operations affecting the rear of the list are defined similarly by symmetry. empty = (0, NIL, NIL, 0, NIL, NIL) fun insert'(x, (len_front, front, tail_front, len_rear, rear, tail_rear)) = (len_front+1, CONS(x, front), drop(2, tail_front), len_rear, rear, drop(2, tail_rear)) fun head((_, CONS(h, _), _, _, _, _)) = h fun head((_, NIL, _, _, CONS(h, NIL), _)) = h fun tail'((len_front, CONS(head_front, front), tail_front, len_rear, rear, tail_rear)) = (len_front - 1, front, drop(2, tail_front), len_rear, rear, drop(2, tail_rear)) fun tail'((_, NIL, _, _, CONS(h, NIL), _)) = empty It remains to explain how to define a method balance that rebalance the deque if insert' or tail broke the invariant. The method insert and tail can be defined by first applying insert' and tail' and then applying balance. fun balance(q as (len_front, front, tail_front, len_rear, rear, tail_rear)) = let floor_half_len = (len_front + len_rear) / 2 in let ceil_half_len = len_front + len_rear - floor_half_len in if len_front > 2len_rear+1 then let val front' = take(ceil_half_len, front) val rear' = rotateDrop(rear, floor_half_len, front) in (ceil_half_len, front', front', floor_half_len, rear', rear') else if len_front > 2len_rear+1 then let val rear' = take(floor_half_len, rear) val front' = rotateDrop(front, ceil_half_len, rear) in (ceil_half_len, front', front', floor_half_len, rear', rear') else q where rotateDrop(front, i, rear)) return the concatenation of front and of drop(i, rear). That isfront' = rotateDrop(front, ceil_half_len, rear) put into front' the content of front and the content of rear that is not already in rear'. Since dropping n elements takes O(n) time, we use laziness to ensure that elements are dropped two by two, with two drops being done during each tail' and each insert' operation. fun rotateDrop(front, i, rear) = if i < 2 then rotateRev(front, drop(i, rear), NIL) else let CONS(x, front') = front in CONS(x, rotateDrop(front', j-2, drop(2, rear))) where rotateRev(front, middle, rear) is a function that returns the front, followed by the middle reversed, followed by the rear. This function is also defined using laziness to ensure that it can be computed step by step, with one step executed during each insert' and tail' and taking a constant time. This function uses the invariant that \|rear\|-2\|front\| is 2 or 3. fun rotateRev(NIL, rear, a) = reverse(rear)++a fun rotateRev(CONS(x, front), rear, a) = CONS(x, rotateRev(front, drop(2, rear), reverse(take(2, rear))++a)) where ++ is the function concatenating two lists. ==== Implementation without laziness ==== Note that, without the lazy part of the implementation, this would be a non-persistent implementation of queue in amortized time. In this case, the lists tail_front and tail_rear could be removed from the representation of the double-ended queue. == Language support == Ada's containers provides the generic packages Ada.Containers.Vectors and Ada.Containers.Doubly_Linked_Lists, for the dynamic array and linked list implementations, respectively. C++'s Standard Template Library provides the class templates std::deque and std::list, for the multiple array and linked list implementations, respectively. As of Java 6, Java's Collections Framework provides a new interface that provides the functionality of insertion and removal at both ends. It is implemented by classes such as (also new in Java 6) and , providing the dynamic array and linked list implementations, respectively. However, the ArrayDeque, contrary to its name, does not support random access. Javascript's Array prototype & Perl's arrays have native support for both removing (shift and pop) and adding (unshift and push) elements on both ends. Python 2.4 introduced the collections module with support for deque objects. It is implemented using a doubly linked list of fixed-length subarrays. As of PHP 5.3, PHP's SPL extension contains the 'SplDoublyLinkedList' class that can be used to implement Deque datastructures. Previously to make a Deque structure the array functions array_shift/unshift/pop/push had to be used instead. GHC's Data.Sequence module implements an efficient, functional deque structure in Haskell. The implementation uses 2–3 finger trees annotated with sizes. There are other (fast) possibilities to implement purely functional (thus also persistent) double queues (most using heavily lazy evaluation). Kaplan and Tarjan were the first to implement optimal confluently persistent catenable deques. Their implementation was strictly purely functional in the sense that it did not use lazy evaluation. Okasaki simplified the data structure by using lazy evaluation with a bootstrapped data structure and degrading the performance bounds from worst-case to amortized. Kaplan, Okasaki, and Tarjan produced a simpler, non-bootstrapped, amortized version that can be implemented either using lazy evaluation or more efficiently using mutation in a broader but still restricted fashion. Mihaescu and Tarjan created a simpler (but still highly complex) strictly purely functional implementation of catenable deques, and also a much simpler implementation of strictly purely functional non-catenable deques, both of which have optimal worst-case bounds. Rust's std::collections includes VecDeque which implements a double-ended queue using a growable ring buffer. == Complexity == In a doubly-linked list implementation and assuming no allocation/deallocation overhead, the time complexity of all deque operations is O(1). Additionally, the time complexity of insertion or deletion in the middle, given an iterator, is O(1); however, the time complexity of random access by index is O(n). In a growing array, the amortized time complexity of all deque operations is O(1). Additionally, the time complexity of random access by index is O(1); but the time complexity of insertion or deletion in the middle is O(n). == Applications == One example where a deque can be used is the work stealing algorithm. This algorithm implements task scheduling for several processors. A separate deque with threads to be executed is maintained for each processor. To execute the next thread, the processor gets the first element from the deque (using the "remove first element" deque operation). If the current thread forks, it is put back to the front of the deque ("insert element at front") and a new thread is executed. When one of the processors finishes execution of its own threads (i.e. its deque is empty), it can "steal" a thread from another processor: it gets the last element from the deque of another processor ("remove last element") and executes it. The work stealing algorithm is used by Intel's Threading Building Blocks (TBB) library for parallel programming.	[ "persistent data structure", "memoization", "amortized analysis", "dynamic array", "queue (data structure)", "random access", "The Art of Computer Programming", "Java (programming language)", "stack (data structure)", "locality of reference", "Work stealing", "Pipeline (Unix)", "Jeffrey Ullman", "Donald Knuth", "Standard Template Library", "lazy evaluation", "computer science", "purely functional data structure", "Haskell (programming language)", "2–3 tree", "Amortized analysis", "John C. Mitchell", "data structure", "Computational complexity theory", "PHP", "Ruby (programming language)", "Priority queue", "Perl", "John Hopcroft", "Alfred Aho", "FIFO (computing and electronics)", "Peek (data type operation)", "abstract data type", "Python (programming language)", "C++", "JavaScript", "Rust (programming language)", "linked list", "Glasgow Haskell Compiler", "Library (computing)", "circular buffer", "Ada (programming language)", "doubly linked list", "queue (abstract data type)", "Big O notation" ]
8,905	Diene	In organic chemistry, a diene ( ); also diolefin, ) or alkadiene) is a covalent compound that contains two double bonds, usually among carbon atoms. They thus contain two alkene units, with the standard prefix di of systematic nomenclature. As a subunit of more complex molecules, dienes occur in naturally occurring and synthetic chemicals and are used in organic synthesis. Conjugated dienes are widely used as monomers in the polymer industry. Polyunsaturated fats are of interest to nutrition. ==Classes== Dienes can be divided into three classes, depending on the relative location of the double bonds: == Reactivity and uses== ===Polymerization=== The most heavily practiced reaction of alkenes, dienes included, is polymerization. 1,3-Butadiene is a precursor to rubber used in tires, and isoprene is the precursor to natural rubber. Chloroprene is related but it is a synthetic monomer. ===Cycloadditions=== An important reaction for conjugated dienes is the Diels–Alder reaction. Many specialized dienes have been developed to exploit this reactivity for the synthesis of natural products (e.g., Danishefsky's diene). ===Other addition reactions=== Conjugated dienes add reagents such as bromine and hydrogen by both 1,2-addition and 1,4-addition pathways. Addition of polar reagents can generate complex architectures: ===Metathesis reactions=== Nonconjugated dienes are substrates for ring-closing metathesis reactions. These reactions require a metal catalyst:c ===Acidity=== The position adjacent to a double bond is acidic because the resulting allyl anion is stabilized by resonance. This effect becomes more pronounced as more alkenes are involved to create greater stability. For example, deprotonation at position 3 of a 1,4-diene or position 5 of a 1,3-diene give a pentadienyl anion. An even greater effect is seen if the anion is aromatic, for example, deprotonation of cyclopentadiene to give the cyclopentadienyl anion. ===As ligands=== Dienes are widely used chelating ligands in organometallic chemistry. In some cases they serve as placeholder ligands, being removed during a catalytic cycle. For example, the cyclooctadiene ("cod") ligands in bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0) are labile. In some cases, dienes are spectator ligands, remaining coordinated throughout a catalytic cycle and influencing the product distributions. Chiral dienes have also been described. Other diene complexes include (butadiene)iron tricarbonyl, cyclobutadieneiron tricarbonyl, and cyclooctadiene rhodium chloride dimer.	[ "coal tar", "Diels–Alder reaction", "carbon", "bromine", "Chirality", "covalent compound", "acetyl CoA", "ligand", "natural product", "Synthetic rubber", "biosynthesis", "Norbornadiene", "Conjugated system", "1,5-Hexadiene", "alkene", "Gold Book", "acid", "butane", "polymer", "Isoprene", "polyene", "natural rubber", "Chloroprene", "thermal cracking", "cyclooctene", "systematic nomenclature", "cyclopentadiene", "organometallic chemistry", "(Butadiene)iron tricarbonyl", "Polyunsaturated fat", "fatty acid", "allyl", "Whiting reaction", "asymmetric catalysis", "allene", "ring-closing metathesis", "cyclopentadienyl anion", "hydrogen", "Danishefsky's diene", "pentadienyl", "Molecules (journal)", "isomer", "Condensation (chemistry)", "organic synthesis", "double bond", "dehydrohalogenation", "heteroatom", "oligomerization", "1,5-Cyclooctadiene", "nutrition", "Dimer (chemistry)", "monomer", "organic reaction", "cyclobutadieneiron tricarbonyl", "bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0)", "isoprene", "cyclooctadiene rhodium chloride dimer", "dicyclopentadiene", "Dicyclopentadiene", "organic chemistry", "ethenolysis", "1,3-Butadiene", "polymerization", "catalyst" ]
8,906	Diatessaron	The Diatessaron (; c. 160–175 AD) is the most prominent early gospel harmony. It was created in the Syriac language by Tatian, an Assyrian early Christian apologist and ascetic. Tatian sought to combine all the textual material he found in the four gospels – Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John – into a single coherent narrative of Jesus's life and death. However, and in contradistinction to most later gospel harmonists, Tatian appears not to have been motivated by any aspiration to validate the four separate canonical gospel accounts; or to demonstrate that, as they stood, they could each be shown as being without inconsistency or error. Although widely used by early Syriac Christians, the original text has not survived. It was reconstructed in 1881 by Theodor Zahn from translations and commentaries. ==Terminology== The title Diatessaron comes from the Latin diatessarōn, meaning: "made of four [ingredients]"; this is derived in turn from Greek, διὰ τεσσάρων (dia tessarōn), meaning "out of four" (i.e., διά, dia, "at intervals of" and tessarōn [genitive of τέσσαρες, tessares], "four"). The Syriac name for this gospel harmony is (Ewangeliyôn Damhalltê'') meaning: "Gospel of the Mixed". ==Overview== Tatian's harmony follows the gospels closely in terms of text but, in order to fit all the canonical material in, he created his own narrative sequence, which is different from both the synoptic sequence and John's sequence; and occasionally creates intervening time periods that are found in none of the source accounts. This sequence is coherent and consistent within itself, but not necessarily consistent with that in all or any of the separate canonical gospels; and Tatian apparently applies the same principle in respect of the narrative itself. Where the gospels differ from one another in respect of the details of an event or teaching, the Diatessaron resolves such apparent contradictions by selecting one or another alternative wording and adding consistent details from the other gospels; while omitting apparent duplicate matter, especially across the synoptics. Hence, in respect of the healing of the blind at Jericho the Diatessaron reports only one blind man, Bartimeaus, healed by Jesus when leaving the city according to the account in Mark 10:46ff (expanded with phrases from Luke 18:36–37); consequently omitting any separate mention of two unnamed blind men healed by Jesus leaving Jericho (Matthew 20:29ff), and also the healing by Jesus entering Jericho the previous day of a single unnamed blind man (Luke 18:35ff). Otherwise, Tatian originally omitted altogether both of the different genealogies in Matthew and Luke, as well as Luke's introduction (Luke 1:1–4); with the Diatessaron itself often cited as an early textual witness in support of its omission. Most scholars agree that Tatian did, from the beginning, include the longer ending of Mark (Mark 16: 9–20), and correspondingly is amongst the earliest witnesses to this inclusion. Tatian added no significant wording to the textual material he took from the separate gospels. Only 56 verses in the canonical Gospels do not have a counterpart in the Diatessaron, mostly the genealogies and the pericope adulterae. The final work is about 72 per cent the length of the four gospels put together; around a quarter of the text of the separate gospels being adjudged by Tatian to be duplicated. (McFall, 1994). In the early Church, the gospels at first circulated independently, with Matthew the most popular. The Diatessaron is notable evidence for the authority already enjoyed by the gospels by the mid- to late-2nd century. Within twenty years after Tatian's harmony was written, Irenaeus was expressly arguing for the authoritative character of the Four Gospels. It is unclear whether Tatian intended the Diatessaron to supplement or replace the four separate gospels; but both outcomes came to pass in different churches. The Diatessaron became adopted as the standard lectionary text of the gospels in some Syriac-speaking churches from the late 2nd to the 5th century, until it gave way to the four separate Gospels such as the Syriac Sinaitic gospels, At the same time, in the churches of the Latin west, the Diatessaron circulated as a supplement to the four gospels, especially in the Latin translation. ==Recensions and translations== A number of recensions of the Diatessaron are extant. The earliest, part of the Eastern family of recensions, is preserved in 4th century theologian Ephrem the Syrian's Commentary on Tatian's work, which itself is preserved in two versions: an Armenian translation preserved in two copies, and a copy of Ephrem's original Syriac text dated to the late 5th or early 6th century, which has been edited by Louis Leloir (Paris, 1966). Many other translations have been made, sometimes including substantial revisions to the text. There are translations into Arabic, Latin, Old Georgian, Old High German, Middle High German, Middle English, Middle Dutch and Old Italian. There is a Persian harmony that seems to have borrowed some readings from the Diatessaron. There are also Parthian texts with borrowings from the Diatessaron. The Arabic translation was made by Ibn al-Tayyib in the early 11th century from the original Syriac. == Tatian's harmony == Tatian was an Assyrian who was a pupil of Justin Martyr in Rome, where, Justin says, the apomnemoneumata (recollections or memoirs) of the Apostles, the gospels, were read every Sunday. When Justin quotes the synoptic Gospels, he tends to do so in a harmonised form, and Helmut Koester and others conclude that Justin must have possessed a Greek harmony text of Matthew, Luke and Mark. If so, it is unclear how much Tatian may have borrowed from this previous author in determining his own narrative sequence of Gospel elements. It is equally unclear whether Tatian took the Syriac Gospel texts composited into his Diatessaron from a previous translation, or whether the translation was his own. Where the Diatessaron records Gospel quotations from the Jewish Scriptures, the text appears to agree with that found in the Syriac Peshitta Old Testament rather than that found in the Greek Septuagint—as used by the original Gospel authors. The majority consensus is that the Peshitta Old Testament preceded the Diatessaron, and represents an independent translation from the Hebrew Bible. Resolution of these scholarly questions remained very difficult so long as no complete version of the Diatessaron in Syriac or Greek had been recovered; while the medieval translations that had survived—in Arabic and Latin—both relied on texts that had been heavily corrected to conform better with later canonical versions of the separate Gospel texts. There is scholarly uncertainty about what language Tatian used for its original composition, whether Syriac or Greek. == Diatessaron in Syriac Christianity == The Diatessaron was used as the standard Gospel text in the liturgy of at least some sections of the Syrian Church for possibly up to two centuries and was quoted or alluded to by Syrian writers. Ephrem the Syrian wrote a commentary on it, the Syriac original of which was rediscovered only in 1957, when a manuscript acquired by Sir Chester Beatty in 1957 (now Chester Beatty Syriac MS 709, Dublin) turned out to contain the text of Ephrem's commentary. The manuscript constituted approximately half of the leaves of a volume of Syriac writings that had been catalogued in 1952 in the library of the Coptic monastery of Deir es-Suriani in Wadi Natrun, Egypt. Subsequently, the Chester Beatty library was able to track down and buy a further 42 leaves, so that now approximately eighty per cent of the Syriac commentary is available (McCarthy 1994). Ephrem did not comment on all passages in the Diatessaron, and nor does he always quote commentated passages in full; but for those phrases that he does quote, the commentary provides for the first time a dependable witness to Tatian's original; and also confirms its content and their sequence. Theodoret, bishop of Cyrrhus on the Euphrates in upper Syria in 423, suspecting Tatian of having been a heretic, sought out and found more than two hundred copies of the Diatessaron, which he "collected and put away, and introduced instead of them the Gospels of the four evangelists". == Vernacular harmonies derived from the Diatessaron == No Christian tradition, other than some Syriac ones, has ever adopted a harmonized Gospel text for use in its liturgy. However, in many traditions, it was not unusual for subsequent Christian generations to seek to provide paraphrased Gospel versions in language closer to the vernacular of their own day. Frequently such versions have been constructed as Gospel harmonies, sometimes taking Tatian's Diatessaron as an exemplar; other times proceeding independently. Hence from the Syriac Diatessaron text was derived an 11th-century Arabic harmony (the source for the published versions of the Diatessaron in English); and a 13th-century Persian harmony. The Arabic harmony preserves Tatian's sequence exactly, but uses a source text corrected in most places to that of the standard Syriac Peshitta Gospels; the Persian harmony differs greatly in sequence, but translates a Syriac text that is rather closer to that in Ephrem's commentary. A Vetus Latina version of Tatian's Syriac text appears to have circulated in the West from the late 2nd century; with a sequence adjusted to conform more closely to that of the canonical Gospel of Luke; and also including additional canonical text (such as the Pericope Adulterae), and possibly non-canonical matter from the Gospel of the Hebrews. With the gradual adoption of the Vulgate as the liturgical Gospel text of the Latin Church, the Latin Diatessaron was increasingly modified to conform to Vulgate readings. Petersen thinks the dissertation should never have been accepted for a doctoral degree, in view of "the illogical arguments, inconsistent standards, philological errors, and methodological blunders that mar this book. [... the errors are so frequent and so fundamental that this volume can contribute nothing to scholarship. What it says that is true has already been said elsewhere, with greater clarity and perspective. What it says that is new is almost always wrong, plagued [...] with philological, logical, and methodological errors, and a gross insensitivity to things historical (both within the discipline, as well as the transmission-history of texts). Reading this book fills one with dismay and despair. It is shocking that a work which does not rise to the level of a master's thesis should be approved as a doctoral dissertation; how it found its way into print is unfathomable. One shudders to think of the damage it will do when, in the future, it is cited by the ignorant and the unsuspecting as "demonstrating" what it has not." Jan Joosten's review of Shedinger's work is also condemnatory. In his judgment "Shedinger's study remains unconvincing, not only in the final conclusions but also in the details of the argument."	[ "Peshitta", "Codex Fuldensis", "History of the Catholic Church", "Westminster Theological Journal", "Vulgate", "Synoptic Gospels", "Syriac Christianity", "Liège Diatessaron", "Irenaeus", "pericope adulterae", "Victor of Capua", "Gospel of Matthew", "Healing the blind near Jericho", "wikt:τέσσαρες", "Gospel harmony", "Arabic Language", "Italian language", "Greek language", "Syria (region)", "Pavlos D. Vasileiadis", "Dura Parchment 24", "Kyrios", "Old High German", "Open Theology", "Wadi Natrun", "Eusebian Canons", "Heliand", "Middle High German", "Justin Martyr", "Assyrian people", "Early Christianity", "Pericope Adulterae", "Persian Diatessaron", "Tatian", "Ancient Greek", "Gospel of John", "Cyrrhus", "recension", "Gospel of Mark", "Syriac language", "Septuagint", "Theodoret", "gospel", "Gospel of the Hebrews", "Jan Joosten (biblical scholar)", "vernacular", "Asceticism", "Syriac Sinaitic", "Robert F. Shedinger", "Parthian language", "Genealogy of Jesus", "Gospel of Luke", "Ephrem the Syrian", "Syriac Christians", "Theodor Zahn", "lectionary", "Middle Dutch", "Tetragrammaton", "Howard's hypothesis", "Arabic", "Chester Beatty Library", "Apologetics", "Latin", "Middle French", "Syriac Peshitta", "Ibn al-Tayyib", "Persian Language", "Louis Leloir", "Vetus Latina", "great uncial codices", "Fulda", "Italian Language", "Papyrus 25", "Old Saxon", "Chester Beatty", "Old Georgian", "gospel harmony", "Gospel of Barnabas", "wikt:διά", "Middle English", "Rome" ]
8,910	Dean Koontz	Dean Ray Koontz (born July 9, 1945) is an American author. His novels are billed as suspense thrillers, but frequently incorporate elements of horror, fantasy, science fiction, mystery, and satire. Many of his books have appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list, with fourteen hardcovers and sixteen paperbacks reaching the number-one position. Koontz wrote under a number of pen names earlier in his career, including "David Axton", "Deanna Dwyer", "K.R. Dwyer", "Leigh Nichols" and "Brian Coffey". He has published over 105 novels and a number of novellas and collections of short stories, and has sold over 450 million copies of his work. == Early life == Koontz was born on July 9, 1945, in Everett, Pennsylvania, the son of Florence (née Logue) and Raymond Koontz. He has said that he was regularly beaten and abused by his alcoholic father, which influenced his later writing, as also did the courage of his physically diminutive mother in standing up to her husband. He was raised in Bedford, Pennsylvania and graduated from Bedford High School in 1963. While attending Shippensburg State College, Koontz married his high school girlfriend Gerda Ann Cerra in 1966. In his senior year of college, he won a fiction competition sponsored by Atlantic Monthly magazine. After graduation in 1967, he went to work as an English teacher at Mechanicsburg High School in Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania. In a 1996 interview with Reason magazine, he said that while the program sounded "very noble and wonderful, ... [i]n reality, it was a dumping ground for violent children ... and most of the funding ended up 'disappearing somewhere.'" He says he sees Catholicism as English writer and Catholic convert G. K. Chesterton did: that it encourages a "joy about the gift of life". His first hardcover bestseller, which finally promised some financial stability and lifted him out of the midlist hit-and-miss range, was his book Strangers. Since then, 12 hardcovers and 14 paperbacks written by Koontz have reached number one on The New York Times Best Seller list. In 1997, psychologist Katherine Ramsland published an extensive biography of Koontz based on interviews with his family and him. This "psychobiography" (as Ramsland called it) often showed the conception of Koontz's characters and plots from events in his own life. Early author photos on the back of many of his novels show a balding Koontz with a mustache. After Koontz underwent hair transplantation surgery in the late 1990s, his subsequent books have featured a new, clean-shaven appearance with a fuller head of hair. Koontz explained the change by claiming that he was tired of looking like G. Gordon Liddy. Many of his novels are set in and around Orange County, California. As of 2006, he lives there with his wife, Gerda, in Newport Coast, California, behind the gates of Pelican Hills. In 2008, he was the world's sixth-most highly paid author, tied with John Grisham, at $25 million annually. In 2019, Koontz began publishing with Amazon Publishing. At the time of the announcement, Koontz was one of the company's most notable signings. == Pet dogs == One of Koontz's pen names was inspired by his dog, Trixie Koontz, a Golden Retriever, shown in many of his book-jacket photos. Trixie originally was a service dog with Canine Companions for Independence (CCI), a charitable organization that provides service dogs for people with disabilities. Trixie was a gift from CCI in gratitude of Koontz's substantial donations, totaling $2.5 million between 1991 and 2004. Koontz was taken with the charity while he was researching his novel Midnight, a book which included a CCI-trained dog, a black Labrador Retriever, named Moose. In 2004, Koontz wrote and edited Life Is Good: Lessons in Joyful Living in her name, and in 2005, Koontz wrote a second book credited to Trixie, Christmas Is Good. Both books are written from a supposed canine perspective on the joys of life. The royalty payments of the books were donated to CCI. Anna died on May 22, 2016. Koontz then adopted a new dog, Elsa, on July 11, 2016. == Disputed authorship == A number of letters, articles, and novels were ostensibly written by Koontz during the 1960s and 1970s, but he has stated he did not write them. These include 30 erotic novels, allegedly written together by Koontz and his wife Gerda, including books such as Thirteen and Ready!, Swappers Convention, and Hung, the last one published under the name "Leonard Chris". They also include contributions to the fanzines Energumen and BeABohema in the late 1960s and early 1970s, including articles that mention the erotic novels, such as a movie column called "Way Station" in BeABohema. Koontz wrote in How to Write Best Selling Fiction, a much revised and updated version of 'Writing Popular Fiction' (1972), "During my first six years as a full-time novelist ... I wrote a lot of ephemeral stuff; anything that would pay some bills ... I did Gothic romance novels under a pen-name ... Like many writers, I did some pornography too, and a variety of other things, none of which required me to commit my heart or my soul to the task. (This is not to say I didn't bother to do a good job; on the contrary, I never wrote down to any market, and I always tried to give my editors and readers their money's worth.)" The Gothic novels are identifiable, but none of Koontz's acknowledged work fits into the latter category. Koontz has stated on his website that he used only the ten known pen names and "there are no secret pen names used by Dean"; he adds that his own identity was stolen by "a person he had previously worked with professionally", who submitted letters and some articles to fanzines under Koontz's name between 1969 and at least the early 1970s. Koontz has stated that he was only made aware of these bogus letters and articles in 1991 in a written admission from the identity thief. He has stated that he will reveal this person's name in his memoirs.	[ "hair transplantation", "BeABohema", "Christine Lahti", "CBS", "Locus Award", "Tracy Scoggins", "Bedford, Pennsylvania", "Labrador Retriever", "Fear Nothing", "The New York Times Best Seller list", "Barbara Williams (actress)", "Intensity (novel)", "The Face of Fear", "Wings Hauser", "Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania", "Jeremy Sisto", "The Passengers (1977 film)", "Victoria Tennant", "San Francisco Chronicle", "Black River (2001 film)", "Erotic literature", "Golden Retriever", "Odd Apocalypse", "Corey Haim", "Rose McGowan", "Watchers (novel)", "Hideaway (1995 film)", "Peter O'Toole", "Odd Thomas (film)", "HarperCollins", "Star Quest", "Demon Seed", "BBC", "Bedford High School (Pennsylvania)", "satire", "World Fantasy Special Award—Professional", "The Bad Place", "Parker Posey", "Alicia Silverstone", "cancer", "Katherine Ramsland", "Expurgation", "Watchers (film)", "Watchers Reborn", "Odd Thomas (novel)", "Molly Parker", "Demon Seed (novel)", "Orange County, California", "royalty payment", "Joanna Going", "Audie Awards", "Deeply Odd", "Universal Pictures", "Thomas Kretschmann", "Kevin Conroy", "Frankenstein (2004 film)", "Sole Survivor (2000 film)", "Mechanicsburg Area Senior High School", "John C. McGinley", "G. Gordon Liddy", "Pam Dawber", "Strange Highways (short story collection)", "Japan Adventure Fiction Association Prize", "Anton Yelchin", "Phantoms (film)", "Brian Herbert", "Bachelor of Arts", "Mark Hamill", "fanzine", "Hugo Award", "Amazon Publishing", "horror fiction", "What the Night Knows", "Mr. Murder (novel)", "John Grisham", "Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania", "Gloria Reuben", "Ben Affleck", "William Sadler (actor)", "Whispers (Koontz novel)", "Jeff Goldblum", "Jay Mohr", "Jean-Louis Trintignant", "Vincent Perez", "CHiPs", "author", "charitable organization", "British Fantasy Award", "thriller (genre)", "Michael Ironside", "Thomas Haden Church", "Bram Stoker Award", "Grand Prix de l'Imaginaire", "Piper Laurie", "Adam Goldberg", "Thriller (genre)", "Watchers II", "pseudonym", "Marc Singer", "Billy Zane", "National Catholic Register", "Neoplasm", "Michael Madsen", "Chris Sarandon", "genre", "Phantoms (novel)", "Watchers 3", "USA Network", "Fantasy literature", "World Horror Convention Grand Master Award", "Ross Macdonald Literary Award", "World Fantasy Award", "Miramax", "Fritz Weaver", "science fiction", "Canine Companions for Independence", "Lightning (novel)", "James Coburn", "Hideaway (novel)", "Stephen Baldwin", "Mystery fiction", "The Funhouse (novel)", "The Key to Midnight", "Donald E. Westlake", "Strangers (Koontz novel)", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "G. K. Chesterton", "The Darkest Evening of the Year", "Lee Horsley", "Dark Rivers of the Heart", "Everett, Pennsylvania", "Shattered (Koontz novel)", "pen name", "Julie Christie", "The Face of Fear (film)", "The New York Times", "Reason (magazine)", "Midnight (Koontz novel)", "Robert Vaughn", "Bruce Greenwood", "Mr. Murder (miniseries)", "psychobiography", "Stephen Tobolowsky", "The Atlantic", "Goodreads Choice Awards", "copy editing", "Intensity (film)", "Saint Odd" ]
8,912	Drake equation	The Drake equation is a probabilistic argument used to estimate the number of active, communicative extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way Galaxy. The equation was formulated in 1961 by Frank Drake, not for purposes of quantifying the number of civilizations, but as a way to stimulate scientific dialogue at the first scientific meeting on the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI). The equation summarizes the main concepts which scientists must contemplate when considering the question of other radio-communicative life. This form of the equation first appeared in Drake's 1965 paper. ==History== In September 1959, physicists Giuseppe Cocconi and Philip Morrison published an article in the journal Nature with the provocative title "Searching for Interstellar Communications". Cocconi and Morrison argued that radio telescopes had become sensitive enough to pick up transmissions that might be broadcast into space by civilizations orbiting other stars. Such messages, they suggested, might be transmitted at a wavelength of 21 cm (1,420.4 MHz). This is the wavelength of radio emission by neutral hydrogen, the most common element in the universe, and they reasoned that other intelligences might see this as a logical landmark in the radio spectrum. Two months later, Harvard University astronomy professor Harlow Shapley speculated on the number of inhabited planets in the universe, saying "The universe has 10 million, million, million suns (10 followed by 18 zeros) similar to our own. One in a million has planets around it. Only one in a million million has the right combination of chemicals, temperature, water, days and nights to support planetary life as we know it. This calculation arrives at the estimated figure of 100 million worlds where life has been forged by evolution." Seven months after Cocconi and Morrison published their article, Drake began searching for extraterrestrial intelligence in an experiment called Project Ozma. It was the first systematic search for signals from communicative extraterrestrial civilizations. Using the dish of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, Green Bank in Green Bank, West Virginia, Drake monitored two nearby Sun-like stars: Epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti, slowly scanning frequencies close to the 21 cm wavelength for six hours per day from April to July 1960. The ten attendees were conference organizer J. Peter Pearman, Frank Drake, Philip Morrison, businessman and radio amateur Dana Atchley, chemist Melvin Calvin, astronomer Su-Shu Huang, neuroscientist John C. Lilly, inventor Barney Oliver, astronomer Carl Sagan, and radio-astronomer Otto Struve. These participants called themselves "The Order of the Dolphin" (because of Lilly's work on dolphin communication), and commemorated their first meeting with a plaque at the observatory hall. ==Usefulness== The Drake equation results in a summary of the factors affecting the likelihood that we might detect radio-communication from intelligent extraterrestrial life. The last three parameters, , , and , are not known and are very difficult to estimate, with values ranging over many orders of magnitude (see ). Therefore, the usefulness of the Drake equation is not in the solving, but rather in the contemplation of all the various concepts which scientists must incorporate when considering the question of life elsewhere, Within the limits of existing human technology, any practical search for distant intelligent life must necessarily be a search for some manifestation of a distant technology. After about 50 years, the Drake equation is still of seminal importance because it is a 'road map' of what we need to learn in order to solve this fundamental existential question. ==Estimates== ===Original estimates=== There is considerable disagreement on the values of these parameters, but the 'educated guesses' used by Drake and his colleagues in 1961 were: = 1 yr−1 (1 star formed per year, on the average over the life of the galaxy; this was regarded as conservative) = 0.2 to 0.5 (one fifth to one half of all stars formed will have planets) = 1 to 5 (stars with planets will have between 1 and 5 planets capable of developing life) = 1 (100% of these planets will develop life) = 1 (100% of which will develop intelligent life) = 0.1 to 0.2 (10–20% of which will be able to communicate) = somewhere between 1000 and 100,000,000 years Inserting the above minimum numbers into the equation gives a minimum N of 20 (see: Range of results). Inserting the maximum numbers gives a maximum of 50,000,000. Drake states that given the uncertainties, the original meeting concluded that , and there were probably between 1000 and 100,000,000 planets with civilizations in the Milky Way Galaxy. ===Current estimates=== This section discusses and attempts to list the best current estimates for the parameters of the Drake equation. ====Rate of star creation in this Galaxy, ==== Calculations in 2010, from NASA and the European Space Agency indicate that the rate of star formation in this Galaxy is about of material per year. To get the number of stars per year, we divide this by the initial mass function (IMF) for stars, where the average new star's mass is about . This gives a star formation rate of about 1.5–3 stars per year. ====Fraction of those stars that have planets, ==== Analysis of microlensing surveys, in 2012, has found that may approach 1—that is, stars are orbited by planets as a rule, rather than the exception; and that there are one or more bound planets per Milky Way star. ====Average number of planets that might support life per star that has planets, ==== In November 2013, astronomers reported, based on Kepler space telescope data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of sun-like stars and red dwarf stars within the Milky Way Galaxy. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting sun-like stars. Since there are about 100 billion stars in the galaxy, this implies is roughly 0.4. The nearest planet in the habitable zone is Proxima Centauri b, which is as close as about 4.2 light-years away. The consensus at the Green Bank meeting was that had a minimum value between 3 and 5. Dutch science journalist Govert Schilling has opined that this is optimistic. Brad Gibson, Yeshe Fenner, and Charley Lineweaver determined that about 10% of star systems in the Milky Way Galaxy are hospitable to life, by having heavy elements, being far from supernovae and being stable for a sufficient time. The discovery of numerous gas giants in close orbit with their stars has introduced doubt that life-supporting planets commonly survive the formation of their stellar systems. So-called hot Jupiters may migrate from distant orbits to near orbits, in the process disrupting the orbits of habitable planets. On the other hand, the variety of star systems that might have habitable zones is not just limited to solar-type stars and Earth-sized planets. It is now estimated that even tidally locked planets close to red dwarf stars might have habitable zones, although the flaring behavior of these stars might speak against this. The possibility of life on moons of gas giants (such as Jupiter's moon Europa, or Saturn's moons Titan and Enceladus) adds further uncertainty to this figure. The authors of the rare Earth hypothesis propose a number of additional constraints on habitability for planets, including being in galactic zones with suitably low radiation, high star metallicity, and low enough density to avoid excessive asteroid bombardment. They also propose that it is necessary to have a planetary system with large gas giants which provide bombardment protection without a hot Jupiter; and a planet with plate tectonics, a large moon that creates tidal pools, and moderate axial tilt to generate seasonal variation. ====Fraction of the above that actually go on to develop life, ==== Geological evidence from the Earth suggests that may be high; life on Earth appears to have begun around the same time as favorable conditions arose, suggesting that abiogenesis may be relatively common once conditions are right. However, this evidence only looks at the Earth (a single model planet), and contains anthropic bias, as the planet of study was not chosen randomly, but by the living organisms that already inhabit it (ourselves). From a classical hypothesis testing standpoint, without assuming that the underlying distribution of is the same for all planets in the Milky Way, there are zero degrees of freedom, permitting no valid estimates to be made. If life (or evidence of past life) were to be found on Mars, Europa, Enceladus or Titan that developed independently from life on Earth it would imply a value for close to 1. While this would raise the number of degrees of freedom from zero to one, there would remain a great deal of uncertainty on any estimate due to the small sample size, and the chance they are not really independent. Countering this argument is that there is no evidence for abiogenesis occurring more than once on the Earth—that is, all terrestrial life stems from a common origin. If abiogenesis were more common it would be speculated to have occurred more than once on the Earth. Scientists have searched for this by looking for bacteria that are unrelated to other life on Earth, but none have been found yet. It is also possible that life arose more than once, but that other branches were out-competed, or died in mass extinctions, or were lost in other ways. Biochemists Francis Crick and Leslie Orgel laid special emphasis on this uncertainty: "At the moment we have no means at all of knowing" whether we are "likely to be alone in the galaxy (Universe)" or whether "the galaxy may be pullulating with life of many different forms." As an alternative to abiogenesis on Earth, they proposed the hypothesis of directed panspermia, which states that Earth life began with "microorganisms sent here deliberately by a technological society on another planet, by means of a special long-range unmanned spaceship". In 2020, a paper by scholars at the University of Nottingham proposed an "Astrobiological Copernican" principle, based on the Principle of Mediocrity, and speculated that "intelligent life would form on other [Earth-like] planets like it has on Earth, so within a few billion years life would automatically form as a natural part of evolution". In the authors' framework, , , and are all set to a probability of 1 (certainty). Their resultant calculation concludes there are more than thirty current technological civilizations in the galaxy (disregarding error bars). ====Fraction of the above that develops intelligent life, ==== This value remains particularly controversial. Those who favor a low value, such as the biologist Ernst Mayr, point out that of the billions of species that have existed on Earth, only one has become intelligent and from this, infer a tiny value for . Likewise, the Rare Earth hypothesis, notwithstanding their low value for above, also think a low value for dominates the analysis. Those who favor higher values note the generally increasing complexity of life over time, concluding that the appearance of intelligence is almost inevitable, implying an approaching 1. Skeptics point out that the large spread of values in this factor and others make all estimates unreliable. (See Criticism). In addition, while it appears that life developed soon after the formation of Earth, the Cambrian explosion, in which a large variety of multicellular life forms came into being, occurred a considerable amount of time after the formation of Earth, which suggests the possibility that special conditions were necessary. Some scenarios such as the snowball Earth or research into extinction events have raised the possibility that life on Earth is relatively fragile. Research on any past life on Mars is relevant since a discovery that life did form on Mars but ceased to exist might raise the estimate of but would indicate that in half the known cases, intelligent life did not develop. Estimates of have been affected by discoveries that the Solar System's orbit is circular in the galaxy, at such a distance that it remains out of the spiral arms for tens of millions of years (evading radiation from novae). Also, Earth's large moon may aid the evolution of life by stabilizing the planet's axis of rotation. There has been quantitative work to begin to define f_\mathrm{l} \cdot f_\mathrm{i}. One example is a Bayesian analysis published in 2020. In the conclusion, the author cautions that this study applies to Earth's conditions. In Bayesian terms, the study favors the formation of intelligence on a planet with identical conditions to Earth but does not do so with high confidence. Planetary scientist Pascal Lee of the SETI Institute proposes that this fraction is very low (0.0002). He based this estimate on how long it took Earth to develop intelligent life (1 million years since Homo erectus evolved, compared to 4.6 billion years since Earth formed). ====Fraction of the above revealing their existence via signal release into space, ==== For deliberate communication, the one example we have (the Earth) does not do much explicit communication, though there are some efforts covering only a tiny fraction of the stars that might look for human presence. (See Arecibo message, for example). There is considerable speculation why an extraterrestrial civilization might exist but choose not to communicate. However, deliberate communication is not required, and calculations indicate that current or near-future Earth-level technology might well be detectable to civilizations not too much more advanced than present day humans. By this standard, the Earth is a communicating civilization. Another question is what percentage of civilizations in the galaxy are close enough for us to detect, assuming that they send out signals. For example, existing Earth radio telescopes could only detect Earth radio transmissions from roughly a light year away. ====Lifetime of such a civilization wherein it communicates its signals into space, ==== Michael Shermer estimated as 420 years, based on the duration of sixty historical Earthly civilizations. Using 28 civilizations more recent than the Roman Empire, he calculates a figure of 304 years for "modern" civilizations. It could also be argued from Michael Shermer's results that the fall of most of these civilizations was followed by later civilizations that carried on the technologies, so it is doubtful that they are separate civilizations in the context of the Drake equation. In the expanded version, including reappearance number, this lack of specificity in defining single civilizations does not matter for the result, since such a civilization turnover could be described as an increase in the reappearance number rather than increase in , stating that a civilization reappears in the form of the succeeding cultures. Furthermore, since none could communicate over interstellar space, the method of comparing with historical civilizations could be regarded as invalid. David Grinspoon has argued that once a civilization has developed enough, it might overcome all threats to its survival. It will then last for an indefinite period of time, making the value for potentially billions of years. If this is the case, then he proposes that the Milky Way Galaxy may have been steadily accumulating advanced civilizations since it formed. He proposes that the last factor be replaced with , where is the fraction of communicating civilizations that become "immortal" (in the sense that they simply do not die out), and representing the length of time during which this process has been going on. This has the advantage that would be a relatively easy-to-discover number, as it would simply be some fraction of the age of the universe. It has also been hypothesized that once a civilization has learned of a more advanced one, its longevity could increase because it can learn from the experiences of the other. The astronomer Carl Sagan speculated that all of the terms, except for the lifetime of a civilization, are relatively high and the determining factor in whether there are large or small numbers of civilizations in the universe is the civilization lifetime, or in other words, the ability of technological civilizations to avoid self-destruction. In Sagan's case, the Drake equation was a strong motivating factor for his interest in environmental issues and his efforts to warn against the dangers of nuclear warfare. Paleobiologist Olev Vinn suggests that the lifetime of most technological civilizations is brief due to inherited behavior patterns present in all intelligent organisms. These behaviors, incompatible with civilized conditions, inevitably lead to self-destruction soon after the emergence of advanced technologies. An intelligent civilization might not be organic, as some have suggested that artificial general intelligence may replace humanity. ===Range of results=== As many skeptics have pointed out, the Drake equation can give a very wide range of values, depending on the assumptions, as the values used in portions of the Drake equation are not well established. In particular, the result can be , meaning we are likely alone in the galaxy, or , implying there are many civilizations we might contact. One of the few points of wide agreement is that the presence of humanity implies a probability of intelligence arising of greater than zero. As an example of a low estimate, combining NASA's star formation rates, the rare Earth hypothesis value of , Mayr's view on intelligence arising, Drake's view of communication, and Shermer's estimate of lifetime: , , , ===Possible former technological civilizations=== In 2016, Adam Frank and Woodruff Sullivan modified the Drake equation to determine just how unlikely the event of a technological species arising on a given habitable planet must be, to give the result that Earth hosts the only technological species that has ever arisen, for two cases: (a) this Galaxy, and (b) the universe as a whole. By asking this different question, one removes the lifetime and simultaneous communication uncertainties. Since the numbers of habitable planets per star can today be reasonably estimated, the only remaining unknown in the Drake equation is the probability that a habitable planet ever develops a technological species over its lifetime. For Earth to have the only technological species that has ever occurred in the universe, they calculate the probability of any given habitable planet ever developing a technological species must be less than . Similarly, for Earth to have been the only case of hosting a technological species over the history of this Galaxy, the odds of a habitable zone planet ever hosting a technological species must be less than (about 1 in 60 billion). The figure for the universe implies that it is extremely unlikely that Earth hosts the only technological species that has ever occurred. On the other hand, for this Galaxy one must think that fewer than 1 in 60 billion habitable planets develop a technological species for there not to have been at least a second case of such a species over the past history of this Galaxy. ==Modifications== As many observers have pointed out, the Drake equation is a very simple model that omits potentially relevant parameters, and many changes and modifications to the equation have been proposed. One line of modification, for example, attempts to account for the uncertainty inherent in many of the terms. Combining the estimates of the original six factors by major researchers via a Monte Carlo procedure leads to a best value for the non-longevity factors of 0.85 1/years. This result differs insignificantly from the estimate of unity given both by Drake and the Cyclops report. Others note that the Drake equation ignores many concepts that might be relevant to the odds of contacting other civilizations. For example, David Brin states: "The Drake equation merely speaks of the number of sites at which ETIs spontaneously arise. The equation says nothing directly about the contact cross-section between an ETIS and contemporary human society". Because it is the contact cross-section that is of interest to the SETI community, many additional factors and modifications of the Drake equation have been proposed. Colonization : It has been proposed to generalize the Drake equation to include additional effects of alien civilizations colonizing other star systems. Each original site expands with an expansion velocity , and establishes additional sites that survive for a lifetime . The result is a more complex set of 3 equations. He defined the factor as "the fraction of communicative civilizations with clear and non-paranoid planetary consciousness", or alternatively expressed, the fraction of communicative civilizations that actually engage in deliberate interstellar transmission. The METI factor is somewhat misleading since active, purposeful transmission of messages by a civilization is not required for them to receive a broadcast sent by another that is seeking first contact. It is merely required they have capable and compatible receiver systems operational; however, this is a variable humans cannot accurately estimate. Biogenic gases : Astronomer Sara Seager proposed a revised equation that focuses on the search for planets with biosignature gases. These gases are produced by living organisms that can accumulate in a planet atmosphere to levels that can be detected with remote space telescopes. The Seager equation looks like this: Carl Sagan's version of the Drake equation:American astronomer Carl Sagan made some modifications in the Drake equation and presented it in the 1980 program Cosmos: A Personal Voyage. The modified equation is shown below N = N_\mathrm{*} \cdot f_\mathrm{p} \cdot n_\mathrm{e} \cdot f_\mathrm{l} \cdot f_\mathrm{i} \cdot f_\mathrm{c} \cdot f_\mathrm{L} where = the number of civilizations in the Milky Way galaxy with which communication might be possible (i.e. which are on the current past light cone); and = Number of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy = the fraction of those stars that have planets. = the average number of planets that can potentially support life per star that has planets. = the fraction of planets that could support life that actually develop life at some point. = the fraction of planets with life that go on to develop intelligent life (civilizations). = the fraction of civilizations that develop a technology that releases detectable signs of their existence into space. = fraction of a planetary lifetime graced by a technological civilization ==Criticism== Criticism of the Drake equation is varied. Firstly, many of the terms in the equation are largely or entirely based on conjecture. Star formation rates are well-known, and the incidence of planets has a sound theoretical and observational basis, but the other terms in the equation become very speculative. The uncertainties revolve around the present day understanding of the evolution of life, intelligence, and civilization, not physics. No statistical estimates are possible for some of the parameters, where only one example is known. The net result is that the equation cannot be used to draw firm conclusions of any kind, and the resulting margin of error is huge, far beyond what some consider acceptable or meaningful. Others point out that the equation was formulated before our understanding of the universe had matured. Astrophysicist Ethan Siegel, said: One reply to such criticisms is that even though the Drake equation currently involves speculation about unmeasured parameters, it was intended as a way to stimulate dialogue on these topics. Then the focus becomes how to proceed experimentally. Indeed, Drake originally formulated the equation merely as an agenda for discussion at the Green Bank conference. ===Fermi paradox=== A civilization lasting for tens of millions of years could be able to spread throughout the galaxy, even at the slow speeds foreseeable with present-day technology. However, no confirmed signs of civilizations or intelligent life elsewhere have been found, either in this Galaxy or in the observable universe of 2 trillion galaxies. According to this line of thinking, the tendency to fill (or at least explore) all available territory seems to be a universal trait of living things, so the Earth should have already been colonized, or at least visited, but no evidence of this exists. Hence Fermi's question "Where is everybody?". A large number of explanations have been proposed to explain this lack of contact; a book published in 2015 elaborated on 75 different explanations. In terms of the Drake Equation, the explanations can be divided into three classes: Few intelligent civilizations ever arise. This is an argument that at least one of the first few terms, , has a low value. The most common suspect is , but explanations such as the rare Earth hypothesis argue that is the small term. Intelligent civilizations exist, but we see no evidence, meaning is small. Typical arguments include that civilizations are too far apart, it is too expensive to spread throughout the galaxy, civilizations broadcast signals for only a brief period of time, communication is dangerous, and many others. The lifetime of intelligent, communicative civilizations is short, meaning the value of is small. Drake suggested that a large number of extraterrestrial civilizations would form, and he further speculated that the lack of evidence of such civilizations may be because technological civilizations tend to disappear rather quickly. Typical explanations include it is the nature of intelligent life to destroy itself, it is the nature of intelligent life to destroy others, they tend to be destroyed by natural events, and others. These lines of reasoning lead to the Great Filter hypothesis, which states that since there are no observed extraterrestrial civilizations despite the vast number of stars, at least one step in the process must be acting as a filter to reduce the final value. According to this view, either it is very difficult for intelligent life to arise, or the lifetime of technologically advanced civilizations, or the period of time they reveal their existence must be relatively short. An analysis by Anders Sandberg, Eric Drexler and Toby Ord suggests "a substantial ex ante (predicted) probability of there being no other intelligent life in our observable universe". ==In popular culture== The equation was cited by Gene Roddenberry as supporting the multiplicity of inhabited planets shown on Star Trek, the television series he created. However, Roddenberry did not have the equation with him, and he was forced to "invent" it for his original proposal. The invented equation created by Roddenberry is: Ff^2 (MgE)-C^1 Ri^1 \cdot M=L/So Regarding Roddenberry's fictional version of the equation, Drake himself commented that a number raised to the first power is just the number itself. A commemorative plate on NASA's Europa Clipper mission, planned for launch in October 2024, features a poem by the U.S. Poet Laureate Ada Limón, waveforms of the word 'water' in 103 languages, a schematic of the water hole, the Drake equation, and a portrait of planetary scientist Ron Greeley on it. The track Abiogenesis on the Carbon Based Lifeforms album World of Sleepers features the Drake equation in a spoken voice-over.	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Lilly", "Science (journal)", "probability theory", "International Journal of Astrobiology", "Great Filter", "extinction events", "The Washington Post", "Monte Carlo method", "Ron Greeley", "radio telescope", "NASA", "Leslie Orgel", "PBS", "Astrobiology Magazine", "Gene Roddenberry", "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences", "Anders Sandberg", "astrobiology", "nuclear winter", "hypotheses", "Proxima Centauri b", "BBC Four", "The New York Times", "Star Trek", "Skeptical Inquirer", "Milky Way", "snowball Earth", "Enceladus", "David Grinspoon", "Galaxy", "Aleksandr Leonidovich Zaitsev", "intelligence", "nuclear warfare", "water hole (radio)", "bacteria", "Icarus (journal)", "Princeton University Press" ]
8,914	Damascus	\| motto = \| image_flag = \| image_seal = Emblem of Damascus Governorate (from 2024).svg \| seal_type = Emblem \| map_caption = \| pushpin_map = Syria#Asia \| pushpin_label_position = right \| pushpin_mapsize = \| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Damascus within Syria##Location within Asia \| pushpin_relief = 1 \| coordinates = \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = Syria \| subdivision_type1 = Governorate \| subdivision_name1 = Damascus Governorate, Capital City \| subdivision_type2 = \| subdivision_name2 = \| government_footnotes = \| government_type = Mayor–council government \| leader_title = Governor \| leader_name = Maher Marwan \| parts_type = Municipalities \| parts = 16 \| established_title = First settlement \| established_date = Tell Ramad \| area_footnotes = \| area_total_km2 = 105 \| area_land_km2 = \| area_water_km2 = \| area_water_percent = \| area_urban_km2 = 77 \| area_urban_sq_mi = 29.73 \| elevation_m = 680 \| population_urban = \| population_as_of = 2022 estimate \| population_metro = 2,685,000 \| population_density_metro_km2 = 7,090 \| population_density_urban_km2 = 24,000 \| population_note = \| population_rank = 1st in Syria 15th in the Arab World \| population_demonyms = \| blank3_name = HDI (2021) \| blank3_info = 0.612 – medium \| blank_name_sec2 = International airport \| blank_info_sec2 = Damascus International Airport \| timezone = AST \| utc_offset = +3 \| timezone_DST = \| utc_offset_DST = \| postal_code_type = Postal code \| postal_code = 0100 \| area_code = Country code: 963, City code: 11 \| geocode = C1001 \| iso_code = SY-DI \| blank_name = Climate \| blank_info = BWk \| website = \| module = \| footnotes = }} Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth holiest city in Islam. Known colloquially in Syria as () and dubbed, poetically, the "City of Jasmine" ( ), Damascus is a major cultural center of the Levant and the Arab world. Situated in southwestern Syria, Damascus is the center of a large metropolitan area. Nestled among the eastern foothills of the Anti-Lebanon mountain range inland from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean on a plateau above sea level, Damascus experiences an arid climate because of the rain shadow effect. The Barada River flows through Damascus. Damascus is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. First settled in the 3rd millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750. After the victory of the Abbasid dynasty, the seat of Islamic power was moved to Baghdad. Damascus saw its importance decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. Today, it is the seat of the central government of Syria. , eight years into the Syrian civil war, Damascus was named the least livable city out of 140 global cities in the Global Liveability Ranking. , it was the least livable out of 173 global cities in the same Global Liveability Ranking. In 2017, two new development projects have been launched in Damascus to build new residential districts, Marota City and Basillia City to symbolize post-war reconstruction. ==Names and etymology== The name of Damascus first appeared in the geographical list of Thutmose III as () in the 15th century BC. The etymology of the ancient name is uncertain. It is attested as () in Akkadian, () in Egyptian, () in Old Aramaic and () in Biblical Hebrew. A number of Akkadian spellings are found in the Amarna letters, from the 14th century BC: (), (), and (). Later Aramaic spellings of the name often include an intrusive resh (letter r), perhaps influenced by the root , meaning "dwelling". Thus, the English and Latin name of the city is , which was imported from Greek and originated from the Qumranic (), and () in Syriac, meaning "a well-watered land". In Arabic, the city is called Dimashq ( ). The city is also known as by the citizens of Damascus, of Syria and other Arab neighbors and Turkey (). is an Arabic term for "Levant" and for "Syria"; the latter, and particularly the historical region of Syria, is called (, ). The latter term etymologically means "land of the left-hand side" or "the north", as someone in the Hijaz facing east, oriented to the sunrise, will find the north to the left. This is contrasted with the name of Yemen ( ), correspondingly meaning "the right-hand side" or "the south". The variation ('), of the more typical (), is also attested in Old South Arabian, (), with the same semantic development. ==Geography== Damascus was built in a strategic site on a plateau above sea level and about inland from the Mediterranean, sheltered by the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, supplied with water by the Barada River, and at a crossroads between trade routes: the north–south route connecting Egypt with Asia Minor, and the east–west cross-desert route connecting Lebanon with the Euphrates river valley. The Anti-Lebanon Mountains mark the border between Syria and Lebanon. The range has peaks of over and blocks precipitation from the Mediterranean Sea, so the region of Damascus is sometimes subject to droughts. However, in ancient times, the Barada River mitigated this, which originates from mountain streams fed by melting snow. Damascus is surrounded by the Ghouta, irrigated farmland where many vegetables, cereals, and fruits have been farmed since ancient times. Maps of Roman Syria indicate that the Barada River emptied into a lake of some size east of Damascus. Today it is called Bahira Atayba, the hesitant lake because in years of severe drought, it does not even exist. The old city of Damascus, enclosed by the city walls, lies on the south bank of the river Barada which is almost dry ( left). To the southeast, north, and northeast it is surrounded by suburban areas whose history stretches back to the Middle Ages: Midan in the southwest, Sarouja and Imara in the north and north-west. These neighborhoods originally arose on roads leading out of the city, near the tombs of religious figures. In the 19th century outlying villages developed on the slopes of Jabal Qasioun, overlooking the city, already the site of the al-Salihiyah neighborhood centered on the important shrine of medieval Andalusian Sheikh and philosopher Ibn Arabi. These new neighborhoods were initially settled by Kurdish soldiery and Muslim refugees from the Europe regions of the Ottoman Empire which had fallen under Christian rule. Thus they were known as al-Akrad (the Kurds) and al-Muhajirin (the migrants). They lay north of the old city. From the late 19th century on, a modern administrative and commercial center began to spring up to the west of the old city, around the Barada, centered on the area known as al-Marjeh or "the meadow". Al-Marjeh soon became the name of what was initially the central square of modern Damascus, with the city hall in it. The courts of justice, post office, and railway station stood on higher ground slightly to the south. A Europeanized residential quarter soon began to be built on the road leading between al-Marjeh and al-Salihiyah. The commercial and administrative center of the new city gradually shifted northwards slightly towards this area. In the 20th century, newer suburbs developed north of the Barada, and to some extent to the south, invading the Ghouta oasis. In 1956–1957, the new neighborhood of Yarmouk became a second home to many Palestinian refugees. City planners preferred to preserve the Ghouta as far as possible, and in the later 20th century some of the main areas of development were to the north, in the western Mezzeh neighborhood and most recently along the Barada valley in Dummar in the northwest and on the slopes of the mountains at Barzeh in the north-east. Poorer areas, often built without official approval, have mostly developed south of the main city. Damascus used to be surrounded by an oasis, the Ghouta region (), watered by the Barada river. The Fijeh spring, west along the Barada valley, used to provide the city with drinking water, and various sources to the west are tapped by water contractors. The flow of the Barada dropped with the rapid expansion of housing and industry in the city and it is almost dry. The lower aquifers are polluted by the city's runoff from heavily used roads, industry, and sewage. ===Climate=== Damascus has a cool arid climate (BWk) in the Köppen-Geiger system, due to the rain shadow effect of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and the prevailing ocean currents. Summers are prolonged, dry, and hot with less humidity. Winters are cool and somewhat rainy; snowfall is infrequent. Autumn is brief and mild, but has the most drastic temperature change, unlike spring where the transition to summer is more gradual and steady. Annual rainfall is around , occurring from October to May. ==History== ===Early settlement=== Carbon-14 dating at Tell Ramad, on the outskirts of Damascus, suggests that the site may have been occupied since the second half of the seventh millennium BC, possibly around 6300 BC. However, evidence of settlement in the wider Barada basin dating back to 9000 BC exists, although no large-scale settlement was present within Damascus' walls until the second millennium BC. ===Late Bronze=== Some of the earliest Egyptian records are from 1350 BC Amarna letters when Damascus (called Dimasqu) was ruled by king Biryawaza. The Damascus region, as well as the rest of Syria, became a battleground circa 1260 BC, between the Hittites from the north and the Egyptians from the south, ending with a signed treaty between Hattusili III and Ramesses II where the former handed over control of the Damascus area to Ramesses II in 1259 BC. Damascus was only a peripheral part of this picture, which mostly affected the larger population centers of ancient Syria. However, these events contributed to the development of Damascus as a new influential center that emerged with the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. According to the 1st-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus in his twenty-one volume Antiquities of the Jews, Damascus (along with Trachonitis), was founded by Uz, the son of Aram. In Antiquities i. 7, Josephus reports: ===Aram-Damascus=== Damascus is first documented as an important city during the arrival of the Aramaeans, a Semitic people, in the 11th century BC. By the start of the first millennium BC, several Aramaic kingdoms were formed, as Aramaeans abandoned their nomadic lifestyle and formed federated tribal states. One of these kingdoms was Aram-Damascus, centered on its capital Damascus. The Aramaeans who entered the city without battle, adopted the name "Dimashqu" for their new home. Noticing the agricultural potential of the still-undeveloped and sparsely populated area, they established the water distribution system of Damascus by constructing canals and tunnels which maximized the efficiency of the river Barada. The Romans and the Umayyads later improved the same network, and still forms the basis of the water system of the old part of the city today. The Aramaeans initially turned Damascus into an outpost of a loose federation of Aramaean tribes, known as Aram-Zobah, based in the Beqaa Valley. Another possible reason for the treaty between Aram-Damascus and Israel was the common threat of the Neo-Assyrian Empire which was attempting to expand into the Mediterranean coast. In 853 BC, King Hadadezer of Damascus led a Levantine coalition, that included forces from the northern Aram-Hamath kingdom and troops supplied by King Ahab of Israel, in the Battle of Qarqar against the Neo-Assyrian army. Aram-Damascus came out victorious, temporarily preventing the Assyrians from encroaching into Syria. However, after Hadadzezer was killed by his successor, Hazael, the Levantine alliance collapsed. Aram-Damascus attempted to invade Israel but was interrupted by the renewed Assyrian invasion. Hazael ordered a retreat to the walled part of Damascus while the Assyrians plundered the remainder of the kingdom. Unable to enter the city, they declared their supremacy in the Hauran and Beqa'a valleys. However, Assyrian authority was dwindling by 609–605 BC, and Syria-Palestine was falling into the orbit of Pharaoh Necho II's Egypt. In 572 BC, all of Syria had been conquered by Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonians, but the status of Damascus under Babylon is relatively unknown. ===Hellenistic period=== Damascus was conquered by Alexander the Great. After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Damascus became the site of a struggle between the Seleucid and Ptolemaic empires. The control of the city passed frequently from one empire to the other. Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander's generals, made Antioch the capital of his vast empire, which led to the decline of Damascus' importance compared with new Seleucid cities such as Syrian Laodicea in the north. Later, Demetrius III Philopator rebuilt the city according to the Greek hippodamian system and renamed it "Demetrias". === Roman period === In 64 BC, the Roman general Pompey annexed the western part of Syria. The Romans occupied Damascus and subsequently incorporated it into the league of ten cities known as the Decapolis which themselves were incorporated into the province of Syria and granted autonomy. The city of Damascus was entirely redesigned by the Romans after Pompey conquered the region. Still today the Old Town of Damascus retains the rectangular shape of the Roman city, with its two main axes: the Decumanus Maximus (east-west; known today as the Via Recta) and the Cardo (north-south), the Decumanus being about twice as long. The Romans built a monumental gate which still survives at the eastern end of Decumanus Maximus. The gate originally had three arches: the central arch was for chariots while the side arches were for pedestrians. In 23 BC, Herod the Great was given lands controlled by Zenodorus by Caesar Augustus and some scholars believe that Herod was also granted control of Damascus as well. The control of Damascus reverted to Syria either upon the death of Herod the Great or was part of the lands given to Herod Philip which were given to Syria with his death in 33/34 AD. It is speculated that control of Damascus was gained by Aretas IV Philopatris of Nabatea between the death of Herod Philip in 33/34 AD and the death of Aretas in 40 AD but there is substantial evidence against Aretas controlling the city before 37 AD and many reasons why it could not have been a gift from Caligula between 37 and 40 AD. In fact, all these theories stem not from any actual evidence outside the New Testament but rather "a certain understanding of 2 Corinthians 11:32" and in reality "neither from archaeological evidence, secular-historical sources, nor New Testament texts can Nabatean sovereignty over Damascus in the first century AD be proven." Roman emperor Trajan who annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, creating the province of Arabia Petraea, had previously been in Damascus, as his father Marcus Ulpius Traianus served as governor of Syria from 73 to 74 AD, where he met the Nabatean architect and engineer, Apollodorus of Damascus, who joined him in Rome when he was a consul in 91 AD, and later built several monuments during the 2nd century AD. Damascus became a metropolis by the beginning of the 2nd century and in 222 it was upgraded to a colonia by the Emperor Septimius Severus. During the Pax Romana, Damascus and the Roman province of Syria in general began to prosper. Damascus's importance as a caravan city was evident with the trade routes from southern Arabia, Palmyra, Petra, and the Silk Road all converging on it. The city satisfied the Roman demands for eastern luxuries. Circa 125 AD the Roman emperor Hadrian promoted the city of Damascus to "Metropolis of Coele-Syria". Little remains of the architecture of the Romans, but the town planning of the old city did have a lasting effect. The Roman architects brought together the Greek and Aramaean foundations of the city and fused them into a new layout measuring approximately , surrounded by a city wall. The city wall contained seven gates, but only the eastern gate, Bab Sharqi, remains from the Roman period. Roman Damascus lies mostly at depths of up to below the modern city. The old borough of Bab Tuma was developed at the end of the Roman/Byzantine era by the local Eastern Orthodox community. According to the Acts of the Apostles, Saint Paul and Saint Thomas both lived in that neighborhood. Roman Catholic historians also consider Bab Tuma to be the birthplace of several Popes such as John V and Gregory III. Accordingly, there was a community of Jewish Christians who converted to Christianity with the advent of Saint Paul's proselytization. During the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, the city was besieged and captured by Shahrbaraz in 613, along with a large number of Byzantine troops as prisoners, and was in Sasanian hands until near the end of the war. ===Rashidun period=== The Prophet Muhammad's first indirect interaction with the people of Damascus was when he sent a letter, through his companion Shiya ibn Wahab, to Harith ibn Abi Shamir, the king of Damascus. The letter stated: "Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Be informed that my religion shall prevail everywhere. You should accept Islam, and whatever under your command shall remain yours." After most of the Syrian countryside was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate during the reign of Caliph Umar (), Damascus itself was conquered by the Arab Muslim general Khalid ibn al-Walid in August–September 634 CE. His army had previously attempted to capture the city in April 634 but without success. With Damascus now in Muslim-Arab hands, the Byzantines, alarmed at the loss of their most prestigious city in the Near East, had decided to wrest back control of it. Under Emperor Heraclius, the Byzantines fielded an army superior to that of the Rashidun in manpower. They advanced into southern Syria during the spring of 636 and consequently Khalid ibn al-Walid's forces withdrew from Damascus to prepare for renewed confrontation. In August, the two sides met along the Yarmouk River where they fought a major battle which ended in a decisive Muslim victory, solidifying Muslim rule in Syria and Palestine. While the Muslims administered the city, the population of Damascus remained mostly Christian—Eastern Orthodox and Monophysite—with a growing community of Muslims from Mecca, Medina, and the Syrian Desert. The governor assigned to the city which had been chosen as the capital of Islamic Syria was Mu'awiya I. === Umayyad and Abbasid periods === Following the fourth Rashidun caliph Ali's death in 661, Mu'awiya was chosen as the caliph of the expanding Islamic empire. Because of the vast amounts of assets his clan, the Umayyads, owned in the city and because of its traditional economic and social links with the Hijaz as well as the Christian Arab tribes of the region, Mu'awiya established Damascus as the capital of the entire Caliphate. With the ascension of Caliph Abd al-Malik in 685, an Islamic coinage system was introduced and all of the surplus revenue of the Caliphate's provinces were forwarded to the treasury of Damascus. Arabic was also established as the official language, giving the Muslim minority of the city an advantage over the Aramaic-speaking Christians in administrative affairs. Abd al-Malik's successor, al-Walid initiated the construction of the Grand Mosque of Damascus (known as the Umayyad Mosque) in 706. The site originally had been the Christian Cathedral of St. John and the Muslims maintained the building's dedication to John the Baptist. By 715, the mosque was complete. Al-Walid died that same year and he was succeeded at first by Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik and then by Umar II, who each ruled for brief periods before the reign of Hisham in 724. With these successions, the status of Damascus was gradually weakening as Suleiman had chosen Ramla as his residence and later Hisham chose Resafa. Following the murder of the latter in 743, the Caliphate of the Umayyads—which by then stretched from Spain to India— was crumbling as a result of widespread revolts. During the reign of Marwan II in 744, the capital of the empire was relocated to Harran in the northern Jazira region. On 25 August 750, the Abbasids, having already beaten the Umayyads in the Battle of the Zab in Iraq, conquered Damascus after facing little resistance. With the heralding of the Abbasid Caliphate, Damascus became eclipsed and subordinated by Baghdad, the new Islamic capital. Within the first six months of Abbasid rule, revolts began erupting in the city, albeit too isolated and unfocused to present a viable threat. Nonetheless, the last of the prominent Umayyads were executed, the traditional officials of Damascus were ostracised, and army generals from the city were dismissed. Afterwards, the Umayyad family cemetery was desecrated and the city walls were torn down, reducing Damascus into a provincial town of little importance. It roughly disappeared from written records for the next century and the only significant improvement of the city was the Abbasid-built treasury dome in the Umayyad Mosque in 789. In 811, distant remnants of the Umayyad dynasty staged a strong uprising in Damascus that was eventually put down. On 24 November 847, a multiple earthquake struck and destroyed Damascus, causing the lives of 70,000 people in estimated deaths. Ahmad ibn Tulun, a dissenting Turkish wali appointed by the Abbasids, conquered Syria, including Damascus, from his overlords in 878–79. In an act of respect for the previous Umayyad rulers, he erected a shrine on the site of Mu'awiya's grave in the city. Tulunid rule of Damascus was brief, lasting only until 906 before being replaced by the Qarmatians who were adherents of Shia Islam. Due to their inability to control the vast amount of land they occupied, the Qarmatians withdrew from Damascus and a new dynasty, the Ikhshidids, took control of the city. They maintained the independence of Damascus from the Arab Hamdanid dynasty of Aleppo 967. A period of instability in the city followed, with a Qarmatian raid in 968, a Byzantine raid in 970, and increasing pressures from the Fatimids in the south and the Hamdanids in the north. The Shia Fatimids gained control in 970, inflaming hostilities between them and the Sunni Arabs of the city who frequently revolted. A Turk, Alptakin drove out the Fatimids five years later, and through diplomacy, prevented the Byzantines during the Syrian campaigns of John Tzimiskes from attempting to annex the city. However, by 977, the Fatimids under Caliph al-Aziz, wrested back control of the city and tamed Sunni dissidents. The Arab geographer, al-Muqaddasi, visited Damascus in 985, remarking that the architecture and infrastructure of the city were "magnificent", but living conditions were awful. Under al-Aziz, the city saw a brief period of stability that ended with the reign of al-Hakim (996–1021). In 998, hundreds of Damascus citizens were rounded up and executed by him for incitement. Three years after al-Hakim's mysterious disappearance, a rebellion was initiated in southern Syria against the Fatimids, but was stifled by the Fatimid Turkish governor of Syria and Palestine, Anushtakin al-Duzbari, in 1029. This victory gave the latter mastery over Syria, displeasing his Fatimid overlords, but gaining the admiration of Damascus' citizens. He was exiled by Fatimid authorities to Aleppo where he died in 1041. From that date to 1063, there are no known records of the city's history. By then, Damascus lacked a city administration, had an enfeebled economy, and a greatly reduced population. ===Seljuq and Ayyubid periods=== With the arrival of the Seljuq Turks in the late 11th century, Damascus again became the capital of independent states. It was ruled by Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla Tutush I starting in 1079 and he was succeeded by his son Abu Nasr Duqaq in 1095. The Seljuqs established a court in Damascus and a systematic reversal of Shia inroads in the city. The city also saw an expansion of religious life through private endowments financing religious institutions (madrasas) and hospitals (maristans). Damascus soon became one of the most important centers of propagating Islamic thought in the Muslim world. After Duqaq died in 1104, his mentor (atabeg), Toghtekin, took control of Damascus and the Burid line of the Seljuq dynasty. Under Duqaq and Toghtekin, Damascus experienced stability, elevated status, and a revived role in commerce. In addition, the city's Sunni majority enjoyed being a part of the larger Sunni framework effectively governed by various Turkic dynasties who in turn were under the moral authority of the Baghdad-based Abbasids. While the rulers of Damascus were preoccupied in conflict with their fellow Seljuqs in Aleppo and Diyarbakir, the Crusaders, who arrived in the Levant in 1097, conquered Jerusalem, Mount Lebanon and Palestine. Duqaq seemed to have been content with Crusader's rule as a buffer between his dominion and the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. Toghtekin, however, saw the Western invaders as a viable threat to Damascus which, at the time, nominally included Homs, the Beqaa Valley, Hauran, and the Golan Heights as part of its territories. With military support from Sharaf al-Din Mawdud of Mosul, Toghtekin managed to halt Crusader raids in the Golan and Hauran. Mawdud was assassinated in the Umayyad Mosque in 1109, depriving Damascus of northern Muslim backing and forcing Toghtekin to agree to a truce with the Crusaders in 1110. In 1126, the Crusader army led by Baldwin II fought Burid forces led by Toghtekin at Marj al-Saffar near Damascus; however, despite their tactical victory, the Crusaders failed in their objective to capture Damascus. Following Toghtekin's death in 1128, his son, Taj al-Muluk Buri, became the nominal ruler of Damascus. Coincidentally, the Seljuq prince of Mosul, Imad al-Din Zengi, took power in Aleppo and gained a mandate from the Abbasids to extend his authority to Damascus. In 1129, around 6,000 Isma'ili Muslims were killed in the city along with their leaders. The Sunnis were provoked by rumors alleging there was a plot by the Isma'ilis, who controlled the strategic fort at Banias, to aid the Crusaders in capturing Damascus in return for control of Tyre. Soon after the massacre, the Crusaders aimed to take advantage of the unstable situation and launch an assault against Damascus with nearly 2,000 knights and 10,000 infantry. However, Buri allied with Zengi and managed to prevent their army from reaching the city. Buri was assassinated by Isma'ili agents in 1132; he was succeeded by his son, Shams al-Mulk Isma'il who ruled tyrannically until he was murdered in 1135 on secret orders from his mother, Safwat al-Mulk Zumurrud; Isma'il's brother, Shihab al-Din Mahmud, replaced him. Meanwhile, Zengi, intent on putting Damascus under his control, married Safwat al-Mulk in 1138. Mahmud's reign then ended in 1139 after he was killed for relatively unknown reasons by members of his family. Mu'in al-Din Unur, his mamluk ("slave soldier") took effective power of the city, prompting Zengi—with Safwat al-Mulk's backing—to lay siege against Damascus the same year. In response, Damascus allied with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem to resist Zengi's forces. Consequently, Zengi withdrew his army and focused on campaigns against northern Syria. In 1144, Zengi conquered Edessa, a crusader stronghold, which led to a new crusade from Europe in 1148. In the meantime, Zengi was assassinated and his territory was divided among his sons, one of whom, Nur ad-Din, emir of Aleppo, made an alliance with Damascus. When the European crusaders arrived, they and the nobles of Jerusalem agreed to attack Damascus. Their siege, however, was a complete failure. When the city seemed to be on the verge of collapse, the crusader army suddenly moved against another section of the walls and was driven back. By 1154, Damascus was firmly under Nur ad-Din's control. In 1164, King Amalric of Jerusalem invaded Fatimid Egypt, requested help from Nur ad-Din. The Nur ad-Din sent his general Shirkuh, and in 1166 Amalric was defeated at the Battle of al-Babein. When Shirkuh died in 1169, he was succeeded by his nephew Yusuf, better known as Saladin, who defeated a joint crusader-Byzantine siege of Damietta. Saladin eventually overthrew the Fatimid caliphs and established himself as Sultan of Egypt. He also began to assert his independence from Nur ad-Din, and with the death of both Amalric and Nur ad-Din in 1174, he was well-placed to begin exerting control over Damascus and Nur ad-Din's other Syrian possessions. In 1177 Saladin was defeated by the crusaders at the Battle of Montgisard, despite his numerical superiority. Saladin also besieged Kerak in 1183, but was forced to withdraw. He finally launched a full invasion of Jerusalem in 1187 and annihilated the crusader army at the Battle of Hattin in July. Acre fell to Saladin soon after, and Jerusalem itself was captured in October. These events shocked Europe, resulting in the Third Crusade in 1189, led by Richard I of England, Philip II of France and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, though the last drowned en route. The surviving crusaders, joined by new arrivals from Europe, put Acre to a lengthy siege which lasted until 1191. After re-capturing Acre, Richard defeated Saladin at the Battle of Arsuf in 1191 and the Battle of Jaffa in 1192, recovering most of the coast for the Christians, but could not recover Jerusalem or any of the inland territory of the kingdom. The crusade came to an end peacefully, with the Treaty of Jaffa in 1192. Saladin allowed pilgrimages to be made to Jerusalem, allowing the Crusaders to fulfill their vows, after which they all returned home. Local crusader barons set about rebuilding their kingdom from Acre and the other coastal cities. Saladin died in 1193, and there were frequent conflicts between different Ayyubid sultans ruling in Damascus and Cairo. Damascus was the capital of independent Ayyubid rulers between 1193 and 1201, from 1218 to 1238, from 1239 to 1245, and from 1250 to 1260. At other times it was ruled by the Ayyubid rulers of Egypt. During the internecine wars fought by the Ayyubid rulers, Damascus was besieged repeatedly, as, e.g., in 1229. The patterned Byzantine and Chinese silks available through Damascus, one of the Western termini of the Silk Road, gave the English language "damask". ===Mamluk period=== Ayyubid rule (and independence) came to an end with the Mongol invasion of Syria in 1260, in which the Mongols led by Kitbuqa entered the city on 1 March 1260, along with the King of Armenia, Hethum I, and the Prince of Antioch, Bohemond VI; hence, the citizens of Damascus saw for the first time for six centuries three Christian potentates ride in triumph through their streets. However, following the Mongol defeat at Ain Jalut on 3 September 1260, Damascus was captured five days later and became the provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, ruled from Egypt, following the Mongol withdrawal. Following their victory at the Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar, the Mongols led by Ghazan besieged the city for ten days, which surrendered between December 30, 1299, and January 6, 1300, though its Citadel resisted. Ghazan then retreated with most of his forces in February, probably because the Mongol horses needed fodder, and left behind about 10,000 horsemen under the Mongol general Mulay. Around March 1300, Mulay returned with his horsemen to Damascus, then followed Ghazan back across the Euphrates. In May 1300, the Egyptian Mamluks returned from Egypt and reclaimed the entire area without a battle. In April 1303, the Mamluks managed to defeat the Mongol army led by Kutlushah and Mulay along with their Armenian allies at the Battle of Marj al-Saffar, to put an end to Mongol invasions of the Levant. Later on, the Black Death of 1348–1349 killed as much as half of the city's population. In 1400, Timur, the Turco-Mongol conqueror, besieged Damascus. The Mamluk sultan dispatched a deputation from Cairo, including Ibn Khaldun, who negotiated with him, but after their withdrawal, Timur sacked the city on 17 March 1401. The Umayyad Mosque was burnt and men and women were taken into slavery. A huge number of the city's artisans were taken to Timur's capital at Samarkand. These were the luckier citizens: many were slaughtered and their heads piled up in a field outside the north-east corner of the walls, where a city square still bears the name Burj al-Ru'us (between modern-day Al-Qassaa and Bab Tuma), originally "the tower of heads". Rebuilt, Damascus continued to serve as a Mamluk provincial capital until 1516. ===Ottoman period=== In early 1516, the Ottoman Empire, wary of the danger of an alliance between the Mamluks and the Persian Safavids, started a campaign of conquest against the Mamluk sultanate. On 21 September, the Mamluk governor of Damascus fled the city, and on 2 October the khutba in the Umayyad mosque was pronounced in the name of Selim I. The day after, the victorious sultan entered the city, staying for three months. On 15 December, he left Damascus by Bab al-Jabiya, intent on the conquest of Egypt. Little appeared to have changed in the city: one army had simply replaced another. However, on his return in October 1517, the sultan ordered the construction of a mosque, tekkiye and mausoleum at the shrine of Shaikh Muhi al-Din ibn Arabi in al-Salihiyah. This was to be the first of Damascus' great Ottoman monuments. During this time, according to an Ottoman census, Damascus had 10,423 households. The Ottomans remained for the next 400 years, except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832 to 1840. Because of its importance as the point of departure for one of the two great Hajj caravans to Mecca, Damascus was treated with more attention by the Porte than its size might have warranted—for most of this period, Aleppo was more populous and commercially more important. In 1559 the western building of Sulaymaniyya Takiyya, comprising a mosque and khan for pilgrims on the road to Mecca, was completed to a design by the famous Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan, and soon afterward the Salimiyya Madrasa was built adjoining it. Early in the nineteenth century, Damascus was noted for its shady cafes along the banks of the Barada. A depiction of these by William Henry Bartlett was published in 1836, along with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon, see Under Ottoman rule, Christians and Jews were considered dhimmis and were allowed to practice their religious precepts. During the Damascus affair of 1840 the false accusation of ritual murder was brought against members of the Jewish community of Damascus. The massacre of Christians in 1860 was also one of the most notorious incidents of these centuries when fighting between Druze and Maronites in Mount Lebanon spilled over into the city. Several thousand Christians were killed in June 1860, with many more being saved through the intervention of the Algerian exile Abd al-Qadir and his soldiers (three days after the massacre started), who brought them to safety in Abd al-Qadir's residence and the Citadel of Damascus. The Christian quarter of the old city (mostly inhabited by Catholics), including several churches, was burnt down. The Christian inhabitants of the notoriously poor and refractory Midan district outside the walls (mostly Orthodox) were, however, protected by their Muslim neighbors. American Missionary E.C. Miller records that in 1867 the population of the city was 'about' 140,000, of whom 30,000 were Christians, 10,000 Jews, and 100,000 'Mohammedans' with fewer than 100 Protestant Christians. In the meantime, American writer Mark Twain visited Damascus, then wrote about his travel in The Innocents Abroad, in which he mentioned: "Though old as history itself, thou art fresh as the breath of spring, blooming as thine own rose-bud, and fragrant as thine own orange flower, O Damascus, pearl of the East!". In November 1898, German emperor Wilhelm II toured Damascus, during his trip to the Ottoman Empire. ===Modern period=== ====20th century==== In the early years of the 20th century, nationalist sentiment in Damascus, initially cultural in its interest, began to take a political coloring, largely in reaction to the turkicisation program of the Committee of Union and Progress government established in Istanbul in 1908. The hanging of a number of patriotic intellectuals by Jamal Pasha, governor of Damascus, in Beirut and Damascus in 1915 and 1916 further stoked nationalist feeling, and in 1918, as the forces of the Arab Revolt and the British Imperial forces approached, residents fired on the retreating Turkish troops. On 1 October 1918, T. E. Lawrence entered Damascus, the third arrival of the day, the first being the Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade, led by Major A.C.N. 'Harry' Olden. Two days later, 3 October 1918, the forces of the Arab revolt led by Prince Faisal also entered Damascus. A military government under Shukri Pasha was named and Faisal ibn Hussein was proclaimed king of Syria. Political tension arose in November 1917, when the new Bolshevik government in Russia revealed the Sykes-Picot Agreement whereby Britain and France had arranged to partition the Arab East between them. A new Franco-British proclamation on 17 November promised the "complete and definitive freeing of the peoples so long oppressed by the Turks." The Syrian National Congress in March adopted a democratic constitution. However, the Versailles Conference had granted France a mandate over Syria, and in 1920 a French army commanded by the General Mariano Goybet crossed the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, defeated a small Syrian defensive expedition at the Battle of Maysalun and entered Damascus. The French made Damascus the capital of their League of Nations Mandate for Syria. When in 1925 the Great Syrian Revolt in the Hauran spread to Damascus, the French suppressed it with heavy weaponry, bombing and shelling the city on 9 May 1926. As a result, the area of the old city between Al-Hamidiyah Souq and Medhat Pasha Souq was burned to the ground, with many deaths, and has since then been known as al-Hariqa ("the fire"). The old city was surrounded with barbed wire to prevent rebels from infiltrating the Ghouta, and a new road was built outside the northern ramparts to facilitate the movement of armored cars. Reporter George Seldes viewed 308 bodies, and suggested there might be more dead under the rubble -- and that a maximum might be one thousand. "When the Muslims, who had rebelled, threatened to kill all Christians, General Maurice Sarrail gave the civilian population time to evacuate, then ordered Fort Gouraud to fire some warning shots, then shell the rebel sector." On 21 June 1941, 3 weeks into the Allied Syria-Lebanon campaign, Damascus was captured from the Vichy French forces by a mixed British Indian and Free French force. The French agreed to withdraw in 1946, following the British intervention during the Levant Crisis, thus leading to the full independence of Syria. Damascus remained the capital. In 1979, the Old City of Damascus, with its collection of archaeological and historical religious sites, was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. ==== Civil war ==== By January 2012, clashes between the regular army and rebels reached the outskirts of Damascus, reportedly preventing people from leaving or reaching their houses, especially when security operations there intensified from the end of January into February. By June 2012, bullets and shrapnel shells smashed into homes in Damascus overnight as troops battled the Free Syrian Army in the streets. At least three tank shells slammed into residential areas in the central Damascus neighborhood of Qaboun, according to activists. Intense exchanges of assault rifle fire marked the clash, according to residents and amateur video posted online. The Damascus suburb of Ghouta suffered heavy bombing in December 2017 and a further wave of bombing started in February 2018, also known as Rif Dimashq Offensive. On 20 May 2018, Damascus and the entire Rif Dimashq Governorate came fully under government control for the first time in 7 years after the evacuation of IS from Yarmouk Camp. In September 2019, Damascus entered the Guinness World Records as the least liveable city, scoring 30.7 points on the Economist's Global Liveability Index in 2019, based on factors such as: stability, healthcare, culture and environment, education, and infrastructure. However, the trend of being the least liveable city on Earth started in 2017, and continued as of 2024. Syrian rebels, led by the HTS rebel group entered Damascus on 8 December 2024 after a series of offensives, capturing Sednaya Prison and later resulting in the collapse of Ba'athist Syria. On 23 February 2025, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu demanded the complete demilitarization of southern Syria in the provinces of Quneitra, Daraa and Suweyda, and the withdrawal of Syrian forces from Syrian territory south of Damascus. Syria's new regime under President Ahmed al-Sharaa rejected Netanyahu's demands. Hours later, Israel conducted a wave of airstrikes in Damascus and southern Syria. ==Economy== The historical role that Damascus played as an important trade center has changed in recent years due to political development in the region as well as the development of modern trade. Most goods produced in Damascus, as well as in Syria, are distributed to countries of the Arabian peninsula. The tourism industry in Damascus has a lot of potential, however, the civil war has hampered these prospects. The abundance of cultural wealth in Damascus has been modestly employed since the late 1980s with the development of many accommodation and transportation establishments and other related investments. In 2009 new office space was built and became available on the real estate market. Marota City and Basilia City are two new development projects in Damascus. These two projects are viewed as post-war reconstruction efforts. The Damascus stock exchange formally opened for trade in March 2009, and the exchange is the only stock exchange in Syria. It is located in the Barzeh district, within Syria's financial markets and securities commission. Its final home is to be located in the upmarket business district of Yaafur. Damascus is home to a wide range of industrial activities, such as textile, food processing, cement, and various chemical industries. Damascus is the center of a crowded metropolitan area with an estimated population of 5 million. The metropolitan area of Damascus includes the cities of Douma, Harasta, Darayya, Al-Tall and Jaramana. The city's growth rate is higher than in Syria as a whole, primarily due to rural-urban migration and the influx of young Syrian migrants drawn by employment and educational opportunities. The migration of Syrian youths to Damascus has resulted in an average age within the city that is below the national average. They reside primarily in the neighborhoods of Wadi al-Mashari ("Zorava" or "Zore Afa" in Kurdish) and Rukn al-Din. Other minorities include Palestinians, Assyrians, Syrian Turkmen, Armenians, Circassians and a small Greek community. There was once a significant Jewish community in Damascus, but as of 2023, no Jews remain. ===Religion=== Islam is the largest religion. The majority of Muslims are Sunni while Alawites and Twelver Shi'a comprise sizeable minorities. Alawites live primarily in the neighbourhoods of Mezzeh 86 and Sumariyah part of the Mezzeh district, in addition to the neighbourhood of Eish al-Warwar in the district of Barzeh. Twelvers primarily live near the Shia holy sites of Sayyidah Ruqayya and Sayyidah Zaynab. It is believed that there are more than 200 mosques in Damascus, the most well-known being the Umayyad Mosque. Christians represent about 10%–15% of the population. Several Eastern Christian rites have their headquarters in Damascus, including the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, and the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch. The Christian districts in the city are Bab Tuma, Qassaa and Ghassani. Each have many churches, most notably the ancient Chapel of Saint Paul, St. Paul Cathedral, Our Lady of the Dormition Cathedral, and St Georges Cathedral in Bab Tuma. At the suburb of Soufanieh a series of apparitions of the Virgin Mary have reportedly been observed between 1982 and 2004. The Patriarchal See of the Syriac Orthodox is based in Damascus, Bab Touma. A smaller Druze minority inhabits the city, notably in the mixed Christian-Druze suburbs of Tadamon, Jaramana, and Sahnaya. There was a small Jewish community namely in what is called Harat al-Yahud the Jewish quarter. They are the remnants of an ancient and much larger Jewish presence in Syria, dating back at least to Roman times, if not before to the time of King David. File:Melkite Greek Catholic Church, Damascus, Syria.jpg\|The Greek-Melkite Patriarchal Cathedral of the Dormition of Our Lady File:Syriac Catholic Church, Damascus 01.jpg\|The Syriac Catholic Cathedral of Saint Paul File:Damascus-Bab Kisan.jpg\|The Chapel of Saint Paul File:Takiyya as-Süleimaniyya Mosque 01.jpg\|The Sulaymaniyya Takiyya File:Syria, Damascus, The Umayyad Mosque, The Great Mosque of Damascus.jpg\|The Umayyad Mosque File:Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque 03.jpg\|The Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque ====Sufism==== Sufism throughout the second half of the 20th century has been an influential current in the Sunni religious practises, particularly in Damascus. The largest women-only and girls-only Muslim movement in the world happens to be Sufi-oriented and is based in Damascus, led by Munira al-Qubaysi. Syrian Sufism has its stronghold in urban regions such as Damascus, where it also established political movements such as Zayd, with the help of a series of mosques, and clergy such as Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, Sa'id Hawwa, Abd al-Rahman al-Shaghouri and Muhammad al-Yaqoubi. ==Historical sites== The Ancient City of Damascus was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1979. Beginning with the Aramaic kingdom (11th-7th centuries BC), Damascus grew into the political and urban hub for the region. Today, the ancient city encompasses over 125 cultural heritage sites that represent Damascus’ long history, including archaeological and architectural remains from the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Islamic, and Ottoman periods. Tragically, ongoing conflict and war continues to threaten the archaeological heritage and prevent archaeological discovery of Damascus. The Citadel of Damascus is in the northwest corner of the Old City. The Damascus Straight Street (referred to in the account of the conversion of St. Paul in Acts 9:11), also known as the Via Recta, was the decumanus (east–west main street) of Roman Damascus, and extended for over . Today, it consists of the street of Bab Sharqi and the Souk Medhat Pasha, a covered market. The Bab Sharqi street is filled with small shops and leads to the old Christian quarter of Bab Tuma (St. Thomas's Gate), where St George's Cathedral, the seat of the Syriac Orthodox Church, is notably located. Medhat Pasha Souq is also a main market in Damascus and was named after Midhat Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Syria who renovated the Souk. At the end of Bab Sharqi Street, one reaches the House of Ananias, an underground chapel that was the cellar of Ananias's house. The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Grand Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest mosques in the world and also one of the oldest sites of continuous prayer since the rise of Islam. A shrine in the mosque is said to contain the body of St. John the Baptist. The mausoleum where Saladin was buried is located in the gardens just outside the mosque. Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque, the shrine of the youngest daughter of Husayn ibn Ali, can also be found near the Umayyad Mosque. The ancient district of Amara is also within walking distance from these sites. Another heavily visited site is Sayyidah Zaynab Mosque, where the tomb of Zaynab bint Ali is located. Shias, Fatemids, and Dawoodi Bohras believe that after the battle of Karbala (680 AD), in Iraq, the Umayyad Caliph Yezid brought Imam Husain's head to Damascus, where it was first kept in the courtyard of Yezid Mahal, now part of Umayyad Mosque complex. All other remaining members of Imam Husain's family (left alive after Karbala) along with the heads of all other companions, who were killed at Karbala, were also brought to Damascus. These members were kept as prisoners on the outskirts of the city (near Bab al-Saghir), where the other heads were kept at the same location, now called Ru'ûs ash-Shuhadâ-e-Karbala or ganj-e-sarha-e-shuhada-e-Karbala. There is a qibla (place of worship) marked at the place, where devotees say Imam Ali-Zain-ul-Abedin used to pray while in captivity. The Harat Al Yehud or Jewish Quarter is a recently restored historical tourist destination popular among Europeans before the outbreak of civil war. ===Walls and gates of Damascus=== The Old City of Damascus with an approximate area of 86.12 hectares is surrounded by ramparts on the northern and eastern sides and part of the southern side. There are seven extant city gates, the oldest of which dates back to the Roman period. These are, clockwise from the north of the citadel: Bab al-Faradis ("the gate of the orchards", or "of the paradise") Bab al-Salam ("the gate of peace"), all on the north boundary of the Old City Bab Tuma ("Touma" or "Thomas's Gate") in the north-east corner, leading into the Christian quarter of the same name, Bab Sharqi ("eastern gate") in the east wall, the only one to retain its Roman plan Bab Kisan in the south-east, from which tradition holds that Saint Paul made his escape from Damascus, lowered from the ramparts in a basket; this gate has been closed and turned into Chapel of Saint Paul marking this event, Bab al-Saghir (The Small Gate) Bab al-Jabiya at the entrance to Souk Midhat Pasha, in the southwest. Other areas outside the walled city also bear the name "gate": Bab al-Faraj, Bab Mousalla and Bab Sreija, both to the south-west of the walled city. ===Churches in the old city=== Chapel of Saint Paul House of Saint Ananias Mariamite Cathedral of Damascus Cathedral of the Dormition of Our Lady Saint John the Damascene Church Saint Paul's Laura Saint George's Syriac Orthodox Cathedral ===Islamic sites in the old city=== Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque Bab Saghir Cemetery Mausoleum of Saladin Nabi Habeel Mosque ===Madrasas=== Al-Adiliyah Madrasa Az-Zahiriyah Library Nur al-Din Madrasa ===Khans=== Khan Jaqmaq Khan As'ad Pasha Khan Sulayman Pasha ===Old Damascene houses=== Azm Palace, originally built in 1750 as the residence for the Ottoman governor of Damascus As'ad Pasha al-Azm, housing the Museum of Arts and Popular Traditions. Bayt al-Aqqad. Maktab Anbar, a mid-19th-century Jewish private mansion, restored by the Ministry of Culture in 1976 to serve as a library, exhibition center, museum and craft workshops. Beit al-Mamlouka, a 17th-century Damascene house, serving as a luxury boutique hotel within the old city since 2005. ===Threats to the future of the old City=== Due to the rapid decline of the population of Old Damascus (between 1995 and 2009 about 30,000 people moved out of the old city for more modern accommodation), a growing number of buildings are being abandoned or are falling into disrepair. In March 2007, the local government announced that it would be demolishing Old City buildings along a stretch of rampart walls as part of a redevelopment scheme. These factors resulted in the Old City being placed by the World Monuments Fund on its 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world. It is hoped that its inclusion on the list will draw more public awareness to these significant threats to the future of the historic Old City of Damascus. ====State of old Damascus==== In spite of the recommendations of the UNESCO World Heritage Center: Souq al-Atiq, a protected buffer zone, was destroyed in three days in November 2006; King Faysal Street, a traditional hand-craft region in a protected buffer zone near the walls of Old Damascus between the Citadel and Bab Touma, is threatened by a proposed motorway. In 2007, the Old City of Damascus and notably the district of Bab Tuma have been recognized by The World Monument Fund as one of the most endangered sites in the world. In October 2010, Global Heritage Fund named Damascus one of 12 cultural heritage sites most "on the verge" of irreparable loss and destruction. ==Education== Damascus is the main center of education in Syria. It is home to Damascus University, which is the oldest and largest university in Syria. After the enactment of legislation allowing private higher institutions, several new universities were established in the city and the surrounding area, including: Syrian Virtual University International University for Science and Technology Syrian Private University Arab International University University of Kalamoon Yarmouk Private University Wadi International University Al-Jazeera University European University Damascus The institutes play an important rule in the education, including: Higher Institute of Business Administration Higher Institute of Applied Science and Technology Higher Institute of Dramatic Arts National Institute of Administration In Damascus, Higher education in Syrian Arab Republic started with sustainable development steps through Damascus University. Additional: Syrian International Academy for Training and Development ==Transportation== Damascus is linked with other major cities in Syria via a motorway network. The M5 connects Damascus with Homs, Hama, Aleppo and Turkey in the north and Jordan in the south. The M1 is going from Homs onto Latakia and Tartus. The M4 links the city with Al-Hasakah and Iraq. The M1 highway connects the city to western Syria and Beirut. The main airport is Damascus International Airport, approximately away from the city, with connections to a few Middle Eastern cities. Before the beginning of the Syrian civil war, the airport had connectivity to many Asian, European, African, and, South American cities. Streets in Damascus are often narrow, especially in the older parts of the city, and speed bumps are widely used to limit the speed of vehicles. Many taxi companies operate in Damascus. Fares are regulated by law and taxi drivers are obliged to use a taximeter. Public transport in Damascus depends extensively on buses and minibuses. There are about one hundred lines that operate inside the city and some of them extend from the city center to nearby suburbs. There is no schedule for the lines, and due to the limited number of official bus stops, buses will usually stop wherever a passenger needs to get on or off. The number of buses serving the same line is relatively high, which minimizes the waiting time. Lines are not numbered, rather they are given captions mostly indicating the two endpoints and possibly an important station along the line. Between 2019 and 2022, more than 100 modern buses were delivered from China as part of the international agreement. These deliveries strengthened and modernized the public transport of Damascus. Served by Chemins de Fer Syriens, the former main railway station of Damascus was al-Hejaz railway station, about west of the old city. The station is now defunct and the tracks have been removed, but there still is a ticket counter and a shuttle to Damascus Qadam station in the south of the city, which now functions as the main railway station. In 2008, the government announced a plan to construct a Damascus Metro. The green line will be an essential west–east axis for the future public transportation network, serving Moadamiyeh, Sumariyeh, Mezzeh, Damascus University, Hijaz, the Old City, Abbassiyeen and Qaboun Pullman bus station. A four-line metro network is expected to be in operation by 2050. ==Culture== Damascus was chosen as the 2008 Arab Capital of Culture. The preparation for the festivity began in February 2007 with the establishing of the Administrative Committee for "Damascus Arab Capital of Culture" by a presidential decree. Museums in Damascus includes National Museum of Damascus, Azem Palace, Military Museum, October War Panorama Museum, Museum of Arabic Calligraphy and Nur al-Din Bimaristan ===Sports and leisure=== Popular sports include football, basketball, swimming, tennis, table tennis, equestrian and chess. Damascus is home to many football clubs that participate in the Syrian Premier League including al-Jaish, al-Shorta, Al-Wahda and Al-Majd. Many Other sports clubs are located in several districts of the city: Barada SC, Al-Nidal SC, Al-Muhafaza, Qasioun SC, al-Thawra SC, Maysalun SC, al-Fayhaa SC, Dummar SC, al-Majd SC and al-Arin SC. The fifth and the seventh Pan Arab Games were held in Damascus in 1976 and 1992 respectively. The now modernized Al-Fayhaa Sports City features a basketball court and a hall that can accommodate up to 8,000 people. In late November 2021, Syria's national basketball team played there against Kazakhstan, making Damascus host of Syria's first international basketball tournament in almost two decades. The city also has a modern golf course located near the Ebla Cham Palace Hotel on the southeastern outskirts of Damascus. Damascus has a busy nightlife. Coffeehouses offer Arabic coffee, tea and nargileh (water pipes). Card games, tables (backgammon variants), and chess are activities frequented in cafés. These coffeehouses had an international reputation in the past, as indicated by Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poetical illustration, Cafes in Damascus, to a picture by William Henry Bartlett in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837. Current movies can be seen at Cinema City which was previously known as Cinema Dimashq. Tishreen Park is one of the largest parks in Damascus. It is home to the annual Damascus Flower Show. Other parks include al-Jahiz, al-Sibbki, al-Tijara, al-Wahda, etc... The city's famous Ghouta oasis is also a weekend destination for recreation. Many recreation centers operate in the city including sports clubs, swimming pools, and golf courses. The Syrian Arab Horse Association in Damascus offers a wide range of activities and services for horse breeders and riders. ===Nearby attractions=== Madaya: a small mountainous town and well-known holiday resort. Bloudan: a town located north-west of Damascus, its moderate temperature and low humidity in summer attracts many visitors from Damascus and throughout Syria, Lebanon and the Persian Gulf. Zabadani: a city close to the border with Lebanon. Its mild weather along with the scenic views, made the town a popular resort both for tourists and for visitors from other Syrian cities. Maaloula: a town dominated by speakers of Western Neo-Aramaic. Saidnaya: a city located in the mountains, above sea level, it was one of the episcopal cities of the ancient Patriarchate of Antioch. ==Twin towns – sister cities== Ankara, Turkey Astana, Kazakhstan Bucharest, Romania Buenos Aires, Argentina Córdoba, Spain Dubai, United Arab Emirates Istanbul, Turkey Rabat, Morocco Toledo, Spain Yerevan, Armenia ==Notable people==	[ "Tadamon, Syria", "Rabat", "Al-Wahda SC (Syria)", "Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi", "Battle of Yarmouk", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Ministry of Culture (Syria)", "Silk Road", "Caligula", "Above mean sea level", "resh", "Rif Dimashq Governorate campaign", "Western Neo-Aramaic", "Ottoman Empire", "Bolshevik", "William Henry Bartlett", "Imad ad-Din Zengi", "Guinness World Records", "Shukri Pasha Al-Ayyubi", "Zenodorus son of Lysanias", "Bab Mousalla", "Syrian Premier League", "Tartus", "Petra", "Sufism", "Siege of Damascus (1229)", "Syrian National Congress", "List of largest cities in the Levant region by population", "Babylon", "Urbanization", "buses", "Anti-Lebanon Mountains", "Yaafour", "Mayor–council government", "As'ad Pasha al-Azm", "Neo-Babylonian", "Battle of Hattin", "October War Panorama", "Amarna letters", "Grand Mosque of Damascus", "Governorates of Syria", "Hethum I, King of Armenia", "Sebastia, Nablus", "Human Development Index", "Rezon the Syrian", "Higher Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology (Damascus)", "Yarmouk River", "Global Liveability Ranking", "al-Salihiyah, Damascus", "2024 Syrian opposition offensives", "Eastern Orthodox", "Mu'in al-Din Unur", "madrasa", "Midan", "Bab al-Faraj (Damascus)", "Syria's national basketball team", "Jamal Pasha", "Ahmad ibn Tulun", "2024 Israeli invasion of Syria", "Abbasid dynasty", "Citadel of Damascus", "Quaker", "Circassians in Syria", "nargileh", "Duqaq (Seljuk ruler of Damascus)", "Phoenicia", "Syrian Turkmen", "Bab al-Jabiya", "Barzeh, Syria", "Battle of Ain Jalut", "s:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837/Cafes in Damascus", "3rd Light Horse Brigade", "taximeter", "Black Death", "government of Syria", "Marjeh Square", "Daraa Governorate", "Sednaya Prison", "Barada SC", "Az-Zahiriyah Library", "China", "Battle of the Zab", "Maktab Anbar", "Cinema Dimashq", "Bayt al-Aqqad", "Bab Sreija", "Jaramana", "T. E. Lawrence", "Old South Arabian", "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration", "Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt", "Mulay", "Aramaic language", "NOAA", "ritual murder", "Syria", "League of Nations mandate", "etymology", "Córdoba, Spain", "Mariamite Cathedral of Damascus", "Ba'athist Syria", "John the Baptist", "Associated Press", "Hama", "Mawdud", "Iraq", "Bohemond VI of Antioch", "basketball", "Semitic people", "Wadi International University", "Khan Sulayman Pasha", "Rashidun army", "St. John the Baptist", "Paul of Tarsus", "Muslims", "M4 Motorway (Syria)", "International University for Science and Technology", "Azm Palace", "Haaretz", "Arabia Standard Time", "Latakia", "Decumanus Maximus", "Arabic coffee", "Chapel of Saint Paul", "Hajj", "Old City of Damascus", "Third Crusade", "Beirut", "Madaya, Syria", "Al-Nidal SC", "The New York Times", "Pax Romana", "Ancient Rome", "Diyarbakir", "Zobah", "Arabian Peninsula", "Sarouja", "1860 Druze-Christian conflict in Lebanon", "Shia Islam", "Carbon-14", "Arab Muslims", "Al-Tall (Syria)", "Transport in Syria", "Ain al-Fijah", "List of oldest continuously inhabited cities", "Ottoman rule", "Syrian Virtual University", "al-Muqaddasi", "Istanbul", "Umayyad Mosque", "Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah", "Arabia Petraea", "Seleucid Empire", "Ben-Hadad II", "King Ahab", "minibuses", "Syriac Orthodox Church", "Burid Dynasty", "Bab al-Saghir", "Khanqah", "Amara District", "Via Recta", "Chedorlaomer", "Tiglath-Pileser III", "Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)", "Douma, Syria", "Augustus Henry Keane", "Fall of Damascus (2024)", "Nebuchadnezzar II", "Turco-Mongol", "Hijaz", "Iron Age", "Zumurrud Khatun", "Arab world", "oasis", "Higher Institute of Dramatic Arts (Damascus)", "King Faysal Street", "Ptolemaic dynasty", "Ibn Khaldun", "Central Bureau of Statistics (Syria)", "Maher Marwan", "Alexander the Great", "Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik", "Syriac Catholic Church", "Köppen-Geiger climate classification system", "UNESCO", "siege of Jerusalem (1187)", "Ali", "World War I", "Bab al-Faradis", "Apollodorus of Damascus", "Ernst Georg Ravenstein", "Decapolis", "Bronze Age", "Battle of Damascus (1941)", "Medina", "Damascus International Airport", "Yarmouk (camp)", "List of World Heritage in Danger", "Salimiyya Madrasa", "Syrian Private University", "Ibn Arabi", "Shirkuh", "Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018)", "Al-Jazeera University", "Jasmine", "Souq al-Atiq", "Safavids", "Midhat Pasha", "Al-Qassaa", "Abd al-Rahman al-Shaghouri", "Bloudan", "Caliphate", "Marcus Ulpius Traianus (father of Trajan)", "Homs", "Mount Qasioun", "Ancient Semitic religion", "Al-Majd SC", "Philip II of France", "Christianity", "siege of Kerak", "Christian Arab", "Sayyidah Zainab Mosque, Damascus", "Royal Asiatic Society", "Mamluk sultanate", "Bab Sharqi", "private sector", "Rukneddine", "chess", "Kutlushah", "Palmyra", "Faisal I of Iraq", "Baalshamin", "Tyre, Lebanon", "Sulaymaniyya Takiyya", "Aretas IV Philopatris", "Pope Gregory III", "Battle of Maysalun", "Ananias of Damascus", "dhimmi", "Nicolaus of Damascus", "Amalric of Jerusalem", "Sea Peoples", "Kazakhstan men's national basketball team", "Kingdom of Jerusalem", "M1 motorway (Syria)", "Thomas the Apostle", "City & Society", "Mausoleum of Saladin", "Zaynab bint Ali", "Dummar", "Coele-Syria", "Marwan II", "Damascus Securities Exchange", "Tutush I", "Buenos Aires", "Sykes-Picot Agreement", "Resafa", "Mongol invasions of the Levant", "Al-Hamidiyah Souq", "Demetrius III Eucaerus", "Chemins de Fer Syriens", "caravan city", "Arabs", "Aram, son of Shem", "World Heritage Site", "Bakdash (ice cream parlor)", "Cathedral of the Dormition of Our Lady, Damascus", "Nabi Habeel Mosque", "Al-Shorta SC (Syria)", "Arabic language", "Fatimid", "Euphrates", "Khan As'ad Pasha", "Hamdanid", "Al-Salihiyah, Damascus", "Siege of Damascus (1400)", "Herod Philip II.", "Mariano Goybet", "World Monuments Fund", "Arab International University", "Desert climate", "Palestinian refugees", "Committee of Union and Progress", "Toghtekin", "Rome", "Ikhshidid", "Sahnaya", "Battle of Marj al-Saffar (1126)", "atabeg", "Siege of Damascus (1148)", "Hadadezer", "Yemen", "Battle of Montgisard", "Köppen climate classification", "Battle of Marj al-Saffar (1303)", "Levant Crisis", "Canaan", "Hisham", "Mecca", "Trajan", "Husayn ibn Ali", "Al-Hasakah", "List of cities in Syria", "Europe", "Suwayda Governorate", "Sa'id Hawwa", "2008 Arab Capital of Culture", "Abbasid", "Treaty of Jaffa (1192)", "Azem Palace", "National Museum of Damascus", "Mosul", "Qadam", "al-Aziz", "Greek language", "Syria (region)", "1976 Pan Arab Games", "Nur al-Din Bimaristan", "Battle of Qarqar", "Holiest sites in Islam", "League of Nations", "Anushtakin al-Dizbari", "association football", "Book of Genesis", "Banias", "Mezzeh", "Timur", "caravanserai", "Flavius Josephus", "Nabataean kingdom", "privatization", "Mimar Sinan", "House of Saint Ananias", "food processing", "Ramesses II", "Jordan", "Mu'awiya I", "Melkite Greek Catholic Church", "Capture of Damascus (1920)", "Pompey", "Harasta", "Siege of Acre (1189–1191)", "Augustus", "Vichy French", "Shahrbaraz", "Siege of Damascus (634)", "Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham", "Syriac language", "tantour", "Richard I of England", "Selim I", "Ghouta", "Bab Kisan", "Second Crusade", "Bab Saghir", "Jabal Qasioun", "Hauran", "Bab al-Salam", "Beqaa Valley", "Syrian civil war", "Heraclius", "Al-Jaish SC (Syria)", "above sea level", "mosque", "backgammon", "Public transport", "World Heritage Committee", "apparitions of the Virgin Mary", "Damascus University", "Hattusili III", "Battle of Arsuf", "Isma'ili", "Maaloula", "Alawites", "Alptakin", "Ancient Egyptians", "James Sprent Virtue", "Anti-Lebanon", "Coffeehouse", "moral authority", "Ottoman Porte", "New York Review Books", "Twelver Shi'a", "George Seldes", "Jewish Quarter of Damascus", "Barada", "Samarkand", "Mark Twain", "Al-Adiliyah Madrasa", "Yerevan", "Muhammad", "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "Tulunid", "boutique hotel", "Syrian Desert", "Qassaa", "Biblical Hebrew language", "Qarmatians", "mamluk", "Wilhelm II, German Emperor", "Al Jazira, Mesopotamia", "Taj al-Muluk Buri", "Charles G. Addison", "Tishreen Park", "Dubai", "Shams al-Mulk Isma'il", "Global Heritage Fund", "desert climate", "Syria-Lebanon campaign", "Equestrianism", "Ayyubid dynasty", "Damascus Straight Street", "Popes", "Druze", "M5 Motorway (Syria)", "Metropolis", "Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor", "Munira al-Qubaysi", "Toledo, Spain", "Damascus Document", "Our Lady of Soufanieh", "Yarmouk Private University", "khutba", "Abraham", "Hadrian", "Sharifian Army", "Bab Tuma", "Capture of Damascus (1918)", "HMS Orion", "Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch", "Ghazan", "Cathedral of Our Lady of the Dormition", "New England", "Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri", "Conversion of Saint Paul", "Umayyad Caliphate", "Tables (board game)", "Andalusia", "Islam", "Rashidun Caliphate", "Jerusalem", "the Silk Road", "International airport", "Ben-Hadad I", "Lebanon", "Medhat Pasha Souq", "Kurds in Syria", "Syrian campaigns of John Tzimiskes", "Maronites", "Zabadani", "Aramaeans", "Palestinians", "Quneitra Governorate", "hippodamian", "847 Damascus earthquake", "turkicisation", "Yale University Press", "Versailles Conference", "Astana", "British Library", "Greeks in Syria", "Seleucus I Nicator", "Fall of the Assad regime", "Baghdad", "Great Syrian Revolt", "Sunni", "Ahmed al-Sharaa", "Khalid ibn al-Walid", "Herod the Great", "Pope John V", "Bilad al-Sham", "Acre, Israel", "Encyclopaedia of Islam", "Acts of the Apostles", "Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628", "Egyptian language", "Bucharest", "Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)", "consul", "Arab Kingdom of Syria", "Baldwin II of Jerusalem", "Turkey", "Beit al-Mamlouka Hotel", "List of largest cities in the Arab world", "Ankara", "Umar", "Saidnaya", "Antiquities of the Jews", "1992 Pan Arab Games", "Battle of al-Babein", "Arab Revolt", "Al-Masdar News", "The Innocents Abroad", "Four Seasons Hotel Damascus", "Saladin", "Jewish Christians", "Qumran", "ABC-CLIO", "platform shoes", "Damascus affair", "Jews", "Arthur Charles Olden", "Damascus International Fair", "Antioch", "Thutmose III", "Necho II", "Marota City", "Cultural heritage", "al-Hariqa", "Aleppo", "Battle of Jaffa (1192)", "Monophysite", "Levant", "Muhammad al-Yaqoubi", "University of Kalamoon", "Biryawaza", "Hittites", "Uz (son of Aram)", "Arabia", "Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque", "Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar", "French Mandate of Syria and the Lebanon", "Nur ad-Din Zangi", "Sunni Islam", "Ramla", "Hejaz Railway", "Septimius Severus", "Harith ibn Abi Shamir", "Benjamin Netanyahu", "Assyrians", "Municipalities of Damascus", "Tell Ramad", "Seljuq Turks", "Mount Lebanon", "2025 Interim Constitution of Syria", "Crusade of 1129", "Latin", "rain shadow effect", "Umar II", "Damascus Governorate", "Cathedral of Saint George, Damascus", "Darayya", "Kitbuqa", "Asia Minor", "Hazael", "Nur al-Din Madrasa", "Akkadian language", "Patriarchate of Antioch", "Al-Muhafaza SC", "Persian Gulf", "Ancient Egypt", "Economist Intelligence Unit", "Damietta", "List of governors of Damascus", "Armenians in Syria", "Khan Jaqmaq", "Aram-Damascus", "Arabic tea", "Card game", "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant", "Yarmouk Camp", "Harran", "Trachonitis", "Syriac Catholic Cathedral of Saint Paul", "Syrian Jews", "Ali ibn Husayn", "Bashan", "Ancient City of Damascus", "List of World Heritage Sites in the Arab States", "Umayyad", "Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan", "Crusader invasions of Egypt", "Siege of Edessa (1144)", "Pan Arab Games", "Letitia Elizabeth Landon" ]
8,921	Diplomatic immunity	Diplomatic immunity is a principle of international law by which certain foreign government officials are recognized as having legal immunity from the jurisdiction of another country. It allows diplomats safe passage and freedom of travel in a host country, and affords almost total protection from local lawsuits and criminal prosecution. Alternatively, the home country may prosecute the diplomat on its own accord or at the behest of the host country. During the evolution of international justice, many wars were considered rebellions or unlawful by one or more combatant sides. In such cases, the servants of the "criminal" sovereign were often considered accomplices and their persons violated. In other circumstances, harbingers of inconsiderable demands were killed as a declaration of war. Herodotus records that when heralds of the Persian king Xerxes demanded "earth and water" (i.e., symbols of submission) of Greek cities, the Athenians threw them into a pit and the Spartans threw them down a well for the purpose of suggesting they would find both earth and water at the bottom, these often being mentioned by the messenger as a threat of siege. However, even for Herodotus, this maltreatment of envoys is a crime. He recounts a story of divine vengeance befalling Sparta for this deed. A Roman envoy was urinated on as he was leaving the city of Tarentum. The oath of the envoy, "This stain will be washed away with blood!", was fulfilled during the Pyrrhic War. Gregory of Tours recorded that Frankish envoys sent from King Childebert II to the Byzantine emperor Maurice were killed in Carthage by the prefect of the city, after one of the Franks had murdered a merchant. After Emperor Maurice heard about this, he ordered for several Carthaginians to be arrested and sent to Childebert for judgment on account of what happened to his envoys. The arrest and ill-treatment of the envoy of Raja Raja Chola by the king of Kulasekhara dynasty (Second Cheras), which is now part of modern India, led to the naval Kandalur War in AD 994. The Islamic prophet Muhammad sent and received envoys and strictly forbade harming them. This practice was continued by the Rashidun caliphs who exchanged diplomats with the Ethiopians and the Byzantines. This diplomatic exchange continued during the Arab–Byzantine wars. Classical Sharia called for hospitality to be shown towards anyone who has been granted amān (or right of safe passage). Amān was readily granted to any emissary bearing a letter or another sealed document. The duration of the amān was typically a year. Envoys with this right of passage were given immunity of person and property. They were exempt from taxation, as long as they did not engage in trade. ===16th–19th century=== The British Parliament first guaranteed diplomatic immunity to foreign ambassadors under the Diplomatic Privileges Act in 1709, after Count Andrey Matveyev, a Russian resident in London, was subjected to verbal and physical abuse by British bailiffs. Modern diplomatic immunity evolved parallel to the development of modern diplomacy. In the 17th century, European diplomats realized that protection from prosecution was essential to doing their jobs, and a set of rules evolved guaranteeing the rights of diplomats. These were still confined to Western Europe and were closely tied to the prerogatives of nobility. Thus, an emissary to the Ottoman Empire could expect to be arrested and imprisoned upon the outbreak of hostilities between his state and the empire. The French Revolution also disrupted this system, as the revolutionary state and Napoleon imprisoned numerous diplomats who were accused of working against France. More recently, the Iran hostage crisis is universally considered a violation of diplomatic immunity. Although the hostage takers did not officially represent the state, host countries are obligated to protect diplomatic property and personnel. On the other hand, during World War II, diplomatic immunity was upheld and the embassies of the belligerents were evacuated through neutral countries. For the upper class of the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, diplomatic immunity was an easy concept to understand. The first embassies were not permanent establishments but actual visits by high-ranking representatives, often close relatives of the sovereign, or by the sovereign in person. As permanent representations evolved, usually on a treaty basis between two powers, they were frequently staffed by relatives of the sovereign or high-ranking nobles. Warfare was a status of hostilities not between individual states but between their sovereigns, as well as the officers and officials of European governments, and armies often changed employers. Truces and ceasefires were commonplace, as was the fraternization between officers of opposing armies. If officers were taken prisoner, they usually gave their parole and were only restricted to a city away from the theatre of war. Almost always, they were given leave to carry their personal sidearms. Even during the French Revolutionary Wars, British scientists visited the French Academy. In such an atmosphere, it was easy to accept that some persons were immune to the laws. After all, they were still bound by strict requirements of honour and customs. ===Modern era and Vienna convention=== In the 19th century, the Congress of Vienna reasserted the rights of diplomats; they have been largely respected since then, as the European model has spread throughout the world. Currently, diplomatic relations, including diplomatic immunity, are governed internationally by the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which has been ratified by almost every country in the world. In modern times, diplomatic immunity continues to provide a means, albeit imperfect, to safeguard diplomatic personnel from any animosity that might arise between nations. As one article put it: "So why do we agree to a system in which we're dependent on a foreign country's whim before we can prosecute a criminal inside our own borders? The practical answer is: because we depend on other countries to honor our own diplomats' immunity just as scrupulously as we honor theirs." During the 18 April 1961 Vienna Convention, the Holy See was granted diplomatic immunity to its foreign ambassadors as well. In the United States, the Diplomatic Relations Act of 1978 ( et seq.) follows the principles introduced by the Vienna Conventions. The United States tends to be generous when granting diplomatic immunity to visiting diplomats, because a large number of US diplomats work in host countries less protective of individual rights. If the United States were to punish a visiting diplomat without sufficient grounds, US representatives in other countries could receive harsher treatment. If a person with immunity is alleged to have committed a crime or faces a civil lawsuit, the State Department asks the home country to waive immunity of the alleged offender so that the complaint can be moved to the courts. If immunity is not waived, prosecution cannot be undertaken. However, the State Department still has the right to expel the diplomat. In many such cases, the diplomat's visas are revoked, and they and their family may be barred from returning to the United States. Crimes committed by members of a diplomat's family can also result in dismissal. ==Exceptions to the Vienna Convention== Some countries have made reservations to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, but they are minor. A number of countries limit the diplomatic immunity of persons who are citizens of the receiving country. As nations keep faith to their treaties with differing zeal, other rules may also apply, though in most cases this summary is a reasonably accurate approximation. The Convention does not cover the personnel of international organizations, whose privileges are decided upon on a case-by-case basis, usually in the treaties founding such organizations. === UN organisations === The United Nations system (including its agencies, which comprise the most recognizable international bodies such as the World Bank and many others) has a relatively standardized form of limited immunities for staff traveling on UN laissez-passer; diplomatic immunity is often granted to the highest-ranking officials of these agencies. Consular officials (that do not have concurrent diplomatic accreditation) formally have a more limited form of immunity, generally limited to their official duties. Diplomatic technical and administrative staff also have more limited immunity under the Vienna Convention; for this reason, some countries may accredit a member of technical or administrative staff as an attaché. === Others === Other categories of government officials that may travel frequently to other countries may not have diplomatic passports or diplomatic immunity, such as members of the military, high-ranking government officials, ministers, and others. For the US military, official passports can be used for work related travels only. Many countries provide non-diplomatic official passports to such personnel, and there may be different classes of such travel documents such as official passports, service passports, and others. De facto recognition of some form of immunity may be conveyed by states accepting officials traveling on such documents, or there may exist bilateral agreements to govern such cases (as in, for example, the case of military personnel conducting or observing exercises on the territory of the receiving country). Formally, diplomatic immunity may be limited to officials accredited to a host country, or traveling to or from their host country. In practice, many countries may effectively recognize diplomatic immunity for those traveling on diplomatic passports, with admittance to the country constituting acceptance of the diplomatic status. However, this is not universal, and diplomats have been prosecuted and jailed for crimes committed outside the country they are accredited to. As a result of their title, diplomats are exempt from being prosecuted by the state in open court when they are suspected to be guilty of a crime. Not only are these agents free from the criminal jurisdiction of the state, they are also immune from administrative and civil jurisdiction. This applies for most scenarios; however, there are some exceptions when the diplomatic immunity is subject to waiver. Any events that are associated with individual stationary property in the land of the given receiving State – with the exception of whether or not he is directed to do so for a plan. Any events with regards to a diplomat serving as another role from another State, including heir, inheritor of a will, executor, administrator. Any activity by a diplomat, in the receiving State, that is related to any professional or commercial operations beyond the scope of his directed responsibilities. Asadollah Asadi, an Iranian diplomat, was arrested while returning to his residence in Austria on a highway in Germany on June 10, 2018, accused of being involved in an attempted bombing at a gathering of the National Council of Resistance of Iran (a political organisation opposing the Iranian regime). While Assadi was entitled to diplomatic immunity where applicable, it was deemed that he was not protected when he was arrested as he was on holiday (in Germany) outside the country where he was posted and hence protected. ==Uses and abuses== In reality, most diplomats are representatives of nations with a tradition of professional civil service; they are expected to obey regulations governing their behaviour and suffer severe disciplinary action if they flout local laws. In many nations, a professional diplomat's career may be compromised if they (or members of their family) disobey the local authorities or cause serious embarrassment, and such cases are, at any rate, a violation of the spirit of the Vienna Conventions. The Vienna Convention is explicit that "without prejudice to their privileges and immunities, it is the duty of all persons enjoying such privileges and immunities to respect the laws and regulations of the receiving State." Nevertheless, on some occasions, protected diplomats have violated laws (including those that would be violations at home as well) of the host country, and that country has been essentially limited to informing the diplomat's nation that the diplomat is no longer welcome (persona non grata). Diplomatic agents are not, however, exempt from the jurisdiction of their home state, and hence prosecution may be undertaken by the sending state. For minor violations of the law, the sending state may impose administrative procedures specific to the foreign service or diplomatic mission. Violation of the law by diplomats has included espionage, smuggling, child custody law violations, money laundering, tax evasion, making terrorist threats, slavery, child solicitation, and murder. ===Offences against the person=== On-duty police officer Yvonne Fletcher was murdered in London in 1984, by a person shooting from inside the Libyan embassy during a protest. The incident caused a breakdown in diplomatic relations until Libya admitted "general responsibility" in 1999. The incident became a major factor in Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's decision to allow President of the United States Ronald Reagan to launch the US bombing of Libya in 1986 from American bases in the United Kingdom. In 1987, the Human Resources Administration of New York City placed 9-year-old Terrence Karamba in a foster home after his elementary school teachers noticed suspicious scars and injuries. He and his 7-year-old sister, who was also placed in city custody, told officials the wounds had been inflicted by their father, Floyd Karamba, an administrative attaché at the Zimbabwean Mission to the UN. No charges were filed, as Karamba had diplomatic immunity. In February 1999 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, Kazuko Shimokoji, wife of the Japanese Consul-General, showed up at the emergency department of a city hospital with two black eyes and a bruised neck. She told doctors that her husband had beaten her. When local police questioned her husband, Mr. Shimokoji said, "Yes, I punched her out and she deserved it", and described the incident as "a cultural thing and not a big deal". Although an arrest warrant was issued, Mr. Shimokoji could not be arrested due to his diplomatic immunity. However, his statement to the police was widely reported in both the local and Japanese press. The subsequent public uproar prompted the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs to waive Mr. Shimokoji's immunity. Though he pleaded guilty in Canadian court, he was given an absolute discharge. Nonetheless, he was recalled to Japan where he was reassigned to office duty and had his pay cut. In 2002, a Colombian diplomat in the United Kingdom was prosecuted for manslaughter once diplomatic immunity was waived by the Colombian government. In November 2006 in New York City, Fred Matwanga, Kenyan diplomat to the UN, was taken into police custody by officers responding to reports that he had assaulted his son; he was released after asserting diplomatic immunity. In 2011, Turkish president Erdogan and his team started fighting with UN officials at the United Nations Headquarters. The then secretary general, Ban Ki Moon, soon ran over and apologised to Erdogan. In April 2012 in the Philippines, Erick Shcks Bairnals, a technical officer of the Panama Maritime Authority's regional office in Manila, was accused of raping a 19-year-old Filipino woman. Being an attached agency to the Panamanian embassy in Manila, the AMP office was classified as a diplomatic entity, its officers possessing the same privileges conferred to the embassy's diplomats. Shcks was later released from detention because Shcks "enjoys protection under the 1961 Vienna Convention." In March 2013, the Supreme Court of India restricted Italian ambassador Daniele Mancini from leaving India for breaching an undertaking given to the apex court. Despite Italian and European Union protests regarding the restrictions as contrary to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the Supreme Court of India said it would be unacceptable to argue diplomatic immunity after voluntarily submitting to the court's jurisdiction. The Italian envoy had invoked Article 32 of the Constitution of India when filing an affidavit to the Supreme Court taking responsibility for the return of the two Italian marines to India after casting their votes in the March 2012 general elections in Italy. The Indian Supreme Court opined that the Italian ambassador had waived his diplomatic immunity and could be charged for contempt. The two marines were being tried in India for the murder of two Indian fishermen off the coast of Kerala (see the Enrica Lexie case). In October 2013, Russian diplomat Dmitri Borodin was arrested in The Hague, The Netherlands, after neighbours called the police. Borodin was alleged to have been drunk and violent towards his children, aged two and four. Police were in the area because Borodin's wife had lost control over her car while also intoxicated, and had rammed four parked cars near the diplomats' house. Russia immediately demanded an apology from the Dutch government for violating Borodin's diplomatic immunity. The row came at a time of tension between Russia and the Netherlands, after the Russian security services captured a Greenpeace vessel sailing under the Dutch flag, Arctic Sunrise, that was protesting against oil drilling in the Prirazlomnoye field. In June 2014, the New Zealand government confirmed that Mohammed Rizalman Bin Ismail from Malaysia, aged in his 30s and employed at Malaysia's High Commission in Wellington, had invoked diplomatic immunity when faced with charges of burglary and assault with intent to rape after allegedly following a 21-year-old woman to her home. He returned to Malaysia in May 2014 with his family while the case was still in hearing. The New Zealand foreign ministry was criticized for allowing the defendant to leave the country, which was blamed on miscommunication between the foreign ministries of the two countries, as Prime Minister John Key expressed his view that "the man should have faced the charges in New Zealand". and he was eventually tried and sentenced to nine months' home detention in New Zealand. In July 2017, in Jordan, two Jordanian carpenters were invited to repair furniture at an Israeli diplomatic security agent's residence near the Israeli embassy. It is believed that the Jordanians and Israeli security agent quarreled over the ongoing tensions regarding the installations of metal detectors at entry points to al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem. One carpenter, a teenager of Palestinian origin, reportedly tried to stab the Israeli security agent with his screwdriver, and the Israeli security agent shot and killed the Jordanian carpenter, and also shot the property landlord, a doctor, who happened to be there at the time. Israel refused to allow Jordanian authorities to question the agent, claiming diplomatic immunity under the Vienna convention. In August 2017, Grace Mugabe, the former First Lady of Zimbabwe, invoked diplomatic immunity on 15 August after assault charges were laid against her by a South African model. In 2018, Saudi American journalist Jamal Khashoggi was killed by Saudi officials inside the Saudi embassy in Turkey. The Turkish police were not allowed to enter the premises days after this death. Furthermore, a Saudi government vehicle with diplomatic license plates was spotted entering a park. In August 2022, UN diplomat Charles Dickens Imene Oliha of South Sudan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs claimed diplomatic immunity and was released from jail in New York City after raping a woman twice inside her apartment building. He subsequently returned to South Sudan, where he was suspended from his duties and is to be investigated. ===Theft=== In April 2021, two Pakistani diplomats in South Korea were caught shoplifting in Seoul. The Pakistani diplomats were caught stealing $1.70 worth of chocolate and a $10 hat. The case was closed owing to their diplomatic immunity. ===Smuggling=== Diplomats and officials involved in drug smuggling have benefited from diplomatic immunity. For example, a Venezuelan general wanted in the United States on drugs charges was arrested in Aruba only to be released after the Venezuelan government protested his diplomatic immunity and threatened sanctions if Aruba did not release him. In December 2014, after their immunity was waived by Gambia, Gambian diplomats were found guilty by Southwark Crown Court of London for selling tax-free tobacco from the Gambian embassy in the United Kingdom. The Crown Prosecution Service told the court that much of this was sold from the embassy without paying value-added tax and excise duty. ===Employer abuse and slavery=== Diplomatic immunity from local employment and labor law has precipitated incidents in which diplomatic staff have been accused of abusing local workers, who are often hired for positions requiring local knowledge (such as an administrative assistant, press/PR officer) or for general labor. In such situations, the employees are in a legal limbo where the laws of neither the host country nor the diplomat's country are enforceable. Diplomats have ignored local laws concerning minimum wages, maximum working hours, vacation and holidays, and in some cases have imprisoned employees in their homes, deprived them of their earned wages, passports, food, and communication with the outside world, abused them physically and emotionally, and invaded their privacy. Reported incidents include the following: In 1999, a Bangladeshi woman, Shamela Begum, claimed she had been enslaved by a senior Bahraini envoy to the United Nations and his wife. Begum charged that the couple took her passport, struck her, and paid her just $800 for ten months of service—during which she was only twice allowed out of the couple's New York apartment. The envoy and his wife claimed diplomatic immunity, and Begum later reached a civil settlement with her employers. By some estimates, "hundreds of women have been exploited by their diplomat employers over the past 20 years." In 2003 in Finland, a Filipina maid escaped from an embassy of an unidentified Asian country, and reported being held in conditions approaching slavery: she was forced to work from 7 a.m. to 10 p.m., 7 days a week, and the ambassador's children were permitted to hit her. On grounds of diplomatic immunity, no charges could be filed. In 2009, South Africa was criticised for claiming immunity from labor laws relating to a Ukrainian domestic worker at the residence of the South African ambassador in Ireland. In 2010, the American Civil Liberties Union filed an amicus brief in Swarna v. Al-Awadi to argue that human trafficking is a commercial activity engaged in for personal profit, which falls outside the scope of a diplomat's official functions, and therefore diplomatic immunity does not apply. An appeals court ruled that Al-Awadi did not have diplomatic immunity in that situation. In 2013, Indian consular official Devyani Khobragade was detained, hand-cuffed, strip searched, DNA swabbed, and held in a federal holding cell in New York, relating to allegations of non-payment of US minimum wage and for fraudulently lying about the wages to be paid on a visa application for her domestic worker. India registered a strong protest and initiated a review of privileges afforded to American consular officials in India as a result. In 2015, two Nepalese women were rescued from the fifth floor of the Gurgaon residence of a Saudi Arabian diplomat in India. They were allegedly confined there and abused physically and sexually by the diplomat and his family and friends. The women were rescued in a police raid planned after the police received a letter from the Nepal embassy regarding their plight. Several persons, the Saudi diplomat among them, were booked for wrongful confinement and gang rape. Saudi Ambassador Saud Mohammed Alsati commented, "This is completely false. We would not like to comment any further since the case is under investigation by the Indian police." Ten days after the diplomat was accused, it was confirmed that he had left India. ===Vehicular offences=== ====Parking violations==== A particular problem is the difficulty in enforcing ordinary laws, such as prohibitions on double parking. For example, the Autobahn 555 in Cologne, Germany was nicknamed the "Diplomatenrennbahn" (Diplomat's Raceway), when Bonn was the capital of West Germany, because of the numerous diplomats that used to speed through the highway under diplomatic immunity. Certain cities, for example The Hague and New York City have taken to impounding such cars rather than fining their owners. Diplomats' status does not guarantee the release of impounded cars. Diplomats' cars may not be searched or entered in the US. Diplomatic missions have their own regulations, but many require their staff to pay any fines due for parking violations. A 2006 economic study found that there was a significant correlation between home-country corruption (as measured by Transparency International) and unpaid parking fines: six countries had in excess of 100 violations per diplomat: Kuwait, Egypt, Chad, Sudan, Bulgaria and Mozambique. In particular, New York City, which hosts the United Nations Headquarters, regularly protests to the United States Department of State about nonpayment of parking tickets because of diplomatic status. In 2001, the city had more than 200,000 outstanding parking tickets from diplomats, totaling more than $21.3 million, of which only $160,682 had been collected; a decade later, the total cost of unpaid parking tickets was over $17 million. In 1997, then-mayor Rudy Giuliani proposed to the Clinton administration that the U.S. State Department revoke the special DPL plates for diplomats who ignore parking summonses; the State Department denied Giuliani's request. ====Vehicular assault and drunk driving==== =====Georgian driver in the United States===== In January 1997, Gueorgui Makharadze, a high-ranking Georgian diplomat, caused a five-car pileup in Washington, D.C., in the United States, which killed a 16-year-old girl. Makharadze's claim of diplomatic immunity created a national outrage in the United States, particularly given Makharadze's previous record of driving offenses: In April 1996, Makharadze had been charged with speeding in Virginia, and four months later, he was detained by District of Columbia police on suspicion of drunk driving. In both prior cases, charges were dismissed based on his immunity. On the basis of the media coverage, Georgia revoked Makharadze's immunity, and he was ultimately sentenced to seven years in prison after pleading guilty to one count of involuntary manslaughter and four counts of aggravated assault. =====American driver in Russia===== On 27 October 1998, in Vladivostok, Russia, Douglas Kent, the American Consul General to Russia, was involved in a car accident that left a young man, Alexander Kashin, disabled. Kent was not prosecuted in a US court. Under the Vienna Convention, diplomatic immunity does not apply to civil actions relating to vehicular accidents, but in 2006, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that, since he was using his vehicle for consular purposes, Kent could not be sued civilly. =====Russian driver in Canada===== In 2001, a Russian diplomat, Andrei Knyazev, hit and killed a woman while driving drunk in Ottawa. Knyazev refused to take a breathalyzer at the scene of the crash, citing diplomatic immunity. Russia refused Canadian requests to waive his immunity, and Knyazev was expelled from Canada. Though the Russian Foreign Ministry fired him and charged him with involuntary manslaughter, and Russian and Canadian authorities cooperated in the investigation, the case caused a political storm in Canada. Many accused the Foreign Ministry of incompetence after it emerged that Knyazev had twice been previously investigated for drunk driving. The Canadian Foreign Minister had fought unsuccessfully to have Knyazev tried in Ottawa. In 2002, Knyazev was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter in Russia. The Romanian government requested the American government to lift his immunity, which it refused to do. In a court-martial, he was acquitted of manslaughter and adultery but was convicted of obstruction of justice and making false statements. =====Canadian driver in Tanzania===== On 9 December 2009, in Tanzania, Canadian Junior Envoy Jean Touchette was arrested after it was reported that he spat at a traffic police officer on duty in the middle of a traffic jam in the Banana district on the outskirts of Dar es Salaam. Canada's High Commissioner, Robert Orr, was summoned by the Tanzanian Foreign Ministry over the incident, and the junior envoy was later recalled. =====Romanian driver in Singapore===== On 15 December 2009, in Singapore, the Romanian chargé d'affaires, Silviu Ionescu, was allegedly behind a drunk-driving hit-and-run accident that killed a 30-year-old man and seriously injured two others. He left Singapore for Romania three days after the accident. The Romanian foreign ministry suspended Ionescu from his post. A coroner's inquiry in Singapore, which included testimony by the Romanian embassy driver, concluded that Ionescu was solely responsible for the accident. An Interpol Red Notice was subsequently issued for his arrest and possible extradition notwithstanding the fact that Romania had not waived his diplomatic immunity and had commenced criminal proceedings against him in Romania. The Singapore government argued that by reason of Article 39(2) of the Vienna Convention, Ionescu was no longer protected by diplomatic immunity. Ionescu was eventually sentenced to six years in jail. =====American driver in Pakistan===== In January 2011 in Lahore, Pakistan, American embassy employee Raymond Allen Davis shot and killed two Pakistani civilians, while a third man was struck and killed by a US consulate car responding to the shooting. According to Davis, they were about to rob him and he acted in self-defense. When detained by police, Davis claimed to be a consultant at the US consulate in Lahore. He was formally arrested and remanded into custody. Further investigations revealed that he was working with the CIA as a contractor in Pakistan. The US State Department declared him a diplomat and repeatedly requested immunity under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, to which Pakistan is a signatory. On 16 March 2011, Davis was released after the families of the two killed men were paid $2.4 million in diyya (a form of monetary compensation or blood money). Judges then acquitted him on all charges and Davis immediately departed Pakistan. =====United Nations driver in Pakistan===== On 10 April 2011, in Islamabad, Pakistan, Patrick Kibuta, an electrical engineer in the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan caused a vehicle collision with another vehicle, while under the influence of alcohol. Kibuta, who was driving in the opposing lane, injured a Canadian citizen residing in Islamabad, who suffered multiple fractures and required surgery. The Kohsar police impounded Kibuta's UN vehicle on the scene, and a blood test confirmed that he had an elevated blood alcohol level. Charges for reckless and drunken driving were filed against Kibuta, who enjoyed diplomatic immunity. =====American driver in Pakistan===== On 14 February 2013, a vehicle bearing diplomatic plates registered to the US Embassy got into an accident in Islamabad, Pakistan involving two residents out of which one was killed and the other survived. Murder charges were laid under Section 320 of the Pakistani Penal Code against the driver of the vehicle who is a diplomat according to Pakistani officials. =====American driver in Kenya===== In July 2013, Joshua Walde, an American diplomat in Nairobi, Kenya, crashed into a mini-bus, killing one man and seriously injuring eight others, who were left with no financial assistance to pay for hospital bills. United States embassy officials took the diplomat and his family out of Kenya the following day. Right after the accident, he drove directly into the Lebanese embassy compound and refused to cooperate with the local police investigation, claiming his diplomatic immunity. He stayed in his post as ambassador until his death due to another traffic collision in Seoul in 2014. =====Qatari driver in the United States===== On 12 September 2015, Sheikh Khalid bin Hamad Al Thani tried to claim diplomatic immunity when his Ferrari LaFerrari and a Porsche 911 GT3 were caught on camera drag racing through a residential neighborhood in Beverly Hills. He owns the cars and a drag racing team, and is a member of Qatar's ruling family. The Beverly Hills Police Department contacted the US State Department to clarify if he had diplomatic immunity. They stated he did not. However, his face was not shown on camera, and no officer witnessed the crime, so the state of California has not yet pressed charges. He has since fled the country. The investigation is ongoing. =====Saudi driver in Germany===== In June 2017, in Berlin, Germany a Saudi driver killed a cyclist by opening the door of his Porsche directly into the cyclist's path without checking to see if the road was clear. Anger arose when the Saudi claimed diplomatic immunity. Police said that under normal circumstances the driver would face investigation and possible prosecution on suspicion of negligent manslaughter, but prosecutors said they had no choice but to close the case because he had diplomatic immunity. =====American driver in the United Kingdom===== On 27 August 2019, Anne Sacoolas, the wife of an American government employee working in the United Kingdom, was a suspect in a traffic incident involving 19-year-old Harry Dunn in Croughton, Northamptonshire, England. Dunn was riding his motorcycle when it was reported that a woman emerged from RAF Croughton driving on the wrong side of the road, resulting in a head-on collision. After 999 handlers wrongly categorized the call, there was a 43-minute wait for an ambulance, resulting in a two-hour delay arriving at a trauma center, where Harry Dunn later died. Sacoolas was breathalyzed at the accident site. The following day, police interviewed Sacoolas at her home, learning the US claimed diplomatic immunity. Sacoolas told police she had no immediate plans to leave the country. However, on 13 October US authorities notified the UK's Foreign and Commonwealth Office of plans to send Sacoolas home, unless serious objections were raised: on 16 October, the UK's Foreign Secretary, Dominic Raab, went to present objections, a day after the family was sent back. Woody Johnson, U.S. Ambassador to the UK, expressed "profound sadness" at the death of Harry Dunn and the US Embassy also offered their sympathies and condolences. U.S. President Donald Trump called it a "terrible accident" and mentioned that the woman was "driving on the wrong side of the road, and that can happen". The US government has not waived the diplomatic immunity afforded to Sacoolas and has stated she would not return to the UK, despite calls by the UK government to do so. Sacoolas was scheduled to appear in UK court via video link charged with causing the death of Mr Dunn by dangerous driving. A hearing took place in Westminster Magistrates Court on 18 January 2022. She appeared by video-link at the Old Bailey, where she pleaded guilty to causing death by careless driving on 20 October 2022. She was handed an eight-month prison term, suspended for 12 months, and was also disqualified from driving for 12 months. ===== American driver in Zimbabwe ===== In 2023, U.S. diplomat Eric Kimpton, while driving, struck and killed 11-year-old Lillian Mapiye in Zimbabwe. Invoking diplomatic immunity under the Vienna Convention, Kimpton avoided legal proceedings and returned to the United States. The incident sparked discussions between the Zimbabwean government and the U.S. Embassy, with officials emphasizing that while immunity protects diplomats, it does not absolve them of their moral responsibility to respect the laws and lives of their host country ===Financial abuse=== Historically, large debts run up by diplomats have caused many problems. Some financial institutions do not extend credit to diplomats because they have no legal means of ensuring the money be repaid. Local citizens and businesses are often at a disadvantage when filing civil claims against a diplomat, especially in cases of unpaid rent, alimony, and child support. ====Rents==== The bulk of diplomatic debt lies in the rental of office space and living quarters. Individual debts can range from a few thousand dollars to $1 million in back rent. A group of diplomats and the office space in which they work are referred to as a diplomatic mission. Creditors cannot sue missions individually to collect money they owe. Landlords and creditors have found that the only thing they can do is contact a city agency to see if they can try to get some money back. They cannot enter the offices or apartments of diplomats to evict them because the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act says that "the property in the United States of a foreign state shall be immune from attachment, arrest and execution" (). This has led creditors who are owed money by diplomats to become more cautious about their renters and to change their rental or payment policies. In one case, for example, officials from Zaire stopped paying rent to their private landlord and ran up $400,000 in debt. When the landlord sued, the US State Department defended the Zaireans on the basis of diplomatic immunity, and a circuit court agreed. When the landlord finally cut off the utilities, the officials fled without paying their back rent. The landlords reportedly later reached an "amicable agreement" with the Zairean government. ====Taxes and fees==== Diplomats are exempt from most taxes, but not from "charges levied for specific services rendered". In certain cases, whether a payment is or is not considered a tax may be disputed, such as central London's congestion charge. It was reported in 2006 that the UAE embassy had agreed to pay their own accumulated charges of nearly £100,000. There is an obligation for the receiving state not to "discriminate as between states"; in other words, any such fees should be payable by all accredited diplomats equally. This may allow the diplomatic corps to negotiate as a group with the authorities of the receiving country. Diplomats are exempt from import duty and tariffs for items for their personal use. In some countries, this has led to charges that diplomatic agents are profiting personally from resale of "tax free" goods. The receiving state may choose to impose restrictions on what may reasonably constitute personal use (for example, only a certain quantity of cigarettes per day). When enacted, such restrictions are generally quite generous so as to avoid tit-for-tat responses. ==== Money laundering ==== United States v. Al Sharaf is a criminal case which was filed by the government on March 5, 2015, in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. Al Sharaf was a Kuwaiti financial attaché assigned to handle the finances of Kuwait Health Office in Washington, D.C. She was charged by the government with violating 18 U.S.C § 1956, conspiring to launder money. Al Sharaf filed a motion to dismiss the case on the basis of lack of subject matter jurisdiction because as per the 22 U.S.C § 254d her actions were immune under the diplomatic immunity that she had. Since it was a criminal case, the prosecution presented evidence beyond a reasonable doubt to prove that Al Sharaf had engaged in commercial activity and her actions were different from her official functions as a representative of Kuwait, thereby, as per the VCDR art. 31(c) her diplomatic immunity was subject to waiver. The court ruled in prosecution's favor and stated that since the defendant had engaged in commercial activity which was different from her official functions, her diplomatic immunity was subject to waiver and hence the defendant's motion to dismiss the case on the basis of lack of subject matter jurisdiction was denied. ===Espionage and sabotage=== Franz von Papen entered the diplomatic service in December 1913 as a military attaché to the German ambassador in the United States. Starting in September 1914, Papen abused his diplomatic immunity as German military attaché, violating US laws to start organising plans for incursions into Canada for a campaign of sabotage against canals, bridges and railroads. In October 1914, Papen became involved with what was later dubbed "the Hindu–German Conspiracy", by covertly arranging with Indian nationalists based in California for arms trafficking to the latter for a planned uprising against the British Raj. In February 1915, Papen also covertly organised the Vanceboro international bridge bombing, in which his diplomatic immunity protected him from arrest. At the same time, he remained involved in plans to restore Huerta to power, and arranged for the arming and financing of a planned invasion of Mexico. Papen's covert operations were known to British intelligence, which shared its information with the US government. As a result, for complicity in the planning of acts of sabotage on 28 December 1915, Captain von Papen was declared persona non grata and recalled to Germany. Upon his return, he was awarded the Iron Cross. On 24 April 2008, in New Orleans, Mexican press attaché Rafael Quintero Curiel was seen stealing BlackBerry PDA units from a White House press meeting room. Quintero made it all the way to the airport before members of the United States Secret Service caught up with him. He initially denied taking the devices, but after being confronted with security video, Quintero claimed it was purely accidental, gave the devices back, claimed diplomatic immunity and left New Orleans with the Mexican delegation. He was eventually fired for the incident. In 2021, it was reported that the UAE Embassy in Canberra was building non-compliant fences and installing CCTV. ==In the United States== The following chart outlines the immunities afforded to foreign diplomatic personnel residing in the United States. In general, these rules follow the Vienna Convention (or the New York Convention for UN officials) and apply in other countries as well (with the exceptions of immunities for United Nations officials, which can vary widely across countries based on the "Host Country Agreement" signed between the UN and the host country, whereby additional immunities beyond those granted by the New York Convention may be established).	[ "Raymond Allen Davis incident", "Political corruption", "Athens", "Clinton administration", "diplomatic relations", "United States House of Representatives", "United States Department of State", "New Orleans", "BlackBerry", "Holy See", "Qatar", "International Organizations Immunities Act", "Khalid bin Hamad Al Thani", "Washington, D.C.", "persona non grata", "Grace Mugabe", "sovereign immunity", "United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit", "Sudan", "2009 Singapore Romanian diplomat incident", "Old Bailey", "ad hoc", "Beverly Hills Police Department", "Discharge (sentence)", "Silviu Ionescu", "Ramayana", "international relations", "Philippines", "passport", "American Civil Liberties Union", "Bulgaria", "ambassador", "press attaché", "Lebanon", "official passport", "domestic worker", "Westminster Magistrates Court", "ABC News (United States)", "BBC News", "Iran hostage crisis", "military attaché", "Mongols", "Ghadar party", "excise duty", "High Commissioner", "Vienna Convention on Consular Relations", "Maurice (emperor)", "New York City", "pileup", "Profit (economics)", "obstruction of justice", "Andrey Matveyev", "Ukrainians", "Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia", "United States v. Al Sharaf", "Foreign and Commonwealth Office", "Donald Trump", "Beijing", "Romania", "Kurukshetra War", "Vancouver", "Porsche 911 GT3", "Northamptonshire", "Hindu–German Conspiracy", "John Key", "making false statements", "diyya", "Germany", "Attachment (law)", "Transparency International", "Saudi Arabia", "Legal Affairs", "cigarette", "Vibhishana", "service passport", "minimum wage", "child custody", "Fox News Channel", "State immunity", "Greenpeace", "The New Zealand Herald", "blood money (term)", "Supreme Court of India", "United Nations laissez-passer", "chargé d'affaires", "espionage", "Vishnu", "jurisdiction", "Aruba", "traffic jam", "Beverly Hills", "Croughton, Northamptonshire", "Bonn", "Canada", "The Hague", "The Daily Telegraph", "British Raj", "Congestion pricing", "Woody Johnson", "customary law", "Sparta", "Mozambique", "murder of Yvonne Fletcher", "Bucharest", "Byzantine", "Gregory of Tours", "Bombing of Libya (1986)", "New Zealand government", "central London", "diplomatic corps", "White House", "Autobahn 555", "Teo Peter", "Cologne", "Dar es Salaam", "RAF Croughton", "United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan", "Jamal Khashoggi", "manslaughter", "Egypt", "United States Marine Corps", "Right of asylum", "Hanuman", "reservation (law)", "Crown Prosecution Service", "Chad", "England", "Malaysia's High Commission in Wellington", "international organization", "Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act", "Childebert II", "Charles Dickens Imene Oliha", "Islamabad", "South Korea", "President of the United States", "congestion charge", "Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations", "Mahabharata", "Ancient history", "value-added tax", "double parking", "Dublin", "Anne Sacoolas", "diplomat", "Kandalur War", "court-martial", "MV Arctic Sunrise", "Nederlandse Omroep Stichting", "import duty", "California", "crime", "modern India", "embassy", "child support", "Xerxes I of Persia", "Daniele Mancini", "human trafficking", "diplomatic mission", "adultery", "Bilateralism", "Achaemenid Empire", "Ban Ki Moon", "First Lady of Zimbabwe", "Vladivostok", "emergency department", "Southwark Crown Court", "Tanzania", "Channel NewsAsia", "Death of Harry Dunn", "Franz von Papen", "Pakistani Penal Code", "Foreign Minister", "taxation", "arms trafficking", "Herodotus", "Treaty", "British intelligence", "London", "United States Secret Service", "murder", "Indian Express", "United Nations", "diplomatic passport", "Diplomatic Privileges Act 1708", "Interpol notice", "Gueorgui Makharadze", "Seoul", "Genghis Khan", "World War II", "Personal digital assistant", "Ravana", "Muhammad", "traffic collision", "Rudy Giuliani", "Russia", "Michael Prawdin", "Persona non grata", "West Germany", "Aman (Islam)", "Ferrari LaFerrari", "Rashidun caliphs", "Raja Raja Chola", "South Africa", "Iron Cross", "Bailiff", "Lahore", "Envoy (title)", "Sovereignty", "alimony", "Taranto", "Consul (representative)", "Parliament of Great Britain", "Georgia (country)", "civil service", "United States District Court for the District of Columbia", "Libyan Embassy in London", "sabotage", "Sharia", "Kulasekhara dynasty (Second Cheras)", "Margaret Thatcher", "Dominic Raab", "Iran", "Asadollah Asadi", "attaché", "Pyrrhic War", "Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations", "War", "Devyani Khobragade", "Arab–Byzantine wars", "999 (emergency telephone number)", "tariffs", "Tit for tat", "drag racing", "Prirazlomnoye field", "Canadians", "legal immunity", "Austria", "Ronald Reagan", "amicus brief", "criminal prosecution", "defection", "Enrica Lexie case", "nuncio", "wikt:parole", "Ancient Rome", "hit-and-run", "Congress of Vienna", "Consular immunity", "National Council of Resistance of Iran", "Carthage", "international law", "Franks", "Filipinos", "2014 Malaysian diplomat indecent assault case", "1915 Vanceboro international bridge bombing", "US State Department", "Kuwait", "GMA News", "Pakistan" ]
8,922	DDR SDRAM	{{Infobox \| title = DDR SDRAM \| image = \| caption = Comparison of DDR modules for desktop PCs (DIMM) \| image2 = \| caption2 = Front and back of a 1GB DDR-400 RAM module for desktop PCs (DIMM) \| label1 = Developer \| data1 = {{ubl\|Samsung The interface uses double pumping (transferring data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal) to double data bus bandwidth without a corresponding increase in clock frequency. One advantage of keeping the clock frequency low is that it reduces the signal integrity requirements on the circuit board connecting the memory to the controller. The name "double data rate" refers to the fact that a DDR SDRAM with a certain clock frequency achieves nearly twice the bandwidth of a SDR SDRAM running at the same clock frequency, due to this double pumping. With data being transferred 64 bits at a time, DDR SDRAM gives a transfer rate (in bytes/s) of (memory bus clock rate) × 2 (for dual rate) × 64 (number of bits transferred) / 8 (number of bits/byte). Thus, with a bus frequency of 100 MHz, DDR SDRAM gives a maximum transfer rate of 1600 MB/s. == History == In the late 1980s IBM invented DDR SDRAM, they built a dual-edge clocking RAM and presented their results at the International Solid-State Circuits Convention in 1990. Samsung released the first commercial DDR SDRAM chip (64Mbit) in June 1998, followed soon after by Hyundai Electronics (now SK Hynix) the same year. DDR SDRAM specification was finalized by JEDEC in June 2000 (JESD79). JEDEC has set standards for the data rates of DDR SDRAM, divided into two parts. The first specification is for memory chips, and the second is for memory modules. The first retail PC motherboard using DDR SDRAM was released in August 2000. == Specification == === Modules === To increase memory capacity and bandwidth, chips are combined on a module. For instance, the 64-bit data bus for DIMM requires eight 8-bit chips, addressed in parallel. Multiple chips with common address lines are called a memory rank. The term was introduced to avoid confusion with chip internal rows and banks. A memory module may bear more than one rank. The term sides would also be confusing because it incorrectly suggests the physical placement of chips on the module. All ranks are connected to the same memory bus (address + data). The chip select signal is used to issue commands to specific rank. Adding modules to the single memory bus creates additional electrical load on its drivers. To mitigate the resulting bus signaling rate drop and overcome the memory bottleneck, new chipsets employ the multi-channel architecture. Note: All items listed above are specified by JEDEC as JESD79F. All RAM data rates in-between or above these listed specifications are not standardized by JEDEC – often they are simply manufacturer optimizations using tighter tolerances or overvolted chips. The package sizes in which DDR SDRAM is manufactured are also standardized by JEDEC. There is no architectural difference between DDR SDRAM modules. Modules are instead designed to run at different clock frequencies: for example, a PC-1600 module is designed to run at , and a PC-2100 is designed to run at . A module's clock speed designates the data rate at which it is guaranteed to perform, hence it is guaranteed to run at lower (underclocking) and can possibly run at higher (overclocking) clock rates than those for which it was made. DDR SDRAM modules for desktop computers, dual in-line memory modules (DIMMs), have 184 pins (as opposed to 168 pins on SDRAM, or 240 pins on DDR2 SDRAM), and can be differentiated from SDRAM DIMMs by the number of notches (DDR SDRAM has one, SDRAM has two). DDR SDRAM for notebook computers, SO-DIMMs, have 200 pins, which is the same number of pins as DDR2 SO-DIMMs. These two specifications are notched very similarly and care must be taken during insertion if unsure of a correct match. Most DDR SDRAM operates at a voltage of 2.5 V, compared to 3.3 V for SDRAM. This can significantly reduce power consumption. Chips and modules with the DDR-400/PC-3200 standard have a nominal voltage of 2.6 V. JEDEC Standard No. 21–C defines three possible operating voltages for 184 pin DDR, as identified by the key notch position relative to its centreline. Page 4.5.10-7 defines 2.5V (left), 1.8V (centre), TBD (right), while page 4.20.5–40 nominates 3.3V for the right notch position. The orientation of the module for determining the key notch position is with 52 contact positions to the left and 40 contact positions to the right. Increasing the operating voltage slightly can increase maximum speed but at the cost of higher power dissipation and heating, and at the risk of malfunctioning or damage. Capacity Number of DRAM devices: The number of chips is a multiple of 8 for non-ECC modules and a multiple of 9 for ECC modules. Chips can occupy one side (single sided) or both sides (dual sided) of the module. The maximal number of chips per DDR module is 36 (9×4) for ECC and 32 (8x4) for non-ECC. ECC vs non-ECC: Modules that have error-correcting code are labeled as ECC. Modules without error correcting code are labeled non-ECC. Timings: CAS latency (CL), clock cycle time (tCK), row cycle time (tRC), refresh row cycle time (tRFC), row active time (tRAS). Buffering: Registered (or buffered) vs unbuffered. Packaging: Typically DIMM or SO-DIMM. Power consumption: A test with DDR and DDR2 RAM in 2005 found that average power consumption appeared to be of the order of 1–3 W per 512 MB module; this increases with clock rate and when in use rather than idling. A manufacturer has produced calculators to estimate the power used by various types of RAM. Module and chip characteristics are inherently linked. Total module capacity is a product of one chip's capacity and the number of chips. ECC modules multiply it by because they use 1 bit per byte (8 bits) for error correction. A module of any particular size can therefore be assembled either from 32 small chips (36 for ECC memory), or 16(18) or 8(9) bigger ones. DDR memory bus width per channel is 64 bits (72 for ECC memory). Total module bit width is a product of bits per chip and number of chips. It also equals number of ranks (rows) multiplied by DDR memory bus width. Consequently, a module with a greater number of chips or using ×8 chips instead of ×4 will have more ranks. This example compares different real-world server memory modules with a common size of 1 GB. One should definitely be careful buying 1 GB memory modules, because all these variations can be sold under one price position without stating whether they are ×4 or ×8, single- or dual-ranked. There is a common belief that number of module ranks equals number of sides. As above data shows, this is not true. One can also find 2-side/1-rank modules. One can even think of a 1-side/2-rank memory module having 16(18) chips on single side ×8 each, but it is unlikely such a module was ever produced. === Chip characteristics === DRAM density: Size of the chip is measured in megabits. Most motherboards recognize only 1 GB modules if they contain 64M×8 chips (low density). If 128M×4 (high density) 1 GB modules are used, they most likely will not work. The JEDEC standard allows 128M×4 only for registered modules designed specifically for servers, but some generic manufacturers do not comply. Organization: The notation like 64M×4 means that the memory matrix has 64 million (the product of banks x rows x columns) 4-bit storage locations. There are ×4, ×8, and ×16 DDR chips. The ×4 chips allow the use of advanced error correction features like Chipkill, memory scrubbing and Intel SDDC in server environments, while the ×8 and ×16 chips are somewhat less expensive. x8 chips are mainly used in desktops/notebooks but are making an entry into the server market. There are normally 4 banks and only one row can be active in each bank. ==== Double data rate (DDR) SDRAM specification ==== From Ballot JCB-99-70, and modified by numerous other Board Ballots, formulated under the cognizance of Committee JC-42.3 on DRAM Parametrics. Standard No. 79 Revision Log: Release 1, June 2000 Release 2, May 2002 Release C, March 2003 – JEDEC Standard No. 79C. "This comprehensive standard defines all required aspects of 64Mb through 1Gb DDR SDRAMs with X4/X8/X16 data interfaces, including features, functionality, ac and dc parametrics, packages and pin assignments. This scope will subsequently be expanded to formally apply to x32 devices, and higher density devices as well." === Organization === PC3200 is DDR SDRAM designed to operate at 200 MHz using DDR-400 chips with a bandwidth of 3,200 MB/s. Because PC3200 memory transfers data on both the rising and falling clock edges, its effective clock rate is 400 MHz. 1 GB PC3200 non-ECC modules are usually made with 16 512 Mbit chips, 8 on each side (512 Mbits × 16 chips) / (8 bits (per byte)) = 1,024 MB. The individual chips making up a 1 GB memory module are usually organized as 226 8-bit words, commonly expressed as 64M×8. Memory manufactured in this way is low-density RAM and is usually compatible with any motherboard specifying PC3200 DDR-400 memory. == Generations == DDR (DDR1) was superseded by DDR2 SDRAM, which had modifications for a higher clock frequency and again doubled throughput, but operates on the same principle as DDR. Competing with DDR2 was Rambus XDR DRAM. DDR2 dominated due to cost and support factors. DDR2 was in turn superseded by DDR3 SDRAM, which offered higher performance for increased bus speeds and new features. DDR3 has been superseded by DDR4 SDRAM, which was first produced in 2011 and whose standards were still in flux (2012) with significant architectural changes. DDR's prefetch buffer depth is 2 (bits), while DDR2 uses 4. Although the effective clock rates of DDR2 are higher than DDR, the overall performance was not greater in the early implementations, primarily due to the high latencies of the first DDR2 modules. DDR2 started to be effective by the end of 2004, as modules with lower latencies became available. Memory manufacturers stated that it was impractical to mass produce DDR1 memory with effective transfer rates in excess of 400 MHz (i.e. 400 MT/s and 200 MHz external clock) due to internal speed limitations. DDR2 picks up where DDR1 leaves off, utilizing internal clock rates similar to DDR1, but is available at effective transfer rates of 400 MHz and higher. DDR3 advances extended the ability to preserve internal clock rates while providing higher effective transfer rates by again doubling the prefetch depth. The DDR4 SDRAM is a high-speed dynamic random-access memory internally configured as 16 banks, 4 bank groups with 4 banks for each bank group for ×4/×8 and 8 banks, 2 bank groups with 4 banks for each bank group for ×16 DRAM. The DDR4 SDRAM uses an 8n prefetch architecture to achieve high-speed operation. The 8n prefetch architecture is combined with an interface designed to transfer two data words per clock cycle at the I/O pins. A single read or write operation for the DDR4 SDRAM consists of a single 8n-bit-wide 4-clock data transfer at the internal DRAM core and 8 corresponding n-bit-wide half-clock-cycle data transfers at the I/O pins. RDRAM was a particularly expensive alternative to DDR SDRAM, and most manufacturers dropped its support from their chipsets. DDR1 memory's prices substantially increased from Q2 2008, while DDR2 prices declined. In January 2009, 1 GB DDR1 was 2–3 times more expensive than 1 GB DDR2. === Mobile DDR === MDDR is an acronym that some enterprises use for Mobile DDR SDRAM, a type of memory used in some portable electronic devices, like mobile phones, handhelds, and digital audio players. Through techniques including reduced voltage supply and advanced refresh options, Mobile DDR can achieve greater power efficiency.	[ "JEDEC", "fi:DRAM", "chipsets", "IBM", "Memory timings", "megabits", "Bandwidth (computing)", "External memory interface", "memory rank", "handheld", "Mobile DDR", "bandwidth (computing)", "bit", "el:Μνήμη τυχαίας προσπέλασης", "integrated circuit", "Registered memory", "RDRAM", "Prefetch buffer", "heat spreader", "underclocking", "Chip (computing)", "DDR3", "dynamic random-access memory", "Transfer (computing)", "Fully Buffered DIMM", "DDR5", "Bus (computing)", "Forward compatibility", "XDR DRAM", "DIMM", "double data rate", "DDR2 SDRAM", "Order of magnitude", "Error-correcting code", "synchronous dynamic random-access memory", "Von Neumann architecture", "Chipkill", "Synchronous dynamic random-access memory", "DDR4 SDRAM", "Serial presence detect", "MB/s", "CAS latency", "Voltage", "DDR4", "motherboard", "Volt", "Double data rate", "MicroDIMM", "memory module", "Clock rate", "DDR5 SDRAM", "Hyundai Electronics", "ECC memory", "DDR3 SDRAM", "Samsung", "data bus", "List of interface bit rates", "Unbuffered memory", "Megabit", "MT/s", "dual-channel", "overclocking", "phase-locked loop", "signal integrity", "SO-DIMM", "chip select", "computer", "Error detection and correction", "Rambus", "Nanosecond", "mobile phone", "digital audio player", "memory scrubbing", "clock signal", "Backward compatibility", "Phys.org", "SK Hynix", "MHz" ]
8,927	Don Rosa	Keno Don Hugo Rosa (), known as Don Rosa (born June 29, 1951), is an American comic book writer and illustrator known for his comics about Scrooge McDuck and other Disney characters. Many of his stories are built on characters and locations created by Carl Barks. Rosa created about 90 stories between 1987 and 2006, and in 1995 his 12-chapter work The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck won the Eisner Award for Best Serialized Story. ==Early life== Don Rosa was born Keno Don Hugo Rosa on June 29, 1951 in Louisville, Kentucky. Rosa's older sister was an avid collector of comics and exposed Don to comics as a storytelling medium at a very early age, teaching him to “read the pictures.” Growing up his favorite comics were Uncle Scrooge and Little Lulu, as well as his sister's collection of MAD magazines. He also had an affinity for Mort Weisinger's era of Superman comics, and he later began to collect The Spirit and Pogo comics. Rosa graduated from University of Kentucky in 1973 with a bachelor's degree in civil engineering. After attaining his bachelor's degree, Rosa continued to draw comics purely as a hobby, his only income came from working in the Keno Rosa Tile and Terrazzo Company, a company founded by his paternal grandfather. Rosa authored and illustrated the monthly Information Center column in the fanzine Rocket's Blast Comicollector from 1974 to 1979. This was a question-and-answer feature dealing with readers' queries on all forms of pop entertainment of which Rosa was a student, including comics, TV and movies. He also revived the Pertwillaby Papers in this "RBCC" fanzine as a comic book style story rather than a newspaper comic strip from 1976 to 1978. Rosa accepted an offer from the editor of the local newspaper to create a weekly comic strip. This led to his creation of the comic strip character Captain Kentucky for the Saturday edition of the local newspaper Louisville Times. Captain Kentucky was the superhero alter ego of Lancelot Pertwillaby. The pay was $25/week and not worth the 12+ hours each week's strip entailed, but Rosa did it as part of his hobby. Publication started on October 6, 1979. The comic strip ended on August 15, 1982, after the publication of 150 episodes. After three years with Captain Kentucky, Don decided that it was not worth the effort. He retired from cartooning and did not draw a single line for the next four years. Years later, as his fame grew, his non-Disney work was published by the Norwegian publisher Gazette Bok in 2001, in the two hard cover "Don Rosa Archives" volumes, The Pertwillaby Papers and The Adventures of Captain Kentucky. ===Gladstone=== In 1986, Rosa discovered a Gladstone Comics comic book. This was the first American comic book that contained Disney characters since Western Publishing's discontinuation of their Whitman Comics in the 1970s. Since early childhood Don Rosa had been fascinated by Carl Barks' stories about Donald Duck and Scrooge McDuck. He immediately called the editor, Byron Erickson, and told him that he was the only American who was born to write and draw one Scrooge McDuck adventure. Erickson agreed to let him send a story, and Don Rosa started drawing his first Duck story, "The Son of the Sun," the very next day. "The Son of the Sun" was a success and Rosa's very first professional comic story was nominated for a Harvey Award "Best Story of the Year". The plot of the story was the same as his earlier story, Lost in (an alternative section of) the Andes. As Don Rosa explained it, he was just "(...) turning that old Pertwillaby Papers adventure back into the story it originally was in my head, starring Scrooge, Donald, the nephews, and Flintheart Glomgold." Rosa created a few more comics for Gladstone until 1989. He then stopped working for them, because the policies of their licensor, Disney, did not allow for the return of original art for a story to its creators. After making some stories for the Dutch publisher Oberon, the publishers of an American Disney children's magazine called DuckTales (based on the animated series of the same name) offered Rosa employment. They even offered him a much higher salary than the one he received at Gladstone. Rosa made just one script (Back in Time for a Dime). The publishers never asked him to make more, and due to problems with receiving the payment, he did not care. ===Egmont=== After working with the DuckTales magazine, Rosa found out that the Denmark-based International publisher Egmont (at that time called Gutenberghus) was publishing reprints of his stories and wanted more. Rosa joined Egmont in 1990. Two years later, at Rosa's suggestion, Byron Erickson, the former editor at Gladstone, also went to work for Egmont and has been working there ever since as an editor and later as a freelancer. In 1991 Rosa started creating The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck, a 12 chapter story about his favorite character. The series was a success, and in 1995 he won an Eisner Award for best continuing series. After the end of the original series, Rosa sometimes produced additional "missing" chapters. Some of the extra chapters were turned down by Egmont, because they were not interested in any more episodes. Fortunately, the French magazine Picsou was eager to publish the stories. From 1999, Rosa started working freelance for Picsou magazine as well. All of these chapters were compiled as The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck Companion. ===On strike=== During early summer 2002, Rosa suddenly laid down work. As an artist, he could not live under the conditions Egmont was offering him but he did not want to give up making Scrooge McDuck comics either. So, his only choice was to go on hiatus and try to come to an agreement with Egmont. His main issues were that he had no control over his works. Rosa had discovered too often that his stories were printed with incorrect pages of art, improper colors, poor lettering, or pixelated computer conversions of the illustrations. Rosa has never, nor has any other artist working on Disney-licensed characters, received royalties for the use or multi-national reprinting of any of his stories worldwide. Rosa came to an agreement with Egmont in December of the same year, which gave him more control over the stories and the manner in which they were publicized. ===Quitting=== Rosa, who had poor eyesight since childhood, experienced a severe retinal detachment in March 2008, which required emergency eye surgery. However, the surgery was only partially successful, and Rosa had to undergo further surgery in both eyes, making drawing even more challenging. In an interview at the Danish Komiks.dk fair on June 2, 2008, Rosa announced his decision not to continue creating comics due to various reasons such as his eye troubles, low pay, and the use of his stories by international Disney licensees in special hardback or album editions without payment of royalties or permission for the use of his name. In 2012, Rosa wrote an essay about his retirement for Egmont's 9-volume Don Rosa Collection, which was to be published in Finland, Norway, Germany and Sweden. The essay, posted at career-end.donrosa.de, cites the above reasons, with special emphasis on the "Disney comics system" for paying writers and artists a flat per-page rate, and then allowing publishers around the world to print the stories without payment to the creators. Rosa is more popular with readers in Europe than in his native United States. According to him, even his next-door neighbors do not know his profession. ==Personal life== In 1980, Rosa married Ann Payne. Payne is a retired social studies middle school teacher. Also, he thinks of himself as a workaholic. Rosa suffered from depression during the years before he quit. He believes that it was caused by working hard while taking little time for leisure, a result of his self-imposed work regimen due to his enthusiasm for Barks' characters. Rosa also grows exotic chili plants and tends nearly 30 acres of a private nature preserve with wildflower fields and numerous forest trails. That and taking semi-annual European signing tours to visit his fellow BarksDucks fans, takes up all of his time. He is also working to complete his collections of all American comic books published between 1945 and 1970. ==Work== In Europe, Rosa is recognized as one of the best Disney comics creators. Carl Barks and Rosa are among the few artists who have their name written on the covers of Disney magazines when their stories are published. Rosa enjoys including subtle references to his favourite movies and comics as well as his own previous work. He normally uses about twelve panels per page, instead of the more common eight. Rosa has an especially large following in Finland, and in 1999, he created a special 32-page adventure featuring Scrooge McDuck for his Finnish fans called; Sammon Salaisuus (translates to The secret of the Sampo, but it is officially named The Quest for Kalevala in English), based on the Finnish national epic, the Kalevala. The publication of this story created a national sensation in Finland where Donald Duck and the Kalevala are important aspects of culture. It was published in many other countries as well. The cover for the comic book was a spoof of a famous painting by Akseli Gallen-Kallela. The latest work that Rosa has worked on is a cover for the album Music Inspired by the Life and Times of Scrooge by Tuomas Holopainen from Nightwish who is a fan of Rosa's comics. ===Drawing style=== With a Bachelor of Arts degree in civil engineering as his only real drawing education, Rosa has some unusual drawing methods, as he writes: "I suspect nothing I do is done the way anyone else does it." Because of being self-taught in making comics, Rosa relies mostly on the skills he learned in engineering school, which means using technical pens and templates extensively. He applies templates and other engineering tools to draw what other artists draw freehand. He usually drew just under a page per day, but that depended on the amount of detail he puts in the picture. Rosa's drawing style is considered much more detailed and "dirtier" than that of most Disney artists, living or dead, and often likened to that of underground artists, and he is frequently compared to Robert Crumb. When Rosa was first told of this similarity, he said that he "drew that bad" long before he discovered underground comics during college. He went on to explain these similarities to underground artists with a similar background of making comics as a hobby: "I think that both my style and that of Robert Crumb are similar only because we both grew up making comics for our personal enjoyment, without ever taking drawing seriously, and without ever trying to attain a style that would please the average comics publisher. We drew comics for fun!" ===Carl Barks=== "I want to take everything Barks wrote and forge it into a workable timeline. My original dream was to become the new Carl Barks. I wanted to write, draw, and letter all my own stories. People tell me that my pencils look just like Barks, but my inks are pure Rosa, and I can't letter properly! So I'll have to settle for being Don Rosa." – Don Rosa in 1987 Rosa's idol when it comes to comics is Carl Barks. Rosa builds almost all his stories on characters and locations that Barks invented. Many of Rosa's stories contain references to some fact pointed out in a Barks story. At the request of publishers in response to reader demands, Rosa has even created sequels of old Barks stories. For example, his Return to Plain Awful is a sequel to Lost in the Andes!, where the Ducks return to the same hidden country. To add more to his admiration and consistency to Barks and Barks' stories, Rosa makes all his ducks' stories set in the 1950s. This is because Barks writes most of the stories about Scrooge, Donald and all people of Duckburg in the 1950s (it also conveniently resolves potential continuity problems, such as Scrooge's age). As explained in text pages in the Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck and its companion volume, Rosa does intense research of time periods to ensure not only that he gets the physical details right, but also to ensure that all characters could have been present. Barks either created most of the characters used by Rosa or is credited for greatly developing their personalities. Rosa thus feels obliged to make his stories factually consistent. He has spent a lot of time in making lists of facts and anecdotes pointed out in different stories by his mentor. Especially The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck was based mostly on the earlier works of Barks. Rosa admitted however that a scene of the first chapter was inspired by a story by Tony Strobl. As most of the characters Rosa uses were created by Barks, and because Rosa considers Scrooge rather than Donald to be the main character of the Duck universe, he does not regard himself as a pure Disney artist, nor the characters really as Disney's. "Rosa prefers to say that the characters he uses are Barks's, Barks having reshaped Donald Duck's personality and creating everything else we know of Duckburg while working as a freelancer in 1942–1967 for an independent licensed publisher (Dell/Western Comics). Barks even claimed to have also created Huey, Dewey, and Louie while working as a writer on Donald Duck animated cartoons in 1937." Because of his idolization of Barks, he repeatedly discourages his fans to use an absolutist way of saying his clearly different drawing style would be better than Barks's, and he found that notion confirmed when Barks himself spoke about Rosa's style in a critical tone though it is uncertain whether those comments were Barks's or those of his temporary "business managers" who filtered his communications. "I usually don't like my stories. I mean I try really hard, but I know I don't draw that well. I know people like it because it's got lots of extra details, but art directors know good artwork, and they know mine is not good artwork. Now, people always say, 'You're being too modest, you're being too modest', and I say, 'What?' They just have to ask me the right question. I know it's not good artwork and I don't know if it's well-drawn, but I know it's entertaining." – Don Rosa, Torino Comics Festival, April 2011 "Don Rosa has a style that is a little bit different from the Disney style. I know that there is a great deal of people that like that style, which is extremely detailed. So, there is room in the business for artists like Don Rosa and for others like Van Horn. They have a different style. But if they have a good story and tell it properly, then people are going to like it." – Carl Barks, interview given at Disneyland Paris, July 7, 1994 Beside Rosa's constant effort to remain faithful to the universe Barks created, there is also a number of notable differences between the two artists. The most obvious of these is Rosa's much more detailed drawing style, often with many background gags, which has been credited as being a result of Rosa's love of the Will Elder stories of MAD comics and magazines. While Barks himself discouraged the use of extreme grimacing and gesturing in any other panel for comical or dramatic effect, Rosa's stories are rich with exaggerated facial expressions and physical slapstick. Barks had over 600 Duck stories to his name while Rosa only created 85 until his eye trouble set in, but whereas Barks made many short one and two-pagers centered around a subtle, compact gag, Rosa's oeuvre consists almost exclusively of long adventure stories. Andrea "Bramo" Bramini identifies the following four differences between Barks's and Rosa's way of storytelling: Rosa follows a very strict continuity, while Barks paid very little attention to continuity between stories. Rosa's characterization of Scrooge is that of a much more sentimental person for often relishing his memories of past adventures. Barks situated his stories in the present day of when he was creating them and had a penchant for satire. Rosa strictly writes stories taking place in an era at least half a century prior to their creation, and mostly abstains from any political or social commentary. With his engineering degree, Rosa often goes to great lengths to give scientifically plausible explanations within his stories, whereas Barks never cared much for any detailed scientific rationalizations to his stories. ===D.U.C.K.=== Most of Rosa's stories have the letters D.U.C.K. hidden within either the first panel or, if Rosa has created the cover art, within the cover art itself. D.U.C.K. is a backronym for "Dedicated to Unca Carl from Keno" (Carl being Carl Barks and Keno being Rosa's given first name). Due to Disney's refusal to allow artists to sign their work, early Rosa dedications to Barks were deleted as they seemed to be a form of a signature. Later Rosa began hiding the dedication acronym from his editors in various and unlikely places within his drawings. Rosa has drawn covers for reprints of Carl Barks stories and has included his D.U.C.K. dedication within them as well. ===Mickey=== Another curiosity is his Hidden Mickeys. Rosa is only interested in creating stories featuring the Duck family, but he often hides small Mickey Mouse heads or figures in the pictures, sometimes in a humiliating or unwanted situation. An example of this is in the story The Terror of the Transvaal where a flat Mickey can be seen under an elephant's foot. Rosa has admitted to neither liking nor disliking Mickey Mouse, but being indifferent to him. In the story Attack of the Hideous Space-Varmints, the asteroid with Uncle Scrooge's money bin on it crashes into the Moon along with two missiles, creating a large Mickey Mouse head on the surface. When Huey, Dewey, and Louie tell Donald that the missiles hit the "dark" (far) side of the Moon, Donald is thankful no one is going to see it — "For a minute there, I thought we were going to have some legal problems." In the second Rosa story featuring The Three Caballeros, Donald Duck is shocked by the sight of a capybara standing on its hind legs, with shrubs, leaves and fruit in front of its body, coincidentally making it look like Mickey Mouse. José Carioca and Panchito Pistoles, never having seen Mickey Mouse, ask Donald what is wrong, but Donald replies he is just tired. Later in the same story, the Caballeros free several animals from a poacher. One panel shows the animals fleeing; Mickey can be seen among them. In The Quest for Kalevala this running gag can be seen on the original, Akseli Gallen-Kallela-inspired cover art. In the original work, Louhi is depicted as bare-chested, but the Disneyfied version has been drawn a top, of fabric patterned with Mickey Mouse heads. ==Awards== His work has won Rosa a great deal of recognition in the industry, including nominations for the Comics' Buyer's Guide Award for Favorite Writer in 1997, 1998, and 1999. Heidi MacDonald of Comics Buyer's Guide also mentioned Rosa's 1994 story Guardians of the Lost Library as "possibly the greatest comic book story of all time". In 1969, while still in college, Rosa won an award as "best political cartoonist in the nation in a college paper". "I'm not really an editorial cartoonist. I'd much rather be doing comedy adventure. But I must have done something right, for at one point The Journal of Higher Education named me one of the five or six best college newspaper cartoonists in the nation." In 1995, Rosa was awarded the Eisner Award for Best Serialized Story for The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck. In 1997 he won an Eisner for Best Artist/Writer – Humor Category. He was awarded the Inkpot Award in 2014. Rosa's story The Black Knight GLORPS Again! was nominated for the 2007 Eisner Award in the category Best Short Story. While The Prisoner of White Agony Creek, Rosa's latest Duck story to-date, was published in 2006, he was also nominated for the 2007 Harvey Awards in five categories (more than any other creator was that year) for his Uncle Scrooge comics: "Best Writer", "Best Artist", "Best Cartoonist", "Best Cover Artist", and "Special Award for Humor in Comics." In 2013 Rosa received the Bill Finger Award which recognizes excellence in comic book writing for writers who have not received their rightful reward and/or recognition. International "Best Cartoonist of the Year" awards include: Germany: International Grand Prize 2005 (Frankfurt Book Fair). Denmark: ORLA Award (DR Television Network). Sweden: Svenska Serieakademins (Swedish Comics Academy). Seriefrämjandets Unghunden (Swedish Comics Association). Norway: Sproing Award (Norsk Tegneserieforum / Norwegian Comics Forum). Italy: Yambo Award (Lucca Comics Festival). 2005 Premio U Giancu's Prize (U Giancu & Rapallo Comics Festival). Spain: Haxtur Award (Gijon Comics Festival). ==Biographies== In 1997 the Italian publishing house Editrice ComicArt published a lavish volume about Rosa's biography and work related to the Disney characters. It was titled Don Rosa e il Rinascimento Disneyano ("Don Rosa and the Disneyean Renaissance") and written by famous Disney and Rosa scholars, Alberto Becattini, Leonardo Gori and Francesco Stajano. This work not only discusses all of Rosa's creative life up to 1997, but it also gives a comprehensive biography, lists up to that date his Disney work and presents an extensive interview with Rosa. In 2009, Danish director Sebastian S. Cordes shot a 75-minute documentary called The Life and Times of Don Rosa, consisting of exclusive interviews with Rosa himself on his farm near Louisville, Kentucky. According to the project's Facebook group, the English-language DVD was released in Denmark on April 16, 2011. In 2011, Italian Disney fan forum papersera.net published Don Rosa: A Little Something Special (edited by Italian Rosa fan Paolo Castagno), a large folio format, bilingual (Italian and English) book about Rosa's life and work, containing interviews with Rosa and articles by many Italian and European Disney artists, Disney scholars, and established art critics commenting on Rosa's work and career, also including many exclusive, rare Rosa drawings and illustrations. The book was originally made as a gift by papersera.net for Rosa himself upon the occasion of Rosa's April 2011 visit to Turin, Italy. In 2017 the book, I Still Get Chills!, featuring text by German journalist Alex Jakubowski and photographs by Lois Lammerhuber, was published by Edition Lammerhuber in honour of Rosa's 66th birthday and the 70th anniversary of the first appearance of Scrooge McDuck. A feature documentary about Don Rosa and Scrooge McDuck by French director Morgann Gicquel titled The Scrooge Mystery was released in December 2017 and was released on DVD and Blu-ray in 2018. ==Comic collections== ===United States=== The Don Rosa Classics — The Pertwillaby Papers The Don Rosa Classics — The Adventures of Captain Kentucky The Don Rosa Classics — The Early (So-Called) Art of Don Rosa The Don Rosa Library of Uncle Scrooge Adventures in Color Vols. 1–8 The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck Companion The Barks/Rosa Collection Vols. 1–3 Walt Disney Treasury: Donald Duck Vols. 1–2 Uncle Scrooge and Donald Duck: The Don Rosa Library Vols. 1–10 Don Rosa's The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck: Artist's Edition Vols. 1–2 The Complete Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck Vols. 1–2 ===Other countries=== Apart from the Don Rosa Collection in Germany and Don Rosas Samlade/Samlede Verk and Don Rosan kootut in the Nordic nations, the following collections only contain Rosa's work for Disney.	[ "Norway", "Disneyland Paris", "France", "Akseli Gallen-Kallela", "The Barks/Rosa Collection", "DuckTales (1987 TV series)", "Eisner Award", "Sampo", "Poland", "José Carioca", "Denmark", "Spirit (comics character)", "National Geographic magazine", "The Pertwillaby Papers", "Attack of the Hideous Space-Varmints", "Donald Duck universe", "Morgann Gicquel", "Uncle Scrooge and Donald Duck: The Don Rosa Library", "List of Disney comics by Don Rosa", "Netherlands", "Brazil", "Harvey Award", "The Defense of the Sampo", "Greece", "Whitman Comics", "fancomic", "Mad (magazine)", "Nightwish", "Germany", "Captain Kentucky", "Rapallo Comics Festival", "Return to Plain Awful", "dystopia", "poaching", "Uncle Scrooge Adventures in Color", "technical pen", "The Walt Disney Company", "The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck Companion", "Turin", "Superman (Earth-One)", "Louhi", "Flintheart Glomgold", "social studies", "Uncle Scrooge", "U Giancu's Prize", "Al Taliaferro", "Geoffrey Blum", "Bill Finger Award", "Bachelor of Science", "Carl Barks", "Donald Duck", "INDUCKS", "fanzine", "Mickey Mouse", "The Three Caballeros", "University of Kentucky", "Disney comics", "A Little Something Special", "Huey, Dewey, and Louie", "Donaldism", "Hidden Mickey", "Inkpot Award", "Little Lulu", "pixelated", "workaholic", "Indonesia", "DR (broadcaster)", "Italy", "The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck", "underground comix", "The Quest for Kalevala", "capybara", "Rocket's Blast Comicollector", "Lost in the Andes!", "The Son of the Sun", "Heidi MacDonald", "White Castle (restaurant)", "Kalevala", "Egmont Group", "Music Inspired by the Life and Times of Scrooge", "Louisville Times", "TV Guide", "Facebook", "Folio (printing)", "Russia", "Lucca Comics & Games", "Gladstone Comics", "Robert Crumb", "Tony Strobl", "The Kentucky Kernel", "Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck", "The Terror of the Transvaal", "Scrooge McDuck", "Byron Erickson", "comic book", "Guardians of the Lost Library", "Will Elder", "Harvey Awards", "The Black Knight GLORPS Again!", "Lambiek", "Finland", "The Prisoner of White Agony Creek", "List of people from the Louisville metropolitan area", "Documentary", "Panchito Pistoles", "Carlo Chendi", "Comics Buyer's Guide", "Sweden", "Clan McDuck", "fansite", "MAD magazine", "Pogo (comic strip)", "Picsou", "Tuomas Holopainen", "The Adventures of Captain Kentucky", "civil engineering", "Louisville, Kentucky", "William Van Horn", "The Journal of Higher Education" ]
8,930	Dziga Vertov	Dziga Vertov (born David Abelevich Kaufman; – 12 February 1954) was a Soviet pioneer documentary film and newsreel director, as well as a cinema theorist. His filming practices and theories influenced the cinéma vérité style of documentary movie-making and the Dziga Vertov Group, a radical film-making cooperative which was active from 1968 to 1972. He was a member of the Kinoks collective, with Elizaveta Svilova and Mikhail Kaufman. In the 2012 Sight & Sound poll, critics voted Vertov's Man with a Movie Camera (1929) the eighth-greatest film ever made. Vertov's younger brothers Boris Kaufman and Mikhail Kaufman were also noted filmmakers, as was his wife, Yelizaveta Svilova. He worked with Boris Kaufman and cinematographer Mikhail Kaufman on his most famous film Man with a Movie Camera. ==Biography== ===Early years=== Vertov was born David Abelevich Kaufman into a Jewish family in Białystok, Poland, then a part of the Russian Empire. He Russified his Jewish name and patronymic, David Abelevich, to Denis Arkadievich at some point after 1918. Vertov studied music at Białystok Conservatory until his family fled from the invading German Army to Moscow in 1915. The Kaufmans soon settled in Petrograd, where Vertov began writing poetry, science fiction, and satire. In 1916–1917 Vertov was studying medicine at the Psychoneurological Institute in Saint Petersburg and experimenting with "sound collages" in his free time. He eventually adopted the name "Dziga Vertov", which translates loosely from Ukrainian as 'spinning top'. ===Early writings=== Vertov is known for many early writings, mainly while still in school, that focus on the individual versus the perceptive nature of the camera lens, which he was known to call his "second eye". Most of Vertov's early work was unpublished, and few manuscripts survived after the Second World War, though some material surfaced in later films and documentaries created by Vertov and his brothers, Boris Kaufman and Mikhail Kaufman. Vertov is known for quotes on perception, and its ineffability, in relation to the nature of qualia (sensory experiences). ===After the October Revolution=== After the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, at the age of 22, Vertov began editing for Kino-Nedelya (, the Moscow Cinema Committee's weekly film series, and the first newsreel series in Russia), which first came out in June 1918. While working for Kino-Nedelya he met his future wife, the film director and editor, Elizaveta Svilova, who at the time was working as an editor at Goskino. She began collaborating with Vertov, beginning as his editor but becoming assistant and co-director in subsequent films, such as Man with a Movie Camera (1929), and Three Songs About Lenin (1934). Vertov worked on the Kino-Nedelya series for three years, helping establish and run a film-car on Mikhail Kalinin's agit-train during the ongoing Russian Civil War between Communists and counterrevolutionaries. Some of the cars on the agit-trains were equipped with actors for live performances or printing presses; Vertov's had equipment to shoot, develop, edit, and project film. The trains went to battlefronts on agitation-propaganda missions intended primarily to bolster the morale of the troops; they were also intended to stir up revolutionary fervor of the masses. In 1919, Vertov compiled newsreel footage for his documentary Anniversary of the Revolution; he also supervised the filming of his project The Battle for Tsaritsyn (1919). in 1921 he compiled History of the Civil War. The so-called "Council of Three," a group issuing manifestoes in LEF, a radical Russian newsmagazine, was established in 1922; the group's "three" were Vertov, his (future) wife and editor Elizaveta Svilova, and his brother and cinematographer Mikhail Kaufman. Vertov's interest in machinery led to a curiosity about the mechanical basis of cinema. His statement "We: Variant of a Manifesto" was published in the first issue of Kino-Fot, published by Aleksei Gan in 1922. It commenced with a distinction between "kinoks" and other approaches to the emergent cinematic industry: "We call ourselves kinoks – as opposed to "cinematographers", a herd of junkmen doing rather well peddling their rags. We see no connection between true kinochestvo and the cunning and calculation of the profiteers. We consider the psychological Russo-German film-drama – weighed down with apparitions and childhood memories – an absurdity." ====Kino-Pravda==== In 1922, the year that Nanook of the North was released, Vertov started the Kino-Pravda series. The series took its title from the official government newspaper Pravda. "Kino-Pravda" (literally translated, "film truth") continued Vertov's agit-prop bent. "The Kino-Pravda group began its work in a basement in the centre of Moscow", Vertov explained. He called it damp and dark. There was an earthen floor and holes one stumbled into at every turn. Vertov said, "This dampness prevented our reels of lovingly edited film from sticking together properly, rusted our scissors and our splicers. Vertov's driving vision, expounded in his frequent essays, was to capture "film truth"—that is, fragments of actuality which, when organized together, have a deeper truth that cannot be seen with the naked eye. In the Kino-Pravda series, Vertov focused on everyday experiences, eschewing bourgeois concerns and filming marketplaces, bars, and schools instead, sometimes with a hidden camera, without asking permission first. Usually, the episodes of Kino-Pravda did not include reenactments or stagings. (One exception is the segment about the trial of the Social Revolutionaries: the scenes of the selling of the newspapers on the streets and the people reading the papers in the trolley were both staged for the camera.) The cinematography is simple, functional, unelaborate—perhaps a result of Vertov's disinterest in both "beauty" and the "grandeur of fiction". Twenty-three issues of the series were produced over a period of three years; each issue lasted about twenty minutes and usually covered three topics. The stories were typically descriptive, not narrative, and included vignettes and exposés, showing for instance the renovation of a trolley system, the organization of farmers into communes, and the trial of Social Revolutionaries; one story shows starvation in the nascent Communist state. Propagandistic tendencies are also present, but with more subtlety, in the episode featuring the construction of an airport: one shot shows the Tsar's tanks helping prepare a foundation, with an intertitle reading "Tanks on the labor front". Vertov clearly intended an active relationship with his audience in the series—in the final segment he includes contact information—but by the 14th episode the series had become so experimental that some critics dismissed Vertov's efforts as "insane". Vertov responded to their criticisms with the assertion that the critics were hacks nipping "revolutionary effort" in the bud, and concluded an essay with a promise to "explode art's tower of Babel". In Vertov's view, "art's tower of Babel" was the subservience of cinematic technique to narrative—what film theorist Noël Burch terms the institutional mode of representation—which would come to dominate the classical Hollywood cinema. By this point in his career, Vertov was clearly and emphatically dissatisfied with narrative tradition, and expresses his hostility towards dramatic fiction of any kind both openly and repeatedly; he regarded drama as another "opiate of the masses". Vertov freely admitted one criticism leveled at his efforts on the Kino-Pravda series—that the series, while influential, had a limited release. By the end of the Kino-Pravda series, Vertov made liberal use of stop motion, freeze frames, and other cinematic "artificialities", giving rise to criticisms not just of his trenchant dogmatism, but also of his cinematic technique. Vertov explains himself in "On 'Kinopravda' ": in editing "chance film clippings" together for the Kino-Nedelia series, he "began to doubt the necessity of a literary connection between individual visual elements spliced together.... This work served as the point of departure for 'Kinopravda' ". Towards the end of the same essay, Vertov mentions an upcoming project which seems likely to be Man with a Movie Camera (1929), calling it an "experimental film" made without a scenario; just three paragraphs above, Vertov mentions a scene from Kino Pravda which should be quite familiar to viewers of Man with the Movie Camera: the peasant works, and so does the urban woman, and so too, the woman film editor selecting the negative... " ====Man with a Movie Camera==== With Lenin's admission of limited private enterprise through the New Economic Policy (NEP) of 1921, Russia began receiving fiction films from afar, an occurrence that Vertov regarded with undeniable suspicion, calling drama a "corrupting influence" on the proletarian sensibility ("On 'Kinopravda' ", 1924). By this time Vertov had been using his newsreel series as a pedestal to vilify dramatic fiction for several years; he continued his criticisms even after the warm reception of Sergei Eisenstein's Battleship Potemkin (1925). Potemkin was a heavily fictionalized film telling the story of a mutiny on a battleship which came about as a result of the sailors' mistreatment; the film was an obvious but skillful propaganda piece glorifying the proletariat. Vertov lost his job at Sovkino in January 1927, possibly as a result of criticizing a film which effectively preaches the line of the Communist Party. He was fired for making A Sixth Part of the World: Advertising and the Soviet Universe for the State Trade Organization into a propaganda film, selling the Soviet as an advanced society under the NEP, instead of showing how they fit into the world economy. The Ukraine State Studio hired Vertov to create Man with a Movie Camera. Vertov says in his essay "The Man with a Movie Camera" that he was fighting "for a decisive cleaning up of film-language, for its complete separation from the language of theater and literature". By the later segments of Kino-Pravda, Vertov was experimenting heavily, looking to abandon what he considered film clichés (and receiving criticism for it); his experimentation was even more pronounced and dramatic by the time of Man with a Movie Camera, which was filmed in Ukraine. Some have criticized the obvious stagings in this film as being at odds with Vertov's creed of "life as it is" and "life caught unawares": the scene of the woman getting out of bed and getting dressed is obviously staged, as is the reversed shot of the chess pieces being pushed off a chess board and the tracking shot that films Mikhail Kaufman riding in a car filming a third car. However, Vertov's two credos, often used interchangeably, are in fact distinct, as Yuri Tsivian comments in the commentary track on the DVD for Man with the Movie Camera: for Vertov, "life as it is" means to record life as it would be without the camera present. "Life caught unawares" means to record life when surprised, and perhaps provoked, by the presence of a camera. This explanation contradicts the common assumption that for Vertov "life caught unawares" meant "life caught unaware of the camera". All of these shots might conform to Vertov's credo "caught unawares". His slow motion, fast motion, and other camera techniques were a way to dissect the image, Mikhail Kaufman stated in an interview. It was to be the honest truth of perception. For example, in Man with a Movie Camera, two trains are shown almost melting into each other. Although we are taught to see trains as not riding that close, Vertov tried to portray the actual sight of two passing trains. Mikhail spoke about Eisenstein's films as being different from his and his brother's in that Eisenstein "came from the theatre, in the theatre one directs dramas, one strings beads". "We all felt...that through documentary film we could develop a new kind of art. Not only documentary art, or the art of chronicle, but rather an art based on images, the creation of an image-oriented journalism", Mikhail explained. More than even film truth, Man with a Movie Camera was supposed to be a way to make those in the Soviet Union more efficient in their actions. He slowed down his movements, such as the decision whether to jump or not. You can see the decision in his face, a psychological dissection for the audience. He wanted a peace between the actions of man and the actions of a machine, for them to be, in a sense, one. ====Cine-Eye==== "Cine-Eye" is a montage method developed by Dziga Vertov and first formulated in his work "WE: Variant of a Manifesto" in 1919. Dziga Vertov believed his concept of Kino-Glaz, or "Cine Eye" in English, would help contemporary "man" evolve from a flawed creature into a higher, more precise form. He compared man unfavorably to machines: "In the face of the machine we are ashamed of man's inability to control himself, but what are we to do if we find the unerring ways of electricity more exciting than the disorderly haste of active people [...]" As he put it in a 1923 credo, "I am the Cine-Eye. I am the mechanical eye. I the machine show you the world as only I can see it. I emancipate myself henceforth and forever from human immobility. I am in constant motion... My path leads towards the creation of a fresh perception of the world. I can thus decipher a world that you do not know." Like other Russian filmmakers, he attempted to connect his ideas and techniques to the advancement of the aims of the Soviet Union. Whereas Sergei Eisenstein viewed his montage of attractions as a creative tool through which the film-viewing masses could be subjected to "emotional and psychological influence" and therefore able to perceive "the ideological aspect" of the films they were watching, Vertov believed the Cine-Eye would influence the actual evolution of man, "from a bumbling citizen through the poetry of the machine to the perfect electric man". Vertov surrounded himself with others who were also firm believers in his ideas. These were the Kinoks, other Russian filmmakers who would assist him in his hopes of making "cine-eye" a success. Vertov believed film was too "romantic" and "theatricalised" due to the influence of literature, theater, and music, and that these psychological film-dramas "prevent man from being as precise as a stopwatch and hamper his desire for kinship with the machine". He desired to move away from "the pre-Revolutionary 'fictional' models" of filmmaking to one based on the rhythm of machines, seeking to "bring creative joy to all mechanical labour" and to "bring men closer to machines". Three years later, Three Songs About Lenin (1934) looked at the revolution through the eyes of the Russian peasantry. For his film, Vertov had been hired by Mezhrabpomfilm. The film, finished in January 1934 for Lenin's obit, was only publicly released in the Soviet Union in November of that year. From July 1934 it was shown at private screenings to various high-ranking Soviet officials and also to prominent foreigners including H. G. Wells, William Bullitt, and others, and it was screened at the Venice Film Festival in August 1934. A new version of the film was released in 1938, including a longer sequence to reflect Stalin's achievements at the end of the film and leaving out footage of "enemies" of that time. Today there exists a 1970 reconstruction by Yelizaveta Svilova. With the rise and official sanction of socialist realism in 1934, Vertov was forced to cut his personal artistic output significantly, eventually becoming little more than an editor for Soviet newsreels. Lullaby, perhaps the last film in which Vertov was able to maintain his artistic vision, was released in 1937. Dziga Vertov died of cancer in Moscow in 1954. ==Family== Vertov's brother Boris Kaufman was a cinematographer who worked with Jean Vigo on L'Atalante (1934) and much later for directors such as Elia Kazan in the United States who won an Oscar for his work on On the Waterfront. His other brother, Mikhail Kaufman, worked with Vertov on his films until he became a documentarian in his own right. Mikhail Kaufman's directorial debut was the film In Spring (1929). In 1923, Vertov married his long-time collaborator Elizaveta Svilova. After the October Revolution, Vertov's parents returned to Białystok, which became part of Poland. They were later murdered by the Nazis during the Holocaust. ==Influence and legacy== Vertov's legacy still lives on today. His ideas are echoed in cinéma vérité, the movement of the 1960s named after Vertov's Kino-Pravda. The 1960s and 1970s saw an international revival of interest in Vertov. The independent, exploratory style of Vertov influenced and inspired many filmmakers and directors like the Situationist Guy Debord and independent companies such as Vertov Industries in Hawaii. The Dziga Vertov Group borrowed his name. In 1960, Jean Rouch used Vertov's filming theory when making Chronicle of a Summer. His partner Edgar Morin coined the term cinéma vérité when describing the style, using direct translation of Vertov's KinoPravda. The Free Cinema movement in the United Kingdom during the 1950s, the Direct Cinema in North America in the late 1950s and early 1960s, and the Candid Eye series in Canada in the 1950s all essentially owed a debt to Vertov. This revival of Vertov's legacy included rehabilitation of his reputation in the Soviet Union, with retrospectives of his films, biographical works, and writings. In 1962, the first Soviet monograph on Vertov was published, followed by another collection, "Dziga Vertov: Articles, Diaries, Projects". In 1984, to recall the 30th anniversary of Vertov's death, three New York cultural organizations put on the first American retrospective of Vertov's work. New Media theorist Lev Manovich suggested Vertov as one of the early pioneers of database cinema genre in his essay Database as a symbolic form. Vertov's work has inspired notable artist and filmmaker William Kentridge. ==Filmography== 1918 Кинонеделя (Kino Nedelya/Cinema Week) 1918 Годовщина революции (Anniversary of the Revolution) 1921 История гражданской войны (History of the Civil War) 1922 Киноправда (Kino-Pravda) 1924 Советские игрушки (Soviet Toys) 1924 Кино-глаз (Kino-Eye), cameraman Ilya Kopalin 1926 Шестая часть мира (A Sixth Part of the World) 1926 Шагай, Совет! (Stride, Soviet!) 1928 Одиннадцатый (The Eleventh Year) 1929 Человек с киноаппаратом (Man with a Movie Camera) 1931 Энтузиазм (Симфония Донбаса) (Enthusiasm) 1934 Три песни о Ленине (Three Songs About Lenin) 1937 Памяти Серго Орджоникидзе (In Memory of Sergo Ordzhonikidze) 1937 Колыбельная (Lullaby) 1938 Три героини (Three Heroines) 1942 Казахстан – фронту! (Kazakhstan for the Front!) 1944 В горах Ала-Тау (In the Mountains of Ala-Tau) 1954 Новости дня (News of the Day) === Lost films === Some early Vertov's films were lost for many years. Only 12 minutes of his 1918 Anniversary of the Revolution were known; in 2018 Russian film historian Nikolai Izvolov found the lost film in the Russian State Documentary Film & Photo Archive and restored it. In 2022 he reconstructed another lost film, 1921 The History of the Civil War using archive materials.	[ "Elia Kazan", "Enthusiasm (film)", "Communism", "Lullaby (1937 film)", "Sovkino", "Candid Eye", "Russian Empire", "William Kentridge", "In Spring (1929 film)", "Edgar Morin", "Moscow", "Sight & Sound", "Situationist International", "Kino-Pravda", "Pure cinema", "October Revolution", "Guy Debord", "Russian Civil War", "freeze frame shot", "Austrian Film Museum", "Soviet Union", "Jonathan Cape", "database cinema", "Soviet montage theory", "Elizaveta Svilova", "Free Cinema", "Jean Vigo", "Battleship Potemkin", "satire", "In Memory of Sergo Ordzhonikidze (1937 film)", "Goskino", "LEF (journal)", "Dziga Vertov Group", "Erik Barnouw", "Tsar", "Bloomsbury Publishing", "Ukraine", "Saint Petersburg", "classical Hollywood cinema", "tower of Babel", "counterrevolutionary", "Ukrainian language", "New Media", "Cahiers du Cinéma", "Lev Manovich", "agit-train", "On the Waterfront", "socialist realism", "cinéma vérité", "2nd Venice International Film Festival", "Noël Burch", "Mikhail Kalinin", "Ian Christie (film scholar)", "agitprop", "New Economic Policy", "Ilya Kopalin", "Natascha Drubek", "William Christian Bullitt Jr.", "institutional mode of representation", "documentary film", "German Army (German Empire)", "Abstract film", "Gorky Film Studio", "Second Polish Republic", "Boris Kaufman", "Kaufmann", "film", "stop motion", "Congress Poland", "Białystok", "Bolshevik Revolution", "newsreel", "Holocaust", "science fiction", "World War II", "printing press", "Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "Yelizaveta Svilova", "Barry Keith Grant", "Russification", "patronymic", "Yuri Tsivian", "A Sixth Part of the World", "Formalist film theory", "Nazis", "Kino-Fot", "Communist", "Nanook of the North", "Jean Rouch", "Mikhail Kaufman", "Direct Cinema", "Jew", "montage of attractions", "cinematographer", "Kino-Eye (film)", "Pravda", "Sergei Eisenstein", "audio commentary (DVD)", "Man with a Movie Camera", "Three Songs About Lenin", "Kinoks", "L'Atalante", "poetry", "1922 Moscow Trial of Socialist Revolutionaries" ]
8,932	Deimos	Deimos, a Greek word for dread, may refer to: ==In general== Deimos (deity), one of the sons of Ares and Aphrodite in Greek mythology Deimos (moon), the smaller and outermost of Mars' two natural satellites ==Fictional characters== Deimos (comics), villain for the Warlord comic series Deimos, the brother of Kratos in the God of War series Deimos, the identity of an antagonistic character from the 2018 video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey Deimos, the protagonist in Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege Deimos, stage name of the drummer of Nocturna (band) ==Transportation and vehicles== Elecnor Deimos, a Spanish aerospace company Deimos-1, an artificial Earth observation satellite Deimos-2, an artificial Earth observation satellite SpaceX Deimos, a floating Starship launch and landing platform , a U.S. Navy ship name , a ship in the US Navy in World War II ==Other uses== DEIMOS, an early message passing OS for the Cray-1, replaced by the Cray Time Sharing System Deimos (Doctor Who audio), an audio drama	[ "Elecnor Deimos", "Assassin's Creed Odyssey", "Deimos (Doctor Who audio)", "Deimos (comics)", "Cray Time Sharing System", "Deimos-1", "Characters of God of War", "DEIMOS", "Deimos (deity)", "Demoz (disambiguation)", "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege", "Deimos (moon)", "Nocturna (band)", "Demos (disambiguation)", "Deimos-2", "Semi-submersible platform" ]
8,933	Delaware General Corporation Law	The Delaware General Corporation Law (sometimes abbreviated DGCL), officially the General Corporation Law of the State of Delaware (Title 8, Chapter 1 of the Delaware Code), is the statute of the Delaware Code that governs corporate law in the U.S. state of Delaware. The statute was adopted in 1899. Since the 1913 anti-corporation reforms in New Jersey under the governorship of Woodrow Wilson, Delaware has become the most prevalent jurisdiction in United States corporate law and has been described as the de facto corporate capital of the United States. Delaware is considered a corporate haven because of its business-friendly corporate laws compared to most other U.S. states. Over half of all publicly traded corporations listed in the New York Stock Exchange (including its owner, Intercontinental Exchange) are incorporated in Delaware. The statute has been credited with reducing the tax burdens on Delaware residents as revenues from the statute provide two-fifths of the state's budget. It has also been criticized for facilitating tax dodging and money laundering by multinational corporations, and for providing safe haven to money launderers, kleptocratic foreign rulers, and human traffickers. from New York, Delaware adopted on March 10, 1899, a general incorporation act aimed at attracting more businesses. The group that pushed for this legislation intended to establish a corporation that would sell services to other businesses incorporating in Delaware. Before the rise of general incorporation acts, forming a corporation required a special act of the state legislature. General incorporation allowed anyone to form a corporation by simply raising money and filing articles of incorporation with the state's Secretary of State. ==Other legal aspects== Because of the extensive experience of the Delaware courts, Delaware has a more well-developed body of case law than other states, which serves to give corporations and their counsel greater guidance on matters of corporate governance and transaction liability issues. Disputes over the internal affairs of Delaware corporations are usually filed in the Delaware Court of Chancery, which is a separate court of equity, as opposed to a court of law. Because it is a court of equity, there are no juries; its cases are heard by judges, called chancellors. Since 2018, the court has consisted of one chancellor and six vice-chancellors. The court is a trial court, with one chancellor hearing each case. Litigants may appeal final decisions of the Court of Chancery to the Delaware Supreme Court. Delaware has also attracted major credit card banks because of its relaxed rules regarding interest. Many U.S. states have usury laws limiting the amount of interest a lender can charge. Federal law allows a national bank to "import" these laws from the state in which its principal office is located. Delaware (among others) has relatively relaxed interest laws, so several national banks have decided to locate their principal office in Delaware. National banks are, however, corporations formed under federal law, not Delaware law. A corporation formed under Delaware state law benefits from the relaxed interest rules to the extent it conducts business in Delaware, but is subject to restrictions of other states' laws if it conducts business in other states. As a result, Delaware corporations are subject almost exclusively to Delaware law, even when they do business in other states. While most states require a for-profit corporation to have at least one director and two officers, Delaware laws do not have this restriction. All offices may be held by a single person who also can be the sole shareholder. The person, who does not need to be a U.S. citizen or resident, may also operate anonymously with only the listing agent through whom the company is registered named. ==Tax benefits and burdens== Delaware charges no income tax on corporations not operating within the state, so taking advantage of Delaware's other benefits does not result in taxation. At the same time, Delaware has a particularly aggressive tax on banks that locate in the state. However, in general, the state is viewed as a positive location for corporate tax purposes because favorable laws of incorporation allow companies to minimize corporate expenditures (achieved through legal standardization of corporate legal processes), creating a nucleus in Delaware with operating companies often in other states. In addition, Delaware has used its position as the state of incorporation to generate revenue from its abandoned and unclaimed property laws. Under U.S. Supreme Court precedent, the state of incorporation gets to keep any abandoned and unclaimed property, such as uncashed checks and unredeemed gift certificates, if the corporation does not have information about the location of the owner of the property. Abandoned property provides Delaware with about half a billion dollars annually. Delaware charges a franchise tax on the corporations incorporated in it. Franchise taxes in Delaware are higher than in most other states which typically get revenue from corporate income taxes on the portion of the corporation's business done in that state. Delaware's franchise taxes supply about one-fifth of its state revenue. ==2013 amendments== On June 30, 2013, Delaware Governor Jack Markell signed amendments to the Delaware General Corporation Law. The new legislation took effect on August 1, 2013, except for the ratification of the defective corporate acts amendment which took effect in 2014. == Securities law == In 2020, the Delaware Supreme Court upheld a provision allowing companies to require in their certificates of incorporation all Securities Act of 1933 claims to be filed in federal court. DGCL 203 is particularly known as an antitakeover law.	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8,935	Detroit River	The Detroit River is an international river in North America. The river, which forms part of the border between the U.S. state of Michigan and the Canadian province of Ontario, flows west and south for from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie as a strait in the Great Lakes system. The river divides the metropolitan areas of Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario—an area collectively referred to as Detroit–Windsor. The Ambassador Bridge, the Detroit–Windsor Tunnel, and the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel connect the cities. The river's English name comes from the French (translated as "River of the Strait"). The Detroit River has served an important role in the history of Detroit and Windsor, and is one of the world's busiest waterways. It is an important transportation route connecting Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, and Lake Superior to Lake Erie and eventually to Lake Ontario, the St. Lawrence Seaway and the Erie Canal. When Detroit underwent rapid industrialization at the turn of the 20th century, the Detroit River became notoriously polluted and toxic. Since the late 20th century, however, a vast restoration effort has been undertaken because of the river's ecological importance. In the early 21st century, the river today has a wide variety of economic and recreational uses. There are numerous islands in the Detroit River, and much of the lower portion of the river is part of the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge. The portion of the river in the city of Detroit has been organized into the Detroit International Riverfront and the William G. Milliken State Park and Harbor. The Detroit River is designated both an American Heritage River and a Canadian Heritage River—the only river to have this dual designation. By definition, this classifies it as both a river and a strait — a strait being a narrow passageway connecting two large bodies of water, which is how the river earned its name from early French settlers. However, today, the Detroit River is rarely referred to as a strait, because bodies of water referred to as straits are typically much wider relative to their length. The river forms the southern portion of the waterway connecting Lake Huron to the north and Lake Erie to the south, with other portions including the St. Clair River and Lake St. Clair. The Detroit River is only wide. It begins with an east-to-west flow from Lake St. Clair, but curves and runs north to south. The deepest portion of the Detroit River is in its northern portion. At its source, the river is at an elevation of above sea level. The river is relatively level, dropping only before entering Lake Erie at . As the river contains no dams and no locks, it is easily navigable by even the smallest of vessels. The watershed basin for the Detroit River is approximately . Since the river is fairly short, it has few tributaries, the largest being the River Rouge in Michigan; this is four times longer than the Detroit River and contains most of the watershed. The only other major American tributary to the Detroit River is the much smaller Ecorse River. Tributaries on the Canadian side include Little River, Turkey Creek, and the River Canard. The discharge for the Detroit River is relatively high for a river of its size. The river's discharge averaged over the year is , and the river's flow is relatively constant. The Detroit River forms a major element of the international border between the United States and Canada. The river on the American side is all under the jurisdiction of Wayne County, Michigan, and the Canadian side is under the administration of Essex County, Ontario. The largest city along the Detroit River is Detroit, and most of the population along the river lives in Michigan. The Detroit River has two automobile traffic crossings connecting the United States and Canada: the Ambassador Bridge and the Detroit–Windsor Tunnel. Both of these are strongly protected by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection and the Canada Border Services Agency. The upper portion of the river is one of the two places where a Canadian city lies directly south of an American city. In this case, the city of Detroit is directly north of the city of Windsor, Ontario. The only other location where this occurs is Fort Erie, Ontario, which lies south of several cities in Niagara County, New York. The cities and communities southwest of Detroit along the American side of the river are popularly referred to as the Downriver area, because those areas are said to be "down the river" from Detroit. Several of these communities do not border the Detroit River but the term "Downriver" refers broadly to the cluster of 18 suburban communities that lie to the southwest of the city of Detroit and to the west of the Detroit River. ===Islands=== The Detroit River contains 31 charted islands. The majority of the islands are located on the American side of the river. Many of the islands are small and uninhabited, and none are divided by the international border, as the two countries do not share a land border along the river. Grosse Ile is the largest and most populated of all islands, and Fighting Island is the largest Canadian island. Most islands are located in the southern portion of the river. ==History== Europeans first recorded navigating the Detroit River in the 17th century. The Iroquois traded furs with the Dutch colonists at New Amsterdam by traveling through the Detroit River. Later, when the French began settling in the area, they navigated the river using canoes made of birch or elm bark. Handcrafted vessels were a common mode of travel across the river, and pirogues and bateaux were also used. As the North American fur trade intensified, European settlers expanded their trade westward into uncharted territories. French explorer Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac sailed up the Detroit River on July 23, 1701. The next day, he established Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit, which developed as Detroit. The French named the river as Rivière Détroit. Détroit is French for "strait". The river was known literally as the "River of the Strait". When Great Britain defeated the French in the Seven Years' War (known as the French and Indian War on the American front), it took over control of the Detroit River, as well as other French territory east of the Mississippi River. The newly formed United States claimed this territory during the American Revolution, but the British did not transfer it until 1796. During the War of 1812, the Detroit River served as a major barrier between the American Michigan Territory and British Upper Canada, especially during the Battle of Fort Detroit in August 1812. Detroit briefly fell to the British. After the completion of the Erie Canal in 1817, which opened up easier travel to Lake Erie from the East Coast of the United States, connecting the Great Lakes to the Hudson River and the port of New York City, the Detroit River became a route for many migrating settlers traveling to northern Michigan. Detroit rapidly attracted a share of new residents. Following the Patriot War, in which British regulars and Michigan militia nearly came to armed conflict on the ice-covered Detroit River, the United States built Fort Wayne at Detroit to counter Britain's riverside Fort Malden at Amherstburg across the river. The Detroit River served as a final stop on the Underground Railroad and was the most active entry point along the United States–Canada border for fugitive slaves. Escaping slaves often chose to cross through the Detroit River rather than flee to Mexico because of the river's location near free states made it less risky than traveling through slaveholding states that border Mexico. The strong Underground Railroad networks in the Canadian border region also assisted Blacks hoping to flee from the U.S. once the Fugitive Slave Act was strengthened in 1850. Canada also granted legal immigration status to Blacks, while Mexico did not for many years. Individuals and organizations assisted escaping slaves hoping to cross the Detroit River from the United States into Canada. The Second Baptist Church of Detroit and First Baptist Church of Amherstburg coordinated ferrying thousands of Blacks across the Detroit River into Canada, and Detroit's Colored Vigilant Committee assisted over 1,500 fugitives in crossing into Canada. Famous abolitionists and Underground Railroad conductors including George DeBaptiste and William Lambert worked individually and with these organizations to assist fleeing slaves and condemn slavery. There was considerable transnational fluidity between the Canadian and American sides of the river until the middle of the 19th century. With their freedom in Canada secured, crossing the Detroit River out of the United States became an imperative for escaping slaves. During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the Union feared the seceded Confederate States of America (CSA) would plan a northerly attack from Canada, which was controlled by the British Empire and remained neutral in the war. The Union feared the CSA would cross the Detroit River to launch this attack. For that reason, Union forces regularly patrolled the Detroit River and the fortification at Fort Wayne improved, although it was far removed from any major combat. A Confederate plot to capture the U.S. Navy warship, USS Michigan, and liberate Confederate prisoners from Johnson Island, in western Lake Erie, was narrowly averted only after the Confederates had captured two passenger steamships. At the beginning of the 20th century, Detroit's industrialization took off on an unprecedented scale. The Detroit River became the world's busiest commercial river and in 1908 was dubbed "the Greatest Commercial Artery on Earth" by The Detroit News. In 1907, the Detroit River carried 67,292,504 tons (61 billion kg) of shipping commerce through Detroit to markets all over the world. By comparison, London shipped 18,727,230 tons (16 billion kg), and New York shipped 20,390,953 tons (18 billion kg). The Detroit River, Lake St. Clair, and the St. Clair River are estimated to have carried 75% of all liquor smuggled into the United States during Prohibition. Government officials were unable or unwilling to deter the flow. The rum-running industry died when prohibition was repealed in 1933 by the Twenty-first Amendment. ===Submerged objects=== Because of the booming businesses and long history of Metro Detroit and Windsor, Ontario, the Detroit River has been the site of many artifacts, some lost with sunken ships and others abandoned, such as murder weapons or stolen bronze statues. A DMC DeLorean has also been recovered from the river. The artifacts recovered are well preserved due to the river's fresh water but low visibility makes them difficult to find. A 1940s-era bronze statue depicting a classical nude woman was originally installed to overlook a reflecting pool in the Grosse Pointe War Memorial. It was nicknamed "The Nude," and, in 2001, was believed to have been successfully stolen for display in some art collector's private cache. During a police diving exercise near a submerged Jeep, the statue was found in 2009, restored, and returned to the memorial. Anchors from the SS Greater Detroit, a luxury steamship that toured the Detroit River from 1924 to 1950, and the famed SS Edmund Fitzgerald, a lake freighter that sank in a terrible 1975 storm, have notably both been recovered from the river. The 6,000-pound anchor of the SS Greater Detroit was raised in November 2016. It was installed at the Detroit/Wayne County Port Authority Building. The lost anchor of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald was recovered during a July 1992 project, and the anchor was installed in the yard of the Dossin Great Lakes Museum on Belle Isle. Since the 1980s, divers have recovered a total of six 1700s-era cannons from the river. The last was found in 2011 near the Cobo Center. They are believed to have been part of the pre-War of 1812 inventory kept by the British garrison in this area. Historians believe another three cannon may still be in the river. Inventory documents record a total of 17 cannons and 14 have been accounted for. It is believed that the British dragged the cannons onto the frozen river so they would sink with the spring thaw, and be kept from use by the American enemy. Another seven, larger cannons may have fallen off a barge closer to Amherstburg, Ontario, and may yet be found in the river. In 1961, a congressional order founded the Wyandotte National Wildlife Refuge. That began the government's placing tighter restrictions on industries; substantial government funding at various levels has been allocated to clean up the river. In this early period, opponents believed that such efforts would adversely affect Detroit's industry and economy. In 1970, toxic levels of mercury in the water resulted in the total closing of the fishing industry in the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, the Detroit River, and Lake Erie. Finally, a massive conservation effort was initiated to clean up the Detroit River. It is the only river in North America to have such dual designations. In 2001, the Wyandotte National Wildlife Refuge was absorbed into the larger Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge, a cooperative effort between the United States and Canada to preserve the area as an ecological refuge. The millions of dollars spent since that time to dredge pollutants out of the Detroit River has led to a remarkable restoration, although problems remain. ==Economy== The Detroit River is used for shipping and trading. The earliest use of the river for these economic activities was the shipping of furs for trade as early as the 17th century. Other fish caught by recreational fisherman include white bass, bluegill, crappie, freshwater drum, smallmouth bass, northern pike and muskie. There are over 800,000 recreation boats in Michigan, and more than half of them are regularly used on or near the Detroit River. Popular river destinations in Detroit include the Detroit International Riverfront and Belle Isle Park — both of which host events throughout the year. Several restaurants on the river have docks for boaters. Tour boats and dinner cruises travel through the sights of Detroit and the undeveloped islands downriver. Cruise ships support tourism on the Great Lakes and dock at the Port Detroit passenger terminal downtown. The iconic Renaissance Center is on the banks of the Detroit River. ==Bridges and crossings== According to a 2004 study, 150,000 jobs and $13 billion in annual production depend on the river crossings connecting Detroit to Windsor. In 2004, the American trade with Ontario alone was $407 billion, in which 28% ($113.3 billion) crossed the Detroit River. There are two automobile traffic routes that completely cross the river: the Detroit–Windsor tunnel and the privately owned Ambassador Bridge, both of which connect Detroit, Michigan, to Windsor, Ontario. A railway tunnel and a commercial truck ferry service also travel between Detroit and Windsor. In Michigan, there are two bridges connecting the mainland to Grosse Ile, as well as the MacArthur Bridge that connects the mainland Detroit to Belle Isle. All ports of entry on the American side are secured by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection, and the Canadian side is secured by the Canada Border Services Agency; all areas between the American ports of entry and on the American side of the river are secured by the United States Border Patrol. The Gordie Howe International Bridge is a new bridge project which began construction in 2019; it will directly connect Highway 401 in Canada to Interstate 75 in the United States.	[ "sturgeon", "white bass", "Jeep", "Wayne County, Michigan", "The Detroit News", "Windsor, Ontario", "French language", "River Canard, Ontario", "Interstate 75", "Ecorse, Michigan", "Michigan State Historic Preservation Office", "Drainage basin", "Mercury (element)", "Canadian Pacific Railway", "George DeBaptiste", "La Salle, Ontario", "Grosse Pointe War Memorial", "Underground Railroad", "Patriot War", "Rum-running in Windsor", "Siege of Detroit", "peregrine falcon", "Lake freighters", "Detroit–Windsor tunnel", "Canada–United States border", "Blackburn Riots", "the Purple Gang", "Confederate States of America", "crappie", "rum-running", "River Canard", "Ambassador Bridge", "Downriver", "United States Geological Survey", "MacArthur Bridge (Detroit)", "fresh water", "Lake Huron", "silver bass", "Detroit–Windsor", "New York City", "Environmental restoration", "Windsor Public Library", "Dutch Empire", "Wayne County Bridge", "Navigability", "smallmouth bass", "bateaux", "Gibraltar, Michigan", "bald eagle", "Kingdom of Great Britain", "Ecorse River", "Ferry", "Great Lakes", "War of 1812", "Prohibition in the United States", "British Armed Forces", "Erie Canal", "American Revolution", "black bass", "birch", "East Coast of the United States", "William G. Milliken State Park and Harbor", "Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution", "freshwater drum", "U.S. state", "Fur clothing", "Tecumseh, Ontario", "Muskellunge", "salmon", "List of rivers of Michigan", "United States", "Wyandotte, Michigan", "Iroquois", "alcoholic beverages", "fishing industry", "Trenton, Michigan", "Discharge (hydrology)", "Michigan Central Railway Tunnel", "Fugitive Slave Act of 1850", "Environmental Protection Agency", "Le Griffon", "Amherstburg, Ontario", "St. Clair River", "Detroit News", "Amherstburg", "Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival", "Riverview, Michigan", "New France", "River Rouge (Michigan)", "American Heritage Rivers", "Canadian Heritage Rivers System", "train ferries", "pirogue", "water pollution", "List of rivers of Ontario", "Lake Erie", "Saint Lawrence Seaway", "Grosse Ile (Michigan)", "Cobo Center", "steamship", "eagle", "Michigan", "lake freighter", "Detroit–Windsor Truck Ferry", "perch", "strait", "Grand Boulevard (Detroit)", "Ontario Highway 401", "Detroit", "Ontario", "River Rouge, Michigan", "Detroit-Windsor Tunnel", "Grosse Ile Toll Bridge", "lumber", "USS Michigan (1843)", "Canada Border Services Agency", "iron ore", "United States Border Patrol", "Upper Canada", "Union (American Civil War)", "List of islands in the Detroit River", "Detroit–Windsor Tunnel", "walleye", "Gordie Howe International Bridge", "ESPN", "Lake Michigan", "List of international river borders", "Lake Ontario", "Dossin Great Lakes Museum", "dam", "canoe", "Detroit International Riverfront", "Upper Peninsula of Michigan", "London", "New Amsterdam", "northern pike", "bluegill", "Grosse Ile Township, Michigan", "Provinces and territories of Canada", "cannon", "Niagara County, New York", "Second Baptist Church (Detroit, Michigan)", "Riverfront Towers", "lake whitefish", "North American fur trade", "elm", "Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge", "Belle Isle Park", "Grosse Pointe Park, Michigan", "U.S. Customs and Border Protection", "Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac", "Michigan Territory", "barge", "Merriam–Webster", "DMC DeLorean", "Essex County, Ontario", "Renaissance Center", "Great Lakes Water Authority", "lock (water transport)", "Fighting Island", "osprey", "history of Detroit", "SS Edmund Fitzgerald", "Detroit Water and Sewerage Department", "Fort Detroit", "Fort Wayne (Detroit)", "United States Environmental Protection Agency", "French colonial empire", "American Civil War", "Belle Isle Park (Michigan)", "Lake Superior", "Fort Malden", "Lake St. Clair", "Fort Erie, Ontario", "Metro Detroit", "North America", "river", "French and Indian War" ]
8,937	Dsungaripterus	Dsungaripterus is a genus of dsungaripterid pterosaur which lived during the Early Cretaceous in what is now China and possibly South Korea. Its fossils come from the Wuerho Pterosaur Fauna group (WPF) of the Tugulu Group, comprising sections of the Lianmuqin and Shengjinkou Formations of the Junggar Basin. Both formations have been given various age estimates, with data suggesting at least some of the WPF date to the middle Valanginian, but the upper and lower bounds of these pterosaur bearing deposits remain unclear. ==Description== Dsungaripterus weii had a wingspan of . Like most dsungaripteroids it had a rather robust skeleton with thick walls and stouty bodily proportions, suggesting a mostly terrestrial lifestyle. The flight style of these animals is unclear, but it was probably punctuated by abrupt landings and extensive flapping. The skull of Dsungaripterus, measuring over long, Thus, it is commonly interpreted that dsungaripterids were durophagous and possibly piscivorous pterosaurs. Additionally, Dsungaripterus also had a palate similar to that of azhdarchoids. ==History of discovery== Dsungaripterus was described in 1964 named by Yang Zhongjian. The genus name combines a reference to the Junggar Basin with a Latinized Greek pteron, "wing". The type species is Dsungaripterus weii, the specific name honoring paleontologist C.M. Wei of the Palaeontological Division, Institute of Science, Bureau of Petroleum of Xinjiang. The holotype is IVPP V-2776, a partial skull and skeleton from the Lianmuqin Formation. In 1980 Peter Galton renamed Pterodactylus brancai (Reck 1931) from the Tendaguru Formation into Dsungaripterus brancai, but the identification is now commonly rejected. In 1982 Natasha Bakhurina named a new species, Dsungaripterus parvus, based on a smaller skeleton from Mongolia. Later, this was renamed into "Phobetor", a preoccupied name, and in 2009 concluded to be identical to Noripterus. A dsungaripterid wing finger phalanx was reported in 2002 from the Hasandong Formation of South Korea, and was identified in 2015 and 2018 as Dsungaripterus? cf. D. weii. ==Classification== Dsungaripterus was classified by Yang as a member of the Dsungaripteridae. Below is a cladogram showing the results of a phylogenetic analysis presented by Andres and colleagues in 2014. They recovered Dsungaripterus within the clade Dsungaripteromorpha (a subgroup within the Azhdarchoidea), more specifically within the Dsungaripteridae, sister taxon to Domeykodactylus. Their cladogram is shown below. In 2019, a different topology, this time by Kellner and colleagues, was published. In this study, Dsungaripterus was recovered outside the Azhdarchoidea, within the larger group Tapejaroidea, sister taxon to Noripterus. The cladogram of the analysis is shown below.	[ "Natasha Bakhurina", "Dsungaripteridae", "Noripterus", "Tapejaroidea", "Noripterinae", "Keresdrakon vilsoni", "Domeykodactylus", "type species", "Noripterus complicidens", "holotype", "Peter Galton", "Thalassodrominae", "Hasandong Formation", "Dsungaripteromorpha", "Tapejarinae", "China", "Yang Zhongjian", "Chaoyangopteridae", "Mongolia", "Dsungaripterinae", "specific name (zoology)", "cladogram", "durophagy", "Tapejaromorpha", "Valanginian", "Lianmuqin Formation", "Tendaguru Formation", "dsungaripterid", "Tugulu Group", "piscivory", "Early Cretaceous", "Xinjiang", "Tapejaridae", "Tupuxuara longicristatus", "Tupuxuara leonardii", "Noripterus parvus", "List of pterosaur genera", "Shengjinkou Formation", "Junggar Basin", "Domeykodactylus ceciliae", "Thalassodromeus sethi", "Azhdarchoidea", "Azhdarchidae", "genus", "Timeline of pterosaur research", "azhdarchoid", "phylogenetic", "pterosaur", "South Korea" ]
8,940	David Huffman	David Oliver Huffman (May 10, 1945 – February 27, 1985) was an American actor and producer. ==Personal life== Huffman was born on May 10, 1945, in Berwyn, Illinois, to Clarence and Opal Huffman (née Dippel). Huffman married casting director Phyllis Huffman (nee Grennan) in 1967, whom he had met as a student at Webster University in St. Louis, Missouri. The couple had two sons and remained married until Huffman's death in 1985. Huffman was an avid sailor, recreational painter, and country‐and‐western guitarist. ==Murder== On the morning of February 27, 1985, 16-year-old Genaro Samano Villanueva was taken into San Diego police custody after attempting to steal a radio from a car near his home. Released into the custody of his high school vice principal, Villanueva left school and went to Balboa Park. There he was spotted by Canadian tourist Jack Beamer prowling around inside the motor home of Beamer's friends. After Beamer accosted him, Villanueva fled the scene. Huffman, who was cast in the play Of Mice and Men at the Old Globe Theatre and was set to begin work on the television miniseries North and South the following week, On June 24, 1986, Villanueva was sentenced to 26 years to life in prison and admitted to the California State Prison, Centinela. On December 9, 2011, he was denied parole for 15 years. ==Broadway stage credits== Butterflies Are Free as Don Baker (October 21, 1969 – July 2, 1972) ==Filmography==	[ "Sidney Shorr: A Girl's Best Friend", "motor home", "Crime Stoppers", "Wolf Lake (film)", "Trapper John, M.D.", "The Mississippi (TV series)", "Elmer E. Ellsworth", "Elliott Roosevelt (socialite)", "St. Helens (film)", "F.I.S.T. (film)", "country music", "Leo and Loree", "exsanguination", "Butterflies Are Free (play)", "Homicide", "Captains and the Kings", "The Winds of Kitty Hawk", "Sparkling Cyanide", "Orville Wright", "Spreckels Organ Pavilion", "Berwyn, Illinois", "Phyllis Huffman", "Remington Steele", "Blood Beach", "Nakia (TV series)", "Bert D'Angelo/Superstar", "Webster University", "Of Mice and Men (play)", "Baretta", "Pueblo (film)", "California State Prison, Centinela", "F. Scott Fitzgerald and 'The Last of the Belles'", "Firefox (film)", "The Gun (1974 film)", "Newhart", "Last Plane Out", "North and South (miniseries)", "Thomas Edison", "San Diego", "Balboa Park (San Diego)", "In the Matter of Karen Ann Quinlan", "T. J. Hooker", "Play of the Month", "Los Angeles Times", "Ice Castles", "Police Story (1973 TV series)", "Amelia Earhart (miniseries)", "Little House on the Prairie (TV series)", "St. Louis, Missouri", "Look What's Happened to Rosemary's Baby", "Google News", "Love Story (1973 TV series)", "Lou Grant (TV series)", "Eleanor and Franklin (miniseries)", "The Onion Field (film)", "Old Globe Theatre" ]
8,941	Dagome iudex	Dagome iudex is one of the earliest historical documents relating to Poland. Although Poland is not mentioned by name, it refers to Dagome and Ote (Mieszko I and his wife, Oda von Haldensleben) and their sons in 991, placing their land (called "Civitas Schinesghe") under the protection of the Apostolic See. The document's name derives from its opening words. ==History== The Dagome iudex survives in the form of a summary, completed . It was found in a register compiled by a curial cardinal during the papacy of Gregory VII. Most historians believe that the word "Dagome" is a melding of two names: the Christian "Dago", for "Dagobert" (Mieszko's hypothetical baptismal name), and the "Me," for pagan "Mieszko." The Latin word ("judge") could refer to "prince." Another interpretation is that "Dagome iudex" is a corruption of "Ego Mesco dux" ("I, Prince Mieszko"). In the Vatican copy, the e of Dagome might have an s adscriptum (similar to cedilla), although the Vatican copyist read iudex literally, relating it to Sardinia and its four "judges". Place names are misspelled by the writer who made the summary. He was apparently unaware that the document related to territory later called Poland. The boundaries of the "Gniezno" state are described as those that extended to the "Long Sea" (the Baltic), Prussia, Rus', Kraków, Moravia and the Oder River. Lesser Poland is included by the mention of its capital, Kraków ("craccoa"). Between alemura, probably Olomouc and Upper Lusatia region of the Milceni (terra mileze) a straightened border could include Silesia. The text seems to use civitas schinesghe as a synonym of Greater Poland. Otherwise, the boundary description would be more logical if schenisghe meant the city of Szczecin. Of the other regions and places in Mieszko's territory, it mentioned only Kraków and Lusatia, both without fines (border). The regions outside Mieszko's rule, pruzze (Prussia) and russe (Ruthenia) were mentioned with the word fines. The Dagome iudex is of critical importance to Polish history, since it provided a general description of the future Polish state in that period. It, however, left many questions unanswered. First, it did not explain why Mieszko I placed his state under the Pope's protection. Also, it is unclear why the document did not mention Mieszko's eldest son, Bolesław I the Brave. Instead, his sons by his second wife (except the third), Oda, were mentioned instead. Finally, Mieszko I is not referred to as "Dagome" in any other document. Historians suppose that Bolesław's absence from the document might be explained by an old custom whereby children received their inheritance as soon as they reached the age of majority. Thus, Bolesław the Brave might have received Kraków as his part of his father's legacy before the Dagome iudex was written. ==Text of the Dagome iudex== In Latin: In English translation: "Also in another volume from the times of Pope John XV, Dagome, lord, and Ote, lady, and their sons Misico and Lambert (I do not know of which nation those people are, but I think they are Sardinians, for those are ruled by four judges) were supposed to give to Saint Peter one state in whole which is called Schinesghe, with all its lands in borders which run along the long sea, along Prussia to the place called Rus, thence to Kraków and from said Kraków to the River Oder, straight to a place called Alemure, and from said Alemure to the land of Milczanie, and from the borders of that people to the Oder and from that, going along the River Oder, ending at the earlier mentioned city of Schinesghe."	[ "Latin", "Moravia", "Dagon", "Prussia", "Pomerania", "Holy See", "Szczecin", "Lusatia", "Bolesław I the Brave", "Oder", "Mieszko I of Poland", "Pope", "Oder River", "Mieszko Mieszkowic", "Slavs", "cedilla", "Catholic Cardinal", "Roman Curia", "Poland", "Baltic Sea", "Giudicati", "Lesser Poland", "senate", "Rus' people", "Silesia", "Lambert Mieszkowic", "Milczanie", "Dagobert", "Gniezno", "Lusatian Mountains", "Pope John XV", "Olomouc", "age of majority", "Ruthenia", "Civitas Schinesghe", "dux", "Upper Lusatia", "Dago (name)", "Sardinia", "Milceni", "Oda von Haldensleben", "Pope Gregory VII", "History of Poland", "Gerard Labuda", "Lower Lusatia", "Kraków", "Sardinian people", "archont", "Greater Poland" ]
8,942	DA	Da, DA, dA, DÄ and other variants may refer to: ==Arts, entertainment, and media== DA! (band), a Chicago post-punk band of the 1980s Da (play), a 1978 play by Hugh Leonard Da (film), a 1988 film based on the play Damon Amendolara, American sports talk radio host Daniel Amos, also known as D.A. and Dä, an American Christian rock band Dennis Armand Lucchesi, who recorded the song "Ready 'n' Steady" under the name "D.A." Destination America, television channel DeviantArt or DA, a website that focuses on art Dumbledore's Army, a group formed by Harry Potter in his 5th year to teach students defensive spells Jon Moxley, formerly Dean Ambrose in WWE, a wrestler Da, a book about memoirs of a mother during Iran-Iraq War ==Degrees and licenses== Diploma of Anesthesiology, a degree conferred by some medical institutions such as the Royal College of Anaesthetists Doctor of Arts, an academic degree ==Organizations== Da!, a Russian youth movement Debtors Anonymous Air Georgia, a Georgian airline (IATA code DA) ==Politics and judiciary== Da (political party), a defunct Israeli political party Defence Advisory Notice, a government demand in Australia and the UK not to publish or broadcast a specified news item Democratic Alliance (South Africa), a South African political party Democratic Awakening, East German political party Department of Agriculture (Philippines), an executive department Deutsche Alternative ("German Alternative"), a rightist group District attorney, (United States) chief prosecutor for a local government area, particularly a county Dreptate şi Adevăr a defunct alliance of parties in Romania ==Places== Da County, a division in Sichuan, China DA postcode area, a postcode area in England Da River or Black River, a river in China and northwestern Vietnam Dah, Ivory Coast, a village in Montagnes District, Ivory Coast, also spelt "Da" ==Science and technology== ===Biology and medicine=== DA (chemotherapy), standard-dose cytarabine plus daunorubicin Deoxyanthocyanidin Domoic acid, a neurotoxin produced by phytoplankton Donor-Acceptor Dopamine, a monoamine neurotransmitter ===Other uses in science and technology=== Dalton (unit) (symbol Da), also called the unified atomic mass unit Deca- or da-, an SI prefix for a factor of 10 Distribution amplifier, a device that accepts a single input signal and provides this same signal to multiple isolated outputs Double-action, a firearm operation mechanism in which the trigger both cocks and releases the hammer NZR DA class, a New Zealand diesel locomotive SJ Da, a Swedish electric locomotive Domain authority Domain Authority ==Sports== U.S. Soccer Development Academy, former United States soccer league ==Other uses== D.A. Wallach (born 1985), American musician and business executive Da (Javanese), a syllable in Javanese script Da. or Dòna, the honorific Mrs. in Occitan language Da Hoss, an American racehorse Dame of St Andrew, a discontinued award within the Order of Barbados Danish language (ISO 639-1 alpha-2 code DA) Dearness allowance, cost of living allowance to government employees in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan Desk accessory, graphical programs Direct action (military), in special operations Disadvantage, an off-case argument used by the Negative team in a policy debate Doomsday argument, a probabilistic argument based on demographics predicting how many people will be born Duck's ass or duck's arse, a haircut; particularly popular during the 1950s Dynamic game difficulty balancing, also known as difficulty adjustment or DA, an algorithm in video games.	[ "Destination America", "Da!", "DA! (band)", "Da River", "Desk accessory", "Iran-Iraq War", "Disadvantage", "Daniel Amos", "Danish language", "Air Georgia", "Ready 'n' Steady", "Doctor of Arts", "Da (political party)", "DA-Notice", "Da (film)", "Distribution amplifier", "Da Da Da (disambiguation)", "Deoxyanthocyanidin", "Doomsday argument", "Debtors Anonymous", "DA (chemotherapy)", "SJ Da", "Mrs.", "Dumbledore's Army", "Deutsche Alternative", "DA postcode area", "Damon Amendolara", "Dalton (unit)", "Deca-", "soccer", "Da County", "DeviantArt", "The D.A. (disambiguation)", "Double-action", "Da (play)", "District attorney", "Direct action (military)", "Dah, Ivory Coast", "Domoic acid", "Dopamine", "Department of Agriculture (Philippines)", "Hugh Leonard", "Democratic Awakening", "Boti", "Dame of St Andrew", "Da (Javanese)", "Justice and Truth Alliance", "Da Hoss", "Domain authority", "Dearness allowance", "NZR DA class", "U.S. Soccer Development Academy", "Duck's ass", "One Woman's War: Da (Mother)", "Royal College of Anaesthetists", "Dynamic game difficulty balancing", "Dah (disambiguation)", "Jon Moxley", "Democratic Alliance (South Africa)", "D.A. Wallach" ]
8,945	Derek Walcott	Sir Derek Alton Walcott OM (23 January 1930 – 17 March 2017) was a Saint Lucian poet and playwright. He received the 1992 Nobel Prize in Literature. His works include the Homeric epic poem Omeros (1990), which many critics view "as Walcott's major achievement." In addition to winning the Nobel Prize, Walcott received many literary awards over the course of his career, including an Obie Award in 1971 for his play Dream on Monkey Mountain, a MacArthur Foundation "genius" award, a Royal Society of Literature Award, the Queen's Medal for Poetry, the inaugural OCM Bocas Prize for Caribbean Literature, the 2010 T. S. Eliot Prize for his book of poetry White Egrets and the Griffin Trust For Excellence in Poetry Lifetime Recognition Award in 2015. ==Early life and childhood== Walcott was born and raised in Castries, Saint Lucia, in the West Indies, the son of Alix (Maarlin) and Warwick Walcott. He had a twin brother, the playwright Roderick Walcott, and a sister, Pamela Walcott. His family is of English, Dutch and African descent, reflecting the complex colonial history of the island that he explores in his poetry. His mother, a teacher, loved the arts and often recited poetry around the house. His father was a civil servant and a talented painter. He died when Walcott and his brother were one year old, and were left to be raised by their mother. Walcott was brought up in Methodist schools. His mother, who was a teacher at a Methodist elementary school, provided her children with an environment where their talents could be nurtured. Walcott's family was part of a minority Methodist community, who felt overshadowed by the dominant Catholic culture of the island established during French colonial rule. As a young man Walcott trained as a painter, mentored by Harold Simmons, whose life as a professional artist provided an inspiring example for him. Walcott greatly admired Cézanne and Giorgione and sought to learn from them. He studied as a writer, becoming "an elated, exuberant poet madly in love with English" and strongly influenced by modernist poets such as T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound. He later commented: I went to my mother and said, "I'd like to publish a book of poems, and I think it's going to cost me two hundred dollars." She was just a seamstress and a schoolteacher, and I remember her being very upset because she wanted to do it. Somehow she got it—a lot of money for a woman to have found on her salary. She gave it to me, and I sent off to Trinidad and had the book printed. When the books came back I would sell them to friends. I made the money back. ==Career == After graduation, Walcott moved to Trinidad in 1953, where he became a critic, teacher and journalist. Exploring the Caribbean and its history in a colonialist and post-colonialist context, his collection In a Green Night: Poems 1948–1960 (1962) attracted international attention. In 1971 it was produced by the Negro Ensemble Company off-Broadway in New York City; it won an Obie Award that year for "Best Foreign Play". The following year, Walcott won an OBE from the British government for his work. He was hired as a teacher by Boston University in the United States, where he founded the Boston Playwrights' Theatre in 1981. That year he also received a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship in the United States. Walcott taught literature and writing at Boston University for more than two decades, publishing new books of poetry and plays on a regular basis. Walcott retired from his position at Boston University in 2007. He became friends with other poets, including the Russian expatriate Joseph Brodsky, who lived and worked in the U.S. after being exiled in the 1970s, and the Irishman Seamus Heaney, who also taught in Boston. Walcott was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1992, the second Caribbean writer to receive the honour after Saint-John Perse, who was born in Guadeloupe, received the award in 1960. The Nobel committee described Walcott's work as "a poetic oeuvre of great luminosity, sustained by a historical vision, the outcome of a multicultural commitment". The Prodigal (2004), and White Egrets (2010), which received the T. S. Eliot Prize Derek Walcott held the Elias Ghanem Chair in Creative Writing at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas in 2007. In 2008, Walcott gave the first Cola Debrot Lectures In 2009, Walcott began a three-year distinguished scholar-in-residence position at the University of Alberta. In 2010, he became Professor of Poetry at the University of Essex. As a part of St Lucia's Independence Day celebrations, in February 2016, he became one of the first knights of the Order of Saint Lucia. ==Writing== ===Themes=== Methodism and spirituality have played a significant role from the beginning in Walcott's work. He commented: "I have never separated the writing of poetry from prayer. I have grown up believing it is a vocation, a religious vocation." Describing his writing process, he wrote: "the body feels it is melting into what it has seen… the 'I' not being important. That is the ecstasy... Ultimately, it's what Yeats says: 'Such a sweetness flows into the breast that we laugh at everything and everything we look upon is blessed.' That's always there. It's a benediction, a transference. It's gratitude, really. The more of that a poet keeps, the more genuine his nature." Through poetry he also explores the paradoxes and complexities of this legacy. ===Essays=== In his 1970 essay "What the Twilight Says: An Overture", discussing art and theatre in his native region (from Dream on Monkey Mountain and Other Plays), Walcott reflects on the West Indies as a colonized space. He discusses the problems for an artist of a region with little in the way of truly Indigenous forms, and with little national or nationalist identity. He states: "We are all strangers here... Our bodies think in one language and move in another". The epistemological effects of colonization inform plays such as Ti-Jean and his Brothers. Mi-Jean, one of the eponymous brothers, is shown to have much information but truly knows nothing. Every line Mi-Jean recites is rote knowledge gained from the coloniser; he is unable to synthesize it or apply it to his life as a colonised person. Walcott notes of growing up in West Indian culture: What we were deprived of was also our privilege. There was a great joy in making a world that so far, up to then, had been undefined... My generation of West Indian writers has felt such a powerful elation at having the privilege of writing about places and people for the first time and, simultaneously, having behind them the tradition of knowing how well it can be done—by a Defoe, a Dickens, a Richardson. Although the main narrative of the poem takes place on the island of St. Lucia, where Walcott was born and raised, Walcott also includes scenes from Brookline, Massachusetts (where Walcott was living and teaching at the time of the poem's composition), and the character Achille imagines a voyage from Africa onto a slave ship that is headed for the Americas; also, in Book Five of the poem, Walcott narrates some of his travel experiences in a variety of cities around the world, including Lisbon, London, Dublin, Rome, and Toronto. Composed in a variation on terza rima, the work explores the themes that run throughout Walcott's oeuvre: the beauty of the islands, the colonial burden, the fragmentation of Caribbean identity, and the role of the poet in a post-colonial world. In this epic, Walcott speaks in favour of unique Caribbean cultures and traditions to challenge the modernity that existed as a consequence of colonialism. === Reception === Walcott's work has received praise from major poets including Robert Graves, who wrote that Walcott "handles English with a closer understanding of its inner magic than most, if not any, of his contemporaries", and Joseph Brodsky, who praised Walcott's work, writing: "For almost forty years his throbbing and relentless lines kept arriving in the English language like tidal waves, coagulating into an archipelago of poems without which the map of modern literature would effectively match wallpaper. He gives us more than himself or 'a world'; he gives us a sense of infinity embodied in the language." Most reviews of Walcott's work are more positive. For instance, in The New Yorker review of The Poetry of Derek Walcott, Adam Kirsch had high praise for Walcott's oeuvre, describing his style in the following manner: By combining the grammar of vision with the freedom of metaphor, Walcott produces a beautiful style that is also a philosophical style. People perceive the world on dual channels, Walcott's verse suggests, through the senses and through the mind, and each is constantly seeping into the other. The result is a state of perpetual magical thinking, a kind of Alice in Wonderland world where concepts have bodies and landscapes are always liable to get up and start talking. Kirsch calls Another Life Walcott's "first major peak" and analyzes the painterly qualities of Walcott's imagery from his earliest work through to later books such as Tiepolo's Hound. Kirsch also explores the post-colonial politics in Walcott's work, calling him "the postcolonial writer par excellence". Kirsch calls the early poem "A Far Cry from Africa" a turning point in Walcott's development as a poet. Like Logan, Kirsch is critical of Omeros, which he believes Walcott fails to successfully sustain over its entirety. Although Omeros is the volume of Walcott's that usually receives the most critical praise, Kirsch believes Midsummer to be his best book. ==Personal life== In 1954 Walcott married Fay Moston, a secretary, and they had a son, the St. Lucian painter Peter Walcott. The marriage ended in divorce in 1959. Walcott married a second time to Margaret Maillard in 1962, who worked as an almoner in a hospital. Together they had two daughters, Elizabeth Walcott-Hackshaw and Anna Walcott-Hardy, before divorcing in 1976. In 1976, Walcott married for a third time, to actress Norline Metivier; they divorced in 1993. His companion until his death was Sigrid Nama, a former art gallery owner. Walcott was known for his passion for traveling, visiting countries around the world. He split his time between New York, Boston, and St. Lucia, and incorporated the influences of different locations into his pieces of work. In 2009, Walcott was a leading candidate for the position of Oxford Professor of Poetry. He withdrew his candidacy after reports of the accusations against him of sexual harassment from 1981 and 1996. When the media learned that pages from an American book on the topic were sent anonymously to a number of Oxford academics, this aroused their interest in the university's decisions. Ruth Padel, also a leading candidate, was elected to the post. Within days, The Daily Telegraph reported that she had alerted journalists to the harassment cases. Under severe media and academic pressure, Padel resigned. Padel was the first woman to be elected to the Oxford post, and some journalists attributed the criticism of her to misogyny and a gender war at Oxford. They said that a male poet would not have been so criticized, as she had reported published information, not rumour. Numerous respected poets, including Seamus Heaney and Al Alvarez, published a letter of support for Walcott in The Times Literary Supplement, and criticized the press furore. Other commentators suggested that both poets were casualties of the media interest in an internal university affair because the story "had everything, from sex claims to allegations of character assassination". Simon Armitage and other poets expressed regret at Padel's resignation. ==Death== Walcott died at his home in Cap Estate, St. Lucia, on 17 March 2017. He was 87. He was given a state funeral on Saturday, 25 March, with a service at the Cathedral Basilica of the Immaculate Conception in Castries and burial at Morne Fortune. ==Legacy== In 1993, a public square and park located in central Castries, Saint Lucia, was named Derek Walcott Square. A documentary film, Poetry Is an Island: Derek Walcott, by filmmaker Ida Does, was produced to honour him and his legacy in 2013. The Derek Walcott Collection is hosted by the main library of the University of the West Indies at St. Augustine, Trinidad. It contains Walcott's manuscripts, correspondence, unpublished works, diaries, and notebooks. In 1997, it was added by UNESCO to the Memory of the World international register, recognising it as globally important documentary heritage. The Saint Lucia National Trust acquired Walcott's childhood home at 17 Chaussée Road, Castries, in November 2015, renovating it before opening it to the public as Walcott House in January 2016. In 2019, Arrowsmith Press, in partnership with The Derek Walcott Festival in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, and the Boston Playwrights' Theatre, began awarding the annual Derek Walcott Prize for Poetry to a full-length book of poems by a living poet who is not a US citizen published in the previous calendar year. In January 2020, the Sir Arthur Lewis Community College in St. Lucia announced that Walcott's books on Caribbean Literature and poetry have been donated to its Library. ==Awards and honours== 1969: Cholmondeley Award 1972: Officer of the Order of the British Empire 2008: Honorary doctorate from the University of Essex 2016: Knight Commander of the Order of Saint Lucia ==List of works== ===Poetry collections=== 1948: 25 Poems 1949: Epitaph for the Young: Xll Cantos 1951: Poems 1962: In a Green Night: Poems 1948—60 1964: Selected Poems 1965: The Castaway and Other Poems 1969: The Gulf and Other Poems 1973: Another Life 1976: Sea Grapes 1979: The Star-Apple Kingdom 1981: Selected Poetry 1981: The Fortunate Traveller 1983: The Caribbean Poetry of Derek Walcott and the Art of Romare Bearden 1984: Midsummer 1986: Collected Poems, 1948–1984, featuring "Love After Love" 1987: The Arkansas Testament 1990: Omeros 1997: The Bounty 2000: Tiepolo's Hound, includes Walcott's watercolors 2004: The Prodigal 2007: Selected Poems (edited, selected, and with an introduction by Edward Baugh) 2010: White Egrets 2014: The Poetry of Derek Walcott 1948–2013 2016: Morning, Paramin (illustrated by Peter Doig) ===Plays=== 1950: Henri Christophe: A Chronicle in Seven Scenes 1952: Harry Dernier: A Play for Radio Production 1953: Wine of the Country 1954: The Sea at Dauphin: A Play in One Act 1957: Ione 1958: Drums and Colours: An Epic Drama 1958: Ti-Jean and His Brothers 1966: Malcochon: or, Six in the Rain 1967: Dream on Monkey Mountain 1970: In a Fine Castle 1974: The Joker of Seville 1974: The Charlatan 1976: O Babylon! 1977: Remembrance 1978: Pantomime 1980: The Joker of Seville and O Babylon!: Two Plays 1982: The Isle Is Full of Noises 1984: The Haitian Earth 1986: Three Plays: The Last Carnival, Beef, No Chicken, and A Branch of the Blue Nile 1991: Steel 1993: Odyssey: A Stage Version 1997: The Capeman (book and lyrics, both in collaboration with Paul Simon) 2002: Walker and The Ghost Dance 2011: Moon-Child 2014: O Starry Starry Night ===Other books=== 1990: The Poet in the Theatre, Poetry Book Society (London) 1993: The Antilles: Fragments of Epic Memory (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux) 1996: Conversations with Derek Walcott, (Jackson, MS: University of Mississippi) 1996: (With Joseph Brodsky and Seamus Heaney) Homage to Robert Frost (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux) 1998: What the Twilight Says (essays), (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux) 2002: Walker and Ghost Dance (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux) 2004: Another Life: Fully Annotated, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers	[ "David Constantine", "Dream on Monkey Mountain", "Frank Collymore", "Saint Lucia", "Order of Saint Lucia", "University College of the West Indies", "Jenny Joseph", "Patrick McGuinness (writer)", "Henri Christophe: A Chronicle in Seven Scenes", "Boston University", "The Harvard Crimson", "Saint Mary's College (Saint Lucia)", "The Last Carnival", "Homer", "Griffin Poetry Prize", "Robert Conquest", "Henry Handel Richardson", "William Logan (poet)", "Derek Walcott Square", "Sir Arthur Lewis Community College", "civil servant", "Ruth Padel", "T. S. Eliot Prize", "Methodism", "Grevel Lindop", "Elizabeth Bishop", "Kingston, Jamaica", "The Independent", "Pantomime (Walcott play)", "Trinidad Express", "MacArthur Foundation Fellowship", "Cholmondeley Award", "Michael Schmidt (poet)", "D. M. Thomas", "Ida Does", "University of Alberta", "MacArthur Foundation", "Boston Playwrights' Theatre", "UNESCO", "Template:Infobox writer/doc", "John Milton", "The Daily Telegraph", "Emory University", "Alice in Wonderland", "Saint-John Perse", "Memory of the World Programme", "Oxford University Press", "Castries", "Seamus Heaney", "Colony of Saint Lucia", "Amsterdam", "The New York Times Book Review", "University of Essex", "Epic poetry", "Royal Society of Literature", "BBC Radio 4", "Jonty Driver", "Gros-Islet", "Black Nobel Prize laureates", "The Iliad", "W. H. Smith Literary Award", "Stewart Brown", "OCM Bocas Prize for Caribbean Literature", "Cola Debrot Lecture", "Queen's Gold Medal for Poetry", "Cathedral Basilica of the Immaculate Conception in Castries", "British Windward Islands", "T. S. Eliot", "Bernard O'Donoghue", "Iliad", "Trinidad Theatre Workshop", "Adam Kirsch", "Daniel Defoe", "University of Nevada, Las Vegas", "Caribbean poetry", "Giorgione", "University of the West Indies at St. Augustine", "Order of Merit (Jamaica)", "Nobel Prize in Literature", "almoner", "Roderick Walcott", "Dublin", "The Sunday Times", "Cézanne", "Obie Award", "The New Yorker", "Anthurium: A Caribbean Studies Journal", "Order of the Caribbean Community", "Elizabeth Cook (writer)", "vocation", "St Lucia", "Brookline, Massachusetts", "West Indies", "Lucy Newlyn", "Anthony Thwaite", "Trinidad", "Ezra Pound", "William Baer (poet)", "Joseph Brodsky", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire", "Methodist", "Anisfield-Wolf Book Award", "Edward Hirsch", "Morne Fortune", "Postcolonial literature", "Beef, No Chicken", "1992 Nobel Prize in Literature", "Robinson Crusoe", "Channel 4 News", "Robert Graves", "Officer of the Order of the British Empire", "Negro Ensemble Company", "Omeros", "Elizabeth Walcott-Hackshaw", "Charles Dickens", "Al Alvarez", "The Capeman", "Lisbon", "Anita Shapolsky Gallery", "Yeats", "The Washington Post", "Love After Love (poem)", "Oxford Professor of Poetry", "Alan Brownjohn", "terza rima", "Paul Simon", "Robert Lowell", "Jamaica Observer", "Saint Lucia National Trust", "Guadeloupe", "Edward Baugh", "Harold Simmons (folklorist)", "WP:Notable", "Prague Writers' Festival", "The Times Literary Supplement", "Simon Armitage", "Michael Suarez", "Harry Dernier: A Play for Radio Production", "The Paris Review", "Arts Council of Wales", "Homeric", "Jon Stallworthy" ]
8,946	Decipherment	In philology and linguistics, decipherment is the discovery of the meaning of the symbols found in extinct languages and/or alphabets. Decipherment is possible with respect to languages and scripts. One can also study or try to decipher how spoken languages that no longer exist were once pronounced, or how living languages used to be pronounced in prior eras. Notable examples of decipherment include the decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts and the decipherment of cuneiform. A notable decipherment in recent years is that of the Linear Elamite script. Historically speaking, decipherments do not come suddenly through single individuals who "crack" ancient scripts. Instead, they emerge from the incremental progress brought about by a broader community of researchers. == Categories == According to Gelb and Whiting, the approach of decipherment depends on four categories of situations in an undeciphered language: Type O: known writing and known language. Although decipherment in this case is trivial, useful information can be gleaned when a known language is written in an alphabet other than the one it is commonly written in. Studying the writing of the Phoenician or Sumerian languages in the Greek alphabet allows information about pronunciation and vocalization to be gleaned that cannot be obtained when studying the expression of these languages in their normal writing system. Type I: unknown writing and known language. Deciphered languages in this category include Phoenician, Ugaritic, Cypriot, and Linear B. In this situation, alphabetic systems are the easiest to decipher, followed by syllabic languages, and finally the most difficult being logo-syllabic. Type II: known writing and unknown language. An example is Linear A. Strictly speaking, this situation is not one of decipherment but of linguistic analysis. Decipherment in this category is considered extremely difficult to achieve on the basis of internal information only. Type III: unknown writing and unknown language. Examples include the Archanes script and the Archanes formula, Phaistos disk, Cretan hieroglyphs, and Cypro-Minoan syllabary. When this situation occurs in an isolated culture and without the availability of outside information, decipherment is typically considered impossible. == Methods == There is no single recipe or linear method for decipherment, however: instead, philologists and linguists must rely on a set of heuristic devices that have been established. Broadly, it is important to be familiar with the relevant texts where the script or language occurs in, access to accurate drawings or photographs of these texts, information about their relative chronology, and background information on where the texts occur in (their geography, perhaps being found in the context of a funerary monument, etc). Typically, there are two types of computational approaches used in language decipherment: approaches meant to produce translations in known languages, and approaches used to detect new information that might enable future efforts at translation. The second approach is more common, and includes things such as the detection of cognates or related words, discovery of the closest known language, word alignments, and more. == Deciphering pronunciation == Related to attempts to decipher the meaning of languages and alphabets, include attempts to decipher how extinct writing systems, or older versions of contemporary writing systems (such as English in the 1600s) were pronounced. Several methods and criteria have been developed in this regard. Important criteria include (1) Rhymes and the testimony of poetry (2) Evidence from occasional spellings and misspellings (3) Interpretations of material in one language from authors in foreign languages (4) Information obtained from related languages (5) Grammatical changes in spelling over time. For example, analysis of poetry focuses on the use of wordplay or literary techniques between words that have a similar sound. Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet contains wordplay that relies on a similar sound between the words "soul" and "soles", allowing confidence that the similar pronunciation between the terms today also existed in Shakespeare's time. Another common source of information on pronunciation is when earlier texts use rhyme, such as when consecutive lines in poetry end in the similar or the same sound. This method does have some limitations however, as texts may use rhymes that rely on visual similarities between words (such as 'love' and 'remove') as opposed to auditory similarities, and that rhymes can be imperfect. Another source of information about pronunciation comes from explicit description of pronunciations from earlier texts, as in the case of the Grammatica Anglicana, such as in the following comment about the letter : "In the long time it naturally soundeth sharp, and high; as in chósen, hósen, hóly, fólly [. . .] In the short time more flat, and a kin to u; as còsen, dòsen, mòther, bròther, lòve, pròve". Another example comes from detailed comments on pronunciations of Sanskrit from the surviving works of Sanskrit grammarians. Unlike in language decipherment, however, actors using ciphertext intentionally lay obstacles to prevent outsiders from uncovering the meaning of the communication system. \|Safaitic script \|1901 \|- \|Thomas Young \|Demotic script \| \|- \|Manuel Gómez-Moreno \|Northeastern Iberian script \| \|- \|James Prinsep \|Brahmi, Kharosthi \| \|- \|Edward Hincks \|Mesopotamian Cuneiform \| \|- \|Bedřich Hrozný \|Hittite Cuneiform \| \|- \|Vilhelm Thomsen \|Old Turkic \| \|- \|George Smith and Samuel Birch, et al. \|Cypriot syllabary \| \|- \|Hans Bauer and Édouard Paul Dhorme \|Ugaritic alphabet \| \|- \|Wáng Yìróng, Liú È, Sūn Yíràng, et al. \|Oracle Bone script \| \|- \|Aleksei Ivanovich Ivanov, Nikolai Aleksandrovich Nevsky, et al. \|Tangut script \| \|- \|Michael Ventris, John Chadwick, and Alice Kober \|Linear B \| \|- \|Yuri Knorozov and Tatiana Proskouriakoff, et al. \|Maya \| \|- \|Louis Félicien de Saulcy \|Libyco-Berber script (almost fully) \| \|- \|Jan-Olof Tjäder \|"Enlarged opening script" of Ravenna (variant of the Latin alphabet) \| \|- \|Zaza Alexidze \|Caucasian Albanian alphabet \| \|- \|François Desset \|Linear Elamite \|2022 \|}	[ "Nikolai Aleksandrovich Nevsky", "Hans Bauer (semitist)", "Wang Yirong", "François Desset", "Cretan hieroglyphs", "Jón Ólafsson of Grunnavík", "Aleksei Ivanovich Ivanov", "Sun Yirang", "Linear A", "Edward Hincks", "Romeo and Juliet", "Cypriot syllabary", "Manuel Gómez-Moreno Martínez", "cryptanalysis", "Logogram", "Byblos syllabary", "Tatiana Proskouriakoff", "Cuneiform", "Decipherment of rongorongo", "Egyptian hieroglyphs", "Michael Ventris", "Iberian language", "Édouard Paul Dhorme", "High-performance computing", "Samuel Birch (Egyptologist)", "Kharosthi", "Cypro-Minoan syllabary", "William Shakespeare", "Linear Elamite", "Brahmi", "cryptanalysis of the Enigma", "James Prinsep", "Maya script", "ciphertext", "Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet", "Ugaritic alphabet", "Linear B", "Libyco-Berber", "cipher", "Demotic (Egyptian)", "John Chadwick", "Voynich Manuscript", "Staveless runes", "Staveless Runes", "decipherment of cuneiform", "Magnus Celsius", "Vilhelm Thomsen", "Northeastern Iberian script", "Bedřich Hrozný", "Middle Iranian", "Ancient Greek", "decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts", "artificial intelligence", "Sanskrit", "Palmyrene alphabet", "Zaza Alexidze", "Liu E (writer)", "Ancient Persia", "Tangut script", "Numidian language", "alphabet", "Old Turkic", "Phaistos Disc", "philology", "Ugaritic", "rhyme", "Decipherment of cuneiform", "Pahlavi script", "natural language processing", "Antoine-Isaac Silvestre de Sacy", "Sasanian script", "Georg Friedrich Grotefend", "Renaissance", "Latin alphabet", "Old Persian Cuneiform", "Eugène Burnouf", "Jan-Olof Tjäder", "Espanca script", "Sumerian language", "Safaitic", "Phoenician alphabet", "multilingual inscription", "Linear B script", "grammatology", "Oracle bone script", "linguistics", "Phoenician language", "Leibniz", "Perfect and imperfect rhymes", "Caucasian Albanian alphabet", "World War II", "Silvestre de Sacy", "Jean-Jacques Barthélemy", "Louis Félicien de Saulcy", "Jean-François Champollion", "Rongorongo", "Hittite cuneiform", "Syllabary", "language", "Rosetta Stone", "Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts", "George Smith (assyriologist)", "Thomas Young (scientist)", "Yuri Knorozov", "Enno Littmann", "Cipher runes", "Alice Kober", "Indus script", "Ravenna", "grapheme", "Hebrew alphabet", "Greek alphabet", "Sasanian Empire", "Kharoshthi script", "Rohonc Codex", "Heuristic" ]
8,949	Decca Navigator System	The Decca Navigator System was a hyperbolic radio navigation system that allowed ships and aircraft to determine their position by using radio signals from a dedicated system of static radio transmitters. The system used phase comparison between pairs of low frequency signals between 70 and 129 kHz, as opposed to pulse timing systems like Gee and LORAN. This made it much easier to design receivers using 1940s electronics, and operation was simplified by giving a direct readout of Decca coordinates without the complexity of a cathode-ray tube and highly skilled operator. The system was invented and developed by Decca in the UK. It was first deployed by the Royal Navy during World War II for the vital task of clearing the minefields to enable the D-Day landings. The Allied forces needed an accurate system not known to the Germans and thus free of jamming. After the war, it came off the secret list and was commercially developed by the Decca Company and deployed around UK and later used in many areas around the world. At its peak there were about 180 transmitting stations using "chains" of three or four transmitters each to allow position fixing by plotting intersecting electronic lines. Decca's primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters, offering much better accuracy than the competing LORAN system. Fishing vessels were major post-war users, but it was also used on some aircraft, including a very early (1949) application of moving map displays. The system was deployed extensively in the North Sea and was used by helicopters operating to oil platforms. The opening of the more accurate Loran-C system to civilian use in 1974 offered stiff competition, but Decca was well established by this time and continued operations to 2000. Decca Navigator, along with Loran and similar systems, was eventually replaced by the GPS in 2000, when that became available for public use. == Principles of operation == === Overview === The Decca Navigator System consisted of individual groups of land-based radio transmitters organised into chains of three or four stations. Each chain consisted of a master station and three (occasionally two) secondary stations, termed Red, Green and Purple. Ideally, the secondaries would be positioned at the vertices of an equilateral triangle with the master at the centre. The baseline length, that is, the master–secondary distance, was typically . Each station transmitted a continuous wave signal; comparing the relative phases of the signals from the master and one of the secondaries produced a relative phase measure that was presented on a clock-like display. The phase difference was caused by the relative distance between the stations as seen by the receiver. As the receiver moves these distances change and those changes are represented by the movement of the hands on the displays. If one selects a particular phase difference, say 30 degrees, and plots all the locations where that phase difference occurs, the result is a set of hyperbolic lines of position called a pattern. As there were three secondaries there were three patterns, also termed Red, Green and Purple. The patterns were drawn on nautical charts as a set of hyperbolic lines in the appropriate colour. Navigators determined their location by reading the phase difference from two or more of the patterns from the displays. They could then look at the chart to find where the two closest charted hyperbolas crossed. The accuracy of this measurement was improved by choosing the set of two patterns that resulted in the lines crossing at as close to a right angle as possible. === Detailed principles of operation === When two stations transmit at the phase-locked frequency, the difference in phase between the two signals is constant along a hyperbolic locus. However, if two stations transmit on the same frequency, it is impossible for the receiver to separate them. Instead, each chain was allocated a nominal frequency, known as 1f, and each station in the chain transmitted at a harmonic of this base frequency, as follows: The frequencies given are those for Chain 5B, known as the English Chain, but all chains used similar frequencies between 70 kHz and 129 kHz. Decca receivers multiplied the signals received from the Master and each Slave by different values to arrive at a common frequency (least common multiple, LCM) for each Master/Slave pair, as follows: It was phase comparison at this common frequency that resulted in the hyperbolic lines of position. The interval between two adjacent hyperbolas on which the signals are in phase was called a lane. Since the wavelength of the common frequency was small compared with the distance between the Master and Slave stations there were many possible lines of position for a given phase difference, and so a unique position could not be arrived at by this method. Other receivers, typically for aeronautical applications, divided the transmitted frequencies down to the basic frequency (1f) for phase comparison, rather than multiplying them up to the LCM frequency. === Lanes and zones === Early Decca receivers were fitted with three rotating Decometers that indicated the phase difference for each pattern. Each Decometer, which could be read to a resolution of a centilane, drove a second indicator that counted the number of lanes traversed – each 360 degrees of phase difference was one lane traversed. In this way, assuming the point of departure was known, a more or less distinct location could be identified. The lanes were grouped into zones, with 18 green, 24 red, or 30 purple lanes in each zone. This meant that on the baseline (the straight line between the Master and its Slave) the zone width was the same for all three patterns of a given chain. Typical lane and zone widths on the baseline are shown in the table below (for chain 5B): The lanes were numbered 0 to 23 for red, 30 to 47 for green and 50 to 79 for purple. The zones were labelled A to J, repeating after J. A Decca position coordinate could thus be written: Red I 16.30; Green D 35.80. Later receivers incorporated a microprocessor and displayed a position in latitude and longitude. === Multipulse === Multipulse provided an automatic method of lane and zone identification by using the same phase comparison techniques described above on lower frequency signals. The nominally continuous wave transmissions were in fact divided into a 20-second cycle, with each station in turn simultaneously transmitting all four Decca frequencies (5f, 6f, 8f and 9f) in a phase-coherent relationship for a brief period of 0.45 seconds each cycle. This transmission, known as Multipulse, allowed the receiver to extract the 1f frequency and so to identify the lane that the receiver was in (to a resolution of a zone). As well as transmitting the Decca frequencies of 5f, 6f, 8f and 9f, an 8.2f signal, known as Orange, was also transmitted. The beat frequency between the 8.0f (Red) and 8.2f (Orange) signals allowed a 0.2f signal to be derived and so resulted in a hyperbolic pattern in which one cycle (360°) of phase difference equates to 5 zones. Assuming that one's position was known to this accuracy, this gave an effectively unique position. === Range and accuracy === During daylight, ranges of around could be obtained, reducing at night to 200 to , depending on propagation conditions. The accuracy depended on: Width of the lanes Angle of cut of the hyperbolic lines of position Instrumental errors Propagation errors (for example, skywave) By day these errors could range from a few meters on the baseline up to a nautical mile at the edge of coverage. At night, skywave errors were greater and, on receivers without multipulse capabilities, it was not unusual for the position to jump a lane, sometimes without the navigator knowing. Although in the days of differential GPS this range and accuracy may appear poor, in its day the Decca system was one of the few, if not the only, position fixing system available to many mariners. Since the need for an accurate position is less when the vessel is further from land, the reduced accuracy at long ranges was not a great problem. == History == === Origins === In 1936 William J. O'Brien, an engineer, contracted tuberculosis that put his career on hold for a period of two years. During this period he had the idea of position fixing by means of phase comparison of continuous wave transmissions. This was not the first such system, but O'Brien apparently developed his version without knowledge of the others, and made several advancements in the art that would prove useful. He initially imagined the system being used for aircraft testing, specifically the accurate calculation of ground speed. Some experiments were carried out in California in 1938, selecting frequencies with harmonic "beats" that would allow for station identification in a network of transmitters. Both the U.S. Army and Navy considered the idea too complicated and work ended in 1939. O’Brien's friend, Harvey F. Schwarz, was chief engineer of the Decca Record company in England. In 1939 O’Brien sent him details of the system so it could be put forward to the British military. Initially Robert Watson-Watt reviewed the system but he did not follow it up, deeming it too easily jammed (and likely due to the existing work on the Gee system, being carried out by Watt's group). However, in October 1941 the British Admiralty Signal Establishment (ASE) became interested in the system, which was then classified as Admiralty Outfit QM. The first marine trials were conducted between Anglesey and the Isle of Man, at frequencies of 305/610 kHz, on 16 September 1942. Further trials were conducted in the northern Irish Sea in April 1943 at 70/130 kHz. It was decided that the original frequencies were not ideal, and a new system using a 14 kHz inter-signal spacing was selected. This led to the common 5, 6, 8 and 9f frequencies, used throughout the life of the Decca system. 7f was reserved for a Loran-C-like extension, but never developed. A follow-up test was carried out in the Irish Sea in January 1944 to test a wide variety of upgrades and production equipment. By this time the competing Gee system was known to the Admiralty and the two systems were tested head-to-head under the code names QM and QH. QM was found to have better sea-level range and accuracy, which led to its adoption. ===D-Day landings=== A three-station trial was held in conjunction with a large-scale assault and landing exercise in the Moray Firth in February/March 1944. The success of the trials and the relative ease of use and accuracy of the system resulted in Decca receiving an order for 27 Admiralty Outfit QM receivers. The receiver consisted of an electronics unit with two dials and was known to its operators as the "Blue Gasmeter Job". A Decca chain was set up, consisting of a master station at Chichester and slaves at Swanage and Beachy Head. A fourth decoy transmitter was located in the Thames Estuary as part of the deception that the invasion would be focussed on the Calais area. 21 minesweepers and other vessels were fitted with Admiralty Outfit QM and, on 5 June 1944, 17 of these ships used it to accurately navigate across the English Channel and to sweep the minefields in the planned areas. The swept areas were marked with buoys in preparation for the Normandy Landings. After the initial ship tests, Decca conducted tests in cars, driving in the Kingston By-Pass area to verify receiver accuracy. In the car installation, it was found possible to navigate within an individual traffic lane. The company entertained high hopes that the system could be used in aircraft, to permit much more precise navigation in the critical airspace around airports and urban centres where traffic density was highest. === Commercial deployment === After the end of World War II the Decca Navigator Co. Ltd. was formed (1945) and the system expanded rapidly, particularly in areas of British influence; at its peak it was deployed in many of the world's major shipping areas. More than 15,000 receiving sets were in use aboard ships in 1970. There were 4 chains around England, 1 in Ireland and 2 in Scotland, 12 in Scandinavia (5 each in Norway and Sweden and 1 each in Denmark and Finland), a further 4 elsewhere in northern Europe and 2 in Spain. Canada was another early user, with branch offices set up in Toronto in 1953. The first chain was installed in southwest Newfoundland in 1956 as part of a joint Canada-US Navy surveying program. This led to commercial deployments the next year in Nova Scotia and an inland system for air traffic in the busy Quebec City-Montreal area. A fourth chain covering eastern Newfoundland was added in 1958. When meetings in Montreal in 1958 led to VOR and DME being selected as the standard aviation navigation systems, the Montreal system was moved eastward to cover the Anticosti Island area of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the western Newfoundland chain was later repositioned to better cover the Cabot Strait. A series of chains was also proposed to cover the Northwest Passage had oil tanker traffic used the area, but this never came to be. Another was briefly set up covering Lake Ontario in 1971 for the International Field Year for the Great Lakes. The last Canadian chain shut down in 1986, after Loran-C became widespread. In the late 1950s an experimental Decca chain was set up in the United States, in the New York area, to be used for navigating the Vertol 107 helicopters of New York Airways. These helicopters were operating from the principal local airports—Idlewild Airport on Long Island, Newark Airport in New Jersey, LaGuardia Airport in the Borough of Queens, nearer to Manhattan, and a site on the top of the (then) PanAm Building on Park Avenue. Use of Decca was essential because its signals could be received down to sea level, were not subject to the line-of-sight limitations of VOR/DME and did not suffer the slant-range errors that create problems with VOR/DME close to the transmitters. The Decca installations in the New York Airways helicopters included the unique Decca 'roller map' displays that enabled the pilot to see his or her position at a glance, a concept infeasible with VOR/DME. This chain installation was considered highly controversial at the time, for political reasons. This led to the U.S. Coast Guard, under instructions from the Treasury Department to which it reported, banning the use of Decca receivers in ships entering New York harbour for fear that the system might create a de facto standard (as it had become in other areas of the world). It also served to protect the marketing interests of the Hoffman Electronics division of ITT, a principal supplier of VOR/DME systems, that Decca might have been poised to usurp. This situation was exacerbated by the workload problems of the Air Traffic Controllers Association (ATCA), under its executive director Francis McDermott, whose members were forced to use radar data on aircraft positions, relaying those positions by radio to the aircraft from their control locations. An example of the problem, cited by experts, was the collision of a Douglas DC8 and a Lockheed Constellation over Staten Island, New York, that—according to some experts—could have been avoided if the aircraft had been Decca-equipped and could not only have determined their positions more precisely but would not have suffered from the rho-theta position errors inherent in VOR/DME. Other chains were established in Japan (6 chains); Namibia and South Africa (5 chains); India and Bangladesh (4 chains); North-West Australia (2 chains); the Persian Gulf (1 chain with stations in Qatar and the United Arab Emirates and a second chain in the north of the Gulf with stations in Iran) and the Bahamas (1 chain). Four chains were planned for Nigeria but only two were built and these did not enter into public service. Two chains in Vietnam were used during the Vietnam War for helicopter navigation, with limited success. During the Cold War period, following WWII, the R.A.F. established a confidential chain in Germany. The Master station was in Bad Iburg near Osnabrück and there were two Slaves. The purpose of this chain was to provide accurate air navigation for the corridor between Western Germany and Berlin in the event that a mass evacuation of allied personnel may be required. In order to maintain secrecy, frequencies were changed at irregular intervals. === Decca, Racal, and the closedown === The headquarters of Decca Navigator were at New Malden, Surrey, just off the Kingston by-pass. There was a Decca School, at Brixham, Devon, where employees were sent on courses from time to time. Racal, the UK weapons and communications company, acquired Decca in 1980. Merging Decca's radar assets with their own, Racal began selling off the other portions of the company, including avionics and Decca Navigator. A significant amount of income from the Decca system was due to the receivers being leased to users, not sold outright. This guaranteed predictable annual income. When the patents on the original technology lapsed in the early 1980s, new receivers were quickly built by a number of companies. In particular, Aktieselskabet Dansk Philips ('Danish Philips', ap) introduced receivers that could be purchased outright, and were much smaller and easier to use than the current Decca counterparts. The "ap" versions directly output the longitude and latitude to two decimals (originally in datum ED50 only) instead of using the "deco meter" displays, offering accuracy better than ±9.3 m, much better than the Decca units. This also eliminated the need for the special charts printed with Decca lanes and zones. Decca sued ap for infringement and, in the ensuing court battle, Decca lost the monopoly. That signalled the beginning of the end for the company. Income dwindled and eventually, the UK Ministry of Transport stepped in, having the lighthouse authorities take responsibility for operating the system in the early 1990s. A ruling from the European Union forced the UK government to withdraw funding. The general lighthouse authority ceased Decca transmissions at midnight on 31 March 2000. The Irish chain provided by Bórd Iascaigh Mhara continued transmitting until 19 May 2000. Japan continued operating their Hokkaidō chain until March 2001, the last Decca chain in operation. == Other applications == === Delrac === In the immediate post-war era, Decca began studying a long-range system like Decca, but using much lower frequencies to enable reception of skywaves at long distances. In February 1946 the company proposed a system with two main stations located at Shannon Airport in Ireland and Gander International Airport in Newfoundland (today part of Canada). Together, these stations would provide navigation over the main great circle route between London and New York. A third station in Bermuda would provide general ranging information to measure progress along the main track. Work on this concept continued, and in 1951 a modified version was presented that offered navigation over very wide areas. This was known as Delrac, short for "Decca Long Range Area Cover". A further development, including features of the General Post Office's POPI system, was introduced in 1954, proposing 28 stations that provided worldwide coverage. The system was predicted to offer accuracy at range 95% of the time. Further development was ended in favour of the Dectra system. === Dectra === In the early 1960s the Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA), as part of a wider ICAO effort, began the process of introducing a standard long-range radio navigation system for aviation use. Decca proposed a system that could offer both high accuracy at short ranges and transatlantic navigation with less accuracy, using a single receiver. The system was known as Dectra, short for "Decca Track". Unlike the Delrac system, Dectra was essentially the normal Decca Navigator system with the modification of several existing transmitter sites. These were located at the East Newfoundland and Scottish chains, which were equipped with larger antennas and high-power transmitters, broadcasting 20 times as much energy as normal chain stations. Given that the length of the chain baselines did not change, and were relatively short, at long distance the signal offered almost no accuracy. Instead, Dectra operated as a track system; aircraft would navigate by keeping themselves within the signal defined by a particular Decca lane. The main advantage of Dectra compared to other systems being proposed for the RTCA solution was that it could be used for both medium-range navigation over land, as well as long-range navigation over the Atlantic. In comparison, the VOR/DME system that ultimately won the competition offered navigation over perhaps a 200-mile radius, and could not offer a solution to the long-distance problem. Additionally, as the Decca system provided an X and Y location, as opposed to the angle-and-range VOR/DME, Decca proposed offering it with their Decca Flight Log moving map display to further improve ease of navigation. In spite of these advantages, the RTCA ultimately chose VOR/DME for two primary reasons; VOR offered coverage over about the same range as Decca, about 200 miles, but did so with a single transmitter instead of Decca's four, and Decca's frequencies proved susceptible to interference from static due to lightning, while VOR's higher frequencies were not quite as sensitive. Decca continued to propose that Dectra be used for the long-range role. In 1967 they installed another transmitter in Iceland to provide ranging along the Scotland-Newfoundland track, with a second proposed to be installed on the Azores. They also installed Dectra receivers with Omnitrac computers and a lightweight version of the Flight Log on a number of commercial airliners, notably a BOAC Vickers VC10. The Omnitrac could take inputs from Decca (and Dectra), Loran-C, VOR/DME, an air data computer and doppler radars and combine them all to produce a latitude/longitude output along with bearing, distance-to-go, bearing and an autopilot coupling. Their efforts to standardize this were eventually abandoned as inertial navigation systems began to be installed for these needs. ===Hi-Fix=== A more accurate system named Hi-Fix was developed using signalling in the 1.6 MHz range. It was used for specialised applications such as precision measurements involved with oil-drilling and by the Royal Navy for detailed mapping and surveying of coasts and harbours. The Hi-Fix equipment was leased for a period with temporary chains established to provide coverage of the area required, Hi-Fix was commercialised by Racal Survey in the early 1980s. An experimental chain was installed with coverage of central London and receivers placed in London buses and other vehicles to demonstrate an early vehicle location and tracking system. Each vehicle would report its location automatically via a conventional VHF two-way radio link, the data added to a voice channel. Another application was developed by the Bendix Pacific division of Bendix Corporation, with offices in North Hollywood, California, but not deployed: PFNS—Personal Field Navigation System—that would enable individual soldiers to ascertain their geographic position, long before this capability was made possible by the satellite-based GPS (Global Positioning System). A further application of the Decca system was implemented by the U.S. Navy in the late 1950s and early 1960s for use in the Tongue of the Ocean/Eleuthera Sound area near The Bahamas, separating the islands of Andros and New Providence. The application was for sonar studies made possible by the unique characteristics of the ocean floor. An interesting characteristic of the Decca VLF signal discovered on BOAC, later British Airways, test flights to Moscow, was that the carrier switching could not be detected even though the carrier could be received with sufficient strength to provide navigation. Such testing, involving civilian aircraft, is quite common and may well not be in the knowledge of a pilot. The 'low frequency' signalling of the Decca system also permitted its use on submarines. One 'enhancement' of the Decca system was to offer the potential of keying the signal, using Morse code, to signal the onset of nuclear war. This option was never taken up by the UK government. Messages were clandestinely sent, however, between Decca stations thereby bypassing international telephone calls, especially in non-UK chains. == Special DECCA towers == Puckeridge DECCA tower Zeven DECCA-transmitter	[ "Puckeridge DECCA tower", "English Channel", "nautical chart", "Montreal", "Vickers VC10", "A3 road", "Hokkaido", "Cabot Strait", "Nova Scotia", "Brixham", "Quebec City", "International Field Year for the Great Lakes", "phase (waves)", "Global Positioning System", "Shannon Airport", "inertial navigation system", "Toronto", "skywave", "Robert Watson-Watt", "VHF omnidirectional range", "oil platform", "LaGuardia Airport", "Gulf of St. Lawrence", "Rho Theta Navigation", "Decca Records", "Thames Estuary", "Anticosti Island", "Bord Iascaigh Mhara", "Normandy Landings", "moving map display", "D-Day", "Anglesey", "Irish Sea", "North Sea", "Bermuda", "Local positioning system", "U.S. Army", "kilohertz", "Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics", "POPI", "Decca Radar", "Distance measuring equipment", "1960 New York mid-air collision", "Trinity House", "Bad Iburg", "master station", "cathode-ray tube", "John F. Kennedy International Airport", "radio navigation", "Calais", "General Post Office", "Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight", "Northwest Passage", "general lighthouse authority", "GEE (navigation)", "Chichester", "Zeven DECCA-transmitter", "Devon", "U.S. Navy", "Azores", "New York Airways", "Department for Transport", "great circle route", "lines of position", "Royal Navy", "Gee (navigation)", "Newark Liberty International Airport", "least common multiple", "Lake Ontario", "BOAC", "Beachy Head", "Isle of Man", "Moray Firth", "VOR/DME", "World War II", "LORAN", "tuberculosis", "Loran-C", "ED50", "phase-locked loop", "Omega (navigation system)", "ICAO", "British Empire", "hyperbola", "Persian Gulf", "Gander International Airport", "Racal", "MetLife Building", "low frequency", "hyperbolic navigation", "Newfoundland", "Swanage", "Vietnam War", "Datatrak" ]
8,953	Dana Rohrabacher	Dana Tyrone Rohrabacher ( ; born June 21, 1947) is an American former politician who served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1989 to 2019. A Republican, he represented for the last three terms of his House tenure. Rohrabacher was defeated by Democrat Harley Rouda in 2018. Rohrabacher has expressed strong pro-Russia and pro-Putin opinions which have raised questions about his relationship with Vladimir Putin and the Russian government. Politico dubbed him as "Putin's favorite congressman". ==Early life, education, and early career== Dana Tyrone Rohrabacher was born on June 21, 1947, in Coronado, California, the son of Doris M. (née Haring) and Donald Tyler Rohrabacher. Rohrabacher graduated from Palos Verdes High School in Palos Verdes Estates, California, He was also a writer for the Orange County Register. Rohrabacher served as assistant press secretary to Ronald Reagan during his 1976 and 1980 presidential campaigns. Rohrabacher then worked as a speechwriter and special assistant to President Reagan from 1981 to 1988. During his tenure at the White House, Rohrabacher played a leading role in the formulation of the Reagan Doctrine. With his friend Oliver North's fundraising help, Rohrabacher won the Republican primary with a plurality of 35%. He won the general election with 64% of the vote. He twice experienced serious primary competition, in 1992 and 1998. After redistricting, he won a three-candidate primary election in 1992 with a plurality of 48%. In 1998, he won an open primary with 54% of the vote. ==== 2008 ==== In 2008, Rohrabacher defeated Democratic nominee Debbie Cook, 53–43%. ==== 2010 ==== In 2010, Rohrabacher defeated Democratic nominee Ken Arnold, 62–38%. ==== 2012 ==== After redistricting, Rohrabacher announced in 2012 that he would run in the newly redrawn 48th Congressional district. He said "The new 48th District is a good fit and something that will enable me to serve my constituents and the country well." He won election in the 48th district with 61% of the vote. ==== 2014 ==== Rohrabacher won re-election with 64% of the vote. ==== 2016 ==== Rohrabacher won re-election with 59% of the vote. ==== 2018 ==== In March 2018, CNN reported that Erik Prince, a former intern of Rohrabacher while he was freshman congressman in 1990 and very close ally of Rohrabacher, hosted a fundraiser at Prince's Virginia home with expected attendees including Oliver North on March 18, 2018. On October 12, 2018, the Los Angeles Times reported that the Congressional Leadership Fund, a Super PAC closely associated with House Speaker Paul Ryan, had passed over Rohrabacher in its initial round of broadcast television advertising across Southern California. Rohrabacher's campaign denied this, saying that CLF had spent "about $2.4 million and they have an additional $1 million in media buys scheduled" for Rohrabacher. Democrat Harley Rouda defeated Rohrabacher on Election Day. ===Tenure=== ====Election fraud and conviction==== Rohrabacher was charged with improper use of campaign contributions in connection with a 1995 state assembly election. Rohrabacher provided some of his campaign funds to his campaign manager (and future wife), Rhonda Carmony, to promote a decoy Democratic candidate to draw away votes from another Democratic candidate. Rohrabacher was found guilty and fined $50,000. ====Payment for 30-year-old screenplay==== On November 4, 2005, the Los Angeles Times reported that Rohrabacher was paid $23,000 for a 30-year-old screen play he had written. At issue was whether the producer paid him for the screenplay or for introductions to congressional and federal officials. Rohrabacher said that the introductions were made in good faith, were nothing that was not done regularly for legitimate causes, and that the introductions had only become an issue because of Joseph Medawar's alleged misdeeds. In May 2006, Rohrabacher announced through his press secretary that he would return the $23,000 (~$ in ). The decision was made public shortly before Medawar took responsibility in a United States District Court for bilking $3.4 million from about 50 investors. ====2011 visit to Iraq==== During a trip to Iraq in June 2011, Rohrabacher said that when Iraq becomes a wealthy nation, it should pay back the US for all the money it had spent since the Iraq invasion. Rohrabacher also commented that he would be holding a hearing with the Sub-Committee on Oversight and Investigations into whether Iraq committed "crimes against humanity" during an attack on Camp Ashraf in April 2011. The incident left 34 residents killed and over 300 wounded. The delegation was denied access to the camp by Iraqi government, citing their sovereignty. Rohrabacher's delegation was subsequently asked to leave the country. ====2012 FBI warning==== Rohrabacher was warned in 2012 in a secure room at the Capitol building by an agent from the FBI that Russian spies may have been trying to recruit him to act on Russia's behalf as an "agent of influence", after he met with a member of the Russian foreign ministry privately in Moscow. Following the ISIS terrorist attacks in Tehran on June 7, 2017, in which 17 civilians were killed, he suggested that the attack could be viewed as 'a good thing', and surmised that President Trump might have been behind the coordination of this terrorist attack. An article in The Atlantic suggested that there was serious concern in the State Department of ties between Rohrabacher and the Russian government. ====Jack Wu==== In June 2015, Rohrabacher released a statement accusing former treasurer of his reelection committee, Jack Wu, of embezzling more than $170,000 from his campaign. Rohrabacher's attorney, Charles H. Bell Jr., stated that the congressman had filed criminal charges against Wu with the Orange County district attorney and state attorney general. ====2016 consideration for Secretary of State==== Following the election of Donald Trump in 2016, Rohrabacher was on the shortlist for Secretary of State along with Mitt Romney and eventual pick Rex Tillerson. ===Committee assignments=== Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on the Middle East and South Asia Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations (Chairman) Committee on Science, Space and Technology Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics Subcommittee on Energy and Environment Rohrabacher chaired the Space and Aeronautics Subcommittee of the House Science Committee from 1997 until January 2005; he received a two-year waiver to serve beyond the six-year term limit. As a senior member of the International Relations Committee, Rohrabacher led the effort to deny Most Favored Nation trading status to the People's Republic of China, citing that nation's dismal human rights record and opposition to democracy. His subcommittee assignments were East Asia and Pacific, and Middle East and South Asia. ===Caucus memberships=== Congressional Cannabis Caucus Congressional Human Rights Caucus United States Congressional International Conservation Caucus Congressional Taiwan Caucus Sportsmen's Caucus Freedom Caucus House Baltic Caucus ==Foreign and security policy positions== In foreign policy, Rohrabacher supported withdrawing U.S. troops from Afghanistan, sided with Russia in the Russia–Georgia war, and gave a qualified defense of the annexation of Crimea in 2014. which have raised questions about his relationship with Vladimir Putin and the Russian government. and others have dubbed him "Putin's favorite congressman". Early in Rohrabacher's congressional career in 1990 or 1991, KGB agent and deputy mayor of Saint Petersburg Vladimir Putin and two other Russians entered Rohrabacher's congressional office in Washington, D.C. In a 2013 interview, Rohrabacher asserted that he and Putin later became close friends. According to Erik Prince, Prince, as an intern on Rohrabacher's staff, travelled around the world on fact finding missions to support Rohrabacher's interests. Rohrabacher called the Russian banker Aleksandr Torshin, a Putin ally, "sort of the conservatives' favorite Russian". On September 8, 2008, at a House of Representatives Foreign Affairs Committee meeting, Rohrabacher argued that the Georgians had initiated a recent military confrontation in the ongoing Russia–Georgia war. In 2012, the FBI warned Rohrabacher that his support for Russia's interests was allowing Russia to cultivate him for its purposes. In February 2013, Rohrabacher gave a speech urging the right to self-determination for the Baloch people in Pakistan at an UNPO conference in London. In April 2014, he tweeted that "If majority of people legally residing in Alaska want to be part of Russia then it's OK with me." In April 2016, Rohrabacher and a member of his staff, Paul Behrends, traveled to Russia and returned with Yuri Chaika's confidential talking points memo about incriminating information on Democratic donors. Rohrabacher is known for his longtime friendship with Putin and for his defense of "the Russian point of view". On June 15, 2016, then-House Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy told a group of Republicans, "'There's two people I think Putin pays: Rohrabacher and Trump. Swear to God'". Then-House Speaker Paul Ryan ended the conversation by saying "'No leaks. This is how we know we're a real family here'". The Republicans present were sworn to secrecy. Brendan Buck, counselor to Paul Ryan, initially denied these reports, but was then told that The Washington Post had a recording. After the recording was leaked by the Post in May 2017, McCarthy said the comment was intended as a joke. Around that time, Rohrabacher planned—in his capacity as chair of the Europe subcommittee—to hold a hearing on the Magnitsky Act, which bars certain Russian officials from entering the United States or holding any financial assets in American banks. Rohrabacher reportedly wanted Bill Browder, the American-born investor who had lobbied for the act's passage after what he claims was the illegal appropriation of his hedge fund's assets and the subsequent murder of his Russian lawyer, to testify. Rohrabacher planned to subject him to what was described as a "show trial". In addition to questioning Browder closely and skeptically about his claims, Rohrabacher intended to show a feature-length documentary film critical of the Magnitsky claims. Another scheduled witness was Russian lawyer Natalia Veselnitskaya, a longtime lobbyist against the Magnitsky Act who attended the June 9 Trump Tower meeting. In July 2017, Browder testified to the Senate Judiciary Committee that persons supporting the interests of foreign governments or acting on their behalf, especially Russia, must comply with Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA) requirements, and that no one behind the screening of the Andrei Nekrasov film had met the disclosure filings under FARA. When Foreign Affairs Committee chairman Ed Royce learned of Rohrabacher's plans, he canceled the hearing and forbade Rohrabacher from showing the film. In its stead, he held a full committee hearing on U.S.–Russia relations at which Rohrabacher was allowed to submit some of the pro-Russian claims into evidence. The film was ultimately shown at the Newseum, and an intern in Rohrabacher's office who later worked for the Trump transition team sent emails promoting the film from the subcommittee offices. In a May 2017 interview with CNN, Rohrabacher said, "'We have a huge double standard with Russia when it comes to prisoners and other things'". Rohrabacher added that interference by the Russian intelligence services' in the 2016 U.S. election was the same as the National Security Agency (NSA) bugging German Chancellor Angela Merkel's phone. In July 2017, Rohrabacher voted to impose sanctions on Iran, North Korea, and Russia. On 16 August 2017, Rohrabacher visited Julian Assange in the Ecuadorian Embassy in London and told him that Trump would pardon him on the condition that he would agree to say that Russia was not involved in the 2016 Democratic National Committee email leaks. In October 2017, the House Committee on Foreign Affairs placed restrictions on Rohrabacher's ability to use committee money to pay for foreign travel due to concerns over his interest in Russia. On November 21, 2017, The New York Times reported that Rohrabacher had come under scrutiny from special counsel Robert Mueller and the Senate Intelligence Committee for his close ties to the Kremlin. In an interview with Fox Business Channel on August 24, 2018, Rohrabacher attacked Attorney General Jeff Sessions because Sessions had refused to fire Robert Mueller and shut down the Russia collusion investigation. He said: "'The fact that Jeff Sessions has not quit is a disloyalty to this president and to the country, the fact is, if he disagrees with what the president wants him to do, he should resign'". In February 2020, Rohrabacher told Yahoo News that his goal during his 2017 meeting with Julian Assange was to find evidence for a widely debunked conspiracy theory that WikiLeaks' real source was not Russian intelligence agents for the DNC emails but former DNC staffer Seth Rich. On February 19, 2020, Edward Fitzgerald, Julian Assange's attorney, asserted at Westminster Magistrates' Court in London that Rohrabacher had been sent on behalf of President Trump in August 2017 to offer Assange a pardon from Trump if Assange could release material to show that Russian intelligence was not involved in the 2016 United States election interference. In the 113th Congress, Rohrabacher was chair of the House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Europe, Eurasia and Emerging Threats. Speaking about Islam, he said during a hearing in April 2013, "I hope we all work together against a religion that will motivate people to murder children and other threats to us as a civilization." In the wake of the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting, Rohrabacher put out a press release stating that he felt "outrage" and a "renewed commitment to defeat and destroy the radical Islamic movement that fosters such mayhem." He stressed that Americans must "be sure not to label all Muslims as terrorist murderers." Rohrabacher met Seddique Mateen, the father of the shooter, in 2014 during routine meetings with constituents. He called Mateen an "estranged individual." In a statement to clarify his position, Rohrabacher wrote that he opposes "the use of force against unarmed civilians no matter who is the victim or who is doing the killing" but he is also against "Iran's vicious Mullah monarchy" and "when it comes to Sunni terrorists or Shiite terrorists, I prefer them to target each other rather than any other victims, especially innocent civilians and Americans." He added that it will "require support for those proud Iranians who want to win their freedom and heritage from Mullahs and are willing to fight for it. That does not include Isis, but it may include a lot of Iranians who see blowing up Khomeini's mausoleum as an expression of freedom from the yolk [sic] of Islamic terror." ===Defense of interrogation techniques and extraordinary rendition=== On April 17, 2007, during a House hearing on trans-Atlantic relations, Rohrabacher defended the Bush administration's program of extraordinary rendition. He said that the unfair treatment of one innocent suspect is an acceptable "unfortunate consequence" of holding others who would otherwise be free to commit terror acts. After he received boos and groans from the gallery, Rohrabacher responded, "Well, I hope it's your families, I hope it's your families that suffer the consequences," and "I hope it's your family members that die." Rohrabacher was subsequently interrupted by protesters wearing orange jumpsuits who were removed from the gallery. For his comment that imprisoning and torturing one innocent person was a fair price to pay for locking up 50 terrorists who would "go out and plant a bomb and kill 20,000 people", on April 25 Rohrabacher was named Countdown with Keith Olbermann's "Worst Person in the World". ===Afghanistan=== Rohrabacher's interest in Afghanistan extends back at least to the late 1980s, before his time in office, when he entered the country in the company of Afghan mujahideen fighters who were fighting Soviet occupation forces. Reportedly, these fighters "actually engaged Soviet troops in combat near the city of Jalalabad during the two months Rohrabacher was with them." In the years after the Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989), Rohrabacher said his "passion" was to bring back the country's exiled king, Muhammad Zahir Shah. In 2003, Rohrabacher defended the new Afghan constitution against those who saw in it mainly empowerment of warlords, saying: Rohrabacher has since become a proponent of withdrawing from Afghanistan. He protested against the troop build-up in Afghanistan by President Obama, saying "If the Taliban is going is be defeated, it's got to be by the Afghan people themselves, not by sending more U.S. troops, which could actually be counterproductive." When Congressman Jim McGovern offered an amendment in 2011 requiring the Pentagon to draw up an exit plan from Afghanistan, Rohrabacher was just one of six Republicans to sign on. Rohrabacher voted for McGovern's Amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act, requiring an exit plan from Afghanistan. The bill failed by a 204–215 margin. Rohrabacher was against former President Obama's gradual drawdown of troops, instead supporting a full withdrawal. Saying "If we're going to leave, we should leave." Rohrabacher has said that "The centralized system of government foisted upon the Afghan people is not going to hold after we leave." And "So let's quit prolonging the agony and inevitable. Karzai's regime is corrupt and non representative of Afghanistan's tribal culture. This failed strategy is not worth one more drop of American blood. Under the current strategy, our military presence alienates more Afghans that it pacifies. So if you're going to pull the plug, then we need to get the hell out now." Rohrabacher has repeatedly raised high-level concerns in the US Congress and Washington, D.C., about the significant corruption in Afghanistan, including the Kabul Bank scandal, where hundreds of millions of U.S. taxpayers' dollars allegedly disappeared in a short period of time at the apparent hands of close Karzai family members, including brothers Mahmoud Karzai (a.k.a. Mahmood Karzai) and Ahmed Wali Karzai. Rohrabacher worked to bring attention to the systemic corruption in the Karzai government and cut U.S. taxpayers' funding for these wasteful projects and programs, involving corruption within the Hamid Karzai government. In April 2012, CNN reported that "A top Republican on the House Foreign Affairs committee was asked by the State Department not to go to Afghanistan because President Hamid Karzai objected to the visit. ... Dana Rohrabacher, R-California, told Security Clearance he was readying to travel with five other Republicans from Dubai to Afghanistan's capital, Kabul, when the State Department requested he stay behind." ===Bosnia and Kosovo independence=== Rohrabacher was opposed to the involvement of American ground troops in the Yugoslav Wars. He advocated for the direct bombing of the military on Yugoslav soil, criticizing the ineffectiveness of western forces against the Bosnian Serbs. (NATO was limited to small fixed attacks, as these Serbs penetrated UN safe areas and attacked Bosniak forces.) Rohrabacher said they "should bomb Serbia's military infrastructure, in Serbia – get that, in Serbia – rather than dropping a couple of duds on tents, which only proves the West's gutlessness, and emboldens Serbian cutthroats." Rohrabacher considered the events in Bosnia to constitute genocide. In 1995, Rohrabacher personally visited Sarajevo in Bosnia, criticizing the devastation Serb forces inflicted on the city, saying "This is a loss to all mankind, not just to the people of Sarajevo." He also encountered vagabond children asking for money. In 2001, the leader of the Albanian American Civic League ethnic lobby group, Joseph J. DioGuardi, praised Rohrabacher for his support to the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), a militia that was once labeled by Bill Clinton's special envoy to the Balkans Robert Gelbard as a terrorist organization, saying "He was the first member of Congress to insist that the United States arm the Kosova Liberation Army, and one of the few members who to this day publicly supports the independence of Kosova." Also in 2001, Rohrabacher gave a speech in support of American equipping the KLA with weaponry, comparing it to French support of America in the Revolutionary War, saying "Based on our own experience, the Kosova Liberation Army should have been armed. ... If the U.S. had armed the KLA in 1998, we would not be where we are today. The 'freedom fighters' would have secured their freedom and Kosova would be independent." === China === After a reconnaissance flight over the Spratly Islands in 1998, Rohrabacher said, "We can't ignore this bullying by the Communist Chinese in the Spratlys. The presence of the Chinese military troops...is not only a concern of the Philippines. It is also a concern of the U.S. and other democratic countries in the world." In July 1999, Rohrabacher led the House floor in opposition to legislation normalizing trade ties between the United States and China. The following year, as the House weighed another China trade bill, Rohrabacher said the trade bill was a giveaway to a select number of American billionaires and the Beijing regime, adding that President Bill Clinton could call "communist China 'our strategic partner' until his face turns blue, but it won't make them any less red." In 2011 interviews, Rohrabacher described the Chinese government under the leadership of Hu Jintao as "a gangster regime that murders its own people" and described the Chinese government as Nazis. In December 2016, after President-elect Trump had a phone call with President of Taiwan Tsai Ing-wen, Rohrabacher said the call "showed the dictators in Beijing that he's not a pushover" and that China "has had an enormously aggressive foreign policy". ====Organ harvesting in China==== In 2012 Rohrabacher stated, ===Iraq War=== Rohrabacher voted in support of the Authorization for the Use of Military Force Against Iraq in 2002, a position that he later said was "a mistake". ===Iran=== In August 2012, Rohrabacher noted on his official website that he had written a letter addressed to the U.S. State Department, noting his support of U.S. sponsorship of separatist movements in Iran. This elicited criticism from the Iranian-American community, which included challenging Rohrabacher's understanding of the historical background alluded to in his letter to the Department of State. In June 2017, a day after an ISIL attack in Tehran, during a House Foreign Affairs Committee hearing, Rohrabacher stated: "Isn't it a good thing for us to have the United States finally backing up Sunnis who will attack Hezbollah and the Shiite threat to us, isn't that a good thing?" This comment was strongly criticized by the National Iranian American Council, which wrote, "Rohrabacher has a long history of bizarre and offensive statements on Iran, but his callousness toward the Iranian victims of ISIS terror might be his most callous and extreme thus far." Rohrabacher supported removing the People's Mujahedin of Iran (MEK) from the United States State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations; it was included on the list from 1997 to 2012. ===Aid to Pakistan=== In May 2011, in the wake of Osama Bin Laden's death, Rohrabacher introduced a bill to stop aid to Pakistan, stating that members of the government and of Pakistan's security force, the ISI, were either sheltering Bin Laden or completely incompetent. "We can no longer afford this foolishness. ... The time has come for us to stop subsidizing those who actively oppose us. Pakistan has shown itself not to be America's ally." Rohrabacher also demanded the return of the US helicopter that crashed in the operation to kill Bin Laden, stating "If this is not done immediately, it is probable, given Pakistan's history, that our technology has already found its way into the hands of the Communist Chinese military that is buying, building, and stealing the necessary military technology to challenge the United States." ===Support for Mohiuddin Ahmed=== In 2007, Rohrabacher supported Mohiuddin Ahmed, a detainee in the U.S., who was said to be involved in an attempted coup in Bangladesh, during which several people were murdered. He was convicted of the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the first President of Bangladesh. Bangladesh's extradition request was halted as Rohrabacher voiced concern about his legal rights, saying that he should be sent somewhere with no death penalty. His support was applauded by both Amnesty International and the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops. Mohiuddin Ahmed was found guilty of being a participant in the assassinations and was executed on January 28, 2010. ===Taiwan=== After President-elect Donald Trump answered a congratulatory phone call from democratically elected President of Taiwan Tsai Ing-wen on December 2, 2016, Rohrabacher said Trump's phone call with Taiwan's president was "terrific" because of the diplomatic warning it sent to China. "He showed the dictators in Beijing that he's not a pushover." He emphasized, "China has had an enormously aggressive foreign policy and by him actually going to Taiwan, he's showing the people in Beijing that they cannot have this aggressive foreign policy and expect to be treated just the same by an American president." ===Ukraine=== Rohrabacher gave a "qualified defense" of the annexation of Crimea by Russia in 2014. On March 6, 2014, he was one of 23 members of the House of Representatives to vote against a $1 billion loan guarantee to support the new government of Ukraine. On March 11, 2014, Rohrabacher voted "present", the only member to do so, on a resolution condemning Russian military actions in Ukraine; the resolution passed 402-7. Commenting on the issue, he stated, "Starting with our own American Revolution, groups of people have declared themselves, rightfully, to be under a different government or a government of their choosing. People forget that's what our Declaration of Independence is all about." He also said, "The sanctions are an abomination of hypocrisy. This is ridiculous: What we were doing with the violence and military action we took to secure the Kosovars' right to self-determination was far more destructive and had far more loss of life than what Putin's done trying to ensure the people of Crimea are not cut off from what they would choose as their destiny with Russia." ===Uzbekistan=== During a US Congressional delegation's visit to Uzbekistan in February 2013, Rohrabacher made several controversial statements. The chief among those statements was that the United States should treat Uzbekistan like Saudi Arabia by disregarding the former's human rights abuses in achieving America's national interests, particularly in selling armaments and drones to Uzbekistan. ===North Macedonia=== In 2017, in an interview for an Albanian TV channel Vizion Plus Rohrabacher suggested that Macedonia "is not a country" and that the "Kosovars and Albanians from Macedonia should be part of Kosovo and the rest of Macedonia should be part of Bulgaria or any other country to which they believe they are related", which provoked a response from the Macedonian foreign ministry which accused him of inflaming "nationalistic rhetoric". === Turkey === In the wake of the clashes at the Turkish Ambassador's Residence in May 2017, Rohrabacher called for Donald Trump to never invite Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan again to the United States, and to bar Americans from purchasing Turkish government debt. === Eritrea === In August 2017, Rohrabacher proposed amending the Department of Defense budget whereby the United States would establish military ties with Eritrea. Rohrabacher suggested that the two countries should cooperate in fighting the War on Terror, curbing Iranian influence in the Yemeni Civil War, and securing the Red Sea region. === Julian Assange === In August 2017, Rohrabacher attended a meeting in London with Julian Assange organized and attended by right-wing political activist Charles C. Johnson. Rohrabacher said that the discussion was about the possibility of a presidential pardon in exchange for Assange supplying information on the theft of emails from the Democratic National Committee, which were published by WikiLeaks before the 2016 presidential election. In October 2017, Rohrabacher and Johnson met with Senator Rand Paul (R-Kentucky) to discuss Assange supplying information about the source of leaked emails. However, Assange responded to news accounts of the meeting, tweeting, "WikiLeaks never has and never will reveal a source. Offers have been made to me—not the other way around. I do not speak to the public through third parties." ===Other foreign policy=== In March 2005, Rohrabacher introduced HR 1061, the American Property Claims Against Ethiopia Act, which would "prohibit United States assistance to the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia until the Ethiopian government returns all property of United States citizens". The bill was introduced by Rohrabacher at the behest of Gebremedhin Berhane, a former Eritrean national and friend of the Rohrabacher family, after his business was expropriated by the Ethiopian government. On March 7, 2006, Rohrabacher introduced HR 4895, an amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, "to limit the provision of the United States military assistance and the sale, transfer, or licensing of United States military equipment or technology to Ethiopia". During an appearance on MSNBC's The Ed Show, Rohrabacher accused Barack Obama of allowing violence in Iran to get out of hand because he did not speak forcefully enough against the country's leadership. He also said that Gorbachev tore down the Berlin Wall because Reagan told him to ("Tear down this wall"). In early 2010, he went to Honduras to commend the election of the new president. His entourage included a group of Californian property investors and businessmen, a dealer in rare coins, and CEOs from San Diego biofuels corporation (which is headed by a family friend). ==Domestic political positions== Rohrabacher voted to repeal Obamacare, was a staunch opponent of illegal immigration, and favored the legalization of cannabis. He had been a staunch supporter of Donald Trump. ===National Endowment for the Arts=== In 1990, Rohrabacher opposed the National Endowment of the Arts and joined Mel Hancock in demanding its abolition. In a February letter to other members of Congress, Rohrabacher sent a photograph by artist and AIDS activist David Wojnarowicz. In April, liberal constitutional rights group People for the American Way announced its intent to launch a newspaper advert campaign against Rohrabacher. Western vice president of the organization Michael Hudson stated, "'Americans overwhelmingly reject censorship of the arts and support the NEA'". Rohrabacher welcomed the announcement, stating that his constituents "don't want federal dollars to go to sacrilegious or obscene art'" and that it would help voters to understand the issue. Explaining his position, Rohrabacher stated that he did not believe "'anyone should be prevented from seeing what they want to see or painting what they want to paint...on their own time and their own dime. But if you get a government subsidy, that's another question'". In October, the House passed a bill to reauthorize funds for the NEA with the directive that the organization could not fund obscene art. Rohrabacher introduced an amendment that would include specific guidelines on the kind of art projects that could not be funded, such as works that were sexually explicit or denigrated the American flag or religions; the amendment was rejected by a vote of 249-175. Rohrabacher stated his amendment was supposed to ensure that the federal government was ""not subsidizing obscenity, child pornography, attacks on religion, desecration of the American flag or any other of the outrages we have seen in the past'". By the time the House passed the bill, Rohrabacher had become known as " the House's most outspoken critic of the NEA". ===Race quotas=== In October 1991, Rohrabacher wrote a letter to the civil rights division of the Education Department after seven Filipino students complained to the media that they were denied admission to the University of California, San Diego (UCSD). Rohrabacher requested the department conduct a federal civil rights investigation on what seemed to be "a quota based upon race that illegally discriminates against Filipino-Americans and possibly applicants of other races". UCSD vice chancellor for undergraduate affairs Joseph Watson refuted the letter, dismissing Rohrabacher as "wrong when he says that 40% of admissions are reserved for certain races". He stated that the school ranks all applicants using a grade-based formula. Watson charged Rohrabacher with fanning hysteria over discrimination: "The Rohrabacher approach is to play to public fears that something fishy is going on. We don't want anyone to feel we're not giving everyone a fair and equitable review that can stand up to any scrutiny." ===Impeachment of Bill Clinton=== In November 1997, Rohrabacher was one of eighteen Republicans in the House to co-sponsor a resolution by Bob Barr that sought to launch an impeachment inquiry against President Bill Clinton. This was an early effort to impeach Clinton, predating the eruption of the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal. The eruption of that scandal would ultimately lead to a more serious effort to impeach Clinton in 1998. On October 8, 1998, Rohrabacher voted in favor of legislation that was passed to open an impeachment inquiry. On December 19, 1998, Rohrabacher voted in favor of all four proposed articles of impeachment against Clinton (only two of which received the majority of votes needed to be adopted). ===Firearms=== In 2018, Sacha Baron Cohen's television program Who Is America? premiered, showing Rohrabacher supporting a hoax "kinderguardians program" which supported training toddlers with firearms. Rohrabacher claims that he never spoke to Cohen, that he was taken out of context, and that he spoke, "broadly of making sure young people could get training in self-defense". ===Global warming=== Rohrabacher doubts the scientific consensus that global warming is caused by humans. During a congressional hearing on climate change on February 8, 2007, Rohrabacher mused that previous warming cycles may have been caused by carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by "dinosaur flatulence": Rohrabacher does not believe that global warming is a problem. At a town hall meeting with the Newport Mesa Tea Party in August 2013, Rohrabacher said "global warming is a total fraud" and part of a "game plan" by liberals to "create global government". ===Healthcare=== On May 4, 2017, Rohrabacher voted in favor of repealing the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) and passing the American Health Care Act. During his 2018 re-election campaign, Rohrabacher pledged to protect protections for individuals with preexisting conditions. Rohrabacher voted for his party's Obamacare replacement bill that included state waivers from rules that prohibit charging higher prices to people with pre-existing conditions. In 2005, Rohrabacher opined that the Republican Party was split on the issue of immigration: "There are those of us who identify with the national wing and patriotic wing of the party who have always been adamant on the illegal immigration issues. And, on the other side, you have those people who believe in the business and global marketplace concept. So, you have a party with two different views on one of the major issues of the day." In early 2008, Rohrabacher endorsed Mitt Romney in the Republican presidential primary, citing his positions on stemming illegal immigration and criticizing John McCain. About McCain, he said: "He's been the enemy of those of us who have stemmed the flow of illegals into our country, whereas Romney has made some very tough commitments." In 2011, Rohrabacher proposed the bill H.R. 787 known as the "No Social Security for Illegal Immigrants Act of 2011". The bill: "Amends title II of the Social Security Act to exclude from creditable wages and self-employment income any wages earned for services by aliens performed in the United States, and self-employment income derived from a trade or business conducted in the United States, while the alien was not authorized to be so employed or to perform a function or service in such a trade or business." In 2013, an 18-year-old student visited Rohrabacher's office to discuss immigration reform. At some point their conversation became disagreeable, and the student said the congressman yelled at her: "I hate illegals!" He also allegedly threatened to deport her family. Rohrabacher's spokesperson has disputed both statements, averring that it was actually the student who started the confrontation by yelling at the spokesperson and telling her to "butt out". The organization NumbersUSA has given Rep. Rohrabacher an A+ rating in accordance to his stance on illegal immigration. ===LGBT issues=== Rohrabacher has drawn controversy over his views on LGBT rights. He opposed same-sex marriage and endorsed Proposition 8, the ballot initiative in 2008 that would have prohibited same-sex marriage in California, during a debate at Orange Coast College, stating he "would suggest not changing the definition of marriage in our society to make a small number of people feel more comfortable". Rohrabacher voted in favor of the Federal Marriage Amendment in both 2004 and 2006, a proposed amendment to the U.S. Constitution that would have defined marriage as between a man and a woman and forbade states from recognizing or legalizing same-sex marriage. After the Supreme Court issued its decision in Hollingsworth v. Perry in 2013, that legalized same-sex marriage in California, Rohrabacher criticized the decision, stating that the decision was "not based on the merits of the issue but on a technicality". However, Rohrabacher has appeared to have endorsed the idea of leaving marriage to religious institutions only, stating on Twitter that churches should be solely responsible for conducting marriages but that the government should only recognize them. In May 2018, Rohrabacher provoked severe criticism after telling a meeting of the Orange County Association of Realtors that homeowners "should be able to make a decision not to sell their home to someone (if) they don't agree with their lifestyle." Though the statement did not explicitly refer to LGBT people, it was widely interpreted as such. LGBT groups denounced Rohrabacher for the remarks, and the National Association of Realtors, which had previously donated to Rohrabacher's re-election campaigns, condemned Rohrabacher, halted all of its financial support for him and repudiated its past donations to him. After Rohrabacher's constituents unseated him in favor of Harley Rouda, The Advocate praised the results and condemned Rohrabacher. Despite criticism from the LGBT community later in his career, early in his political career, Rohrabacher supported a proposal by gays to move to a rural California county and take leadership roles. Rohrabacher's "California Libertarian Alliance endorsed the project. 'Your main resources are the freedom you offer plus the environment you are locating in,' Dana Rohrabacher, one of the libertarian group’s founders and later speechwriter to then-President Reagan, wrote in a letter to GLF. 'The economic goods are perfect for some kind of a combination ski gambling resort.'" ===Cannabis=== Rohrabacher supported the legalization of cannabis for both medical and recreational purposes. He spoke against the policy of cannabis prohibition as early as May 2013, calling it a "colossal failure" in an op-ed penned for the Orange County Register. He further outlined his views in a May 2014 op-ed in National Review, arguing that the prohibition of cannabis has incurred a number of undesirable costs upon free society, such as an increase in gang violence, soaring incarceration rates, unconstitutional seizure of private property through civil forfeiture, corruption and militarization of police forces, and negative impacts on minority communities and relationships with Latin-American countries. Rohrabacher has called on fellow Republicans to reconsider their stance towards cannabis, citing core conservative principles such as limited government, individual liberty, respect for the Tenth Amendment, and respect for the doctor–patient relationship that Rohrabacher says lend support to loosening current laws. He also notes conservative leaders such as Milton Friedman, William F. Buckley, and Grover Norquist that have espoused similar drug policy views. In April 2016, Rohrabacher announced his endorsement of California's Proposition 64, the Adult Use of Marijuana Act. Rohrabacher is a strong proponent of states' rights when it comes to cannabis policy. He has introduced the Rohrabacher–Farr amendment for a number of years beginning in 2003, to prohibit the Justice Department from spending funds to interfere with the implementation of state medical cannabis laws. The amendment passed the House for the first time in May 2014, becoming law in December 2014 as part of an omnibus spending bill. Additional legislation that Rohrabacher has introduced includes the Respect State Marijuana Laws Act and the Veterans Equal Access Act. Rohrabacher has called on the DEA / DOJ to remove cannabis from the list of Schedule I drugs. In February 2017, Rohrabacher co-founded the Congressional Cannabis Caucus – along with Reps. Don Young (R–AK), Jared Polis (D–CO), and Earl Blumenauer (D–OR) – to help advance policy change regarding cannabis at the federal level. Rohrabacher earned an "A+" rating from NORML for his voting record regarding cannabis-related matters. ===Patent reform=== Rohrabacher was an opponent of the America Invents Act, a bill that is attempting to change the current Patent System. Rohrabacher opposes changing from a "first to invent system" to a "first to file system" saying it "hurts the little guy". Rohrabacher commented: "Make no mistake, 'first to file' weakens patent protection. It is likely to make vulnerable individual and small inventors, who don't have an army of lawyers on retainer. These 'little guys' have been the lifeblood of American progress and competitiveness for more than 200 years. Our system was designed to protect individual rights, and it has worked for all – not just the corporate elite." Rohrabacher went on to comment in a Politico op-ed: "We're told this is necessary to harmonize with Japanese and European patent law. But those systems were established by elitists and economic shoguns interested in corporate power, not individual rights." ===Space=== Rohrabacher was chairman of the Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics from 1997 to January 2005 and has been active on space-related issues. In 2000, Space.com described Rohrabacher as "a strident advocate for supremacy in space, a philosophy shaped along a winding road from libertarian activist to White House speech writer in the Reagan administration". In 2007, Rohrabacher introduced a bill that would direct NASA to develop a strategy "for deflecting and mitigating potentially hazardous near-Earth objects". Rohrabacher has applauded the Apollo astronauts, calling them unofficial ambassadors. Rohrabacher stated "I applaud their efforts and accomplishments over the past fifty years. And I encourage all Americans to join with me in thanking them for their accomplishments and for the international role they have played in serving as unofficial Ambassadors to the world on our behalf." On July 18, 2017, Rohrabacher asked a panel of space experts testifying before the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology if civilizations could have existed on Mars in the past. Kenneth Farley, a project scientist on NASA's Mars Rover 2020 Project, said: "I would say that is extremely unlikely." ===Tax reform=== Rohrabacher voted against the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. Despite efforts made by Republicans to change the bill to be more generous regarding cap deductions on new home mortgages, Rohrabacher remained staunch at voting nay on the bill, as the more than half of the new mortgages in his district are above the $750,000 cap. He stated on his Facebook page that "Due to the pressure of several members like me, the bill was improved, but not enough for my constituents." ===2020 presidential election=== After leaving office, Rohrabacher participated in "Stop the Steal" rallies in support of Donald Trump. On January 6, 2021, Rohrabacher was filmed breaching a United States Capitol Police barricade during the January 6 United States Capitol attack, although he was not charged with an offense. ==Post-congressional endeavors== In May 2019, Rohrabacher announced his appointment to the advisory board of BudTrader.com, a company that provides cannabis-related advertising services. ==Personal life== Rohrabacher has been married to his wife, Rhonda Carmony, since 1997. In 2004, they became parents of triplets. Rohrabacher is Protestant. He was described by the Los Angeles Times as "an avid surfer". Rohrabacher revealed in May 2016 that he uses a cannabis-infused topical rub to treat his arthritis pain, allowing him to sleep through the night. The product is legal under California state law, but remains a banned substance under federal law. In December 2018, a month after losing his bid for re-election, Rohrabacher announced that he intended to move to Maine and to write film scripts. ==Electoral history==	[ "Albanian American Civic League", "California State University, Long Beach", "Muhammad Zahir Shah", "NATO bombing of Yugoslavia", "Impeachment inquiry in the United States", "Write-in candidate", "Earth's atmosphere", "Supreme Court of the United States", "Abstention", "Julian Assange", "Mitt Romney", "Ecuadorian Embassy in London", "National Iranian American Council", "2016 Taiwan general election", "Hamid Karzai", "Nonpartisanism", "Debbie Cook", "New York Daily News", "carbon dioxide", "omnibus spending bill", "Howard Berman", "United States Congress", "Foreign Agents Registration Act", "United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy and Environment", "Federal Bureau of Investigation", "Orlando nightclub shooting", "Yahoo News", "Baloch people", "Angela Merkel", "Al-Shabaab (militant group)", "Roll Call", "Orange County Register", "Adult Use of Marijuana Act", "Russia–Georgia war", "Timeline of Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections", "Harley Rouda", "Ed Royce (politician)", "assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman", "Afghan mujahideen", "Kosovo Albanians", "North Korea", "United States Secretary of State", "University of California, San Diego", "United States House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations", "FBI", "California's 48th congressional district", "Speaker of the United States House of Representatives", "Palos Verdes Estates, California", "home mortgage", "Hu Jintao", "Civil forfeiture in the United States", "Newseum", "Russophilia", "The Daily Beast", "Senate Judiciary Committee", "Participatory Politics Foundation", "The Advocate (LGBT magazine)", "Eritrean Navy", "Fox Business", "Superpac", "United States order of precedence", "Fox News", "The New York Observer", "militarization of police", "United States Department of Defense", "same-sex marriage", "United States House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on the Middle East and South Asia", "The Washington Post", "Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty", "Federal impeachment in the United States", "Intelligence agencies of Russia", "Iran", "Trump Tower meeting", "Space.com", "Rinat Akhmetshin", "Unite the Right Rally", "Most Favored Nation", "The New York Times", "2016 United States presidential election", "National Endowment of the Arts", "Charles C. Johnson", "Logan Act", "People's Mujahedin of Iran", "Recep Tayyip Erdoğan", "Bob Barr", "United States Capitol Police", "Stephanie Grisham", "PolitiFact.com", "Tony Perkins (politician)", "The Washington Examiner", "American Studies", "Kosovo", "Mary Bono", "Chicago Tribune", "Red Sea", "U.S. News & World Report", "states' rights", "Center for Responsive Politics", "Los Angeles Times", "Vizion Plus", "Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act", "U.S. House Committee on Science", "United States House Science Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics", "Sarajevo", "National Review", "1997 impeachment resolution by Bob Barr", "United States Declaration of Independence", "United States House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Europe, Eurasia and Emerging Threats", "Saint Petersburg", "People for the American Way", "2008 California Proposition 8", "CNN", "Impeachment inquiry against Bill Clinton", "Politico Magazine", "California's 46th congressional district", "National Security Agency", "Congressional Taiwan Caucus", "John McCain", "Palos Verdes High School", "Legalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States", "People's Republic of China", "Alex Jones", "America Invents Act", "Air Force One", "On the Issues", "American Health Care Act of 2017", "National Association of Realtors", "Albania", "Albanians", "House Baltic Caucus", "President of Turkey", "Milton Friedman", "global warming", "Mother Jones (magazine)", "article of impeachment", "Jeff Sessions", "Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017", "Facebook", "Politico", "Spratly Islands", "Jared Polis", "War on Terror", "WP:BLPCAT", "Foreign Assistance Act", "Drug Enforcement Administration", "2017 Tehran attacks", "Tsai Ing-wen", "Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Ahmed Wali Karzai", "Portfolio (publisher)", "Who Is America?", "Murder of Seth Rich", "Ronald Reagan", "Unite the Right rally", "NBC", "Newsweek", "The Atlantic", "Daily Kos", "Dan Lungren", "Loretta Sanchez", "113th Congress", "Oliver North", "Reagan Doctrine", "GovTrack", "Stop the Steal", "Rolling Stone", "Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)", "Earl Blumenauer", "William F. Buckley", "Ballotpedia", "Republican Party (United States)", "Mel Hancock", "Latin-American", "Internet Movie Database", "Aleksandr Torshin", "Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation", "Erik Prince", "George Brown Jr.", "Donald Trump", "Dawn (newspaper)", "University of Southern California", "American Revolution", "ThinkProgress", "Tear down this wall", "alt-right", "Amnesty International", "Tina Kaidanow", "Taliban", "Yuri Chaika", "Voice of America", "Decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States", "Grover Norquist", "Maclean's", "WikiLeaks", "hedge fund", "Hollingsworth v. Perry", "Soviet–Afghan War", "Kabul Bank", "Joseph J. DioGuardi", "Authorization for the Use of Military Force Against Iraq", "Extraordinary rendition by the United States", "Yugoslav Wars", "The Wall Street Journal", "Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals", "Ethiopia", "Factions in the Republican Party (United States)", "doctor–patient relationship", "Natalia Veselnitskaya", "Federal Marriage Amendment", "Protestantism in the United States", "United States Department of Justice", "KPCC (radio station)", "Scott Baugh", "Los Angeles Harbor College", "WP:EGRS", "Controlled Substances Act", "Somalia", "Russia–United States relations", "WorldCat", "scientific consensus", "Rand Paul", "show trial", "WP:RS", "Duncan L. Hunter", "California Proposition 187 (1994)", "Pakistan", "United States House of Representatives", "United States Department of State", "Congressional Gold Medal", "same-sex marriage in California", "Kremlin", "Bulgaria", "January 6 United States Capitol attack", "KGB", "Cannabis (drug)", "Government of Russia", "Robert Gelbard", "The Independent", "Jalalabad", "Orange Coast College", "Rohrabacher–Farr amendment", "Lucille Roybal-Allard", "2017 clashes at the Turkish Ambassador's Residence in Washington, D.C.", "United States Congressional International Conservation Caucus", "Edward Fitzgerald (barrister)", "John B. T. Campbell III", "Jim McGovern (American politician)", "InfoWars", "The Ed Show", "United States State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations", "Hans Keirstead", "Rex Tillerson", "Apollo", "Mueller special counsel investigation", "Baltimore Chronicle", "White House", "NumbersUSA", "Bachelor of Arts", "white supremacist", "Bosnian Genocide", "Freedom Caucus", "North Macedonia", "Robert Mueller", "Marriage privatization", "Eritrea", "Alfred E. Mann", "US Congress", "2018 United States House of Representatives elections in California", "incumbent", "Camp Ashraf", "Medical cannabis in the United States", "Coronado, California", "Don Young", "Climate change denial", "California", "U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops", "HIV/AIDS", "arthritis", "documentary film", "Congressional Cannabis Caucus", "conspiracy theory", "The Huffington Post", "Twitter", "U.S. House Committee on International Relations", "Kommersant", "Kosovo Liberation Army", "Clinton–Lewinsky scandal", "Sacha Baron Cohen", "Kevin McCarthy", "Mahmoud Karzai", "Magnitsky Act", "University of Leeds", "Paul Ryan", "corruption in Afghanistan", "Maine", "Conservatism", "Joseph Medawar", "United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs", "ExxonMobil", "Libertarianism in the United States", "Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization", "List of federal political scandals in the United States", "United States Capitol", "Master of Arts", "Senate Intelligence Committee", "Bill Clinton", "NORML", "United States House Committee on Science, Space and Technology", "Democratic National Committee cyber attacks", "David Wojnarowicz", "topical", "List of conspiracy theories", "Reuters", "The Nation", "Bill Browder", "President of Taiwan", "C-SPAN", "2016 Democratic National Committee email leak", "Vladimir Putin" ]
8,957	DARPA	The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is a research and development agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military. Originally known as the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), the agency was created on February 7, 1958, by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957. By collaborating with academia, industry, and government partners, DARPA formulates and executes research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, often beyond immediate U.S. military requirements. The name of the organization first changed from its founding name, ARPA, to DARPA, in March 1972, changing back to ARPA in February 1993, then reverted to DARPA in March 1996. The Economist has called DARPA "the agency that shaped the modern world", with technologies like "Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine ... weather satellites, GPS, drones, stealth technology, voice interfaces, the personal computer and the internet on the list of innovations for which DARPA can claim at least partial credit". Its track record of success has inspired governments around the world to launch similar research and development agencies. Rob McHenry is the current acting director. ==History== ===Early history (1958–1969)=== The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was suggested by the President's Scientific Advisory Committee to President Dwight D. Eisenhower in a meeting called after the launch of Sputnik. ARPA was formally authorized by President Eisenhower in 1958 for the purpose of forming and executing research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, and able to reach far beyond immediate military requirements. (Public Law 85-325) and Department of Defense Directive 5105.15, in February 1958. It was placed within the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) and counted approximately 150 people. Its creation was directly attributed to the launching of Sputnik and to U.S. realization that the Soviet Union had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology. Initial funding of ARPA was $520 million. ARPA's first director, Roy Johnson, left a $160,000 management job at General Electric for an $18,000 job at ARPA. Herbert York from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was hired as his scientific assistant. Johnson and York were both keen on space projects, but when NASA was established later in 1958 all space projects and most of ARPA's funding were transferred to it. Johnson resigned and ARPA was repurposed to do "high-risk", "high-gain", "far out" basic research, a posture that was enthusiastically embraced by the nation's scientists and research universities. ARPA's second director was Brigadier General Austin W. Betts, who resigned in early 1961 and was succeeded by Jack Ruina who served until 1963. Ruina, the first scientist to administer ARPA, managed to raise its budget to $250 million. It was Ruina who hired J. C. R. Licklider as the first administrator of the Information Processing Techniques Office, which played a vital role in creation of ARPANET, the basis for the future Internet. Additionally, the political and defense communities recognized the need for a high-level Department of Defense organization to formulate and execute R&D projects that would expand the frontiers of technology beyond the immediate and specific requirements of the Military Services and their laboratories. In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a wide range of scientific disciplines that address the full spectrum of national security needs. From 1958 to 1965, ARPA's emphasis centered on major national issues, including space, ballistic missile defense, and nuclear test detection. During 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the military space programs to the individual services. This allowed ARPA to concentrate its efforts on the Project Defender (defense against ballistic missiles), Project Vela (nuclear test detection), and Project AGILE (counterinsurgency R&D) programs, and to begin work on computer processing, behavioral sciences, and materials sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radar, infrared sensing, and x-ray/gamma ray detection. ARPA at this point (1959) played an early role in Transit (also called NavSat) a predecessor to the Global Positioning System (GPS). "Fast-forward to 1959 when a joint effort between DARPA and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory began to fine-tune the early explorers' discoveries. TRANSIT, sponsored by the Navy and developed under the leadership of Richard Kirschner at Johns Hopkins, was the first satellite positioning system." During the late 1960s, with the transfer of these mature programs to the Services, ARPA redefined its role and concentrated on a diverse set of relatively small, essentially exploratory research programs. The agency was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1972, and during the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, and tactical technologies. Concerning information processing, DARPA made great progress, initially through its support of the development of time-sharing. All modern operating systems rely on concepts invented for the Multics system, developed by a cooperation among Bell Labs, General Electric and MIT, which DARPA supported by funding Project MAC at MIT with an initial two-million-dollar grant. DARPA supported the evolution of the ARPANET (the first wide-area packet switching network), Packet Radio Network, Packet Satellite Network and ultimately, the Internet and research in the artificial intelligence fields of speech recognition and signal processing, including parts of Shakey the robot. DARPA also supported the early development of both hypertext and hypermedia. DARPA funded one of the first two hypertext systems, Douglas Engelbart's NLS computer system, as well as The Mother of All Demos. DARPA later funded the development of the Aspen Movie Map, which is generally seen as the first hypermedia system and an important precursor of virtual reality. ===Later history (1970–1980)=== The Mansfield Amendment of 1973 expressly limited appropriations for defense research (through ARPA/DARPA) only to projects with direct military application. The resulting "brain drain" is credited with boosting the development of the fledgling personal computer industry. Some young computer scientists left the universities to startups and private research laboratories such as Xerox PARC. Between 1976 and 1981, DARPA's major projects were dominated by air, land, sea, and space technology, tactical armor and anti-armor programs, infrared sensing for space-based surveillance, high-energy laser technology for space-based missile defense, antisubmarine warfare, advanced cruise missiles, advanced aircraft, and defense applications of advanced computing. Many of the successful programs were transitioned to the Services, such as the foundation technologies in automatic target recognition, space-based sensing, propulsion, and materials that were transferred to the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO), later known as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO), now titled the Missile Defense Agency (MDA). ===Recent history (1981–present)=== During the 1980s, the attention of the Agency was centered on information processing and aircraft-related programs, including the National Aerospace Plane (NASP) or Hypersonic Research Program. The Strategic Computing Program enabled DARPA to exploit advanced processing and networking technologies and to rebuild and strengthen relationships with universities after the Vietnam War. In addition, DARPA began to pursue new concepts for small, lightweight satellites (LIGHTSAT) and directed new programs regarding defense manufacturing, submarine technology, and armor/anti-armor. In 1981, two engineers, Robert McGhee and Kenneth Waldron, started to develop the Adaptive Suspension Vehicle (ASV) nicknamed the "Walker" at the Ohio State University, under a research contract from DARPA. The vehicle was 17 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 10.5 feet high, and had six legs to support its three-ton aluminum body, in which it was designed to carry cargo over difficult terrains. However, DARPA lost interest in the ASV, after problems with cold-weather tests. On February 4, 2004, the agency shut down its so called "LifeLog Project". The project's aim would have been, "to gather in a single place just about everything an individual says, sees or does". On October 28, 2009, the agency broke ground on a new facility in Arlington County, Virginia a few miles from The Pentagon. In fall 2011, DARPA hosted the 100-Year Starship Symposium with the aim of getting the public to start thinking seriously about interstellar travel. On June 5, 2016, NASA and DARPA announced that it planned to build new X-planes with NASA's plan setting to create a whole series of X planes over the next 10 years. Between 2014 and 2016, DARPA shepherded the first machine-to-machine computer security competition, the Cyber Grand Challenge (CGC), bringing a group of top-notch computer security experts to search for security vulnerabilities, exploit them, and create fixes that patch those vulnerabilities in a fully automated fashion. It is one of DARPA prize competitions to spur innovations. In June 2018, DARPA leaders demonstrated a number of new technologies that were developed within the framework of the GXV-T program. The goal of this program is to create a lightly armored combat vehicle of not very large dimensions, which, due to maneuverability and other tricks, can successfully resist modern anti-tank weapon systems. In September 2020, DARPA and the US Air Force announced that the Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC) are ready for free-flight tests within the next year. Victoria Coleman became the director of DARPA in November 2020. In recent years, DARPA officials have contracted out core functions to corporations. For example, during fiscal year 2020, Chenega ran physical security on DARPA's premises, System High Corp. carried out program security, and Agile Defense ran unclassified IT services. General Dynamics runs classified IT services. Strategic Analysis Inc. provided support services regarding engineering, science, mathematics, and front office and administrative work. File:01 The Formative Years 1958 - 1975 (DARPA history).ogv\|The formative years(1958–1975) File:02 - The Cold War Era 1975 - 1989 (DARPA history).ogv\|The Cold War era(1975–1989) File:03 - The Post-Soviet Years 1989 - Present 2008 (DARPA history).ogv\|The Post-Soviet years(1989–present) ==Organization== ===Current program offices=== DARPA has six technical offices that manage the agency's research portfolio, and two additional offices that manage special projects. All offices report to the DARPA director, including: The Defense Sciences Office (DSO): DSO identifies and pursues high-risk, high-payoff research initiatives across a broad spectrum of science and engineering disciplines and transforms them into important, new game-changing technologies for U.S. national security. Current DSO themes include novel materials and structures, sensing and measurement, computation and processing, enabling operations, collective intelligence, and global change. The Information Innovation Office (I2O) aims to ensure U.S. technological superiority in all areas where information can provide a decisive military advantage. The Microsystems Technology Office (MTO) core mission is the development of high-performance, intelligent microsystems and next-generation components to ensure U.S. dominance in Command, Control, Communications, Computer, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (C4ISR), Electronic Warfare (EW), and Directed Energy (DE). The effectiveness, survivability, and lethality of systems that relate to these applications depend critically on microsystems and components. The Strategic Technology Office (STO) mission is to focus on technologies that have a global theater-wide impact and that involve multiple Services. The Tactical Technology Office (TTO) engages in high-risk, high-payoff advanced military research, emphasizing the "system" and "subsystem" approach to the development of aeronautic, space, and land systems as well as embedded processors and control systems The Biological Technologies Office (BTO) fosters, demonstrates, and transitions breakthrough fundamental research, discoveries, and applications that integrate biology, engineering, and computer science for national security. Created in April 2014 by then Director Arati Prabhakar, taking programs from the MTO and DSO offices. ===Former offices=== The Adaptive Execution Office (AEO) was created in 2009 by the DARPA Director, Regina Dugan. The office's four project areas included technology transition, assessment, rapid productivity and adaptive systems. AEO provided the agency with robust connections to the warfighter community and assisted the agency with the planning and execution of technology demonstrations and field trials to promote adoption by the warfighter, accelerating the transition of new technologies into DoD capabilities. Information Awareness Office: 2002–2003 The Advanced Technology Office (ATO) researched, demonstrated, and developed high payoff projects in maritime, communications, special operations, command and control, and information assurance and survivability mission areas. The Special Projects Office (SPO) researched, developed, demonstrated, and transitioned technologies focused on addressing present and emerging national challenges. SPO investments ranged from the development of enabling technologies to the demonstration of large prototype systems. SPO developed technologies to counter the emerging threat of underground facilities used for purposes ranging from command-and-control, to weapons storage and staging, to the manufacture of weapons of mass destruction. SPO developed significantly more cost-effective ways to counter proliferated, inexpensive cruise missiles, UAVs, and other platforms used for weapon delivery, jamming, and surveillance. SPO invested in novel space technologies across the spectrum of space control applications including rapid access, space situational awareness, counterspace, and persistent tactical grade sensing approaches including extremely large space apertures and structures. The Office of Special Development (OSD) in the 1960s developed a real-time remote sensing, monitoring, and predictive activity system on trails used by insurgents in Laos, Cambodia, and the Republic of Vietnam. This was done from an office in Bangkok, Thailand, that was ostensibly established to catalog and support the Thai fishing fleet, of which two volumes were published. This is a personal recollection without a published citation. A report on the ARPA group under which OSD operated is found here. A 1991 reorganization created several offices which existed throughout the early 1990s: The Electronic Systems Technology Office combined areas of the Defense Sciences Office and the Defense Manufacturing Office. This new office will focus on the boundary between general-purpose computers and the physical world, such as sensors, displays and the first few layers of specialized signal-processing that couple these modules to standard computer interfaces. The Software and Intelligent Systems Technology Office and the Computing Systems office will have responsibility associated with the Presidential High-Performance Computing Initiative. The Software office will also be responsible for "software systems technology, machine intelligence and software engineering." The Land Systems Office was created to develop advanced land vehicle and anti-armor systems, once the domain of the Tactical Technology Office. The Undersea Warfare Office combined areas of the Advanced Vehicle Systems and Tactical Technology offices to develop and demonstrate submarine stealth and counter-stealth and automation. A 2010 reorganization merged two offices: The Transformational Convergence Technology Office (TCTO) and the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) were combined in 2010 to form the Information Innovation Office (I2O). TCTO's mission was to develop new crosscutting capabilities from a broad range of emerging technological and social trends, particularly in areas related to computing and computing-reliant subareas of the life sciences, social sciences, manufacturing, and commerce. IPTO focused on inventing the sensing, networking, computing, and software technologies vital to ensuring DOD military superiority. ===Directors=== Directors of DARPA have included: ==Projects== A list of DARPA's active and archived projects is available on the agency's website. Because of the agency's fast pace, programs constantly start and stop based on the needs of the U.S. government. Structured information about some of the DARPA's contracts and projects is publicly available. ===Active projects=== AdvaNced airCraft Infrastructure-Less Launch And RecoverY X-Plane (ANCILLARY) (2022): The program is to develop and demonstrate a vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) plane that can launch without the supporting infrastructure, with low-weight, high-payload, and long-endurance capabilities. In June 2023, DARPA selected nine companies to produce initial operational system and demonstration system conceptual designs for an uncrewed aerial system (UAS). AI Cyber Challenge (AIxCC) (2023): It is a two-year competition to identify and fix software vulnerabilities using AI in partnership with Anthropic, Google, Microsoft, and OpenAI which will provide their expertise and their platforms for this competition. There will be a semifinal phase and the final phase. Both competitions will be held at DEF CON in Las Vegas in 2024 and 2025, respectively. Air Combat Evolution (ACE) (2019): The goal of ACE is to automate air-to-air combat, enabling reaction times at machine speeds. By using human-machine collaborative dogfighting as its challenge problem, ACE seeks to increase trust in combat autonomy. Eight teams from academia and industry were selected in October 2019. Air Space Total Awareness for Rapid Tactical Execution (ASTARTE) (2020): The program is conducted in partnership with the Army and Air Force on sensors, artificial intelligence algorithms, and virtual testing environments in order to create an understandable common operating picture when troops are spread out across battlefields Atmospheric Water Extraction (AWE) program Biomanufacturing: Survival, Utility, and Reliability beyond Earth (B-SURE) (2021): This program aims to address foundational scientific questions to determine how well industrial bio-manufacturing microorganisms perform in space conditions. International Space Station (ISS) announced in April 2023 that Rhodium-DARPA Biomanufacturing 01 investigation was launched on SpaceX, and ISS crew members are carrying out this project which examines gravity's effect on production of drugs and nutrients from bacteria and yeast. Big Mechanism: Cancer research. (2015) The program aims to develop technology to read research abstracts and papers to extract pieces of causal mechanisms, assemble these pieces into more complete causal models, and reason over these models to produce explanations. The domain of the program is cancer biology with an emphasis on signaling pathways. It has a successor program called World Modelers. Binary structure inference system: extract software properties from binary code to support repository-based reverse engineering for micro-patching that minimizes lifecycle maintenance and costs (2020). Blackjack (2017): a program to develop and test military satellite constellation technologies with a variety of "military-unique sensors and payloads [attached to] commercial satellite buses. ...as an 'architecture demonstration intending to show the high military utility of global LEO constellations and mesh networks of lower size, weight, and cost spacecraft nodes.' ... The idea is to demonstrate that 'good enough' payloads in LEO can perform military missions, augment existing programs, and potentially perform 'on par or better than currently deployed exquisite space systems." Blue Canyon Technologies, Raytheon, and SA Photonics Inc. were working on phases 2 and 3 as of fiscal year 2020. On June 12, 2023, DARPA launched four satellites for a technology demonstration in low Earth orbit on the SpaceX Transporter-8 rideshare. broadband, electro-magnetic spectrum receiver system: prototype and demonstration BlockADE: Rapidly constructed barrier. (2014) Captive Air Amphibious Transporter (CAAT) Causal Exploration of Complex Operational Environments ("Causal Exploration") – computerized aid to military planning. (2018) Clean-Slate Design of Resilient, Adaptive, Secure Hosts (CRASH), a DARPA Transformation Convergence Technology Office (TCTO) initiative Collaborative Operations in Denied Environment (CODE): Modular software architecture for UAVs to pass information to each other in contested environments to identify and engage targets with limited operator direction. (2015) Control of Revolutionary Aircraft with Novel Effectors (CRANE) (2019): The program seeks to demonstrate an experimental aircraft design based on active flow control (AFC), which is defined as on-demand addition of energy into a boundary layer in order to maintain, recover, or improve aerodynamic performance. The aim is for CRANE to generally improve aircraft performance and reliability while reducing cost. In May 2023, DARPA designated the experimental uncrewed aircraft the X-65 which will use banks of compressed air nozzles to execute maneuvers without traditional, exterior-moving flight controls. Computational Weapon Optic (CWO) (2015): Computer rifle scope that combines various features into one optic. DARPA Triage Challenge (DTC) (2023): The DTC will use a series of challenge events to spur development of novel physiological features for medical triage. The three-year competition focuses on improving emergency medical response in military and civilian mass casualty incidents. DARPA XG (2005) : technology for Dynamic Spectrum Access for assured military communications. Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations (DRACO) (2021): The program is to demonstrate a nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) in orbit by 2027 in collaboration with NASA (nuclear thermal engine) and U.S. Space Force (launch). Detection system consisting of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-based assays paired with reconfigurable point-of-need and massively multi-plexed devices for diagnostics and surveillance Electronics Resurgence Initiative (ERI) (2019): Started in 2019, the initiative aims at both national security capabilities and commercial economic competitiveness and sustainability. These programs emphasize forward-looking partnerships with U.S. industry, the defense industrial base, and university researchers. In 2023, DARPA expanded ERI's focus with the announcement of ERI 2.0 seeking to reinvent domestic microelectronics manufacturing. Experimental Spaceplane 1 (formerly XS-1): In 2017, Boeing was selected for Phases 2 and 3 for the fabrication and flight of a reusable unmanned space transport after it completed the initial design in Phase 1 as one of the three teams. In January 2020, Boeing ended its role in the program. Fast Lightweight Autonomy: Software algorithms that enable small UAVs to fly fast in cluttered environments without GPS or external communications. (2014) Fast Network Interface Cards (FastNICs): develop and integrate new, clean-slate network subsystems in order to speed up applications, such as the distributed training of machine learning classifiers by 100x. Perspecta Labs and Raytheon BBN were working on FastNICs as of fiscal year 2020. Force Application and Launch from Continental United States (FALCON): a research effort to develop a small satellite launch vehicle. (2008) This vehicle is under development by AirLaunch LLC. Gamma Ray Inspection Technology (GRIT) program: research and develop high-intensity, tunable, and narrow-bandwidth gamma ray production in compact, transportable form. This technology can be utilized for discovering smuggled nuclear material in cargo via new inspection techniques, and enabling new medical diagnostics and therapies. RadiaBeam Technologies LLC was working on a phase 1 of the program, Laser-Compton approach, in fiscal year 2020. Glide Breaker program: technology for an advanced interceptor capable of engaging maneuvering hypersonic vehicles or missiles in the upper atmosphere. Northrop Grumman and Aerojet Rocketdyne were working on this program as of fiscal year 2020. Gremlins (2015): Air-launched and recoverable UAVs with distributed capabilities to provide low-cost flexibility over expensive multirole platforms. In October 2021, two X-61 Gremlin air vehicles were tested at the Army's Dugway Proving Ground, Utah. Ground X-Vehicle Technology (GXV-T) (2015): This program aims to improve mobility, survivability, safety, and effectiveness of future combat vehicles without piling on armor. High Productivity Computing Systems High Operational Temperature Sensors (HOTS)(2023): The program is to develop sensor microelectronics consisting of transducers, signal conditioning microelectronics, and integration that operate with high bandwidth (>1 MHz) and dynamic range (>90 dB) at extreme temperatures (i.e., at least 800 °C). HIVE (Hierarchical Identify Verify Exploit) CPU architecture. (2017) Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC). This program is a joint DARPA/U.S. Air Force effort that seeks to develop and demonstrate critical technologies to enable an effective and affordable air-launched hypersonic cruise missile. Hypersonic Boost Glide Systems Research Insect Allies (2017–2021) Integrated Sensor is Structure (ISIS): This was a joint DARPA and U.S. Air Force program to develop a sensor of unprecedented proportions to be fully integrated into a stratospheric airship. Intelligent Integration of Information (I3) in SISTO, 1994–2000 – supported database research and with ARPA CISTO and NASA funded the NSF Digital Library program, that led. a.o. to Google. Joint All-Domain Warfighting Software (JAWS): software suite featuring automation and predictive analytics for battle management and command & control with tactical coordination for capture ("target custody") and kill missions. Systems & Technology Research of Woburn, Massachusetts, is working on this project, with an expected completion date of March 2022. Raytheon is also working on this project, with an expected completion date of April 2022. Lasers for Universal Microscale Optical Systems (LUMOS): integrate heterogeneous materials to bring high performance lasers and amplifiers to manufacturable photonics platforms. As of fiscal year 2020, the Research Foundation for the State University of New York (SUNY) was working to enable "on-chip optical gain" to integrated photonics platforms, and enable complete photonics functionality "on a single substrate for disruptive optical microsystems." LongShot (2021): The program is to demonstrate an unmanned air-launched vehicle (UAV) capable of employing air-to-air weapons. Phase 1 design work started in early 2021. In June 2023, DARPA awarded a Phase 3 contract to General Atomics for the manufacturing and a flight demonstration in 2025 of an air-launched, flying and potentially recoverable missile carrier. Manta Ray: A 2020 DARPA program to develop a series of autonomous, large-size, unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs) capable of long-duration missions and having large payload capacities. In December 2021, DARPA awarded Phase 2 contracts to Northrop Grumman Systems Corporation and Martin Defense Group to work on subsystem testing followed by fabrication and in-water demonstrations of full-scale integrated vehicles. By May 2024, Manta Ray was not only the descriptor for the DARPA R&D program, but was also the name of a specific prototype UUV built by Northrop Grumman, with initial tests conducted in the Pacific Ocean during 1Q2024. Manta Ray has been designed to be broken down and fit into 5 standard shipping containers, shipped to where it will be deployed, and be reassembled in the theatre of operations where it will be used. DARPA is working with the US Navy to further test and then transition the technology. Media Forensics (MediFor): A project aimed at automatically spotting digital manipulation in images and videos, including Deepfakes. (2018). MediFor largely ended in 2020 and DARPA launched a follow-on program in 2021 called the semantic forensics, or SemaFor. MEMS Exchange: Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) Implementation Environment (MX) Millimeter-wave GaN Maturation (MGM) program: develop new GaN transistor technology to attain high-speed and large voltage swing at the same time. HRL Laboratories LLC, a joint venture between Boeing and General Motors, is working on phase 2 as of fiscal year 2020. Modular Optical Aperture Building Blocks (MOABB) program (2015): design free-space optical components (e.g., telescope, bulk lasers with mechanical beam-steering, detectors, electronics) in a single device. Create a wafer-scale system that is one hundred times smaller and lighter than existing systems and can steer the optical beam far faster than mechanical components. Research and design electronic-photonic unit cells that can be tiled together to form large-scale planar apertures (up to 10 centimeters in diameter) that can run at 100 watts of optical power. The overall goals of such technology are (1) rapid 3D scanning using devices smaller than a cell-phone camera; (2) high-speed laser communications without mechanical steering; (3) and foliage-penetrating perimeter sensing, remote wind sensing, and long-range 3-D mapping. As of fiscal year 2020, Analog Photonics LLC of Boston, Massachusetts, was working on phase 3 of the program and is expected to finish by May 2022. Multi- Azimuth Defense Fast Intercept Round Engagement System (MAD-FIRES) program: develop technologies that combine advantages of a missile (guidance, precision, accuracy) with advantages of a bullet (speed, rapid-fire, large ammunition capacity) to be used on a medium-caliber guided projectile in defending ships. Raytheon is currently working on MAD-FIRES phase 3 (enhance seeker performance, and develop a functional demonstration illuminator and engagement manager to engage and defeat a representative surrogate target) and is expected to be finished by November 2022. Near Zero Power RF and Sensor Operations (N-ZERO): Reducing or eliminating the standby power unattended ground sensors consume. (2015) Neural implants for soldiers. (2014) No Manning Required Ship (NOMARS): USX-1 Defiant, a medium uncrewed surface vessel (USV) was first seen in public in March 2025 Novel, nonsurgical, bi-directional brain-computer interface with high spacio-temporal resolution and low latency for potential human use. Open, Programmable, Secure 5G (OPS-5G) (2020): The program is to address security risks of 5G networks by pursuing research leading to the development of a portable standards-compliant network stack for 5G mobile that is open source and secure by design. OPS-5G seeks to create open source software and systems that enable secure 5G and subsequent mobile networks such as 6G. Operational Fires (OpFires): developing a new mobile ground-launched booster that helps hypersonic boost glide weapons penetrate enemy air defenses. As of 17 July 2020, Lockheed Martin was working on phase 3 of the program (develop propulsion components for the missile's Stage 2 section) to be completed by January 2022. The system was successfully tested in July 2022. Persistent Close Air Support (PCAS): DARPA created the program in 2010 to seek to fundamentally increase Close Air Support effectiveness by enabling dismounted ground agents—Joint Terminal Attack Controllers—and combat aircrews to share real-time situational awareness and weapons systems data. PREventing EMerging Pathogenic Threats (PREEMPT) QuASAR: Quantum Assisted Sensing and Readout QuBE: Quantum Effects in Biological Environments QUEST: Quantum Entanglement Science and Technology Quiness: Macroscopic Quantum Communications QUIST: Quantum Information Science and Technology RADICS: Rapid Attack Detection, Isolation and Characterization Systems Rational Integrated Design of Energetics (RIDE): developing tools that speed up and facilitate energetics research. Remote-controlled insects Robotic Servicing of Geosynchronous Satellites program (RSGS): a telerobotic and autonomous robotic satellite-servicing project, conceived in 2017. In 2020, DARPA selected Northrop Grumman's SpaceLogistics as its RSGS partner. The U.S. Naval Research Laboratory designed and developed the RSGS robotic arm with DARPA funding. The RSGS system is anticipated to start servicing satellites in space in 2025. Robotic Autonomy in Complex Environments with Resiliency (RACER) (2020): This is a four-year program and aims to make sure algorithms aren't the limiting part of the system and that autonomous combat vehicles can meet or exceed soldier driving abilities. RACER conducted its third experiment to assess the performance of off-road unmanned vehicles March 12–27, 2023. SafeGenes: a synthetic biology project to program "undo" sequences into gene editing programs (2016) Sea Train (2019): The program goal is to develop and demonstrate ways to overcome range limitations in medium unmanned surface vessels by exploiting wave-making resistance reductions. Secure Advanced Framework for Simulation & Modeling (SAFE-SiM) program: build a rapid modeling and simulation environment to enable quick analysis in support of senior-level decision-making. As of fiscal year 2020, Radiance Technologies and L3Harris were working on portions of the program, with expected completion in August and September 2021, respectively. Securing Information for Encrypted Verification and Evaluation (SIEVE) program: use zero knowledge proofs to enable the verification of capabilities for the US military "without revealing the sensitive details associated with those capabilities." Galois Inc. of Portland, Oregon, and Stealth Software Technologies of Los Angeles, California, are currently working on the SIEVE program, with a projected completion date of May 2024. Semantic Forensics (SemaFor) program: develop technologies to automatically detect, attribute, and characterize falsified media (e.g., text, audio, image, video) to defend against automated disinformation. SRI International of Menlo Park, California, and Kitware Inc. of Clifton, New York, are working on the SemaFor program, with an expected completion date of July 2024. Sensor plants: DARPA "is working on a plan to use plants to gather intelligence information" through DARPA's Advanced Plant Technologies (APT) program, which aims to control the physiology of plants in order to detect chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear threats. (2017) Synthetic Hemo-technologIEs to Locate and Disinfect (SHIELD) (2023): The program aims to develop prophylaxes and prevent bloodstream infections (BSI) caused by bacterial/fungal agents, a threat to military and civilian populations. SIGMA: A network of radiological detection devices the size of smart phones that can detect small amounts of radioactive materials. The devices are paired with larger detector devices along major roads and bridges. (2016) SIGMA+ program (2018): by building on concepts theorized in the SIGMA program, develop new sensors and analytics to detect small traces of explosives and chemical and biological weaponry throughout any given large metropolitan area. In October 2021, SIGMA+ program, in collaboration with the Indianapolis Metropolitan Police Department (IMPD), concluded a three-month-long pilot study with new sensors to support early detection and interdictions of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) threats. SoSITE: System of Systems Integration Technology and Experimentation: Combinations of aircraft, weapons, sensors, and mission systems that distribute air warfare capabilities across a large number of interoperable manned and unmanned platforms. (2015) SSITH: System Security Integrated Through Hardware and Firmware - secure hardware platform (2017); basis for open-source, hack-proof voting system project and 2019 system prototype contract SXCT: Squad X Core Technologies: Digitized, integrated technologies that improve infantry squads' awareness, precision, and influence. (2015) SyNAPSE: Systems of Neuromorphic Adaptive Plastic Scalable Electronics Tactical Boost Glide (TBG): Air-launched hypersonic boost glide missile. (2016) Tactically Exploited Reconnaissance Node (Tern)(2014): The program seeks to develop ship based UAS systems and technologies to enable a future air vehicle that could provide persistent ISR and strike capabilities beyond the limited range and endurance provided by existing helicopter platforms. TransApps (Transformative Applications), rapid development and fielding of secure mobile apps in the battlefield ULTRA-Vis (Urban Leader Tactical Response, Awareness and Visualization): Heads-up display for individual soldiers. (2014) underwater network, heterogeneous: develop concepts and reconfigurable architecture, leveraging advancement in undersea communications and autonomous ocean systems, to demonstrate utility at sea. Raytheon BBN is currently working on this program, with work expected through 4 May 2021, though if the government exercises all options on the contract then work will continue through 4 February 2024. Urban Reconnaissance through Supervised Autonomy (URSA) program: develop technology for use in cities to enable autonomous systems that U.S. infantry and ground forces operate to detect and identify enemies before U.S. troops come across them. Program will factor in algorithms, multiple sensors, and scientific knowledge about human behavior to determine subtle differences between hostiles and innocent civilians. Soar Technology Inc. of Ann Arbor, Michigan, is currently working on pertinent vehicle autonomy technology, with work expected completed by March 2022. Warrior Web: Soft exosuit to alleviate musculoskeletal stress on soldiers when carrying heavy loads. (2014) Waste Upcycling for Defense (WUD) (2023): to turn scrap wood, cardboard, paper, and other cellulose-derived matter into sustainable materials such as building materials for re-use. ===Past or transitioned projects=== ACTIVE SOCIAL ENGINEERING DEFENSE - a research to automatically target social engineering attacks 4MM (4-minute mile): Wearable jetpack to enable soldiers to run at increased speed. Air Dominance Initiative: a 2015 program to develop technologies to be used in sixth-generation jet fighters. The Air Dominance Initiative study led to the U.S. Air Force's sixth-generation air superiority initiative, the Next Generation Air Dominance. Anti-submarine warfare (ASW) Continuous Trail Unmanned Vessel (ACTUV) (2010): A project to build an unmanned anti-submarine warfare vessel. AGM-158C LRASM: Anti-ship cruise missile. Adaptive Vehicle Make: Revolutionary approaches to the design, verification, and manufacturing of complex defense systems and vehicles. ARPA Midcourse Optical Station (AMOS), a research facility that now forms part of the Haleakala Observatory. ArcLight: Ship-based weapon system capable of striking targets nearly anywhere on the globe, based on the Standard Missile 3. ARPANET, earliest predecessor of the Internet. Assault Breaker: technology integration to defeat armored attacks ASTOVL, precursor of the Joint Strike Fighter program The Aspen Movie Map allowed one to virtually tour the streets of Aspen, Colorado. Developed in 1978, it is the earliest predecessor to products like Google Street View. Atlas: A humanoid robot. Battlefield Illusion BigDog/Legged Squad Support System (2012): legged robots. Boeing Pelican Boeing X-37 (2004): The X-37 program was transferred from NASA to DARPA in September 2004. The Boeing X-45 unmanned combat aerial vehicle refers to a mid-2000s concept demonstrator for autonomous military aircraft. Boomerang (mobile shooter detection system): an acoustic gunfire locator developed by BBN Technologies for detecting snipers on military combat vehicles. CALO or "Cognitive Assistant that Learns and Organizes": software Combat Zones That See (CTS): "track everything that moves" in a city by linking up a massive network of surveillance cameras Cognitive Technology Threat Warning System (CT2WS) (2011) Consortium for Execution of Rendezvous and Servicing Operations (CONFERS) (2017). CPOF: the command post of the future—networked information system for Command control. DAML ALASA: (Airborne Launch Assist Space Access): A rocket capable of launching a 100-pound satellite into low Earth orbit for less than $1 million. FALCON DARPA Grand Challenge: driverless car competitions DARPA GXV-T: Ground X Vehicle Hydra: Undersea network of mobile unmanned sensors. (2013) DARPA Network Challenge (before 2010) DARPA Shredder Challenge 2011 – Reconstruction of shredded documents DARPA Silent Talk: A planned program attempting to identify EEG patterns for words and transmit these for covert communications. DARPA Spectrum Challenge (2014) DEFENDER Defense Simulation Internet, a wide-area network supporting Distributed Interactive Simulation Discoverer II radar satellite constellation EATR EXACTO: Sniper rifle firing guided smart bullets. GALE: Global Autonomous Language Exploitation High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP): An ionospheric research program jointly funded by DARPA, the U.S. Air Force's AFRL and the U.S. Navy's NRL. The most prominent area during this research was the high-power radio frequency transmitter facility, which tested the use of the Ionospheric Research Instrument (IRI). High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System (HELLADS) The goal of the HELLADS program was to develop a 150 kilowatt (kW) laser weapon system. In 2015, DARPA's contractor, General Atomics, successfully demonstrated a prototype. In 2020, General Atomics and Boeing announced to develop a 100 kW liquid laser system, with plans to scale it up to 250 kW. High Performance Knowledge Bases HISSS Human Universal Load Carrier: battery-powered human exoskeleton. Hypersonic Research Program Luke Arm, a DEKA creation produced under the Revolutionizing Prosthetics program. MAHEM: Molten penetrating munition. MEMEX (2014–2017): an online search tool to fight human trafficking crimes on the dark web. In 2016, DARPA Memex program received the 2016 Presidential Award for Extraordinary Efforts to Combat Trafficking in Persons for the development of the anti-trafficking technology tool. The program was named and inspired by the Vannevar Bush's hypothetical device described in his 1945 article. Mind's Eye: A visual intelligence system capable of detecting and analyzing activity from video feeds. MOSIS MQ-1 Predator Multics Next Generation Tactical Wearable Night Vision: Smaller and lighter sunglass-sized night vision devices that can switch between different viewing bands. NLS/Augment: the origin of the canonical contemporary computer user interface Northrop Grumman Switchblade: an unmanned oblique-wing flying aircraft for high speed, long range and long endurance flight One Shot: Sniper scope that automatically measures crosswind and range to ensure accuracy in field conditions. Onion routing, a technique developed in the mid-1990s and later employed by Tor to anonymize communications over a computer network. Passive radar Phoenix: A 2012–early-2015 satellite project with the aim to recycle retired satellite parts into new on-orbit assets. The project was initiated in July 2012 with plans for system launches no earlier than 2016. At the time, Satlet tests in low Earth orbit were projected to occur as early as 2015. Policy Analysis Market, evaluating the trading of information futures contracts based on possible political developments in several Middle Eastern countries. An application of prediction markets. POSSE Project AGILE, a Vietnam War-era investigation into methods of remote, asymmetric warfare for use in conflicts with Communist insurgents. Project MAC Proto 2: a thought-controlled prosthetic arm Rapid Knowledge Formation Sea Shadow SIMNET: Wide area network with vehicle simulators and displays for real-time distributed combat simulation: tanks, helicopters and airplanes in a virtual battlefield. System F6—Future, Fast, Flexible, Fractionated Free-flying Spacecraft United by Information Exchange—technology demonstrator: a 2006–2012 I3 (Intelligent Integration of Information), supported the Digital Library research effort through NSF Strategic Computing Program Synthetic Aperture Ladar for Tactical Applications (SALTI) XOS: powered military exoskeleton $226 million technology development program. Cancelled in 2013 before the notionally planned 2015 launch date. Vertical Take-Off and Landing Experimental Aircraft (VTOL X-Plane) (2013) Viet Cong Motivation and Morale Project (1964–1968) Vulture: Long endurance, high-altitude unmanned aerial vehicle. VLSI Project (1978) – Its offspring include BSD Unix, the RISC processor concept, many CAD tools still in use today. Walrus HULA: high-capacity, long range cargo airship. Wireless Network after Next (WNaN), advanced tactical mobile ad hoc network WolfPack (2010) XDATA: Processing and analyzing vast amounts of information. (2012) Rockwell-MBB X-31 Grumman X-29 ==Notable fiction== DARPA is well known as a high-tech government agency, and as such has many appearances in popular fiction. Some realistic references to DARPA in fiction are as "ARPA" in Tom Swift and the Visitor from Planet X (DARPA consults on a technical threat), in episodes of television program The West Wing (the ARPA-DARPA distinction), the television program Numb3rs, and the Netflix film Spectral.	[ "Stephen J. Lukasik", "Google", "High Productivity Computing Systems", "predictive analytics", "remote sensing", "SURAN", "OpFires", "MQ-1 Predator", "Arlington County, Virginia", "Internet", "DARPA GXV-T", "autonomous robot", "Douglas Engelbart", "ArcLight (missile)", "Passive radar", "National Science Foundation", "Adaptive Execution Office", "automatic target recognition", "SIGMA+ program", "DARPA One Shot", "VTOL X-Plane", "United States Army Research Laboratory", "Boeing X-45", "Boeing X-37", "Los Alamos National Laboratory", "Yahoo Tech", "Rockwell-MBB X-31", "DARPA Captive Air Amphibious Transporter", "System of Systems Integration Technology and Experimentation", "Proto 2", "Sandia National Laboratories", "Cognitive Technology Threat Warning System", "Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health", "100 Year Starship", "Sputnik", "Walrus HULA", "DARPA Silent Talk", "Jane's Information Group", "Undersea Warfare Office", "Big mechanism", "Cyber Grand Challenge", "4MM", "The Queanbeyan Age", "Tactical Technology Office (DARPA)", "Engineer Research and Development Center", "Information Processing Techniques Office", "Digital Library", "DARPA Hydra", "Air Force Nuclear Weapons Center", "Federal government of the United States", "Tom Swift", "Victoria Coleman", "DARPA Grand Challenge", "Peter Highnam", "sixth-generation jet fighter", "Boomerang (mobile shooter detection system)", "Joint Strike Fighter program", "Air Force Research Laboratory", "The Economist", "Intelligent agent", "MEMS Exchange", "Adaptive Vehicle Make", "Transformational Convergence Technology Office", "productivity", "ARPA-I", "Force Application and Launch from Continental United States", "The Pentagon", "Robert C. Duncan (engineer)", "United States Department of Defense", "SpaceNews", "Arati Prabhakar", "time-sharing", "United States Naval Research Laboratory", "virtual reality", "Mike Mansfield", "Remote-controlled insect", "Vulnerability (computing)", "DARPA ALASA program", "Google Street View", "launch vehicle", "Robotic Servicing of Geosynchronous Satellites program", "Tactically Exploited Reconnaissance Node", "DARPA Global autonomous language exploitation program", "smart bullet", "Assault Breaker", "Robotic Autonomy in Complex Environments with Resiliency (RACER)", "mobile ad hoc network", "Global Positioning System", "Sniper rifle", "RISC", "Robert Sproull", "Upward Falling Payloads", "PARC (company)", "Fractionated Spacecraft", "Energetically Autonomous Tactical Robot", "Soviet Union", "CPU architecture", "History of the Internet", "DARPA Vulture", "stealth technology", "Combat Zones That See", "Warrior Web", "The Mother of All Demos", "CNN", "Distributed Interactive Simulation", "Fast Lightweight Autonomy", "NLS (computer system)", "US Navy", "Unmanned aerial vehicle", "Strategic Technology Office (DARPA)", "Missile Defense Agency", "ARPANET", "nuclear test", "shipping container", "MeshWorm", "computer network", "Integrated Sensor is Structure", "Computing Systems office", "Sharon Weinberger", "behavioral sciences", "Ballistic Missile Defense Organization", "IEEE Spectrum", "SIMNET", "ARPA-E", "Electronic Systems Technology Office", "General Electric", "military planning", "DEKA (company)", "Boeing Pelican", "Playboy (magazine)", "George H. Heilmeier", "radar", "The West Wing", "U.S. military", "weather satellite", "infrared", "anti-tank weapon", "NASA", "AirLaunch LLC", "Defense Simulation Internet", "Special Projects Office (DARPA)", "Defense Sciences Office", "Jack Ruina", "QuASAR", "Vietnam War", "UAVForge", "Berkeley Software Distribution", "POSSE project", "Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers", "Neural implant", "World Modelers", "Haleakala Observatory", "Onion routing", "Standard Missile 3", "satellite constellation", "Stefanie Tompkins", "Voice user interface", "The Verge", "Control of Revolutionary Aircraft with Novel Effectors (CRANE)", "prediction markets", "Exploit (computer security)", "Aviation Week & Space Technology", "MIT", "counterinsurgency", "Atlas (robot)", "hypermedia", "Genetically modified virus", "Northrop Grumman Switchblade", "Spectral", "XOS 2", "Next Generation Tactical Wearable Night Vision", "Wired (magazine)", "William Saletan", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "Shakey the robot", "Sea Shadow", "Mind's Eye (US Military)", "artificial intelligence", "Information Awareness Office", "ACTIVE SOCIAL ENGINEERING DEFENSE", "satellite bus", "x-ray", "Battlefield Illusion", "Near Zero Power RF and Sensor Operations", "High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System", "Computing Research Association", "DEF CON", "NOMARS", "Tech Xplore", "humanoid robot", "Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory", "nuclear thermal rocket", "DARPA Spectrum Challenge", "driverless car", "Victor H. Reis", "Herbert York", "Joint European Disruptive Initiative", "SyNAPSE", "Blackjack (satellite)", "sniper", "Tor (network)", "Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations (DRACO)", "United States Army Research, Development and Engineering Command", "Regina Dugan", "Regina E. Dugan", "Office of the Secretary of Defense", "adaptive system", "LIGHTSAT (DARPA)", "High Performance Knowledge Bases", "VLSI Project", "Information Innovation Office", "TransApps", "Sputnik 1", "VTOL", "Rockwell X-30", "System F6", "hypertext", "surveillance", "Viet Cong Motivation and Morale Project", "Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory", "DARPA Falcon Project", "Legged Squad Support System", "MAHEM", "Computational Weapon Optic", "Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake", "research and development", "Wireless Network after Next", "Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity", "Biomanufacturing: Survival, Utility, and Reliability beyond Earth (B-SURE)", "CleanTechnica", "personal computer", "Pacific Northwest National Laboratory", "Experimental Spaceplane 1", "ballistic missile defense", "Collaborative Operations in Denied Environment", "Northrop Grumman", "Computer-aided design", "Project MAC", "Consortium for Execution of Rendezvous and Servicing Operations", "Policy Analysis Market", "MOSIS", "DARPA Network Challenge", "BBN Technologies", "Grumman X-29", "List of X-planes", "ACTUV", "gamma ray", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "machine intelligence", "The Washington Times", "Discoverer II", "Aspen, Colorado", "Air & Space Forces Magazine", "International Space Station", "Charles M. Herzfeld", "Human Universal Load Carrier", "DARPA Triage Challenge (DTC)", "Marine Corps Combat Development Command", "Human capital flight", "Advanced Technology Office (DARPA)", "High Operational Temperature Sensors", "United States Department of the Air Force", "Project Vela", "Hypersonic Research Program", "Numb3rs", "DARPA Gremlins", "hypersonic", "Moderna COVID-19 vaccine", "Air Space Total Awareness for Rapid Tactical Execution", "CPOF", "J. C. R. Licklider", "asymmetric warfare", "DARPA Shredder Challenge 2011", "Transit (satellite)", "internet", "United States Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory", "United States Army Armament Research, Development and Engineering Center", "Strategic Defense Initiative", "Satlet", "unmanned underwater vehicle", "Ohio State University", "memex", "EXACTO", "Persistent Close Air Support", "gunfire locator", "Aspen Movie Map", "Anthony J. Tether", "Naval Research Laboratory", "DARPA Prize Competitions", "anti-submarine warfare", "QuEST", "President's Scientific Advisory Committee", "Squad X Core Technologies", "telerobotic", "DARPA Phoenix program", "HIVE (Hierarchical Identify Verify Exploit)", "Bell Labs", "Land Systems Office", "Ballston, Virginia", "BigDog", "Electronics Resurgence Initiative", "HISSS", "Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory", "ULTRA-Vis", "HSARPA", "DARPA XG", "Eberhardt Rechtin", "BlockADE", "Next Generation Air Dominance", "CALO", "AGM-158C LRASM", "Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept", "Multics", "DARPA XDATA", "GPS", "Communist", "bloodstream infections", "High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program", "Microsystems Technology Office", "Software and Intelligent Systems Technology Office", "USX-1 Defiant", "Deepfakes", "Low Earth orbit", "QUIST", "DARPA Agent Markup Language", "Project AGILE", "Biological Technologies Office (DARPA)", "Office of Naval Research", "Institute for Defense Analyses", "unmanned combat aerial vehicle" ]
8,958	Dunstan	{{Infobox Christian leader \| honorific_prefix = Saint \| name = Dunstan \| archbishop_of = Archbishop of Canterbury \| image = Dunstan3.jpg \| caption = Possible self-portrait; detail from the Glastonbury Classbook \| enthroned = 959 \| ended = 988 \| predecessor = Byrhthelm \| successor = Æthelgar \| ordination = \| consecration = \| other_post = \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Baltonsborough, Wessex \| death_date = 19 May 988 (aged about 79) \| death_place = Canterbury, England \| buried = Canterbury Cathedral \| feast_day = 19 May \| venerated = {{ubl\|Roman Catholic Church\|Eastern Orthodox Church He was later appointed to the court of King Æthelstan. Dunstan soon became a favourite of the king and was the envy of other members of the court. A plot was hatched to disgrace him and Dunstan was accused of being involved with witchcraft and black magic. The king ordered him to leave the court and as Dunstan was leaving the palace his enemies physically attacked him, beat him severely, bound him, and threw him into a cesspool. About the same time, his father Heorstan died and Dunstan inherited his fortune as well. He became a person of great influence, and on the death of King Æthelstan in 940, the new King, Edmund, summoned him to his court at Cheddar and made him a minister. Again, royal favour fostered jealousy among other courtiers and again Dunstan's enemies succeeded in their plots. The King was prepared to send Dunstan away. Against all these reforms were the nobles of Wessex, who included most of Dunstan's own relatives, and who had an interest in maintaining established customs. For nine years Dunstan's influence was dominant, during which time he twice refused the office of bishop (that of Winchester in 951 and Crediton in 953), affirming that he would not leave the king's side so long as the king lived and needed him. ===Changes in fortune=== In 955, Eadred died, and the situation was at once changed. Eadwig, the elder son of Edmund, who then came to the throne, was a headstrong youth wholly devoted to the reactionary nobles. According to one legend, the feud with Dunstan began on the day of Eadwig's coronation, when he failed to attend a meeting of nobles. When Dunstan eventually found the young monarch, he was cavorting with a noblewoman named Ælfgifu and her mother, and refused to return with the bishop. Infuriated by this, Dunstan dragged Eadwig back to the royal gathering. Later realising that he had provoked the king, Dunstan saw that his life was in danger. He fled England and crossed the channel to Flanders, where he found himself ignorant of the language and of the customs of the locals. The count of Flanders, Arnulf I, received him with honour and lodged him in the Abbey of Mont Blandin, near Ghent. This was one of the centres of the Benedictine revival in that country, and Dunstan was able for the first time to observe the strict observance that had seen its rebirth at Cluny at the beginning of the century. His exile was not of long duration. Before the end of 957, the Mercians and Northumbrians revolted and drove out Eadwig, choosing his brother Edgar as king of the country north of the Thames. The archbishopric was then conferred on Dunstan. ===Archbishop of Canterbury=== Dunstan went to Rome in 960, and received the pallium from Pope John XII. On his journey there, Dunstan's acts of charity were so lavish as to leave nothing for himself and his attendants. His steward complained, but Dunstan seems to have suggested that they trust in Jesus Christ. On his return from Rome, Dunstan at once regained his position as virtual prime minister of the kingdom. By his advice Ælfstan was appointed to the Bishopric of London, and Oswald to that of Worcester. In 963, Æthelwold, the Abbot of Abingdon, was appointed to the See of Winchester. With their aid and with the ready support of King Edgar, Dunstan pushed forward his reforms in the English Church. The monks in his communities were taught to live in a spirit of self-sacrifice, and Dunstan actively enforced the law of celibacy whenever possible. He forbade the practices of simony (selling ecclesiastical offices for money) and ended the custom of clerics appointing relatives to offices under their jurisdiction. Monasteries were built, and in some of the great cathedrals, monks took the place of the secular canons; in the rest the canons were obliged to live according to rule. The parish priests were compelled to be qualified for their office; they were urged to teach parishioners not only the truths of the Christian faith, but also trades to improve their position. In 973, Dunstan's statesmanship reached its zenith when he officiated at the coronation of King Edgar. Edgar was crowned at Bath in an imperial ceremony planned not as the initiation, but as the culmination of his reign (a move that must have taken a great deal of preliminary diplomacy). This service, devised by Dunstan himself and celebrated with a poem in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle forms the basis of the present-day British coronation ceremony. There was a second symbolic coronation held later. This was an important step, as other kings of Britain came and gave their allegiance to Edgar at Chester. Six kings in Britain, including the kings of Scotland and of Strathclyde, pledged their faith that they would be the king's liege-men on sea and land. Edgar ruled as a strong and popular king for 16 years. Edgar's reign, and implicitly his governing partnership with Dunstan, was praised by early chroniclers and historians who regarded it as a golden age. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle caveated the acclaim with one complaint, criticising the high level of immigration that took place at that time. It would appear from William of Malmesbury's later history that the objection was limited to the mercenary seaman, employed from around the North Sea littoral, to assist in the defence of the country. In 975, Edgar was succeeded by his eldest son Edward "the Martyr". His accession was disputed by his stepmother, Ælfthryth, who wished her own son Æthelred to reign. Through the influence of Dunstan, Edward was chosen and crowned at Winchester. Edgar's death had encouraged the reactionary nobles, and at once there was a determined attack upon the monks, the protagonists of reform. Throughout Mercia they were persecuted and deprived of their possessions. Their cause, however, was supported by Æthelwine, the ealdorman of East Anglia, and the realm was in serious danger of civil war. Three meetings of the Witan were held to settle these disputes, at Kyrtlington, at Calne, and at Amesbury. At the second of them the floor of the hall where the Witan was sitting gave way, and all except Dunstan, who clung to a beam, fell into the room below; several men were killed. ==Final years (978–88)== In March 978, King Edward was assassinated at Corfe Castle, possibly at the instigation of his stepmother, and Æthelred the Unready became king. The coronation took place on Low Sunday 31 March 978. According to William of Malmsesbury, writing over a century later, when the young king took the usual oath to govern well, Dunstan addressed him in solemn warning. He criticised the violent act whereby he became king and prophesied the misfortunes that were shortly to fall on the kingdom, but Dunstan's influence at court was ended. Dunstan retired to Canterbury, to teach at the cathedral school. Only three more public acts are known. In 980, Dunstan joined Ælfhere of Mercia in the solemn translation of the relics of King Edward, soon to be regarded as a saint, from their grave at Wareham to a shrine at Shaftesbury Abbey. In 984, he persuaded King Æthelred to appoint Ælfheah as Bishop of Winchester in succession to Æthelwold. In 986, Dunstan induced the king, by a donation of 100 pounds of silver, to stop his persecution of the See of Rochester. Dunstan's retirement at Canterbury consisted of long hours, both day and night, spent in private prayer, as well as his regular attendance at Mass and the daily office. He visited the shrines of St Augustine and St Æthelberht. He worked to improve the spiritual and temporal well-being of his people, to build and restore churches, to establish schools, to judge suits, to defend widows and orphans, to promote peace, and to enforce respect for purity. The monks of Glastonbury used to claim that during the sack of Canterbury by the Danes in 1012, Dunstan's body had been carried for safety to their abbey. This story was disproved by Archbishop William Warham, who opened the tomb at Canterbury in 1508. They found Dunstan's relics still to be there. However, his shrine was destroyed during the English Reformation. ===Patronage and feast day=== Dunstan became patron saint of English goldsmiths and silversmiths because he worked as a silversmith making church plate. The Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church mark his feast day on 19 May. Dunstan is also honoured in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 19 May. In 2023, a pastoral area of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Clifton was named in honour of Dunstan. ===In literature and folklore=== English literature contains many references to him: for example, in A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens, and in this folk rhyme: St Dunstan, as the story goes, Once pull'd the devil by the nose With red-hot tongs, which made him roar, That he was heard three miles or more. This folk story is already shown in an initial in the Life of Dunstan in the Canterbury Passionale, from the second quarter of the 12th century (British Library, Harley MS 315, f. 15v.). Daniel Anlezark has tentatively suggested that Dunstan may be the medieval author of the poem Solomon and Saturn, citing the style, word choice, and Hiberno-Latin used in the texts. However, Clive Tolley examines this claim from a linguistic point-of-view and disagrees with Anlezark's claim. Another story relates how Dunstan nailed a horseshoe to the Devil's foot when he was asked to re-shoe the Devil's cloven hoof. This caused the Devil great pain, and Dunstan only agreed to remove the shoe and release the Devil after he promised never to enter a place where a horseshoe is over the door. This is claimed as the origin of the lucky horseshoe. A further legend relating to Dunstan and the Devil relates to the last frosty nights of the year, said to often occur as late as St Dunstan’s Day, when apple trees are in blossom. On occurring so late, these frosts are known as “Franklin Nights”. The story goes that Dunstan was a great brewer and negotiated an agreement whereby the Devil could blast the blossom of local apple trees with frost, damaging the cider crop so that Dunstan's own beer would sell more readily. ===An East London saint=== As Bishop of London, Dunstan was also Lord of the Manor of Stepney, and may, like subsequent bishops, have lived there. Dunstan is recorded as having founded (or rebuilt) Stepney's church, in 952 AD. This church was dedicated to All Saints, but was rededicated to Dunstan after his canonisation in 1029, making Dunstan the patron saint of Stepney.	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8,960	Deprogramming	Deprogramming is a controversial tactic that seeks to dissuade someone from "strongly held convictions" such as religious beliefs. Deprogramming purports to assist a person who holds a particular belief system—of a kind considered harmful by those initiating the deprogramming—to change those beliefs and sever connections to the group associated with them. Typically, people identifying themselves as deprogrammers are hired by a person's relatives, often parents of adult children. The subject of the deprogramming is usually forced to undergo the procedure, which might last days or weeks, against their will. Methods and practices of deprogramming are varied but have often involved kidnapping and false imprisonment, which have sometimes resulted in criminal convictions. The practice has led to controversies over freedom of religion, civil rights, criminality, and the use of violence. Proponents of deprogramming present the practice as a necessary counter-measure to the systematic "brainwashing" procedures allegedly employed by religious groups, which they claim deprive the individual of their capacity for free choice. ==Background== In the United States in the early 1970s, there was an increasing number of New Religious Movements. Ted Patrick, the "father of deprogramming", formed an organization he called "The Citizens' Freedom Foundation" and began offering 'deprogramming' services to people who wanted to break a family member's connection to an NRM. Patrick's methods involved abduction, physical restraint, detention over days or weeks while maintaining a constant presence with the victim, food and sleep deprivation, prolonged verbal and emotional abuse, and desecration of the symbols of the victim's faith. Deprogrammers justified their actions by applying a theory of "brainwashing" to New Religious Movements. Brainwashing theory denied the possibility of authentic spiritual choice for an NRM member, proposing instead that such individuals were subject to systematic mind control programs that overrode their capacity for independent volition. Ted Patrick's theory of brainwashing was that individuals were hypnotized by brainwaves projected from a recruiter's eyes and fingertips, after which the state was maintained by constant indoctrination, a totalistic environment, and self-hypnosis. Despite this apparent repudiation, however, they continued the practice. CFF and CAN referred thousands of paying clients to activist members who kept lists of deprogrammers. The total number that occurred is unknown, but in 1980 Ted Patrick claimed to have been hired over 2000 times as a professional abductor. Many other operators emerged both during and after the period in which he was active, many of them trained by him. == Use of violence == Deprogramming became a controversial practice due to the violent and illegal nature of some of its methods. Various academics have commented on the practice. Sociologist Anson D. Shupe and others wrote that deprogramming is comparable to exorcism in both methodology and manifestation. Professor of Sociology and Judicial Studies James T. Richardson described deprogramming as a "private, self-help process whereby participants in unpopular new religious movements (NRMs) were forcibly removed from the group, incarcerated, and put through radical resocialization processes that were supposed to result in their agreeing to leave the group." Law professor Douglas Laycock, author of Religious Liberty: The Free Exercise Clause, wrote: Beginning in the 1970s, many parents responded to the initial conversion with "deprogramming." The essence of deprogramming was to physically abduct the convert, isolate him and physically restrain him, and barrage him with continuous arguments and attacks against his new religion, threatening to hold him forever until he agreed to leave it. Deprogrammers generally operated on the presumption that the people they were paid to extract from religious organizations were victims of mind control or brainwashing. Since the theory was that such individuals were incapable of rational thought, extreme measures were thought to be justified for their own good, up to and including the use of criminal violence. Ted Patrick was eventually tried and convicted of multiple felonies relating to kidnapping and false imprisonment of deprogramming subjects. In these accounts, the deprogramming usually begins with the victim being forced into a vehicle and taken to a place where they are isolated from everyone but their captors. Told that they would not be released until they renounce their beliefs, they are then subjected to days and sometimes weeks of verbal, emotional, psychological, and/or physical pressure until the demands of their abductors are satisfied. According to sociologist Eileen Barker, "One does not have to rely on the victims for stories of violence: Ted Patrick, one of the most notorious deprogrammers used by CAGs [cult-awareness groups] (who has spent several terms in prison for his exploits) openly boasts about some of the violence he employed." A number of other prominent members of "cult-awareness groups" have been convicted of violent crimes committed in the course of deprogrammings. ==Rationale and effectiveness== Carol Giambalvo described the reasoning behind deprogramming thus:It was believed that the hold of the brainwashing over the cognitive processes of a cult member needed to be broken – or "snapped" as some termed it – by means that would shock or frighten the cultist into thinking again. For that reason, in some cases cult leader's pictures were burned or there were highly confrontational interactions between deprogrammers and cultist. What was often sought was an emotional response to the information, the shock, the fear, and the confrontation. According to Giambalvo and others, however, deprogramming frequently failed completely to achieve the desired outcome and often caused significant harm. While some advocates claimed a high success rate, studies show that natural attrition rates are actually higher than those achieved by deprogramming interventions. Professor of psychiatry Saul V. Levine suggests that it is doubtful that deprogramming helps many people and goes on to say that it actually causes harm to the victim by the very nature of deprogramming. For deprogramming to work, the victim must be convinced that they joined a religious group against their will. They then must renounce responsibility and accept that in some mysterious way that their minds were controlled. He argues that deprogramming destroys a person's identity and is likely to create permanent anxiety about freedom of choice and leave the deprogrammed subject dependent upon the guidance and advice of others. The Dialog Center International (DCI) a major Christian counter-cult organization founded in 1973 by a Danish professor of missiology and ecumenical theology, Johannes Aagaard, rejects deprogramming, believing that it is counterproductive, ineffective, and can harm the relationship between a cult member and concerned family members. ==Government== Deprogrammers have sometimes operated with overt or tacit support of law enforcement and judicial officials. Richardson sees government involvement in deprogramming as existing on a continuum from implicit approval to active involvement. In the United States, where there are First Amendment protections for religious groups, government officials and agencies frequently "turned a blind eye" to the activities of deprogrammers. In China, government agencies have at times promoted activities resembling deprogramming to enforce official views of "correct" beliefs and behaviors, for example in the suppression of the Falun Gong movement. ==Controversy and related issues== In the United States, from the mid-1970s and throughout the 1980s mind control was a widely accepted theory in public opinion, and the vast majority of newspaper and magazine accounts of deprogrammings assumed that recruits' relatives were well justified to seek conservatorships and to hire deprogrammers. One disturbing aspect from a civil rights point of view, was that people hiring deprogrammers would use deception or other ethically questionable methods—including kidnapping—to get their relative into deprogrammers' hands, without allowing them any recourse to a lawyer or psychiatrist of their own choosing. Previously, there would be a sanity hearing first, and only then a commitment to an asylum or involuntary therapy. But with deprogramming, judges routinely granted parents legal authority over their adult children without a hearing. Critics contend that deprogramming and exit counseling begin with a false premise. Lawyers for some groups who have lost members due to deprogramming, as well as some civil liberties advocates, sociologists and psychologists, argue that it is not the religious groups but rather the deprogrammers who are the ones who deceive and manipulate people. During the 1990s, deprogrammer Rick Ross was sued by Jason Scott, a former member of a Pentecostal group called the Life Tabernacle Church, after an unsuccessful deprogramming attempt. In 1995, the jury awarded Scott US$875,000 in compensatory damages and US$2,500,000 in punitive damages against Ross, which were later settled for US$5,000 and 200 hours of services. More significantly, the jury also found that the leading anti-cult group known as the Cult Awareness Network (CAN) was a co-conspirator in the crime and fined CAN around US$1,000,000 in punitive damages, forcing the group into bankruptcy. This case is often seen as effectively closing the door on the practice of involuntary deprogramming in the United States. The Cult Awareness Network operated a referral scheme (NARDEC) in which they would refer people to deprogrammers in return for a "kickback" in the form of a donation or as a commission. Deprogrammers such as Rick Alan Ross, Steven Hassan and Carol Giambalvo were among the CAN-referred deprogrammers. \|Love Family \|The abduction and deprogramming were televised across the United States; shortly after what was thought to be a 'successful' deprogramming, she went back to the group. Deprogrammer charged with kidnapping but acquitted. \|Ted Patrick \|- \|1980 \|Susan Wirth, a 35-year-old teacher living in San Francisco \|Coalition to Fight the Death Penalty; African People's Solidarity Committee; anti-nuclear The parents paid US$27,000 (roughly $ after inflation) for the deprogramming, which included being gagged, handcuffed to a bed for two weeks, denied food and water, and repeatedly threatened. Despite the ordeal, Wirth remained committed to her causes and spoke out against deprogramming, but declined to press legal charges against her parents. \|Ted Patrick \|- \|1980 \|Roberta McElfish, a 26-year-old Tucson waitress. Deprogrammer convicted of conspiracy, kidnapping, and false imprisonment; sentenced to one year in prison and fined US$5,000. \|Ted Patrick \|- \|1981 \|Stephanie Riethmiller, who lived in Ohio \|lesbian relationship \|Kidnapped off the streets by deprogrammers hired by her parents, who paid US$8,000 (approximately $ now) to have her extracted from her lesbian relationship. She was allegedly held against her will for 7 days, harangued constantly about the evils of homosexuality, and repeatedly raped. Authorities brought charges of assault, abduction, and sexual battery against those involved, but the trial resulted largely in acquittals. Filed civil charges against her parents and the deprogrammers, which were dismissed in a trial that generated some controversy in the media. \|Ted Patrick referred parents to Naomi Goss and James Roe \|- \|1981 \|Thomas Ward \|Unification Church \|Held captive for 35 days and subjected to physical and psychological abuse by deprogrammers and family members. In Ward's civil action, the 4th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that federal civil rights laws protect against religious discrimination. The judgment contradicted the (then common) "parental immunity" principle in such cases. The case contributed to the gradual abandonment of abductions and deprogramming attempts. \|7 people: ADFI and family members \|- \|1990 \|Karen Lever, a 33 years old director of a computer consulting company \|Rama Seminars \|Seized and shoved into a van by 3 men at Seattle airport. Held captive for 8 days (guarded 24 hours a day with no privacy) by 7 deprogrammers hired by her parents. After the complete failure of their enterprise, the deprogrammers returned Lever to her car at the airport. Advised by Seattle police that she had grounds to press charges for kidnapping and false imprisonment. \|Joseph Szimhart \|- \|1990 \|Elma Miller, an Amish woman \|liberal sect \|Deprogrammers were hired by her husband to return her to him and the Amish church. Criminal charges of conspiracy were filed against the husband, brother, and two others but were later dropped on her request to the prosecuting attorney. \|Ted Patrick \|- \|1990s \|Jason Scott \|Pentecostalist group called the Life Tabernacle Church (part of United Pentecostal Church International) \|Unsuccessful deprogramming. Scott became a former member and sued. The jury awarded Scott US$875,000 in compensatory damages, US$1,000,000 in punitive damages against the Cult Awareness Network (CAN), and US$2,500,000 against Ross (later settled for US$5,000 and 200 hours of services "as an expert consultant and intervention specialist"). Langone, writing in 1993, estimated that deprogramming costs typically rise to at least US$10,000 (roughly $ after accounting for inflation), compared to exit counseling which typically costs US$2,000 to US$4,000 (roughly $ to $8,000 after accounting for inflation), although cases requiring extensive research of little-known groups can cost much more. Deprogramming, especially when it fails, also entails considerable legal risk and psychological risk (for example, a permanent alienation of the subject from their family). In exit counseling, these psychological and legal risks are reduced. Although deprogrammers prepare family members (other than the subject) for the process, exit counselors tend to work with such family members directly, expecting those requesting the intervention to contribute to the process. Exit counseling requires that families establish a reasonable and respectful level of communication with their loved one before the program itself can begin. Because deprogramming relies on coercion (which is illegal except in the case of conservatorship and is generally viewed as unethical) deprogrammers' critiques of the religious organization tend to be less credible to the subject than the arguments of exit counselors.	[ "lesbian", "Crime, Law and Social Change", "Fordham Law Review", "theology", "civil rights", "Christian countercult movement", "Union nationale des associations de défense des familles et de l'individu", "Eileen Barker", "Christian Century", "Denmark", "San Francisco", "American Behavioral Scientist", "Civil and political rights", "Baylor University Press", "Unification Church", "Thurgood Marshall Law Review", "criminality", "Douglas Laycock", "James T. Richardson", "Religion (journal)", "Brigham Young University Law Review", "Zondervan", "Columbia University Press", "false imprisonment", "W. W. Norton", "Conspiracy (criminal)", "Tucson, Arizona", "Ted Patrick", "Bloomsbury Publishing", "ecumenism", "Radnor Township, Pennsylvania", "Gadsden Times", "New York Times", "Lunatic asylum", "George Chryssides", "Canadian Journal of Psychiatry", "Amish", "Johannes Aagaard", "compensatory damages", "American Journal of Orthopsychiatry", "Jason Scott case", "Steven Hassan", "Rick Ross (consultant)", "Michigan Law Review", "Continuum International Publishing Group", "Intervention (counseling)", "Routledge", "Behavioral Sciences and the Law", "David G. Bromley", "kidnapping", "Hugh Carey", "sexual battery", "Ohio", "Merced Sun-Star", "Pentecostalism", "Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing", "ABC-Clio", "brainwashing", "Beaver County Times", "missiology", "Dialog Center International", "All Gods Children (book)", "International Journal of Law and Psychiatry", "Georgetown University Press", "Bill J. Leonard", "Cambridge University Press", "International Cultic Studies Association", "bankruptcy", "conservatorship", "New Brunswick, New Jersey", "Frederick Lenz", "Saul V. Levine", "Associated Press", "punitive damages", "New Religious Movement", "Beacon Press", "West Nyack, New York", "exorcism", "French criminal code", "Social Problems", "Macmillan Reference", "United Pentecostal Church International", "Cult Awareness Network", "Anson D. Shupe", "anti-cult movement", "Pittsburgh Press", "United States dollar", "Falun Gong", "Anti-cult movement", "Brainwashing", "Carol Giambalvo", "Jill Y. Crainshaw", "The New York Times", "false premise", "J. Gordon Melton", "Love Family", "Transaction Publishers", "freedom of religion" ]
8,964	Daily Planet	The Daily Planet is a fictional newspaper appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, commonly in association with Superman. The newspaper was first mentioned in Action Comics #9 (November 13, 1939) – Underworld Politics, War on Crime. The Daily Planet building's distinguishing feature is the enormous globe that sits on top of the building. Based in the fictional city of Metropolis, the paper employs Clark Kent, Lois Lane, Jimmy Olsen, and Perry White as its editor-in-chief. The building's original features were inspired by the Old Toronto Star Building where Superman's co-creator, Joe Shuster, was a newsboy when the Toronto Star was still called the Daily Star. Shuster has claimed that Metropolis was visually inspired by Toronto. Over the years, however, Metropolis has come to serve as an analogue to New York City. ==Fictional history== ===Golden and Silver Age=== When Superman first appeared in comics (specifically 1938's Action Comics #1), his alter ego Clark Kent worked for a newspaper named the Daily Star, under editor George Taylor. Joe Shuster named the Daily Star after the Toronto Daily Star newspaper in Toronto, Ontario, which had been the newspaper that Shuster's parents received and for which Shuster had worked as a newsboy. It was not until later years that the fictional paper became the Daily Planet. (The real-world newspaper was called the Evening Star prior to 1899; the Toronto Daily Star is now known as the Toronto Star.) In the Silver and Bronze Age universes, Clark's first contact with the Daily Planet came when reporter (and future editor) Perry White came to Smallville to write a story about Superboy, and wound up getting an interview where the Boy of Steel first revealed his extraterrestrial origins. The story resulted in Perry earning a Pulitzer Prize. During Clark Kent's years in college, Perry White was promoted to editor-in-chief upon the retirement of the Daily Planet's previous editor, the Earth-One version of George Taylor. After graduating from Metropolis University with a degree in journalism, Clark Kent went to work at the Planet, and quickly met Lois Lane (who had been working there for some time already). After Clark was hired, Jimmy Olsen joined the paper's staff. In 1971, the Daily Planet was purchased by Morgan Edge, president of the Galaxy Broadcasting System. Edge proceeded to integrate Metropolis television station WGBS-TV's studios into the Daily Planet building, and named Clark Kent as the anchor for the WGBS evening news. Eventually, Clark's former schoolmate from Smallville Lana Lang joined Clark as a co-anchor. After the 1985–1986 miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths, many of these elements, including Morgan Edge buying the Daily Planet, were retroactively changed or eliminated from the Superman canon. ===Post-Crisis=== In the post-Crisis comics' canon, years before Clark or Lois began working for the paper, Lex Luthor owned the Daily Planet. When Luthor, deciding to sell the paper, began taking bids for the Planet, Perry White convinced an international conglomerate, TransNational Enterprises, to buy the paper. They agreed to this venture with only one stipulation: that Perry White would become editor-in-chief. White had served as the Planet editor-in-chief ever since, barring the few times he was absent. During those times people such as Sam Foswell and Clark Kent have looked after the paper. Franklin Stern, an old friend of White's, became the Daily Planet's publisher. The Planet saw its share of rough times during White's tenure. For example, it had many violent worker strikes. The building itself, along with most of the city, was destroyed during the "Fall of Metropolis" storyline; it is only much later that it was restored by the efforts of various superheroes. The Planet building sustained heavy damages after the villain Doomsday's rampage. Later, Franklin Stern decided to put the paper up for sale. Lex Luthor, disliking the heavy criticism of himself and his company that the Planet became noted for, purchased the Daily Planet and subsequently closed the paper down. Luthor fired every employee of the newspaper except for four people: Simone D'Neige, Dirk Armstrong, Jimmy Olsen, and Lois Lane. As a final insult, Luthor saw to it that the Planet globe was unceremoniously dumped in the Metropolis landfill. In the Planet's place emerged "LexCom," a news-oriented Internet website that primarily catered to Luthor's views of "quality journalism." After Lois Lane made a deal with Luthor where, in exchange for him returning the Planet to Perry, she would kill one story of his choosing with no questions asked, Luthor sold the Daily Planet to Perry White for the token sum of one dollar. The paper was quickly reinstated, rehiring all of its old staff. Sometime later, ownership of the Planet fell into the hands of Bruce Wayne, where it has remained ever since. In the Batman: Hush storyline, it is named a subsidiary of Wayne Entertainment. During the "Y2K" storyline (involving the city of Metropolis being infused with futuristic technology thanks to a descendant of the villain Brainiac), the Daily Planet building was "upgraded" along with the rest of Metropolis, and a holographic globe replaced the physical one. Eventually due to temporal instabilities caused by the B13 Virus, Metropolis and the Daily Planet building, globe and all, were restored to their former states. In the current comics and media spinoffs, the Daily Planet is presented as a thoroughly modern news operation, including operating an Internet website much like most large newspapers. The Planet's reporters also have access to the best modern equipment to aid their work, though Perry White has often been shown as still favoring his manual typewriter. In 2008, it was said that Clark (at least in this era/continuity) uses a typewriter at his desk due to his powers causing minor interference in regular desktop computers. During this era, the Planet's major competitors in Metropolis include the tabloid newspaper the Daily Star, WGBS-TV (which also employed Jimmy Olsen and Cat Grant for a time), and Lex Luthor's various media operations. A contemporary publication is Newstime Magazine, where Clark Kent worked as the editor for a time. The publisher of Newstime is Colin Thornton, who is secretly the demon Satanus, an enemy of Superman's. ===Superman: Birthright=== In the Superman: Birthright limited series, the Daily Planet's publisher was Quentin Galloway, an abrasive overbearing loudmouth who bullied Jimmy Olsen, and later Clark Kent, before being told off by Lois Lane, whom Galloway could not fire because of her star status. This was meant to be a new origin for Superman but one that applied to the Post-Crisis continuity, so later Planet history concerning Luthor temporarily owning it and other events still applied. ===Post-Infinite Crisis=== During the story Infinite Crisis, parts of the Post-Crisis history were altered. These changes were explained gradually over the next several years. The 2009 mini-series Superman: Secret Origin clarified the earlier history of the Planet in the new continuity. The story established that while Lex Luthor, in the revised history, owns every media in Metropolis and uses it to enforce his public image as a wealthy benefactor, the Planet had always stood free, refusing him ownership and even condemning his actions in editorials signed by Perry White himself. As a result, when Clark Kent is first inducted into the Planet, the newspaper was almost bankrupt, dilapidated and unable to afford new reporters. This changed after Superman begins his career. Thanks to Superman granting exclusive interviews and photographs to Lois Lane and Jimmy Olsen when he debuts, the paper's circulation increased 700%. General Sam Lane (Lois' father) attempted to capture Superman, seeing him as an alien threat. When he failed to do so, he forcibly shut down the Planet as part of an attempt to force Perry White and Lois to turn over any information they had on Superman that they haven't released to the public. Eventually, Superman turned the public to his favor and Sam Lane was seen in a bad light after his soldier John Corben AKA Metallo ruthlessly endangered civilians. These events lead to the people of Metropolis no longer looking at Lex Luthor as a savior and The Daily Planet becomes the city's top-selling paper, as well as a major player in media. In Final Crisis #2, the villain Clayface triggers an explosion in The Daily Planet building, greatly damaging the offices, leaving many injured and at least one person dead. Lois Lane is hospitalized. Despite the chaos of Final Crisis and more than half of humanity being enslaved by evil, the newspaper continues to spread news and inform the public via a printing press in Superman's Fortress of Solitude. In Final Crisis #7, it is shown functioning once again. ===The New 52=== With the reboot of DC's line of comics in 2011, the Daily Planet was shown in the Superman comics as being bought by Morgan Edge and merged with the Galaxy Broadcasting System, similar to the Silver/Bronze Age continuity. In Action Comics, it is revealed that in the new history/universe, Clark Kent begins his journalism career in Metropolis roughly six years before Galaxy Broadcasting merges with the Daily Planet. Along with being a writer for The Daily Star, partly because editor George Taylor was a friend of his adopted parents, Clark is an active blogger who speaks against political corruption and reports on the troubles of everyday citizens who are not often the focus of news media. While working at the Star, Clark meets Planet photographer Jimmy Olsen and the two become friends despite working at rival publications. Clark is also a great fan of Lois Lane's work at the Daily Planet, eventually meeting her through Jimmy. Months after Superman makes his public debut, Clark leaves The Daily Star on good terms and accepts a position at The Daily Planet. After the merger with Galaxy Broadcasting, Lois was promoted to run the TV division, with Clark acting as an on-the-scene reporter for the TV division. Clark is later assigned the "Superman beat." But after rising tension between himself and Lois, as well as with Galaxy Broadcasting head Morgan Edge, Clark concludes that the Daily Planet is now more concerned with ratings and internet page views than actual journalism. He quits and goes off to begin an independent, internet news site with fellow journalist Cat Grant. Though Lois and Jimmy consider this to be a bad and risky decision, they continue to act as Clark's friends and confidants, offering aid when they can. At the conclusion of the New 52, following the New 52 Superman's death, Lex Luthor buys the Daily Planet. ===30th and 31st Centuries=== In virtually every incarnation of the era inhabited by the Legion of Super-Heroes, the Daily Planet is depicted as a fixture in Metropolis, and one of Earth's major media sources. Frequently, the Flash's wife Iris West Allen (a native of the era) is depicted as a member of its staff or editorial board. ==Fictional employees== Daily Planet's staff at various times included: Perry White - Editor-in-Chief Clark Kent - Reporter Lois Lane - Reporter Jimmy Olsen - Photographer and Cub Reporter Lana Lang - Business Columnist and editor Cat Grant - Gossip Columnist and editor Ron Troupe - Political Columnist and editor Steve Lombard - Sports Columnist and editor ==In other media== ===Television=== ====Live-action==== The Daily Planet appears in Adventures of Superman, with exterior shots represented by Los Angeles City Hall and the E. Clem Wilson Building. The Daily Planet, renamed the Daily Bugle (not to be confused with the Marvel Comics property of the same name), appears in The Adventures of Superpup. The Daily Planet appears in the first season of Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman. This version of the building has a small globe near the entrance and a helipad in place of the large rooftop globe. At the end of the season, the Daily Planet is bought out and closed down before Metropolis businessman Franklin Stern funds a relaunch. The Daily Planet appears in Smallville. This version of the building is located across from LuthorCorp's corporate headquarters at 355 Burrard St., the address of the Marine Building where filming of the series took place. The Daily Planet appears in Superman & Lois. ====Animation==== The Daily Planet appears in Superman: The Animated Series. This version is stated to have offices in Gotham City. A Metropolis High School newspaper based on the Daily Planet called the Daily Planetoid appears in DC Super Hero Girls (2019). The Daily Planet appears in My Adventures with Superman. The Daily Planet appears in the fifth season of Harley Quinn. ===Film=== The Daily Planet appears in Superman (1978), Superman II, Superman III, and Superman IV: The Quest for Peace. For all of its appearances, the exterior was represented by the New York Daily News building. The Daily Planet appears in Superman Returns as a computer generated image of a fictional building inserted into the New York City skyline. The Daily Planet appears in films set in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU), with exterior shots being represented by the Chicago Board of Trade Building while interior shots were filmed inside Willis Tower. Following this, the building makes a further appearance in Justice League (2017) while an associated newspaper appears in Shazam! (2019). The Daily Planet appears in Superman: Doomsday. The Daily Planet appears in Superman Unbound. The Daily Planet makes a background appearance in Justice League: War. A parallel universe variant of the Daily Planet called PLANETNWZ.COM appears in Justice League: Gods and Monsters. The Daily Planets globe appears in Space Jam: A New Legacy. The Daily Planet appears in DC League of Super-Pets. The Daily Planet will appear in Superman (2025). ===Video games=== The Daily Planet appears in Superman: Shadow of Apokolips. The Daily Planet appears as a stage in Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe. The Daily Planet appears in DC Universe Online. This version was located in downtown Metropolis before it was bottled by Brainiac. The Daily Planet appears in the distance of Batman Arkham Knight. The Daily Planet appears in Lego Dimensions. The Daily Planet appears in Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League. ===Miscellaneous=== The Daily Planet appeared in promotional pages for regular DC publications from 1976 to 1981. Notable features of the page were "The Answer Man", where DC writer/editor Bob Rozakis would answer questions sent in by readers, and a comic strip by cartoonist Fred Hembeck poking fun at DC characters. A 16-page "Special Invasion Edition" of the Daily Planet was published by DC in November 1988 as a tie-in to the Invasion! crossover event. The Daily Planet received a self-titled song in Mark Hollis' self-titled debut album.	[ "The Adventures of Superpup", "Sam Lane (comics)", "DC Universe Online", "DC League of Super-Pets", "extraterrestrial life", "Mark Hollis", "Clark Kent", "Invasion! (DC Comics)", "Toronto", "Internet", "Superboy (Kal-El)", "Chicago Board of Trade Building", "Marvel Comics", "New York City", "Steve Lombard", "Perry White", "Superman IV: The Quest for Peace", "Toronto Star", "Bob Rozakis", "New York Daily News", "Lex Luthor", "public relations", "Space Jam: A New Legacy", "Tabloid (newspaper format)", "Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League", "Superman Unbound", "LexCorp", "DC Comics", "Cat Grant", "Batman", "Superman (comic strip)", "Wayne Enterprises", "Joe Shuster", "Superman II", "Willis Tower", "Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe", "Harley Quinn (TV series)", "Ron Troupe", "Blaze and Satanus", "Superman: Shadow of Apokolips", "Fortress of Solitude", "Smallville (comics)", "The Globe and Mail", "Jimmy Olsen", "Action Comics 1", "Superman (Kal-L)", "Infinite Crisis", "Doomsday (comics)", "Justice League: Gods and Monsters", "Golden Age of Comics", "Clayface", "Superman & Lois", "DC Super Hero Girls (TV series)", "Ontario", "Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman", "Retroactive continuity", "My Adventures with Superman", "Superman (1978 film)", "Superman: Doomsday", "Lana Lang", "alter ego", "Smallville", "Marine Building", "Superman Returns", "Justice League: War", "strike action", "E. Clem Wilson Building", "Barry Allen", "Metallo", "Lego Dimensions", "Pulitzer Prize", "Action Comics", "Batman Arkham Knight", "Franklin Stern", "typewriter", "Old Toronto Star Building", "DC Extended Universe", "Superman (2025 film)", "Batman: Hush", "Daily Bugle", "television", "Justice League (film)", "George Taylor (DC Comics)", "Superman III", "Silver Age of Comics", "subsidiary", "American comic book", "Superman: The Animated Series", "fictional crossover", "Fred Hembeck", "Metropolis (comics)", "Legion of Super-Heroes", "Galaxy Broadcasting System", "Lois Lane", "Adventures of Superman (TV series)", "Crisis on Infinite Earths", "Morgan Edge", "landfill", "multiverse (DC Comics)", "Brainiac (character)", "Los Angeles City Hall", "Gotham City", "Shazam! (film)", "Daily Star (DC Comics)", "Superman", "globe", "Superman: Birthright", "Final Crisis", "Daily Planet (DC Comics house advertisement)", "Superman: Secret Origin", "Iris West Allen" ]
8,965	Digital Private Network Signalling System	The Digital Private Network Signalling System (DPNSS) is a network protocol used on digital trunk lines for connecting to PABX. It supports a defined set of inter-networking facilities. DPNSS was originally defined by British Telecom. The specification for the protocol is defined in BTNR188. The specification currently comes under the Network Interoperability Consultative Committee. ==History== DPNSS was developed in the early 1980s by BT, or its forerunner, Post Office Telecommunications in recognition that the emerging Digital Private Circuit Primary Rate product 'Megastream' had to address the market for both data and voice, the latter being significantly greater because of the market for PBXs. At the time, BT dictated what signalling could be used on its leased lines and, whilst it only had a minority interest in the sales of PBXs, was requested by the PBX manufacturers to produce a standard to prevent the creation of a plethora of conflicting PBX protocols being developed. Under the liberalization rules of the day (1979), BT was barred from manufacturing, selling or supplying PBXs of more than 200 extensions. Digital (PCM-based) PBXs were just starting to come into the marketplace with the Plessey PDX (a licensed version of the ROLM CBX) and the GEC SL1 (a licensed version of the Northern Telecom SL1). It was recognised that corporate customers would wish to network these systems across the country. At the time, 'CAS' inter node signaling was slow and inter-register signaling MF5, developed from PSTN signalling protocols, was complex and would not support sufficient features. The support for DPNSS as BT's own signalling protocol also differentiated BT's private circuit's services from those of its emerging rival Mercury Communications. DPNSS was an active (and successful) collaboration between PBX manufacturers and BT which started relatively slowly (BT & Plessey) but quickly snowballed with MITEL, GEC, Ericsson, Philips and eventually Nortel all joining to create a powerful and feature rich protocol. BT and some of the UK manufacturers championed DPNSS into ECMA and CCITT (ITU) but it was eventually deprecated by the standards bodies in favour of Q931 and QSig. Nevertheless, the elegance of the protocol and its compatibility with PBX features ensured the adoption DPNSS actually grew in Europe, compared to the much slower take-up of Qsig. There were also attempts (during 1984) to take DPNSS into North America. Unfortunately the structures for the creation of standards in North America seemed to prevent manufacturer collaboration as a route forward and the ANSI standards body was not interested in creating PBX interworking standards. Version 1 of BTNR188 (DPNSS) was issued in 1983; the last version of DPNSS to be released 6 in 1995 included compatibility with ISDN features released in V5. A lightweight version of DPNSS 'APNSS' was developed using analogue trunks (Sometimes compressed) and a modem to support D channel signalling. ==Overview of the Protocol== Layer 1(CCITT) ITU-G703 defines the physical and electrical interface. G704 defines the Frame structure of the 2,048 Mbs sent across the link. G732 defines the allocation of that frame structure into the 32 discrete 64 Kbit 'channels', of which 0 is used for alignment of the frames and 16 is (by convention only) allocated to common channel signalling. Speech is carried as G711. Layer 2 Timeslot 16, 64Kbs operates as HDLC LAPB, to support up to 60 PVCs or DLCs (data link connections) (30 directly associated with the bearer channels and 30 for unrelated messages) as the specification describes them. Therefore, at maximum operation, each potential traffic channel can have two simultaneous data channels available for messages. Note that HDLC operates as a statistical multiplexing system. When traffic deltas are low, a single call establishment message will have access to the full 64Kbs (allowing for overheads). DPNSS is a layer 3 protocol functioning as common channel signalling. The functionality is divided into Levels (confusingly nothing to do with OSI layers.) Levels 1-6 deal with simple call establishment (make call/break call) and are the minimum requirements by which a PBX can be said to be DPNSS compatible. The remaining levels are allocated to telephony features, supplementary services or to administrative features. Note that support of 'levels' by a PBX is not necessarily incremental. Some levels are interdependent but a PBX may omit support of some levels (above 6) and support others. DPNSS is a compelled protocol in that each instruction issued must be met with an appropriate response from the other PBX otherwise the message is re-transmitted (until timer expiry). This means that when interworking two PBXs features invoked on PBX A must be acknowledged by PBX B even if that feature is not supported. DPNSS carries its protocol messages as short strings of IA5 text. It is therefore much easier to interpret in its native form than Q931/Qsig or H323/H450 and a precursor to the plain language format of SIP. ==Practical Considerations== As HDLC can operate successfully in quite poor (errored) data environments, DPNSS will work over a 2 Mbit/s link running without proper synchronisation (plesiochronously) and over poor quality connections (including badly terminated connectors). When setting up PBXs to run a DPNSS connection one end must be defined as the primary or 'A' end. This is a protocol requirement and has nothing to do with link synchronisation. However, such badly synchronised links were frowned upon because of the problems associated with sending faxes and/or other modem based communication which were not specifically identified within the protocol. ==DPNSS and VoIP== For a protocol that began life in the 1980s, DPNSS is natively a long way from VoIP. However, many of the hybrid VoIP PBXs available from manufacturers worldwide provide on-board DPNSS trunk cards. Where they do not, a protocol converter is necessary. Commercially available equipment offers the ability to convert from DPNSS to Q.Sig. Note that it is also possible to tunnel DPNSS and its associated PCM (G711) over an IP network. This can be point to point where the IP network carries packetised voice N x 64 Kbs speech and a separate IP signalling channel to carry the notional 64 Kbs of DPNSS signalling. A more sophisticated solution uses intelligence on the edge of the IP network to route voice to the correct node. This is a Voice VPN. Note that this should not be confused with the pre-VOIP 'Voice VPN' deployed by routing calls intelligently in a TDM switching platform, often Nortel DMS100 and customers PBX nodes. ==Criticisms== Some critics of DPNSS suggest that it is too loosely defined and allows too much latitude in its interpretation of message formats and timers. It is also sometimes mistakenly believed that DPNSS is semi proprietary and that it is only possible to connect PBXs from the same manufacturer. i.e. Siemens will connect to Siemens, Mitel to Mitel etc. Experience indicates that this is not the case and BT's FeatureNet platform (Nortel's DMS100) running DPNSS, has interconnected successfully to many PBX types available in the UK. In addition, as part of the first commercial implementation of DPNSS (in the Government Telephone Network or GTN in 1983), BT insisted that the core of the network be made from PBXs of different manufacture to prove the interoperability in real life.	[ "Channel-associated signaling", "Mitel", "CCITT", "HDLC", "Voice VPN", "DASS1", "Philips", "International Standards Organisation", "Private Branch Exchange", "PSTN", "Siemens", "Remote Operations Service Element protocol", "modem", "LAPB", "Ericsson", "DSS1", "ISDN", "Post Office Telecommunications", "H323", "General Electric Company plc", "ROLM", "PCM", "Q.931", "Session Initiation Protocol", "VoIP", "Data link connection identifier", "Northern Telecom", "DASS2", "multiplexing", "Plessey", "Nortel", "ANSI", "liberalization", "Mercury Communications", "Q931", "QSIG" ]
8,966	Digital Access Signalling System 1	Digital Access Signalling System 1 (DASS1) is a proprietary protocol defined by British Telecom to provide ISDN services in the United Kingdom. It is now obsolete, having been replaced by DASS2. This too will become obsolete over the coming years as Q.931, a European standard, becomes widely adopted in the EU.	[ "proprietary protocol", "United Kingdom", "European Union", "Q.931", "DASS2", "British Telecom", "Integrated Services Digital Network" ]
8,967	Digital Access Signalling System 2	Digital Access Signalling System 2 (DASS2) is an obsolescent protocol defined by British Telecom (BT) for digital links to PSTN based on ISDN. Although still available on request, it has been superseded by ETS 300 102 ("EuroISDN"). DASS2 is an improved version over DASS1, based on experiences with DPNSS. In the UK, the ISDN concept was first introduced to customers by BT with their DASS2 connections. DASS2 (Digital Access Signalling System) is a BT-designed signalling standard, and was introduced before the Q.931 standard was finalised by the international community. British Telecom used the term ISDN when describing their DASS2 lines. DASS2 lines are provided to customers on a 2 Mbit/s link and can handle 30 simultaneous calls (64 kbit/s each). DASS2 is still offered by BT and other UK carriers. Q.931 is the name of the CCITT document that describes the agreed signalling format for International ISDN. CCITT had previously been known as International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee. The organisation set out the internationally agreed standards for telecommunications, and subsequently evolved into the ITU. In the United Kingdom, the Q.931-based protocol is ETS 300 102 (also known as EuroISDN). This is a very close implementation of the original CCITT specification. It is a 2 Mbit/s service as with DASS2, but the feature capability is far greater and has negated the problems associated with DASS2, including echo problems and circuit spikes. In the UK, both DASS 2 and EuroISDN (ETS 300 102) lines are available to customers with EuroISDN as the preferred signalling type. Customers normally choose the desired signalling system, as this will be dictated by their CPE (Customer Premises Equipment), usually a PABX. Most modern PABXs can handle many different types of signalling system, however the trend seems to be away from the DASS2 (which is no longer being developed by BT and has been known to deny problems with their DASS2 circuits), and towards the internationally recognised Q.931 standard, which is utilised by many countries' telephony service providers. The CCITT specify the standards for the layers 1, 2 and 3 signalling messages. Layer 3 messages are the messages which actually control the call setup, teardown, and routing. The layer 3 messages or call control messages are the minimum messages that must be understood by the interfacing equipment. Individual service providers may publish their own documentation which details further messages that will be transported in addition to Q.931 messages. There are a number of additional European documents that cover supplementary services. These cover features that may be instigated by exchanges via the ISDN and require a higher degree of layer 3 implementation.	[ "DSS2", "ETSI", "protocol (computing)", "PSTN", "CCITT", "DPNSS", "ETS 300 102", "Q.931", "DASS1", "Europe", "British Telecom", "DSS1", "Integrated Services Digital Network" ]
8,968	Devanagari	Devanagari ( ; in script: , , ) is an Indic script used in the Indian subcontinent. It is a left-to-right abugida (a type of segmental writing system), is the fourth most widely adopted writing system in the world, being used for over 120 languages, the most popular of which is Hindi (). The orthography of this script reflects the pronunciation of the language. It is written from left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical, rounded shapes within squared outlines, and is recognisable by a horizontal line, known as a , that runs along the top of full letters. Among the languages using it as a primary or secondary script are Marathi, Pāḷi, Sanskrit, Boro, Nepali, Sherpa, Prakrit, Apabhramsha, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Braj Bhasha, Chhattisgarhi, Haryanvi, Magahi, Nagpuri, Rajasthani, Khandeshi, Bhili, Dogri, Kashmiri, Maithili, Konkani, Sindhi, Nepal Bhasa, Mundari, Angika, Bajjika and Santali. and it is distantly related to a number of Southeast Asian scripts. The word (implicitly modifying , "script") was used on its own to refer to a North Indian script, or perhaps a number of such scripts, as Al-Biruni attests in the 11th century; the form is attested later, at least by the 18th century. The name of the Nandināgarī script is also formed by adding a prefix to the generic script name . The precise origin and significance of the prefix remains unclear. == History == Devanāgarī is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet, and Southeast Asia. It is a descendant of the 3rd century BCE Brāhmī script, which evolved into the Nagari script which in turn gave birth to Devanāgarī and Nandināgarī. Devanāgarī has been widely adopted across India and Nepal to write Sanskrit, Marathi, Hindi, Central Indo-Aryan languages, Konkani, Boro, and various Nepalese languages. Some of the earliest epigraphic evidence attesting to the developing Sanskrit Nāgarī script in ancient India is from the 1st to 4th century CE inscriptions discovered in Gujarat. Variants of script called , recognisably close to Devanāgarī, are first attested from the 1st century CE Rudradaman inscriptions in Sanskrit, while the modern standardised form of Devanāgarī was in use by about 1000 CE. Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of Nāgarī-related scripts, with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nāgarī scripts. For example, the mid 8th-century Pattadakal pillar in Karnataka has text in both Siddha Matrika script, and an early Telugu-Kannada script; while, the Kangra Jawalamukhi inscription in Himachal Pradesh is written in both Sharada and Devanāgarī scripts. The Nāgarī script was in regular use by the 7th century CE, and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium. and an inscribed brick found in Uttar Pradesh, dated to be from 1217 CE, which is now held at the British Museum. The script's prototypes and related versions have been discovered with ancient relics outside India, in places such as Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Indonesia. In East Asia, the script (considered as the closest precursor to Nāgarī) was in use by Buddhists. Nāgarī has been the of the Indic scripts. It has long been used traditionally by religiously educated people in South Asia to record and transmit information, existing throughout the land in parallel with a wide variety of local scripts (such as Moḍī, Kaithi, and Mahajani) used for administration, commerce, and other daily uses. Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir. An early version of Devanāgarī is visible in the Kutila inscription of Bareilly dated to VS 1049 (992 CE), which demonstrates the emergence of the horizontal bar to group letters belonging to a word. One of the oldest surviving Sanskrit texts from the early post-Maurya period consists of 1,413 Nāgarī pages of a commentary by Patanjali, with a composition date of about 150 BCE, the surviving copy transcribed about 14th century CE. In Sinja Valley, mid-western Nepal where the Nepali language originates from, the earliest examples of the Devanagari script from the 13th century were found on the cliffs and in nearby Dullu. === East Asia === In the 7th century, under the rule of Songtsen Gampo of the Tibetan Empire, Thonmi Sambhota was sent to Nepal to open marriage negotiations with a Nepali princess and to find a writing system suitable for the Tibetan language. He then invented the Tibetan script based on the Nāgarī used in Kashmir. He added 6 new characters for sounds that did not exist in Sanskrit. Other scripts closely related to Nāgarī (such as Siddhaṃ) were introduced throughout East and Southeast Asia from the 7th to the 10th centuries CE: notably in Indonesia, Vietnam, and Japan. Most of the Southeast Asian scripts have roots in Dravidian scripts, but a few found in south-central regions of Java and isolated parts of southeast Asia resemble Devanāgarī or its prototypes. The Kawi script in particular is similar to the Devanāgarī in many respects, though the morphology of the script has local changes. The earliest inscriptions in the Devanāgarī-like scripts are from around the 10th century CE, with many more between the 11th and 14th centuries. Some of the old-Devanāgarī inscriptions are found in Hindu temples of Java, such as the Prambanan temple. The Ligor and the Kalasan inscriptions of central Java, dated to the 8th century, are also in the Nāgarī script of north India. According to the epigraphist and Asian Studies scholar Lawrence Briggs, these may be related to the 9th century copper plate inscription of Devapaladeva (Bengal) which is also in early Devanāgarī script. The term kawi in Kawi script is a loan word from (poetry). According to anthropologists and Asian studies scholars John Norman Miksic and Goh Geok Yian, the 8th century version of early Nāgarī or Devanāgarī script was adopted in Java, Bali, and Khmer around the 8th–9th centuries, as evidenced by the many contemporaneous inscriptions of this period. == Letters == The letter order of Devanāgarī, like nearly all Brāhmic scripts, is based on phonetic principles that consider both the manner and place of articulation of the consonants and vowels they represent. This arrangement is usually referred to as the ("garland of letters"). The format of Devanāgarī for Sanskrit serves as the prototype for its application, with minor variations or additions, to other languages. === Vowels === The vowels and their arrangement are: Arranged with the vowels are two consonantal diacritics, the final nasal and the final fricative (called and ). notes of the in Sanskrit that "there is some controversy as to whether it represents a homorganic nasal stop , a nasalised vowel, a nasalised semivowel, or all these according to context". The represents post-vocalic voiceless glottal fricative , in Sanskrit an allophone of , or less commonly , usually in word-final position. Some traditions of recitation append an echo of the vowel after the breath: . considers the along with letters and for the "largely predictable" velar and palatal nasals to be examples of "phonetic overkill in the system". Another diacritic is the / . describes it as a "more emphatic form" of the , "sometimes used to mark a true [vowel] nasalization". In a new Indo-Aryan language such as Hindi the distinction is formal: the indicates vowel nasalisation while the indicates a homorganic nasal preceding another consonant: e.g., "laughter", "the Ganges". When an has a vowel diacritic above the top line, that leaves no room for the ("moon") stroke , which is dispensed with in favour of the lone dot: "am", but "are". Some writers and typesetters dispense with the "moon" stroke altogether, using only the dot in all situations. The ( ) (usually transliterated with an apostrophe) is a Sanskrit punctuation mark for the elision of a vowel in sandhi: ( ← + ) ("this one"). An original long vowel lost to coalescence is sometimes marked with a double : ( ← + ) "always, the self". In Hindi, states that its "main function is to show that a vowel is sustained in a cry or a shout": . In Madhyadeshi languages like Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Maithili, etc. which have "quite a number of verbal forms that end in that inherent vowel", the is used to mark the non-elision of word-final inherent , which otherwise is a modern orthographic convention: "sit" versus The syllabic consonants , , and are specific to Sanskrit and not included in the of other languages. The sound represented by has also been largely lost in the modern languages, and its pronunciation now ranges from (Hindi) to (Marathi). is not an actual phoneme of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included among the vowels in order to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters. IAST transliteration is not defined. In ISO 15919, the transliteration is and , respectively. Kashmiri Devanagari uses letters like , , , , , , , to represent its vowels (see Kashmiri language#Devanagari). === Consonants === The table below shows the consonant letters (in combination with inherent vowel ) and their arrangement. To the right of the Devanāgarī letter it shows the Latin script transliteration using International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, and the phonetic value (IPA) in Hindi. Additionally, there is (IPA: or ), the intervocalic lateral flap allophone of the voiced retroflex stop in Vedic Sanskrit, which is a phoneme in languages such as Marathi, Konkani, Garhwali, and Rajasthani. Beyond the Sanskritic set, new shapes have rarely been formulated. offers the following, "In any case, according to some, all possible sounds had already been described and provided for in this system, as Sanskrit was the original and perfect language. Hence it was difficult to provide for or even to conceive other sounds, unknown to the phoneticians of Sanskrit". Where foreign borrowings and internal developments did inevitably accrue and arise in New Indo-Aryan languages, they have been ignored in writing, or dealt through means such as diacritics and ligatures (ignored in recitation). The most prolific diacritic has been the subscript dot () . Hindi uses it for the Persian, Arabic and English sounds /q/, /x/, /ɣ/, /z/, /ʒ/, and /f/, and for the allophonic developments /ɽ/ and . (Although could also exist, it is not used in Hindi.) Devanagari used to write Mahl dialect of Dhivehi uses nukta on , , , , , , to represent other Perso-Arabic phonemes (see Maldivian writing systems#Devanagari script for Mahl). Sindhi's and Saraiki's implosives are accommodated with a line attached below: , , , . Aspirated sonorants may be represented as conjuncts/ligatures with : , , , , , , . notes Marwari as using for (while represents ). When used to write Avestan, Devanagari uses letters like /ʒ/ to represent its sounds. === Vowel diacritics === The table below shows consonants with common vowel diacritics and their ISO 15919 transliteration. Vowels in their independent form on the top and in their corresponding dependent form (vowel sign) combined with the consonant on the bottom. is without any added vowel sign, where the vowel '' is inherent. A vowel combines with a consonant in their diacritic form. For example, the vowel () combines with the consonant () to form the syllabic letter (), with halant (cancel sign) removed and added vowel sign which is indicated by diacritics. The vowel () combines with the consonant () to form () with halant removed. But the diacritic series of , , , (, respectively) is without any added vowel sign, as the vowel () is inherent. The combinations of all Sanskrit consonants and vowels, each in alphabetical order, are laid out in the () or () table. In the following table, the IAST transliteration of each combination will appear on mouseover: === Old forms === The following letter variants are also in use, particularly in older texts and in specific regions: === Conjunct consonants === As mentioned, successive consonants lacking a vowel in between them may physically join as a conjunct consonant or ligature. When Devanāgarī is used for writing languages other than Sanskrit, conjuncts are used mostly with Sanskrit words and loan words. Native words typically use the basic consonant and native speakers know to suppress the vowel when it is conventional to do so. For example, the native Hindi word is written (). The government of these clusters ranges from widely to narrowly applicable rules, with special exceptions within. While standardised for the most part, there are certain variations in clustering, of which the Unicode used on this page is just one scheme. The following are a number of rules: 24 out of the 36 consonants contain a vertical right stroke ( , , etc.). As first or middle fragments/members of a cluster (when letters are to be written as half pronounced), they lose that stroke. e.g. + = , + = , + = . In Unicode, as in Hindi, these consonants without their vertical stems are called "half forms". appears as a different, simple ribbon-shaped fragment preceding , , , , and , causing these second members to be shifted down and reduced in size. Thus , , , , , and . as a first member takes the form of a curved upward dash above the final character or its diacritic. e.g. , , , . In Marathi and Nepali, as a first member of a conjunct also takes on an eyelash form when in front of glides and semivowels. e.g. , . As a final member with , , , , , , it is two lines together below the character pointed downwards. Thus , , , , , . Elsewhere as a final member it is a diagonal stroke extending leftwards and down. e.g. . is shifted up to make the conjunct . As first members, remaining characters lacking vertical strokes such as and may have their second member, reduced in size and lacking its horizontal stroke, placed underneath. , , and shorten their right hooks and join them directly to the following member. The conjuncts for and are not clearly derived from the letters making up their components. The conjunct for is ( + ) and for it is ( + ). === Accent marks === The pitch accent of Vedic Sanskrit is written with various symbols depending on shakha. In the Rigveda, is written with a bar below the line (), with a stroke above the line () while is unmarked. === Punctuation === The end of a sentence or half-verse may be marked with the "" symbol (called a , meaning "bar", or called a , meaning "full stop/pause"). The end of a full verse may be marked with a double-, a "" symbol. A comma (called an , meaning "short stop/pause") is used to denote a natural pause in speech. Punctuation marks of Western origin, such as the colon, semicolon, exclamation mark, dash, and question mark have been in use in Devanāgarī script since at least the 1900s, matching their use in European languages. === Fonts === A variety of Unicode fonts are in use for Devanāgarī. These include Akshar, Annapurna, Arial, CDAC-Gist Surekh, CDAC-Gist Yogesh, Chandas, Gargi, Gurumaa, Jaipur, Jana, Kalimati, Kanjirowa, Lohit Devanagari, Mangal, Kokila, ,Preeti, Raghu, Sanskrit2003, Santipur OT, Siddhanta, and Thyaka. The form of Devanāgarī fonts vary with function. According to Harvard College for Sanskrit studies: is a good all-around font and has more ligatures than most fonts, though students will probably find the spacing of the CDAC-Gist Surekh === Hunterian system === The Hunterian system is the national system of romanisation in India, officially adopted by the Government of India. === ISO 15919 === A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brāhmic graphemes to the Latin script. The Devanāgarī-specific portion is nearly identical to the academic standard for Sanskrit, IAST. The National Library at Kolkata romanisation, intended for the romanisation of all Indic scripts, is an extension of IAST. === Harvard-Kyoto === Compared to IAST, Harvard-Kyoto looks much simpler. It does not contain all the diacritic marks that IAST contains. It was designed to simplify the task of putting large amount of Sanskrit textual material into machine readable form, and the inventors stated that it reduces the effort needed in transliteration of Sanskrit texts on the keyboard. ==== Velthuis ==== The disadvantage of the above ASCII schemes is case-sensitivity, implying that transliterated names may not be capitalised. This difficulty is avoided with the system developed in 1996 by Frans Velthuis for TeX, loosely based on IAST, in which case is irrelevant. === ALA-LC Romanisation === ALA-LC romanisation is a transliteration scheme approved by the Library of Congress and the American Library Association, and widely used in North American libraries. Transliteration tables are based on languages, so there is a table for Hindi, one for Sanskrit and Prakrit, etc. === WX === WX is a Roman transliteration scheme for Indian languages, widely used among the natural language processing community in India. It originated at IIT Kanpur for computational processing of Indian languages. The salient features of this transliteration scheme are as follows. Every consonant and every vowel has a single mapping into Roman. Hence it is a prefix code, advantageous from computation point of view. Lower-case letters are used for unaspirated consonants and short vowels, while capital letters are used for aspirated consonants and long vowels. While the retroflex stops are mapped to 't, T, d, D, N', the dentals are mapped to 'w, W, x, X, n'. Hence the name 'WX', a reminder of this idiosyncratic mapping. == Encodings == === ISCII === ISCII is an 8-bit encoding. The lower 128 codepoints are plain ASCII, the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII-specific. It has been designed for representing not only Devanāgarī but also various other Indic scripts as well as a Latin-based script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic scripts. ISCII has largely been superseded by Unicode, which has, however, attempted to preserve the ISCII layout for its Indic language blocks. === Unicode === The Unicode Standard defines four blocks for Devanāgarī: Devanagari (U+0900–U+097F), Devanagari Extended (U+A8E0–U+A8FF), Devanagari Extended-A (U+11B00–11B5F), and Vedic Extensions (U+1CD0–U+1CFF). == Devanāgari keyboard layouts == === InScript layout === InScript is the standard keyboard layout for Devanāgarī as standardized by the Government of India. It is inbuilt in all modern major operating systems. Microsoft Windows supports the InScript layout, which can be used to input unicode Devanāgarī characters. InScript is also available in some touchscreen mobile phones. === Typewriter === This layout was used on manual typewriters when computers were not available or were uncommon. For backward compatibility some typing tools like Indic IME still provide this layout. === Phonetic === Such tools work on phonetic transliteration. The user writes in the Latin alphabet and the IME automatically converts it into Devanāgarī. Some popular phonetic typing tools are Akruti, Baraha IME and Google IME. The Mac OS X operating system includes two different keyboard layouts for Devanāgarī: one resembles the INSCRIPT/KDE Linux, while the other is a phonetic layout called "Devanāgarī QWERTY". Any one of the Unicode fonts input systems is fine for the Indic language Wikipedia and other wikiprojects, including Hindi, Bhojpuri, Marathi, and Nepali Wikipedia. While some people use InScript, the majority uses either Google phonetic transliteration or the input facility Universal Language Selector provided on Wikipedia. On Indic language wikiprojects, the phonetic facility provided initially was java-based, and was later supported by Narayam extension for phonetic input facility. Currently Indic language Wiki projects are supported by Universal Language Selector (ULS), that offers both phonetic keyboard (Aksharantaran, Marathi: , Hindi: ) and InScript keyboard (Marathi: ). The Ubuntu Linux operating system supports several keyboard layouts for Devanāgarī, including Harvard-Kyoto, WX notation, Bolanagari and phonetic. The 'remington' typing method in Ubuntu IBUS is similar to the Krutidev typing method, popular in Rajasthan. The 'itrans' method is useful for those who know English (and the English keyboard) well but are not familiar with typing in Devanāgarī.	[ "Madhya Pradesh", "Gupta script", "३", "abugida", "Athens", "Fiji Hindi", "Bhojpuri language", "Sarnámi Hindustáni", "manuscripts", "Phonetic", "Prambanan", "Voiced velar implosive", "Unicode", "Input method editor", "InScript keyboard", "Baraha", "Ra (Indic)", "Chalukya", "Keyboard (computing)", "SIL International", "९", "WX notation", "Apabhramsha", "Vikram Samvat", "Maurya Empire", "ग़", "capital letters", "Tibetan script", "Harvard-Kyoto", "Ligature (typography)", "phonetician", "Sadri language", "Thonmi Sambhota", "semivowel", "Songtsen Gampo", "Indic scripts", "laughter", "Aspiration (phonetics)", "Hōryū-ji", "voiced retroflex stop", "primus inter pares", "Nukta", "Voiced postalveolar fricative", "diacritic", "Myanmar", "Abugida", "Microsoft Windows", "Vedic Sanskrit", "Saraiki language", "South India", "Voiced palatal implosive", "exclamation mark", "w:InScript keyboard", "Brāhmī script", "Mac OS X", "ISO 15919", "Egyptian hieroglyphs", "Classical Tibetan", "phoneme", "wikt:नागरी", "Romanisation", "apostrophe", "Magahi language", "Jawalamukhi", "Chandas (typeface)", "Nandināgarī", "retroflex lateral flap", "Kashmir", "ITRANS", "Dogri language", "wikt:नगर", "Sinja Valley", "Proto-Sinaitic script", "Guttural", "nasalized vowel", "Siddhaṃ script", "ISCII", "Hunterian transliteration", "Western world", "Ganges", "Tibet", "Gujarat", "Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra", "Brahmic family", "Chandrabindu", "subscript", "Government of India", "Sindhi language", "allophone", "elision", "६", "Brāhmic family", "Sri Lanka", "phonetics", "Pāli", "Gurmukhi", "Udayagiri Caves", "syllabary", "Voiced alveolar fricative", "semicolon", "Kumaoni language", "Sherpa language", "Usenet", "Mahajani script", "झ़", "orthography", "Arial", "sonorant", "South Asia", "Dental consonant", "keyboard layout", "Uttar Pradesh", "collating sequence", "voiceless glottal fricative", "Pahari languages", "Prakrit", "Bajjika", "ँ", "Rajasthani language", "Newar language", "International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration", "Rudradaman I", "manner of articulation", "Bhili language", "Sanskrit", "India", "diacritics", "received pronunciation", "Mundari language", "Keyboard layout", "Angika language", "IAST", "implosive", "Sharada script", "colon (punctuation)", "place of articulation", "Nasal stop", "shakha", "fricative", "Angika", "Telugu-Kannada alphabet", "biscript", "Central Indo-Aryan languages", "Kutila inscription of Bareilly", "garland", "Virama", "ऽ", "Fricative consonant", "Avestan", "natural language processing", "David Pingree", "Siddhamatrka", "Boro language (India)", "Awadhi language", "vowel", "Maldivian writing systems", "Haryanvi language", "Marathi language", "Braj Bhasha", "TeX", "Chhattisgarhi language", "Konkani language", "Latin alphabet", "Rigveda", "Bali", "Garhwali language", "palatal nasal", "inherent vowel", "Himachal Pradesh", "Aramaic alphabet", "Patanjali", "velar nasal", "१", "kāvya", "Moḍī script", "Google IME", "Maithili language", "Phoenician alphabet", "National Library at Kolkata romanisation", "Indonesia", "avagraha", "Pattadakal", "Voiceless labiodental fricative", "४", "anusvāra", "७", "Library of Congress", "Voiced velar fricative", "Persian language", "International Phonetic Alphabet", "Kashmiri language", "२", "Palatal consonant", "nasal stop", "InScript", "pitch accent", "keyboard layouts", "conjunct consonant", "Voiced bilabial implosive", "Nagpuri language", "Surjapuri language", "Hindi language", "Licchavi (kingdom)", "Inherent vowel", "Tibetan Empire", "८", "British Museum", "official scripts of India", "Pali", "Labial consonant", "ं", "Marwari language", "Occlusive", "अऽ", "South Africa", "transliteration", "Nāgarī script", "MW:Universal Language Selector", "Southeast Asia", "Ubuntu Linux", "०", "sandhi", "Voiceless velar fricative", "ज़", "Kangra, Himachal Pradesh", "Karnataka", "Kawi script", "Retroflex consonant", "letter case", "Bengali–Assamese script", "Writing systems", "Rajasthani languages", "Nepal", "Approximant", "Hindi", "Arabic language", "Arecaceae", "anunāsika", "ASCII", "Voiced alveolar implosive", "prefix code", "IIT Kanpur", "Bajjika language", "५", "Nagari script", "List of writing systems by adoption", "Danda", "Velar consonant", "operating system", "Fiji", "Khandeshi language", "visarga", "Google transliteration", "Buddhism", "अं", "dash", "question mark", "Palatal", "long vowel", "Nandinagari", "unicase", "Gujarati script", "Voice (phonetics)", "Indian subcontinent", "Voiceless uvular plosive", "Nepali language", "अः", "Kaithi script", "allophonic", "ः", "Retroflex flap", "अँ", "wikt:देव", "Indic script", "punctuation mark", "Deva (Hinduism)", "Santali language", "John Norman Miksic", "Typographic ligature" ]
8,970	Diplomatic mission	A diplomatic mission or foreign mission is a group of people from a state or organization present in another state to represent the sending state or organization officially in the receiving or host state. In practice, the phrase usually denotes an embassy or high commission, which is the main office of a country's diplomatic representatives to another country; it is usually, but not necessarily, based in the receiving state's capital city. Consulates, on the other hand, are smaller diplomatic missions that are normally located in major cities of the receiving state (but can be located in the capital, typically when the sending country has no embassy in the receiving state). In addition to being a diplomatic mission to the country in which it is located, an embassy may also be a non-resident permanent mission to one or more other countries. The term embassy is sometimes used interchangeably with chancery, the physical office or site of a diplomatic mission. Consequently, the terms "embassy residence" and "embassy office" are used to distinguish between the ambassador's residence and the chancery. ==Terminology== A country may have several different types of diplomatic missions in another country. Embassy: A diplomatic mission, usually located in the capital of another country, that provides a full range of services, including consular services. High commission: Embassy of a Commonwealth country located in another Commonwealth country. Permanent mission: Diplomatic mission to a major international organization. Consulate-general: Diplomatic mission located in a major city, usually other than the capital, that provides a full range of consular services. Consulate: Diplomatic mission that is similar to a consulate general but may not provide a full range of services. Legation: Diplomatic representative office of lower rank than an embassy. Where an embassy was headed by an ambassador, a legation was headed by a minister. Ambassadors outranked ministers and had precedence at official events. Legations were originally the most common form of diplomatic mission, but they fell out of favor after World War II and were upgraded to embassies. Honorary Consul: A single person, not a diplomat or consular officer (civil servant), representing another country on an honorary basis with only a limited range of services. Not necessarily a citizen of the country he represents but in most of the cases a citizen of the host country. The head of an embassy is known as an ambassador or high commissioner. The term embassy is commonly used also as a section of a building in which the work of the diplomatic mission is carried out, but strictly speaking, it is the diplomatic delegation itself that is the embassy, while the office space and the diplomatic work done is called the chancery. Therefore, the embassy operates in the chancery. The members of a diplomatic mission can reside within or outside the building that holds the mission's chancery, and their private residences enjoy the same rights as the premises of the mission as regards inviolability and protection. All missions to the United Nations are known simply as permanent missions, while EU member states' missions to the European Union are known as permanent representations, and the head of such a mission is typically both a permanent representative and an ambassador. European Union missions abroad are known as EU delegations. Some countries have more particular nomenclature for their missions and staff: a Vatican mission is headed by a nuncio (Latin for "envoy") and consequently known as an apostolic nunciature. Under the rule of Muammar Gaddafi, Libya's missions used the name people's bureau, headed by a secretary. Missions between Commonwealth countries are known as high commissions, and their heads are high commissioners. Generally speaking, ambassadors and high commissioners are regarded as equivalent in status and function, and embassies and high commissions are both deemed to be diplomatic missions. In the past, a diplomatic mission headed by a lower-ranking official (an envoy or minister resident) was known as a legation. Since the ranks of envoy and minister resident are effectively obsolete, the designation of legation is no longer among the diplomatic ranks used in diplomacy and international relations. A consulate is similar to, but not the same as a diplomatic office, but with focus on dealing with individual persons and businesses, as defined by the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations. A consulate or consulate general is generally a representative of the embassy in locales outside of the capital city. Rather, the premises of an embassy remain under the jurisdiction of the host state while being afforded special privileges (such as immunity from most local laws) by the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. Diplomats themselves still retain full diplomatic immunity, and (as an adherent to the Vienna Convention) the authorities of the host country may not enter the premises of the mission (which means the head of mission's residence) without permission of the represented country, even to put out a fire. International rules designate an attack on an embassy as an attack on the country it represents. The term 'extraterritoriality' is often applied to diplomatic missions, but normally only in this broader sense. As the host country's authorities may not enter the representing country's embassy without permission, embassies are sometimes used by refugees escaping from either the host country or a third country. For example, North Korean nationals, who would be arrested and deported from China upon discovery, have sought sanctuary at various third-country embassies in China. Once inside the embassy, diplomatic channels can be used to solve the issue and send the refugees to another country. See the list of people who took refuge in a diplomatic mission for a list of some notable cases. Notable violations of embassy extraterritoriality include repeated invasions of the British Embassy in Beijing (1967), the hostage crisis at the American embassy in Tehran, Iran (1979–1981), and the hostage crisis at the Japanese ambassador's residence in Lima, Peru (1996–1997). ==Role== The basic role of a diplomatic mission is to represent and safeguard the interests of the home country and its citizens in the host country. According to the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which establishes the framework of diplomacy among sovereign states:The functions of a diplomatic mission consist, inter alia, in representing the sending State in the receiving State; protecting in the receiving State the interests of the sending State and of its nationals, within the limits permitted by international law; negotiating with the Government of the receiving State; ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State, and reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State; promoting friendly relations between the sending State and the receiving State, and developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations. Diplomatic missions between members of the Commonwealth of Nations are not called embassies, but high commissions, for Commonwealth nations share a special diplomatic relationship. It is generally expected that an embassy of a Commonwealth country in a non-Commonwealth country will do its best to provide diplomatic services to citizens from other Commonwealth countries if the citizen's country does not have an embassy in that country. Canadian and Australian nationals enjoy even greater cooperation between their respective consular services, as outlined in the Canada-Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement. The same kind of procedure is also followed multilaterally by the member states of the European Union (EU). European citizens in need of consular help in a country without diplomatic or consular representation of their own country may turn to any consular or diplomatic mission of another EU member state (art. 23 TFEU). ==Multiple missions in a city== Some cities may host more than one mission from the same country. In Rome, many states maintain separate missions to both Italy and the Holy See. It is not customary for these missions to share premises nor personnel. At present, only the Iraqi and United States embassies to Italy and the Holy See share premises; however, separate ambassadors are appointed, one to each country. In the case of the UN's Food Agencies, the sending country's ambassador to the Italian Republic is usually accredited as permanent representative. The United States maintains a separate mission to the UN agencies, led by its own ambassador, but is located in the compound that houses its embassies to Italy and the Holy See. Several cities host both embassies/consulates and permanent representatives to international organizations, such as New York City (United Nations), Washington, D.C. (Organization of American States), Jakarta (ASEAN) and Brussels (European Union and North Atlantic Treaty Organization). In some cases, an embassy or consulate is divided between multiple locations in the same city. For example, the Bangladeshi Deputy High Commission in Kolkata, has two locations: one at Park Circus and another, opened later, at Mirza Ghalib Street, to reduce overcrowding. ==Non-diplomatic offices== Governments of states not recognized by the receiving state and of territories that make no claim to be sovereign states may set up offices abroad that do not have official diplomatic status as defined by the Vienna Convention. Examples are the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Offices that represent the government of the Republic of China; Somaliland's Representative Offices in London, Addis Ababa, Rome, Taipei, and Washington, D.C.; the Hong Kong and Macau economic and trade offices that represent the governments of those two territories. Such offices assume some of the non-diplomatic functions of diplomatic posts, such as promoting trade interests and providing assistance to its citizens and residents. They are nevertheless not diplomatic missions, their personnel are not diplomats and do not have diplomatic visas, although there may be legislation providing for personal immunities and tax privileges, as in the case of the Hong Kong offices in London and Toronto or the Macau office in Lisbon, for example. ==Gallery== File:Ambasciata di Spagna Presso Santa Sede - panoramio.jpg\|Spanish embassy to the Holy See and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta in Rome, Italy. File:Yhdysvaltain Helsingin-suurlähetystö.jpg\|Embassy of the United States in Helsinki, Finland. File:Nordic embassies Berlin (July 2008) 4.jpg\|The embassies of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden in a joint compound of Nordic Embassies in Berlin, Germany. File:House_of_Sweden_-_Washington,_D.C.jpg\|House of Sweden featuring Swedish as well as Icelandic and Liechtenstein diplomatic missions to the United States. File:Embajada de Argentina en la República Popular China.jpg\|Embassy of Argentina, Beijing, China.	[ "apostolic nunciature", "ASEAN", "high commissioner (Commonwealth)", "Holy See", "Washington, D.C.", "legation", "Diplomacy", "Capital (political)", "Embassy chapel", "Chancery (diplomacy)", "high commission (Commonwealth)", "Canada-Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement", "Japanese embassy hostage crisis", "ambassador", "Hong Kong Economic and Trade Office", "Kolkata", "Iran hostage crisis", "Vienna Convention on Consular Relations", "New York City", "EU member states", "Paradiplomacy", "Letter of credence", "Embassy of the United States, Helsinki", "Park Circus", "Jakarta", "Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union", "Embassy of the Philippines, Washington, D.C.", "Nordic Embassies", "deputy chief of mission", "NATO", "chargé d'affaires", "Organization of American States", "The Daily Telegraph", "Lima", "United States Ambassador to the United Nations Agencies for Food and Agriculture", "diplomatic immunity", "diplomatic rank", "Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary", "European Union", "United States Mission to the UN Agencies in Rome", "Lists of diplomatic missions", "List of ambassadors of Switzerland to France", "List of states with limited recognition", "Commonwealth of Nations", "List of countries by number of diplomatic missions", "List of people who took refuge in a diplomatic mission", "international organization", "Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations", "House of Sweden", "Helsinki", "Muammar Gaddafi", "North Korea", "refugee", "List of attacks on diplomatic missions", "Embassy of Argentina, Beijing", "Sovereign state", "Brussels", "extraterritorial status", "Legation", "Foreign relations of Italy", "Berlin", "United Nations", "Switzerland", "list of people who took refuge in a diplomatic mission", "Consulate", "Latin", "Addis Ababa", "permanent representative", "Foreign relations of Libya", "Consul (representative)", "Consulates", "Taipei", "International relations", "organization", "chancery (diplomacy)", "Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office", "nuncio", "Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations", "Foreign relations of Macau", "Embassy Row", "Rome", "Culinary diplomacy", "Sovereign Military Order of Malta" ]
8,971	DEC Alpha	{{Infobox CPU architecture \| name = Alpha \| image = DEC Alpha Generation logo.svg \| caption = "Alpha Generation" logo used by Digital \| designer = Digital Equipment Corporation \| bits = 64-bit \| introduced = \| design = RISC \| type = Load–store \| encoding = Fixed \| branching = \| endianness = Bi \| extensions = Byte/Word Extension (BWX), Square-root and Floating-point Convert Extension (FIX), Count Extension (CIX), Motion Video Instructions (MVI) \| open = Yes Linux (Debian, SUSE, Gentoo and Red Hat), BSD UNIX (NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD up to 6.x), Plan 9 from Bell Labs, and the L4Ka::Pistachio kernel. A port of Ultrix to Alpha was carried out during the initial development of the Alpha architecture, but was never released as a product. The Alpha architecture was sold, along with most parts of DEC, to Compaq in 1998. Compaq, already an Intel x86 customer, announced that they would phase out Alpha in favor of the forthcoming Hewlett-Packard/Intel Itanium architecture, and sold all Alpha intellectual property to Intel, in 2001, effectively killing the product. Hewlett-Packard purchased Compaq in 2002, continuing development of the existing product line until 2004, and selling Alpha-based systems, largely to the existing customer base, until April 2007. ==History== ===PRISM=== Alpha emerged from an earlier RISC project named Parallel Reduced Instruction Set Machine (PRISM), itself the product of several earlier projects. PRISM was intended to be a flexible design, supporting Unix-like applications, and Digital's existing VAX/VMS software, after minor conversion. A new operating system named MICA would support both ULTRIX and VAX/VMS interfaces on a common kernel, allowing software for both platforms to be easily ported to the PRISM architecture. Started in 1985, the PRISM design was continually changed during its development in response to changes in the computer market, leading to lengthy delays in its introduction. It was not until the summer of 1987 that it was decided that it would be a 64-bit design, among the earliest such designs in a microprocessor format. In October 1987, Sun Microsystems introduced the Sun-4, their first workstation using their new SPARC processor. The Sun-4 runs about three to four times as fast as their latest Sun-3 designs using the Motorola 68020, and any Unix offering from DEC. The plans changed again; PRISM was realigned once again as a 32-bit part and aimed directly at the Unix market. This further delayed the design. Having watched the PRISM delivery date continue to slip, and facing the possibility of more delays, a team in the Palo Alto office decided to design their own workstation using another RISC processor. After due diligence, they selected the MIPS R2000 and built a working workstation running Ultrix in a period of 90 days. This sparked off an acrimonious debate within the company, which came to a head in a July 1988 management meeting. PRISM appeared to be faster than the R2000, but the R2000 machines could be in the market by January 1989, a year earlier than PRISM. When this proposal was accepted, one of the two original roles for PRISM disappeared. The decision to make a VMS PRISM had already ended by this point, so there was no remaining role. PRISM was cancelled at the meeting. ===RISCy VAX=== As the meeting broke up, Bob Supnik was approached by Ken Olsen, who stated that the RISC chips appeared to be a future threat to their VAX line. He asked Supnik to consider what might be done with VAX to keep it competitive with future RISC systems. The group then considered hybrid systems that combined one of their existing VAX one-chip solution and a RISC chip as a coprocessor used for high-performance needs. These studies suggested that the system would inevitably be hamstrung by the lower-performance part and would offer no compelling advantage. It was at this point that Nancy Kronenberg pointed out that people ran VMS, not VAX, and that VMS only had a few hardware dependencies based on its modelling of interrupts and memory paging. There appeared to be no compelling reason why VMS could not be ported to a RISC chip as long as these small bits of the model were preserved. Further work on this concept suggested this was a workable approach. The name was inspired by the use of "Omega" as the codename of an NVAX-based VAX 4000 model; "Alpha" was intended to signify the beginning of a new line (with reference to Alpha and Omega). Soon after, work began on a port of VMS to the new architecture. ===Alpha=== The new design uses most of the basic PRISM concepts, but was re-tuned to allow VMS and VMS programs to run at reasonable speed with no conversion at all. The primary Alpha instruction set architects were Richard L. Sites and Richard T. Witek. The PRISM's Epicode was developed into the Alpha's PALcode, providing an abstracted interface to platform- and processor implementation-specific features. The main contribution of Alpha to the microprocessor industry, and the main reason for its performance, is not so much the architecture but rather its implementation. At that time (as it is now), the microchip industry was dominated by automated design and layout tools. The chip designers at Digital continued pursuing sophisticated manual circuit design in order to deal with the complex VAX architecture. The Alpha chips show that manual circuit design applied to a simpler, cleaner architecture allows for much higher operating frequencies than those that are possible with the more automated design systems. These chips caused a renaissance of custom circuit design within the microprocessor design community. Originally, the Alpha processors were designated the DECchip 21x64 series, with "DECchip" replaced in the mid-1990s with "Alpha". The first two digits, "21" signifies the 21st century, and the last two digits, "64" signifies 64 bits. The number in the EV designations indicated the semiconductor process which the chip was designed for. For example, the EV4 processor used DEC's CMOS-4 process. As part of a settlement, much of DEC's chip design and fabrication business was sold to Intel. This included DEC's StrongARM implementation of the ARM computer architecture, which Intel marketed as the XScale processors commonly used in Pocket PCs. The core of Digital Semiconductor, the Alpha microprocessor group, remained with DEC, while the associated office buildings went to Intel as part of the Hudson fab. ===Improved models=== The first few generations of the Alpha chips were some of the most innovative of their time. A pre-production model, designated EV3, was used in a prototype system named the Alpha Demonstration Unit (ADU). ADUs were used to port operating systems to the Alpha architecture. One key difference between the EV3 and later models was the absence of a floating-point unit. The first version, the Alpha 21064 or EV4, is the first CMOS microprocessor whose operating frequency rivalled higher-powered ECL minicomputers and mainframes. The second, 21164 or EV5, is the first microprocessor to place a large secondary cache on-chip. The third, 21264 or EV6, is the first microprocessor to combine both high operating frequency and the more complicated out-of-order execution microarchitecture. The 21364 or EV7 is the first high performance processor to have an on-chip memory controller. The unproduced 21464 or EV8 would have been the first to include simultaneous multithreading, but this version was canceled after the sale of DEC to Compaq. The Tarantula research project, which most likely would have been called EV9, would have been the first Alpha processor to feature a vector processor unit. A persistent report attributed to DEC insiders suggests the choice of the AXP tag for the processor was made by DEC's legal department, which was still smarting from the VAX trademark fiasco. After a lengthy search the tag "AXP" was found to be entirely unencumbered. Within the computer industry, a joke got started that the acronym AXP meant "Almost eXactly PRISM". ==Design principles== The Alpha architecture was intended to be a high-performance design. Digital intended the architecture to support a one-thousandfold increase in performance over twenty-five years. To ensure this, any architectural feature that impeded multiple instruction issue, clock rate or multiprocessing was removed. As a result, the Alpha does not have: Branch delay slots Suppressed instructions Byte load or store instructions (later added with the Byte Word Extensions (BWX)) ===Condition codes=== The Alpha does not have condition codes for integer instructions to remove a potential bottleneck at the condition status register. Instructions resulting in an overflow, such as adding two numbers whose result does not fit in 64 bits, write the 32 or 64 least significant bits to the destination register. The carry is generated by performing an unsigned compare on the result with either operand to see if the result is smaller than either operand. If the test was true, the value one is written to the least significant bit of the destination register to indicate the condition. ==Registers== \|} The architecture defines a set of 32 integer registers and a set of 32 floating-point registers in addition to a program counter, two lock registers and a floating-point control register (FPCR). It also defines registers that were optional, implemented only if the implementation required them. Lastly, registers for PALcode are defined. The integer registers are denoted by R0 to R31 and floating-point registers are denoted by F0 to F31. The R31 and F31 registers are hardwired to zero and writes to those registers by instructions are ignored. Digital considered using a combined register file, but a split register file was determined to be better, as it enables two-chip implementations to have a register file located on each chip and integer-only implementations to omit the floating-point register file containing the floating-point registers. A split register file was also determined to be more suitable for multiple instruction issue due to the reduced number of read and write ports. The number of registers per register file was also considered, with 32 and 64 being contenders. Digital concluded that 32 registers was more suitable as it required less die space, which improves clock frequencies. This number of registers was deemed not to be a major issue in respect to performance and future growth, as thirty-two registers could support at least eight-way instruction issue. The program counter is a 64-bit register which contains a longword-aligned virtual byte address, that is, the low two bits of the program counter are always zero. The PC is incremented by four to the address of the next instruction when an instruction is decoded. A lock flag and locked physical address register are used by the load-locked and store-conditional instructions for multiprocessor support. The floating-point control register (FPCR) is a 64-bit register defined by the architecture intended for use by Alpha implementations with IEEE 754-compliant floating-point hardware. ==Data types== In the Alpha architecture, a byte is defined as an 8-bit datum (octet), a word as a 16-bit datum, a longword as a 32-bit datum, a quadword as a 64-bit datum, and an octaword as a 128-bit datum. The Alpha architecture originally defined six data types: Quadword (64-bit) integer Longword (32-bit) integer IEEE T-floating-point (double precision, 64-bit) IEEE S-floating-point (single precision, 32-bit) To maintain a level of compatibility with the VAX, the 32-bit architecture that preceded the Alpha, two other floating-point data types are included: VAX G-floating point (double precision, 64-bit) VAX F-floating point (single precision, 32-bit) VAX H-floating point (quad precision, 128-bit) was not supported, but another 128-bit floating-point option, X-floating point, is available on Alpha, but not VAX.H and X have been described as similar, but not identical. Software emulation for H-floating is available from DEC, as is a source-code level converter named DECmigrate. ==Memory== The Alpha has a 64-bit linear virtual address space with no memory segmentation. Implementations can implement a smaller virtual address space with a minimum size of 43 bits. Although the unused bits were not implemented in hardware such as TLBs, the architecture required implementations to check whether they are zero to ensure software compatibility with implementations with a larger (or full) virtual address space. ==Instruction formats== The Alpha ISA has a fixed instruction length of 32 bits. It has six instruction formats. The integer operate format is used by integer instructions. It contains a 6-bit opcode field, followed by the Ra field, which specifies the register containing the first operand and the Rb field, specifies the register containing the second operand. Next is a 3-bit field which is unused and reserved. A 1-bit field contains a "0", which distinguished this format from the integer literal format. A 7-bit function field follows, which is used in conjunction with the opcode to specify an operation. The last field is the Rc field, which specifies the register which the result of a computation should be written to. The register fields are all 5 bits long, required to address 32 unique locations, the 32 integer registers. The integer literal format is used by integer instructions which use a literal as one of the operands. The format is the same as the integer operate format except for the replacement of the 5-bit Rb field and the 3 bits of unused space with an 8-bit literal field which is zero-extended to a 64-bit operand. The floating-point operate format is used by floating-point instructions. It is similar to the integer operate format, but has an 11-bit function field made possible by using the literal and unused bits which are reserved in integer operate format. The memory format is used mostly by load and store instructions. It has a 6-bit opcode field, a 5-bit Ra field, a 5-bit Rb field and a 16-bit displacement field. Branch instructions have a 6-bit opcode field, a 5-bit Ra field and a 21-bit displacement field. The Ra field specifies a register to be tested by a conditional branch instruction, and if the condition is met, the program counter is updated by adding the contents of the displacement field with the program counter. The displacement field contains a signed integer and if the value of the integer is positive, if the branch is taken then the program counter is incremented. If the value of the integer is negative, then program counter is decremented if the branch is taken. The range of a branch thus is ±1 Mi instructions, or ±4 MiB. The Alpha Architecture was designed with a large range as part of the architecture's forward-looking goal. The CALL_PAL format is used by the CALL_PAL instruction, which is used to call PALcode subroutines. The format retains the opcode field but replaces the others with a 26-bit function field, which contains an integer specifying a PAL subroutine. ==Instruction set== ===Control instructions=== The control instructions consist of conditional and unconditional branches, and jumps. The conditional and unconditional branch instructions use the branch instruction format, while the jump instructions use the memory instruction format. Conditional branches test whether the least significant bit of a register is set or clear, or compare a register as a signed quadword to zero, and branch if the specified condition is true. The conditions available for comparing a register to zero are equality, inequality, less than, less than or equal to, greater than or equal to, and greater than. The new address is computed by longword aligning and sign extending the 21-bit displacement and adding it to the address of the instruction following the conditional branch. Unconditional branches update the program counter with a new address computed in the same way as conditional branches. They also save the address of the instruction following the unconditional branch to a register. There are two such instructions, and they differ only in the hints provided for the branch prediction hardware. There are four jump instructions. These all perform the same operation, saving the address of the instruction following the jump, and providing the program counter with a new address from a register. They differ in the hints provided to the branch prediction hardware. The unused displacement field is used for this purpose. ===Integer arithmetic=== The integer arithmetic instructions perform addition, multiplication, and subtraction on longwords and quadwords; and comparison on quadwords. There is no instruction(s) for division as the architects considered the implementation of division in hardware to be adverse to simplicity. In addition to the standard add and subtract instructions, there are scaled versions. These versions shift the second operand to the left by two or three bits before adding or subtracting. The Multiply Longword and Multiply Quadword instructions write the least significant 32 or 64 bits of a 64- or 128-bit result to the destination register, respectively. Since it is useful to obtain the most significant half, the Unsigned Multiply Quadword High (UMULH) instruction is provided. UMULH is used for implementing multi-precision arithmetic and division algorithms. The concept of a separate instruction for multiplication that returns the most significant half of a result was taken from PRISM. The instructions that operate on longwords ignore the most significant half of the register and the 32-bit result is sign-extended before it is written to the destination register. By default, the add, multiply, and subtract instructions, with the exception of UMULH and scaled versions of add and subtract, do not trap on overflow. When such functionality is required, versions of these instructions that perform overflow detection and trap on overflow are provided. The compare instructions compare two registers or a register and a literal and write '1' to the destination register if the specified condition is true or '0' if not. The conditions are equality, inequality, less than or equal to, and less than. With the exception of the instructions that specify the former two conditions, there are versions that perform signed and unsigned compares. The integer arithmetic instructions use the integer operate instruction formats. ===Logical and shift=== The logical instructions consist of those for performing bitwise logical operations and conditional moves on the integer registers. The bitwise logical instructions perform AND, NAND, NOR, OR, XNOR, and XOR between two registers or a register and literal. The conditional move instructions test a register as a signed quadword to zero and move if the specified condition is true. The specified conditions are equality, inequality, less than or equal to, less than, greater than or equal to, and greater than. The shift instructions perform arithmetic right shift, and logical left and right shifts. The shift amount is given by a register or literal. Logical and shift instructions use the integer operate instruction formats. ==Extensions== ===Byte-Word Extensions (BWX)=== Later Alphas include byte-word extensions, a set of instructions to manipulate 8-bit and 16-bit data types. These instructions were first introduced in the 21164A (EV56) microprocessor and are present in all subsequent implementations. These instructions perform operations that formerly required multiple instructions to implement, which improves code density and the performance of certain applications. BWX also makes the emulation of x86 machine code and the writing of device drivers easier. ===Motion Video Instructions (MVI)=== Motion Video Instructions (MVI) was an instruction set extension to the Alpha ISA that added instructions for single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) operations. Alpha implementations that implement MVI, in chronological order, are the Alpha 21164PC (PCA56 and PCA57), Alpha 21264 (EV6) and Alpha 21364 (EV7). Unlike most other SIMD instruction sets of the same period, such as MIPS' MDMX or SPARC's Visual Instruction Set, but like PA-RISC's Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions (MAX-1, MAX-2), MVI was a simple instruction set composed of a few instructions that operate on integer data types stored in existing integer registers. MVI's simplicity is due to two reasons. Firstly, Digital had determined that the Alpha 21164 was already capable of performing DVD decoding through software, therefore not requiring hardware provisions for the purpose, but was inefficient in MPEG-2 encoding. The second reason is the requirement to retain the fast cycle times of implementations. Adding many instructions would have complicated and enlarged the instruction decode logic, reducing an implementation's clock frequency. MVI consists of 13 instructions: ===Floating-point Extensions (FIX)=== Floating-point extensions (FIX) are an extension to the Alpha Architecture. It introduces nine instructions for floating-point square-root and for transferring data to and from the integer registers and floating-point registers. The Alpha 21264 (EV6) is the first microprocessor to implement these instructions. ===Count Extensions (CIX)=== Count Extensions (CIX) is an extension to the architecture which introduces three instructions for counting bits. These instructions are categorized as integer arithmetic instructions. They were first implemented on the Alpha 21264A (EV67). ==Implementations== At the time of its announcement, Alpha was heralded as an architecture for the next 25 years. While this was not to be, Alpha has nevertheless had a reasonably long life. The first version, the Alpha 21064 (otherwise named the EV4) was introduced in November 1992 running at up to 192 MHz; a slight shrink of the die (the EV4S, shrunk from 0.75 μm to 0.675 μm) ran at 200 MHz a few months later. The 64-bit processor was a superpipelined and superscalar design, like other RISC designs, but nevertheless outperformed them all and DEC touted it as the world's fastest processor. Careful attention to circuit design, a hallmark of the Hudson design team, like a huge centralized clock circuitry, allowed them to run the CPU at higher speeds, even though the microarchitecture was fairly similar to other RISC chips. In comparison, the less expensive Intel Pentium ran at 66 MHz when it was launched the following spring. The Alpha 21164 or EV5 became available in 1995 at processor frequencies of up to 333 MHz. In July 1996 the line was speed bumped to 500 MHz, in March 1998 to 666 MHz. Also in 1998 the Alpha 21264 (EV6) was released at 450 MHz, eventually reaching (in 2001 with the 21264C/EV68CB) 1.25 GHz. In 2003, the Alpha 21364 or EV7 Marvel was launched, essentially an EV68 core with four 1.6 GB/s inter-processor communication links for improved multiprocessor system performance, running at 1 or 1.15 GHz. In 1996, the production of Alpha chips was licensed to Samsung Electronics Company. Following the purchase of Digital by Compaq the majority of the Alpha products were placed with API NetWorks, Inc. (formerly Alpha Processor Inc.), a private company funded by Samsung and Compaq. In October 2001, Microway became the exclusive sales and service provider of API NetWorks' Alpha-based product line. On June 25, 2001, Compaq announced that Alpha would be phased out by 2004 in favor of Intel's Itanium, canceled the planned EV8 chip, and sold all Alpha intellectual property to Intel. Early revisions of the Sunway architecture are claimed to be based on Alpha, however since the SW26010, Sunway uses a new instruction set architecture unrelated to Alpha. ===Model history=== ISA extensions: R – Hardware support for rounding to infinity and negative infinity. B – BWX, the "Byte/Word Extension", adding instructions to allow 8- and 16-bit operations from memory and I/O M – MVI, "multimedia" instructions F – FIX, instructions to move data between integer and floating-point registers and for square root C – CIX, instructions for counting and finding bits T – support for prefetch with modify intent to improve the performance of the first attempt to acquire a lock ==Performance== To illustrate the comparative performance of Alpha-based systems, some Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC) performance numbers (SPECint95, SPECfp95) are listed below. Note that the SPEC results claim to report the measured performance of a whole computer system (CPU, bus, memory, compiler optimizer), not just the CPU. Also note that the benchmark and scale changed from 1992 to 1995. However, the figures give a rough impression of the performance of the Alpha architecture (64-bit), compared with the contemporary HP (64-bit) and Intel-based offerings (32-bit). Perhaps the most obvious trend is that while Intel could always get reasonably close to Alpha in integer performance, in floating-point performance the difference was considerable. On the other side, HP (PA-RISC) is also reasonably close to Alpha, but these CPUs are running at significantly lower clock rates (MHz). The tables lack two important values: the power consumption and the price of a CPU. ==Alpha-based systems== The first generation of DEC Alpha-based systems comprise the DEC 3000 AXP series workstations and low-end servers, DEC 4000 AXP series mid-range servers, and DEC 7000 AXP and 10000 AXP series high-end servers. The DEC 3000 AXP systems use the same TURBOchannel bus as the prior MIPS-based DECstation models, whereas the 4000 is based on Futurebus+ and the 7000/10000 share an architecture with corresponding VAX models. DEC also produced a personal computer (PC) configuration Alpha workstation with an Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) bus, the DECpc AXP 150 (codename Jensen, also named the DEC 2000 AXP). This is the first Alpha system to support Windows NT. DEC later produced Alpha versions of their Celebris XL and Digital Personal Workstation PC lines, with 21164 processors. Digital also produced single-board computers based on the VMEbus for embedded and industrial use. The first generation includes the 21068-based AXPvme 64 and AXPvme 64LC, and the 21066-based AXPvme 160. These were introduced on March 1, 1994. Later models such as the AXPvme 100, AXPvme 166 and AXPvme 230 are based on the 21066A processor, while the Alpha VME 4/224 and Alpha VME 4/288 are based on the 21064A processor. The last models, the Alpha VME 5/352 and Alpha VME 5/480, are based on the 21164 processor. The 21066 chip is used in the DEC Multia VX40/41/42 compact workstation and the ALPHAbook 1 laptop from Tadpole Technology. In 1994, DEC launched a new range of AlphaStation and AlphaServer systems. These use 21064 or 21164 processors and introduced the PCI bus, VGA-compatible frame buffers and PS/2-style keyboards and mice. The AlphaServer 8000 series supersedes the DEC 7000/10000 AXP and also employs XMI and FutureBus+ buses. The AlphaStation XP1000 is the first workstation based on the 21264 processor. Later AlphaServer/Station models based on the 21264 are categorised into DS (departmental server), ES (enterprise server) or GS (global server) families. The final 21364 chip is used in the AlphaServer ES47, ES80 and GS1280 models and the AlphaStation ES47. A number of OEM motherboards were produced by DEC, such as the 21066 and 21068-based AXPpci 33 "NoName", which was part of a major push into the OEM market by the company, the 21164-based AlphaPC 164 and AlphaPC 164LX, the 21164PC-based AlphaPC 164SX and AlphaPC 164RX and the 21264-based AlphaPC 264DP. Several third parties such as Samsung and API also produced OEM motherboards such as the API UP1000 and UP2000. To assist third parties in developing hardware and software for the platform, DEC produced Evaluation Boards, such as the EB64+ and EB164 for the Alpha 21064A and 21164 microprocessors respectively. The 21164 and 21264 processors were used by NetApp in various network-attached storage systems, while the 21064 and 21164 processors were used by Cray in their T3D and T3E massively parallel supercomputers. ===Supercomputers=== The fastest supercomputer based on Alpha processors was the ASCI Q at Los Alamos National Laboratory. The machine was built as an HP AlphaServer SC45/GS Cluster. It had 4096 Alpha (21264 EV-68, 1.25 GHz) CPUs, and reached an Rmax of 7.727 TFLOPS.	[ "MPEG-2", "Ken Olsen", "SW26010", "Berkeley Software Distribution", "due diligence", "Die (integrated circuit)", "Semiconductor device fabrication", "DEC 4000 AXP", "conditional move", "Linux", "XOR", "ARM architecture family", "NetBSD", "program counter", "transaction processing", "device driver", "ASCI Q", "Red Hat Linux", "PC motherboard form factor", "Data (computing)", "VMEbus", "HP 9000", "Software release life cycle", "Pocket PC", "PDF", "memory controller", "Hewlett-Packard", "Plan 9 from Bell Labs", "OpenBSD", "VAX", "Vlasic Pickles", "network-attached storage", "complex instruction set computer", "Alpha 21164", "Peripheral Component Interconnect", "Status register", "Compaq", "TFLOPS", "Vax (brand)", "Reduced instruction set computer", "Cray T3D", "Logical conjunction", "instruction set architecture", "Processor register", "AlphaStation", "octaword", "NVAX", "VAX 4000", "intellectual property", "ZDNet", "quadword", "R2000 (microprocessor)", "Motorola 68020", "API NetWorks", "Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation", "MIPS architecture", "Multi-core processor", "XNOR", "PA-RISC", "interrupt", "Sun-4", "Emitter coupled logic", "Windows 2000", "workstation", "Bitwise operation", "Futurebus", "IEEE 754", "out-of-order execution", "Control flow", "frame buffer", "simultaneous multithreading", "Logical NOR", "Logical shift", "DEC Multia", "NetApp", "PALcode", "motherboard", "superpipelined", "Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions", "128-bit computing", "multiprocessor", "AlphaServer", "DEC MICA", "Sun-3", "Windows NT", "Extended Industry Standard Architecture", "Cray", "longword", "Logical disjunction", "single instruction, multiple data", "MDMX", "L4 microkernel family", "Intel", "Load–store", "Cray T3E", "CVAX", "IEEE Spectrum", "64-bit computing", "DEC 7000/10000 AXP", "Alpha 21364", "Glowing pickle demonstration", "virtual address", "SUSE Linux", "ULTRIX", "Debian", "superscalar", "Samsung Electronics", "Alpha 21264", "vector processor", "Branch delay slot", "FreeBSD", "personal computer", "Pentium III", "Unix workstation", "Digital Personal Workstation", "OpenVMS", "Arithmetic shift", "least significant bit", "DEC 3000 AXP", "TURBOchannel", "DEC PRISM", "Microprocessor Report", "StrongARM", "Alpha 21464", "Digital Equipment Corporation", "massively parallel", "SPECint", "VGA", "Windows NT 4.0", "single-board computer", "byte", "8-bit computing", "DVD", "Original equipment manufacturer", "Tru64 UNIX", "Ultrix", "Pentium II", "translation lookaside buffer", "Kernel (operating system)", "reduced instruction set computer", "Alpha 21064", "Word (data type)", "Pentium Pro", "Sunway (processor)", "operating system", "CPU cache", "DECpc AXP 150", "PA-8000", "Itanium", "Sheffer stroke", "microprocessor", "Gentoo Linux", "32-bit computing", "Alpha and Omega", "Microway", "Intel XScale", "CMOS", "PS/2 connector", "Visual Instruction Set", "SPARC", "16-bit computing", "Sun Microsystems", "PA-8600", "Endianness", "Original Intel Pentium (P5 microarchitecture)", "Operating system" ]
8,972	Dagger	A dagger is a fighting knife with a very sharp point and usually one or two sharp edges, typically designed or capable of being used as a cutting or thrusting weapon. Daggers have been used throughout human history for close combat confrontations, and many cultures have used adorned daggers in ritual and ceremonial contexts. The dagger's distinctive shape and historic usage have made it iconic and symbolic. In the modern sense, a dagger is designed for close-proximity combat or self-defense; due to its use in historic weapon assemblages, it has associations with assassination and murder. However, double-edged knives play different roles in different social contexts. A wide variety of thrusting knives have been described as daggers, including knives that feature only a single cutting edge, such as the European rondel dagger or the Afghan pesh-kabz, or, in some instances, no cutting edge at all, such as the stiletto of the Renaissance. However, in the last hundred years or so, in most contexts, a dagger has specific definable characteristics, including a short blade with a sharply tapered point, a central spine or fuller, and usually two cutting edges sharpened the entire length of the blade, or nearly so. Most daggers also feature a full crossguard to keep the hand from riding forwards onto the sharpened blade edges. Daggers are primarily weapons, so knife legislation in many places restricts their manufacture, sale, possession, transport, or use. and copper daggers of Early Minoan III (2400–2000 BC) were recovered at Knossos. In ancient Egypt, daggers were usually made of copper or bronze, while royalty had gold weapons. At least since pre-dynastic Egypt, () daggers were adorned as ceremonial objects with golden hilts and later even more ornate and varied construction. One early silver dagger was recovered with a midrib design. The 1924 opening of the tomb of Tutankhamun revealed two daggers, one with a gold blade, and one of smelted iron. It is held that mummies of the Eleventh Dynasty were buried with bronze sabres; and there is a bronze dagger of Thut-mes III. (Eighteenth Dynasty), , and bronze armour, swords and daggers of Mene-ptah II. of the (Nineteenth Dynasty) . Iron production did not begin until 1200 BC, and iron ore was not found in Egypt, making the iron dagger rare, and the context suggests that the iron dagger was valued on a level equal to that of its ceremonial gold counterpart. These facts, and the composition of the dagger had long suggested a meteoritic origin, however, evidence for its meteoritic origin was not entirely conclusive until June 2016 when researchers using x-ray fluorescence spectrometry confirmed similar proportions of metals (Iron, 10% nickel, and 0.6% cobalt) in a meteorite discovered in the area, deposited by an ancient meteor shower. One of the earliest objects made of smelted iron is a dagger dating to before 2000 BC, found in a context that suggests it was treated as an ornamental object of great value. Found in a Hattic royal tomb dated about 2500 BC, at Alaca Höyük in northern Anatolia, the dagger has a smelted iron blade and a gold handle. The artisans and blacksmiths of Iberia in what is now southern Spain and southwestern France produced various iron daggers and swords of high quality from the 5th to the 3rd century BC, in ornamentation and patterns influenced by Greek, Punic (Carthaginian), and Phoenician culture. The exceptional purity of Iberian iron and the sophisticated method of forging, which included cold hammering, produced double-edged weapons of excellent quality. Iberian infantrymen carried several types of iron daggers, most of them based on shortened versions of double-edged swords, but the true Iberian dagger had a triangular-shaped blade. Hannibal and his Carthaginian armies later adopted Iberian daggers and swords. ===Middle Ages=== The term dagger appears only in the Late Middle Ages, reflecting the fact that while the dagger had been known in antiquity, it had disappeared during the Early Middle Ages, replaced by the hewing knife or seax. The dagger reappeared in the 12th century as the "knightly dagger", or more properly, cross-hilt or quillon dagger, and was developed into a common arm and tool for civilian use by the late medieval period. The earliest known depiction of a cross-hilt dagger is the so-called "Guido relief" inside the Grossmünster of Zürich (). Some depictions of the fully developed cross-hilt dagger are found in the Morgan Bible (). Many of these cross-hilt daggers resemble miniature swords, with cross guards and pommels very similar in form to swords of the period. Others, however, are not an exact match to known sword designs, having for instance pommel caps, large hollow star shaped pommels on so-called "Burgundian Heraldic daggers" or antenna style cross and pommel, reminiscent of Hallstatt era daggers. The cross-hilt type persisted well into the Renaissance The Old French term dague appears to have referred to these weapons in the 13th century, alongside other terms such as poignal and basilard. The Middle English dagger is used from the 1380s. During this time, the dagger was often employed in the role of a secondary defense weapon in close combat. The knightly dagger evolved into the larger baselard knife in the 14th century. During the 14th century, it became fairly common for knights to fight on foot to strengthen the infantry defensive line. This necessitated more use of daggers. At Agincourt (1415) archers used them to dispatch dismounted knights by thrusting the narrow blades through helmet vents and other apertures. The baselard was considered an intermediate between a short sword and a long dagger, and became popular also as a civilian weapon. Sloane MS. 2593 () records a song satirizing the use of oversized baselard knives as fashion accessories. Weapons of this sort called anelace, somewhere between a large dagger and a short sword, were much in use in 14th century England as civilians' accoutrements, worn "suspended by a ring from the girdle". In the Late Middle Ages, knives with blade designs that emphasized thrusting attacks, such as the stiletto, became increasingly popular, and some thrusting knives commonly referred to as 'daggers' ceased to have a cutting edge. This was a response to the deployment of heavy armour, such as maille and plate armour, where cutting attacks were ineffective and focus was on thrusts with narrow blades to punch through mail or aim at armour plate intersections (or the eye slits of the helmet visor). The shape of their hilt sometimes classes these late medieval thrusting weapons as either roundel, bollock or ear daggers. The term dagger is coined in this time, as are the Early Modern German equivalents dolch (tolch) and degen (tegen). In the German school of fencing, Johannes Liechtenauer (Ms. 3227a) and his successors (specifically Andres Lignizer in Cod. 44 A 8) taught fighting with the dagger. In some respects, these techniques resemble modern knife fighting but emphasize thrusting strokes almost exclusively, instead of slashes and cuts. When used offensively, a standard attack frequently employed the reverse or icepick grip, stabbing downward with the blade to increase thrust and penetrative force. This was done primarily because the blade point frequently had to penetrate or push apart an opponent's steel chain mail or plate armour to inflict an injury. The disadvantage of employing the medieval dagger in this manner was that it could easily be blocked by various techniques, most notably by a block with the weaponless arm while simultaneously attacking with a weapon held in the right hand. Another disadvantage was the reduction in effective blade reach to the opponent when using a reverse grip. As the wearing of armour fell out of favor, dagger fighting techniques began to evolve, emphasizing the use of the dagger with a conventional or forward grip. In contrast, the reverse or icepick grip was retained when attacking an unsuspecting opponent from behind, such as in an assassination. ===Renaissance and early modern period=== The dagger was very popular as a fencing and personal defense weapon in 17th and 18th century Spain, where it was referred to as the daga or puñal. During the Renaissance Age the dagger was used as part of everyday dress, and daggers were the only weapon commoners were allowed to carry on their person. In English, the terms poniard and dirk are loaned during the late 16th to early 17th century, the latter in the spelling dork, durk (presumably via Low German, Dutch or Scandinavian dolk, dolch, ultimately from a West Slavic tulich), the modern spelling dirk dating to 18th-century Scots. Beginning in the 17th century, another form of dagger—the plug bayonet and later the socket bayonet—was used to convert muskets and other longarms into spears by mounting them on the barrel. They were periodically used for eating; the arm was also used for various other tasks such as mending boots, house repairs, and farm jobs. The final function of the dagger was as an obvious and ostentatious means of enhancing a man's apparel, conforming to fashion which dictated that all men carried them. ===Modern period (19th–21st century)=== WW1 trench warfare caused daggers and fighting knives to come back in play. They also replaced the sabres worn by officers, which were too long and clumsy for trench warfare. They were worn with pride as a sign of having served front-line duty. Daggers achieved public notoriety in the 20th century as ornamental uniform regalia during the Fascist dictatorships of Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany. Several other countries, including Japan, have used dress daggers, but never to the same extent. As combat equipment, they were carried by many infantry and commando forces during the Second World War. British Commando and other elite units were issued an exceedingly slender dagger, the Fairbairn–Sykes fighting knife, developed by William E. Fairbairn and Eric A. Sykes from real-life close-combat experiences gained while serving on the Shanghai Municipal Police Force. The F-S dagger proved very popular with the commandos, who used it primarily for sentry elimination. Some units of the U.S. Marine Corps Raiders in the Pacific were issued a similar fighting dagger, the Marine Raider stiletto, though this modified design proved less than successful when used in the type of knife combat encountered in the Pacific theater due to this version using inferior materials and manufacturing techniques. During the Vietnam War, the Gerber Mark II, designed by US Army Captain Bud Holzman and Al Mar, was a popular fighting knife pattern privately purchased by many U.S. soldiers and marines who served in that war. Aside from military forces, most daggers are no longer carried openly, but concealed in clothing. One of the more popular forms of the concealable dagger is the boot knife. The boot knife is nothing more than a shortened dagger that is compact enough to be worn on the lower leg, usually using a sheath clipped or strapped to a boot or other footwear. ==Cultural symbolism== The dagger is symbolically ambiguous. For some cultures and military organizations, the dagger symbolizes courage and daring in combat. However, daggers may be associated with deception or treachery due to the ease of concealment and the surprise the user could inflict upon an unsuspecting victim. Indeed, many assassinations have been carried out with the use of a dagger, including that of Julius Caesar. A cloak and dagger attack is one in which a deceitful, traitorous, or concealed enemy attacks a person. Some have noted a phallic association between daggers and the succession of royal dynasties in British literature. In European artwork, daggers were sometimes associated with Hecate, the Ancient Greek goddess of witchcraft. The social stigma of the dagger originates in its periodic use in the commission of disreputable and murderous attacks, from the 44 BC assassination of Julius Caesar to the use of the stiletto dagger by the Black Hand of early 20th century America. Consequently, it developed a public association with surprise assaults by criminals and murderers intent on stabbing unsuspecting victims. To this day, criminal codes of many nations and some US states specifically ban the carrying of the dagger as a prohibited weapon. One of the knives required of an American Bladesmith Society Mastersmith is the construction of an "art knife" or a "European style" dagger.	[ "Tobias Capwell", "Ear dagger", "Persepolis", "basilard", "Eric A. Sykes", "Sloane MS", "witchcraft", "long gun", "combat knife", "wikt:dagger", "wikt:Degen", "ceremonial weapon", "plug bayonet", "Extremadura", "fuller (weapon)", "Early Modern German", "gladius", "Grossmünster", "Early Minoan III", "pugio", "Marine Raiders", "Quillon", "flint", "Ancient iron production", "Late Middle Ages", "rondel dagger", "plate armour", "spear", "chain mail", "close combat", "icepick grip", "Fairbairn–Sykes fighting knife", "sword", "Portugal", "pre-dynastic Egypt", "Bronze Age", "seax", "Knossos", "Roman Empire", "Muséum de Toulouse", "All Arms Commando Course", "x-ray fluorescence", "American Bladesmith Society", "Tutankhamun's mummy", "Zürich", "Copper", "cutting", "companion weapon", "Black Hand (extortion)", "accoutrements", "Morgan Bible", "Scots language", "Sanandaj", "United States Marine Raider stiletto", "Tutankhamun's iron dagger blade", "Renaissance", "Late Middle English", "Achaemenid Empire", "William E. Fairbairn", "Knife", "Cod. 44 A 8", "commando", "bollock dagger", "assassinations", "American Association for the Advancement of Science", "musket", "William Swan Sonnenschein", "wikt:Dolch", "Khanjar", "knife legislation", "World War II", "dirk", "Iberia", "baselard", "pesh-kabz", "wikt:dague", "Old French", "phallic", "stiletto", "Cyril John Gadd", "Science (journal)", "bone", "Johannes Liechtenauer", "Iberians", "knife fight", "Gerber Mark II", "Neolithic", "cloak and dagger", "3227a", "ivory", "Hecate", "stabbing", "bayonet", "fighting knife", "roundel dagger", "Julius Caesar", "anelace", "Rondel dagger", "meteor shower", "boot knife", "German school of fencing", "blade", "Lusitanians", "Louvre" ]
8,973	Dominican Order	{{Infobox organization \| name = Order of Preachers \| native_name = Ordo Prædicatorum \| native_name_lang = la \| image = Seal of the Dominican Order.svg \| image_size = 178px \| caption = Coat of arms of the order \| abbreviation = OP \| formation = \| founder = Dominic de Guzmán \| founding_location = \| headquarters = Convento Santa Sabina, Piazza Pietro d'Illiria 1, Rome, Italy After completing his studies, Bishop Martin Bazan and Prior Diego de Acebo appointed him to the cathedral chapter of Osma. ===Preaching to the Cathars=== In 1203, Dominic de Guzmán joined Diego de Acebo, the Bishop of Osma, on a diplomatic mission to Denmark for the monarchy of Spain, to arrange the marriage between the son of King Alfonso VIII of Castile and a niece of King Valdemar II of Denmark. At that time the south of France was the stronghold of the Cathar movement. The Cathars (also known as Albigensians, due to their stronghold in Albi, France) were considered a heretical neo-gnostic sect. They believed that matter was evil and only the spirit was good; this was a fundamental challenge to the notion of the incarnation, central to Catholic theology. The Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) was a 20-year military campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism in Languedoc, in southern France. Dominic saw the need for a response that would attempt to sway members of the Albigensian movement back to mainstream Catholic thought. Dominic became inspired to achieve this by preaching and teaching, starting near Toulouse, since the Albigensian Christians refused to compromise their principles despite the overwhelming force of the crusades brought against them. Diego suggested another reason that was possibly aiding the spread of the reform movement. The representatives of the Catholic Church acted and moved with an offensive amount of pomp and ceremony. In contrast, the Cathars generally led ascetic lifestyles. To try persuasion in place of persecution, Diego suggested that the regional papal legates begin to live a reformed apostolic life. The legates agreed to the proposed changes if they could find a strong leader who could meet the Albigensians on their own ground. The prior took up the challenge, and he and Dominic dedicated themselves to the conversion of the Cathars. Despite this particular mission, Dominic met limited success converting Cathars by persuasion, "for though in his ten years of preaching a large number of converts were made, it has to be said that the results were not such as had been hoped for". The differences in religious principles of the Albigensians called for far greater reforms than moderated appearances. ===Dominican convent established=== Dominic became the spiritual father to several Albigensian women he had reconciled to the faith, and in 1206 he established them in a convent in Prouille, near Toulouse. ===Middle Ages=== In July 1215, with the approbation of Bishop Foulques of Toulouse, Dominic ordered his followers into an institutional life. Its purpose was revolutionary in the pastoral ministry of the Catholic Church. These priests were organized and well trained in religious studies. Dominic needed a framework—a rule—to organize these components. The Rule of Saint Augustine was an obvious choice for the Dominican Order, according to Dominic's successor Jordan of Saxony, in the Libellus de principiis, because it lent itself to the "salvation of souls through preaching". By this choice, however, the Dominican brothers designated themselves not monks, but canons regular. They could practice ministry and common life while existing in individual poverty. The Order of Preachers was approved in December 1216 and January 1217 by Pope Honorius III in the papal bulls and . On January 21, 1217, Honorius issued the bull recognizing Dominic's followers as an order dedicated to study and universally authorized to preach, a power formerly reserved to local episcopal authorization. Along with charity, the other concept that most defines the work and spirituality of the order is study, the method most used by the Dominicans in working to defend the church against the perils it faced. In Dominic's thinking, it was impossible for men to preach what they did not or could not understand. On August 15, 1217, Dominic dispatched seven of his followers to the great university center of Paris to establish a priory focused on study and preaching. The Convent of St. Jacques would eventually become the order's first . Dominic was to establish similar foundations at other university towns of the day, Bologna in 1218, Palencia and Montpellier in 1220, and Oxford just before his death in 1221. The women of the order also established schools for the children of the local gentry. In 1219, Pope Honorius III invited Dominic and his companions to take up residence at the ancient Roman basilica of Santa Sabina, which they did by early 1220. Before that time the friars had only a temporary residence in Rome at the convent of San Sisto Vecchio which Honorius III had given to Dominic circa 1218 intending it to become a convent for a reformation of nuns at Rome under Dominic's guidance. In May 1220 at Bologna the order's first General Chapter mandated that each new priory of the order maintain its own , thus laying the foundation of the Dominican tradition of sponsoring widespread institutions of learning. The official foundation of the Dominican convent at Santa Sabina with its occurred with the legal transfer of property from Honorius III to the Order of Preachers on June 5, 1222. This was transformed into the order's first by Thomas Aquinas in 1265. Part of the curriculum of this was relocated in 1288 at the of Santa Maria sopra Minerva which in the 16th century world be transformed into the College of Saint Thomas (). In the 20th century the college would be relocated to the convent of Saints Dominic and Sixtus and would be transformed into the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. The Dominican friars quickly spread, including to England, where they appeared in Oxford in 1221. In the 13th century the order reached all classes of Christian society, fought heresy, schism, and paganism by word and book, and by its missions to the north of Europe, to Africa, and Asia passed beyond the frontiers of Christendom. Its schools spread throughout the entire church; its doctors wrote monumental works in all branches of knowledge, including the extremely important Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. Its members included popes, cardinals, bishops, legates, inquisitors, confessors of princes, ambassadors, and (enforcers of the peace decreed by popes or councils). The order's origins in battling heterodoxy influenced its later development and reputation. Many later Dominicans battled heresy as part of their apostolate; many years after Dominic reacted to the Cathars, the first Grand Inquistor of Spain, Tomás de Torquemada, would be drawn from the Dominican Order. The order was appointed by Pope Gregory IX the duty to carry out the Inquisition. Torture was not regarded as a mode of punishment, but as a means of eliciting the truth. In his papal bull of 1252, Pope Innocent IV authorised the Dominicans' use of torture under prescribed circumstances. The expansion of the order produced changes. A smaller emphasis on doctrinal activity favoured the development here and there of the ascetic and contemplative life and there sprang up, especially in Germany and Italy, the mystical movement with which the names of Meister Eckhart, Heinrich Suso, Johannes Tauler, and Catherine of Siena are associated. (See German mysticism, which has also been called "Dominican mysticism".) This movement was the prelude to the reforms undertaken, at the end of the century, by Raymond of Capua, and continued in the following century. At the same time, the order found itself face to face with the Renaissance. It struggled against pagan tendencies in Renaissance humanism, in Italy through Dominici and Savonarola, in Germany through the theologians of Cologne but it also furnished humanism with such advanced writers as Francesco Colonna (probably the writer of the ) and Matteo Bandello. Many Dominicans took part in the artistic activity of the age, the most prominent being Fra Angelico and Fra Bartolomeo. ====Women==== Although Dominic and the early brethren had instituted female Dominican houses at Prouille and other places by 1227, houses of women attached to the Order became so popular that some of the friars had misgivings about the increasing demands of female religious establishments on their time and resources. Nonetheless, women's houses dotted the countryside throughout Europe. There were 74 Dominican female houses in Germany, 42 in Italy, 9 in France, 8 in Spain, 6 in Bohemia, 3 in Hungary, and 3 in Poland. Many of the German religious houses that lodged women had been home to communities of women, such as Beguines, that became Dominican once they were taught by the traveling preachers and put under the jurisdiction of the Dominican authoritative structure. A number of these houses became centers of study and mystical spirituality in the 14th century, as expressed in works such as the sister-books. There were 157 nunneries in the order by 1358. After that year, the number lessened considerably due to the Black Death. In places besides Germany, convents were founded as retreats from the world for women of the upper classes. These were original projects funded by wealthy patrons. Among these was Countess Margaret of Flanders who established the monastery of Lille, while Val-Duchesse at Oudergem near Brussels was built with the wealth of Adelaide of Burgundy, Duchess of Brabant (1262). Female houses differed from male Dominican houses in that they were enclosed. The sisters chanted the Divine Office and kept all the monastic observances. The nuns lived under the authority of the general and provincial chapters of the order. They shared in all the applicable privileges of the order. The friars served as their confessors, priests, teachers and spiritual mentors. Women could be professed to the Dominican religious life at the age of 13. The formula for profession contained in the Constitutions of Montargis Priory (1250) requires that nuns pledge obedience to God, the Blessed Virgin, their prioress and her successors according to the Rule of Saint Augustine and the institute of the order, until death. The clothing of the sisters consisted of a white tunic and scapular, a leather belt, a black mantle, and a black veil. Candidates to profession were questioned to reveal whether they were actually married women who had merely separated from their husbands. Their intellectual abilities were also tested. Nuns were to be silent in places of prayer, the cloister, the dormitory, and refectory. Silence was maintained unless the prioress granted an exception for a specific cause. Speaking was allowed in the common parlor, but it was subordinate to strict rules, and the prioress, subprioress or other senior nun had to be present. As well as sewing, embroidery and other genteel pursuits, the nuns participated in a number of intellectual activities, including reading and discussing pious literature. In the Strassburg monastery of Saint Margaret, some of the nuns could converse fluently in Latin. Learning still had an elevated place in the lives of these religious. In fact, Margarette Reglerin, a daughter of a wealthy Nuremberg family, was dismissed from a convent because she did not have the ability or will to learn. ====English Province==== The English Province and the Hungarian Province both date back to the second general chapter of the Dominican Order, held in Bologna during the spring of 1221. Dominic dispatched 12 friars to England under the guidance of their English prior, Gilbert of Fresney, and they landed in Dover on August 5, 1221. The province officially came into being at its first provincial chapter in 1230. The English Province was a component of the international order from which it obtained its laws, direction, and instructions. It was also, however, a group of Englishmen. Its direct supervisors were from England, and the members of the English Province dwelt and labored in English cities, towns, villages, and roadways. English and European ingredients constantly came in contact. The international side of the province's existence influenced the national, and the national responded to, adapted, and sometimes constrained the international. The first Dominican site in England was at Oxford, in the parishes of St. Edward and St. Adelaide. The friars built an oratory to the Blessed Virgin Mary and by 1265, the brethren, in keeping with their devotion to study, began erecting a school. The Dominican brothers likely began a school immediately after their arrival, as priories were legally schools. Information about the schools of the English Province is limited, but a few facts are known. Much of the information available is taken from visitation records. The "visitation" was an inspection of the province by which visitors to each priory could describe the state of its religious life and its studies at the next chapter. There were four such visits in England and Wales—Oxford, London, Cambridge and York. All Dominican students were required to learn grammar, old and new logic, natural philosophy and theology. Of all of the curricular areas, however, theology was the most important. Dartford Priory was established long after the primary period of monastic foundation in England had ended. It emulated, then, the monasteries found in Europe—mainly France and Germany-as well as the monastic traditions of their English Dominican brothers. The first nuns to inhabit Dartford were sent from the in France. Even on the eve of the Dissolution, Prioress Jane Vane wrote to Cromwell on behalf of a postulant, saying that though she had not actually been professed, she was professed in her heart and in the eyes of God. Profession in Dartford Priory seems, then, to have been made based on personal commitment, and one's personal association with God. As heirs of the Dominican priory of Poissy in France, the nuns of Dartford Priory in England were also heirs to a tradition of profound learning and piety. Strict discipline and plain living were characteristic of the monastery throughout its existence. ===From the Reformation to the French Revolution=== Bartolomé de Las Casas, as a settler in the New World, was galvanized by witnessing the brutal torture and genocide of the Native Americans by the Spanish colonists. He became famous for his advocacy of the rights of Native Americans, whose cultures, especially in the Caribbean, he describes with care. Gaspar da Cruz (), who worked all over the Portuguese colonial empire in Asia, was probably the first Christian missionary to preach (unsuccessfully) in Cambodia. After a (similarly unsuccessful) stint, in 1556, in Guangzhou, China, he eventually returned to Portugal and became the first European to publish a book devoted exclusively to China in 1569/1570. The beginning of the 16th century confronted the order with the upheavals of Reformation. The spread of Protestantism cost it six or seven provinces and several hundreds of convents, but the discovery of the New World opened up a fresh field of activity. In the 18th century, there were numerous attempts at reform, accompanied by a reduction in the number of devotees. The French Revolution ruined the order in France, and crises that more or less rapidly followed considerably lessened or wholly destroyed numerous provinces. === 18th century === In 1731, a book entitled "The second volume of the history of the Province of Spain of the Order of Preachers, chronicling the progress of their foundations and the lives of illustrious figures," was written by the chronicler of the Order of Preachers and the province of Spain, the General Preacher Fr. Manuel Joseph de Medrano, Prior of the convent of Santo Domingo in Guadalajara. Medrano, a native of Logroño, dedicated his book to, and under the protection of the Illustrious and Reverend Lord D. Fr. Francisco Lasso de la Vega y Cordova, bishop of Plasencia, with privilege, printed in Madrid at the printing press of Geronimo Roxo. ===From the 19th century to the present=== During the early 19th century, the number of Preachers seems never to have sunk below 3,500. Statistics for 1876 show 3,748, but 500 of these had been expelled from their convents and were engaged in parochial work. Statistics for 1910 show a total of 4,472 nominally or actually engaged in proper activities of the order. , there were 6,058 Dominican friars, including 4,470 priests. From this mission were founded many Third Order Regular congregations of Dominican sisters, with their own constitutions, though still following the Rule of Saint Augustine and affiliated to the Dominican Order. These include the Dominican Sisters of Oakford, KwazuluNatal (1881), the Dominican Missionary Sisters, Zimbabwe, (1890) The Dominican Order has influenced the formation of other orders outside of the Catholic Church, such as the Anglican Order of Preachers within the Anglican Communion. Since not all members are obliged to take solemn or simple vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, it operates more like a third order with a third order style structure, with no contemporary or canonical ties to the historical order founded by Dominic of Guzman. ===Missions abroad=== The Pax Mongolica of the 13th and 14th centuries that united vast parts of the European-Asian continents enabled Western missionaries to travel east. "Dominican friars were preaching the Gospel on the Volga Steppes by 1225 (the year following the establishment of the Kipchak Khanate by Batu), and in 1240 Pope Gregory IX despatched others to Persia and Armenia." The most famous Dominican was Jordanus de Severac who was sent first to Persia then in 1321, together with a companion (Nicolas of Pistoia) to India. Jordanus' work and observations are recorded in two letters he wrote to the friars of Armenia, and a book, , translated as Wonders of the East. Another Dominican, Ricold of Monte Croce, worked in Syria and Persia. His travels took him from Acre to Tabriz, and on to Baghdad. There "he was welcomed by the Dominican fathers already there, and with them entered into a disputation with the Nestorians." Although a number of Dominicans and Franciscans persevered against the growing faith of Islam throughout the region, all Christian missionaries were soon expelled with Timur's death in 1405. By the 1850s, the Dominicans had half a million followers in the Philippines and well-established missions in the Chinese province of Fujian and Tonkin, Vietnam, performing thousands of baptisms each year. The Dominicans presence in the Philippines has become one of the leading proponents of education with the establishment of Colegio de San Juan de Letran. ==Divisions== The Friars, Nuns, Third Orders (Dominican Laity), and the Members of Priestly Fraternities of Saint Dominic form the Order of Preachers. Together with the Religious Sisters, Associates of the Religious Sisters, and Dominican Youth they form the Dominican family. ===Governance=== The highest authority within the Order of Preachers is the General Chapter, which is empowered to develop legislation governing all organizations within the Dominican umbrella, as well as enforce that legislation. The General Chapter is composed of two bodies, the Chapter of Provincials and the Chapter of Definitors (or Diffinitors), a unique configuration within the Catholic Church. Each body is of equal authority to propose legislation and discuss other matters of general importance within the order, and each body may be called individually or jointly. The Provincials consists of the superiors of individual Dominican provinces, while the Diffinitors consists of "grass root" representatives of each province, so created to avoid provincial superiors having to spend excessive time away from their day-to-day duties of governing. To maintain stability of the legislation of the order, new legislation is enacted only when approved by three successive meetings of the General Chapter. The first General Chapters were held at Pentecost in the years 1220 and 1221. 2001 – Providence, USA 2010 – 290th General Chapter, 1–21 September 2010, Rome, which elaborated the mission mandates of the order. 2016 – Bologna 2019 – Elective General Chapter, 9 July – 4 August 2019, at the Convent of St. Martin de Porres, Biên Hòa, Viet Nam 2022 – 16 July – 8 August 2022, Tultenango in the State of Mexico, a Chapter of Definitors. The General Chapter elects a Master of the Order, who has "broad and direct authority over every brother, convent and province, and over every nun and monastery". The master is considered the successor of Dominic, the first Master of the Order, who envisioned the office to be one of service to the community. The master is currently elected for a 9-year term, and is aided by the General Curia of the Order. His authority is subject only to the General Chapter. Some monasteries raise funds for their operations by producing religious articles such as priestly vestments or baking communion wafers. ===Friars=== Friars are male members of the order, and consist of members ordained to the priesthood as well as non-ordained members, known as cooperator brothers. Both priests and cooperators participate in a variety of ministries, including preaching, parish assignments, educational ministries, social work, and related fields. Dominicans are known for their intellectual rigor that informs their preaching, as well as engaging in academic debate with contemporary scholars. A significant period of academic study is required prior to taking final vows of membership. === Religious Sisters=== Women have been part of the Dominican Order since the beginning, but distinct active congregations of Dominican sisters in their current form are largely a product of the nineteenth century and afterward. They draw their origins both from the Dominican nuns and the communities of women tertiaries (laywomen) who lived in their own homes and gathered regularly to pray and study: the most famous of these was the Mantellates attached to Saint Dominic's church in Siena, to which Catherine of Siena belonged. In the seventeenth century, some European Dominican monasteries (e.g. St Ursula's, Augsburg) temporarily became no longer enclosed, so they could engage in teaching or nursing or other work in response to pressing local need. Any daughter houses they founded, however, became independent. But in the nineteenth century, in response to increasing missionary fervor, monasteries were asked to send groups of women to found schools and medical clinics around the world. Large numbers of Catholic women traveled to Africa, the Americas, and the East to teach and support new communities of Catholics there, both settlers and converts. Owing to the large distances involved, these groups needed to be self-governing, and they frequently planted new self-governing congregations in neighboring mission areas in order to respond more effectively to the perceived pastoral needs. Following on from this period of growth in the nineteenth century, and another great period of growth in those joining these congregations in the 1950s, there are currently 24,600 Sisters belonging to 150 Dominican Religious Congregations present in 109 countries affiliated to Dominican Sisters International. As well as the friars, Dominican sisters live their lives supported by four common values, often referred to as the Four Pillars of Dominican Life, they are community life, common prayer, study, and service. Dominic called this fourfold pattern of life "holy preaching". Henri Matisse was so moved by the care that he received from the Dominican Sisters that he collaborated in the design and interior decoration of their Chapelle du Saint-Marie du Rosaire in Vence, France. ===Priestly Fraternities of St. Dominic=== The Priestly Fraternities of St. Dominic consist of diocesan priests who are formally affiliated to, and "true members" of, the Order of Preachers (Dominicans) through a Rule of life that they profess, and who strive for evangelical perfection under the overall direction of the Dominican friars. The origins of the Dominican fraternities can be traced from the Dominican third Order secular, which then included both priests and lay persons as members. Now existing as a separate association from that of the laity, and with its own distinct rule to follow, the Priestly Fraternities of St. Dominic continue to be guided by the Order in embracing the gift of the spirituality of Dominic in the unique context of the diocesan priesthood. Along with the special grace of the Sacrament of Holy Orders, which helps them to perform the acts of the sacred ministry worthily, they receive new spiritual help from the profession, which makes them members of the Dominican Family and sharers in the grace and mission of the Order. While the Order provides them with these spiritual aids and directs them to their own sanctification, it leaves them free for the complete service of the local Church, under the jurisdiction of their own Bishop. ===Dominican Laity (Tertiary/Third Order)=== Lay Dominicans are governed by their own rule, the Rule of the Lay Fraternities of St. Dominic, promulgated by the Master in 1987. It is the fifth Rule of the Dominican Laity; the first was issued in 1285. Lay Dominicans are also governed by the Fundamental Constitution of the Dominican Laity, and their provinces provide a General Directory and Statutes. According to their Fundamental Constitution of the Dominican Laity, sec. 4, "They have a distinctive character in both their spirituality and their service to God and neighbor. As members of the Order, they share in its apostolic mission through prayer, study and preaching according to the state of the laity." Pope Pius XII, in Chosen Laymen, an Address to the Third Order of St. Dominic (1958), said, "The true condition of salvation is to meet the divine invitation by accepting the Catholic 'credo' and by observing the commandments. But the Lord expects more from you [Lay Dominicans], and the Church urges you to continue seeking the intimate knowledge of God and His works, to search for a more complete and valuable expression of this knowledge, a refinement of the Christian attitudes which derive from this knowledge." The two greatest saints among them are Catherine of Siena and Rose of Lima, who lived ascetic lives in their family homes, yet both had widespread influence in their societies. ===Associates=== In the 20th Century, Associates who share the Dominican charism with congregations of Religious Sisters were formed. Dominican Associates are Christian women and men; married, single, divorced, and widowed; clergy members and lay persons who were first drawn to and then called to live out the charism and continue the mission of the Dominican Order – to praise, to bless, to preach. Associates do not take vows, but rather make a commitment to be partners with vowed members, and to share the mission and charism of the Dominican Family in their own lives, families, churches, neighborhoods, workplaces, and cities. They are most often associated with a particular apostolic work of the congregation of active Dominican sisters to which they belong. ==Spirituality== The Dominican emphasis on learning and charity distinguishes it from other monastic and mendicant orders. As the order first developed in Europe, learning continued to be emphasized by those friars and their sisters in Christ. These religious also struggled for a deeply personal and intimate relationship with God. When the order reached England, many of the attributes were kept, but the English gave the order additional specialized characteristics. ===Humbert of Romans=== Humbert of Romans, the master general of the order from 1254 to 1263, was a great administrator, preacher, and writer. It was under his tenure as master general that the nun of the order were given a new constitution. He also wanted his friars to reach excellence in their preaching, his most lasting contribution to the order. Humbert is at the center of ascetic writers in the Dominican Order. He advised his readers, "[Young Dominicans] are also to be instructed not to be eager to see visions or work miracles, since these avail little to salvation, and sometimes we are fooled by them; but rather they should be eager to do good in which salvation consists. Also, they should be taught not to be sad if they do not enjoy the divine consolations they hear others have; but they should know the loving Father for some reason sometimes withholds these. Again, they should learn that if they lack the grace of compunction or devotion they should not think they are not in the state of grace as long as they have good will, which is all that God regards". The English Dominicans took this to heart and made it the focal point of their mysticism. ===Mysticism=== The Dominican Order was affected by a number of elemental influences. Its early members imbued the order with a mysticism and learning. Mysticism refers to the conviction that all believers have the capability to experience God's love. This love may manifest itself through brief ecstatic experiences, such that one may be engulfed by God and gain an immediate knowledge of him, which is unknowable through the intellect alone. Although the ultimate attainment for mysticism is union with God, the goal is just as much to become like Christ as it is to become one with him. Those who believe in Christ should first have faith in him without becoming engaged in such overwhelming phenomena. The Europeans of the order embraced ecstatic mysticism on a grand scale and looked to a union with the Creator. The English Dominicans looked for this complete unity as well but were not so focused on ecstatic experiences. Instead, their goal was to emulate the moral life of Christ more completely. The Dartford nuns were surrounded by all of those legacies and used them to create something unique. ====Saint Albertus Magnus==== Another member of the order who contributed significantly to its spirituality is Albert the Great, whose influence on the brotherhood permeated nearly every aspect of Dominican life. Albertus Magnus championed the idea, drawn from Dionysius the Areopagite, that positive knowledge of God is possible but obscure. Thus, it is easier to state what God is not than to state what God is: Albert the Great wrote that wisdom and understanding enhance one's faith in God. According to him, these are the tools that God uses to commune with a contemplative. Love in the soul is both the cause and result of true understanding and judgement. It causes not only an intellectual knowledge of God, but a spiritual and emotional knowledge as well. Contemplation is the means whereby one can obtain this goal of understanding. Things that once seemed static and unchanging become full of possibility and perfection. The contemplative then knows that God is, but they do not know what God is. Thus, contemplation forever produces a mystified, imperfect knowledge of God. The soul is exalted beyond the rest of God's creation but it cannot see God himself. ====Rhineland mysticism==== Mysticism in the Rhineland emerged from a series of crises—political, social (the Black Death and its consequences), and religious. The writings of Albertus Magnus made a significant contribution to German mysticism, which became vibrant in the minds of the Beguines and women such as Hildegard of Bingen and Mechthild of Magdeburg. In Europe, it was often the female members of the order, such as Catherine of Siena, Mechthild of Magdeburg, Christine of Stommeln, Margaret Ebner, and Elsbet Stagl, who gained reputations for having mystical experiences. Notable male members of the order associated with mysticism include Henry Suso and Johannes Tauler. ====English Dominican mysticism==== By 1300, the enthusiasm for preaching and conversion within the order had lessened. Mysticism, full of the ideas Albertus Magnus expostulated, became the devotion of the greatest minds and hands within the organization. It became a "powerful instrument of personal and theological transformation both within the Order of Preachers and throughout the wider reaches of Christendom. Although Albertus Magnus did much to instill mysticism in the Order of Preachers, it is a concept that reaches back to the Hebrew Bible. In the tradition of Holy Writ, the impossibility of coming face to face with God is a recurring motif. As time passed, Jewish and early Christian writings presented the idea of "unknowing" in which God's presence was enveloped in a dark cloud. All of those ideas associated with mysticism were at play in the spirituality of the Dominican community. English Dominican mysticism in the late medieval period differed from European strands of it in that, whereas European Dominican mysticism tended to concentrate on ecstatic experiences of union with the divine, English Dominican mysticism's ultimate focus was on a crucial dynamic in one's personal relationship with God. That was an essential moral imitation of the Savior as an ideal for religious change and as the means for reformation of humanity's nature as an image of divinity. This type of mysticism carried with it four elements. Firstly, spiritually it emulated the moral essence of Christ's life. Secondly, there was a connection linking moral emulation of Christ's life and humanity's disposition as images of the divine. Thirdly, English Dominican mysticism focused on an embodied spirituality with a structured love of fellow men at its center. Finally, the supreme aspiration of this mysticism was either an ethical or an actual union with God. For English Dominican mystics, the mystical experience was not expressed just in one moment of the full knowledge of God but in the journey of or process of faith. That then led to an understanding that was directed toward an experiential knowledge of divinity. However, for these mystics it was possible to pursue mystical life without the visions and voices that are usually associated with such a relationship with God. The centre of all mystical experience is of course Christ. English Dominicans sought to gain a full knowledge of Christ through an imitation of his life. English mystics of all types tended to focus on the moral values that the events in Christ's life exemplified. That led to a "progressive understanding of the meanings of Scripture—literal, moral, allegorical, and anagogical," which was contained within the mystical journey itself. From these considerations of Scripture comes the simplest way to imitate Christ: an emulation of the moral actions and attitudes that Jesus demonstrated in his earthly ministry becomes the most significant way to feel and have knowledge of God. The English concentrated on the spirit of the events of Christ's life. They neither expected nor sought the appearance of the stigmata or any other physical manifestation. They wanted to create in themselves that environment that allowed Jesus to fulfill his divine mission, insofar as they were able. At the centre of that environment was love, which Christ showed for humanity in becoming human. Christ's love reveals the mercy of God and his care for his creation. English Dominican mystics sought through that love to become images of God. English Dominican spirituality concentrated on the moral implications of image-bearing. Love led to spiritual growth that, in turn, reflected an increase in love for God and humanity. ===Theological tradition=== Since the 13th century, the Dominicans have maintained a continuous tradition of Thomism, a system of scholastic theology informed by the writings of Thomas Aquinas. J. A. Weisheipl emphasizes that within the order the history of Thomism has been continuous since the time of Aquinas: ===Devotion to Mary=== Devotion to the Virgin Mary was another very important aspect of Dominican spirituality. As an order, the Dominicans believed that they were established through the good graces of Christ's mother, and through prayers, she sent missionaries to save the souls of nonbelievers. Dominican brothers and sisters unable to participate in the Divine Office sang the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary each day and saluted her as their advocate. Throughout the centuries, the Holy Rosary has been an important element among the Dominicans. Pope Pius XI stated: "The Rosary of Mary is the principle and foundation on which the very Order of Saint Dominic rests for making perfect the life of its members and obtaining the salvation of others." Histories of the Holy Rosary often attribute its origin to Dominic himself through the Virgin Mary. Our Lady of the Rosary is the title related to the Marian apparition to Dominic in 1208 in the church of Prouille in which the Virgin Mary gave the Rosary to him. For centuries, Dominicans have been instrumental in spreading the rosary and emphasizing the Catholic belief in the power of the rosary. On January 1, 2008, the master of the order declared a year of dedication to the Rosary. == Other names == A number of other names have been used to refer to both the order and its members. In England and other countries, the Dominican friars are referred to as Black Friars because of the black cappa or cloak they wear over their white habits. Dominicans were "Blackfriars", as opposed to "Whitefriars" (i.e., Carmelites) or "Greyfriars" (i.e., Franciscans). They are also distinct from the "Austin friars" (i.e., Augustinian Friars) who wear a similar habit. In France, the Dominicans were known as Jacobins because their convent in Paris was attached to the Church of Saint-Jacques, now demolished, on the way to Saint-Jacques-du-Haut-Pas, which belonged to the Italian Order of Saint James of Altopascio (James the Less) Sanctus Iacobus in Latin. Their identification as Dominicans gave rise to the pun that they were the Domini canes, or "Hounds of the Lord". ==Mottoes== To praise, to bless and to preach (from the Dominican Missal, Preface of the Blessed Virgin Mary) Truth To study and to hand on the fruits of study (or, to contemplate and to hand on the fruits of contemplation) One in faith, hope, and love ==Notable members== === Dominican Popes and Cardinals === Four Dominican friars have served as Bishop of Rome: Pope Innocent V (r. 1276) Pope Benedict XI (r. 1303–04) Pope Pius V (r. 1566–72) Pope Benedict XIII (r. 1724–30) ==== First elected cardinal ==== Hugh of Saint-Cher (elected 1244) first Dominican Cardinal There are six Dominican friars in the College of Cardinals: Dominik Duka (b. 1943), Czech, Archbishop Emeritus of Prague Christoph Schönborn (b. 1945), Austrian, Archbishop of Vienna Jose Advincula Jr. (b. 1952), Filipino, Archbishop of Manila Jean-Paul Vesco (b. 1962), French, Archbishop of Algiers Frank Leo (b. 1971), Canadian, Archbishop of Toronto Timothy Radcliffe (b. 1945), British, 85th Master Emeritus of the Order of Preachers === Other Dominicans === Other notable Dominicans include: Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274), doctor of the Church Matteo Bandello (c. 1480–1562), author of novellas and soldier Gabriel Barletta (fl. 15th century), renowned preacher Fra Angelico (1395–1455), painter Fra Bartolomeo (1472–1517), Italian Renaissance painter Conradin of Bornada (d. 1429), renowned preacher Vincent of Beauvais (c. 1184-c. 1264), author/compiler of the encyclopedic text The Great Mirror (Speculum Maius) Frei Betto (b. 1945), Brazilian friar, theologian, political activist and former government adviser Martin Bucer (1491–1551), German friar who left the Order to join the Protestant Reformation Meister Eckhart (c. 1260-c. 1328) German mystic and preacher Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), philosopher and astronomer condemned as a heretic condemned and burned in Rome by the Inquisition Edward Ambrose Burgis (c. 1673–1747), historian and theologian Elias Burneti of Bergerac (fl. 13th century), theologian Anne Buttimer (1938–2017), University College Dublin Thomas Cajetan (1469–1534), theologian, philosopher, and cardinal, who famously debated Martin Luther Tommaso Campanella (1568–1639), philosopher, theologian, astrologer, and poet, who was denounced by the Inquisition Melchor Cano (1509–1560), Spanish theologian of the School of Salamanca Oliviero Carafa (1430–1511), Italian cardinal and diplomat Diego Carranza (b. 1559), Mexican missionary Bartolomé de las Casas (1484–1566), Spanish bishop in the West, known as the Protector of the Indians Marie-Dominique Chenu (1895–1990), French theologian of the Nouvelle Théologie Richard Luke Concanen (1747–1810), first Bishop of New York Yves Congar (1904–1995), French theologian of the Nouvelle Théologie, later cardinal Brian Davies (b. 1951), distinguished Professor of Philosophy, Fordham University; former Regent of Blackfriars, Oxford Jeanine Deckers (1933–1985), briefly famous Belgian singer-songwriter Joseph Augustine Di Noia (b. 1943), American Theologian, Adjunct Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Nicholas Eymerich (c. 1316–1399), Inquisitor General of the Kingdom of Aragon and theologian Anthony Fisher (b. 1960), Archbishop of Sydney Réginald Marie Garrigou-Lagrange (1877–1964), leading 20th-century Thomist Bernard Gui (1261–1331), French bishop and inquisitor of the Cathars Gustavo Gutierrez (1928–2024), Peruvian liberation theologian Jean Jérôme Hamer (1916–1996), Belgian theologian and Curia official, cardinal Hermann of Minden, 13th century provincial superior of the German province of Dominicans Henrik Kalteisen (c. 1390–1464), 24th Archbishop of Nidaros Robert Kilwardby (c. 1215–1279), Archbishop of Canterbury and cardinal Heinrich Kramer (1430–1505), German author of the Malleus Maleficarum, a handbook for witch hunting Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire (1802–1861), French theologian, journalist, and political activist James of Lausanne (d. 1321), superior of the Order in France Osmund Lewry (1929–1987), English theologian Jacques Loew (1908–1999), French worker-priest Domingo de Soto (1494–1546), Spanish theologian and philosopher of the School of Salamanca John Tauler (–1361), one of the Rhineland Mystics Johann Tetzel (–1519), Inquisitor for Poland and Saxony, renowned preacher and indulgence seller Herbert McCabe (1926–2001), English theologian and scholar José S. Palma (b. 1950), Archbishop of Cebu Teodoro Bacani Jr. (b. 1947), Bishop of Novaliches Rufino Sescon Jr. (b. 1972), Bishop of Balanga Napoleon Sipalay Jr., (b. 1970), Bishop of Alaminos Rodolfo Fontiveros Beltran (1948–2017), Bishop of San Fernando de La Union Socrates Villegas (b. 1960), Archbishop of Lingayen-Dagupan Malcolm McMahon (b. 1949), Archbishop of Liverpool Vincent McNabb (1868–1943), Irish scholar, apologist and ecumenist Aidan Nichols (b. 1948), English theologian Marco Pellegrini (fl.1500), Vicar-General of the Dominicans in Lombardy Dominique Pire (George) (1910–1969), recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize Girolamo Savonarola (1452–1498), Italian orator, de facto ruler of Florentine Republic after the overthrow of the Medici family, burned by the Inquisition Edward Schillebeeckx (1914–1998), Belgian theologian E. Anne Schwerdtfeger (1930–2008), American composer Francisco de Vitoria (c. 1483–1546), Spanish philosopher and theologian of the School of Salamanca, renowned for his work in international law Michel-Louis Guérard des Lauriers (1898–1988), French theologian, professor at the Pontifical Lateran University in Rome, advisor of Pope Pius XII on the dogma of the Assumption of Mary, author of the Thesis of Cassiciacum, Sedevacantist bishop Patricia Madigan (b. 1950) Australian religious sister, member and leader of the Dominican Sisters of Eastern Australia and the Solomon Islands and executive director of the Dominican Centre for Interfaith Ministry Education and Research (CIMER). Christopher Cardone (b. 1957) Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Honiara. Flannery O'ConnorAmericam author. Dominican Tertiary Laywoman. ==Educational institutions== Albertus Magnus College, New Haven, Connecticut, United States – est.1925 Angelicum School Iloilo, Iloilo City, Philippines – est. 1978 Aquinas College (Michigan), Grand Rapids, Michigan, United States – est. 1886 Aquinas Institute of Theology, St. Louis, Missouri, United States – est. 1939 Aquinas School, San Juan, Metro Manila, Philippines – est. 1965 Barry University, Miami Shores, Florida, United States – est. 1940 Bishop Lynch High School, Dallas, Texas, United States – est. 1963 Blackfriars Hall, Oxford, United Kingdom Blackfriars Priory School, Prospect, South Australia, Australia – est. 1953 Blessed Imelda's School, Taipei, Taiwan – est. 1916 Cabra Dominican College, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia – est. 1886 Caldwell University, Caldwell, New Jersey, United States – est. 1939 Catholic Dominican School, Yigo, Guam – est. 1995 Centro Universitario Cultural (Cultural Univeristary Center), Mexico City, Mexico – est. 1959. Colegio de San Juan de Letran, Bataan, Abucay, Bataan, Philippines Colegio de San Juan de Letran, Calamba, Philippines Colegio de San Juan de Letran, Intramuros, Philippines – est. 1620 Colegio de San Juan de Letran, Manaoag (formerly Our Lady of Manaoag College), Manaoag, Pangasinan, Philippines Colegio Lacordaire, Cali, Colombia – est. 1956 Dominican College of San Juan, San Juan, Metro Manila, Philippines Dominican College of Santa Rosa, Santa Rosa, Laguna, Philippines – est. 1994 Dominican College of Tarlac, Capas, Tarlac, Philippines – est. 1947 Dominican Convent High School, Bulawayo, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe – est. 1956 Dominican Convent High School, Harare, Zimbabwe – est. 1892 Dominican International School Kaohsiung, Taiwan – est. 1953 Dominican International School, Taipei City, Taiwan – est. 1957 Dominican School Manila, Sampaloc, Manila, Philippines – est. 1958 Dominican School, Semaphore, South Australia – est. 1899 Dominican School of Calabanga, Calabanga, Metro Naga, Camarines Sur, Philippines Dominican School of Philosophy and Theology, Berkeley, California, United States – est. 1861 Dominican University College, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada – est. 1900 Dominican University (Illinois), River Forest, Illinois, United States – est. 1901 Dominican University of California, San Rafael, California, United States – est. 1890 Domuni Universitas, Toulouse, France, France – est. 1998 Edgewood College, Madison, Wisconsin, United States – est. 1927 Emerald Hill School, Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe Fenwick High School, Oak Park, Illinois, United States – est. 1929 Frassati Catholic High School, Spring, Texas, United States – est. 2013 Holy Cross College (Trinidad), Arima, Trinidad & Tobago- est. 1957 Holy Rosary School of Pardo, El Pardo, Cebu Ciyy, Philippines – est. 1965 Holy Trinity University, Puerto Princesa City, Philippines – est. 1940 Marian Catholic High School, Chicago Heights, Illinois, United States – est. 1958 Molloy University, Rockville Centre, New York, United States – est. 1955 Mount Saint Mary College, Newburgh, New York, United States Newbridge College, Newbridge, Co. Kildare, Ireland Ohio Dominican University, Columbus, Ohio, United States Pontifical Faculty of the Immaculate Conception Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas Providence College, Providence, Rhode Island, United States Rosaryhill School, Hong Kong, China – 1959–2024 San Pedro College, Davao City Santa Sabina Dominican College, Dublin Siena College of San Jose Siena College of Quezon City Siena College of Taytay, Taytay, Rizal Siena College, Camberwell, Victoria, Australia St Agnes Academy, Houston, Texas, United States – est. 1905 St Dominic's Chishawasha, Zimbabwe St Dominic's College, Henderson, Auckland, New Zealand St Dominic's College, Wanganui, New Zealand St Dominic's Priory College, North Adelaide, South Australia – est. 1884 St. Catharine College, St. Catharine, Kentucky, United States St. John's High School (Harare), Zimbabwe St Mary's College, Adelaide, South Australia – est. 1869 St. Mary's Dominican High School, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States St. Michael Academy, Northern Samar, Philippines St. Rose of Lima School, Bacolod City, Philippines Superior Institute of Religious Sciences of St. Thomas Aquinas The Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas, The Catholic University of the Philippines – est. 1611 Universidad Santo Tomas de Aquino, Bogota, Colombia Universidad Santo Tomas de Aquino, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, est. 1538 – First University of the New World University of Santo Tomas-Legazpi (formerly Aquinas University of Legazpi), Legazpi City, Albay – est. 1948 UST-Angelicum College (formerly Angelicum College), Quezon City, Philippines – est. 1972	[ "Saint-Jacques-du-Haut-Pas", "Archbishop of Manila", "Castilians", "Dallas", "Frassati Catholic High School", "Washington, D.C.", "Caldwell, New Jersey", "Inquisition", "Pope", "Superior Institute of Religious Sciences of St. Thomas Aquinas", "Madrid", "Molloy University", "Cincinnati", "Christopher Cardone", "Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas", "Aquinas School", "Marian Catholic High School (Illinois)", "Calabanga", "Friar", "Riccoldo da Monte di Croce", "Pope Innocent III", "Roman Catholic Diocese of San Fernando de La Union", "Edward Ambrose Burgis", "Edgewood College", "contemplative", "Aidan Nichols", "Henri Didon", "Bulawayo", "Vincent of Beauvais", "Northern Samar", "Cathars", "Capas", "sister-books", "San Juan, Metro Manila", "Mary Magdalene", "Edward Fenwick", "Hermann of Minden", "ascetic", "Augustinians", "City of Mitcham", "Alfonso VIII of Castile", "Tagalog language", "Valdemar II of Denmark", "Bartolomé de las Casas", "studium generale", "New York (state)", "Coat of arms", "Dominican Sisters of St. Cecilia", "Siena College of Taytay", "Albigensian Crusade", "Michigan", "Blackfriars Priory School", "Arima", "Thought of Thomas Aquinas", "paganism", "Jose Advincula", "Incarnation (Christianity)", "Christoph Schönborn", "Angelicum College", "The Dominican Province of Saint Joseph", "Rhineland", "Christine of Stommeln", "Liturgy of the Hours", "Renaissance", "Rosaryhill School", "The Blackfriars of Shrewsbury", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Alaminos", "Chicago Heights", "Albi", "Anthony Fisher", "vernacular", "Asceticism", "Emerald Hill School, Zimbabwe", "Francisco de Vitoria", "Hugh of Saint-Cher", "Archbishop of Liverpool", "José S. Palma", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Jesus", "Richard Luke Concanen", "pontifical right", "Archbishop of Canterbury", "Bataan", "King Ludwig I of Bavaria", "Kingdom of Aragon", "Kraków", "Rodolfo Fontiveros Beltran", "Biên Hòa", "convent", "Master of the Order of Preachers", "St Dominic's Chishawasha", "Pontifical Lateran University", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Sydney", "Socrates Villegas", "Santa Maria sopra Minerva", "Aquinas Institute of Theology", "El Greco", "patron saint", "Hyacinth Cormier", "Henry Suso", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Honiara", "bishop", "Spring, Texas", "canons regular", "Oliviero Carafa", "Cabra Dominican College", "Meister Eckhart", "Timothy Radcliffe", "New World", "Johann Tetzel", "University of Santo Tomas", "Tonkin", "rule of Saint Augustine", "Schism (religion)", "Perugia Altarpiece", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Algiers", "Archbishop of Prague", "Girolamo Savonarola", "Marie-Dominique Chenu", "Ecclesiastical province", "Hildegard of Bingen", "Jacques Loew", "Pope Honorius III", "Metro Naga", "Fra Angelico", "Francesco Colonna (writer)", "fresco", "Sedeprivationism", "Gaspar da Cruz", "Medici family", "Mantellate Sisters", "Dark ages of Cambodia", "Blessed Imelda's School", "Episcopal Church (United States)", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Balanga", "New Haven", "New York City", "Pope Gregory IX", "Pope Pius XI", "Renaissance humanism", "Fordham University", "Jerusalem Bible", "Barry University", "James the Less", "Marco Pellegrini", "Château of Val-Duchesse", "Holy Trinity University", "Réginald Marie Garrigou-Lagrange", "Conradin of Bornada", "indulgence", "Santa Sabina", "Thomas Zigliara", "Religiosam vitam", "Joseph Augustine Di Noia", "Mount Saint Mary College", "Martin Luther", "Albertus Magnus College", "School of Salamanca", "Chapter (religion)", "Metropolitan Museum of Art", "Nicholas Eymerich", "Santi Domenico e Sisto", "Universidad Santo Tomas de Aquino", "Johannes Tauler", "Bartolomé de Las Casas", "Frei Betto", "City of Prospect", "St Dominic's College, Wanganui", "Heinrich Suso", "Plasencia", "Quezon City", "Cologne", "Legazpi, Albay", "Christendom", "Nouvelle Théologie", "Laity", "Marie-Joseph Lagrange", "Galleria Nazionale dell'Umbria", "St. John's High School (Harare)", "Logroño", "Fenwick High School (Oak Park, Illinois)", "École Biblique", "Aquinas College (Michigan)", "Dominican Sisters of Mary, Mother of the Eucharist", "Religious sister (Catholic)", "Dominique Pire", "St Dominic's College, Henderson", "Nobel Peace Prize", "Gospel", "Italian Renaissance", "Martin Bucer", "Flannery O'Connor", "Ontario", "Dominican University of California", "gnostic", "San Pedro College", "diplomatic mission", "Dominican House of Studies", "Beguines and Beghards", "worker-priest", "Texas", "Rose of Lima", "scholastic theology", "Bishop of Osma", "Ottawa", "Auckland", "Siena College of Quezon City", "Hypnerotomachia Poliphili", "Dissolution of the monasteries", "Dover", "Sampaloc, Manila", "Napoleon Sipalay", "Providence College", "Anglican Order of Preachers", "Dominican School Manila", "Anglo-Catholicism", "James of Lausanne", "Catherine of Siena", "provincial superior", "Tomás de Torquemada", "charism", "Dominican University (Illinois)", "Osma", "Dominican University College", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Novaliches", "Elias Burneti of Bergerac", "Mendicant orders", "Heinrich Kramer", "Beguines", "Benedict XI", "Liberation theology", "Marburg", "Speculum Maius", "Semaphore, South Australia", "Dionysius the Areopagite", "international law", "Rome", "Blackfriars, Oxford", "Middle Ages", "Dominican International School", "diocesan priests", "Jordan Catala", "Order of Christ the Saviour", "France", "Florida", "Community of the Lamb", "Alberto Guillelmotti", "third order", "Pope Pius XII", "Wikt:parochial", "Vincent Jandel", "Virgin Mary", "Marian apparitions", "Dominican Convent High School", "Tommaso Campanella", "The Singing Nun", "Oak Park, Illinois", "basilica", "heresy", "Francis of Assisi", "Christian heresy", "Archdiocese of Nidaros", "Chastity", "Albay", "Saint Dominic", "Dominik Duka", "Archdiocese of Lingayen-Dagupan", "Thomistic sacramental theology", "Timur", "Veritas", "priory", "Domingo de Soto", "Caribbean", "Guangzhou", "Jean-Paul Vesco", "Nos attendentes", "Spanish Inquisition", "Angelicum School Iloilo", "Colegio Lacordaire", "Ohio Dominican University", "Mechthild of Magdeburg", "Malleus Maleficarum", "Frank Leo", "St. Mary's Dominican High School", "Missouri", "Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire", "hound", "Lyon", "Pope Benedict XIII", "Melchor Cano", "List of sites of the Dominican Order", "Patricia Madigan", "Archbishop of Vienna", "Matteo Bandello", "Humbert of Romans", "Taipei City", "Guadalajara, Spain", "Flickr", "Intramuros", "Montpellier", "Jacobins Convent, Nantes", "The gospel", "Malcolm McMahon", "Houston", "Berkeley, California", "Calamba, Laguna", "Rhineland mysticism", "Bologna", "Vence", "Dartford Priory", "Rosary", "Rockville Centre", "Treviso", "Saint Michael Academy (Catarman)", "Newbridge College", "Madison, Wisconsin", "Jean Jérôme Hamer", "Benedictine", "St Dominic's Priory College, Adelaide", "Brian Davies (philosopher)", "Blessed Virgin Mary", "Anne Buttimer", "Perugia", "Rivington (publishers)", "Iloilo City", "Third Order of Saint Dominic", "San Rafael, California", "Gerard Timoner III", "Abucay", "University of Santo Tomas-Legazpi", "Taipei", "Michel-Louis Guérard des Lauriers", "Cali", "Fra Bartolomeo", "Palencia", "Rufino Sescon", "Yves Congar", "Bishop Lynch High School", "State of Mexico", "German mysticism", "Henrik Kalteisen", "Dominican Nuns of the Perpetual Rosary", "Couvent des Jacobins de la rue Saint-Jacques", "Catholic Church", "Religious habit", "Contemplata aliis tradere", "Justus van Gent", "St. Catharine College", "Margaret Ebner", "List of saints of the Dominican Order", "Dominican Rite", "Raimondo delle Vigne", "Siena College (Camberwell)", "Jerusalem", "Toulouse", "Roman Inquisition", "Dominican Convent High School, Bulawayo", "River Forest, Illinois", "Convento Santa Sabina", "E. Anne Schwerdtfeger", "Pius V", "power of the rosary", "Albertus Magnus", "Diego de Acebo", "Blackfriars Hall", "Herbert McCabe", "Albert the Great", "North Adelaide", "nuns", "St. Louis", "St Mary's College, Adelaide", "Order of Saint James of Altopascio", "Catholic theology", "Robert Kilwardby", "San Sisto Vecchio", "mendicant order", "Tommaso da Modena", "theologian", "friar", "Teodoro Bacani Jr.", "Our Lady of the Rosary", "Medieval Inquisition", "Archdiocese of Cebu", "asceticism", "Santa Rosa, Laguna", "Assumption of Mary", "Anglican Communion", "Puerto Princesa City", "Innocent V", "Caldwell University", "Franciscans", "Sedevacantism", "Order of Saint Augustine", "Jacques Monsabré", "Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary", "Giordano Bruno", "Giovanni di Paolo", "Osmund Lewry", "Grand Rapids", "cloister", "Heinrich Denifle", "Thomism", "Colegio de San Juan de Letran", "Prior (ecclesiastical)", "Dublin", "Carmelites", "Spanish language", "Gabriel Barletta", "Diego Carranza", "Thomas Cajetan", "Libellus de principiis", "Edward Schillebeeckx", "Dominican School of Philosophy and Theology", "Oxford", "Catharism", "Camarines Sur", "Bernard Gui", "Protestant Reformation", "Connecticut", "Thomas Aquinas", "Vincent McNabb", "Chapelle du Saint-Marie du Rosaire", "Providence, Rhode Island", "Premonstratensians", "Ad extirpanda", "Gustavo Gutierrez", "Latin", "Henri-Dominique Lacordaire", "papal bull", "Miami Shores", "Manaoag", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toronto", "Florentine Republic", "Fujian", "Tultenango", "Folquet de Marselha", "Paris", "Languedoc", "Prouille", "Holy Cross College (Trinidad)", "Mexico City", "John Tauler", "Saint Agnes Academy (Texas)" ]
8,987	Don McLean	Donald McLean III (born October 2, 1945) is an American singer-songwriter and guitarist. Known as the "American Troubadour" or "King of the Trail", he is best known for his 1971 hit "American Pie", an eight-and-a-half-minute folk rock song that has been referred to as a "cultural touchstone". His other hit singles include "Vincent", "Dreidel", "Castles in the Air", and "Wonderful Baby", as well as renditions of Roy Orbison's "Crying" and the Skyliners' "Since I Don't Have You". McLean's song "And I Love You So" has been recorded by Elvis Presley, Perry Como, Helen Reddy, Glen Campbell, and others. In 2000, Madonna had a hit with a rendition of "American Pie". In 2004, McLean was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. In January 2018, BMI certified that "American Pie" had reached five million airplays and "Vincent" three million. ==Early life== McLean's grandfather and father, both also named Donald McLean, were of Scottish origin. McLean's mother, Elizabeth Bucci, was of Italian origin: Her parents originated from Abruzzo in southern Italy. He has other extended family in Los Angeles and Boston. McLean grew up in New Rochelle, New York, where he delivered newspapers as a boy. as a teenager, McLean became interested in folk music, particularly the Weavers' 1955 recording The Weavers at Carnegie Hall. He often missed long periods of school because of childhood asthma, and although McLean slipped in his studies, his love of music was allowed to flourish. By age 16, he had bought his first guitar and began making contacts in the music business, becoming friends with the folk singers Erik Darling and Fred Hellerman of the Weavers. Hellerman said, "He called me one day and said, 'I'd like to come and visit you', and that's what he did! We became good friends — he has the most remarkable music memory of anyone I've ever known." and briefly attended Villanova University, dropping out after four months. After leaving Villanova, McLean became associated with the famed folk music agent Harold Leventhal for several months before teaming up with his personal manager, Herb Gart. For the next six years, he performed at venues and events including The Bitter End and the Gaslight Cafe in New York, the Newport Folk Festival, the Cellar Door in Washington, D.C., and the Troubadour in Los Angeles. in September 2018, McLean wrote: McLean attended night school at Iona College and received a bachelor's degree in business administration in 1968. He turned down a scholarship to Columbia University Graduate School in favor of pursuing a career as a singer-songwriter, performing at such venues as Caffè Lena in Saratoga Springs, New York and The Main Point in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. Later that year, with the help of a grant from the New York State Council on the Arts, McLean began reaching a wider audience, with visits to towns up and down the Hudson River. It attracted good reviews but little notice outside the folk community, though on the Easy Listening chart "Castles in the Air" was a success, and in 1973 "And I Love You So" became a number 1 Adult Contemporary hit for Perry Como. McLean's major break came when Mediarts was taken over by United Artists Records, thus securing the promotion of a major label for his second album, American Pie. The album launched two number one hits in the title song and "Vincent". American Pies success made McLean an international star and piqued interest in his first album, which charted more than two years after its initial release. ==="American Pie"=== McLean's "American Pie" is a song inspired partly by the deaths of Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens and J.P. Richardson (The Big Bopper) in a plane crash in 1959, and developments in American youth culture in the subsequent decade. The song popularized the expression "The Day the Music Died" in reference to the crash. The song was recorded on May 26, 1971, and a month later received its first radio airplay on New York's WNEW-FM and WPLJ-FM to mark the closing of Fillmore East, the famous New York concert hall. "American Pie" reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 from January 15 to February 5, 1972, and remains McLean's most successful single release. The single also topped the Billboard Easy Listening chart. With a total running time of 8:36 encompassing both sides of the single, it was also the longest song to reach number one until Taylor Swift's "All Too Well" broke the record in 2021. Some stations played only part one of the original split-sided single release. WCFL DJ Bob Dearborn unraveled the lyrics and first published his interpretation on January 7, 1972, four days after the song reached number 1 on rival station WLS, six days before it reached number 1 on WCFL, and eight days before it reached number 1 nationally (see "Further reading" under "American Pie"). Numerous other interpretations, which together largely converged on Dearborn's interpretation, quickly followed. McLean declined to say anything definitive about the lyrics until 1978. Since then McLean has stated that the lyrics are also somewhat autobiographical and present an abstract story of his life from the mid-1950s until the time he wrote the song in the late 1960s. The original United Artists Records inner sleeve featured a free verse poem written by McLean about William Boyd, also known as Hopalong Cassidy, along with a picture of Boyd in full Hopalong regalia. This sleeve was removed within a year of the album's release. The words to this poem appear on a plaque at the hospital where Boyd died. The Boyd poem and picture tribute do appear on a special remastered 2003 CD. In 2001, "American Pie" was voted number 5 in a poll of the 365 Songs of the Century compiled by the Recording Industry Association of America and the National Endowment for the Arts. On April 7, 2015, McLean's original working manuscript for "American Pie" sold for $1,205,000 (£809,524/€1,109,182) at Christie's auction rooms, New York, making it the third highest auction price achieved for an American literary manuscript. In the sale catalogue notes, McLean finally revealed the meaning in the song's lyrics: "Basically in American Pie things are heading in the wrong direction. ... It [life] is becoming less idyllic. I don't know whether you consider that wrong or right but it is a morality song in a sense." The catalogue confirmed some of the better-known references in the song's lyrics, including mentions of Elvis Presley ("the king") and Bob Dylan ("the jester"), and confirmed that the song culminates with a description of the killing of Meredith Hunter at the Altamont Free Concert, ten years after the plane crash that killed Holly, Valens and Richardson, and that the song broadly depicts how the early rock innocence of the 1950s, and a bygone simpler age, had been lost; overtaken by events and changes, which themselves had been overtaken by further changes. When asked about his record broken by Taylor Swift in a Billboard interview, Don McLean said, "there is something to be said for a great song that has staying power. 'American Pie' remained on top for 50 years and now Taylor Swift has unseated such a historic piece of artistry. Let's face it, nobody ever wants to lose that No. 1 spot, but if I had to lose it to somebody, I sure am glad it was another great singer/songwriter such as Taylor." When Swift broke McLean's record, she sent him flowers and a handwritten note that read "I will never forget that I'm standing on the shoulders of giants". ==="Vincent"=== "Vincent" is a tribute to the 19th-century Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh. The inspiration came to McLean one morning while looking at a book about Van Gogh. As he studied a print of Van Gogh's painting The Starry Night, he realized that a song could be written about the artist through the painting. The song argues that Van Gogh had a psychiatric illness, as opposed to being insane. It reached number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 and it proved to be a huge hit worldwide, including reaching number 1 in the UK Singles Chart. Mike Mills of R.E.M. said "You can't change a note in that song". In 2018, singer-songwriter Ellie Goulding recorded a new, stripped back, acoustic guitar-driven version of the song. ===Subsequent recordings=== Personnel from the American Pie album sessions were retained for his third album Don McLean, including the producer, Ed Freeman, Rob Rothstein on bass, and Warren Bernhardt on piano. The song "The Pride Parade" provides an insight into McLean's immediate reaction to stardom. McLean told Melody Maker in 1973 that Tapestry was an album by someone previously concerned with external situations. American Pie combines externals with internals, and the resultant success of that album makes the third one (Don McLean) entirely introspective." Other songs written by McLean for the album include "Dreidel" (number 21 on the Billboard chart) and "If We Try" (number 58), which was recorded by Olivia Newton-John. "On the Amazon" from the 1920s musical Mr. Cinders was an unusual choice but became an audience favorite in concerts and featured in Till Tomorrow, a documentary film about McLean produced by Bob Elfstrom (Elfstrom held the role of Jesus Christ in Johnny and June Cash's Gospel Road). The film shows McLean in concert at Columbia University as he was interrupted by a bomb scare. He left the stage while the audience stood up and checked under their seats for anything that resembled a bomb. After the all-clear, McLean re-appeared and sang "On the Amazon" from exactly where he had left off. Don Heckman reported the bomb scare in his review for The New York Times titled "Don McLean Survives Two Obstacles". The fourth album Playin' Favorites was a top-40 hit in the UK in 1973 and included the Irish folk classic, "Mountains of Mourne" and Buddy Holly's "Everyday", a live rendition of which returned McLean to the UK Singles Chart. McLean said "The last album (Don McLean) was a study in depression whereas the new one (Playin' Favorites) is almost the quintessence of optimism." The 1974 album Homeless Brother, produced by Joel Dorn, was McLean's final studio recording for United Artists. The album featured fine New York session musicians, including Ralph McDonald on percussion, Hugh McCracken on guitar and a guest appearance by Yusef Lateef on flute. The Persuasions sang the background vocals on "Crying in the Chapel", and Cissy Houston provided a backing vocal on "La La Love You". The album's title song was inspired by Jack Kerouac's book Lonesome Traveler, in which Kerouac tells the story of America's "homeless brothers" or hobos. The song features background vocals by Pete Seeger. The song "The Legend of Andrew McCrew" was based on an article published in The New York Times Joel Dorn later collaborated on the McLean career retrospective Rearview Mirror, released in 2005 on Dorn's label, Hyena Records. In 2006, Dorn reflected on working with McLean: ===Other songs=== McLean's other well-known songs include the following. "And I Love You So" featured on McLean's first album Tapestry first released in 1970. The song was later recorded by Elvis Presley, Helen Reddy, Shirley Bassey, Glen Campbell, Engelbert Humperdinck, Howard Keel, Claude François, and a 1973 hit for Perry Como. The song was performed at the Royal Wedding reception of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle in 2018. "Castles in the Air", which McLean recorded twice. His 1981 re-recording was a top-40 hit, reaching number 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 in late 1981. "Wonderful Baby", a tribute to Fred Astaire that Astaire himself recorded. Primarily rejected by pop stations, it reached number 1 on the Billboard Easy Listening chart. The American Pie album features a version of Psalm 137, titled "Babylon". The song is based on a canon by Philip Hayes and was arranged by McLean and Lee Hays (of The Weavers). "Babylon" was performed in the Mad Men episode of the same name despite the fact that the song would not be released until 10 years after the time in which the episode is set. In 1981, McLean had an international number one hit with a version of the Roy Orbison classic "Crying". It was only after the record became a success overseas that it was released in the United States. The single hit reached number 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1981. and in a subsequent re-recording of the song, Orbison incorporated elements of McLean's version. For the 1982 animated movie The Flight of Dragons, produced by Jules Bass and Arthur Rankin, Jr., McLean sang the opening theme. However, no soundtrack has ever been released. Another hit song associated with McLean (though never recorded by him) is singer-songwriter Lori Lieberman's "Killing Me Softly with His Song"; Lieberman was inspired by hearing McLean in concert performing his song "Empty Chairs". Afterwards she shared her reaction with her manager, Norman Gimbel, who had long been searching for a way to use a phrase he had copied from a novel translated from Spanish, "killing me softly with his blues". Gimbel passed the lyrics to his songwriting partner Charles Fox, who in turn composed the music to "Killing Me Softly with His Song". Lieberman recorded the song (now credited to Gimbel and Fox) and released it in 1972. This initial version was heard by Roberta Flack, who recorded it with slight changes to create a number-one hit. Two decades later it was recorded by the Fugees, who had another hit. ===Later career=== The Don McLean Story: Killing Us Softly With His Songs was published in 2007. Biographer Alan Howard conducted extensive interviews for this, the only book-length biography of the often reclusive McLean to date. McClean attended the opening dinner service of ''Hell's Kitchen's eighteenth season as one of the red diners who had their food cooked by the rookies. McLean is credited as a co-writer on Drake's song "Doing It Wrong", featuring Stevie Wonder. The song includes lyrics from two McLean compositions – "The Wrong Thing to Do" and "When a Good Thing Goes Bad" – both of which were featured on his 1977 album Prime Time. In a July 2022 documentary, titled The Day The Music Died, McLean discussed for the first time in 50 years the meaning of the lyrics in "American Pie". In February 2022, McLean recorded a performance of "Vincent" at the Immersive Van Gogh exhibit in Los Angeles in honor of Van Gogh's birthday and the 50th anniversary of the song. In April 2022, Tyson Fury teamed up with McLean to remake "American Pie". McLean won six Telly Awards for the Fury-Whyte fight opening. In June 2022, McLean published a children's book titled American Pie: A Fable. The story follows the emotional journey of a newspaper delivery boy in the late 1950s who discovers the joy of friendship and music, eventually learning that when you recognize what truly makes you happy, you are never really alone. McLean led a wave of dropouts from the National Rifle Association of America (NRA) convention after the mass shooting in Uvalde, Texas, saying it would be "disrespectful and hurtful" to perform days after 19 children and two adults were killed in a mass shooting in the state. McLean was first among performers who announced they would no longer perform at the National Rifle Association's annual meeting in Houston. In October 2022, McLean called rapper Kanye West an "attention-seeking fool" over his antisemitic rants. The "American Pie" singer, who briefly lived in Israel, said he stands with his Jewish friends. "Lately, a flood of antisemitic invective has been triggered by the ranting of a stupid attention-seeking fool we all know," McLean wrote in the statement that did not mention Ye by name. "I want to say I stand with my Jewish friends and I stand with the state of Israel. When this kind of thing happens, we should realize why the state of Israel must be respected and protected." McLean lived in Israel on-and-off from 1978 to 1982, and he "grew to love the country and the people. Living there changed [his] life forever." ==Concerts== McLean's albums did not match the commercial success of American Pie, but he became a major concert attraction in the United States and overseas. His repertoire included old concert hall numbers and the catalogues of singers such as Buddy Holly and Frank Sinatra. The years spent playing gigs in small clubs and coffee houses in the 1960s transformed into well-paced performances. McLean's first concerts at Carnegie Hall in New York and the Royal Albert Hall in London in 1972 were critically acclaimed. In later years, McLean continued to tour the United States, Canada and Europe (2011, 2012) and Australia (2013). In June 2011, McLean appeared at the Glastonbury Festival in Pilton, UK, and in 2014 at California's Stagecoach Country Music Festival. During 2018, McLean embarked on a world tour with concerts in North America, UK, Ireland, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Israel, Norway and Finland. His concert at the London Palladium was reviewed positively by The Times: The Jerusalem Post noted that "McLean was the consummate professional in presenting his master class of the Great American Songbook" in their review of his June 2018 Tel Aviv concert. In 2022, McLean toured through Europe, starting in Wales and ending in Sweden, to celebrate the upcoming 50th anniversary of "American Pie". In 2023, the 50th anniversary of "American Pie", McLean's Australian Tour concluded with 24 shows in Australia and New Zealand. His performances received positive critical reception. Holly's death for him symbolized the "loss of innocence" of the early rock-'n-roll generation. Musician Lori Lieberman was inspired by a McLean performance in late 1971 to co-write "Killing Me Softly with His Song". In November 1971, Lieberman, then 20, went out with her friend Michele Willens to see Don McLean perform at the Troubadour nightclub in Los Angeles. McLean's hit song "American Pie" was rising in the charts, but Lieberman was strongly affected by McLean singing another song: "Empty Chairs". This song spurred her to write poetic notes on a paper napkin while he was performing the song. McLean said in 1973 that he was surprised to find out that the song described his singing. "I'm absolutely amazed. I've heard both Lori's and Roberta's version and I must say I'm very humbled about the whole thing. You can't help but feel that way about a song written and performed as well as this one is." After decades of confirming Lieberman's contribution, Fox and Gimbel changed their story about the song's origins to downplay her role. Gimbel threatened McLean with a lawsuit in 2008, demanding he remove from his website an assertion that McLean was the inspiration for "Killing Me Softly", but McLean responded by showing Gimbel his own words confirming the inspiration, published in 1973. "Vincent" was rapper Tupac Shakur's favorite song. Shakur's girlfriend reportedly played the song for him when he was hospitalized and in a coma. Shakur's mother also insisted the song be included in a documentary about the rapper's life. President Joe Biden capped the official state visit of South Korean President Yoon Suk-Yeol with a state dinner on April 27, 2023, at the White House to celebrate the two nations' 70-year alliance. Following a round of musical performances, Yoon took to the microphone himself with a rendition of Don McLean's "American Pie". Joe Biden then presented Yoon with a guitar autographed by McLean. ===Honors=== McLean's alma mater, Iona College in New Rochelle, New York, conferred an honorary doctorate on him in 2001. McLean has since been vocal in his criticism of the college: "Iona was, in my day, a college for the average student who wanted to go home after class. The educational experience was perfect for me. I loved the small Greek revival style campus buildings and I got to put on little shows in Doorley Hall auditorium. Since those days, the Irish Christian Brothers have been virtually destroyed by the disgusting behavior of many in their order as charges of mass child molestation have destroyed their ranks. No punishment is harsh enough when you think of trusting Catholic parents giving their children over to these cynical monsters. I am very disappointed in the Irish Christian Brothers and Iona College." In February 2002, "American Pie" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In 2004, McLean was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. In February 2012, McLean won the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards Life Time Achievement award. In March 2012, the PBS network broadcast a feature-length documentary about the life and music of McLean called Don McLean: American Troubadour produced by four-time Emmy Award-winning filmmaker Jim Brown. In March 2017, McLean's single "American Pie" was designated an "aural treasure" by the Library of Congress, "worthy of preservation" in the National Recording Registry "as part of America's patrimony". In 1991, a re-issue of "American Pie" reached the UK top 20 singles chart and in July 2017, "American Pie" peaked at number 6 on the Billboard Rock Digital Songs Sales chart, nearly 50 years after its first release. In May 2019, the UCLA Student Alumni Association awarded McLean its George and Ira Gershwin Award for Lifetime Musical Achievement. However, the award was rescinded before it was formally bestowed because of McLean's conviction for domestic abuse. In response, McLean issued the following statement: "UCLA awarded this lifetime achievement award and then took it back because you found out about my squabble with my ex-wife. This has been all over the Internet for three years. Are you people morons? This is settled law. Maybe I need to give you some bribe money to grease the college wheels? I am guilty of nothing to do with assault and you had better make that clear. We live in a dark age of accusation and not law." On November 7, 2019, McLean returned to New Rochelle to view a new mural depicting a likeness of his younger self, with lyrics from "American Pie", on the side of a building on the corner of 134 North Avenue and Bonnefoy Place, painted by artist Loic Ercolessi for a non-profit organization, Street Art for Mankind. The mural includes the likeness of singer/songwriter Alicia Keys, with lyrics to the song "Empire State of Mind", which she performed with Jay-Z. Throughout McLean's career artists including Garth Brooks, Madonna, Drake, Josh Groban and others have recorded his songs. At a ceremony in October 2019, plaques certified by the Recording Industry Association of America for gold, platinum, and multi-platinum sales in the United States as well as presentations from Australia, Austria, Belgium, France, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom were bestowed on McLean. He said: "As a songwriter your songs are like your children, and you are hopeful everyone loves them as much as you do, but rarely is that the case. I am so grateful that songs I have written have touched so many lives and have been recorded by so many great artists." Television host Alex Trebek asked McLean to sing for him and his Jeopardy family at his annual Christmas party in 2019. McLean was on his "bucket list". The event was held at an Italian restaurant near Trebek's home. In February 2021, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of "American Pie", McLean recorded an A cappella rendition with the band Home Free. He stars in the music video with the singers in a virtual collaboration. The video won three Telly Awards in 2021. McLean received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on August 16, 2021, in the Music Category at 6314 Hollywood Boulevard, in front of The Pie Hole restaurant (corner of Hollywood and Vine). Joining in the festivities was McLean's friend "Weird Al" Yankovic, a fellow Hollywood Walk of Fame recipient. In September 2022, McLean received a 50-million record sales plaque from the TV show Good Morning America. On November 22, 2022, McLean was inducted into the Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum in Nashville, Tennessee. In October 2023, Ritchie Valens' sister, Connie Valens, traveled to Nashville to induct McLean into the Music City Walk of Fame. "I am so honored to represent the families of Buddy Holly, JP Richardson, and my brother Ritchie Valens," she said. For years, she couldn't listen to her brother's music because "it hurt too much," but she could listen to "American Pie". The previous year, she had met McLean when she was invited to take part in the documentary The Day The Music Died. They gathered at the Surf Ballroom in Clear Lake, Iowa, where her brother (and Buddy Holly and the Big Bopper) had their last performance before the plane crash. "I thanked Don and told him he had immortalized my brother Ritchie, J.P, and Buddy. He'd taken a terrible tragedy and written rock and roll history." She went on to say that because of McLean, "the music didn't die". ==Personal life== McLean was raised in the Catholic faith of his mother, Elizabeth McLean; his father, Donald McLean, was a Protestant. His father died when McLean was 15. McLean has claimed that he grew up in a physically abusive household, and was abused by both his parents and his sister. Don McLean has been married twice, with both marriages ending in divorce. His first wife was Carol Sauvion, of Philadelphia, who went on to win an Emmy and Peabody Award for her PBS television series Craft in America. They were married from 1969 to 1976 and had no children. His second marriage was to Patrisha Shnier McLean, of Montreal, Canada, from 1987 to 2016. They have two children, Jackie and Wyatt, and two grandchildren, Rosa and Mya. Their marriage ended after McLean was arrested and charged with misdemeanor domestic violence at their home in Camden, Maine, and Shnier McLean filed for divorce, citing "adultery, cruel and abusive treatment, and irreconcilable differences". In 2018, McLean confirmed his romantic relationship with model and reality star Paris Dylan, who is 48 years his junior. McLean is an ambassador for Teen Cancer America and performed at the Teen Cancer America and UCLA Health fundraising Backyard Concert in 2018. During the show, McLean sang a duet of his song "Vincent" with Ed Sheeran. The Don McLean Foundation is a charity set up by McLean to be funded by all his income in perpetuity. Its headquarters is based at Lakeview, the Don McLean Maine residence, and it will serve as a center for fundraisers and conferences as well as a nature preserve. Organizations that support the needy in the State of Maine and throughout the United States will be beneficiaries. On May 23, 2024, McLean and Paris Dylan attended a state dinner at the White House hosted by President Joe Biden and First Lady Jill Biden in honor of Kenya's President William Ruto and First Lady Rachel Ruto. ===Abuse allegations=== On January 18, 2016, McLean's then-wife Patrisha Shnier McLean alleged that after four hours of "terrorizing" her, McLean pinned her to a bed until she broke free and ran to the bathroom, where she called the police as he tried to break down the door. McLean was arrested on suspicion of domestic violence, and pled guilty to domestic violence assault, criminal restraint, criminal mischief and making domestic violence threats. McLean paid $3,660 in fines, and was not sentenced to any jail time. Under Maine's deferred disposition law, the State agreed to dismiss the domestic violence assault charge if McLean complied with the court's orders for one year, and the charge was expunged a year later. Shnier McLean filed for divorce, citing "adultery, cruel and abusive treatment, and irreconcilable differences". In a 2020 interview, Shnier McLean alleged McLean had created a cult-like household, remarking, "I do feel there is an element of brainwashing there. I relate to a lot of the things they say about cults like the charismatic leader, and how their version of things becomes your version". ==Discography== Tapestry (1970) American Pie (1971) Don McLean (1972) Playin' Favorites (1973) Homeless Brother (1974) Prime Time (1977) Chain Lightning (1978) Believers (1981) Love Tracks (1988) For the Memories (1989) Headroom (1991) Christmas (1991) The River of Love (1995) Christmas Dreams (1997) Sings Marty Robbins (2001) You've Got to Share: Songs for Children (2003) The Western Album (2003) Rearview Mirror: An American Musical Journey (2005) Addicted to Black (2009) Botanical Gardens (2018) Still Playin' Favorites (2020) American Boys (2024)	[ "Warren Bernhardt", "free verse", "Thomas B. Allen (painter)", "Helen Reddy", "Ritchie Valens", "Troubadour (West Hollywood, California)", "Top of the Pops", "The Times", "Taylor Swift", "Ellie Goulding", "\"Weird Al\" Yankovic", "Headroom (Don McLean album)", "Deferred disposition", "Capitol Records", "Pilton, Somerset", "Joe Biden", "Craft in America", "Rolling Stone", "Josh Groban", "Crying (Roy Orbison song)", "Fred Hellerman", "Roberta Flack", "Encyclopedia of Popular Music", "The Western Album", "Pete Seeger", "Carol Sauvion", "Colin Larkin (writer)", "Harold Leventhal", "Newport Folk Festival", "Hugh McCracken", "Yusef Lateef", "New York State Council on the Arts", "Castles in the Air (song)", "Kanye West", "night school", "WMVP", "Lonesome Traveler", "Wonderful Baby", "Joel Dorn", "Sings Marty Robbins", "Christmas (Don McLean album)", "Drake (musician)", "Vincent van Gogh", "Billboard (magazine)", "Iona University", "Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Music City Walk of Fame", "Lee Hays", "Chain Lightning (album)", "rock music", "folk rock", "The Great Olivia Newton-John", "Roy Orbison", "Hell's Kitchen (American TV series) season 18", "New York Daily News", "Arthur Rankin, Jr.", "Oh Shenandoah", "National Rifle Association of America", "Babylon (Mad Men episode)", "Josh Groban (album)", "Ed Sheeran", "Paperboy", "Erik Darling", "Hudson River", "EMI America Records", "Joel Whitburn", "Believers (Don McLean album)", "Guinness Publishing", "Norman Gimbel", "Hudson River Sloop Clearwater", "Abruzzo", "Addicted to Black", "Homeless Brother", "Prime Time (Don McLean album)", "Jay-Z", "You've Got to Share Songs for Children", "Washington Post", "The Big Bopper", "EMI", "Casey Kasem", "Howard Keel", "Christmas Dreams", "the Weavers", "The Flight of Dragons", "Caffè Lena", "Olivia Newton-John", "Columbia University", "Vincent (Don McLean song)", "New Rochelle, New York", "Everyday (Buddy Holly song)", "The Starry Night", "William Boyd (actor)", "Hopalong Cassidy", "Sage Gateshead", "Buddy Holly", "Philip Hayes (composer)", "Jules Bass", "BBC iPlayer", "The Day the Music Died", "Engelbert Humperdinck (singer)", "Empire State of Mind", "Yoon Suk-Yeol", "Alex Trebek", "Clive Davis", "Fillmore East", "Mike Mills", "Tyson Fury vs. Dillian Whyte", "Scottish people", "Since I Don't Have You", "Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania", "Tapestry (Don McLean album)", "Jack Kerouac", "Fat Wreck Chords", "All Too Well", "A cappella", "Elvis Presley", "Villanova University", "Jim Brown (director)", "Adult Contemporary (chart)", "BMI Foundation", "Cissy Houston", "Psalm 137", "WLS (AM)", "The Persuasions", "Playin' Favorites", "the Gaslight Cafe", "folk music", "the Skyliners", "Arista Records", "Italy", "Tupac Shakur", "Recording Industry Association of America", "Fred Astaire", "Italian people", "Crying in the Chapel", "UCLA Spring Sing", "Terri Sharp", "Folk music", "Royal Albert Hall", "Stagecoach Festival", "The Main Point", "killing of Meredith Hunter", "Altamont Free Concert", "United Artists Records", "Grammy Hall of Fame", "Billboard Hot 100", "Rob Stoner", "Bob Dylan", "Mad Men", "R.E.M.", "Carnegie Hall", "Curb Records", "American Pie (Don McLean album)", "Mr. Cinders", "NAMM Oral History Program", "American Pie (song)", "The River of Love (album)", "Madonna", "National Endowment for the Arts", "Prince Harry", "Meghan Markle", "The Jordanaires", "And I Love You So (song)", "You Can't Blame the Train", "NOFX", "Love Tracks (Don McLean album)", "hospital", "Iona College (New York)", "Songwriters Hall of Fame", "The Bitter End", "asthma", "the Cellar Door", "Garth Brooks", "Tyson Fury", "Charles Fox (composer)", "Don McLean (album)", "Glastonbury Festival", "Robb Elementary School shooting", "Rearview Mirror: An American Musical Journey", "1973 in music", "The New York Times", "Shirley Bassey", "Saratoga Springs, New York", "Claude François", "Iona Preparatory School", "Glen Campbell", "Lori Lieberman", "Perry Como", "Alicia Keys", "Home Free (group)", "Songs of the Century", "The Weavers at Carnegie Hall", "Favorites and Rarities", "Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum", "Frank Sinatra", "Mediarts", "the Fugees", "American Top 40", "Killing Me Softly with His Song" ]
8,989	Defense	Defense or defence may refer to: ==Tactical, martial, and political acts or groups== Defense (military), forces primarily intended for warfare Civil defense, the organizing of civilians to deal with emergencies or enemy attacks Defense industry, industry which manufactures and sells weapons and military technology Self-defense, the use of force to defend oneself Haganah (Hebrew for "The Defence"), a paramilitary organization in British Palestine National security, security of a nation state, its citizens, economy, and institutions, as a duty of government Defence diplomacy, pursuit of foreign policy objectives through the peaceful employment of defence resources Ministry of defence or department of defense, a part of government which regulates the armed forces Defence minister, a cabinet position in charge of a ministry of defense International security, measures taken by states and international organizations to ensure mutual survival and safety ==Sports== Defense (sports), the action of preventing an opponent from scoring Defender (association football), an outfield player whose primary role is to prevent the opposing team from scoring goals Defenceman (ice hockey), a player, other than the goaltender, in a defensive position Defensive batting, a method of avoiding being out in cricket ==Law== Defense (legal), an attempt to avoid criminal or civil liability Defence of property, argument that a defendant should not be held liable for any loss caused while acting to protect their property Right of self-defense, the right for people to use reasonable force to defend themselves ==Places== Defence, Karachi, a neighbourhood located within Clifton Cantonment of Karachi, Pakistan La Défense, a business district near Paris The Grande Arche, commonly known as Arche de la Défense, near Paris ==Other uses== The Defence (TV series), a 2018 Polish television series Defense (chess), a chess opening by Black Defence (ship), name of several ships HMS Defence, Royal Navy ships of this name Thesis defense, oral examination required for certain advanced degrees Defence mechanisms, unconscious psychological mechanisms that reduce anxiety "The Defence", a song by Black Midi from Hellfire	[ "Self-defense", "Defender (association football)", "Defence, Karachi", "HMS Defence", "National defense (disambiguation)", "Hellfire (Black Midi album)", "La Défense", "Protection (disambiguation)", "Thesis defense", "Defence mechanisms", "Ministry of defence", "Defence diplomacy", "Defence minister", "International security", "Batting (cricket)", "Defence of property", "Defense (sports)", "Defense (military)", "Civil defense", "The Defence (TV series)", "Defense industry", "Grande Arche", "Right of self-defense", "Defense (legal)", "Defender (disambiguation)", "Haganah", "Defense (chess)", "Defenceman (ice hockey)", "Biological defense (disambiguation)", "National security", "Defence (ship)" ]
8,992	DirkJan	DirkJan is a Dutch comic strip series, created in 1989 by Dutch author and artist Mark Retera. It is also the name of its main character. The series is a gag-a-day comic. ==Description== DirkJan is an underachiever who stumbles through life in mostly three-panel gag-a-day comic strips. He started out in 1989 as a student at the current Radboud University Nijmegen in the Netherlands, where he lived in a typical student house with all the stereotypical sidekicks, such as the frat boy, the beer drinker, the bossy girl who checks if everybody keeps to the house rules, and the tramps who use the heated shared hallway to stay the night. Early DirkJans contained many references to the student life of Nijmegen. ==Publication== DirkJan was first published in Critic, the magazine for the local union of psychology students. It then moved on to monthly publication in the student magazine of Nijmegen (Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad, ANS). DirkJan became known nationally when the then only commercial comics magazine of the Netherlands SjoSji (now defunct) started publishing the strip. With the last move, the nature of the strip changed. Most of the student sidekicks got cancelled and DirkJan left university, first for jail (DJ is a notorious Kabouter abuser) and then to wander the globe and indeed space. As of May 2023, there are 28 DirkJan albums, tentatively named 'DirkJan 1' through 'DirkJan 22'. Several newspapers in the Netherlands publish the comic in their daily edition. There are 8 more albums outside the regular series. The amateur comics magazine Iris (1990–1995) republished a number of DirkJan comics, some of which were refused for publication in SjoSji.	[ "Satire", "Gag cartoon", "Nijmegen", "Algemeen Dagblad", "Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad", "Humor comics", "Mark Retera", "Kabouter", "gag-a-day", "Dagblad van het Noorden", "Iris magazine", "Radboud University Nijmegen", "Netherlands", "Eppo (comics)" ]
8,993	Duck Hunt	Arcade \| genre = Light gun shooter, sports, shooting gallery \| modes = Single-player, multiplayer \| arcade system = Nintendo VS. System, PlayChoice-10 \| programmer = Kenji Nakajima }} is a 1984 light gun shooter video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). The game was first released in April 1984 in Japan for the Family Computer (Famicom) console and in North America as an arcade game for the Nintendo VS. System. It became a launch game for the NES in North America in October 1985, and was re-released in Europe two years later. Players fire the NES Zapper at a CRT television, with three attempts per round to shoot ducks and clay pigeons. The game initially received a positive reception in the mid-1980s, Upon release as a video game, Duck Hunt became a major commercial success both for arcades and consoles in the 1980s, helping to popularize light gun video games with over 28 million copies sold worldwide. In 1986, the nationwide launch of the NES included the Deluxe Set bundle with pack-in games Duck Hunt and Gyromite. The later Action Set has Duck Hunt and Super Mario Bros. on one cartridge. The final Duck Hunt bundle is the Power Set, with a multi-cart with World Class Track Meet, Super Mario Bros., and Duck Hunt. The game was released on Virtual Console for the Wii U in 2014. ==Gameplay== Duck Hunt is a first-person shooter game with moving on-screen targets, firing the NES Zapper light gun at a CRT television screen. The player must hit a minimum number of targets to advance to the next round or else get a game over. The difficulty progresses with faster targets of an increasing minimum number. The player receives points per target and bonus points for shooting all ten targets per round. The highest scores are tracked per session. Duck Hunt has three optional game modes. In Game A and Game B, the targets are flying ducks, and in Game C the targets are clay pigeons that are launched into the distance. In Game A, one duck appears at a time and in Game B two ducks appear. Completing Round 99 in Game A advances to Round 0, which is a kill screen where the game shows erratic behavior, such as haphazard or nonexistent targets, thus ending progress. ===Vs. Duck Hunt=== Vs. Duck Hunt was released as a Nintendo VS. System arcade game in April 1984, and was later included in the PlayChoice-10 arcade console. The console supports two light guns, for alternate players. Gameplay consists of alternating rounds of Games B and C, with 12 targets per round instead of 10 and sometimes three targets at once instead of two. Every missed target costs one life until the game ends. After every second round, a bonus stage has ducks flying out of the grass with the hunting dog occasionally jumping into the line of fire as a distraction. If shot, the dog scolds the player and the bonus stage ends. According to Nintendo of America employee Jerry Momoda, the dog was made impossible to shoot on console releases to make the game more family friendly. Nintendo Research & Development 1 developed both the NES Zapper and the NES version of Duck Hunt. The game was supervised by Takehiro Izushi, and was produced by Gunpei Yokoi. The music was composed by Hirokazu Tanaka, who did music for several other Nintendo games at the time. The music was represented in the classic games medley on the Video Games Live concert tour. Designer Hiroji Kiyotake created the graphics and characters. The Power Set bundle includes the Zapper, the Power Pad, and a 3-in-1 cartridge with Duck Hunt, World Class Track Meet, and Super Mario Bros. Duck Hunt was re-released on Virtual Console for the Wii U console in Japan on December 24, 2014, and internationally on December 25. ==Reception== In North America, Vs. Duck Hunt became the third top-grossing arcade game on the RePlay arcade charts in November 1985, below Vs. Hogan's Alley at number one. The two popularized light gun video games by 1985. It was bundled with the Nintendo Entertainment System console in 1985, with copies sold worldwide. Upon release in arcades, Eddie Adlum of RePlay magazine praised Duck Hunt and Hogan's Alley as the "cream on the cake" among Nintendo VS. System and for successfully capturing the experience of older electro-mechanical gun games into video game format. He said that Duck Hunt and Hogan's Alley "sported simulated handguns on a wire cable and pop, pop, pop, you do your thing just like in the old days only at video targets". Several communities have rated the game positively. 1UP.com users gave it an 8.7 out of 10, and the GameSpot community rated the multi-cartridge of Super Mario Bros. and Duck Hunt at 9.1 out of 10. It was rated the 150th best game on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Powers Top 200 Games list. IGN placed the game at number 77 on its "Top 100 NES Games of All Time" feature. The game was ranked 24th in GamesRadars "The best NES games of all time" list. Jeremy Parish of USgamer stated that Duck Hunt paired with the NES Zapper "made the NES memorable" and was one of the key factors behind the success of the NES. Parish related Duck Hunt to the Wii Remote in that they made their respective consoles more approachable and reach a wider demographic. ==Legacy== Duck Hunt nameless non-playable hunting dog has been referred to in media as the "Duck Hunt Dog" or the "Laughing Dog", notorious for smugly laughing at the player for missing ducks. The dog is on GamesRadars list of "the 12 most annoying sidekicks ever", GameDaily list of characters "we wish we could kill but can't", GameSpys "top 10 dogs in gaming", and MTV's award for the greatest video game canine. The dog makes a cameo appearance in the NES Zapper game Barker Bill's Trick Shooting, where he can be shot. In Wii Play (2006) and its sequel Wii Play: Motion (2011), some elements from Duck Hunt and Hogan's Alley are in the mini-games "Shooting Range" and "Trigger Twist", in which some of the various targets are ducks and cans. The dog and a duck, collectively referred to as "Duck Hunt", appear as playable characters in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U. Masahiro Sakurai, the creator and director of the Super Smash Bros. series, said that Duck Hunts commercial success as "the most-sold shooting game in the world" was one of the primary reasons for its inclusion. In the games, the Duck Hunt team utilizes multiple attacks inspired by the light gun, including throwing clay pigeons, kicking an explosive version of the can from Hogan's Alley, summoning the cast of Wild Gunman to fire at opponents with their guns, or comically dodging shots fired at opponents from the Zapper. The games feature an unlockable Duck Hunt-themed stage. Both the Duck Hunt team and stage return in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, and the team is featured in the June 2019 trailer announcing Banjo & Kazooie as downloadable content. In the 2015 film Pixels, the dog cameos as an achievement trophy sent to the protagonists by the aliens following their victory over the enemies of Centipede in London. He is adopted by an elderly woman whose apartment was infiltrated by one of the titular enemies. The premise for the psychological horror VR game Duck Season by Stress Level Zero is inspired by Duck Hunt. A fan game, Duck Hunt GB, was released for the PC in 2024 that uses Game Boy-style graphics. The same developer is currently developing a new game with 3D graphics, titled Tiny Duck Hunt 3D.	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8,994	Das Boot	(, The Boat) is a 1981 West German war film written and directed by Wolfgang Petersen, produced by Günter Rohrbach, and starring Jürgen Prochnow, Herbert Grönemeyer and Klaus Wennemann. An adaptation of Lothar-Günther Buchheim's 1973 semi-autobiographical novel of the same name, the film is set during World War II and follows the and her crew, as they set out on a hazardous patrol in the Battle of the Atlantic. It depicts both the excitement of battle and the tedium of the fruitless hunt, and shows the men serving aboard U-boats as ordinary individuals with a desire to do their best for their comrades and their country. Development began in 1979. Several American directors were considered three years earlier, before the film was shelved. During production, Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock, the captain of the real U-96 during Buchheim's 1941 patrol and one of Germany's top U-boat "tonnage aces" during the war, and Hans-Joachim Krug, former first officer on , served as consultants. One of Petersen's goals was to guide the audience through "a journey to the edge of the mind" (the film's German tagline ), showing "what war is all about". Produced on a DM32 million budget (about $ million, equivalent to € million in ), the high production cost ranks it among the most expensive films in German cinema, but it was a commercial success, grossing nearly $85 million worldwide (equivalent to $ million ). The film has been exhibited both as a theatrical release (1981) and a TV miniseries (1985). Several different home video versions, as well as a director's cut (1997) supervised by Petersen, have also been released. Columbia Pictures issued both German-language and English-dubbed versions in the United States theatrically through their Triumph Classics label, earning $11 million. received positive reviews, and was nominated for six Academy Awards, including for Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay for Petersen himself. He was also nominated for a BAFTA Award and DGA Award, and the film won the German Film Award for Best Film. It was the German film with the most Oscar nominations until the release of All Quiet on the Western Front in 2022. ==Plot== Lieutenant Werner, a war correspondent on the in October 1941, is driven by his captain and chief engineer to a French bordello, where he meets some of the crew. Thomsen, another captain, gives a drunken speech to celebrate his Ritterkreuz award and mocks Adolf Hitler. The next morning, U-96 sails out of the harbour of La Rochelle, and Werner is given a tour of the boat. He observes ideological differences between the new crew members and the hardened veterans, particularly the captain, who is cynical about the war. The new men, including Werner, are mocked by the rest, who share a tight bond. The first watch officer is particularly disliked due to his pro-Nazi beliefs and meticulous grooming habits, which tie up the only bathroom. After days of boredom, the crew is excited by another U-boat's spotting of an enemy convoy, but they are soon spotted by a British destroyer and attacked with depth charges. They escape with light damage. The next three weeks are spent enduring relentless North Atlantic gales. Morale drops after various misfortunes, but the crew is cheered by a chance encounter with Thomsen's boat. After the storm ends, the boat encounters a British convoy and launches three torpedoes, sinking two ships. They are spotted by a destroyer and have to dive below test depth, the submarine's rated limit. During the ensuing depth-charge attack, the chief machinist, Johann, panics and has to be restrained. The boat sustains heavy damage but manages to surface when night falls. A British tanker they torpedoed is still afloat and on fire, so they torpedo it again, only to learn that sailors are still aboard. The crew watches as the sailors leap overboard and swim towards them. Neither able nor willing to accommodate prisoners, the captain orders the boat to back away. The exhausted crew looks forward to returning home to La Rochelle for Christmas, but the boat is ordered to La Spezia, Italy, which means passing through the Strait of Gibraltar—an area defended by the Royal Navy. The U-boat makes a secret night rendezvous at the harbour of Vigo, in neutral but Axis-friendly Spain, with the SS Weser, an interned German merchant ship that clandestinely provides U-boats with fuel, torpedoes, and other supplies. The filthy submariners appear at the opulent dinner prepared for them and are warmly greeted by the ship's officers. The captain learns from an envoy of the German consulate that his request for Werner and the chief engineer to be sent back to Germany has been denied. The crew finishes resupplying and depart for Italy. As they approach the Strait of Gibraltar and are about to dive, they are attacked and badly damaged by a British fighter plane, wounding the navigator, Kriechbaum. The captain orders the boat south towards the North African coast at full speed, determined to save his crew even if he loses the boat. British warships begin shelling, and they are forced to dive. When attempting to level off, the boat does not respond and continues to sink until, just prior to exceeding its crush depth, it lands on a sea shelf at a depth of 280 metres. The crew works to make repairs before running out of oxygen. After over 16 hours, they manage to surface by blowing their ballast tanks, and limp back towards La Rochelle under cover of darkness. The crew reach La Rochelle on Christmas Eve. After Kriechbaum is taken ashore to an ambulance, Royal Air Force planes bomb and strafe the facilities. Ullmann, Johann, the second watch officer, and the are killed; Frenssen, Lamprecht, and Hinrich are wounded. After the raid, Werner leaves the U-boat bunker in which he had taken shelter, and finds the captain badly injured by shrapnel, watching his U-boat sink. After the boat disappears, the captain collapses and dies. Werner rushes to his body and surveys the scene with tears in his eyes. ==Cast== Jürgen Prochnow as (abbr. "", ) and also called "" ("the Old Man") by his crew: A 30-year-old battle-hardened but good-hearted and sympathetic sea veteran, he complains to Werner that most of his crew members are boys. He is openly anti-Nazi, and embittered and cynical about the war, being openly critical about how the war is being handled. Herbert Grönemeyer as (Ensign) Werner, war correspondent: Naive but honest, he has been sent out to sea with the crew to gather photographs of them in action and report on the voyage. Werner is mocked for his lack of experience, and soon learns the true horrors of service on a U-boat. Klaus Wennemann as chief engineer ( or LI, Rank: ): A quiet and well-respected man, at age 27, he is the oldest crew member besides the Captain and is tormented by the uncertain fate of his wife, especially after hearing about a British air raid on Cologne. As the second most important crewman, he oversees diving operations and makes sure the systems are running correctly. Hubertus Bengsch as first watch officer (I. WO, Rank: ): A young, by-the-book officer, he is an ardent Nazi and a staunch believer in the . He has a condescending attitude and is the only crewman who makes the effort to maintain his proper uniform and trim appearance, while all the others grow their beards in the traditional U-Bootwaffe fashion. He was raised in some wealth in Mexico by his stepparents, who owned a plantation. His German fiancée died in a British air raid. He spends his days writing his thoughts on military training and leadership for the High Command. When the boat is trapped underwater near Gibraltar, he becomes pessimistic and begins to let go of his adherence to Nazi ideas as he finally stops shaving every day and wearing his proper uniform all the time. Martin Semmelrogge as second watch officer (II. WO, Rank: ): A vulgar, comedic officer, he is short, red-haired and speaks with a mild Berlin dialect. One of his duties is to decode messages from base, using the Enigma code machine. Bernd Tauber as ("Chief Helmsman") Kriechbaum: The navigator and 3rd Watch Officer (III. WO) always slightly skeptical of the Captain and without enthusiasm during the voyage, he shows no anger when a convoy is too far away to be attacked. Kriechbaum has four sons, with another on the way. Erwin Leder as ("Chief Mechanic") Johann, also called "" ("The Ghost"): He is obsessed with a near-fetish love for U-96s engines. Johann suffers a temporary mental breakdown during an attack by two destroyers. He is able to redeem himself by valiantly working to stop water leaks when the boat is trapped underwater near Gibraltar. Speaks a lower Austrian dialect. Martin May as (Senior Cadet) Ullmann: A young officer candidate who has a pregnant French fiancée (which is considered treason by the French partisans) and worries about her safety, he is one of the few crew members with whom Werner is able to connect. Werner offers to deliver Ullmann's stack of love letters when Werner is ordered to leave the submarine. Heinz Hoenig as (Petty Officer) Hinrich: The radioman, sonar controller and ship's combat medic gauges speed and direction of targets and enemy destroyers. Hinrich is one of the few crewmen whom the Captain is able to relate to. Uwe Ochsenknecht as ("Boatswain") Lamprecht: The severe chief petty officer shows Werner around U-96, and supervises the firing and reloading of the torpedo tubes. He gets upset after hearing on the radio that the football team most of the crew supports (FC Schalke 04) are losing a match, and they will "never make the final now". Claude-Oliver Rudolph as Ario: The burly mechanic who tells everyone that Dufte is marrying an ugly woman, and throws pictures around of Dufte's fiancée in order to laugh at them both also has a disdainful relationship towards the Bibelforscher, as evidenced throughout the miniseries. Jan Fedder as (Petty Officer) Pilgrim: Another sailor (watch officer and diving planes operator) who gets almost swept off the submarine during a storm – a genuine accident during filming in which Fedder broke several ribs and was hospitalised for a while. Ralf Richter as (Petty Officer) Frenssen: Pilgrim's best friend. Pilgrim and Frenssen love to trade dirty jokes and stories. Joachim Bernhard as ("Bible scholar", also the contemporary German term for a member of Jehovah's Witnesses): A very young religious sailor who is constantly reading the Bible, he is punched by Ario when the submarine is trapped at the bottom of the Strait of Gibraltar for praying rather than repairing the boat. Oliver Stritzel as Schwalle: A tall and well-built blond torpedoman. Jean-Claude Hoffmann as Benjamin: A red haired sailor who serves as a diving plane operator. Lutz Schnell as Dufte: The sailor who gets jeered at because of his upcoming marriage, and for a possible false airplane sighting. Konrad Becker as Böckstiegel: The Viennese sailor who is first visited by Hinrich for crab lice. Otto Sander as Philipp Thomsen: An alcoholic and shell-shocked U-boat commander, who is a member of "The Old Guard", when introduced is extremely drunk and briefly mocks Hitler on the stage of the French bordello. (In the "Director's Cut" DVD audio commentary, Petersen says that Sander was really drunk while they were shooting the scene.) Sometime after U-96 departs, Thomsen is deployed once again and the two submarines meet randomly in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean after being put off course by the storm. This upsets the Captain because it means that there is now a gap in the blockade chain. After failing to make contact later, it becomes apparent that Thomsen's boat is missing. When U-96 intercepts the convoy and sees they are without escorts, the Captain makes the observation that they must be away chasing down another boat; this boat is probably Thomsen's. Günter Lamprecht as the Captain of the Weser: An enthusiastic officer aboard the resupply ship Weser, he mistakes the 1st Watch Officer for the Captain as they enter the ship's elegant dining room. An ardent Nazi, he complains about the frustration of not being able to fight, but boasts about the food that has been prepared for the crew and the ship's "specialities". Sky du Mont as an officer aboard the Weser (uncredited). ==Production== In late 1941, war correspondent Lothar-Günther Buchheim joined for her 7th patrol, during the Battle of the Atlantic. His orders were to photograph and describe the U-boat in action. In 1973, Buchheim published a novel based on his wartime experiences, (The Boat), a fictionalised autobiographical account narrated by a "Leutnant Werner". It became the best-selling German fiction work on the war. Production for this film originally began in 1976. Several American directors were considered, and the () was to be played by Robert Redford. Disagreements sprang up among various parties and the project was shelved. Another Hollywood production was attempted with other American directors in mind, this time with the to be portrayed by Paul Newman. This effort primarily failed due to technical concerns, for example, how to film the close encounter of the two German submarines at sea during a storm. Production of took two years (1979–1981) and was the most expensive German film at the time. ===Sets and models=== Several different sets were used. Two full-size mock-ups of a Type VIIC boat were built, one representing the portion above water for use in outdoor scenes, and the other a cylindrical tube on a motion mount (hydraulic gimbal) for the interior scenes. The mock-ups were built according to U-boat plans from Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry. The outdoor mock-up was basically a shell propelled with a small engine, and stationed in La Rochelle, France, and has a history of its own. One morning the production crew walked out to where they kept it afloat and found it missing. Someone had forgotten to inform the crew that an American filmmaker had rented the mock-up for his own film shooting in the area. This filmmaker was Steven Spielberg and the film he was shooting was Raiders of the Lost Ark. A few weeks later, during production, the mock-up cracked in a storm and sank, was recovered and patched to stand in for the final scenes. The full-sized mock-up was used during the Gibraltar surface scenes; the attacking aircraft (played by a North American T-6 Texan / Harvard) and rockets were real while the British ships were models. A mock-up of a conning tower was placed in a water tank at the Bavaria Studios in Munich for outdoor scenes not requiring a full view of the boat's exterior. When filming on the outdoor mock-up or the conning tower, jets of cold water were hosed over the actors to simulate the breaking ocean waves. A half-sized full hull operating model was used for underwater shots and some surface running shots, in particular the meeting in stormy seas with another U-boat. The tank was also used for the shots of British sailors jumping from their ship; a small portion of the tanker hull was constructed for these shots. During the filming there was a scene where actor Jan Fedder (Pilgrim) fell off the bridge while the U-boat was surfaced. During the played rescue, Bernd Tauber (Chief Helmsmann Kriechbaum) really broke two ribs. This event is often purported as Jan Fedder breaking the ribs. File:Bavaria Filmstudio Das Boot 1 b.jpg File:Bavaria Filmstudio Das Boot 4 b.jpg File:Bavaria Filmstudio Das Boot 5 b.jpg File:Bavaria Filmstudio Das Boot 6 b.jpg The interior U-boat mock-up was mounted five metres off the floor and was shaken, rocked, and tilted up to 45 degrees by means of a hydraulic apparatus, and was vigorously shaken to simulate depth charge attacks. Petersen was admittedly obsessive about the structural detail of the U-boat set, remarking that "every screw" in the set was an authentic facsimile of the kind used in a World War II U-boat. In this he was considerably assisted by the numerous photographs Lothar-Günther Buchheim had taken during his own voyage on the historical U-96, some of which had been published in his 1976 book, ("U-Boat War"). Throughout the filming, the actors were forbidden to go out in sunlight, to create the pallor of men who seldom saw the sun during their missions. The actors went through intensive training to learn how to move quickly through the narrow confines of the vessel. ===Special camera=== Most of the interior shots were filmed using a hand-held Arriflex of cinematographer Jost Vacano's design to convey the claustrophobic atmosphere of the boat. It had two gyroscopes to provide stability, a different and smaller scale solution than the Steadicam, so that it could be carried throughout the interior of the mock-up. ==Release== The film opened on 17 September 1981 and received a very wide release in West Germany, opening in 220 theatres and grossing a record $5,176,000 in the first two weeks. It became the highest-grossing German film in Germany. The film opened in the United States on 10 February 1982. == Different versions and home media == Petersen has overseen the creation of several different versions. The first to be released was the 149-minute theatrical cut in 1981. As the film received partial financing by West German television broadcasters WDR and the SDR, more footage was shot than was shown in the theatrical version. A version of six 50-minute episodes was transmitted on BBC2 in the United Kingdom in October 1984 and again during the 1999 Christmas season. In February 1985, a version of three 100-minute episodes was broadcast in West Germany. In 1997, Petersen edited a new theatrical release, a 208-minute version, entitled The Director's Cut, combining the action sequences from the feature-length release with the character development scenes from the miniseries, also improving audio quality. In 1998, this cut was released on DVD as a single-disc edition including an audio commentary by Petersen, Prochnow and director's cut producer Ortwin Freyermuth; a six-minute making-of featurette; and in most countries, the theatrical trailer. In 2003, it was also released as a "Superbit" edition with no extra features, but with a higher bit-rate and the film spread across two discs. From 2010 onwards, the "Director's Cut", along with various new extras, was released internationally on Blu-ray. In 2014, the 308-minute miniseries, also known as The Original Uncut Version, was released on Blu-ray in Germany with optional English audio and subtitles. In November 2018, a "Complete Edition" was released as a collection of five Blu-ray discs and three CDs. It contains more than 30 hours of material: the Director's Cut (208 min.), the Original Cinema version (149 min.), the complete TV Series in six parts ("The Original Uncut Version", 308 min.), Bonus Material (202 min. + various trailers), the Original Soundtrack by Klaus Doldinger (38:21 min.) and a German-language audiobook of the novel read by Dietmar Bär (910 min.). For all versions of the film, new English language soundtracks were recorded featuring most of the original cast, who were bilingual. These soundtracks are included on various DVD and Blu-ray releases as an alternative language to the original German. 1981 unreleased version (209 minutes) 1981 original theatrical cut (149 minutes) 1984 BBC miniseries (300 minutes) 1997 "Director's Cut" (208 minutes) 2004 "The Original Uncut Version" (293 minutes) – miniseries minus episode-opening flashback scenes ==Reception== ===Critical response=== The film received highly positive reviews upon its release. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times scored the film at four out of four. Prior to the 55th Academy Awards on 11 April 1983 the movie received six nominations: Cinematography for Jost Vacano; Directing for Wolfgang Petersen; Film Editing for Hannes Nikel; Sound for Milan Bor, Trevor Pyke and Mike Le-Mare; Sound Effects Editing for Mike Le-Mare; and Writing (Screenplay based on material from another medium) for Wolfgang Petersen. Today, the film is seen as one of the greatest German films. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 98% based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 9.10/10. The critical consensus states "Taut, breathtakingly thrilling, and devastatingly intelligent, Das Boot is one of the greatest war films ever made." The film also has a score of 86 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 15 critics. For its unsurpassed authenticity in tension and realism, it is regarded internationally as pre-eminent among all submarine films. The film was ranked #25 in Empire magazine's "The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema" in 2010. In late 2007, there was an exhibition about the film Das Boot, as well as about the real U-boat U-96, at the Haus der Geschichte (House of German History) in Bonn. Over 100,000 people visited during the exhibition’s four-month run. Buchheim's views of the film Though impressed by the technological accuracy of the film's set-design and port construction buildings, novelist Lothar-Günther Buchheim expressed disappointment with Petersen's adaptation in a film review published in 1981, describing Petersen's film as converting his clearly anti-war novel into a blend of a "cheap, shallow American action flick" and a "contemporary German propaganda newsreel from World War II". \| Best Director \| rowspan="2"\| Wolfgang Petersen \| \|- \| Best Screenplay – Based on Material from Another Medium \| \|- \| Best Cinematography \| Jost Vacano \| \|- \| Best Film Editing \| Hannes Nikel \| \|- \| Best Sound \| Milan Bor, Trevor Pyke and Mike Le Mare \| \|- \| Best Sound Effects Editing \| Mike Le Mare \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| Bavarian Film Awards \| Best Director \| Wolfgang Petersen \| \|- \| Best Cinematography \| Jost Vacano \| \|- \| British Academy Film Awards \| Best Film Not in the English Language \| rowspan="2"\| Wolfgang Petersen \| \|- \| Directors Guild of America Awards \| Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures \| \|- \| rowspan="4"\| Golden Camera Awards \| colspan="2"\| Jubilee \| \|- \| Directing \| Wolfgang Petersen \| \|- \| Cinematography \| Jost Vacano \| \|- \| Music \| Klaus Doldinger \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| German Film Awards \| Best Feature-Length Feature Film (Silver Award) \| Bavaria Film \| \|- \| Best Sound/Mixing \| Milan Bor \| \|- \| Golden Globe Awards \| colspan="2"\| Best Foreign Film \| \|- \| Golden Reel Awards \| colspan="2"\| Best Sound Editing – Foreign Feature – Sound Effects \| \|- \| colspan="3"\| Golden Screen Awards \| \|- \| Japan Academy Film Prize \| colspan="2"\| Outstanding Foreign Language Film \| \|- \| Mainichi Film Awards \| Best Young Actor \| Heinz Hoenig \| \|- \| National Board of Review Awards \| colspan="2"\| Top Foreign Films \| \|- \| Satellite Awards \| Best DVD Extras \| Das Boot: Two Disc Collector's Set \| \|- \| Society of Camera Operators Awards \| Historical Shot \| Jost Vacano \| \|} ==Soundtrack== The characteristic lead melody of the soundtrack, composed and produced by Klaus Doldinger, took on a life of its own after German rave group U96 created a remixed "techno version" in 1991. The title theme "Das Boot" later became an international hit. The official soundtrack features only compositions by Doldinger, except for "" sung by Rina Ketty. The soundtrack ("") released following the release of The Director's Cut version omits "". Songs heard in the film, but not included on the album are "La Paloma" sung by Rosita Serrano, the "" (a popular military march), "It's a Long Way to Tipperary" performed by the Red Army Chorus, "" and the "". ==Sequel== A sequel of the same name, in the form of a television series, was released in 2018, with different actors. It was set nine months after the end of the original film, and is split into two narratives, one based on land, the other set around another U-boat and its crew. Like the original film, the series is based on Lothar-Günther Buchheim's 1973 book Das Boot, but with additions from Buchheim's 1995 sequel .	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Club", "Japan Academy Film Prize", "35th Directors Guild of America Awards", "Roger Ebert", "Klaus Doldinger", "The Cruel Sea (1953 film)", "La Spezia", "Wolfgang Petersen", "merchant ship", "Strait of Gibraltar", "war correspondent", "Steadicam", "BBC Two", "Dietmar Bär", "Cologne", "submarine pen", "Martin May (actor)", "German mark", "Ralf Richter (actor)", "Sharks and Little Fish", "ARRI", "La Rochelle", "Martin Semmelrogge", "Das Boot (song)", "FC Schalke 04", "Das Boot (novel)", "Jan Fedder", "Goldene Kamera", "Heimat, Deine Sterne", "Rina Ketty", "Paul Newman", "Die Brücke (film)", "Arriflex", "Jost Vacano", "development hell", "Claude-Oliver Rudolph", "gyroscope", "Greyhound (film)", "Klaus Wennemann", "Oliver Stritzel", "Academy Award for Best Sound", "Euro", "Academy Award for Best Cinematography", "Academy Awards", "Konrad Becker", "Haus der Geschichte", "interned", "Variety (magazine)", "U96", "Royal Navy", "55th Academy Awards", "French people", "Goldene Leinwand", "The Guardian", "Chicago", "U-Bootwaffe", "Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film", "Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film", "16th Satellite Awards", "Columbia Pictures", "Uwe Ochsenknecht", "Das Boot (TV series)", "Mainichi Film Awards", "World War II", "Atlantic Ocean", "National Board of Review", "Otto Sander", "Neutral country", "International Press Academy", "Bavaria Film", "J'attendrai", "Society of Operating Cameramen", "rave", "SWR Fernsehen", "Deutsche Mark", "Bavarian Film Awards (Best Cinematography)", "Japan Academy Prize for Outstanding Foreign Language Film", "Raiders of the Lost Ark", "Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay", "West Germany", "List of films considered the best", "Herbert Grönemeyer", "approval rating", "Bavarian Film Awards", "Sky du Mont", "convoy", "Süddeutscher Rundfunk", "List of World War II films", "Nazi", "Cinema of Germany", "Leitender Ingenieur", "Jürgen Prochnow", "Erzherzog-Albrecht-Marsch", "Satellite Awards", "National Board of Review Awards 1982", "IMDb", "Westdeutscher Rundfunk", "Metacritic", "BAFTA", "German Type VII submarine", "Westerwaldlied (song)", "Royal Air Force", "Battle of the Atlantic", "Film adaptation", "Kapitänleutnant", "audio commentary", "submarine films", "North American T-6 Texan", "Vienna" ]
8,996	Dynamic HTML	Dynamic HTML, or DHTML, is a term which was used by some browser vendors to describe the combination of HTML, style sheets and client-side scripts (JavaScript, VBScript, or any other supported scripts) that enabled the creation of interactive and animated documents. The application of DHTML was introduced by Microsoft with the release of Internet Explorer 4 in 1997. DHTML (Dynamic HTML) allows scripting languages, such as JavaScript, to modify variables and elements in a web page's structure, which in turn affect the look, behavior, and functionality of otherwise "static" HTML content after the page has been fully loaded and during the viewing process. Thus the dynamic characteristic of DHTML is the way it functions while a page is viewed, not in its ability to generate a unique page with each page load. By contrast, a dynamic web page is a broader concept, covering any web page generated differently for each user, load occurrence, or specific variable values. This includes pages created by client-side scripting and ones created by server-side scripting (such as PHP, Python, JSP or ASP.NET) where the web server generates content before sending it to the client. DHTML is the predecessor of Ajax and DHTML pages are still request/reload-based. Under the DHTML model, there may not be any interaction between the client and server after the page is loaded; all processing happens on the client side. By contrast, Ajax extends features of DHTML to allow the page to initiate network requests (or 'subrequest') to the server even after page load to perform additional actions. For example, if there are multiple tabs on a page, the pure DHTML approach would load the contents of all tabs and then dynamically display only the one that is active, while AJAX could load each tab only when it is really needed. == Uses == DHTML allows authors to add effects to their pages that are otherwise difficult to achieve, by changing the Document Object Model (DOM) and page style. The combination of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript offers ways to: Animate text and images in their document. Embed a ticker or other dynamic display that automatically refreshes its content with the latest news, stock quotes, or other data. Use a form to capture user input, and then process, verify and respond to that data without having to send data back to the server. Include rollover buttons or drop-down menus. A less common use is to create browser-based action games. Although a number of games were created using DHTML during the late 1990s and early 2000s, differences between browsers made this difficult: many techniques had to be implemented in code to enable the games to work on multiple platforms. Browsers have since then converged toward web standards, which has made the design of DHTML games more viable. Those games can be played on all major browsers and in desktop and device applications that support embedded browser contexts. The term "DHTML" has fallen out of use in recent years as it was associated with practices and conventions that tended to not work well between various web browsers. DHTML support with extensive DOM access was introduced with Internet Explorer 4.0. Although there was a basic dynamic system with Netscape Navigator 4.0, not all HTML elements were represented in the DOM. When DHTML-style techniques became widespread, varying degrees of support among web browsers for the technologies involved made them difficult to develop and debug. Development became easier when Internet Explorer 5.0+, Mozilla Firefox 2.0+, and Opera 7.0+ adopted a shared DOM inherited from ECMAScript. Later, JavaScript libraries such as jQuery abstracted away many of the day-to-day difficulties in cross-browser DOM manipulation, though better standards compliance among browsers has reduced the need for this. == Structure of a web page == Typically a web page using DHTML is set up in the following way: <!DOCTYPE html> DHTML example function init() { let myObj = document.getElementById("navigation"); // ... manipulate myObj } window.onload = init; == Example: Displaying an additional block of text == The following code illustrates an often-used function. An additional part of a web page will only be displayed if the user requests it. <!DOCTYPE html> Using a DOM function a { background-color: #eee; } a:hover { background: #ff0; } toggleMe { background: #cfc; display: none; margin: 30px 0; padding: 1em; } Using a DOM function Show paragraph This is the paragraph that is only displayed on request. The general flow of the document continues. function changeDisplayState(displayElement, textElement) { if (displayElement.style.display === "none" \|\| displayElement.style.display === "") { displayElement.style.display = "block"; textElement.innerHTML = "Hide paragraph"; } else { displayElement.style.display = "none"; textElement.innerHTML = "Show paragraph"; } } let displayElement = document.getElementById("toggle-me"); let textElement = document.getElementById("showhide"); textElement.addEventListener("click", function (event) { event.preventDefault(); changeDisplayState(displayElement, textElement); }); ==Document Object Model== DHTML is not a technology in and of itself; rather, it is the product of three related and complementary technologies: HTML, Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), and JavaScript. To allow scripts and components to access features of HTML and CSS, the contents of the document are represented as objects in a programming model known as the Document Object Model (DOM). The DOM API is the foundation of DHTML, providing a structured interface that allows access and manipulation of virtually anything in the document. The HTML elements in the document are available as a hierarchical tree of individual objects, making it possible to examine and modify an element and its attributes by reading and setting properties and by calling methods. The text between elements is also available through DOM properties and methods. The DOM also provides access to user actions such as pressing a key and clicking the mouse. It is possible to intercept and process these and other events by creating event handler functions and routines. The event handler receives control each time a given event occurs and can carry out any appropriate action, including using the DOM to change the document. ==Dynamic styles== Dynamic styles are a key feature of DHTML. By using CSS, one can quickly change the appearance and formatting of elements in a document without adding or removing elements. This helps keep documents small and the scripts that manipulate the document fast. The object model provides programmatic access to styles. This means you can change inline styles on individual elements and change style rules using simple JavaScript programming. Inline styles are CSS style assignments that have been applied to an element using the style attribute. You can examine and set these styles by retrieving the style object for an individual element. For example, to highlight the text in a heading when the user moves the mouse pointer over it, you can use the style object to enlarge the font and change its color, as shown in the following simple example. <!DOCTYPE html> Dynamic Styles ul { display: none; } Welcome to Dynamic HTML Dynamic styles are a key feature of DHTML. Change the color, size, and typeface of text Show and hide text And much, much more We've only just begun! function showMe() { document.getElementById("first-header").style.color = "#990000"; document.getElementById("unordered-list").style.display = "block"; } document.getElementById("clickable-link").addEventListener("click", function (event) { event.preventDefault(); showMe(); });	[ "jQuery", "Netscape Navigator", "tree (data structure)", "VBScript", "Tab (interface)", "server-side scripting", "Dynamic web page", "JavaScript library", "Internet Explorer 4.0", "Document Object Model", "web server", "JavaServer Pages", "Internet Explorer 5", "web standards", "Ajax (programming)", "Firefox", "PHP", "event handler", "Style sheet (web development)", "dynamic web page", "Python (programming language)", "Microsoft", "Opera (web browser)", "JavaScript", "ASP.NET", "debug", "HTML", "Internet Explorer 4", "ECMAScript" ]
8,997	Distance education	Distance education, also known as distance learning, is the education of students who may not always be physically present at school, or where the learner and the teacher are separated in both time and distance. or blended). Other modalities include distance learning with complementary virtual environment or teaching in virtual environment (e-learning). Massive open online courses (MOOCs), offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through the World Wide Web or other network technologies, are recent educational modes in distance education. == History == One of the earliest attempts at distance education was advertised in 1728. This was in the Boston Gazette for "Caleb Philipps, Teacher of the new method of Short Hand", who sought students who wanted to learn the skills through weekly mailed lessons. The first distance education course in the modern sense was provided by Sir Isaac Pitman in the 1840s who taught a system of shorthand by mailing texts transcribed into shorthand on postcards and receiving transcriptions from his students in return for correction. The element of student feedback was a crucial innovation in Pitman's system. The postage stamp made this scheme for remote education possible, and these efforts were scalable because of the introduction of uniform postage rates across England in 1840. This early beginning proved extremely successful and the Phonographic Correspondence Society was founded three years later to establish these courses on a more formal basis. The society paved the way for the later formation of Sir Isaac Pitman Colleges across the country. The first correspondence school in the United States was the Society to Encourage Studies at Home which was founded in 1873. Founded in 1894, Wolsey Hall, Oxford was the first distance-learning college in the UK. === University correspondence courses === ====United Kingdom==== The University of London was the first university to offer degrees to anyone who could pass their examinations, establishing its External Programme in 1858. It had been established in 1836 as an examining and degree-awarding body for affiliated colleges, originally University College London and King's College London but with many others added over the next two decades. The affiliated colleges provided certificates that the student had attended a course. A new charter in 1858 removed this requirement, allowing men (and women from 1878) taking instruction at any institution or pursuing a course of self-directed study to sit the examinations and receive degrees. The External Programme was referred to as the "People's University" by Charles Dickens as it provided access to higher education to students from less affluent backgrounds. Enrollment increased steadily during the late 19th century, and its example was widely copied elsewhere. However, the university only provided examinations, not instructional material, leading academics to state that "the original degree by external study of the UOL was not a form of distance education". The External Programme is now known as the University of London Worldwide, and includes postgraduate and undergraduate degrees created by member institutions of the University of London. In South Africa, the University of South Africa, formerly an examining and certification body, started to present distance education tuition in 1946. ====United States==== In the United States, only a third of the population lived in cities of 100,000 or more population in 1920; in order to reach the rest, correspondence techniques were adopted. William Rainey Harper, founder and first president of the University of Chicago, celebrated the concept of extended education, where a research university had satellite colleges elsewhere in the region. In 1892, Harper encouraged correspondence courses to further promote education, an idea that was put into practice by the University of Chicago, U. Wisconsin, Columbia U., and several dozen other universities by the 1920s. Enrollment in the largest private for-profit school based in Scranton, Pennsylvania, the International Correspondence Schools grew explosively in the 1890s. Founded in 1888 to provide training for immigrant coal miners aiming to become state mine inspectors or foremen, it enrolled 2500 new students in 1894 and matriculated 72,000 new students in 1895. By 1906 total enrollments reached 900,000. The growth was due to sending out complete textbooks instead of single lessons, and the use of 1200 aggressive in-person salesmen. There was a stark contrast in pedagogy: Education was a high priority in the Progressive Era, as American high schools and colleges expanded greatly. For men who were older or were too busy with family responsibilities, night schools were opened, such as the YMCA school in Boston that became Northeastern University. Private correspondence schools outside of the major cities provided a flexible, focused solution. Large corporations systematized their training programs for new employees. The National Association of Corporation Schools grew from 37 in 1913 to 146 in 1920. Private schools that provided specialized technical training to everyone who enrolled, not just employees of one company, began to open across the nation in the 1880s. Starting in Milwaukee in 1907, public schools began opening free vocational program. ====International Conference==== The International Conference for Correspondence Education held its first meeting in 1938. The goal was to provide individualized education for students, at low cost, by using a pedagogy of testing, recording, classification, and differentiation. Since then, the group has changed its name to the International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE), with its main office in Oslo, Norway. === Open universities === The Open University (OU) in the United Kingdom was founded by the then Labour government led by Harold Wilson. Based on the vision of Michael Young, planning commenced in 1965 under the Minister of State for Education, Jennie Lee, who established a model for the Open University as one of widening access to the highest standards of scholarship in higher education and setting up a planning committee consisting of university vice-chancellors, educationalists, and television broadcasters, chaired by Sir Peter Venables. The British Broadcasting Corporation's (BBC) Assistant Director of Engineering at the time, James Redmond, had obtained most of his qualifications at night school, and his natural enthusiasm for the project did much to overcome the technical difficulties of using television to broadcast teaching programs. as well as undertaking research in other disciplines. Walter Perry was appointed the OU's first vice-chancellor in January 1969, and its foundation secretary was Anastasios Christodoulou. The election of the new Conservative government under the leadership of Edward Heath, in 1970; led to budget cuts under Chancellor of the Exchequer Iain Macleod (who had earlier called the idea of an Open University "blithering nonsense"). However, the OU accepted its first 25,000 students in 1971, adopting a radical open admissions policy. At the time, the total student population of conventional universities in the United Kingdom was around 130,000. Athabasca University, Canada's open university, was created in 1970 and followed a similar, though independently developed, pattern. The Open University inspired the creation of Spain's National University of Distance Education (1972) and Germany's FernUniversität in Hagen (1974). There are now many similar institutions around the world, often with the name "Open University" (in English or in the local language). The University of the Philippines Open University was established in 1995 as the fifth constituent University of the Philippines System and was the first distance education and online university in the Philippines. Its mandate is to provide educational opportunities to individuals aspiring for higher education and improved qualifications but were unable to take advantage of traditional modes of education because of personal and professional obligations. Most open universities use distance education technologies as delivery methods, though some require attendance at local study centers or at regional "summer schools". Some open universities have grown to become mega-universities. ===COVID-19 pandemic=== The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the closure of the vast majority of schools worldwide for in-person learning. COVID-19 increased the value of distance education although its policies were implemented and formulated among several universities much earlier. A recent study showed that Google Classroom was the most used platform by students followed by Microsoft Teams and Zoom, respectively. The less-used platforms included Blackboard Learn, Webex by Cisco, DingTalk, Tencent, and WhatsApp. However, the most preferred platforms by students were Microsoft Teams followed by Google Classroom and Zoom. Although Google Classroom was the most used by students as decided by their lectures, Microsoft Teams was the most preferred by those students Distanced education during the COVID-19 pandemic has interrupted synchronous learning for many students and teachers; where educators were no longer able to teach in real-time and could only switch to asynchronous instruction, this significantly and negatively affected their coping with the transition, and posed various legal issues, especially in terms of copyright. The physical surroundings during the COVID-19 pandemic are seen by university instructors as having a detrimental effect on the quality of distance education. However, where the lecture is delivered and the type of faculty do not show any significant statistical variances in the quality of distance education. The shift away from real-time instruction to asynchronous learning modes has posed significant challenges, impacting both the teaching and learning experience. Educators, grappling with this abrupt transition, have faced hurdles in effectively engaging students and delivering course content, leading to heightened stress and burnout among faculty members. Additionally, this shift has raised legal concerns, particularly regarding copyright issues related to the dissemination of educational materials in digital formats. Post-COVID-19 pandemic, while some educational institutions went back to physical classes, others switched to blended learning or kept up their online distance learning. The study suggests teachers should cut back on the amount of information taught and incorporate more activities during the lesson, in order for students to create their own work. Web conferencing has become more popular since 2007. Researchers have found that people in online classes perform just as effectively as participants in conventional learning classes. Furthermore, digital classroom technologies allow those living remotely to access learning, and it enables the student to fit learning into their schedule more easily. == Technologies == Internet technology has enabled many forms of distance learning through open educational resources and facilities such as e-learning and MOOCs. Although the expansion of the Internet blurs the boundaries, distance education technologies are divided into two modes of delivery: synchronous learning and asynchronous learning. In synchronous learning, all participants are "present" at the same time in a virtual classroom, as in traditional classroom teaching. It requires a timetable. Web conferencing, videoconferencing, educational television, and instructional television are examples of synchronous technology, as are direct-broadcast satellite (DBS), internet radio, live streaming, telephone, and web-based VoIP. Web conferencing software helps to facilitate class meetings, and usually contains additional interaction tools such as text chat, polls, hand raising, emoticons etc. These tools also support asynchronous participation by students who can listen to recordings of synchronous sessions. Immersive environments (notably SecondLife) have also been used to enhance participant presence in distance education courses. Another form of synchronous learning using the classroom is the use of robot proxies including those that allow sick students to attend classes. Some universities have been starting to use robot proxies to enable more engaging synchronous hybrid classes where both remote and in-person students can be present and interact using telerobotics devices such as the Kubi Telepresence robot stand that looks around and the Double Robot that roams around. With these telepresence robots, the remote students have a seat at the table or desk instead of being on a screen on the wall. In asynchronous learning, participants access course materials flexibly on their schedules. Students are not required to be together at the same time. Mail correspondence, which is the oldest form of distance education, is an asynchronous delivery technology, as are message board forums, e-mail, video and audio recordings, print materials, voicemail, and fax. This type of mixed distance and campus-based education has recently come to be called "blended learning" or less often "hybrid learning". Many open universities use a blend of technologies and a blend of learning modalities (face-to-face, distance, and hybrid) all under the rubric of "distance learning". Distance learning can also use interactive radio instruction (IRI), interactive audio instruction (IAI), online virtual worlds, digital games, webinars, and webcasts, all of which are referred to as e-Learning. }} The rapid spread of film in the 1920s and radio in the 1930s led to proposals to use it for distance education. By 1938, at least 200 city school systems, 25 state boards of education, and many colleges and universities broadcast educational programs for public schools. One line of thought was to use radio as a master teacher. The first large-scale implementation of radio for distance education took place in 1937 in Chicago. During a three-week school closure implemented in response to a polio outbreak that the city was experiencing, superintendent of Chicago Public Schools William Johnson and assistant superintendent Minnie Fallon implemented a program of distance learning that provided the city's elementary school students with instruction through radio broadcasts. A typical setup came in Kentucky in 1948 when John Wilkinson Taylor, president of the University of Louisville, teamed up with NBC to use radio as a medium for distance education. The chairman of the Federal Communications Commission endorsed the project and predicted that the "college-by-radio" would put "American education 25 years ahead". The university was owned by the city, and local residents would pay the low tuition rates, receive their study materials in the mail, and listen by radio to live classroom discussions that were held on campus. Physicist Daniel Q. Posin also was a pioneer in the field of distance education when he hosted a televised course through DePaul University. Charles Wedemeyer of the University of Wisconsin–Madison also promoted new methods. From 1964 to 1968, the Carnegie Foundation funded Wedemeyer's Articulated Instructional Media Project (AIM) which brought in a variety of communications technologies aimed at providing learning to an off-campus population. The radio courses faded away in the 1950s. Many efforts to use television along the same lines proved unsuccessful, despite heavy funding by the Ford Foundation. From 1970 to 1972 the Coordinating Commission for Higher Education in California funded Project Outreach to study the potential of tele-courses. The study included the University of California, California State University, and community colleges. This study led to coordinated instructional systems legislation allowing the use of public funds for non-classroom instruction and paved the way for the emergence of tele-courses as the precursor to the online courses and programs of today. The Coastline Community Colleges, The Dallas County Community College District, and Miami Dade Community College led the way. The Adult Learning Service of the US Public Broadcasting Service came into being and the "wrapped" series, and individually produced tele-course for credit became a significant part of the history of distance education and online learning. === Internet === The widespread use of computers and the Internet has made distance learning easier and faster, and today virtual schools and virtual universities deliver full curricula online. The capacity of the Internet to support voice, video, text, and immersion teaching methods made earlier distinct forms of telephone, videoconferencing, radio, television, and text-based education somewhat redundant. However, many of the techniques developed and lessons learned with earlier media are used in Internet delivery. The first online courses for graduate and undergraduate credit were offered in 1985 by Connected Education through The New School in New York City, with students earning the MA in Media Studies completely online via computer conferencing, with no in-person requirements. This was followed in 1986 by the University of Toronto through the Graduate School of Education (then called OISE: the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education), offering a course in "Women and Computers in Education", dealing with gender issues and educational computing. The first new and fully online university was founded in 1994 as the Open University of Catalonia, headquartered in Barcelona, Spain. In 1999 Jones International University was launched as the first fully online university accredited by a regional accrediting association in the US. Between 2000 and 2008, enrollment in distance education courses increased rapidly almost every country in both developed and developing countries. Many private, public, non-profit, and for-profit institutions worldwide now offer distance education courses from the most basic instruction through to the highest levels of degree and doctoral programs. New York University and International University Canada, for example, offer online degrees in engineering and management-related fields through NYU Tandon Online. Levels of accreditation vary: widely respected universities such as Stanford University and Harvard now deliver online courses—but other online schools receive little outside oversight, and some are fraudulent, i.e., diploma mills. In the US, the Distance Education Accrediting Commission (DEAC) specializes in the accreditation of distance education institutions. In the United States in 2011, it was found that a third of all the students enrolled in postsecondary education had taken an accredited online course in a postsecondary institution. Growth continued. In 2013 the majority of public and private colleges offered full academic programs online. occupational therapy, family therapy, art therapy, physical therapy, fields. By 2008, online learning programs were available in the United States in 44 states at the K-12 level. Internet forums, online discussion groups, and online learning community can contribute to a distance education experience. Research shows that socialization plays an important role in some forms of distance education. E-Courses are available from educational platforms such as Khan Academy and MasterClass on many topics and for students of all levels. == Paced and self-paced models == Most distance education uses a paced format similar to traditional campus-based models in which learners commence and complete a course at the same time. Some institutions offer self-paced programs that allow for continuous enrollment, and the length of time to complete the course is set by the learner's time, skill, and commitment levels. Self-paced courses are almost always offered asynchronously. Each delivery method offers advantages and disadvantages for students, teachers, and institutions. Kaplan and Haenlein classify distance education into four groups according to "Time dependency" and "Number of participants": MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses): Open-access online course (i.e., without specific participation restrictions) that allows for unlimited (massive) participation; SPOCs (Small Private Online Courses): Online course that only offers a limited number of places and therefore requires some form of formal enrollment; SMOCs (Synchronous Massive Online Courses): Open-access online course that allows for unlimited participation but requires students to be "present" at the same time (synchronously); SSOCs (Synchronous Private Online Courses): Online course that only offers a limited number of places and requires students to be "present" at the same time (synchronously). and to engage in collaborative work. Self-paced courses maximize student freedom, as not only can students commence studies on any date, but they can complete a course in as little time as a few weeks or up to a year or longer. Students often enroll in self-paced study when they are under pressure to complete programs, have not been able to complete a scheduled course, need additional courses, or have pressure which precludes regular study for any length of time. The self-paced nature of the programming, though, is an unfamiliar model for many students and can lead to excessive procrastination, resulting in course incompletion. Assessment of learning can also be challenging as exams can be written on any day, making it possible for students to share examination questions with resulting loss of academic integrity. Finally, it is extremely challenging to organize collaborative work activities, though some schools are developing cooperative models based upon networked and connectivist pedagogies for use in self-paced programs. == Benefits == Distance learning can expand access to education and training for both general populace and businesses since its flexible scheduling structure lessens the effects of the many time-constraints imposed by personal responsibilities and commitments. Devolving some activities off-site alleviates institutional capacity constraints arising from the traditional demand on institutional buildings and infrastructure. Furthermore, there is the potential for increased access to more experts in the field and to other students from diverse geographical, social, cultural, economic, and experiential backgrounds. especially if the instructor is knowledgeable and skilled. It has been shown through research that "as learners become aware of the variations in interpretation and construction of meaning among a range of people [they] construct an individual meaning", which can help students become knowledgeable of a wide array of viewpoints in education. The high cost of education affects students in higher education, and distance education may be an alternative in order to provide some relief. In addition, distance education may be able to save students from the economic burden of high-priced course textbooks. Many textbooks are now available as electronic textbooks, known as e-textbooks, which can offer digital textbooks for a reduced price in comparison to traditional textbooks. Also, the increasing improvements in technology have resulted in many school libraries having a partnership with digital publishers that offer course materials for free, which can help students significantly with educational costs. For example, students can review their lessons more than once according to their needs. Students can then manipulate the coursework to fit their learning by focusing more on their weaker topics while breezing through concepts that they already have or can easily grasp. Children who are sick or are unable to attend classes are able to attend them in "person" through the use of robot proxies. This helps the students have experiences in the classroom and social interaction that they are unable to receive at home or the hospital, while still keeping them in a safe learning environment. Over the last few years more students are entering safely back into the classroom thanks to the help of robots. An article from the New York Times, "A Swiveling Proxy Will Even Wear a Tutu", explains the positive impact of virtual learning in the classroom, and another explains how even a simple, stationary telepresence robot can help. Distance education may provide equal access regardless of socioeconomic status or income, area of residence, gender, race, age, or cost per student. Applying universal design strategies to distance learning courses as they are being developed (rather than instituting accommodations for specific students on an as-needed basis) can increase the accessibility of such courses to students with a range of abilities, disabilities, learning styles, and native languages. Distance education graduates, who would never have been associated with the school under a traditional system, may donate money to the school. Distance learning may also offer a final opportunity for adolescents that are no longer permitted in the general education population due to behavior disorders. Instead of these students having no other academic opportunities, they may continue their education from their homes and earn their diplomas, offering them another chance to be an integral part of society. Distance learning offers individuals a unique opportunity to benefit from the expertise and resources of the best universities currently available. Moreover, the online environment facilitates pedagogical innovation such as new program structures and formats. Students have the ability to collaborate, share, question, infer, and suggest new methods and techniques for continuous improvement of the content. The ability to complete a course at a pace that is appropriate for each individual is the most effective manner to learn given the personal demands on time and schedule. == Criticism == Barriers to effective distance education include obstacles such as domestic distractions and unreliable technology, as well as students' program costs, adequate contact with teachers and support services, and a need for more experience. Some students attempt to participate in distance education without proper training with the tools needed to be successful in the program. Students must be provided with training opportunities (if needed) on each tool that is used throughout the program. The lack of advanced technology skills can lead to an unsuccessful experience. Schools have a responsibility to adopt a proactive policy for managing technology barriers. Time management skills and self-discipline in distance education is just as important as complete knowledge of the software and tools being used for learning. The results of a study of Washington state community college students showed that distance- learning students tended to drop out more often than their traditional counterparts due to difficulties in language, time management, and study skills. According to Pankaj Singhm, director of Nims University, "distance learning benefits may outweigh the disadvantages for students in such a technology-driven society, however before indulging into the use of educational technology a few more disadvantages should be considered." He describes that over multiple years, "all of the obstacles have been overcome and the world environment for distance education continues to improve." Pankaj Singhm also claims there is a debate to distance education stating, "due to a lack of direct face-to-face social interaction. However, as more people become used to personal and social interaction online (for example dating, chat rooms, shopping, or blogging), it is becoming easier for learners to both project themselves and socializes with others. This is an obstacle that has dissipated." Not all courses required to complete a degree may be offered online. Health care profession programs in particular require some sort of patient interaction through field work before a student may graduate. Studies have also shown that students pursuing a medical professional graduate degree who are participating in distance education courses, favor a face to face communication over professor-mediated chat rooms and/or independent studies. However, this is little correlation between student performance when comparing the previous different distance learning strategies. Early proponents of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) saw them as just the type of experiment that Barwick had pointed out was lacking in higher education, although Barwick himself has never advocated for MOOCs. There may also be institutional challenges. Distance learning is new enough that it may be a challenge to gain support for these programs in a traditional brick-and-mortar academic learning environment. A more complex challenge of distance education relates to cultural differences between students and teachers and among students. Distance programs tend to be more diverse as they could go beyond the geographical borders of regions, countries, and continents, and cross the cultural borders that may exist concerning race, gender, and religion. That requires a proper understanding and awareness of the norms, differences, preconceptions, and potential conflicting issues. == Assessments == Tools have been developed to assess the quality of distance education. Walker developed a survey instrument known as the Distance Education Learning Environment Survey (DELES), which examines instructor support, student interaction, and collaboration, personal relevance, authentic learning, active learning, and student autonomy. Harnish and Reeves provide a systematic approach based on training, implementation, system usage, communication, and support. == Educational technology == The modern use of electronic educational technology (also called e-learning) facilitates distance learning and independent learning through the extensive use of information and communications technology (ICT), One of the most significant issues encountered in the mainstream correspondence model of distance education is transactional distance, which results from the lack of appropriate communication between learner and teacher. This gap has been observed to become wider if there is no communication between the learner and teacher and has direct implications for the learning process and future endeavors in distance education. Distance education providers began to introduce various strategies, techniques, and procedures to increase the amount of interaction between learners and teachers. These measures e.g. more frequent face-to-face tutorials, and increased use of information and communication technologies including teleconferencing and the Internet, were designed to close the gap in transactional distance. == Credentials == Online credentials for learning are digital credentials that are offered in place of traditional paper credentials for a skill or educational achievement. Directly linked to the accelerated development of internet communication technologies, the development of digital badges, electronic passports and massive open online courses (MOOCs) have a very direct bearing on our understanding of learning, recognition and levels as they pose a direct challenge to the status quo. It is useful to distinguish between three forms of online credentials: Test-based credentials, online badges, and online certificates.	[ "Microsoft Teams", "Blackboard Learn", "online classes", "direct-broadcast satellite", "web-based VoIP", "Athabasca University", "massive open online course", "School and Society", "ECourse", "Distance Education Accrediting Commission", "University of London Worldwide", "COVID-19 pandemic", "MOOCs", "Media psychology", "educational television", "Dallas College", "Harold Wilson", "D2L", "University of the Philippines System", "socialization", "Primary school", "Blended learning", "Google Meet", "Edgenuity", "audio recording", "Jennie Lee, Baroness Lee of Asheridge", "Internet", "Coastline Community College", "Sunrise Semester", "Distance education in Chicago Public Schools in 1937", "Short Hand", "Small private online course", "University of Chicago", "William Rainey Harper", "Digital divide", "internet radio", "Society to Encourage Studies at Home", "non-profit", "videoconferencing", "BBC", "Carnegie Corporation of New York", "universal design", "Public Broadcasting Service", "Ontario Institute for Studies in Education", "higher education", "video", "NYU Tandon Online", "WhatsApp", "Walter Perry", "California State University", "UNESCO", "family therapy", "Andreas Kaplan", "occupational therapy", "DePaul University", "accessibility", "University of Hagen", "New media", "synchronous learning", "Connected Education", "rehabilitation counseling", "voicemail", "diploma mill", "telephone", "Massive Open Online Courses", "Cisco Webex", "virtual school", "Educational accreditation", "Low-residency program", "Tencent Video", "blended learning", "COVID-19", "WNYC (AM)", "Zoom (software)", "DingTalk", "International Correspondence Schools", "Isaac Pitman", "disability", "Online school", "live streaming", "Web conferencing", "robot", "University College London", "Daniel Q. Posin", "Anastasios Christodoulou", "Queen Mary, University of London", "University of Queensland", "Khan Academy", "England", "King's College London", "electronic passport", "Google Classroom", "Scranton, Pennsylvania", "Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington", "instructional television", "fax", "online degree", "Videotelephony", "Federal Communications Commission", "University of Toronto", "Distance Education Learning Environments Survey", "YMCA", "postcard", "MasterClass", "art therapy", "Wolsey Hall, Oxford", "National University of Distance Education", "University of Louisville", "Progressive Era", "polio", "James Redmond (broadcaster)", "information and communications technology", "Iain Macleod", "University of South Africa", "Massive open online course", "Open University", "digital literacy", "University of London", "Ford Foundation", "Educational technology", "Virtual education", "Virtual university", "asynchronous learning", "Secretary of State for Education and Skills", "m-learning", "University of California", "English language", "William Johnson (educator)", "discussion group", "Teleseminars", "Miami Dade College", "wikt:night school", "Internet forum", "NIMS University", "Uniform Penny Post", "World Wide Web", "Charles Dickens", "telerobotics", "virtual world", "learning environment", "Jones International University", "physical therapy", "Northeastern University", "Daniel Barwick", "John Wilkinson Taylor (educator)", "lifelong learning", "e-mail", "Open University of Catalonia", "mental health", "Autodidacticism", "The New School", "educational technology", "online school", "Boston Gazette", "Labour Party (UK)", "Blackboard Inc.", "Conservative Party (UK)", "Qualifications framework", "SecondLife", "open educational resources", "online learning community", "mail", "Edward Heath", "open universities", "Chancellor of the Exchequer", "digital badge", "New York University", "NBC", "Cisco", "message board", "school", "Charles Wedemeyer", "University of Wisconsin–Madison" ]
9,000	Death of a Hero	Death of a Hero is a World War I novel by Richard Aldington. It was his first novel, published by Chatto & Windus in 1929, and thought to be partly autobiographical. ==Plot summary== Death of a Hero is the story of a young English artist named George Winterbourne who enlists in the army at the beginning of World War I. The book is narrated by an unnamed first-person narrator who claims to have known and served with the main character. It is divided into three parts. ===Book I=== The first part details George's family history. His father, a middle-class man from England's countryside, marries a poor woman who falsely believes she is marrying into a monied family. After George's birth, his mother has a series of lovers. The portrait of George's parents is believed to be based on his own parents, whom he disliked. One critic called the characters "parodic monsters". George is brought up to be a proper and patriotic member of English society. He is encouraged to learn his father's insurance business, but fails to do so. After a disagreement with his parents, he relocates to London to become an artist and live a socialite lifestyle. ===Book II=== The second section of the book deals with George's London life. He ingrains himself in socialite society and engages a number of trendy philosophies. After he and his lover, Elizabeth, have a pregnancy scare, they decide to marry. Although they do not have a child, the marriage endures. They decide to leave their marriage open. George takes Elizabeth's close friend as a lover, however, and their marriage begins to fall apart. Just as the situation is becoming particularly heated, England declares war on Germany. George decides to enlist. Aldington's portrayal of society contains "clumsily satirical portraits" of T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound,	[ "Ezra Pound", "Richard Aldington", "Paul Nash (artist)", "Trojan War", "debut novel", "profanity", "Chatto & Windus", "T. S. Eliot", "autobiographical novel", "book burning", "World War I novel" ]
9,001	Degree Confluence Project	The Degree Confluence Project is a World Wide Web-based all-volunteer project that aims to have people visit each of the integer degree intersections of latitude and longitude on Earth, posting photographs and a narrative of each visit online. The project describes itself as "an organized sampling of the world". ==Requirements== The precise location of each degree confluence uses the WGS 84 horizontal datum, and visitors to degree confluences almost always make use of GNSS receivers. For a successful visit, the visitor must get within 100 metres of the confluence point, and post a narrative and several photographs to the project website. A visit, or attempted visit, which does not conform to these rules may still be recorded on the website as an incomplete visit. The project encourages visits to degree confluences which have been visited previously, and many confluence points — especially in non-remote regions of developed nations – have been visited several times. The total number of degree confluences is 64,442, of which 21,543 are on land, 38,409 on water, and 4,490 on the Antarctic and Arctic ice caps. The project categorizes degree confluences as either primary or secondary. A confluence is primary only if it is on land or within sight of land. In addition, at latitudes greater than 48°, only some points are designated primary because confluences crowd together near the poles. Both primary and secondary confluences may be visited and recorded. In addition, visits to certain special geographical locations can also be reported (special visits). For example: Middle of the World monument (0°, 78°27'08"W) Centers of continents Royal Greenwich Observatory == History == The project was started by Alex Jarrett in February 1996 because he "liked the idea of visiting a location represented by a round number such as 43°00'00"N 72°00'00"W. What would be there? Would other people have recognized this as a unique spot?" As of October 2024, 6,668 (40.7%) of 16,349 primary confluences have been visited, covering 195 countries and territories. == Milestones == First degree confluence visit posted to the website: in New Hampshire, USA by Alex Jarrett (project founder) and Peter Cline on February 20, 1996. (Note that some degree confluence visits that pre-date this visit have since been posted on the project's website.) Highest confluence: in Kuba, Tibet, China at 19,143 feet (5,835 m), first visited by Greg Michaels and Robert Whitfield on May 29, 2005. Lowest confluence: in Matrūh, Egypt at −255 feet (−78 m), first visited by Dave Morrison, Steve Price and Tony Carlisle on December 4, 2004.	[ "Geographic pole", "integer", "World Wide Web", "Ciudad Mitad del Mundo", "degree (angle)", "Systematic sampling", "latitude", "43rd parallel north", "latitudes", "Sampling (statistics)", "72nd meridian west", "Arctic", "photograph", "WGS 84", "Antarctic", "Royal Greenwich Observatory", "longitude", "Voice of America", "Earth", "Grist (magazine)", "England", "GNSS" ]
9,002	Danny Kaye	Danny Kaye (born David Daniel Kaminsky; ; January 18, 1911 – March 3, 1987) was an American actor, comedian, singer, and dancer. His performances featured physical comedy, idiosyncratic pantomimes, and rapid-fire novelty songs. Kaye starred in 23 films, notably Wonder Man (1945), The Kid from Brooklyn (1946), The Secret Life of Walter Mitty (1947), The Inspector General (1949), Hans Christian Andersen (1952), White Christmas (1954), and The Court Jester (1955). His films were popular, especially for his performances of patter songs and favorites such as "Inchworm" and "The Ugly Duckling". He was the first ambassador-at-large of UNICEF in 1954 and received the French Legion of Honour in 1986 for his years of work with the organization. ==Early life and education== David Daniel Kaminsky was born in Brooklyn, New York, on January 18, 1911 (though he would later say 1913), to Ukrainian Jewish immigrants Jacob and Clara (née Nemerovsky) Kaminsky. He was the youngest of three sons. His parents and older brothers Larry and Mac left Yekaterinoslav (then part of Novorossia in the Russian Empire) two years before Danny's birth; he was their only son born in the United States. He attended Public School 149 in East New York, Brooklyn (eventually renamed to honor him)—where he began entertaining his classmates with songs and jokes. He attended Thomas Jefferson High School in Brooklyn, but he did not graduate. After leaving school, he held a succession of jobs as a soda jerk, auto insurance investigator, and office clerk. Most ended with him being fired. He lost the insurance job when he made an error that cost the insurance company $40,000 ($600,000 in 2019 adjusted for inflation). A dentist who hired him to look after his office over lunch and run errands fired him when he found Kaye using his dental drill on the office woodwork. In 1939, Kaye met the same dentist's daughter, Sylvia Fine, at an audition, and in 1940, they eloped. He learned his trade in his teenaged years in the Catskills as a tummler (M.C.) in the Borscht Belt. Jobs were in short supply when Kaye returned to the United States, and he struggled for bookings. One job was working in a burlesque revue with fan dancer Sally Rand. After the dancer dropped a fan while trying to chase away a fly, Kaye was hired to watch the fans, so they were always held in front of her. The Kaye series ended abruptly when the studio shut down in 1938. He was working in the Catskills in 1937 under the name Danny Kolbin. His next venture was a short-lived Broadway show with Sylvia Fine as the pianist, lyricist, and composer. The Straw Hat Revue opened on September 29, 1939, and closed after 10 weeks, but critics noticed Kaye's work. The reviews brought an offer for both Kaye and his bride Sylvia to work at La Martinique, a New York City nightclub. Kaye performed with Sylvia as his accompanist. At La Martinique, playwright Moss Hart saw Danny perform, and that led to Hart's casting him in his hit Broadway comedy Lady in the Dark. In the next Broadway season, he was the star of a show about a young man who is drafted called Let's Face It!. His feature-film debut was in producer Samuel Goldwyn's Technicolor 1944 comedy Up in Arms, a remake of Goldwyn's Eddie Cantor comedy Whoopee! (1930). Rival producer Robert M. Savini cashed in by compiling three of Kaye's Educational Pictures shorts into a patchwork feature entitled The Birth of a Star (1945). Studio mogul Goldwyn wanted Kaye's prominent nose fixed to look less Jewish; Kaye starred in a radio program, The Danny Kaye Show, on CBS from 1945 to 1946. The program's popularity rose quickly. Within a year, he tied with Jimmy Durante for fifth place in the Radio Daily popularity poll. Kaye was the first American actor to visit postwar Tokyo. He had toured there some ten years before with the vaudeville troupe. When Kaye asked to be released from his radio contract in mid-1946, he agreed not to accept a regular radio show for one year and only limited guest appearances on other radio programs. Many of the show's episodes survive today, notable for Kaye's opening signature patter ("Git gat gittle, giddle-di-ap, giddle-de-tommy, riddle de biddle de roop, da-reep, fa-san, skeedle de woo-da, fiddle de wada, reep!"). Some of Kaye's films included the theme of doubles, two people who look identical (both Danny Kaye) being mistaken for each other to comic effect.thumb\|right\|Danny Kaye on USO tour at Sasebo, Japan, October 25, 1945. Kaye and his friend, Dodgers manager Leo Durocher, made the trip. When he appeared at the [[London Palladium in 1948, he "roused the Royal family to laughter and was the first of many performers who have turned British variety into an American preserve." Life described his reception as "worshipful hysteria" and noted that the royal family, for the first time, left the royal box to watch from the front row of the orchestra. He related that he had no idea of the familial connections when the Marquess of Milford Haven introduced himself after a show and said he would like his cousins to see Kaye perform. Kaye had an invitation to return to London for a Royal Variety Performance in November of the same year. When the invitation arrived, Kaye was busy with The Inspector General (which had a working title of Happy Times). Warner Bros. stopped the film to allow their star to attend. When his Decca labelmates The Andrews Sisters began their engagement at the London Palladium on the heels of Kaye's successful 1948 appearance there, the trio was well received and David Lewin of the Daily Express declared: "The audience gave the Andrews Sisters the Danny Kaye roar!" Kaye entered television in 1956, on the CBS show See It Now with Edward R. Murrow. The Secret Life of Danny Kaye combined his 50,000-mile, ten-country tour as UNICEF ambassador with music and humor. His first solo effort was in 1960 with a one-hour special produced by Sylvia and sponsored by General Motors, with similar specials in 1961 and 1962. His last cinematic starring role came in 1963's The Man from the Diners' Club. Beginning in 1964, he acted as television host to the CBS telecasts of MGM's The Wizard of Oz. Kaye did a stint as a What's My Line? mystery guest on the Sunday-night CBS-TV quiz program. Kaye was later a guest panelist on that show. He also appeared on the interview program Here's Hollywood. In the 1970s, Kaye tore a ligament in his leg during the run of the Richard Rodgers musical Two by Two, but went on with the show, appearing with his leg in a cast and cavorting on stage in a wheelchair. He had done much the same on his television show in 1964, when his right leg and foot were burned from a cooking accident. Camera shots were planned so television viewers did not see Kaye in his wheelchair. In 1976, he played Geppetto in a television musical adaptation of Pinocchio with Sandy Duncan in the title role. Kaye portrayed Captain Hook opposite Mia Farrow in a musical version of Peter Pan featuring songs by Anthony Newley and Leslie Bricusse. He later guest-starred in episodes of The Muppet Show and The Cosby Show, ===Career in music=== While Kaye claimed he could not read music, he was said to have perfect pitch. A flamboyant performer with his own distinctive style, "easily adapting from outrageous novelty songs to tender ballads" (according to critic Jason Ankeny), in 1945, Kaye began hosting his own CBS radio program, in which he performed a number of hit songs, including "Dinah" and "Minnie the Moocher". In 1947, Kaye teamed up with The Andrews Sisters (Patty, Maxene, and LaVerne) on Decca Records, producing the number-three Billboard hit "Civilization (Bongo, Bongo, Bongo)". The success of the pairing prompted both acts to record through 1950, producing such rhythmically comical fare as "The Woody Woodpecker Song" (based on the bird from the Walter Lantz cartoons and a Billboard hit for the quartet), "Put 'em in a Box, Tie 'em with a Ribbon (And Throw 'em in the Deep Blue Sea)", "The Big Brass Band from Brazil", "It's a Quiet Town (In Crossbone County)", "Amelia Cordelia McHugh (Mc Who?)", "Ching-a-ra-sa-sa", and a duet by Danny and Patty Andrews of "Orange Colored Sky". The acts teamed for two yuletide favorites - a frantic, harmonic rendition of "A Merry Christmas at Grandmother's House (Over the River and Through the Woods)" and a duet by Danny and Patty, "All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth". Kaye's debut album, Columbia Presents Danny Kaye, had been released in 1942 by Columbia Records with songs performed to the accompaniment of Maurice Abravanel and Johnny Green. The album was reissued as a Columbia LP in 1949 and is described by the critic Bruce Eder as "a bit tamer than some of the stuff that Kaye hit with later in the '40s and in the '50s, and for reasons best understood by the public, doesn't attract nearly the interest of his kids' records and overt comedy routines". In 1950, a Decca single, "I've Got a Lovely Bunch of Coconuts", was released, and became another chart hit for him. Following the success of the film Hans Christian Andersen (1952), two of its songs written by Frank Loesser and sung by Kaye, "Thumbelina" and "Wonderful Copenhagen", reached the charts; the former title became a minor US hit, and the latter reached number five on the UK Singles Chart. In 1953, Decca released Danny at the Palace, a live recording made at the New York Palace Theater, followed by Knock On Wood (Decca, 1954) a set of songs from the movie of the same name sung by Kaye, accompanied by Victor Young and His Singing Strings. In 1956, Kaye signed a three-year recording contract with Capitol Records, which released his single "Love Me Do" in December of that year. The B-side, "Ciu Ciu Bella", with lyrics written by Sylvia Fine, was inspired by an episode in Rome when Kaye, on a mission for UNICEF, befriended a 7-year-old child with polio in a children's hospital, who sang this song for him in Italian. In 1958, Saul Chaplin and Johnny Mercer wrote songs for Merry Andrew, a film starring Kaye as a British teacher attracted to the circus. The score added up to six numbers, all sung by Kaye; conductor Billy May's 1950 composition "Bozo's Circus Band" (renamed "Music of the Big Top Circus Band") was deposited on the second side of the Merry Andrew soundtrack, released in 1958. A year later, another soundtrack came out, for The Five Pennies (in which Kaye starred as 1920s cornet player Red Nichols), featuring Louis Armstrong. In the 1960s and 1970s, Kaye regularly conducted world-famous orchestras, although he had to learn the scores by ear. Kaye's style, even if accompanied by unpredictable antics (he once traded the baton for a flyswatter to conduct "The Flight of the Bumblebee") Kaye was invited to conduct symphonies as charity fundraisers ===Imitations=== Kaye was sufficiently popular to inspire imitations: The 1946 Warner Bros. cartoon Book Revue had a sequence with Daffy Duck wearing a blond wig and impersonating Kaye. Satirical songwriter Tom Lehrer's 1953 song "Lobachevsky" was based on a number that Kaye had done, about the Russian director Constantin Stanislavski, with the affected Russian accent. Lehrer mentioned Kaye in an opening monologue, citing him as an "idol since childbirth". Superman creators Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster fashioned a short-lived superhero title, Funnyman, taking inspiration from Kaye's persona. ==Other endeavors== ===Cooking=== In his later years, Kaye entertained at home as chef. He specialized in Chinese and Italian cooking. He had a custom-made Chinese restaurant installed at the rear of his house by its alley, then had a kitchen and dining area built around it. He learned "at Johnny Kan's restaurant in San Francisco and with Cecilia Chang at her Mandarin restaurants in San Francisco and Los Angeles". The theatre and demonstration kitchen under the library at the Hyde Park, New York, campus of the Culinary Institute of America is named for him. Kaye referred to his kitchen as "Ying's Thing". While filming The Madwoman of Chaillot in France, he phoned home to ask his family if they would like to eat at Ying's Thing that evening; Kaye flew home for dinner. Rather, he had cooked for several famous French chefs at his house (all of them MOFs), and they signed an "honorary" Meilleur Ouvrier de France diploma for him. ===Flying=== Kaye became an aviation enthusiast and pilot. His interest was sparked by his longtime friend, choreographer Michael Kidd, who at the time had recently earned his private pilot's license. Kaye was an enthusiastic and accomplished golfer, but reduced golf activities in favor of flying and started training for his license in 1959. The first plane Kaye owned was a Piper Aztec. After this, he became qualified for many types of aircraft, from single-engined light aircraft to multiengine jets. Kaye received a type rating in a Learjet, and he was named vice president of the Learjet Company by Bill Lear as an honorary title (he had no line responsibility at the company). He supported many flying projects. In 1968, he was honorary chairman of the Las Vegas International Exposition of Flight, a show that used many facets of the city's entertainment industry while presenting an air show. The operational show chairman was well-known aviation figure Lynn Garrison. Kaye flew a Learjet to 65 cities in five days on a mission to help UNICEF. That song is included on Baseball's Greatest Hits compact discs. A good friend of Leo Durocher's, he often traveled with the team. Kaye and his business partner Lester Smith also led an investment group, which was awarded the American League's 13th franchise, which became the Seattle Mariners for US$6.2 million on February 7, 1976. The ownership percentages of Kaye, Smith, and two other remaining original investors were reduced to 5% each when George Argyros purchased 80% of the Mariners for $10.4 million on January 30, 1981. Kaye sold all of his business interests to Smith's family in 1985. ===Medicine=== Kaye was an honorary member of the American College of Surgeons and the American Academy of Pediatrics. "For all of his success as a performer (...) his greatest legacy remains his tireless humanitarian work—so close were his ties to the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) that when the organization received the Nobel Peace Prize, Kaye was tapped to accept it", according to music critic Jason Ankeny. Sylvia was an audition pianist. Sylvia discovered that Danny had worked for her father Samuel Fine, a dentist. on January 3, 1940. They were married for life, except for a separation in 1947 and 1948, when Kaye was involved with Eve Arden. The couple's only child, daughter Dena, was born on December 17, 1946. When she was very young, Dena did not like seeing her father perform because she did not understand that people were supposed to laugh at what he did. Kaye said in a 1954 interview, "Whatever she wants to be she will be without interference from her mother nor from me." Dena grew up to become a journalist. Donald Spoto, the author of Laurence Olivier (HarperCollins), made an unsubstantiated claim that Kaye had a 10-year secret affair with Laurence Olivier. Despite media rumor since that book's publication, no evidence has been published. English journalist Terry Coleman, who spent four years studying Olivier's archive of letters and memorabilia, could not find evidence of such an affair between Kaye and Olivier. Coleman observed, "I did check it and talked to a number of people. In this mountain of material in the archives, I could not find a hint of an affair with Danny Kaye." On January 18, 2013, during a 24-hour salute to Kaye on Turner Classic Movies in celebration of what TCM thought was his 100th birthday, Kaye's daughter Dena revealed to TCM host Ben Mankiewicz that Kaye's stated birth year of 1913 was incorrect, and that he was actually born in 1911. A lifelong Democrat, he supported Adlai Stevenson's campaign during the 1952 presidential election. Kaye was the godfather of actress Mary Louise Weller. ===Health and death=== In 1983, Kaye had quadruple bypass heart surgery and contracted hepatitis C from a blood transfusion. He died at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in the early morning hours of March 3, 1987, aged 76, from complications of heart failure, internal bleeding, and hepatitis C. ==Legacy== Kaye's body was cremated and his ashes were interred in the foundation of a bench in Kensico Cemetery in Valhalla, New York. His grave is adorned with a bench that contains friezes of a baseball and bat, an aircraft, a piano, a flowerpot, musical notes, and a chef's toque. His name and birth and death dates are inscribed on the toque. The United Nations held a memorial tribute to him at its New York headquarters on the evening of October 21, 1987. The Sylvia and Danny Kaye Playhouse at Hunter College in New York was opened in 1988, with a $1 million gift from Sylvia Kaye. David Koenig reflects, "His legacy has dimmed with the passage of time. His greatest works (...) endure today only as memories in the minds of aging members of his audiences (...) much of his TV work has not aged particularly well. Whimsy was of another time." However, Koenig sees Kaye's film work in a different light, "History has smiled on individual pictures — in particular the holiday staple of White Christmas and The Court Jester... the medieval romp has steadily gained a reputation as one of the greatest comedies of all time." Comedian George Carlin idolized Kaye and wanted to be just like him, and although he eventually realized he wasn't a good-enough actor like Kaye, he constantly referred to his sad realization of not being able to attain his boyhood dream of being like Kaye, but near the end of his life, he took more acting roles as he never really gave up on the dream. ==Honors== Kaye was knighted by Queen Margrethe II of Denmark on November 10, 1983. He was awarded the cross of the Knight of the Dannebrog, 1st Class, for his work with UNICEF and longstanding ties with Denmark. Kaye portrayed Hans Christian Andersen in the 1952 film of the same name. Chevalier of the French Legion of Honor on February 24, 1986, for his work for UNICEF. In 1988, Kaye was posthumously inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. UNICEF created the Danny Kaye International Children's Award in his honor, a children's European singing competition shown every year between 1988 and 1992 hosted by Audrey Hepburn and Roger Moore. ===Awards and other recognition=== Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy in 1951, for On the Riviera Received an honorary Academy Award Oscar in 1955 "for his unique talents, his service to the Academy, the motion picture industry, and the American people". Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy in 1958, for Me and the Colonel Lions Clubs International The first recipient of the Lions Clubs International Foundation's Humanitarian Award. (1973–74) Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (1981) Asteroid 6546 Kaye Three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame; for his work in music, radio, and films Kennedy Center Honor (1984) Grand Marshal of the Tournament of Roses Parade (1984) The song "I Wish I Was Danny Kaye" on Miracle Legion's 1996 album Portrait of a Damaged Family UNICEF's New York Visitor's Centre is named to honor Danny Kaye. In December 1996, the PBS series American Masters aired a special on Kaye's life. In San Antonio, Texas named a street in the neighborhood Oak Hills Terrace (located in the city's northwest) is named for Danny Kaye near streets bearing other familiar names from TV and movies. The neighborhood was established in the late 1960s. The careers of Kaye and Fine are immortalized in The Danny Kaye and Sylvia Fine Collection at the Library of Congress. The materials preserved in the collection include manuscripts, scores, scripts, photographs, sound recordings, and video clips. On June 9, 1986, Danny Kaye was crowned King of Brooklyn at the Back to Brooklyn Day Festival. Danny Kaye was there to accept his crown. ==Filmography== ===Film=== ===Television=== Autumn Laughter (1938) (experimental telecast) The Secret Life of Danny Kaye (1956) (See It Now special) What's My Line? (1960) (celebrity mystery guest) An Hour With Danny Kaye (1960 and 1961) (specials) The Danny Kaye Show with Lucille Ball (1962) (special) The Danny Kaye Show (1963–1967) (series) The Lucy Show: "Lucy Meets Danny Kaye" (1964) (guest appearance) Rowan And Martin's Laugh-In (1970) Here Comes Peter Cottontail (1971) (voice) The Dick Cavett Show (1971) (interview guest) The Enchanted World of Danny Kaye: The Emperor's New Clothes (1972) (special) An Evening with John Denver (1975) (special) Pinocchio (1976) (CBS special); live action television musical adaptation starring Kaye as Gepetto and Sandy Duncan in the title role Peter Pan (1976) (NBC special); live action television musical adaptation starring Mia Farrow in the title role, and Kaye as Captain Hook The Muppet Show (1978) (guest appearance) Disneyland's 25th Anniversary (1980) (special guest appearance) An Evening with Danny Kaye (1981) (special) Skokie (1981) (television movie) "Epcot Center: The Opening Celebration" television special (1982) (host and conductor) The Twilight Zone: "Paladin of the Lost Hour" (1985) (guest appearance) The Cosby Show: "The Dentist" (1986) (guest appearance) == Stage work == The Straw Hat Revue (1939) Lady in the Dark (1941) Let's Face It! (1941) Two by Two (1970) ==Selected discography== ===Studio albums=== Danny Kaye (Decca, 1949) Gilbert And Sullivan And Danny Kaye (Decca, 1949) Danny Kaye Entertains (Columbia, 1950) Mommy, Gimme a Drinka Water (Orchestration by Gordon Jenkins) (Capitol, 1958) The Five Pennies (with Louis Armstrong, London, 1959) ===Soundtracks=== Hans Christian Andersen (1952) Knock on Wood (Decca, 1954) Court Jester (Brunswick, 1956) Merry Andrew (1958) ===Spoken word=== Danny Kaye for Children (Coral, 1959) Danny Kaye Tells 6 Stories from Faraway Places (Golden, 1960) ===Compilations=== Selections from Irving Berlin's White Christmas (1954) The Best of Danny Kaye (Decca, 1965) Two by Two (Columbia, 1970) The Very Best of Danny Kaye (20 Golden Greats) (MCA, 1987) ===Charting singles=== "Bloop Bleep" (With Orchestra Directed by Billy May, Decca) US No. 21, 1947 "Little Child (Daddy Dear)" with Dena Kaye (Decca, 1956) US Cash Box No. 25	[ "The Herald-Standard", "Torin Thatcher", "Baseball's Greatest Hits", "Presidential Medal of Freedom", "The Andrews Sisters", "pantomime", "Knock on Wood (1954 film)", "24th Academy Awards", "Margrethe II of Denmark", "The Inspector General (1949 film)", "Farley Granger", "Gene Tierney", "The Five Pennies", "Edward R. Murrow", "royal box", "The Cosby Show", "H. Bruce Humberstone", "George Argyros", "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette", "Screen Actors Guild", "20th Century-Fox", "C'est si bon", "Funnyman (comics)", "Billboard (magazine)", "Here's Hollywood", "Charles Kemper", "New York Daily News", "Michael Kidd", "Bill Lear", "George Carlin", "Frank Loesser", "Sarasota Herald-Tribune", "Portrait of a Damaged Family", "Royal Variety Performance", "Elliott Nugent", "On the Double (film)", "London Palladium", "Dot Records", "Paladin of the Lost Hour", "Merry Andrew (film)", "Peter Glenville", "Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award", "Tri-City Herald", "Charles Vidor", "The Man from the Diners' Club", "Dick Haymes", "Studio X", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Johnny Mercer", "Adlai Stevenson II", "Walter Mitty", "Newspapers.com", "FBI", "Catskill Mountains", "Academy Awards", "UNICEF", "Miracle Legion", "Joan Leslie", "Educational Pictures", "VistaVision", "Maurice Pate", "Doris Day", "6546 Kaye", "Holocaust", "The Woody Woodpecker Song", "St. Joseph News-Press", "Pinocchio (1976 TV program)", "Associated Press", "Geppetto", "The Miami News", "Moss Hart", "Katharine Hepburn", "Los Angeles Dodgers", "Michael Curtiz", "Dimitri Mitropoulos", "Hans Christian Andersen", "Thomas Jefferson High School (Brooklyn, New York)", "PBS", "Margaret Rutherford", "Eugene Register-Guard", "Me and the Colonel", "Eve Arden", "Up in Arms", "Peter Pan (1976 musical)", "Tuesday Weld", "Epcot", "The New York Times", "Jack Carson", "Borscht Belt", "John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts", "Metrolyrics", "Lynn Garrison", "Legion of Honour", "Salvatore Baccaloni", "Emmy awards", "Today (U.S. TV program)", "Walter Lang", "Jerry Siegel", "fan dance", "Knight of the Dannebrog", "Ukrainian Jewish", "Norman Z. McLeod", "Chicago Tribune", "Melville Shavelson", "Cinderella", "Valhalla, New York", "Hugh Herbert", "Los Angeles Times", "Ann Rutherford", "Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Sandy Duncan", "Selections from Irving Berlin's White Christmas", "The Modesto Bee", "Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy", "David Lewin", "Al Christie", "Cara Williams", "Whoopee! (film)", "Seattle Post-Intelligencer", "Glynis Johns", "Curt Jürgens", "La Martinique", "Robert M. Savini", "Johnny Green", "Dnipro", "Angel in the Wings", "Dennis Morgan", "All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth", "Imogene Coca", "Maurice Abravanel", "Life (magazine)", "perfect pitch", "Fay Bainter", "The Milwaukee Sentinel", "Audrey Hepburn", "Steve Cochran", "physical comedy", "1952 United States presidential election", "Brooklyn", "Reprise Records", "Groucho Marx", "East New York, Brooklyn", "San Antonio Express", "Columbia Pictures", "Zubin Mehta", "toque", "Inchworm (song)", "the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award", "Discogs", "Howard Hawks", "Jimmy Durante", "June Allyson", "Henry Koster", "Akim Tamiroff", "Sylvia Fine", "Fort Lauderdale", "Dean Jagger", "Hans Christian Andersen (film)", "Kensico Cemetery", "Ronald Reagan", "Barbara Bates", "type rating", "godparent", "Ira Gershwin", "I've Got a Lovely Bunch of Coconuts", "CinemaScope", "Constantin Stanislavski", "The Twilight Zone (1985 TV series)", "Academy Honorary Award", "Hunter College", "Zizi Jeanmaire", "Thumbelina (Frank Loesser song)", "Martha Hyer", "Glasgow Times", "Rome", "USO", "Gordon Hollingshead", "Grand Marshals of the Tournament of Roses Parade", "Disneyland Park (Anaheim)", "Capitol Records", "Elsa Lanchester", "Shannon Airport", "The Danny Kaye Show (radio program)", "The Madwoman of Chaillot (film)", "Tom Lehrer", "Orange Colored Sky", "The Daily News (Kentucky)", "tummler", "Warner Bros.", "Nicole Maurey", "Laurence Olivier", "SSDI", "Gary Gray (actor)", "Sally Rand", "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty (1947 film)", "Record World", "Eddie Cantor", "General Motors", "American Masters", "Peabody award", "Louis Armstrong", "Mai Zetterling", "dental drill", "Bing Crosby", "Billy May", "David Mountbatten, 3rd Marquess of Milford Haven", "novelty song", "Oxford University Press", "The Muppet Show", "AllMusic", "Montreal Gazette", "It's a Great Feeling", "Kentucky New Era", "frieze", "Saul Chaplin", "Dana Andrews", "Jay Silverheels", "Technicolor", "Leslie Bricusse", "Knute Rockne", "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer", "The Dick Cavett Show", "patter song", "Charles Boyer", "Dinah (song)", "Panavision", "The Victoria Advocate", "Richard Rodgers", "Rapid City Journal", "Pier Angeli", "Hans Christian Andersen's The Emperor's New Clothes (TV special)", "polio", "WP:STRONGNAT", "Times-News (Hendersonville, North Carolina)", "Let's Face It!", "Paramount Pictures", "American College of Surgeons", "Humphrey Bogart", "Civilization (Bob Hilliard and Carl Sigman song)", "Gordon Jenkins", "Basil Rathbone", "Broadway theatre", "Minnie the Moocher", "Walter Lantz", "The Court Jester", "The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)", "Melvin Frank", "Baseball Almanac", "UK Singles Chart", "Sally Starr (actress)", "William Watson (director)", "Time (magazine)", "Tschaikowsky (and Other Russians)", "Popular Science", "Culinary Institute of America", "Angela Lansbury", "New York Philharmonic Orchestra", "Françoise Rosay", "Barbara Bel Geddes", "The Kid from Brooklyn", "Golden Globe Award", "Virginia Mayo", "Red Nichols", "White Christmas (film)", "The Lucy Show", "Legion of Honor", "The Pittsburgh Press", "Corinne Calvet", "Victor Young", "Superman", "Reading Eagle", "Ben Mankiewicz", "Boris Karloff", "Samuel Goldwyn", "Utica, New York", "Pacific Northwest", "Lady in the Dark", "Cashbox (magazine)", "Skokie (film)", "The Straw Hat Revue", "Buttons (pantomime)", "Crane Wilbur", "Book Revue (film)", "typhoon", "Wonder Man (film)", "Black Strap Molasses", "Diana Dors", "Jane Wyman", "Seattle Mariners", "Times Colonist", "Leo Durocher", "Lakeland Ledger", "Donald Spoto", "The Deseret News", "David Butler (director)", "On the Riviera", "Norman Panama", "Meilleur Ouvrier de France", "The Dispatch (Lexington)", "WP:DATERET", "Lobachevsky (song)", "The Post and Courier", "Walter Slezak", "The Harmonica Gentlemen", "National Library of Israel", "Cedars-Sinai Medical Center", "The Leader-Post", "Discography of American Historical Recordings", "Eileen Wilson", "Joe Shuster", "Gene Lockhart", "Mary Louise Weller", "Mia Farrow", "Google Books", "Wilmington Morning Star", "cornice", "Gettysburg Times", "Anthony Newley", "See It Now", "Wonderful Copenhagen", "hepatitis C", "The Lewiston Daily Sun", "American Theater Hall of Fame", "A Song Is Born", "Hyde Park campus of the Culinary Institute of America", "Windsor Star", "Learjet", "16th Golden Globe Awards", "Rosemary Clooney", "Flying (magazine)", "wikt:terpsichorean", "Sonny Burke", "Library of Congress", "Frank Tashlin", "Kennedy Center Honor", "Piper PA-23", "Daffy Duck", "Here Comes Peter Cottontail", "Bryan Forbes", "Dana Wynter", "Roger Moore", "The Danny Kaye Show", "American Academy of Pediatrics", "Vic Schoen", "Constitution Day (United States)", "The Milwaukee Journal", "What's My Line?", "Turner Classic Movies", "The Glasgow Herald", "Lions Clubs International", "Tournament of Roses Parade", "Two by Two (musical)", "Vera-Ellen", "Benny Goodman", "soda jerk", "Gertrude Lawrence", "Kurt Weill", "Kennewick, Washington", "Dinah Shore" ]
9,003	Dan DeCarlo	Daniel S. DeCarlo (December 12, 1919 – December 18, 2001) was an American cartoonist best known for having developed the look of Archie Comics in the late 1950s and early 1960s, modernizing the characters to their contemporary appearance and establishing the publisher's house style up until his death. As well, he is the generally recognized co-creator of the characters Sabrina the Teenage Witch, Josie and the Pussycats (the title character of which was named for his wife), and Cheryl Blossom. ==Early life and career== Dan DeCarlo was born in New Rochelle, New York, He attended New Rochelle High School, followed by Manhattan's Art Students League from 1938 to 1941, when he was drafted into the U.S. Army. Stationed in Great Britain, he worked in the motor pool and as a draftsman, and painted company mascots on the noses of airplanes. He also drew a weekly military comic strip, 418th Scandal Sheet. He met his wife, French citizen Josie Dumont, on a blind date in Belgium not long after the Battle of the Bulge. ==Atlas and Archie== DeCarlo was married, with a pregnant wife, and working as a laborer for his father when he began to pursue a professional art career. DeCarlo and Lee also took over the My Friend Irma comic strip, spun off from the hit Marie Wilson radio comedy. For a decade, DeCarlo wrote and drew the slapsticky adventures of Millie Collins, her redheaded friendly nemesis Chili Storm and the rest of the cast. He also contributed the short-lived Sherry the Showgirl and Showgirls for Atlas. In 1960, he and Atlas editor-in-chief Stan Lee co-created the short-lived syndicated comic strip Willie Lumpkin, about a suburban mail carrier, for the Chicago-based Publishers Syndicate. As well during this period, DeCarlo created and drew Standard Comics' futuristic teen-humor comic book Jetta of the 21st Century. Running three issues, #5–7 (Dec. 1952 - April 1953), it featured red-haired Jetta Raye and her friends at Neutron High School. In addition to his comic-book work, DeCarlo drew freelance pieces for the magazines The Saturday Evening Post and Argosy, as well as Timely/Atlas publisher Martin Goodman's Humorama line of pin-up girl cartoon digests. His art soon established the publisher's house style. As well, he is the generally recognized creator of the teen-humor characters Sabrina the Teenage Witch, Josie and the Pussycats, and Cheryl Blossom. The series featured levelheaded, sweet-natured Josie, her blonde bombshell friend Melody, and bookwormish brunette Pepper. These early years also featured the characters of Josie and Pepper's boyfriends Albert and Sock (real name Socrates); Albert's rival Alexander Cabot III; and Alex's twin sister Alexandra. Occasionally Josie and her friends appeared in "crossover" issues with the main Archie characters. She's Josie was renamed Josie with issue #17 (Dec. 1965), and again renamed, to Josie and the Pussycats, with issue #45 (Dec. 1969), whereby Pepper was replaced by Valerie and Albert was replaced by Alan M. Under this title, the series finished its run with issue #106 (Oct. 1982). Josie and her gang also made irregular appearances in Pep Comics and Laugh Comics during the 1960s. When Universal Pictures was preparing the live-action movie adaptation Josie and the Pussycats in 2001, DeCarlo and Archie Comics became involved in a lawsuit over the character's creation, leading the publisher to terminate its 43-year relationship with him. A federal district court ruled in 2001 that Archie Comics owned the copyright to the Josie characters; this decision was affirmed by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals. On December 11, 2001, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected an appeal filed by DeCarlo's attorney, Whitney Seymour Jr., who had argued that the issue was a matter of state property law and not federal copyright law. Among DeCarlo's final works were a story for Paul Dini's independent comics series Jingle Belle, and stories for Bongo Comics' The Simpsons TV tie-in comic, Bart Simpson. were also prolific Archie artists, penciling and inking respectively. The two predeceased their father. Dan Jr. died in October 1990 Josie DeCarlo, the inspiration for the Archie character Josie, died in her sleep on March 14, 2012. ==Josie DeCarlo== Josette Marie "Josie" DeCarlo (née Dumont; September 8, 1923 – March 14, 2012) was a French-born model who became the inspiration and namesake for Josie McCoy of Josie and the Pussycats comics and the 1970 Hanna-Barbera Saturday morning cartoon series. She met future husband Dan DeCarlo on a blind date in Belgium in 1945, Shortly after the Battle of the Bulge. She became the inspiration for Josie and the Pussycats while the couple were on a cruise. He was nominated for the Academy of Comic Book Arts' Shazam Award for Best Penciller (Humor Division) in 1974. ==Legacy== Love and Rockets co-creators Jaime Hernandez and Gilbert Hernandez cite DeCarlo as an artistic influence. Artist/animator Bruce Timm, best known for his contributions to the DC Animated Universe, has cited Dan DeCarlo as one of his influences.	[ "bookworm", "The Wrap", "DC animated universe", "National Cartoonists Society", "Josie Dumont", "Timely Comics", "inker", "The Christian Post", "Paul Dini", "TwoMorrows Publishing", "print syndication", "Shazam Award", "United Feature", "Laugh Comics", "McFarland & Company", "Dan DeCarlo Jr.", "Chicago Tribune", "Bob Montana", "dating", "Big Cartoon DataBase", "The Saturday Evening Post", "Josie and the Pussycats (TV series)", "Marvel Comics", "Nose art", "Academy of Comic Book Arts", "The Independent", "Los Angeles Times", "Willie Lumpkin", "Jingle Belle", "Janet Waldo", "New Rochelle High School", "Caribbean", "Lambiek Comiclopedia", "U.S. Army", "Josie and the Pussycats (film)", "The Journal News", "Millie the Model", "Archie Comics", "Universal Pictures", "Cheryl Blossom", "language barrier", "Publishers Syndicate", "Big Boy Restaurants", "Argosy Magazine", "Jaime Hernandez", "cartoonist", "Josie and the Pussycats (comics)", "Archie's Pals and Gals", "Manhattan", "Cruise ship", "New Rochelle, New York", "Bart Simpson", "hairdo", "University Press of Mississippi", "Comic Book Resources", "Humorama", "pneumonia", "New Rochelle", "Inkpot Award", "copyright", "The Comics Journal", "Grand Comics Database", "Harry Shorten", "comic strip", "Stan Lee", "catsuit", "blind date", "mail carrier", "property law", "Chicago", "Veronica Lodge", "Second Circuit Court of Appeals", "Atlas Comics (1950s)", "Jim DeCarlo", "slapstick", "Penciler", "Archie Andrews (comics)", "Sabrina the Teenage Witch", "Hanna-Barbera", "Sabrina the Teenage Witch (1996 TV series)", "Josie DeCarlo", "Pep Comics", "Gilbert Hernandez", "Art Students League of New York", "Don Markstein's Toonopedia", "U.S. Supreme Court", "fictional crossover", "Lambiek", "The Simpsons", "My Friend Irma (radio-TV)", "Scarsdale, New York", "Hogan's Alley (magazine)", "namesake", "Bruce Timm", "My Friend Irma", "Battle of the Bulge", "Richard Goldwater", "Reuters", "pin-up girl", "Rudy Lapick", "Comics Buyer's Guide", "Martin Goodman (publisher)", "conscription", "The New York Times", "Fantastic Four", "Betty and Veronica Magazine", "Blonde bombshell (stereotype)", "Standard Comics", "Love and Rockets (comics)", "Bongo Comics" ]
9,008	Debit card	A debit card, also known as a check card or bank card, is a payment card that can be used in place of cash to make purchases. The card usually consists of the bank's name, a card number, the cardholder's name, and an expiration date, on either the front or the back. Many new cards now have a chip on them, which allows people to use their card by touch (contactless), or by inserting the card and keying in a PIN as with swiping the magnetic stripe. Debit cards are similar to a credit card, but the money for the purchase must be in the cardholder's bank account at the time of the purchase and is immediately transferred directly from that account to the merchant's account to pay for the purchase. ==Types of debit card systems== There are currently three ways that debit card transactions are processed: EFTPOS (also known as online debit or PIN debit), offline debit (also known as signature debit), and the Electronic Purse Card System. One physical card can include the functions of all three types, so it can be used in a number of different circumstances. The five major debit card networks are UnionPay, American Express, Discover, Mastercard, and Visa. Other card networks are STAR, JCB, Pulse, etc. There are many types of debit cards, each accepted only within a particular country or region; for example, Switch (since merged with Maestro) and Solo in the United Kingdom; Interac in Canada; Carte Bleue in France; EC electronic cash (formerly Eurocheque) in Germany; Bancomat/PagoBancomat in Italy; UnionPay in China; RuPay in India; and EFTPOS cards in Australia and New Zealand. The need for cross-border compatibility and the advent of the euro recently led to many of these card networks (such as Switzerland's "EC direkt", Austria's "Bankomatkasse", and Switch in the United Kingdom) being re-branded with the internationally recognized Maestro logo, which is part of the Mastercard brand. Some debit cards are dual-branded with the logo of the (former) national card as well as Maestro (for example, EC cards in Germany, Switch and Solo in the UK, Pinpas cards in the Netherlands, Bancontact cards in Belgium, etc.). The use of a debit card system allows operators to package their products more effectively while monitoring customer spending. ===Online debit system=== Online debit cards require electronic authorization of every transaction, and the debits are reflected in the user's account immediately. The transaction may be additionally secured with the personal identification number (PIN) authentication system; some online cards require such authentication for every transaction, essentially becoming enhanced automatic teller machine (ATM) cards. One difficulty with using online debit cards is the necessity of an electronic authorization device at the point of sale (POS) and sometimes also a separate PINpad to enter the PIN, although this is becoming commonplace for all card transactions in many countries. Overall, the online debit card is generally viewed as superior to the offline debit card because of its more secure authentication system and live status, which alleviates problems with processing lag on transactions that may only issue online debit cards. Some online debit systems are using the normal authentication processes of Internet banking to provide real-time online debit transactions. ===Offline debit system=== Offline debit cards have the logos of major credit cards (for example, Visa that is, people who do not use banks or credit unions for their financial transactions. ====Advantages==== Advantages of prepaid debit cards include being safer than carrying cash, worldwide acceptance, not having to worry about paying a credit card bill or going into debt, the opportunity for anyone over the age of 18 to apply and be accepted without checks on creditworthiness, and the option to deposit paychecks and government benefits directly onto the card for free. A newer advantage is the use of EMV technology and even contactless functionality, which had previously been limited to bank debit cards and credit cards. ====Risks==== If the card provider offers an insecure website for the cardholder to check the balance on the card, this could give an attacker access to the card information. If the user loses the card and has not somehow registered it, they will likely lose the money. If a provider has technical issues, the money might not be accessible when a user needs it. Some companies' payment systems do not appear to accept prepaid debit cards. ====Types==== Prepaid cards vary by the issuer company: key and niche financial players (sometimes collaborations between businesses); purpose of usage (transit card, beauty gift cards, travel card, health savings card, business, insurance, etc.); and regions. ====Governments==== As of 2013, several city governments (including Oakland, California, and Chicago, Illinois) are now offering prepaid debit cards, either as part of a municipal ID card (for people such as illegal immigrants who are unable to obtain a state driver's license or DMV ID card) in the case of Oakland or in conjunction with a prepaid transit pass (in Chicago). These cards have been heavily criticized for their higher-than-average fees, such as excessive flat fees added onto every purchase made with the card. The U.S. federal government uses prepaid debit cards to make benefit payments to people who do not have bank accounts. In July 2013, the Association of Government Accountants released a report on government use of prepaid cards, concluding that such programs offer a number of advantages to governments and those who receive payments on a prepaid card rather than by check. The prepaid card programs benefit payments largely for the cost savings they offer and provide easier access to cash for recipients, as well as increased security. The report also advises that governments should consider replacing any remaining cheque-based payments with prepaid card programs in order to realize substantial savings for taxpayers as well as benefits for payees. ====Impact of government-mandated fee-free bank accounts==== In January 2016, the UK government introduced a requirement for banks to offer fee-free basic bank accounts for all, which had a significant impact on the prepaid industry, including the departure of a number of firms. ==Consumer protection== Consumer protections vary depending on the network used. Visa and MasterCard, for instance, prohibit minimum and maximum purchase sizes, surcharges, and arbitrary security procedures on the part of merchants. Merchants are usually charged higher transaction fees for credit transactions since debit network transactions are less likely to be fraudulent. This may lead them to "steer" customers toward debit transactions. Consumers disputing charges may find it easier to do so with a credit card since the money will not immediately leave their control. Fraudulent charges on a debit card can also cause problems with a checking account because the money is withdrawn immediately and may thus result in an overdraft or bounced checks. In some cases, debit card-issuing banks will promptly refund any disputed charges until the matter can be settled, and in some jurisdictions, the consumer's liability for unauthorized charges is the same for both debit and credit cards. In 2010, Bank of America announced that "it was doing away with overdraft fees for debit card purchases." In some countries, such as India and Sweden, consumer protection is the same regardless of the network used. Some banks set minimum and maximum purchase sizes, mostly for online-only cards. However, this has nothing to do with the card networks but rather with the bank's judgment of the person's age and credit records. Any fees that the customers have to pay to the bank are the same regardless of whether the transaction is conducted as a credit or debit transaction, so there is no advantage for the customers to choose one transaction mode over another. Shops may add surcharges to the price of goods or services in accordance with laws allowing them to do so. Banks consider the purchases to have been made at the moment when the card was swiped, regardless of when the purchase settlement was made. Regardless of which transaction type was used, the purchase may result in an overdraft because the money is considered to have left the account at the moment of the card swipe. According to Singapore's local financial and banking laws and regulations, all Singapore-issued credit and debit cards with Visa or MasterCard swipe magnet strips are disabled by default if used outside of Singapore. The whole idea is to prevent fraudulent activities and protect the card holder. If customers want to use card swipe magnet strips aboard and internationally, they will have to activate and enable international card usage. ==Financial access== Debit cards and secured credit cards are popular among college students who have not yet established a credit history. Debit cards may also be used by expatriate workers to send money home to their families holding an affiliated debit card. ==Issues with deferred posting of offline debit== The consumer perceives a debit transaction as occurring in real time: the money is withdrawn from their account immediately after the authorization request from the merchant. In many countries, this is correct for online debit purchases. However, when a purchase is made using the "credit" (offline debit) option, the transaction merely places an authorization hold on the customer's account; funds are not actually withdrawn until the transaction is reconciled and hard-posted to the customer's account, usually a few days later. This is in contrast to a typical credit card transaction, in which, after a few days delay before the transaction is posted to the account, there is a further period of maybe a month before the consumer makes repayment. Because of this, in the case of an error by the merchant or issuer, a debit transaction may cause more serious problems (for example, overdraft/money not accessible/overdrawn account) than a credit card transaction (for example, credit not accessible due to being over one's credit limit). This is especially true in the United States, where check fraud is a crime in every state but exceeding one's credit limit is not. ==Internet purchases== Debit cards may also be used on the Internet, either with or without using a PIN. Internet transactions may be conducted in either online or offline mode. Shops accepting online-only cards are rare in some countries (such as Sweden), while they are common in other countries (such as the Netherlands). For a comparison, PayPal offers the customer to use an online-only Maestro card if the customer enters a Dutch address of residence, but not if the same customer enters a Swedish address of residence. Internet purchases can be authenticated by the consumer entering their PIN if the merchant has enabled a secure online PIN pad, in which case the transaction is conducted in debit mode. Otherwise, transactions may be conducted in either credit or debit mode (which is sometimes, but not always, indicated on the receipt), and this has nothing to do with whether the transaction was conducted in online or offline mode, since both credit and debit transactions may be conducted in both modes. ==Debit cards around the world== In some countries, banks tend to levy a small fee for each debit card transaction. In other countries (for example, New Zealand and the UK) the merchants bear all the costs and customers are not charged. There are many people who routinely use debit cards for all transactions, no matter how small. Some (small) retailers refuse to accept debit cards for small transactions, where paying the transaction fee would absorb the profit margin on the sale, making the transaction uneconomic for the retailer. Some businesses do not accept card payments at all, even in an era with declining use of cash. This still happens for a variety of reasons, tax evasion by small business included. In 2019, £35,000 million in tax revenue was lost in the United Kingdom due to cash-only payments. Many businesses such as, barber shops, fish & chip shops, Chinese takeaways, the black market, and even some building sites are known for cash-in-hand payments in the UK, meaning high amounts of money can be unaccounted for. ===Angola=== The banks in Angola issue by official regulation only one brand of debit cards: Multicaixa, which is also the brand name of the one and only network of ATMs and POS terminals. ===Armenia=== ArCa (Armenian Card), a national system of debit (ArCa Debit and ArCa Classic) and credit (ArCa Gold, ArCa Business, ArCA Platinum, ArCa Affinity and ArCa Co-branded) cards popular in Armenia. Established in 2000 by 17 largest Armenian banks. ===Australia=== Debit cards in Australia are called different names depending on the issuing bank: Commonwealth Bank of Australia: Keycard; Westpac Banking Corporation: Handycard; National Australia Bank: FlexiCard; ANZ Bank: Access card; Bendigo Bank: Easy Money card. A payment in Australia using a debit card can be processed by the local proprietary interbank network called EFTPOS, which is very popular and has been operating there since the 1980s, or it could be processed via an international Card scheme network (ie Visa, Mastercard). Debit cards that were solely EFTPOS-enabled can only be used domestically within Australia and would not be accepted internationally due to the absence of other scheme networks. EFTPOS cards can also be used to deposit and withdraw cash over the counter at Australia Post outlets participating in Giro Post and withdrawals without purchase from certain major retailers, just as if the transaction was conducted at a bank branch, even if the bank branch is closed. Electronic transactions in Australia are generally processed via the Telstra Argent and Optus Transact Plus network—which has recently superseded the old Transcend network in the last few years. Most early keycards were only usable for EFTPOS and at ATM or bank branches, whilst the new debit card system works in the same way as a credit card, except it will only use funds in the specified bank account. This means that, among other advantages, the new system is suitable for electronic purchases without a delay of two to four days for bank-to-bank money transfers. Australia operates both electronic credit card transaction authorization and traditional EFTPOS debit card authorization systems, the difference between the two being that EFTPOS transactions are authorized by a personal identification number (PIN) while credit card transactions can additionally be authorized using a contactless payment mechanism (requiring a PIN for purchases over $200). If the user fails to enter the correct pin three times, the consequences range from the card being locked out for a minimum 24-hour period, a phone call or trip to the branch to reactivate with a new PIN, the card being cut up by the merchant, or in the case of an ATM, being kept inside the machine, both of which require a new card to be ordered. Generally credit card transaction costs are borne by the merchant with no fee applied to the end user (although a direct consumer surcharge of 0.5–3% is not uncommon) while EFTPOS transactions cost the consumer an applicable withdrawal fee charged by their bank. The introduction of Visa and MasterCard debit cards along with regulation in the settlement fees charged by the operators of both EFTPOS and credit cards by the Reserve Bank has seen a continuation in the increasing ubiquity of credit card use among Australians and a general decline in the profile of EFTPOS. However, the regulation of settlement fees also removed the ability of banks, who typically provide merchant services to retailers on behalf of Visa or MasterCard, from stopping those retailers charging extra fees to take payment by credit card instead of cash or EFTPOS. ===Bahrain=== In Bahrain debit cards are under Benefit, the interbanking network for Bahrain. Benefit is also accepted in other countries though, mainly GCC, similar to the Saudi Payments Network and the Kuwaiti KNET. ===Bangladesh=== Bangladesh launched its first domestic card scheme, "Taka Pay" on 1 November 2023. Until now banks were dependent on international card schemes such as Visa, Mastercard, UnionPay etc. From the launching day 3 banks are issuing "Taka Pay" card. Those banks are: Sonali Bank PLC, BRAC Bank PLC and The City Bank Limited. 5 banks (Dutch Bangla Bank Limited, Eastern Bank PLC, Islami Bank Bangladesh PLC, Mutual Trust Bank Limited and United Commercial Bank PLC) have joined the scheme and will start issuing cards soon. Bangladesh Bank is working to bring all Bank, Mobile financial service provider and other financial institutions into the scheme. ===Belgium=== In Belgium, debit cards are widely accepted in most businesses, as well as in most hotels and restaurants. Businesses have to provide at least one electronic option for payment by law. Smaller restaurants or retailers sometimes choose to only accept Payconiq. Payconiq is a system that allows holders of a Belgian bank account to make payments by scanning a QR-code with their smartphone. Wero (payment) is planned to replace Payconiq in the future, and will also be available to non-belgians. Credit cards are less common, but acceptance has grown in recent years. All Belgian banks provide debit cards when you open a bank account. Usually, it is free to use debit cards on national and EU ATMs even if they aren't owned by the issuing bank. Since 2019, a few banks charge a 50ct cost when using ATMs who are not owned by the issuing bank. The debit cards in Belgium are branded with the logo of the national Bancontact system and also with an international debit system. Bancontact cards used to be commonly co-branded with Maestro, but banks have been transitioning to Bancontact cards co-branded with either Debit Mastercard or Visa Debit. Payments within Belgium with Belgian debit cards are usually done with Bancontact, but almost all payment terminals are set up to also accept Mastercard, Visa, Maestro and V-pay if Bancontact is not available. Other international card networks like Discover and American Express have limited acceptance in Belgium. Some banks also offer Visa and MasterCard debit cards without Bancontact functionality, but these are mostly online banks. === Brazil === In Brazil debit cards are called cartão de débito (singular) or cartões de débito (plural) and became popular in 2008. In 2013, the 100 millionth Brazilian debit card was issued. Debit cards replaced cheques, common until the first decade of the 2000s. Today, the majority of the financial transactions (like buying food at a supermarket), are made using debit cards (and this system is quickly replacing cash payments in Brazil). Nowadays, the majority of debit card payments are processed using a card + PIN combination, and almost every card comes with a NFC chip to make transactions. The major debit card flags in Brazil are Visa (with Electron cards), Mastercard (with Maestro cards), and Elo. The tap to pay technology has been quite popular in Brazil, you won't need to insert your card with a smart chip and put your password, you just need to approximate the card at the credit card machine, it works for debit and credit cards. Some virtual wallets like Samsung Pay, Google Pay and Apple Pay can be used on time of purchase, you just need to approximate your mobile phone or watch at the credit card machine. Generally the amount you are allowed to pay without a pin is quite low for security, but is really useful for daily things that won't cost too much. Something that appeared recently is a virtual card by some banks (such as Itaú, Bradesco, Mercado Pago and Nubank) on your internet banking platform. They give you a card number, expiration date and the CVV code to be used online. They also have a temporary virtual card number that works just in 48 hours, according to Itaú, you can use it to buy on unknown websites for safety reasons, because in the case of a data leak, the credit card number that was leaked wouldn't work. === Benin === === Bulgaria === In Bulgaria, debit cards are accepted in almost all stores and shops, as well as in most of the hotels and restaurants in the bigger cities. Smaller restaurants or small shops often accept cash only. All Bulgarian banks can provide debit cards when you open a bank account, for maintenance costs. The most common cards in Bulgaria are contactless (and Chip&PIN or Magnetic stripe and PIN) with the brands of Debit Mastercard and Visa Debit (the most common were Maestro and Visa Electron some years ago). All POS terminals and ATMs accept Visa, Visa Electron, Visa Debit, VPay, Mastercard, Debit Mastercard, Maestro and Bcard. Also some POS terminals and ATMs accept Discover, American Express, Diners Club, JCB and UnionPay. Almost all POS terminals in Bulgaria support contactless payments. Credit cards are also common in Bulgaria. Paying with smartphones/smartwatches at POS terminals is also getting common. === Burkina Faso === ===Canada=== Canada has a nationwide EFTPOS system, called Interac Direct Payment (IDP). Since being introduced in 1994, IDP has become the most popular payment method in the country. Previously, debit cards have been in use for ABM usage since the late 1970s, with credit unions in Saskatchewan and Alberta introducing the first card-based, networked ATMs beginning in June 1977. Debit cards, which could be used anywhere a credit card was accepted, were first introduced in Canada by Saskatchewan Credit Unions in 1982. In the early 1990s, pilot projects were conducted among Canada's six largest banks to gauge security, accuracy and feasibility of the Interac system. Slowly in the later half of the 1990s, it was estimated that approximately 50% of retailers offered Interac as a source of payment. Retailers, many small transaction retailers like coffee shops, resisted offering IDP to promote faster service. In 2009, 99% of retailers offer IDP as an alternative payment form. In Canada, the debit card is sometimes referred to as a "bank card". It is a client card issued by a bank that provides access to funds and other bank account transactions, such as transferring funds, checking balances, paying bills, etc., as well as point of purchase transactions connected on the Interac network. Since its national launch in 1994, Interac Direct Payment has become so widespread that, as of 2001, more transactions in Canada were completed using debit cards than cash. This popularity may be partially attributable to two main factors: the convenience of not having to carry cash, and the availability of automated bank machines (ABMs) and direct payment merchants on the network. Debit cards may be considered similar to stored-value cards in that they represent a finite amount of money owed by the card issuer to the holder. They are different in that stored-value cards are generally anonymous and are only usable at the issuer, while debit cards are generally associated with an individual's bank account and can be used anywhere on the Interac network. In Canada, the bank cards can be used at POS and ATMs. Interac Online has also been introduced in recent years allowing clients of most major Canadian banks to use their debit cards for online payment with certain merchants as well. Certain financial institutions also allow their clients to use their debit cards in the United States on the NYCE network. Several Canadian financial institutions that primarily offer VISA credit cards, including CIBC, RBC, Scotiabank, and TD, also issue a Visa Debit card in addition to their Interac debit card, either through dual-network co-branded cards (CIBC, Scotia, and TD), or as a "virtual" card used alongside the customer's existing Interac debit card (RBC). This allows for customer to use Interlink for online, over-the-phone, and international transactions and Plus for international ATMs, since Interac isn't well supported in these situations. ====Consumer protection in Canada==== Consumers in Canada are protected under a voluntary code entered into by all providers of debit card services, The Canadian Code of Practice for Consumer Debit Card Services (sometimes called the "Debit Card Code"). Adherence to the Code is overseen by the Financial Consumer Agency of Canada (FCAC), which investigates consumer complaints. According to the FCAC website, revisions to the code that came into effect in 2005 put the onus on the financial institution to prove that a consumer was responsible for a disputed transaction, and also place a limit on the number of days that an account can be frozen during the financial institution's investigation of a transaction. ===Chile=== Chile has an EFTPOS system called Redcompra (Purchase Network) which is currently used in at least 23,000 establishments throughout the country. Goods may be purchased using this system at most supermarkets, retail stores, pubs and restaurants in major urban centers. Chilean banks issue Maestro, Visa Electron and Visa Debit cards. === Colombia === Colombia has a system called Redeban-Multicolor and Credibanco Visa which are currently used in at least 23,000 establishments throughout the country. Goods may be purchased using this system at most supermarkets, retail stores, pubs and restaurants in major urban centers. Colombian debit cards are Maestro (pin), Visa Electron (pin), Visa Debit (as credit) and MasterCard-Debit (as credit). === Côte d'Ivoire === ===Denmark=== The Danish debit card Dankort is ubiquitous in Denmark. It was introduced on 1 September 1983, and despite the initial transactions being paper-based, the Dankort quickly won widespread acceptance. By 1985 the first EFTPOS terminals were introduced, and 1985 was also the year when the number of Dankort transactions first exceeded 1 million. Today Dankort is primarily issued as a Multicard combining the national Dankort with the more internationally recognized Visa (denoted simply as a "Visa/Dankort" card). In September 2008, 4 million cards had been issued, of which three million cards were Visa/Dankort cards. It is also possible to get a Visa Electron debit card and MasterCard. In 2007, PBS (now called Nets), the Danish operator of the Dankort system, processed a total of 737 million Dankort transactions. Of these, 4.5 million were processed on just a single day, 21 December. This remains the current record. , there were 3.9 million Dankort cards in existence. Most CB cards are debit cards, either debit or deferred debit. Less than 10% of CB cards were credit cards. Banks in France usually charge annual fees for debit cards (despite card payments being very cost efficient for the banks), yet they do not charge personal customers for chequebooks or processing checks (despite cheques being very costly for the banks). This imbalance dates from the unilateral introduction in France of Chip and PIN debit cards in the early 1990s, when the cost of this technology was much higher than it is now. Credit cards of the type found in the United Kingdom and United States are unusual in France and the closest equivalent is the deferred debit card, which operates like a normal debit card, except that all purchase transactions are postponed until the end of the month, thereby giving the customer between 1 and 31 days of "interest-free" credit. Banks can charge more for a deferred debit card. Most France debit cards are branded with the CB logo, which assures acceptance throughout France. Most banks now issue Visa or MasterCard co-branded cards, so that the card is accepted on both the CB and the Visa or Mastercard networks. In France payment cards are commonly called Carte Bleue ("blue card") regardless of their actual brand. Carte Bleue was a card brand acquired in 2010 by Visa which is not used anymore. Until its purchase the main characteristic of Carte Bleue was to benefit from its alliance with Visa which allowed the use of the cards on both networks. Many smaller merchants in France refuse to accept debit cards for transactions under a certain amount because of the minimum fee charged by merchants' banks per transaction. But more and more merchants accept debit cards for small amounts, due to the increased use of debit cards. Merchants in France do not differentiate between debit and credit cards, and so both have equal acceptance. It is legal in France to set a minimum amount to transactions, but the merchants must display it clearly. In January 2016, 57.2% of all the debit cards in France also had a contactless payment chip. The maximum amount per transaction was originally set to €20 and the maximum amount of all contactless payments per day is between €50-100 depending on the bank. The per-transaction limit increased to €30 in October 2017. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the per-transaction limit increased to €50 in May 2020 to comply with demands from the French government and the European Banking Authority. ==== Liability and e-cards ==== According to French law, banks are liable for any transaction made with a copy of the original card and for any transaction made without a card (on the phone or on the Internet), so banks have to pay back any fraudulent transaction to the card holder if the previous criteria are met. Fighting card fraud is therefore more interesting for banks. As a consequence, French banks websites usually propose an "e-card" service ("electronic (bank) card"), where a new virtual card is created and linked to a physical card. Such virtual card can be used only once and for the maximum amount given by the card holder. If the virtual card number is intercepted or used to try to get a higher amount than expected, the transaction is blocked. ===Germany=== Germany has a dedicated debit card payment system called girocard which is usually co-branded with V Pay or Maestro depending on the issuing bank. In recent years both Visa Debit and Mastercard Debit cards are increasingly more common as well. Historically, facilities already existed before EFTPOS became popular with the Eurocheque card, an authorization system initially developed for paper checks where, in addition to signing the actual check, customers also needed to show the card alongside the check as a security measure. Those cards could also be used at ATMs and for card-based electronic funds transfer with PIN entry. These are now the only functions of such cards: the Eurocheque system (along with the brand) was abandoned in 2002 during the transition from the Deutsche Mark to the euro. As of 2005, most stores and petrol outlets have EFTPOS facilities. Processing fees are paid by the businesses, which leads to some business owners refusing debit card payments for sales totalling less than a certain amount, usually 5 or 10 euro. To avoid the processing fees, many businesses resorted to using direct debit, which is then called electronic direct debit (, abbr. ELV). The point-of-sale terminal reads the bank sort code and account number from the card but instead of handling the transaction through the Girocard network it simply prints a form, which the customer signs to authorise the debit note. However, this method also avoids any verification or payment guarantee provided by the network. Further, customers can return debit notes by notifying their bank without giving a reason. This means that the beneficiary bears the risk of fraud and illiquidity. Some business mitigate the risk by consulting a proprietary blacklist or by switching to Girocard for higher transaction amounts. Around 2000, an Electronic Purse Card was introduced, dubbed Geldkarte ("money card"). It makes use of the smart card chip on the front of the standard issue debit card. This chip can be charged with up to 200 euro, and is advertised as a means of making medium to very small payments, even down to several euros or cent payments. The key factor here is that no processing fees are deducted by banks. It did not gain the popularity its inventors had hoped for. As of 2020, several partners pulled out of accepting the Geldkarte which is no longer issued and set to be retired altogether in the near future. ===Guinée Bissau=== See "UEMOA". ===Greece=== Debit card usage surged in Greece after the introduction of Capital Controls in 2015. ===Hong Kong=== Most bank cards in Hong Kong for saving / current accounts are equipped with EPS and UnionPay, which function as a debit card and can be used at merchants for purchases, where funds are withdrawn from the associated account immediately. EPS is a Hong Kong only system and is widely accepted in merchants and government departments. However, as UnionPay cards are accepted more widely overseas, consumers can use the UnionPay functionality of the bank card to make purchases directly from the bank account. Visa debit cards are uncommon in Hong Kong. The British banking firm HSBC's subsidiary Hang Seng Bank's Enjoy card and American firm Citibank's ATM Visa are two of the Visa debit cards available in Hong Kong. Debit cards usage in Hong Kong is relatively low, as the credit card penetration rate is high in Hong Kong. In Q1 2017, there are near 20 million credit cards in circulation, about 3 times the adult population. There are 145,800 thousand transaction made by credit cards but only 34,001 thousand transactions made by debit cards. ===Hungary=== In Hungary debit cards are far more common and popular than credit cards. Many Hungarians even refer to their debit card ("betéti kártya") mistakenly using the word for credit card ("hitelkártya"). The most commonly used phrase, however, is simply bank card ("bankkártya"). ===India=== After the demonetization by current government in the December 2016, there has been a surge in cashless transactions, so nowadays you could find card acceptance in most places. The debit card was mostly used for ATM transactions. RBI has announced that fees are not justified so transactions have no processing fees. Almost half of Indian debit and credit card users use Rupay card. Some Indian banks issue Visa debit cards, though some banks (like SBI and Citibank India) also issue Maestro cards. The debit card transactions are routed through Rupay (mostly), Visa or MasterCard networks in India and overseas rather than directly via the issuing bank. The National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) launched a new card processing platform called RuPay, similar to Singapore's NETS and Mainland China's UnionPay, as an alternative to Visa and MasterCard, it is widely accepted, but due to the popularisation of Unified Payments Interface (UPI), most people connect their bank accounts directly to a UPI provider to access mobile payments, cutting out the need for a debit card. As the COVID cases in India are surging up, the banking institution has shifted its focus to contactless payment options such as contactless debit card, contactless credit card and contactless prepaid card. The payment methods are changing drastically in India because of social distancing norms and lockdown; people are using more of the digital transactions rather than cash. ===Indonesia=== Foreign-owned brands issuing Indonesian debit cards include Visa, Maestro, MasterCard, and MEPS. Domestically owned debit card networks operating in Indonesia include Debit BCA (and its Prima network's counterpart, Prima Debit) and Mandiri Debit. ===Iraq=== Iraq's two biggest state-owned banks, Rafidain Bank and Rasheed Bank, together with the Iraqi Electronic Payment System (IEPS) have established a company called International Smart Card, which has developed a national credit card called 'Qi Card', which they have issued since 2008. According to the company's website: 'after less than two years of the initial launch of the Qi card solution, we have hit 1.6 million cardholder with the potential to issue 2 million cards by the end of 2010, issuing about 100,000 card monthly is a testament to the huge success of the Qi card solution. Parallel to this will be the expansion into retail stores through a network of points of sales of about 30,000 units by 2015'. ===Ireland=== ==== Current system (as of December 2022) ==== In Ireland, all debits cards are exclusively Chip and PIN. The market is dominated by Visa Debit cards - the "Top 3" banks in Ireland: Allied Irish Banks, Bank of Ireland and Permanent TSB all use Visa Debit, as well as the exiting bank Ulster Bank. Other financial institutions that maintain a minority stake such as EBS, An Post Money and some credit unions use Mastercard Debit cards, as well as the exiting bank KBC. Revolut, with over 2 million customers in Ireland, varies between Mastercard and Visa Debit cards. Irish debit cards are normally multi-functional and combine ATM card facilities. Some banks will provide ATM cards to vulnerable or elderly customers, but only on request. The practice is rare and it is on a case-by-case basis. For online purchases, the cards are used together with the bank's mobile app for Strong Customer Authentication as required by the EU's Payment Services Directive (PSD2). Most Irish debit cards are also enabled for contactless payment for purchases €50 or below, and display the contactless symbol. The limit was previously €30, but was increased to €50 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic to increase card usage in order to minimize the handling of cash. Some banks, such as AIB, do not provide contactless cards to certain account holders, such as those under 18. After 3-5 contactless transactions, the bank will ask the card user to enter their PIN through a Chip and PIN transaction for authentication. Apple Pay and Google Pay are also embraced as contactless payment methods with many retailers as they use the same contactless technology. However, due to the device's authentication of the user, there is no limit on the purchase amount. In some cases, there are limits of a large amount such as €500, however this may be imposed by the retailer due to technical constraints rather than for security purposes. The cards are usually processed online, but some cards can also be processed offline depending on the rules applied by the card issuer. A number of card issuers also provide prepaid debit card accounts primarily for use as gift cards / vouchers or for added security and anonymity online, e.g. CleverCards. These may be disposable or reloadable and are predominately MasterCard branded. One4All vouchers, a popular voucher given particularly to employees by companies at Christmas time, are another type of a prepaid debit card used. However, it is limited to retailers that specifically opt-in to using One4All cards as a payment method and are neither Visa nor Mastercard branded. ==== Previous system (defunct since 28 February 2014) ==== Laser was launched by the Irish banks in 1996 as an extension of the existing ATM and Cheque guarantee card systems that had existed for many years. When the service was added, it became possible to make payments with a multifunctional card that combined ATM, cheque and debit card and international ATM facilities through MasterCard Cirrus or Visa Plus and sometimes the British Link ATM system. Their functionality was similar to the British Switch card. The system first launched as a swipe & sign card and could be used in Ireland in much the same way as a credit card and were compatible standard card terminals (online or offline, although they were usually processed online). They could also be used in cardholder-not-present transactions over the phone, by mail or on the internet or for processing recurring payments. Laser also offered 'cash back' facilities where customers could ask retailers (where offered) for an amount of cash along with their transaction. This service allowed retailers to reduce volumes of cash in tills and allowed consumers to avoid having to use ATMs. Laser adopted EMV 'Chip and PIN' security in 2002 in common with other credit and debit cards right across Europe. In 2005, some banks issued customers with Lasers cards that were co-branded with Maestro. This allowed them to be used in POS terminals overseas, internet transactions were usually restricted to sites that specifically accepted Laser. Since 2006, Irish banks have progressively replaced Laser with international schemes, primarily Visa Debit and by 28 February 2014 the Laser Card system had been withdrawn entirely and is no longer accepted by retailers. ===Israel=== The Israel bank card system is somewhat confusing to newcomers, comprising a blend of features taken from different types of cards. What may be referred to as a credit card, is most likely to be a deferred debit card on an associated bank current account, the most common type of card in Israel, somewhat like the situation in France, though the term "debit card" is not in common usage. Cards are nearly universally called cartis ashrai (כרטיס אשראי), literally, "credit card", a term which may belie the card's characteristics. Its main feature may be a direct link to a connected bank account (through which they are mostly issued), with the total value of the transactions made on the card being debited from the bank account in full on a regular date once a month, without the option to carry the balance over; indeed certain types of transactions (such as online and/or foreign currency) may be debited directly from the connected bank account at the time of the transaction. Any such limited credit enjoyed is a result of the customer's assets and credibility with the bank, and not granted by the credit card company. The card usually enables immediate ATM cash withdrawals & balance inquiries (as debit cards do), installment & deferred charge interest free transactions offered by merchants (also applicable in Brazil), interest bearing installment plans/deferred charge/revolving credit which is transaction specific at the point of sale (though granted by the issuer, hence the interest), and a variety of automated/upon request types of credit schemes including loans, some of which revolve or resemble the extended payment options sometimes offered by charge cards. Thus the "true" debit card is not so common in Israel, though it has existed since 1994. It is offered by two credit companies in Israel: One is ICC, short for "Israeli Credit Cards" (referred to as "CAL", an acronym formed from its abbreviation in Hebrew), which issues it in the form of a Visa Electron card valid only in Israel. It is offered mainly through the Israel Post (post office) bank (which is not allowed, by regulation, to offer any type of credit) or through Israel Discount Bank, its main owner (where it is branded as "Discount Money Key" card). This branded Israel Discount Bank branded debit card also offered as valid worldwide card, either as Visa Electron or MasterCard Debit cards. The second & more common debit card is offered by the Isracard consortium to its affiliate banks and is branded "Direct". It is valid only in Israel, under its local private label brand, as "Isracard Direct" (which was known as "Electro Cheque" until 2002 and while the local brand Isracard is often viewed as a MasterCard for local use only). Since 2006, Isracard has also offered an international version, branded "MasterCard Direct", which is less common. These two debit card brands operate offline in Israel (meaning the transaction operates under the credit cards systems & debited officially from the cardholder account only few days later, after being processed—though reflected on the current account immediately). In 2014 the Isracard Direct card (a.k.a. the valid only in Israel version) was relaunched as Isracash, though the former subbrand still being marketed and replaced ICC Visa Electron as Israel Post bank debit card. Overall, banks routinely offer deferred debit cards to their new customers, with "true" debit cards usually offered only to those who cannot obtain credit. These latter cards are not attractive to the average customer since they attract both a monthly fee from the credit company and a bank account fee for each day's debits. Isracard Direct is by far more common than the ICC Visa Electron debit card. Banks who issue mainly Visa cards will rather offer electronic use, mandate authorized transaction only, unembossed version of Visa Electron deferred debit cards (branded as "Visa Basic" or "Visa Classic") to its customers—sometimes even in the form of revolving credit card. Credit/debit card transactions in Israel are not PIN based (other than at ATMs) and it is only in recent years that EMV chip smart cards have begun to be issued, with the Bank of Israel in 2013 ordering the banks and credit card companies to switch customers to credit cards with the EMV security standard within 3.5 years. ===Italy=== Debit cards are quite popular in Italy. There are both classic and prepaid cards. There are two Italian interbank networks, Bancomat and PagoBancomat: Bancomat is the commercial brand for the cash withdrawal circuit, while PagoBancomat is used for POS transactions. Nowadays many debit cards use Visa or Mastercard circuit, often in co-badging with Bancomat/PagoBancomat. There is another national circuit, Postamat, that is used by the debit and prepaid cards offered by the national post service, Poste Italiane, mainly for the cash withdrawal in the post-office ATM. ===Japan=== In Japan people usually use their , originally intended only for use with cash machines, as debit cards. The debit functionality of these cards is usually referred to as , and only cash cards from certain banks can be used. A cash card has the same size as a Visa/MasterCard. As identification, the user will have to enter their four-digit PIN when paying. J-Debit was started in Japan on 6 March 2000. However, J-Debit has not been that popular since then. Suruga Bank began service of Japan's first Visa Debit in 2006. Rakuten Bank, formally known as Ebank, offers a Visa debit card. Resona Bank and The Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ bank also offer a Visa branded debit card. ===Kuwait=== In Kuwait, all banks provide a debit card to their account holders. This card is branded as KNET, which is the central switch in Kuwait. KNET card transactions are free for both customer and the merchant and therefore KNET debit cards are used for low valued transactions as well. KNET cards are mostly co-branded as Maestro or Visa Electron which makes it possible to use the same card outside Kuwait on any terminal supporting these payment schemes. ===Malaysia=== In Malaysia, the local debit card network is operated by the Malaysian Electronic Clearing Corporation (MyClear), which had taken over the scheme from MEPS in 2008. The new name for the local debit card in Malaysia is MyDebit, which was previously known as either bankcard or e-debit. Debit cards in Malaysia are now issued on a combo basis where the card has both the local debit card payment application as well as having that of an International scheme (Visa or MasterCard). All newly issued MyDebit combo cards with Visa or MasterCard have the contactless payment feature. The same card also acts as the ATM card for cash withdrawals. ===Mali=== See "UEMOA". ===Mexico=== In Mexico, many companies use a type of debit card called a payroll card (tarjeta de nómina), in which they deposit their employee's payrolls, instead of paying them in cash or through checks. This method is preferred in many places because it is a much safer and secure alternative compared to the more traditional forms of payment. ===Netherlands=== In the Netherlands using EFTPOS is known as pinnen (pinning), a term derived from the use of a personal identification number (PIN). PINs are also used for ATM transactions, and the term is used interchangeably by many people, although it was introduced as a marketing brand for EFTPOS. The system was launched in 1987, and in 2010 there were 258,585 terminals throughout the country, including mobile terminals used by delivery services and on markets. All banks offer a debit card suitable for EFTPOS with current accounts. PIN transactions are usually free to the customer, but the retailer is charged per-transaction and monthly fees. Equens, an association with all major banks as its members, runs the system, and until August 2005 also charged for it. Responding to allegations of monopoly abuse, it has handed over contractual responsibilities to its member banks through who now offer competing contracts. The system is organised through a special banking association Currence set up specifically to coordinate access to payment systems in The Netherlands. Interpay, a legal predecessor of Equens, was fined €47,000,000 in 2004, but the fine was later dropped, and a related fine for banks was lowered from €17 million to €14 million. Per-transaction fees are between 5–10 cts, depending on volume. Credit card use in the Netherlands is very low, and most credit cards cannot be used with EFTPOS, or charge very high fees to the customer. Debit cards can often, though not always, be used in the entire EU for EFTPOS. Most debit cards are Mastercard Maestro cards. Visa's V Pay cards are also accepted at most locations. In 2011, spending money using debit cards rose to €83,000,000,000 whilst cash spending dropped to €51,000,000,000 and credit card spending grew to €5,000,000,000. Electronic Purse Cards (called Chipknip) were introduced in 1996, but have never become very popular. The system was abolished at the end of 2014. ===New Zealand=== EFTPOS (electronic fund transfer at point of sale) in New Zealand was highly popular until other forms of payment began to take over in the 2010s. In 2006, 70 percent of all retail transactions were made by EFTPOS, with an average of 306 EFTPOS transactions being made per person. By 2023, this had declined to a little over 20%. The system involves the merchant swiping (or inserting) the customer's card and entering the purchase amount. Point of sale systems with integrated EFTPOS often send the purchase total to the terminal and the customer swipes their own card. The customer then selects the account they wish to use: Current/Cheque (CHQ), Savings (SAV), or Credit Card (CRD), before entering in their PIN. After a short processing time in which the terminal contacts the EFTPOS network and the bank, the transaction is approved (or declined) and a receipt is printed. The EFTPOS system is used for credit cards as well, with a customer selecting Credit Card and entering their PIN. Nearly all retail outlets have EFTPOS facilities, to the point that retailers without EFTPOS normally advertise 'cash only'. The main exceptions are small traders at farmers markets and other occasional outlets. Most mobile operators such as taxis, stall holders and pizza deliverers have mobile EFTPOS systems. The system is made up of two primary networks: EFTPOS NZ, which is owned by VeriFone and Worldline NZ, which is owned by ANZ Bank New Zealand, ASB Bank, Westpac and the Bank of New Zealand. The two networks are intertwined, highly sophisticated and secure, able to handle huge volumes of transactions during busy periods such as the lead-up to Christmas. Network failures are rare, but when they occur they cause massive disruption, major delays and loss of income for businesses. The CrowdStrike failure in July 2024 was one such incident. Merchants and customers are not charged a fee for using EFTPOS - merchants only have to pay for the equipment rental. One of the disadvantages of New Zealand's well-established EFTPOS system is that it is incompatible with overseas systems and non-face-to-face purchases. In response to this, many banks since 2005 have introduced international debit cards such as Maestro and Visa Debit which work online and overseas as well as on the New Zealand EFTPOS system. === Nigeria === Many Nigerians regard Debit cards as ATM cards because of its features to withdraw money directly from the ATM. According to the Central Bank of Nigeria, Debit Cards can be issued to customers having Savings /Current Accounts. There are three major types of Debit card in Nigeria: MasterCard, Verve, and Visa card. These Debit cards companies have other packages they offer in Nigeria like Naira MasterCard platinum, Visa Debit (Dual currency), GTCrea8 Card, SKS Teen Card, etc. All the packages depend on your Bank. ===Philippines=== In the Philippines, all three national ATM network consortia offer proprietary PIN debit. This was first offered by Express Payment System in 1987, followed by Megalink with Paylink in 1993 then BancNet with the Point-of-Sale in 1994. Express Payment System or EPS was the pioneer provider, having launched the service in 1987 on behalf of the Bank of the Philippine Islands. The EPS service has subsequently been extended in late 2005 to include the other Expressnet members: Banco de Oro and Land Bank of the Philippines. They currently operate 10,000 terminals for their cardholders. Megalink launched Paylink EFTPOS system in 1993. Terminal services are provided by Equitable Card Network on behalf of the consortium. Service is available in 2,000 terminals, mostly in Metro Manila. BancNet introduced their point of sale system in 1994 as the first consortium-operated EFTPOS service in the country. The service is available in over 1,400 locations throughout the Philippines, including second and third-class municipalities. In 2005, BancNet signed a Memorandum of Agreement to serve as the local gateway for China UnionPay, the sole ATM switch in China. This will allow the estimated 1.0 billion Chinese ATM cardholders to use the BancNet ATMs and the EFTPOS in all participating merchants. Visa debit cards are issued by Union Bank of the Philippines (e-Wallet & eon), Chinatrust, Equicom Savings Bank (Key Card & Cash Card), Banco de Oro, HSBC, HSBC Savings Bank, Sterling Bank of Asia (Visa ShopNPay prepaid and debit cards) and EastWest Bank. Union Bank of the Philippines cards, EastWest Visa Debit Card, Equicom Savings Bank & Sterling Bank of Asia EMV cards which can also be used for internet purchases. Sterling Bank of Asia has released its first line of prepaid and debit Visa cards with EMV chip. MasterCard debit cards are issued by Banco de Oro, Security Bank (Cashlink & Cash Card) and Smart Communications (Smart Money) tied up with Banco de Oro. MasterCard Electronic cards are issued by BPI (Express Cash) and Security Bank (CashLink Plus). Originally, all Visa and MasterCard based debit cards in the Philippines are non-embossed and are marked either for "Electronic Use Only" (Visa/MasterCard) or "Valid only where MasterCard Electronic is Accepted" (MasterCard Electronic). However, EastWest Bank started to offer embossed Visa Debit Cards without the for "Electronic Use Only" mark. Paypass Debit MasterCard from other banks also have embossed labels without the for "Electronic Use Only" mark. Unlike credit cards issued by some banks, these Visa and MasterCard-branded debit cards do not feature EMV chips, hence they can only be read by the machines through swiping. By 21 March 2016, BDO has started issuing sets of Debit MasterCards having the EMV chip and is the first Philippine bank to have it. This is a response to the BSP's monitor of the EMV shift progress in the country. By 2017, all Debit Cards in the country should have an EMV chip on it. ===Poland=== In Poland, the first system of electronic payments was operated by Orbis, which later was changed to PolCard in 1991 (which also issued its own cards) and then that system was bought by First Data Poland Holding SA. In the mid-1990s international brands such as Visa, MasterCard, and the unembossed Visa Electron or Maestro were introduced. Visa Electron and Maestro work as a standard debit cards: the transactions are debited instantly, although it may happen on some occasions that a transaction is processed with some delay (hours, up to one day). These cards do not possess the options that credit cards have. In the late 2000s, contactless cards started to be introduced. The first technology to be used was MasterCard PayPass, later joined by Visa's payWave. This payment method is now universal and accepted almost everywhere. In an everyday use this payment method is always called Paypass. Almost all businesses in Poland accept debit and credit cards. In the mid-2010s, Polish banks started to replace unembossed cards with embossed electronic cards such as Debit MasterCard and Visa Debit, allowing the customers to own a card that has all qualities of a credit card (given that credit cards are not popular in Poland). There are also some banks that do not possess an identification system to allow customers to order debit cards online. ===Portugal=== In Portugal, debit cards are accepted almost everywhere: ATMs, stores, and so on. The most commonly accepted are Visa and MasterCard, or the unembossed Visa Electron or Maestro. Regarding Internet payments debit cards cannot be used for transfers, due to its unsafeness, so banks recommend the use of 'MBnet', a pre-registered safe system that creates a virtual card with a pre-selected credit limit. All the card system is regulated by SIBS, the institution created by Portuguese banks to manage all the regulations and communication processes properly. SIBS' shareholders are all the 27 banks operating in Portugal. ===Russia=== In addition to Visa, MasterCard and American Express, there are some local payment systems based in general on smart card technology. Sbercard. This payment system was created by Sberbank around 1995–1996. It uses BGS Smartcard Systems AG smart card technology that is, DUET. Sberbank was a single retail bank in the Soviet Union before 1990. De facto this is a payment system of the SberBank. Zolotaya Korona. This card brand was created in 1994. Zolotaya Korona is based on CFT technology. STB Card. This card uses the classic magnetic stripe technology. It almost fully collapsed after 1998 (GKO crisis) with STB bank failure. Union Card. The card also uses the classic magnetic stripe technology. This card brand is on the decline. These accounts are being reissued as Visa or MasterCard accounts. Nearly every transaction, regardless of brand or system, is processed as an immediate debit transaction. Non-debit transactions within these systems have spending limits that are strictly limited when compared with typical Visa or MasterCard accounts. ===Saudi Arabia=== In Saudi Arabia, all debit card transactions are routed through Saudi Payments Network (mada), the only electronic payment system in the Kingdom and all banks are required by the Saudi Central Bank (SAMA) to issue cards fully compatible with the network. It connects all point of sale (POS) terminals throughout the country to a central payment switch which in turn re-routes the financial transactions to the card issuer, local bank, Visa, Amex or MasterCard. As well as its use for debit cards, the network is also used for ATM and credit card transactions. === Senegal === ===Serbia=== All Serbian banks issue debit cards. Since August 2018, all owners of transactional accounts in Serbian dinars are automatically issued a debit card of the national brand DinaCard. Other brands (VISA, MasterCard and Maestro) are more popular, better accepted and more secure, but must be requested specifically as additional cards. Debit cards are used for cash withdrawal at ATMs as well as store transactions. ===Singapore=== Singapore's debit service is managed by the Network for Electronic Transfers (NETS), founded by Singapore's leading banks and shareholders namely DBS, Keppel Bank, OCBC and its associates, OUB, IBS, POSB, Tat Lee Bank and UOB in 1985 as a result of a need for a centralised e-Payment operator. However, due to the banking restructuring and mergers, the local banks remaining were UOB, OCBC, DBS-POSB as the shareholders of NETS with Standard Chartered Bank to offer NETS to their customers. However, DBS and POSB customers can use their network ATMs on their own and not be shared with UOB, OCBC or SCB (StanChart). The mega failure of 5 July 2010 of POSB-DBS ATM Networks (about 97,000 machines) made the government to rethink the shared ATM system again as it affected the NETS system too. In 2010, in line with the mandatory EMV system, Local Singapore Banks started to reissue their Debit Visa/MasterCard branded debit cards with EMV Chip compliant ones to replace the magnetic stripe system. Banks involved included NETS Members of POSB-DBS, UOB-OCBC-SCB along with the SharedATM alliance (NON-NETS) of HSBC, Citibank, State Bank of India, and Maybank. Standard Chartered Bank (SCB) is also a SharedATM alliance member. Non branded cards of POSB and Maybank local ATM Cards are kept without a chip but have a Plus or Maestro sign which can be used to withdraw cash locally or overseas. Maybank Debit MasterCards can be used in Malaysia just like a normal ATM or Debit MEPS card. Singapore also uses the e-purse systems of NETS CASHCARD and the CEPAS wave system by EZ-Link and NETS. ===South Korea=== There are two kinds of debit cards are in South Korea; 'Debit card' Issued by bank, and 'Check card' Issued by card company. Debit cards are only accepted in debit networks such as Shinsegae and e-mart. Check cards are accepted in every stores accept credit cards. Korean debit cards do not accept offline Debit(credit) transactions domestically, so every transactions must made by real time. ===Spain=== Debit cards are accepted in a relatively large number of stores, both large and small, in Spain. Banks often offer debit cards for small fees in connection with a checking account. These cards are used more often than credit cards at ATMs because it is a cheaper alternative. ===Sweden=== Debit cards are common in Sweden as they are traditionally issued by your bank who in turn normally cooperates with either Visa Debit, Visa Electron, Debit MasterCard, or Mastercard Maestro. Thus, ATM's and stores in Sweden accept these debit cards if they accept card payments with only rare exceptions. ===Taiwan=== Most banks issue major-brand debit cards that can be used internationally such as Visa, MasterCard and JCB, often with contactless functionality. Payments at brick-and-mortar stores generally require a signature except for contactless payments. A separate, local debit system, known as Smart Pay, can be used by the majority of debit and ATM cards, even major-brand cards. This system is available only in Taiwan and a few locations in Japan as of 2016. Non-contactless payments require a PIN instead of a signature. Cards from a few banks support contactless payment with Smart Pay. === Togo === === Turkey === ===UAE=== Debit cards are widely accepted from different debit card issuers including the Network International local subsidiary of Emirates Bank. ===United Kingdom=== In the UK debit cards (an integrated EFTPOS system) are an established part of the retail market and are widely accepted by both physical and internet stores. The term EFTPOS is not widely used by the public; "debit card" is the generic term used. Debit cards issued are predominantly Visa Debit, with Debit Mastercard becoming increasingly common. Maestro, Visa Electron and UnionPay are also in circulation. Banks do not charge customers for EFTPOS transactions in the UK, but some retailers used to make small charges, particularly for small transaction amounts. However, the UK Government introduced legislation on 13 January 2018 banning all surcharges for card payments, including those made online and through services such as PayPal. The UK has converted all debit cards in circulation to Chip and PIN (except for Chip and Signature cards issued to people with certain disabilities and non-reloadable prepaid cards), based on the EMV standard, to increase transaction security; however, PINs are not required for Internet transactions (though some banks employ additional security measures for online transactions such as Verified by Visa and MasterCard Secure Code), nor for most contactless transactions. In the United Kingdom, banks started to issue debit cards in the mid-1980s to reduce the number of cheques being used at the point of sale, which are costly for the banks to process; the first bank to do so was Barclays with the Barclays Connect card. As in most countries, fees paid by merchants in the UK to accept credit cards are a percentage of the transaction amount, which funds cardholders' interest-free credit periods as well as incentive schemes such as points or cashback. For consumer credit cards issued within the EEA, the interchange fee is capped at 0.3%, with a cap of 0.2% for debit cards, although the merchant acquirers may charge the merchant a higher fee. Most debit cards in the UK lack the advantages offered to holders of UK-issued credit cards, such as free incentives (points, cashback etc.; the Tesco Bank debit card was one exception), interest-free credit and protection against defaulting merchants under Section 75 of the Consumer Credit Act 1974. Almost all establishments in the UK that accept credit cards also accept debit cards. Some merchants, for cost reasons, accept debit cards but not credit cards, and some smaller retailers only accept card payments for purchases above a certain value, typically £5 or £10. The 21st century has seen an increase in Challenger banks in the United Kingdom, with benefits including fee-free overseas spending. Notable challenger banks include Monzo, Revolut and Starling Bank. === UEMOA === It is the West Africa Economic and Monetary Union federating eight countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo. GIM-UEMOA is the regional switch federating more than 120 members (banks, microfinances, electronic money issuers, etc.). All interbank cards transactions between banks in the same country or between banks in two different countries UEMOA zone are routed and cleared by GIM-UEMOA. The settlement is done on Central Bank RTGS. GIM-UEMOA also provides some processing products and services to more than 50 banks in UEMOA zone and out of UEMOA zone. ===United States=== In the U.S., EFTPOS is universally referred to simply as debit. The largest pre-paid debit card company is Green Dot Corporation, by market capitalization. The same interbank networks that operate the ATM network also operate the POS network. Most interbank networks, such as Pulse, NYCE, MAC, Tyme, SHAZAM, STAR, and so on, are regional and do not overlap, however, most ATM/POS networks have agreements to accept each other's cards. This means that cards issued by one network will typically work anywhere they accept ATM/POS cards for payment. For example, a NYCE card will work at a Pulse POS terminal or ATM, and vice versa. Debit cards in the United States are usually issued with a Visa, MasterCard, Discover or American Express logo allowing use of their signature-based networks. In 2018, there were 5.836 billion debit cards in circulation in the U.S., and 71.7% were prepaid cards. U.S. Federal law caps the liability of a U.S. debit card user in case of loss or theft at US$50 if the loss or theft is reported to the issuing bank in two business days after the customer notices the loss. Most banks will, however, set this limit to $0 for debit cards issued to their customers which are linked to their checking or savings account. Unlike credit cards, loss or theft reported more than two business days after being discovered is capped at $500 (vs. $50 for credit cards), and if reported more than 60 calendar days after the statement is sent all the money in the account may be lost. The fees charged to merchants for offline debit purchases vis-à-vis the lack of fees charged to merchants for processing online debit purchases and paper checks have prompted some major merchants in the U.S. to file lawsuits against debit-card transaction processors, such as Visa and MasterCard. In 2003, Visa and MasterCard agreed to settle the largest of these lawsuits for $2 billion and $1 billion, respectively. Some consumers prefer "credit" transactions because of the lack of a fee charged to the consumer/purchaser. A few debit cards in the U.S. offer rewards for using "credit". However, since "credit" transactions cost more for merchants, many terminals at PIN-accepting merchant locations now make the "credit" function more difficult to access. As a result of the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, U.S. merchants can now set a minimum purchase amount for credit card transactions, as long as it does not exceed $10. ====FSA, HRA, and HSA debit cards==== In the United States, an FSA debit card only allow medical expenses. It is used by some banks for withdrawals from their healthcare FSAs (Flexible Savings Account) medical savings accounts (MSA), and health savings accounts (HSA) as well. They have Visa or MasterCard logos, but cannot be used as "debit cards", only as "credit cards". Furthermore, they are not accepted by all merchants that accept debit and credit cards, but only by those that specifically accept FSA debit cards. Merchant codes and product codes are used at the point of sale (required by law by certain merchants by certain states in the U.S.) to restrict sales if they do not qualify. Because of the extra checking and documenting that goes on, later, the statement can be used to substantiate these purchases for tax deductions. In the occasional instance that a qualifying purchase is rejected, another form of payment must be used (a check or payment from another account and a claim for reimbursement later). In the more likely case that non-qualifying items are accepted, the consumer is technically still responsible, and the discrepancy could be revealed during an audit. A small but growing segment of the debit card business in the U.S. involves access to tax-favored spending accounts such as FSAs, HRAs, and HSAs. Most of these debit cards are for medical expenses, though a few are also issued for dependent care and transportation expenses. Traditionally, FSAs (the oldest of these accounts) were accessed only through claims for reimbursement after incurring, and often paying, an out-of-pocket expense; this often happens after the funds have already been deducted from the employee's paycheck. (FSAs are usually funded by payroll deduction.) The only method permitted by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to avoid this "double-dipping" for medical FSAs and HRAs is through accurate and auditable reporting on the tax return. Statements on the debit card that say "for medical uses only" are invalid for several reasons: (1) The merchant and issuing banks have no way of quickly determining whether the entire purchase qualifies for the customer's type of tax benefit; (2) the customer also has no quick way of knowing; often has mixed purchases by necessity or convenience; and can easily make mistakes; (3) extra contractual clauses between the customer and issuing bank would cross-over into the payment processing standards, creating additional confusion (for example if a customer was penalized for accidentally purchasing a non-qualifying item, it would undercut the potential savings advantages of the account). Therefore, using the card exclusively for qualifying purchases may be convenient for the customer, but it has nothing to do with how the card can actually be used. If the bank rejects a transaction, for instance, because it is not at a recognized drug store, then it would be causing harm and confusion to the cardholder. In the United States, not all medical service or supply stores are capable of providing the correct information so an FSA debit card issuer can honor every transaction-if rejected or documentation is not deemed enough to satisfy regulations, cardholders may have to send in forms manually. One difference between FSAs and HSAs is the matter of yearend and rollovers: FSAs began as per calendar year, although by 2013 rollovers were introduced. ===Venezuela=== There has been a lack of cash due to the Venezuelan economic crisis and thus the demand for and use of debit cards has increased greatly in recent years. One reason why a noticeable percentage of businesses have closed is a lack of payment terminals. The most used brands are Maestro (debit card) and Visa Electron. === Vietnam === In Vietnam, debit cards are issued by banks in collaboration with the National Payment Corporation of Vietnam, abbreviated as NAPAS. Most banks issue this type of card. Customers can simply go to the nearest branch to register or open a debit card online. VISA Debit and Mastercard Debit are the most widely issued cards in Vietnam. As of June 2023, there are over 94 million debit cards in circulation in Vietnam. The number of cards is growing at an average rate of 18% per year. The transaction value reached over 1,200 trillion VND per year. More than 80% of transactions are made at ATMs.	[ "UnionPay", "V Pay", "Bancomat (debit card)", "authorization hold", "Chipknip", "NYCE", "Revolut", "payment card", "Emirates Bank", "American Express", "Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce", "Banco de Oro", "COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Ireland", "Sterling Bank of Asia", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Visa Electron", "Express Payment System", "Bank", "virtual card", "Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas", "payment terminal", "lockdown", "savings account", "PayPal", "STAR (interbank network)", "Ivory Coast", "check fraud", "Australia Post", "Chip and PIN", "Benin", "Poland", "Automated teller machine", "Denmark", "contactless payment", "automatic teller machine", "Payconiq", "blacklist", "Debit MasterCards", "Electronic Protocols Application Software", "Bendigo Bank", "Philippines", "Debit MasterCard", "Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act", "Sberbank", "Toronto-Dominion Bank", "Bank of Ireland", "Latency (engineering)", "Burkina Faso", "Itaú Unibanco", "Nubank", "University of Regina", "Smart card", "Geldkarte", "Elo (card association)", "Eurocheque", "CrowdStrike", "Malaysian Electronic Payment System", "charge card", "Monzo", "The Benefit Company", "FSA debit card", "Association of Government Accountants", "Saudi Payments Network", "Netherlands", "Oakland, California", "Magnetic Stripe Reader", "Payment card number", "Telstra Transcend", "Network International", "Allied Irish Banks", "Tesco Bank", "RuPay", "BancNet", "National Australia Bank", "Soviet Union", "interbank network", "checking account", "National Payments Corporation of India", "Rasheed Bank", "Danas (newspaper)", "Bank Mandiri", "Bank of the Philippine Islands", "EMV", "Hang Seng Bank", "PRC", "electronic fund transfer", "Bank of America", "Credit cards", "Royal Bank of Canada", "Saudi Arabia", "Cantaloupe, Inc.", "Mercado Pago", "Google Wallet", "Suruga Bank", "expatriate", "BRAC Bank PLC", "EFTPOS terminal", "Mastercard Maestro", "Automated bank machine", "Niger", "Canada", "Portugal", "State Bank of India", "Green Dot Corporation", "Visa Inc.", "Guinea-Bissau", "Financial Consumer Agency of Canada", "BDO Unibank", "Point-of-sale", "personal identification number", "Stored-value card", "Shinsegae", "Hungary", "Sonali Bank", "Poste Italiane", "China UnionPay", "Chinatrust", "ANZ Bank", "Chile", "bank account", "Land Bank of the Philippines", "SHAZAM (interbank network)", "Vietnam", "Togo", "health savings account", "da:PBS", "secured credit card", "India", "Smart Communications", "Rafidain Bank", "Westpac", "plastic", "Scotiabank", "HSBC Savings Bank", "Dutch-Bangla Bank", "Zolotaya Korona", "driver's license", "Citibank India", "Interac", "United Kingdom", "Charge card", "cheque", "de:Lastschriftverfahren", "Crisis in Venezuela", "credit card", "Solo (debit card)", "Union Bank of the Philippines", "Discover Card", "Optus Transact Plus", "Electronic Payment Services", "Qi Card", "European Banking Authority", "point-of-sale", "bounced check", "Commonwealth Bank", "credit limit", "euro", "Bank of New Zealand", "Megalink", "additional card", "lawsuit", "Payment card", "Security Bank", "Electronic funds transfer", "Permanent TSB", "Bank Central Asia", "stored-value card", "Dankort", "Ulster Bank", "Card scheme", "Card (disambiguation)", "Union Card", "Israel Discount Bank", "Wero (payment)", "Inventory information approval system", "Payoneer", "Currence", "Capital controls in Greece", "Quick Wertkarte", "EBS d.a.c.", "illegal immigration", "The Philippine STAR", "Moneo", "Balance sheet substantiation", "Maestro", "Citibank", "Unified Payments Interface", "smart card", "Interlink (interbank network)", "The Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ", "payment card number", "China", "VeriFone", "STB Card", "Saudi Central Bank", "Islami Bank Bangladesh PLC", "Senegal", "Equens", "Money Access Center", "Telstra Argent", "unbanked", "ATM card", "Samsung Pay", "Laser (debit card)", "settlement (law)", "Hologram", "Chicago", "BGS Smartcard Systems AG", "Debit Mastercard", "Credit card", "Payments Council", "Pulse (interbank network)", "Nets Group", "Isracard", "Serbian dinar", "Radio New Zealand", "cash", "Maestro (debit card)", "social distancing", "Sbercard", "logo", "TD Canada Trust", "Deutsche Mark", "authentication", "United Commercial Bank PLC", "Bancontact", "Cheque guarantee card", "Taxation in Uruguay", "PRIMA (Indonesia)", "Single Euro Payments Area", "JCB (credit card company)", "Illinois", "profit margin", "MasterCard (credit card)", "Debit card cashback", "Cheque", "Eastern Bank PLC. (Bangladesh)", "electronic funds transfer", "HSBC", "MasterCard", "girocard", "Barclays", "Multicaixa", "credit union", "market capitalization", "Tyme", "EastWest Bank", "Australia", "Point-of-Sale", "Google Pay (payment method)", "Mastercard", "Visa Debit", "e-mart", "Electronic cash", "Equicom Savings Bank", "Bangladesh Bank", "The Times of India", "Apple Pay", "online payment", "point of sale", "Signature", "The City Bank", "Colombia", "First Data", "Visa (company)", "Internal Revenue Service", "Carte Bleue", "Mali", "Mutual Trust Bank Limited", "Banco Bradesco", "Plus (interbank network)", "tax evasion", "medical savings account", "EZ-Link", "EFTPOS", "direct debit", "Starling Bank", "The New York Times", "PINpad", "Central Bank of Nigeria", "Switch (debit card)", "Network for Electronic Transfers", "virtual Card", "Proton (bank card)", "Coronavirus disease 2019", "DinaCard", "Japan", "ASB Bank", "An Post", "Metro Manila", "KNET (interbank network)", "Card Security Code" ]
9,010	Dance Dance Revolution	(DDR) is a music video game series produced by Konami. Introduced in Japan in 1998 as part of the Bemani series, and released in North America and Europe in 1999, Dance Dance Revolution is the pioneering series of the rhythm and dance genre in video games. Players stand on a "dance platform" or stage and hit colored arrows laid out in a cross with their feet to musical and visual cues. Players are judged by how well they time their dance to the patterns presented to them and are allowed to choose more music to play to if they receive a passing score. Dance Dance Revolution has been met with critical acclaim for its originality and stamina in the video game market, as well as popularizing the use of videogames as a medium for fitness and exercise. There have been dozens of arcade-based releases across several countries and hundreds of home video game console releases, promoting a music library of original songs produced by Konami's in-house artists and an eclectic set of licensed music from many different genres. The game is also known for its passionate fanbase, as well as its growing competitive tournament scene. The DDR series has also inspired similar games such as Pump it Up by Andamiro and In the Groove by Roxor Games. The series' current arcade version is Dance Dance Revolution World, released on June 12, 2024. ==Gameplay== The core game involves the player stepping their feet to correspond with the arrows that appear on the screen and the beat of the song playing. During normal gameplay, arrows scroll upwards from the bottom of the screen and pass over a set of stationary arrows near the top (referred to as the "guide arrows" or "receptors", officially known as the Step Zone). When the scrolling arrows overlap the stationary ones, the player must step on the corresponding arrows on the dance platform. Upon doing so, they are given a judgement for their accuracy of every streaked note (From highest to lowest: Marvelous, Perfect, Great, Good, Almost, Miss). Additional arrow types were added in later mixes. Freeze Arrows, introduced in MAX, are long green arrows that must be held down until they completely travel through the Step Zone. Each of these arrows awards an "O.K.!" if successfully pressed or an "N.G." when the arrow is released too quickly. An "N.G." decreases the life bar and, starting with X, also breaks any existing combo. X also introduced Shock Arrows, walls of arrows with lightning effects that must be avoided, which will award an "O.K.!" if successfully avoided or an "N.G." if any of the dancer's panels are stepped on. An "N.G." for shock arrows has the same consequences found with freeze arrows, but hitting a shock arrow additionally hides future steps for a short period. Successfully hitting the arrows in time with the music fills the "Dance Gauge", or life bar, while failure to do so drains it. If the Dance Gauge is fully exhausted during gameplay, the player will fail the song, and the game will be over. Otherwise, the player is taken to the Results Screen, which rates the player's performance with a letter grade and a numerical score, among other statistics. The player may then be given a chance to play again, depending on the settings of the particular machine. The default limit is three songs, though operators can set the limit between one and five. Aside from play style Single, Dance Dance Revolution provides two other play styles: Versus, where two players can play Single simultaneously, and Double, where one player uses all eight panels. Before the 2013 release of Dance Dance Revolution, some games offer additional modes, such as Course mode (players must play a set of songs back-to-back) and Battle mode (two players compete with a tug-of-war life bar by sending distracting modifiers to each other). Earlier versions also have Couple/Unison Mode, where two players must cooperate to play the song. Course Mode was reintroduced to the series starting with A20. ===Difficulty=== Depending on the edition of the game, dance steps are broken into various levels of difficulty, often by color. The difficulty is separated into two to five categories, depending on the game: The first release of Dance Dance Revolution established two difficulties: Basic for Single and Double modes, and Another for Single mode only. Each chart is rated with a level from 1 to 7, and every release through 3rdMix Plus also attributed a title to each level number. The Internet Ranking Version added Another for Double mode, and a new higher difficulty of Maniac for Single mode only, along with several level 8 charts, titled Exorbitant. 2ndMix Club Version 2 introduced several level 9 charts, titled Catastrophic until 3rdMix Plus and Evolutionary in X3 vs. 2ndMix. The Maniac difficulty was renamed SSR and expanded to Double mode for new songs in 3rdMix, with the name reverting to Maniac in 3rdMix Plus. Beginning with 4thMix, all songs featured the Maniac difficulty in Single and Double mode. Also, Another was renamed to Trick. 4thMix Plus introduced new Maniac charts for 16 songs, while the original Maniac charts were labelled Maniac-S and Maniac-D in this game, with only the new charts remaining in 5thMix. DDRMAX introduced the "Groove Radar", showing how difficult a particular sequence was in various categories, such as the maximum density of steps. This release removed the level numbers, and among the 42 songs, two ("Flash in the Night" and "Follow Me") have never received any level numbers due to being DDRMAX exclusives. Additionally, DDRMAX changed the difficulty names to Light, Standard, and Heavy. Beginning with DDRMAX2, level numbers were reintroduced, along with a level 10 for "MAX 300" and "MAXX Unlimited". Level 10 was titled Revolutionary in X3 vs. 2ndMix. DDRMAX2 also introduced the Challenge difficulty with "Kakumei" ("革命") on One More Extra Stage, and in Nonstop Challenge Mode songs. Extreme introduced the Beginner difficulty, which premiered in Dancing Stage EuroMix, as the game's easiest difficulty. It is only available in Single mode, except in the DDR Universe series for the Xbox 360, which offers Beginner difficulty in Single and Double modes. Extreme features a total of 37 songs with the Challenge difficulty. Exclusive to Extreme were "flashing 10s" that seemingly hint to go beyond a regular 10. SuperNOVA standardizes the naming of difficulty to the Beginner, Basic, Difficult, Expert, and Challenge respectively. Due to the old system not going past level 10 and other outdated reasonings, X overhauls the numbering system, now extending the scale of 1–20. All songs from previous versions were re-rated on the new scale, roughly multiplying the old number to 1.4x (i.e. 9 now being 12 or 13). Even though the rating can go up to 20, no song has reached that level. The highest rated song on X is 18. X2 introduced the first 19: "Valkyrie dimension" Challenge. Although the new rating system is an improvement from the old system, it is common for each sequel to re-rate charts to reflect the proper difficulty, such as "POSSESSION" Double Challenge being re-rated from 18 to 19 on both DDR II (Wii) and X3 vs. 2ndMix. Starting from A, the difficulty is now displayed during gameplay. ===Groove Radar=== The foot-rating system was completely removed for the 6th Mix, and replaced by the Groove Radar. The Groove Radar is a graphical representation of the difficulty of a song based in five different areas: Stream, Voltage, Air, Chaos, and Freeze. Stream – Indicates the overall density of the steps of the song. A high number of steps is a factor too, but not necessary for a high stream measurement. Voltage – Indicates the peak density of the steps (the highest density of arrows that ever appear on the screen at once). Songs with a high BPM (300 or more) usually have a high voltage measurement, since it allows more steps to appear in increasingly halved beats (8th step in a 300 BPM song equals to 4th beat step in a 150 BPM song, and so on), though songs with lower BPM can have a high voltage, even if the halved beats usually cap at 32nd beat (64th beat steps exist in very few songs). Chaos – Indicates "off-beat" steps; those that do not occur in 4th or 8th beats. Air – Indicates the number of double steps (i.e. jumps) and shock arrows within the song. Freeze – Indicates the number of freeze arrows within the song Each game usually has a song that maxes out a category within the radar. If a song in a following mix or update has a higher category measurement, then the groove radar is renewed so the new song can max out that category, while all previous songs are re-rated in respect to the new radar. As of DDR 2014, the groove radar also employs a numerical measurement in addition to a graphical representation. Before the update, the radar did not disclose the number by default, though it could be shown by holding the SELECT button while heading to the song select screen. The Groove Radar was not very popular among seasoned DDR veterans. The foot-rating system was restored to work with the Groove Radar in the North American home version of the game and the next arcade version, MAX2, and almost all future versions (except for versions based on the North American version of EXTREME, which only used foot ratings). All of the MAX songs on MAX2 received foot-ratings, excluding songs that were removed. SuperNOVA 2 featured special edits of songs specifically meant to max out specific categories on the radar, culminating with "DEAD END ("GROOVE RADAR" Special)", maxing out all five categories. While not related, SuperNOVA 2 also featured a variation known as "My Groove Radar" as part of e-Amusement, which was also divided into five categories, though it was meant to measure the player's stats on songs rather than showing the song's difficulty. This feature is now removed in DDR WORLD. ===Extra Stage system=== The Extra Stage, originally introduced in 1stMIX and reintroduced in MAX, rewards a player for clearing three songs, either with a high enough grade on the final stage or by fulfilling specific play requirements. The player receives the opportunity to play a free extra song, which often defaults to a very difficult song with forced modifiers (such as 1.5x speed and Reverse) and LIFE4 since DDR X2, a life bar identical to the battery bar similar to Challenge mode with 1–4 lives depending on their score in the final stage in SuperNOVA 2 and X, or a non-regaining life bar before SuperNOVA 2. Beginning on SuperNOVA 2, players may be able to access the modifier menu (LIFE GAUGE is disabled) and the forced modifiers (save for battery bar or LIFE4) are no longer used. However, the Replicant-D Action event in X2 and since DDR 2014 did not allow players to select modifiers for its Encore Extra Stage. Before EXTREME, the Extra Stage song was predetermined. Afterward, any song can be played for the Extra Stage, although there is still a song designated as the Extra Stage (usually marked with red letters on the song wheel, or contained within the EXTRA EXCLUSIVE folder. In all cases (etc. in EXTRA EXCLUSIVE songs), they must be unlocked for regular play). A player who attains a grade of "AA" (or "A" in SuperNOVA or 950.000 Supernova 2 points in A) on the Extra Stage is invited to play an additional stage, "One More Extra Stage" (OMES, or Encore Extra Stage post-SuperNOVA), with another special song option, played in RISKY, in which any combo-breaking step or missed freeze will cause an instant failure. Since X3 VS 2ndMIX, some Encore Extra Stage songs are marked as "ATTACK PERFECT FULL COMBO", where any judgment less than Perfect will cause the player to fail the song. Unlike Extra Stages, the song for Encore Extra Stages remains predetermined, the only exceptions were SuperNOVA 2 and X, which allowed players to play any song for their Encore Extra Stage. Usually, if this final boss is beaten, a special credits sequence is played. With the implementation of e-Amusement in DDR, mixes after SuperNOVA have contained multiple songs as extra stages, often based on specific conditions, such as playing specific difficulties or songs. From MAX2 onward, the BPM of Extra Stage songs is displayed as a random, changing number, instead of the song's true BPM to hide it from players, also when KAKUMEI was played as an Encore Extra Stage, its Groove Radar data is hidden by continually animating through random songs' ratings. The random BPM display is replaced with the normal BPM display in the next mix, and as of X, after the said song has been unlocked for normal play. ==Hardware== A standard Dance Dance Revolution arcade machine consists of two parts, the cabinet and the dance platform. The cabinet has a wide bottom section, which houses large floor speakers and glowing neon lamps (led on X and Gold cabinets and hide lights/edge lit acrylic on white cabinets). Above this sits a narrower section that contains the monitor, and on top is a lighted marquee graphic, with two or four small speakers and flashing lights on either side. Below the monitor are two sets of buttons (one for each player), each consisting of two triangular selection buttons (four on X and white cabinets) and a center rectangular button, used mainly to confirm a selection or start the game. The dance stage is a raised metal platform divided into two sides. Each side houses a set of four acrylic glass pads arranged and pointing in the orthogonal directions (left, up, down and right), separated by metal squares. Each pad sits atop four pressure activated switches, one at each edge of each pad, and a software-controlled cold cathode (Led on X and Gold cabinets) lamp illuminating the translucent pad, not available on the white cabinet. A metal safety bar in the shape of an upside-down "U" is mounted to the dance stage behind each player. Some players make use of this safety bar to help maintain proper balance, and to relieve weight from the legs so that arrows can be pressed with greater speed and accuracy. Some DDR cabinets are equipped with Sony PlayStation memory card slots, allowing the player to insert a compatible memory card before starting a game and save their high scores to the card. Additionally, the equivalent home versions of DDR allow players to create and save custom step patterns (edits) to their memory card — the player can then play those steps on the arcade machine if the same song exists on that machine. This feature is supported in 2ndMix through Extreme. On the DDR X announce, these slots are replaced by USB slots and the players required create edits from Japanese PlayStation 2's DDR X and transferred onto the DDR X arcades onwards. SuperNova series and white cabinets did not support memory card slots. However, it introduced Konami's internet based link system e-Amusement to the series, which can save stats and unlocks for individual players (but cannot store edits). This functionality however, could only be used in Japan. During the North American release of Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA 2, an e-Amuse capable machine was made available at a Brunswick Zone Arcade in Naperville, Illinois. This machine was hosted on a different network than the Japanese version, and the only other machine on the network was located in Konami's American branch in El Segundo, California. e-Amusement functionality would later be made available in North America with the release of Dance Dance Revolution A. The Solo arcade cabinet is smaller and contains only one dance pad, modified to include six arrow panels instead of four (the additional panels are "upper-left" and "upper-right"). These pads generally do not come with a safety bar, but include the option for one to be installed at a later date. The Solo pad also lacks some of the metal plating that the standard pad has, which can make stepping difficult for players who are used to playing on standard machines. An upgrade was available for Solo machines called the "Deluxe pad", which was closer to the standard cabinet's pad. Additionally Solo machines only incorporate two sensors, located horizontally in the center of the arrow, instead of four sensors (one on each edge). On January 14, 2019, Konami revealed a new "20th Anniversary Model" cabinet redesign, featuring gold-colored plating, a larger screen, and updated dance pad LED lighting. Dance Dance Revolution normally runs at 240p, up to and including Extreme. 4thMix to Extreme use 480i when displaying menus. On CRT-based cabinets, card readers are optional. PlayStation memory cards are supported in Asia from 2ndMix Link Edition to Extreme. PlayStation 2 card support for SuperNova worldwide was announced, but cancelled. SuperNova and newer support e-Amusement instead. DDR X and its sequel also support USB drives. Support for Dance Dance Revolution A3 on CRT-based cabinets was discontinued on April 28, 2024. An offline version of A3, with fewer features than the online version, was sold for these cabinets on April 30, 2024, in Asia. Outside of Asia, sales of upgrade kits were limited to Dance Dance Revolution SuperNova and SuperNova 2. Unofficially, this cabinet can be upgraded to support newer mixes, such as DDR Extreme and SuperNova 2. This cabinet was first demonstrated at a private JAEPO 2019 conference. It displayed a 20th anniversary title screen, and gameplay was not allowed. During the 8th Konami Arcade Championship (KAC), the DDR finalists played on a gold cabinet running Dance Dance Revolution A. During the X era of Dance Dance Revolution, two cabinet variants were made available to arcades. The region in which the game was sold determined which cabinet was received. In the USA and most international regions, a cabinet produced by Raw Thrills Games was made available. This cabinet was of inferior quality, with subpar sound and ear-piercing top speakers, along with lackluster bass speakers. The cabinet was shipped with a dance stage prone to premature failure due to low-quality hardware components. On the other hand, the Konami Original cabinet was made available for the Japanese region. This cabinet was made of much higher quality materials and components, particularly evident in the use of edge-lit acrylic panels, RGB LED light bars, and a high-quality dance stage with exceptional sensors and overall aesthetic design. Dance Dance Revolution 2ndMix was updated after its initial release with a few new songs and the ability to connect to and play alongside Konami's DJ simulator games, Beatmania IIDX. While the official name of that version of DDR when alone was Dance Dance Revolution 2ndMix Link Version, when connected to the two Beatmania IIDX cabinets it was compatible with it was referred to by two other unique names. ===System boards=== Dance Dance Revolution's hardware has evolved over time, in line with other Bemani games. The first mixes were based on the original PlayStation's hardware, with a limited set of subsequent games running on PlayStation 2 based hardware. Beginning with DDR X, all new cabinets began to utilize standard PC hardware, typically installed with a Windows Embedded operating system. The first Dance Dance Revolution as well as its followup DDR 2ndMix uses Bemani System 573 Analog as its hardware. DDR 3rdMix replaces this with a Bemani System 573 Digital board, which would be used up to DDR Extreme. Both of these are based on the PlayStation. Beginning with Dancing Stage Fusion in 2005, the hardware is replaced by Bemani Python, a PlayStation 2-based hardware. DDR SuperNova, released in 2006, utilised a Bemani Python 2 board, originally found in GuitarFreaks V and Drummania V. Bemani Python 2 would also be used in the followup DDR SuperNova 2''. Along with the cabinet change, DDR X also changes its hardware to the PC-based Bemani PC Type 4. This more powerful hardware allows for high definition graphics and enhanced features. With DDR A, Bemani PC Type 4 is replaced by ADE-704A (ADE-6291 for 20th Anniversary cabinets only), that is still used to this day. ==Music== The music of Dance Dance Revolution consists of a large catalogue of songs, with most of them consisting of Konami Originals that are produced in-house by the Bemani Sound Team and other Konami teams. Additionally, DDR features many licensed songs from various record labels. One of the more recent versions, Dance Dance Revolution A3, features 1,195 songs, of which 101 are licensed songs. From the first DDR game in 1998 until the initial release of Dance Dance Revolution A in 2016, the series has licensed hundreds of songs from the Dancemania album series in Japan. This partnership resulted in some of the most popular songs in the series' history, including "Butterfly" by Smile.dk and "Captain Jack (Grandale Remix)" by Captain Jack. Many of these songs were featured in other DDR releases across multiple platforms. The music direction for the series has evolved over time. Early versions of DDR had a major focus on eurodance and disco house genres of music, with a variety of other songs branching into 1970s disco, 1980s Hi-NRG, and ska, amongst others. This changed into the early-mid 2000s, where the game focused instead on trance, eurobeat, and J-Pop. Current versions of DDR have a heavy focus on a variety of styles, including vocaloid tracks, anime themes, and Billboard Hot 100 hit songs. ==Releases== Dance Dance Revolution has been released in many different countries on many different platforms. Originally released in Japan as an arcade game and then a PlayStation game, which was a bestseller. DDR was later released in North American, Europe, Korea, the whole of Asia, Australia, New Zealand, South America and Mexico on multiple platforms including the PlayStation 2, Xbox, Wii, and many others. Due to demand, Japanese versions of the game, which are usually different from the games released in other countries, are often imported or bootlegged. DDR fansites make an attempt to keep track of the locations of arcade machines throughout the major regions. ===Home releases=== DDR games have been released on various video game consoles, including the PlayStation, Dreamcast, Nintendo 64, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, GameCube, Wii, Xbox and Xbox 360, and even PCs. Home versions often contain new songs, songs from the arcade version, and additional features that take advantage of the capabilities of the console (e.g.; Xbox 360 versions such as the Dance Dance Revolution Universe series include support for online multiplayer and downloadable songs over Xbox Live, and high definition graphics). DDR has even reached Nintendo's Game Boy Color, with five versions of Dance Dance Revolution GB released in Japan; these included a series of three mainstream DDR games, a Disney Mix, and an Oha Star. The games come with a small thumb pad that fits over the Game Boy Color's controls to simulate the dance pad. Home versions are commonly bundled with soft plastic dance pads that are similar in appearance and function to the Nintendo Power Pad. Some third-party manufacturers produce hard metal pads at a higher price. Three versions of DDR were also produced for the PC, and the 1st was released in North America. It uses the interface of Dance Dance Revolution 4thMix, and contains around 40 songs from the first six mainstream arcade releases. It has not been as well received as the console versions. A last PC version of DDR, called Dance Dance Revolution Grand Prix, was also produced in Japan. It uses the interface of Dance Dance Revolution A20 PLUS, and contains 6 licences, 9 revival licences, and over 800 songs from all mainstream arcade releases. DDR has also seen a number of mobile game releases on Apple iOS and Android platforms, including Dance Dance Revolution S. It was announced alongside several other adaptations of Konami franchises to the iOS platform in January 2009. A free preview version was also released, Dance Dance Revolution S Lite, which features one song and served as a preview for the final version and as a demo. The final version was released in the Japanese App Store on February 27, 2009. Dance Dance Revolution S+, a sequel with in-app song purchasing, was released the same year. In 2019, three mobile games were announced by Konami during the Japan Amusement Expo, representing three Bemani series: Beatmania IIDX, Dance Dance Revolution, and Sound Voltex. Only Beatmania IIDX Ultimate Mobile was released to the public, with Sound Voltex and Dance Dance Revolution Ultimate Mobile being cancelled shortly after location tests. Dedicated console manufacturer Zuiki announced a compact device called DanceDanceRevolution Classic Mini to be crowdfunded in 2023. The device includes songs from the original DDR to DDR 3rd Mix. ==Similar games== Due to the success of the Dance Dance Revolution franchise, many other games with similar or identical gameplay have been created. Commercial competitors of DDR include the Korean series Pump It Up and the American series In the Groove by Roxor Games, as well as TechnoMotion by F2 Systems, EZ2Dancer by Amuseworld, and MC Groovz Dance Craze by Mad Catz. In the Groove was met with legal action by Konami and resulted in Konami's acquisition of the game's intellectual property. A Christian version of DDR, named Dance Praise, has been made by Digital Praise. Ubisoft produced a dance game based on Disney's The Jungle Book titled The Jungle Book Groove Party. Fan-made versions of DDR have also been created, many freely available to the public under open source licenses. The most popular of these is StepMania, upon which the game In the Groove is based. These simulators allow for players to create and play their own songs to their own programmed steps. As a result, many DDR fans have held contests and released "mixes" of custom songs and steps for these simulators. Notably the Japanese Foonmix series and the DDR East Invasion Tournamix competitions. Other simulators include Dance with Intensity and pyDance for Windows, both of which are no longer developed, and Feet of Fury, a homebrew game for the Sega Dreamcast. Besides direct clones, many other games have been released that center around rhythm and dance due to DDRs popularity. Dance! Online released by Acclaim combines dance pad play with an MMO element. ABC's Dancing With the Stars and Codemasters' Dance Factory are more recent examples of games that pay homage to DDR and the genre it created. Konami uses music from its other rhythm game series such as Beatmania and Beatmania IIDX, Drummania, GuitarFreaks, and Pop'n Music, as well as making references to DDR in its other games and vice versa. ==Dance Dance Revolution today== Tournaments are held worldwide, with participants usually competing for higher scores or number of Perfect/Marvelous steps (referred to previously as "Perfect Attack" tournaments, now more commonly known as "Marvelous Attack" or "MA tournaments"). Less common are "freestyle" tournaments, where players develop actual dance routines to perform while following the steps in the game. ===Playing styles=== Many DDR players, in order to get better scores by focusing on timing and pattern reading, will minimize any extraneous body movement during gameplay. These players are commonly referred to as "technical", "tech" or "perfect attack" (PA) players. These technical players usually play the most difficult songs on the highest difficulty levels in an attempt to perfect their scores, and the most elite players are able to get perfect or near perfect scores on all of the hardest songs in the game. The more "technical" a song gets the more the player must use minimalistic movements in order to hit all the arrows with perfection. These players perfect using their heels as well and often hold on to the bar to take weight off their feet enabling them to move faster and tire more slowly. This style of play is the focus of most competitions. Other DDR players choose to incorporate complex or flashy techniques into their play movements, and some of these "freestyle" players develop intricate dance routines to perform during a song. Freestyle players tend to choose songs on lower difficulty levels, so that the player is not restricted in their movements by large quantities of required steps. Some players can even dance facing away from the screen. A freestyling act can also involve performing other stunts while playing. On an episode of ABC's short-lived series Master of Champions, Billy Matsumoto won the episode when he played 5th Mix's "Can't Stop Fallin' In Love (Speed Mix)" on Heavy mode while juggling three lit torches. ===As an esport=== In 2004, Dance Dance Revolution became an official sporting event in Norway. The first official club, DDR Oslo, was founded in 2004. The tournaments in Norway were divided into two parts. First there was a group play where the two or three best players from each group went to the final rounds. Elimination of the player with the lowest game score was used for each round in the finals. The scoring system used was based on people dancing to two or three songs. Some of the songs were selected randomly and had to be played by everyone. The others were player-chosen, which introduced some strategy into the game, as some songs had higher possible scoring than others. Dancing Stage EuroMix 2 was used for the Norwegian tournaments. In recent years, Dance Dance Revolution has been promoted by Konami as an esport, mainly through their own competitive tournament, the Konami Arcade Championship. The tournament allows players in different regions around the world to sign up and play in specific online events to earn a spot in the grand finals, typically held in Tokyo, Japan. The first iterations of the tournament were limited only to competitors in Japan. In subsequent years, players from Korea, Taiwan, and other Asian countries were allowed to enter. The 6th Annual tournament, which concluded on February 11, 2017, was notable for being the first time that competitors from the United States were eligible to enter. The 7th Annual event, which concluded on February 10, 2018, added Indonesia and Canada as eligible competitor regions. The 9th Annual Konami Arcade Championship added eligibility for players in Australia and New Zealand. The finals took place on February 8, 2020, and resulted in Chris Chike winning the global tournament. Community-run DDR esports tournaments have gained traction since 2017, and have been growing in popularity and participation every year since, particularly in North America after the release of Dance Dance Revolution A. Recently, DDR has been featured as part of the CEO game tournament event. DDR is also the main event in the annual rhythm game tournament event, The Big Deal, taking place in Dallas, Texas. The 2019 event was historic for being the largest in-person DDR tournament in the game's history. The 2025 event has already broken the record, with 162 current in-person participants pre-registered for the tournament. In March 2023, the first ever upbeat tournament was held at Round1 in Denver, Colorado, with a $10,000 prize pool, the largest in any DDR esports competition to date. upbeat also set the record for the largest ever viewing audience on Twitch for any DDR tournament on the streaming platform at the time. In 2022, Konami announced a big expansion to its official BEMANI esports organization, the BEMANI PRO LEAGUE. It was confirmed that DDR would be included in the future as a tournament league. The league held a pre-season exhibition in February 2023, with announcements of sponsor teams and player drafts to commence in April 2023. Later on, the regular season took place in late Spring and Summer of 2023, with team ROUND 1 winning the finals. The following season of the league took place in the latter half of 2024, with team TAITO STATION Tradz winning that season's finals. ===As exercise=== Many news outlets have reported how playing DDR can be good aerobic exercise; some regular players have reported weight loss of 10–50 pounds (5–20 kg). In one example, a player found that including DDR in her day-to-day life resulted in a loss of . Some other examples would be Matthew Keene's account of losing upwards of and Yashar Esfandi's claim of losing in four months through incorporation of DDR. Although the quantity of calories burned by playing DDR have not been scientifically measured, the amount of active movement required to play implies that DDR provides at least some degree of healthy exercise, and is an effective part of a balanced workout routine. Many home versions of the game have a function to estimate calories burned, given a player's weight. Additionally, players can use "workout mode" to make a diary of calories burned playing DDR and any self-reported changes in the player's weight. The latest arcade release, DanceDanceRevolution WORLD, tracks calories burned per song, as well as the total calories burned by the player for the day. Additionally, the game's interface showcases the equivalent food to the amount of burned calories (such as a banana, a bowl of rice, and spaghetti carbonara). ===Use in schools=== At the start of 2006, Konami announced that the DDR games would be used as part of a fitness program to be phased into West Virginia's 765 state schools, starting with its 103 middle schools, over the next two years. The program was conceived by a researcher at West Virginia University's Motor Development Center. California Institute of Technology allows its students to use DDR to fulfill part of its physical education requirement, as students may design their own fitness program. University of Kansas has a class for Dance Dance Revolution open for students to take as a 1 credit hour course. Cyber Coach has sold in excess of 600 systems in schools in the UK and features the DDR-inspired game Disco Disco 2. ==Awards== The success of the Dance Dance Revolution series has resulted in two Guinness World Records: "Longest Dance Dance Revolution Marathon", which is currently held by Alex Skudlarek at 16 hours, 18 minutes, and nine seconds, and "Most Widely Used Video Game in Schools". ==In popular culture== Drew Barrymore and Hugh Grant are both seen playing the home version in the 2007 romantic comedy Music and Lyrics. While Barrymore's character seems to do well in front of her niece and nephew, Grant's has a little trouble keeping pace and ends up teaching the kids his old band's trademark dance moves. The game is seen just inside Litwak's arcade in the 2012 animated film Wreck-It Ralph. Early in the film, game character Yuni Verse watches Mr. Litwak leave for the night, so she alerts all other video game characters that the arcade is closed, and it's time for their after-hours lives. In the 2006 comedy film, "Grandma's Boy (2006 film)," a modified version of Dance Dance Revolution is prominently featured in a scene where the character Bobby challenges video game tester, J.P., to a dance off. The film humorously exaggerates the gameplay, showcasing the characters' over-the-top dance moves and intense competition, which highlights the cultural impact and recognizability of the game during the 2000s. ==Film== On October 2, 2018, Deadline reported that Cara Fano would be supervising the production of a film based on the series. The report states that the film "will explore a world on the brink of destruction where the only hope is to unite through the universal language of dance." Stampede Ventures and Branded Pictures Entertainment have partnered to produce the film. Producers J. Todd Harris and Marc Marcum are also working with Konami on the project.	[ "video game console", "Dancing with the Stars (video game)", "Exercise", "Arcade game", "PlayStation 3", "Incandescent light bulb", "480i", "DVD game", "TechnoMotion", "arcade cabinet", "West Virginia", "pyDance", "Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA", "Dance Praise", "J-Pop", "List of Dance Dance Revolution video games", "score (video games)", "GuitarFreaks", "Twitch (service)", "Microsoft Windows", "Dancemania", "Dance Dance Revolution (1998 video game)", "e-Amusement", "720p", "University of Kansas", "iOS", "Dancing Stage EuroMix 2", "Konami Corp. v. 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9,011	Dual Alliance (1879)	The Dual Alliance (, ) was a defensive alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, which was created by treaty on October 7, 1879, as part of Germany's Otto von Bismarck's system of alliances to prevent or limit war. The two powers promised each other support in case of attack by Russia. Also, each state promised benevolent neutrality to the other if one of them was attacked by another European power (generally taken to be France, even more so after the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894). Bismarck saw the alliance as a way to prevent the isolation of the German Empire, which had just been founded a few years before, and to preserve peace, as Russia would not wage war against both empires. ==Formation== When Austria-Hungary and Germany formed an alliance in 1879, it was one of the more surprising alliances of its time. Though both shared the German language and a similar culture, Austria-Hungary and Germany were often driven apart, most notably during the recent Austro-Prussian War. Additionally, the Habsburg rulers believed that the promotion of nationalism, which was favoured by Germany, would destroy their multinational empire. However, their common distrust of Russia brought both empires together for a common cause. ==Alliance against Russia== After the formation of the German Empire in 1871, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck wanted to portray his nation as a peacemaker and preserver of the European status quo, to gain more power for the German Empire and to unify Germany. In 1878, the Russian Empire defeated the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War. The resulting Treaty of San Stefano gave Russia considerable influence in the Balkans, a development that outraged Austria-Hungary, Russia's chief rival in the Balkan region (despite being an ally of the Russians and the Germans in the League of the Three Emperors). Hence, in 1878, Bismarck called an international conference (the Congress of Berlin) to sort out the problem. The Treaty of Berlin that resulted from the conference reversed Russia's gains from the Treaty of San Stefano and provided the Austrians with compensation in the form of Bosnia. Despite Bismarck's attempts to play the role of an "honest broker" at the Congress of Berlin, Russo-German relations deteriorated following the conference. The Three Emperors' League was discontinued, and Germany and Austria-Hungary were free to ally against Russia. ==Italy joins alliance== In 1881, Italy lost in the competition with France to establish a colony in Tunis (now Tunisia). To enlist diplomatic support, Italy joined Germany and Austria-Hungary to form the Triple Alliance in 1882. During World War I, however, Italy did not go to war immediately with its allies but stayed neutral. In 1915, it joined the Entente powers and declared war on Austria-Hungary and, in 1916, against Germany. The Dual Alliance persisted throughout the war as part of the Central Powers and ended with their defeat in 1918.	[ "Tunisia", "Triple Alliance (1882)", "German Empire", "League of the Three Emperors", "French Third Republic", "Vilayet of Bosnia", "Otto von Bismarck", "Military alliance", "World War I", "Ottoman Empire", "Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)", "Russian Empire", "Central Powers", "Treaty of San Stefano", "benevolent neutrality", "Congress of Berlin", "Austria-Hungary", "Franco-Russian Alliance", "Kingdom of Italy", "Treaty of Berlin, 1878", "Austro-Prussian War", "Balkans" ]
9,014	Developmental psychology	Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why humans grow, change, and adapt across the course of their lives. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. Developmental psychologists aim to explain how thinking, feeling, and behaviors change throughout life. This field examines change across three major dimensions, which are physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development. Within these three dimensions are a broad range of topics including motor skills, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social change, personality, emotional development, self-concept, and identity formation. Developmental psychology examines the influences of nature and nurture on the process of human development, as well as processes of change in context across time. Many researchers are interested in the interactions among personal characteristics, the individual's behavior, and environmental factors, including the social context and the built environment. Ongoing debates in regards to developmental psychology include biological essentialism vs. neuroplasticity and stages of development vs. dynamic systems of development. Research in developmental psychology has some limitations but at the moment researchers are working to understand how transitioning through stages of life and biological factors may impact our behaviors and development. Developmental psychology involves a range of fields, ==Historical antecedents== Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John B. Watson are typically cited as providing the foundation for modern developmental psychology. In the mid-18th century, Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of development: infants (infancy), puer (childhood) and adolescence in Emile: Or, On Education. Rousseau's ideas were adopted and supported by educators at the time. Developmental psychology generally focuses on how and why certain changes (cognitive, social, intellectual, personality) occur over time in the course of a human life. Many theorists have made a profound contribution to this area of psychology. One of them is the psychologist Erik Erikson, who created a model of eight phases of psychosocial development. The first is the oral stage, which begins at birth and ends around a year and a half of age. During the oral stage, the child finds pleasure in behaviors like sucking or other behaviors with the mouth. The second is the anal stage, from about a year or a year and a half to three years of age. During the anal stage, the child defecates from the anus and is often fascinated with its defecation. This period of development often occurs during the time when the child is being toilet trained. The child becomes interested with feces and urine. Children begin to see themselves as independent from their parents. They begin to desire assertiveness and autonomy. The third is the phallic stage, which occurs from three to five years of age (most of a person's personality forms by this age). During the phallic stage, the child becomes aware of its sexual organs. Pleasure comes from finding acceptance and love from the opposite sex. The fourth is the latency stage, which occurs from age five until puberty. During the latency stage, the child's sexual interests are repressed. Stage five is the genital stage, which takes place from puberty until adulthood. During the genital stage, puberty begins to occur. Children have now matured, and begin to think about other people instead of just themselves. Pleasure comes from feelings of affection from other people. Freud believed there is tension between the conscious and unconscious because the conscious tries to hold back what the unconscious tries to express. To explain this, he developed three personality structures: id, ego, and superego. The id, the most primitive of the three, functions according to the pleasure principle: seek pleasure and avoid pain. The superego plays the critical and moralizing role, while the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the superego. ===Theories of cognitive development=== Jean Piaget, a Swiss theorist, posited that children learn by actively constructing knowledge through their interactions with their physical and social environments. He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials. In his interview techniques with children that formed an empirical basis for his theories, he used something similar to Socratic questioning to get children to reveal their thinking. He argued that a principal source of development was through the child's inevitable generation of contradictions through their interactions with their physical and social worlds. The child's resolution of these contradictions led to more integrated and advanced forms of interaction, a developmental process that he called, "equilibration." Piaget argued that intellectual development takes place through a series of stages generated through the equilibration process. Each stage consists of steps the child must master before moving to the next step. He believed that these stages are not separate from one another, but rather that each stage builds on the previous one in a continuous learning process. He proposed four stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Though he did not believe these stages occurred at any given age, many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should take place. ===Stages of moral development=== Piaget claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding on Piaget's work, Lawrence Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime. He suggested three levels of moral reasoning; pre-conventional moral reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, and post-conventional moral reasoning. The pre-conventional moral reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on rewards and punishments associated with different courses of action. Conventional moral reason occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by reasoning based on rules and conventions of society. Lastly, post-conventional moral reasoning is a stage during which the individual sees society's rules and conventions as relative and subjective, rather than as authoritative. Kohlberg used the Heinz Dilemma to apply to his stages of moral development. The Heinz Dilemma involves Heinz's wife dying from cancer and Heinz having the dilemma to save his wife by stealing a drug. Preconventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality applies to Heinz's situation. ===Stages of psychosocial development=== German-American psychologist Erik Erikson and his collaborator and wife, Joan Erikson, posits eight stages of individual human development influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors throughout the lifespan. ===Stages based on the model of hierarchical complexity=== Michael Commons enhanced and simplified Bärbel Inhelder and Piaget's developmental theory and offers a standard method of examining the universal pattern of development. The Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC) is not based on the assessment of domain-specific information, It divides the Order of Hierarchical Complexity of tasks to be addressed from the Stage performance on those tasks. A stage is the order hierarchical complexity of the tasks the participant's successfully addresses. He expanded Piaget's original eight stage (counting the half stages) to seventeen stages. The stages are: Calculatory Automatic Sensory & Motor Circular sensory-motor Sensory-motor Nominal Sentential Preoperational Primary Concrete Abstract Formal Systematic Metasystematic Paradigmatic Cross-paradigmatic Meta-Cross-paradigmatic The order of hierarchical complexity of tasks predicts how difficult the performance is with an R ranging from 0.9 to 0.98. In the MHC, there are three main axioms for an order to meet in order for the higher order task to coordinate the next lower order task. Axioms are rules that are followed to determine how the MHC orders actions to form a hierarchy. These axioms are: a) defined in terms of tasks at the next lower order of hierarchical complexity task action; b) defined as the higher order task action that organizes two or more less complex actions; that is, the more complex action specifies the way in which the less complex actions combine; c) defined as the lower order task actions have to be carried out non-arbitrarily. ===Ecological systems theory=== Ecological systems theory, originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner, specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Each system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development. The microsystem is the direct environment in our lives such as our home and school. Mesosystem is how relationships connect to the microsystem. Exosystem is a larger social system where the child plays no role. Macrosystem refers to the cultural values, customs and laws of society. The microsystem is the immediate environment surrounding and influencing the individual (example: school or the home setting). The mesosystem is the combination of two microsystems and how they influence each other (example: sibling relationships at home vs. peer relationships at school). The exosystem is the interaction among two or more settings that are indirectly linked (example: a father's job requiring more overtime ends up influencing his daughter's performance in school because he can no longer help with her homework). The macrosystem is broader taking into account social economic status, culture, beliefs, customs and morals (example: a child from a wealthier family sees a peer from a less wealthy family as inferior for that reason). Lastly, the chronosystem refers to the chronological nature of life events and how they interact and change the individual and their circumstances through transition (example: a mother losing her own mother to illness and no longer having that support in her life). has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environments—from the family to economic and political structures—have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through to adulthood. ===Zone of proximal development=== Lev Vygotsky was a Russian theorist from the Soviet era, who posited that children learn through hands-on experience and social interactions with members of their culture. Vygotsky believed that a child's development should be examined during problem-solving activities. Unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task (called the "zone of proximal development") could help children learn new tasks. Zone of proximal development is a tool used to explain the learning of children and collaborating problem solving activities with an adult or peer. Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the child's pattern of development, arguing that development moves from the social level to the individual level. He felt that if scholars continued to disregard this connection, then this disregard would inhibit the full comprehension of the human consciousness. Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist, proposed that learning is an active process because children learn through experience and make mistakes and solve problems. Piaget proposed that learning should be whole by helping students understand that meaning is constructed. ===Evolutionary developmental psychology=== Evolutionary developmental psychology is a research paradigm that applies the basic principles of Darwinian evolution, particularly natural selection, to understand the development of human behavior and cognition. It involves the study of both the genetic and environmental mechanisms that underlie the development of social and cognitive competencies, as well as the epigenetic (gene-environment interactions) processes that adapt these competencies to local conditions. EDP considers both the reliably developing, species-typical features of ontogeny (developmental adaptations), as well as individual differences in behavior, from an evolutionary perspective. While evolutionary views tend to regard most individual differences as the result of either random genetic noise (evolutionary byproducts) and/or idiosyncrasies (for example, peer groups, education, neighborhoods, and chance encounters) rather than products of natural selection, EDP asserts that natural selection can favor the emergence of individual differences via "adaptive developmental plasticity". From this perspective, human development follows alternative life-history strategies in response to environmental variability, rather than following one species-typical pattern of development. ===Attachment theory=== Attachment theory, originally developed by John Bowlby, focuses on the importance of open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships. Attachment is described as a biological system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant. A threatened or stressed child will move toward caregivers who create a sense of physical, emotional, and psychological safety for the individual. Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity. Later Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation protocol and the concept of the secure base. This tool has been found to help understand attachment, such as the Strange Situation Test and the Adult Attachment Interview. Both of which help determine factors to certain attachment styles. The Strange Situation Test helps find "disturbances in attachment" and whether certain attributes are found to contribute to a certain attachment issue. The Adult Attachment Interview is a tool that is similar to the Strange Situation Test but instead focuses attachment issues found in adults. secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant,\ According to attachment theory, which is a psychological concept, people's capacity to develop healthy social and emotional ties later in life is greatly impacted by their early relationships with their primary caregivers, especially during infancy. This suggests that humans have an inbuilt need to develop strong bonds with caregivers in order to survive and be healthy. Childhood attachment styles can have an impact on how people behave in adult social situations, including romantic partnerships. ===Nature vs nurture=== A significant concern of developmental psychology is the relationship between innateness and environmental influences on development. This is often referred to as "nature and nurture" or nativism versus empiricism. A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organism's genes. What makes a person who they are? Is it their environment or their genetics? This is the debate of nature vs nurture. According to an empiricist viewpoint, those processes are learned through interaction with the environment. Today developmental psychologists rarely take such polarized positions with regard to most aspects of development; rather they investigate, among many other things, the relationship between innate and environmental influences. One of the ways this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of evolutionary developmental psychology. The dispute over innateness has been well represented in the field of language acquisition studies. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through learning. The empiricist position on the issue of language acquisition suggests that the language input provides the necessary information required for learning the structure of language and that infants acquire language through a process of statistical learning. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptual learning. The nativist position argues that the input from language is too impoverished for infants and children to acquire the structure of language. Linguist Noam Chomsky asserts that, evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the language input, there is a universal grammar that applies to all human languages and is pre-specified. This has led to the idea that there is a special cognitive module suited for learning language, often called the language acquisition device. Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key turning point in the decline in the prominence of the theory of behaviorism generally. But Skinner's conception of "Verbal Behavior" has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications. ===Continuity vs discontinuity=== One of the major discussions in developmental psychology includes whether development is discontinuous or continuous. Continuous development is quantifiable and quantitative, whereas discontinuous development is qualitative. Quantitative estimations of development can be measuring the stature of a child, and measuring their memory or consideration span. "Particularly dramatic examples of qualitative changes are metamorphoses, such as the emergence of a caterpillar into a butterfly." Those psychologists who bolster the continuous view of improvement propose that improvement includes slow and progressing changes all through the life span, with behavior within the prior stages of advancement giving the premise of abilities and capacities required for the other stages. "To many, the concept of continuous, quantifiable measurement seems to be the essence of science". Stage theories of development rest on the suspicion that development may be a discontinuous process including particular stages which are characterized by subjective contrasts in behavior. They moreover assume that the structure of the stages is not variable concurring to each person, in any case, the time of each arrangement may shift separately. Stage theories can be differentiated with ceaseless hypotheses, which set that development is an incremental process. ===Stability vs change=== This issue involves the degree to which one becomes older renditions of their early experience or whether they develop into something different from who they were at an earlier point in development. It considers the extent to which early experiences (especially infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of a person's development. Stability is defined as the consistent ordering of individual differences with respect to some attribute. Change is altering someone/something. Most human development lifespan developmentalists recognize that extreme positions are unwise. Therefore, the key to a comprehensive understanding of development at any stage requires the interaction of different factors and not only one. ===Theory of mind=== Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states to ourselves and others. It is a complex but vital process in which children begin to understand the emotions, motives, and feelings of not only themselves but also others. Theory of mind allows people to understand that others have unique beliefs and desires that are different from our own. This enables people to engage in daily social interactions as we explain the mental state around us. If a child does not fully develop theory of mind within this crucial 5-year period, they can suffer from communication barriers that follow them into adolescence and adulthood. Exposure to more people and the availability of stimuli that encourages social-cognitive growth is a factor that relies heavily on family. ==Mathematical models== Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time but also seeks to explain the principles and internal workings underlying these changes. Psychologists have attempted to better understand these factors by using models. A model must simply account for the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes done in reference to changes in the brain that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of the development. Mathematical modeling is useful in developmental psychology for implementing theory in a precise and easy-to-study manner, allowing generation, explanation, integration, and prediction of diverse phenomena. Several modeling techniques are applied to development: symbolic, connectionist (neural network), or dynamical systems models. Dynamic systems models illustrate how many different features of a complex system may interact to yield emergent behaviors and abilities. Nonlinear dynamics has been applied to human systems specifically to address issues that require attention to temporality such as life transitions, human development, and behavioral or emotional change over time. Nonlinear dynamic systems is currently being explored as a way to explain discrete phenomena of human development such as affect, second language acquisition, and locomotion. ==Research areas== ===Neural development=== One critical aspect of developmental psychology is the study of neural development, which investigates how the brain changes and develops during different stages of life. Neural development focuses on how the brain changes and develops during different stages of life. Studies have shown that the human brain undergoes rapid changes during prenatal and early postnatal periods. These changes include the formation of neurons, the development of neural networks, and the establishment of synaptic connections. The formation of neurons and the establishment of basic neural circuits in the developing brain are crucial for laying the foundation of the brain's structure and function, and disruptions during this period can have long-term effects on cognitive and emotional development. Experiences and environmental factors play a crucial role in shaping neural development. Early sensory experiences, such as exposure to language and visual stimuli, can influence the development of neural pathways related to perception and language processing. Genetic factors play a huge roll in neural development. Genetic factors can influence the timing and pattern of neural development, as well as the susceptibility to certain developmental disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Research finds that the adolescent brain undergoes significant changes in neural connectivity and plasticity. During this period, there is a pruning process where certain neural connections are strengthened while others are eliminated, resulting in more efficient neural networks and increased cognitive abilities, such as decision-making and impulse control. The study of neural development provides crucial insights into the complex interplay between genetics, environment, and experiences in shaping the developing brain. By understanding the neural processes underlying developmental changes, researchers gain a better understanding of cognitive, emotional, and social development in humans. ===Cognitive development=== Cognitive development is primarily concerned with how infants and children acquire, develop, and use internal mental capabilities such as: problem-solving, memory, and language. Major topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisition and the development of perceptual and motor skills. Piaget was one of the influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His theory suggests that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to adulthood and that there is an end point or goal. Other accounts, such as that of Lev Vygotsky, have suggested that development does not progress through stages, but rather that the developmental process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex for such structure and finality. Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously. Thus, development should be analyzed, instead of treated as a product to obtain. K. Warner Schaie has expanded the study of cognitive development into adulthood. Rather than being stable from adolescence, Schaie sees adults as progressing in the application of their cognitive abilities. Modern cognitive development has integrated the considerations of cognitive psychology and the psychology of individual differences into the interpretation and modeling of development. Specifically, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development showed that the successive levels or stages of cognitive development are associated with increasing processing efficiency and working memory capacity. These increases explain differences between stages, progression to higher stages, and individual differences of children who are the same-age and of the same grade-level. However, other theories have moved away from Piagetian stage theories, and are influenced by accounts of domain-specific information processing, which posit that development is guided by innate evolutionarily-specified and content-specific information processing mechanisms. ===Social and emotional development=== Developmental psychologists who are interested in social development examine how individuals develop social and emotional competencies. For example, they study how children form friendships, how they understand and deal with emotions, and how identity develops. Research in this area may involve study of the relationship between cognition or cognitive development and social behavior. Emotional regulation or ER refers to an individual's ability to modulate emotional responses across a variety of contexts. In young children, this modulation is in part controlled externally, by parents and other authority figures. As children develop, they take on more and more responsibility for their internal state. Studies have shown that the development of ER is affected by the emotional regulation children observe in parents and caretakers, the emotional climate in the home, and the reaction of parents and caretakers to the child's emotions. Music also has an influence on stimulating and enhancing the senses of a child through self-expression. A child's social and emotional development can be disrupted by motor coordination problems, evidenced by the environmental stress hypothesis. The environmental hypothesis explains how children with coordination problems and developmental coordination disorder are exposed to several psychosocial consequences which act as secondary stressors, leading to an increase in internalizing symptoms such as depression and anxiety. Motor coordination problems affect fine and gross motor movement as well as perceptual-motor skills. Secondary stressors commonly identified include the tendency for children with poor motor skills to be less likely to participate in organized play with other children and more likely to feel socially isolated. ===Physical development=== Physical development concerns the physical maturation of an individual's body until it reaches the adult stature. Although physical growth is a highly regular process, all children differ tremendously in the timing of their growth spurts. Studies are being done to analyze how the differences in these timings affect and are related to other variables of developmental psychology such as information processing speed. Traditional measures of physical maturity using x-rays are less in practice nowadays, compared to simple measurements of body parts such as height, weight, head circumference, and arm span. ==Research methods and designs== ===Main research methods=== Developmental psychology employs many of the research methods used in other areas of psychology. However, infants and children cannot be tested in the same ways as adults, so different methods are often used to study their development. Developmental psychologists have a number of methods to study changes in individuals over time. Common research methods include systematic observation, including naturalistic observation or structured observation; self-reports, which could be clinical interviews or structured interviews; clinical or case study method; and ethnography or participant observation. These methods differ in the extent of control researchers impose on study conditions, and how they construct ideas about which variables to study. Every developmental investigation can be characterized in terms of whether its underlying strategy involves the experimental, correlational, or case study approach. The experimental method involves "actual manipulation of various treatments, circumstances, or events to which the participant or subject is exposed; This method allows for strong inferences to be made of causal relationships between the manipulation of one or more independent variables and subsequent behavior, as measured by the dependent variable. Researchers may also observe ways that development varies between individuals, and hypothesize about the causes of variation in their data. Longitudinal studies often require large amounts of time and funding, making them unfeasible in some situations. Also, because members of a cohort all experience historical events unique to their generation, apparently normative developmental trends may, in fact, be universal only to their cohort. In a cross-sectional study, a researcher observes differences between individuals of different ages at the same time. This generally requires fewer resources than the longitudinal method, and because the individuals come from different cohorts, shared historical events are not so much of a confounding factor. By the same token, however, cross-sectional research may not be the most effective way to study differences between participants, as these differences may result not from their different ages but from their exposure to different historical events. A third study design, the sequential design, combines both methodologies. Here, a researcher observes members of different birth cohorts at the same time, and then tracks all participants over time, charting changes in the groups. While much more resource-intensive, the format aids in a clearer distinction between what changes can be attributed to an individual or historical environment from those that are truly universal. Because every method has some weaknesses, developmental psychologists rarely rely on one study or even one method to reach conclusions by finding consistent evidence from as many converging sources as possible. The senses develop in the womb itself: a fetus can both see and hear by the second trimester (13 to 24 weeks of age). The sense of touch develops in the embryonic stage (5 to 8 weeks). Most of the brain's billions of neurons also are developed by the second trimester. Babies are hence born with some odor, taste and sound preferences, largely related to the mother's environment. Some primitive reflexes too arise before birth and are still present in newborns. One hypothesis is that these reflexes are vestigial and have limited use in early human life. Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggested that some early reflexes are building blocks for infant sensorimotor development. For example, the tonic neck reflex may help development by bringing objects into the infant's field of view. Other reflexes, such as the walking reflex, appear to be replaced by more sophisticated voluntary control later in infancy. This may be because the infant gains too much weight after birth to be strong enough to use the reflex, or because the reflex and subsequent development are functionally different. It has also been suggested that some reflexes (for example the moro and walking reflexes) are predominantly adaptations to life in the womb with little connection to early infant development. ===Infancy=== From birth until the first year, children are referred to as infants. As they grow, children respond to their environment in unique ways. Developmental psychologists vary widely in their assessment of infant psychology, and the influence the outside world has upon it. The majority of a newborn infant's time is spent sleeping. At first, their sleep cycles are evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become diurnal. In human or rodent infants, there is always the observation of a diurnal cortisol rhythm, which is sometimes entrained with a maternal substance. Nevertheless, the circadian rhythm starts to take shape, and a 24-hour rhythm is observed in just some few months after birth. quiet waking, and active waking fussing and crying. In a normal set up, infants have different reasons as to why they cry. Mostly, infants cry due to physical discomfort, hunger, or to receive attention or stimulation from their caregiver. ====Infant perception==== Infant perception is what a newborn can see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. These five features are considered as the "five senses". Because of these different senses, infants respond to stimuli differently. This is evidenced by the primitive reflexes described above, and the relatively advanced development of the somatosensory cortex. Pain: Infants feel pain similarly, if not more strongly than older children, but pain relief in infants has not received so much attention as an area of research. Glucose is known to relieve pain in newborns. ====Language==== Babies are born with the ability to discriminate virtually all sounds of all human languages. Infants of around six months can differentiate between phonemes in their own language, but not between similar phonemes in another language. Notably, infants are able to differentiate between various durations and sound levels and can easily differentiate all the languages they have encountered, hence easy for infants to understand a certain language compared to an adult. At this stage infants also start to babble, whereby they start making vowel consonant sound as they try to understand the true meaning of language and copy whatever they are hearing in their surrounding producing their own phonemes. In various cultures, a distinct form of speech called "babytalk" is used when communicating with newborns and young children. This register consists of simplified terms for common topics such as family members, food, hygiene, and familiar animals. It also exhibits specific phonological patterns, such as substituting alveolar sounds with initial velar sounds, especially in languages like English. Furthermore, babytalk often involves morphological simplifications, such as regularizing verb conjugations (for instance, saying "corned" instead of "cornered" or "goed" instead of "went"). This language is typically taught to children and is perceived as their natural way of communication. Interestingly, in mythology and popular culture, certain characters, such as the "Hausa trickster" or the Warner Bros cartoon character "Tweety Pie", are portrayed as speaking in a babytalk-like manner. ===Infant cognition: the Piagetian era=== Piaget suggested that an infant's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development, which was required for the infant to link visual, tactile and motor representations of objects. The concept of object permanence refers to the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not directly perceived or visible; in other words, something is still there even if it is not visible. This is a crucial developmental milestone for infants, who learn that something is not necessarily lost forever just because it is hidden. When a child displays object permanence, they will look for a toy that is hidden, showing that they are aware that the item is still there even when it is covered by a blanket. Most babies start to exhibit symptoms of object permanence around the age of eight months. According to this theory, infants develop object permanence through touching and handling objects. Discovery of new behaviors results from classical and operant conditioning, and the formation of habits. Other research has suggested that young infants in their first six months of life may possess an understanding of numerous aspects of the world around them, including: an early numerical cognition, that is, an ability to represent number and even compute the outcomes of addition and subtraction operations; an ability to infer the goals of people in their environment; an ability to engage in simple causal reasoning. ===Critical periods of development=== There are critical periods in infancy and childhood during which development of certain perceptual, sensorimotor, social and language systems depends crucially on environmental stimulation. Feral children such as Genie, deprived of adequate stimulation, fail to acquire important skills and are unable to learn in later childhood. In this case, Genie is used to represent the case of a feral child because she was socially neglected and abused while she was just a young girl. She underwent abnormal child psychology which involved problems with her linguistics. This happened because she was neglected while she was very young with no one to care about her and had less human contact. The concept of critical periods is also well-established in neurophysiology, from the work of Hubel and Wiesel among others. Neurophysiology in infants generally provides correlating details that exists between neurophysiological details and clinical features and also focuses on vital information on rare and common neurological disorders that affect infants. ====Developmental delays==== Studies have been done to look at the differences in children who have developmental delays versus typical development. Normally when being compared to one another, mental age (MA) is not taken into consideration. There still may be differences in developmentally delayed (DD) children vs. typical development (TD) behavioral, emotional and other mental disorders. When compared to MA children there is a bigger difference between normal developmental behaviors overall. DDs can cause lower MA, so comparing DDs with TDs may not be as accurate. Pairing DDs specifically with TD children at similar MA can be more accurate. There are levels of behavioral differences that are considered as normal at certain ages. When evaluating DDs and MA in children, consider whether those with DDs have a larger amount of behavior that is not typical for their MA group. Developmental delays tend to contribute to other disorders or difficulties than their TD counterparts. ===Toddlerhood=== Infants shift between ages of one and two to a developmental stage known as toddlerhood. In this stage, an infant's transition into toddlerhood is highlighted through self-awareness, developing maturity in language use, and presence of memory and imagination. During toddlerhood, babies begin learning how to walk, talk, and make decisions for themselves. An important characteristic of this age period is the development of language, where children are learning how to communicate and express their emotions and desires through the use of vocal sounds, babbling, and eventually words. Self-control also begins to develop. At this age, children take initiative to explore, experiment and learn from making mistakes. Caretakers who encourage toddlers to try new things and test their limits, help the child become autonomous, self-reliant, and confident. If the caretaker is overprotective or disapproving of independent actions, the toddler may begin to doubt their abilities and feel ashamed of the desire for independence. The child's autonomic development is inhibited, leaving them less prepared to deal with the world in the future. Toddlers also begin to identify themselves in gender roles, acting according to their perception of what a man or woman should do. Socially, the period of toddler-hood is commonly called the "terrible twos". Toddlers often use their new-found language abilities to voice their desires, but are often misunderstood by parents due to their language skills just beginning to develop. A person at this stage testing their independence is another reason behind the stage's infamous label. Tantrums in a fit of frustration are also common. ===Childhood=== Erik Erikson divides childhood into four stages, each with its distinct social crisis: Stage 1: Infancy (0 to 1½) in which the psychosocial crisis is Trust vs. Mistrust Stage 2: Early childhood (2½ to 3) in which the psychosocial crisis is Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt Stage 3: Play age (3 to 5) in which the psychosocial crisis is Initiative vs. Guilt. (This stage is also called the "pre-school age", "exploratory age" and "toy age".) Stage 4: School age (5 to 12) in which the psychosocial crisis is Industry vs. Inferiority ====Infancy==== As stated, the psychosocial crisis for Erikson is Trust versus Mistrust. Needs are the foundation for gaining or losing trust in the infant. If the needs are met, trust in the guardian and the world forms. If the needs are not met, or the infant is neglected, mistrust forms alongside feelings of anxiety and fear. ====Early Childhood==== Autonomy versus shame follows trust in infancy. The child begins to explore their world in this stage and discovers preferences in what they like. If autonomy is allowed, the child grows in independence and their abilities. If freedom of exploration is hindered, it leads to feelings of shame and low self-esteem. Preoperational and then operational thinking develops, which means actions are reversible, and egocentric thought diminishes. The motor skills of preschoolers increase so they can do more things for themselves. They become more independent. No longer completely dependent on the care of others, the world of this age group expands. More people have a role in shaping their individual personalities. Preschoolers explore and question their world. For Jean Piaget, the child is "a little scientist exploring and reflecting on these explorations to increase competence" and this is done in "a very independent way". Play is a major activity for ages 3–5. For Piaget, through play "a child reaches higher levels of cognitive development." In their expanded world, children in the 3–5 age group attempt to find their own way. If this is done in a socially acceptable way, the child develops the initiative. If not, the child develops guilt. Children who develop "guilt" rather than "initiative" have failed Erikson's psychosocial crisis for the 3–5 age group. ====Middle and Late childhood ages 6–12==== For Erik Erikson, the psychosocial crisis during middle childhood is Industry vs. Inferiority which, if successfully met, instills a sense of Competency in the child. School offers an arena in which children can gain a view of themselves as "industrious (and worthy)". They are "graded for their school work and often for their industry". They can also develop industry outside of school in sports, games, and doing volunteer work. Children who achieve "success in school or games might develop a feeling of competence." The "peril during this period is that feelings of inadequacy and inferiority will develop. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) divides Middle Childhood into two stages, 6–8 years and 9–11 years, and gives "developmental milestones for each stage". ====Middle Childhood (6–8)==== Entering elementary school, children in this age group begin to thinks about the future and their "place in the world". Working with other students and wanting their friendship and acceptance become more important. This leads to "more independence from parents and family". As students, they develop the mental and verbal skills "to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings". They become less self-centered and show "more concern for others". Erik Erikson labels this stage identity versus role confusion. Erikson emphasizes the importance of developing a sense of identity in adolescence because it affects the individual throughout their life. Identity is a lifelong process and is related with curiosity and active engagement. Role confusion is often considered the current state of identity of the individual. Identity exploration is the process of changing from role confusion to resolution. During Erik Erikson's identity versus role uncertainty stage, which occurs in adolescence, people struggle to form a cohesive sense of self while exploring many social roles and prospective life routes. This time is characterized by deep introspection, self-examination, and the pursuit of self-understanding. Adolescents are confronted with questions regarding their identity, beliefs, and future goals. The major problem is building a strong sense of identity in the face of society standards, peer pressure, and personal preferences. Adolescents participate in identity exploration, commitment, and synthesis, actively seeking out new experiences, embracing ideals and aspirations, and merging their changing sense of self into a coherent identity. Successfully navigating this stage builds the groundwork for good psychological development in adulthood, allowing people to pursue meaningful relationships, make positive contributions to society, and handle life's adversities with perseverance and purpose. It is divided into three parts, namely: Early Adolescence: 9 to 13 years Mid Adolescence: 13 to 15 years and Late Adolescence: 15 to 18 years The adolescent unconsciously explores questions such as "Who am I? Who do I want to be?" Like toddlers, adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to an identity, or sense of self. Different roles, behaviors and ideologies must be tried out to select an identity. Role confusion and inability to choose vocation can result from a failure to achieve a sense of identity through, for example, friends. ===Early adulthood=== Early adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 18 to 39, and according to theorists such as Erik Erikson, is a stage where development is mainly focused on maintaining relationships. Erikson shows the importance of relationships by labeling this stage intimacy vs isolation. Intimacy suggests a process of becoming part of something larger than oneself by sacrificing in romantic relationships and working for both life and career goals. Other examples include creating bonds of intimacy, sustaining friendships, and starting a family. Some theorists state that development of intimacy skills rely on the resolution of previous developmental stages. A sense of identity gained in the previous stages is also necessary for intimacy to develop. If this skill is not learned the alternative is alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on others. Isolation, on the other hand, suggests something different than most might expect. Erikson defined it as a delay of commitment in order to maintain freedom. Yet, this decision does not come without consequences. Erikson explained that choosing isolation may affect one's chances of getting married, progressing in a career, and overall development. ===Middle adulthood=== Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 40 to 64. During this period, middle-aged adults experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation. Generativity is the sense of contributing to society, the next generation, or their immediate community. On the other hand, stagnation results in a lack of purpose. The adult's identity continues to develop in middle-adulthood. Middle-aged adults often adopt opposite gender characeristics. The adult realizes they are half-way through their life and often reevaluate vocational and social roles. Life circumstances can also cause a reexamination of identity. Physically, the middle-aged experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output. Also, women experience menopause at an average age of 48.8 and a sharp drop in the hormone estrogen. Men experience an equivalent endocrine system event to menopause. Andropause in males is a hormone fluctuation with physical and psychological effects that can be similar to those seen in menopausal females. As men age lowered testosterone levels can contribute to mood swings and a decline in sperm count. Sexual responsiveness can also be affected, including delays in erection and longer periods of penile stimulation required to achieve ejaculation. The important influence of biological and social changes experienced by women and men in middle adulthood is reflected in the fact that depression is highest at age 48.5 around the world. ===Old age=== The World Health Organization finds "no general agreement on the age at which a person becomes old." Most "developed countries" set the age as 65 or 70. However, in developing countries inability to make "active contribution" to society, not chronological age, marks the beginning of old age. According to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, old age is the stage in which individuals assess the quality of their lives. Erikson labels this stage as integrity versus despair. For integrated persons, there is a sense of fulfillment in life. They have become self-aware and optimistic due to life's commitments and connection to others. While reflecting on life, people in this stage develop feelings of contentment with their experiences. If a person falls into despair, they are often disappointed about failures or missed chances in life. They may feel that the time left in life is an insufficient amount to turn things around. Physically, older people experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, stamina, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell. They also are more susceptible to diseases such as cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune system. Programs aimed at balance, muscle strength, and mobility have been shown to reduce disability among mildly (but not more severely) disabled elderly. Sexual expression depends in large part upon the emotional and physical health of the individual. Many older adults continue to be sexually active and satisfied with their sexual activity. Mental disintegration may also occur, leading to dementia or ailments such as Alzheimer's disease. The average age of onset for dementia in males is 78.8 and 81.9 for women. It is generally believed that crystallized intelligence increases up to old age, while fluid intelligence decreases with age. Whether or not normal intelligence increases or decreases with age depends on the measure and study. Longitudinal studies show that perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, and spatial orientation decline. An article on adult cognitive development reports that cross-sectional studies show that "some abilities remained stable into early old age". All parents have their own parenting styles. Parenting styles, according to Kimberly Kopko, are "based upon two aspects of parenting behavior; control and warmth. Parental control refers to the degree to which parents manage their children's behavior. Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents are accepting and responsive to their children's behavior." ===Parenting styles=== The following parenting styles have been described in the child development literature: Authoritative parenting is characterized as parents who have high parental warmth, responsiveness, and demandingness, but rate low in negativity and conflict. These parents are assertive but not intrusive or overly restrictive. This method of parenting is associated with more positive social and academic outcomes. The beneficial outcomes of authoritative parenting are not necessarily universal. Among African American adolescents, authoritative parenting is not associated with academic achievement without peer support for achievement. Authoritarian parenting is characterized by low levels of warmth and responsiveness with high levels of demandingness and firm control. In particular, a study in the U.S. and New Zealand found the presence of the natural father was the most significant factor in reducing rates of early sexual activity and rates of teenage pregnancy in girls. Furthermore, another argument is that neither a mother nor a father is actually essential in successful parenting, and that single parents as well as homosexual couples can support positive child outcomes. According to this set of research, children need at least one consistently responsible adult with whom the child can have a positive emotional connection. Having more than one of these figures contributes to a higher likelihood of positive child outcomes. A number of mediating factors play a role in determining the effects divorce has on a child, for example, divorcing families with young children often face harsher consequences in terms of demographic, social, and economic changes than do families with older children. === Indian model of human development === An example of a non-Western model for development stages is the Indian model, focusing a large amount of its psychological research on morality and interpersonal progress. The developmental stages in Indian models are founded by Hinduism, which primarily teaches stages of life in the process of someone discovering their fate or Dharma. This cross-cultural model can add another perspective to psychological development in which the West behavioral sciences have not emphasized kinship, ethnicity, or religion. It is within early and middle adulthood that we see moral development progress. Early, middle, and late adulthood are all concerned with caring for others and fulfilling Dharma. The main distinction between early adulthood to middle or late adulthood is how far their influence reaches. Early adulthood emphasizes the importance of fulfilling the immediate family needs, until later adulthood when they broaden their responsibilities to the general public. The old-age life stage development reaches renunciation or a complete understanding of Dharma. The current mainstream views in the psychological field are against the Indian model for human development. The criticism against such models is that the parenting style is overly protective and encourages too much dependency. It focuses on interpersonal instead of individual goals. Also, there are some overlaps and similarities between Erikson's stages of human development and the Indian model but both of them still have major differences. The West prefers Erickson's ideas over the Indian model because they are supported by scientific studies. The life cycles based on Hinduism are not as favored, because it is not supported with research and it focuses on the ideal human development.	[ "Thought", "environmental factor", "Recapitulation theory", "Charles Darwin", "habit (psychology)", "isolates", "McGraw-Hill", "infants", "structured interviews", "longitudinal design", "Elizabeth Spelke", "William Damon", "Cross-sectional study", "penile stimulation", "language acquisition", "gene-environment interaction", "human", "personality", "dependent variable", "Genie (feral child)", "Alzheimer's disease", "Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders", "estrogen", "erection", "Lawrence Kohlberg", "identity formation", "Developmental systems theory", "ethnography", "James Mark Baldwin", "evolutionary developmental psychology", "cohort study", "Babbling", "Erikson's stages of psychosocial development", "ecological psychology", "learning", "Internalizing disorder", "walking reflex", "Attitude change", "interviews", "Infancy", "phoneme", "spermatozoa", "cross-sectional study", "neural net", "Developmental Review", "Cognitive development", "adult development", "Socratic questioning", "Charles Brainerd", "norm (sociology)", "connectionist", "phallic stage", "parenting styles", "PLOS", "aging", "egocentric", "Bärbel Inhelder", "language acquisition device", "Developmental Science", "Journal of Youth and Adolescence", "David H. Hubel", "primitive reflexes", "feeling", "Behavior", "cognitive apprenticeship", "essentialism", "Psychology and Aging (journal)", "psychological research methods", "emerging adulthood", "Renee Baillargeon", "tonic neck reflex", "menopause", "perceptual learning", "schizophrenia", "Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology", "symbol", "Hearing (sense)", "model (abstract)", "object permanence", "crystallized intelligence", "fluid intelligence", "Jean Piaget", "Genetics", "human brain", "non-Western", "morality", "ideologies", "universal grammar", "dream", "toxoplasmosis", "wikt:disintegration", "child development", "sense of self", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau", "gender role", "Ultrasound", "Erik Erikson", "Developmental Neuropsychology (journal)", "working memory", "social context", "Outline of psychology", "Interpersonal relationship", "dementia", "Piaget's theory of cognitive development", "social change", "nature and nurture", "science", "motor skills", "Autism Research", "Developmental stage theories", "somatosensory cortex", "Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders", "Noam Chomsky", "developmental coordination disorder", "taste", "Group development", "Emile: Or, On Education", "John Bowlby", "List of developmental psychologists", "Scale error", "Developmental psychopathology", "moro reflex", "critical period", "Haptic perception", "Feral child", "Mary Ainsworth", "cognitive", "epigenetic", "A-not-B error", "built environment", "empiricism", "evolutionary theory", "human evolution", "REM sleep", "cognitive neuroscience", "Habilitation (human development)", "Human Development (journal)", "Sociometric status", "Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry", "case study", "cognition", "individual differences", "independent variables", "evolution", "Olfaction", "World Health Organization", "Behavioral cusp", "Michael Commons", "modularity of mind", "psychological nativism", "Developing country", "Centers for Disease Control", "Barbara Rogoff", "G. Stanley Hall", "Pre- and perinatal psychology", "embryology", "K. Warner Schaie", "crying", "Language development", "Sigmund Freud", "forensic developmental psychology", "self-concept", "Ontogenetic parade", "genital stage", "Journal of Research on Adolescence", "classical conditioning", "Developed country", "Urie Bronfenbrenner", "physical development", "Valerie F. Reyna", "Journal of Pediatric Psychology", "the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development", "microgenetic design", "natural selection", "adolescence", "cross-sectional design", "cognitive development", "child psychopathology", "naturalistic observation", "cultural psychology", "Visual perception", "Andropause", "Sannyasa", "Lev Vygotsky", "infant", "educational psychology", "Pain", "Dharma", "John B. Watson", "longitudinal study", "lurking variable", "social emotional development", "ejaculation", "identity (social science)", "rubella", "neurophysiology", "Emotional self-regulation", "Esther Thelen", "Theory of cognitive development", "experimental method", "cognitive psychology", "Longitudinal study", "Ethnic identity development", "executive functions", "Developmental psychobiology", "Journal of Adolescent Health", "diurnal animal", "Differential psychology", "statistical learning in language acquisition", "autonomous", "Dynamic-maturational model of attachment and adaptation", "Educational psychology", "Developmental Psychology (journal)", "domain-specific", "cohort (statistics)", "teratogens", "evolutionary psychology", "Joan Erikson", "genes", "Cognitive model", "Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology", "Development of the human body", "Anna Freud", "Causality", "child", "Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry", "fuzzy-trace theory", "numerical cognition", "operant conditioning", "Model of hierarchical complexity", "Torsten Wiesel", "Perceptual narrowing", "neuroplasticity", "Development and Psychopathology", "Child Development (journal)" ]
9,015	DNA replication	In molecular biology, DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule. DNA replication occurs in all living organisms, acting as the most essential part of biological inheritance. This is essential for cell division during growth and repair of damaged tissues, while it also ensures that each of the new cells receives its own copy of the DNA. The cell possesses the distinctive property of division, which makes replication of DNA essential. DNA is made up of a double helix of two complementary strands. DNA is often called double helix. The double helix describes the appearance of a double-stranded DNA which is composed of two linear strands that run opposite to each other and twist together. During replication, these strands are separated. Each strand of the original DNA molecule then serves as a template for the production of its counterpart, a process referred to as semiconservative replication. As a result, the new helix will be composed of an original DNA strand as well as a newly synthesized strand. Cellular proofreading and error-checking mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication. In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations (origins of replication) in the genome which contains the genetic material of an organism. Unwinding of DNA at the origin and synthesis of new strands, accommodated by an enzyme known as helicase, results in replication forks growing bi-directionally from the origin. A number of proteins are associated with the replication fork to help in the initiation and continuation of DNA synthesis. Most prominently, DNA polymerase synthesizes the new strands by adding nucleotides that complement each (template) strand. DNA replication occurs during the S-stage of interphase. DNA replication (DNA amplification) can also be performed in vitro (artificially, outside a cell). DNA polymerases isolated from cells and artificial DNA primers can be used to start DNA synthesis at known sequences in a template DNA molecule. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), ligase chain reaction (LCR), and transcription-mediated amplification (TMA) are examples. In March 2021, researchers reported evidence suggesting that a preliminary form of transfer RNA, a necessary component of translation, the biological synthesis of new proteins in accordance with the genetic code, could have been a replicator molecule itself in the very early development of life, or abiogenesis. == DNA structure == DNA is a double-stranded structure, with both strands coiled together to form the characteristic double helix. Each single strand of DNA is a chain of four types of nucleotides. Nucleotides in DNA contain a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate, and a nucleobase. The four types of nucleotide correspond to the four nucleobases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, commonly abbreviated as A, C, G, and T. Adenine and guanine are purine bases, while cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines. These nucleotides form phosphodiester bonds, creating the phosphate-deoxyribose backbone of the DNA double helix with the nucleobases pointing inward (i.e., toward the opposing strand). Nucleobases are matched between strands through hydrogen bonds to form base pairs. Adenine pairs with thymine (two hydrogen bonds), and guanine pairs with cytosine (three hydrogen bonds). DNA strands have a directionality, and the different ends of a single strand are called the "3′ (three-prime) end" and the "5′ (five-prime) end". By convention, if the base sequence of a single strand of DNA is given, the left end of the sequence is the 5′ end, while the right end of the sequence is the 3′ end. The strands of the double helix are anti-parallel, with one being 5′ to 3′, and the opposite strand 3′ to 5′. These terms refer to the carbon atom in deoxyribose to which the next phosphate in the chain attaches. Directionality has consequences in DNA synthesis, because DNA polymerase can synthesize DNA in only one direction by adding nucleotides to the 3′ end of a DNA strand. The pairing of complementary bases in DNA (through hydrogen bonding) means that the information contained within each strand is redundant. Phosphodiester (intra-strand) bonds are stronger than hydrogen (inter-strand) bonds. The actual job of the phosphodiester bonds is where in DNA polymers connect the 5' carbon atom of one nucleotide to the 3' carbon atom of another nucleotide, while the hydrogen bonds stabilize DNA double helices across the helix axis but not in the direction of the axis. This makes it possible to separate the strands from one another. The nucleotides on a single strand can therefore be used to reconstruct nucleotides on a newly synthesized partner strand. == DNA polymerase == DNA polymerases are a family of enzymes that carry out all forms of DNA replication. DNA polymerases in general cannot initiate synthesis of new strands but can only extend an existing DNA or RNA strand paired with a template strand. To begin synthesis, a short fragment of RNA, called a primer, must be created and paired with the template DNA strand. DNA polymerase adds a new strand of DNA by extending the 3′ end of an existing nucleotide chain, adding new nucleotides matched to the template strand, one at a time, via the creation of phosphodiester bonds. The energy for this process of DNA polymerization comes from hydrolysis of the high-energy phosphate (phosphoanhydride) bonds between the three phosphates attached to each unincorporated base. Free bases with their attached phosphate groups are called nucleotides; in particular, bases with three attached phosphate groups are called nucleoside triphosphates. When a nucleotide is being added to a growing DNA strand, the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the proximal phosphate of the nucleotide to the growing chain is accompanied by hydrolysis of a high-energy phosphate bond with release of the two distal phosphate groups as a pyrophosphate. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the resulting pyrophosphate into inorganic phosphate consumes a second high-energy phosphate bond and renders the reaction effectively irreversible. In general, DNA polymerases are highly accurate, with an intrinsic error rate of less than one mistake for every 107 nucleotides added. Some DNA polymerases can also delete nucleotides from the end of a developing strand in order to fix mismatched bases. This is known as proofreading. Finally, post-replication mismatch repair mechanisms monitor the DNA for errors, being capable of distinguishing mismatches in the newly synthesized DNA Strand from the original strand sequence. Together, these three discrimination steps enable replication fidelity of less than one mistake for every 109 nucleotides added. During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 °C, the rate was 749 nucleotides per second. The mutation rate per base pair per replication during phase T4 DNA synthesis is 1.7 per 108. == Replication process == DNA replication, like all biological polymerization processes, proceeds in three enzymatically catalyzed and coordinated steps: initiation, elongation and termination. === Initiation === For a cell to divide, it must first replicate its DNA. DNA replication is an all-or-none process; once replication begins, it proceeds to completion. Once replication is complete, it does not occur again in the same cell cycle. This is made possible by the division of initiation of the pre-replication complex. === Pre-replication complex === In late mitosis and early G1 phase, a large complex of initiator proteins assembles into the pre-replication complex at particular points in the DNA, known as "origins". Sequences used by initiator proteins tend to be "AT-rich" (rich in adenine and thymine bases), because A-T base pairs have two hydrogen bonds (rather than the three formed in a C-G pair) and thus are easier to strand-separate. In eukaryotes, the origin recognition complex catalyzes the assembly of initiator proteins into the pre-replication complex. In addition, a recent report suggests that budding yeast ORC dimerizes in a cell cycle dependent manner to control licensing. In turn, the process of ORC dimerization is mediated by a cell cycle-dependent Noc3p dimerization cycle in vivo, and this role of Noc3p is separable from its role in ribosome biogenesis. An essential Noc3p dimerization cycle mediates ORC double-hexamer formation in replication licensing ORC and Noc3p are continuously bound to the chromatin throughout the cell cycle. Cdc6 and Cdt1 then associate with the bound origin recognition complex at the origin in order to form a larger complex necessary to load the Mcm complex onto the DNA. In eukaryotes, the Mcm complex is the helicase that will split the DNA helix at the replication forks and origins. The Mcm complex is recruited at late G1 phase and loaded by the ORC-Cdc6-Cdt1 complex onto the DNA via ATP-dependent protein remodeling. The loading of the MCM complex onto the origin DNA marks the completion of pre-replication complex formation. If environmental conditions are right in late G1 phase, the G1 and G1/S cyclin-Cdk complexes are activated, which stimulate expression of genes that encode components of the DNA synthetic machinery. G1/S-Cdk activation also promotes the expression and activation of S-Cdk complexes, which may play a role in activating replication origins depending on species and cell type. Control of these Cdks vary depending on cell type and stage of development. This regulation is best understood in budding yeast, where the S cyclins Clb5 and Clb6 are primarily responsible for DNA replication. Clb5,6-Cdk1 complexes directly trigger the activation of replication origins and are therefore required throughout S phase to directly activate each origin. The TOPRIM fold contains an α/β core with four conserved strands in a Rossmann-like topology. This structure is also found in the catalytic domains of topoisomerase Ia, topoisomerase II, the OLD-family nucleases and DNA repair proteins related to the RecR protein. The primase used by archaea and eukaryotes, in contrast, contains a highly derived version of the RNA recognition motif (RRM). This primase is structurally similar to many viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, reverse transcriptases, cyclic nucleotide generating cyclases and DNA polymerases of the A/B/Y families that are involved in DNA replication and repair. In eukaryotic replication, the primase forms a complex with Pol α. Multiple DNA polymerases take on different roles in the DNA replication process. In E. coli, DNA Pol III is the polymerase enzyme primarily responsible for DNA replication. It assembles into a replication complex at the replication fork that exhibits extremely high processivity, remaining intact for the entire replication cycle. In contrast, DNA Pol I is the enzyme responsible for replacing RNA primers with DNA. DNA Pol I has a 5′ to 3′ exonuclease activity in addition to its polymerase activity, and uses its exonuclease activity to degrade the RNA primers ahead of it as it extends the DNA strand behind it, in a process called nick translation. Pol I is much less processive than Pol III because its primary function in DNA replication is to create many short DNA regions rather than a few very long regions. In eukaryotes, the low-processivity enzyme, Pol α, helps to initiate replication because it forms a complex with primase. In eukaryotes, leading strand synthesis is thought to be conducted by Pol ε; however, this view has recently been challenged, suggesting a role for Pol δ. Primer removal is completed Pol δ while repair of DNA during replication is completed by Pol ε. As DNA synthesis continues, the original DNA strands continue to unwind on each side of the bubble, forming a replication fork with two prongs. In bacteria, which have a single origin of replication on their circular chromosome, this process creates a "theta structure" (resembling the Greek letter theta: θ). In contrast, eukaryotes have longer linear chromosomes and initiate replication at multiple origins within these. === Replication fork === The replication fork is a structure that forms within the long helical DNA during DNA replication. It is produced by enzymes called helicases that break the hydrogen bonds that hold the DNA strands together in a helix. The resulting structure has two branching "prongs", each one made up of a single strand of DNA. These two strands serve as the template for the leading and lagging strands, which will be created as DNA polymerase matches complementary nucleotides to the templates; the templates may be properly referred to as the leading strand template and the lagging strand template. DNA is read by DNA polymerase in the 3′ to 5′ direction, meaning the new strand is synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. Since the leading and lagging strand templates are oriented in opposite directions at the replication fork, a major issue is how to achieve synthesis of new lagging strand DNA, whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork. ==== Leading strand ==== The leading strand is the strand of new DNA which is synthesized in the same direction as the growing replication fork. This sort of DNA replication is continuous. ==== Lagging strand ==== The lagging strand is the strand of new DNA whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork. Because of its orientation, replication of the lagging strand is more complicated as compared to that of the leading strand. As a consequence, the DNA polymerase on this strand is seen to "lag behind" the other strand. The lagging strand is synthesized in short, separated segments. On the lagging strand template, a primase "reads" the template DNA and initiates synthesis of a short complementary RNA primer. A DNA polymerase extends the primed segments, forming Okazaki fragments. The RNA primers are then removed and replaced with DNA, and the fragments of DNA are joined by DNA ligase. ==== Dynamics at the replication fork ==== In all cases the helicase is composed of six polypeptides that wrap around only one strand of the DNA being replicated. The two polymerases are bound to the helicase hexamer. In eukaryotes the helicase wraps around the leading strand, and in prokaryotes it wraps around the lagging strand. As helicase unwinds DNA at the replication fork, the DNA ahead is forced to rotate. This process results in a build-up of twists in the DNA ahead. This build-up creates a torsional load that would eventually stop the replication fork. Topoisomerases are enzymes that temporarily break the strands of DNA, relieving the tension caused by unwinding the two strands of the DNA helix; topoisomerases (including DNA gyrase) achieve this by adding negative supercoils to the DNA helix. Bare single-stranded DNA tends to fold back on itself forming secondary structures; these structures can interfere with the movement of DNA polymerase. To prevent this, single-strand binding proteins bind to the DNA until a second strand is synthesized, preventing secondary structure formation. Double-stranded DNA is coiled around histones that play an important role in regulating gene expression so the replicated DNA must be coiled around histones at the same places as the original DNA. To ensure this, histone chaperones disassemble the chromatin before it is replicated and replace the histones in the correct place. Some steps in this reassembly are somewhat speculative. Clamp proteins act as a sliding clamp on DNA, allowing the DNA polymerase to bind to its template and aid in processivity. The inner face of the clamp enables DNA to be threaded through it. Once the polymerase reaches the end of the template or detects double-stranded DNA, the sliding clamp undergoes a conformational change that releases the DNA polymerase. Clamp-loading proteins are used to initially load the clamp, recognizing the junction between template and RNA primers. In vitro single-molecule experiments (using optical tweezers and magnetic tweezers) have found synergetic interactions between the replisome enzymes (helicase, polymerase, and Single-strand DNA-binding protein) and with the DNA replication fork enhancing DNA-unwinding and DNA-replication. This finding suggests that the mechanism of DNA replication goes with DNA factories. That is, couples of replication factories are loaded on replication origins and the factories associated with each other. Also, template DNAs move into the factories, which bring extrusion of the template ssDNAs and new DNAs. Meister's finding is the first direct evidence of replication factory model. Subsequent research has shown that DNA helicases form dimers in many eukaryotic cells and bacterial replication machineries stay in single intranuclear location during DNA synthesis. Replication Factories Disentangle Sister Chromatids. The disentanglement is essential for distributing the chromatids into daughter cells after DNA replication. Because sister chromatids after DNA replication hold each other by Cohesin rings, there is the only chance for the disentanglement in DNA replication. Fixing of replication machineries as replication factories can improve the success rate of DNA replication. If replication forks move freely in chromosomes, catenation of nuclei is aggravated and impedes mitotic segregation. == Regulation == === Eukaryotes === Within eukaryotes, DNA replication is controlled within the context of the cell cycle. As the cell grows and divides, it progresses through stages in the cell cycle; DNA replication takes place during the S phase (synthesis phase). The progress of the eukaryotic cell through the cycle is controlled by cell cycle checkpoints. Progression through checkpoints is controlled through complex interactions between various proteins, including cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases. Unlike bacteria, eukaryotic DNA replicates in the confines of the nucleus. The G1/S checkpoint (restriction checkpoint) regulates whether eukaryotic cells enter the process of DNA replication and subsequent division. Cells that do not proceed through this checkpoint remain in the G0 stage and do not replicate their DNA. Once the DNA has gone through the "G1/S" test, it can only be copied once in every cell cycle. When the Mcm complex moves away from the origin, the pre-replication complex is dismantled. Because a new Mcm complex cannot be loaded at an origin until the pre-replication subunits are reactivated, one origin of replication can not be used twice in the same cell cycle. In animal cells, the protein geminin is a key inhibitor of pre-replication complex assembly. Geminin binds Cdt1, preventing its binding to the origin recognition complex. In G1, levels of geminin are kept low by the APC, which ubiquitinates geminin to target it for degradation. When geminin is destroyed, Cdt1 is released, allowing it to function in pre-replication complex assembly. At the end of G1, the APC is inactivated, allowing geminin to accumulate and bind Cdt1. ==== Replication focus ==== In vertebrate cells, replication sites concentrate into positions called replication foci. In E. coli, the best-characterized bacteria, DNA replication is regulated through several mechanisms, including: the hemimethylation and sequestering of the origin sequence, the ratio of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the levels of protein DnaA. All these control the binding of initiator proteins to the origin sequences. Because E. coli methylates GATC DNA sequences, DNA synthesis results in hemimethylated sequences. This hemimethylated DNA is recognized by the protein SeqA, which binds and sequesters the origin sequence; in addition, DnaA (required for initiation of replication) binds less well to hemimethylated DNA. As a result, newly replicated origins are prevented from immediately initiating another round of DNA replication. ATP builds up when the cell is in a rich medium, triggering DNA replication once the cell has reached a specific size. ATP competes with ADP to bind to DnaA, and the DnaA-ATP complex is able to initiate replication. A certain number of DnaA proteins are also required for DNA replication — each time the origin is copied, the number of binding sites for DnaA doubles, requiring the synthesis of more DnaA to enable another initiation of replication. In fast-growing bacteria, such as E. coli, chromosome replication takes more time than dividing the cell. The bacteria solve this by initiating a new round of replication before the previous one has been terminated. The new round of replication will form the chromosome of the cell that is born two generations after the dividing cell. This mechanism creates overlapping replication cycles. == Problems with DNA replication == There are many events that contribute to replication stress, including: Misincorporation of ribonucleotides Unusual DNA structures Conflicts between replication and transcription Insufficiency of essential replication factors Common fragile sites Overexpression or constitutive activation of oncogenes Chromatin inaccessibility == Polymerase chain reaction == Researchers commonly replicate DNA in vitro using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR uses a pair of primers to span a target region in template DNA, and then polymerizes partner strands in each direction from these primers using a thermostable DNA polymerase. Repeating this process through multiple cycles amplifies the targeted DNA region. At the start of each cycle, the mixture of template and primers is heated, separating the newly synthesized molecule and template. Then, as the mixture cools, both of these become templates for annealing of new primers, and the polymerase extends from these. As a result, the number of copies of the target region doubles each round, increasing exponentially.	[ "nucleoside triphosphate", "molecular biology", "DNA unwinding element", "DnaA", "D-loop replication", "hydrogen bonds", "DNA replication factor CDT1", "DNA gyrase", "Minichromosome maintenance", "DNA supercoil", "DNA strand", "phosphate", "retrovirus", "DNA ligase", "helicase", "Adenosine diphosphate", "interphase", "RNA", "Data storage device", "Replication Fork", "B-DNA", "primer (molecular biology)", "Biomolecular structure", "mitosis", "DBF4", "replication fork", "theta structure", "chromatin", "Molecular dynamics", "Cell division cycle 7-related protein kinase", "circovirus", "transfer RNA", "cell division", "base pair", "geminin", "enzyme", "Nucleotide", "hydrogen bonding", "Cell division", "geminivirus", "fidelity", "single-strand binding protein", "atom", "optical tweezers", "CDC6", "Cyclin-dependent kinase", "primase", "Chemical element", "Gene expression", "nucleobase", "semiconservative replication", "abiogenesis", "cell cycle", "topoisomerase", "single-molecule experiment", "deoxyribose", "Replication (computing)", "cancer", "adenovirus", "origin of replication", "phosphodiester bond", "SCF complex", "Genome", "DNA", "nucleotide", "Cyclin-dependent kinase 1", "Pol I", "DNA clamp", "Hayflick limit", "Translation (biology)", "phosphodiester bonds", "PCNA", "exponential growth", "adenine", "origin recognition complex", "Autopoiesis", "Epigenetics", "in vitro", "Nucleic acid secondary structure", "Polymerase chain reaction", "Bioenergetics", "cyclin", "Ligase", "reverse transcriptase", "protein", "cytosine", "pre-replication complex", "genome", "Complementary DNA", "polymerase", "mutation", "Cell (biology)", "life", "ligase chain reaction", "germ cell", "histone", "Self-replication", "Okazaki fragment", "bacteriophage", "nuclear matrix", "high-energy phosphate", "DNA methylation", "DNA helicase", "Chromosomal fragile site", "exonuclease", "Proofreading (Biology)", "nucleic acid double helix", "RNase", "magnetic tweezers", "thermostable DNA polymerase", "cell (biology)", "Hachimoji DNA", "parvovirus", "Ter protein", "plasmid", "lamin", "S phase", "replisome", "guanine", "In vitro", "G1 phase", "yeast", "phage", "Primase", "pyrophosphate", "heredity", "virus", "purine", "Escherichia coli", "archaea", "SciTech (magazine)", "thymine", "RNA recognition motif", "genetic code", "transcription-mediated amplification", "Directionality (molecular biology)", "Rossmann fold", "cyclin-dependent kinase", "DNA polymerase", "Life", "Ubiquitin--protein ligase", "Telomeres", "SeqA protein domain", "Cohesin", "hydroxyl", "Pol III", "polymerase chain reaction", "oncogene", "Telomerase", "cell cycle checkpoint", "double helix", "Topoisomerase", "Okazaki Fragments", "somatic cell", "Chaperone (protein)", "pyrimidine", "Chromosome segregation", "green fluorescent protein", "tyrosine", "telomerase", "BIOS Scientific Publishers", "Gene", "Clb 5,6 (Cdk1)", "biological process", "Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure", "eukaryote", "Adenosine triphosphate", "nick translation", "Chromatin", "Single-strand DNA-binding protein", "DNA polymerase alpha", "DNA synthesis", "budding yeast", "Okazaki fragments", "DnaG", "processivity", "Tus protein", "bacteria" ]
9,016	Dravidian	Dravidian, Dravidan, or Dravida may refer to: ==Language and culture== Dravidian languages, a family of languages spoken mainly in South India and northeastern Sri Lanka Proto-Dravidian language, a model of the common ancestor of the Dravidian languages Dravidian University, a university situated in Andhra Pradesh South Indian culture, modern Dravidian culture Dravidian architecture, Hindu temple architecture ==Geography== Dravida Nadu, a proposed country for the southern Dravidian languages South India, the region which is called Dravida in the Indian anthem Dravida kingdom, an ancient region mentioned in the Mahabharata ==Ethnicity== Dravidian peoples, ethnic groups primarily in South India. Homo Dravida, a historically defined race, propagated also by Devaneya Pavanar Adi Dravida, natives of Southern India ==Religion== Dravidian folk religion ==Others== Dravidan (1989 film), a 1989 Tamil film Dravida Sangha	[ "Proto-Dravidian language", "Dravida kingdom", "Homo Dravida", "Dravida Nadu", "Dravidian peoples", "Dravidian folk religion", "Dravid (surname)", "Davidian (disambiguation)", "Dravidian architecture", "South India", "Dravidian languages", "Dravidan (1989 film)", "South Indian culture", "Adi Dravida", "Dravida Sangha", "Dravidian University" ]
9,020	Daisy Duck	Daisy Duck is an American cartoon character created by the Walt Disney Company. She is an anthropomorphic white duck that has large eyelashes and ruffled tail feathers around her lowest region to suggest a skirt. She is often seen wearing a hair bow, blouse and heeled shoes. The girlfriend of Donald Duck, Daisy was introduced in the short film Mr. Duck Steps Out (1940) and was incorporated into Donald's comic stories several months later. Carl Barks, the screenwriter and lead storyboard artist for the film, was inspired by the 1937 short, Don Donald, that featured a Latin character named Donna Duck, to revive the concept of a female counterpart for Donald. Daisy appeared in 11 short films between 1940 and 1954, and far later in Mickey's Christmas Carol (1983) and Fantasia 2000 (1999). In these roles, Daisy was always a supporting character, with the exception of Donald's Dilemma (1947). Daisy has received considerably more screen time in television, making regular appearances in Quack Pack (1996), Mickey Mouse Works (1999–2000), House of Mouse (2001–2003), Mickey Mouse Clubhouse (2006–2016), Mickey Mouse (2013–2019), Mickey Mouse Mixed-Up Adventures (2017–2021), The Wonderful World of Mickey Mouse (2020–2023), Mickey Mouse Funhouse (2021–present) and Mickey Mouse Clubhouse+ (2025–present). Daisy has also appeared in several direct-to-video films such as Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas (1999), The Three Musketeers (2004) and Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas (2004). Daisy is a close friend of Clarabelle Cow and Clara Cluck in the comics and Minnie Mouse's best friend. Daisy usually shows a strong affinity towards Donald, although she is often characterized as being more sophisticated than him. Particularly in the comics, because of this, Daisy regularly becomes frustrated with Donald's immaturity, and on those occasions she will often go out on dates with Donald's cousin and rival Gladstone Gander instead. Daisy is the aunt of April, May, and June, three young girl ducks who bear resemblance to Huey, Dewey, and Louie. ==Characterization== Since her early appearances, Daisy is attracted to Donald and devoted to him in the same way he is often devoted to her. This is most clearly seen in Donald's Dilemma as Daisy is almost to the point of suicide after Donald forgets her. Despite this, she is shown to have her boyfriend wrapped around her finger and is often shown to keep him in line whenever his anger starts to boil. Besides her love for Donald, Daisy is also shown to be more sophisticated and intelligent than him. This causes her to frequently be frustrated with his immaturity, and their relationship occasionally has an off-again, on-again nature as a result, particularly in the comic books. In comics, when Daisy is fighting with Donald or temporarily breaks up with him, she goes on dates with Donald's cousin Gladstone Gander instead. In Cured Duck, Daisy even gives Donald an ultimatum regarding his temper but later reforms in Donald's Dilemma. Daisy herself sometimes exhibits a temper, but she has much greater self-control than Donald. In the Mouse Works/House of Mouse cartoons, she was sometimes portrayed as intrusive and overly talkative. She would invite herself in without asking and would tag along on trips where she was not wanted. In House of Mouse, Daisy was often waiting for her ″Big Break″, taking any and every opportunity to perform a number of talent acts on stage. Daisy was separated from Donald in that her quest for fame was not as prominent, and relied less on jealousy than eagerness. ==Appearance== Daisy is a white duck with an orange beak and legs. She usually has indigo eyeshadow, long distinct eyelashes and ruffled feathers around her lowest region to suggest a skirt. Like Donald, she typically doesn't wear pants, although she sometimes wears an actual skirt or longer dresses and clothes to cover her bottom. She is usually seen sporting a blouse with puffed short sleeves and a v-neckline. She also wears a matching bow, heeled shoes and a single bangle on her wrist. The colors of her clothes change very often, but her signature colors are usually purple and pink. The creators of the television series Quack Pack, in keeping with their modernization theme, reworked Daisy's character into a career-oriented woman and thus gave her a different appearance to match. While keeping with the purple and pink motif, Daisy usually wore long dresses with high-heeled shoes and instead of wearing her trademark hair bow, the feathers atop her head got the same treatment as her tail feathers had before; the animators arranged them in such a manner to appear as if Daisy was sporting a more modern short hairstyle. House of Mouse got her a blue and purple employee uniform, with a blue bow, earrings, and a long ponytail. In Mickey Mouse Clubhouse, Daisy regained her purple blouse with a purple bow and shoes. She also wears a gold bangle and has a short ponytail, similar to the longer one seen in House of Mouse. ==Voice== Daisy Duck has voiced by several different voice actors over the years, yet by far the most extensive work has now been done by Tress MacNeille, who took on the role in 1999. Clarence Nash voiced Daisy in her debut in Mr. Duck Steps Out. In the short, Nash voiced Daisy in a similar "duck-like" voice as Donald's. Starting with Donald's Crime (1945), Gloria Blondell took over vocal duties on the character, giving her a more "normal" female human voice. Blondell would voice Daisy in a further four shorts between 1945 and 1947, with her last being Donald's Dilemma (1947). For Donald's Dream Voice (1948), actress Ruth Clifford, best known as the voice of Minnie Mouse in the late 1940s and early 1950s, voiced Daisy. Blondell returned to the role one final time in Crazy Over Daisy (1950). Vivi Janiss voiced the character in Donald's Diary (1954), while renowned voice actress June Foray (Rocky the Flying Squirrel) voiced her in her final classic shorts appearance, the educational Donald Duck short How to Have an Accident at Work (1959). Voice actress Janet Waldo, best known as the voice of Judy Jetson, voiced Daisy in the Disneyland Records album An Adaptation of Dickens' Christmas Carol, Performed by The Walt Disney Players (1974). In 1983, Daisy was voiced by Patricia Parris in Mickey's Christmas Carol. Tony Anselmo voiced Daisy in Down and Out with Donald Duck (1987). Daisy was then voiced by Kath Soucie throughout her first regular television series Quack Pack (1996). From 1989 to 1999, Daisy was voiced by Diane Michelle in the anthology film The Spirit of Mickey, the first season of Mickey Mouse Works, and other media and games at the time. Michelle alternated in the role with Tress MacNeille for Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas. In 1999, MacNeille took over as Daisy's full-time voice starting with the second season of Mickey Mouse Works. MacNeille has voiced Daisy in the television series House of Mouse, Mickey Mouse Clubhouse, Mickey Mouse, Mickey Mouse Mixed-Up Adventures, Legend of the Three Caballeros, DuckTales, and The Wonderful World of Mickey Mouse. MacNeille has also voiced Daisy in television specials, movies, and video games. Daisy was voiced by Russi Taylor in Fantasia 2000, although she has no lines other than a scream. In the second season of Mickey Mouse Funhouse, MacNeille was replaced by Debra Wilson as MacNeille was caught up in other projects. Wilson, the first African-American performer of Daisy, also voiced the character in the television specials Mickey Saves Christmas and Mickey and Friends Trick or Treats. ==Donna Duck== Donna Duck made her sole animated appearance in the short film Don Donald (1937), directed by Ben Sharpsteen. It was the first installment of the Donald Duck film series and was also the first time Donald was shown with a love interest. In the story, Donald travels to Mexico to court a duck who is largely a female version of himself. She is portrayed with the same feisty temperament and as such was also voiced by Clarence Nash. At the end of the story, she spitefully abandons Donald in the desert after his car breaks down. While Donna was not reused in film after her only appearance, she became an inspiration for the creation of Daisy. Donna appeared in early British Disney comics and was introduced in the American comic strip in 1951, as Daisy's unwitting rival for Donald's affections. Other Disney characters, such as Goofy, were introduced under various names (Dippy Dawg) and appearances, leading some historians to conclude that Donna and Daisy are the same character. However, in these other instances, changes usually developed over time, during which the character remained in use. Donna, on the other hand, appeared only once, and it was a few years before a new female love interest for Donald was designed. There were many significant differences between the two characters all-at-once, in personality, nationality, name and attire. According to The Encyclopedia of Animated Disney Shorts and the Big Cartoon DataBase, Don Donald is considered Daisy's debut. Don Donald is included on the Disney-produced DVD Best Pals: Donald and Daisy. In 1999, The Walt Disney Company released a collector's pin as part of their Countdown to the Millennium pin series, which reads "Daisy Duck debuts as Donna Duck 1937". ==History== Daisy debuted in theatrical animation and has appeared in a total of 15 films. She appeared in 12 Donald Duck short films. These are, in order of release, Mr. Duck Steps Out (1940), Donald's Crime (1945), Cured Duck (1945), Donald's Double Trouble (1946), Dumb Bell of the Yukon, Sleepy Time Donald (1947), Donald's Dilemma, Donald's Dream Voice (1948), Crazy Over Daisy (1950), Donald's Diary (1954) & How to Have an Accident at Work (1959) as Donald's unnamed wife. She also made a brief cameo in the Mickey Mouse short film The Nifty Nineties (1941). After the classic shorts era, Daisy appeared in Mickey's Christmas Carol (1983) and Fantasia 2000 (1999) with another cameo in Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988). ===First appearance=== Daisy Duck in her familiar name and design first appeared in Mr. Duck Steps Out (June 7, 1940). The short was directed by Jack King and scripted by Carl Barks. There Donald visits the house of his new romantic interest for their first known date. At first, Daisy acts shy and has her back turned to her visitor. But Donald soon notices her tail-feathers taking the form of a hand and signaling for him to come closer. But their time alone is soon interrupted by Huey, Dewey, and Louie who have followed their uncle and clearly compete with him for the attention of Daisy. Uncle and nephews take turns dancing the jitterbug with her while trying to get rid of each other. In their final effort, the three younger Ducks feed their uncle maize (corn) in the process of becoming popcorn. The process is completed within Donald himself who continues to move spastically around the house while maintaining the appearance of dancing. The short ends with an impressed Daisy showering her new boyfriend with kisses. Like her precursor, she was initially voiced by Clarence Nash, but later had a more ladylike voice. The short stands out among other Donald shorts of the period for its use of modern music and surreal situations throughout. ===Disney shorts: 1941–1947=== One year following her introduction in Mr. Duck Steps Out, Daisy, along with Donald and the nephews, made a brief cameo in the Mickey Mouse short The Nifty Nineties, cementing her position as a recurring character. Daisy's speaking role again came 4 years later in Donald's Crime. While Daisy has a relatively small role in the film, her date with Donald is central to the plot and shows Donald's infatuation for her. Finding himself broke before the date; Donald steals money from his nephews, but afterward feels guilty. Donald imagines what Daisy might think of him knowing he stole money, and this leads him to reform in the end. Daisy was voiced in the film by actress Gloria Blondell, marking the first time Daisy had a "normal". The film also marked the first time Daisy appeared in an Academy Award nominated film (Best Animated Short). Later that same year Daisy appeared again in Cured Duck (October 26, 1945). The short starts simply enough. Donald visits Daisy at her house. She asks him to open a window. He keeps trying to pull it open and eventually goes into a rage. By the time Daisy returns to the room, Donald has wrecked it. She demonstrates that the locking mechanism was on and criticizes his temper. She refuses to date Donald again until he learns to manage his anger. She claims Donald does not see her losing her own temper. Donald agrees to her terms and follows the surreal method of mail ordering an "insult machine", a device constantly hurling verbal and physical insults at him. He endures the whole process until feeling able to stay calm throughout it. He visits Daisy again and this time calmly opens the window. But when Daisy shows her boyfriend her new hat, his reaction is uncontrollable laughter. Daisy goes into a rage of her own and the short ends by pointing out that Donald is not the only Duck in need of anger management training. There is a continuation regarding her temper in the Mickey Mouse Works short "Donald's Dinner Date" where she and Donald have a date in a restaurant wherein they both end up with a bad temper thanks to Goofy. Their relationship problems were also focused on in Donald's Double Trouble (June 28, 1946). This time Daisy criticizes his poor command of the English language and his less-than-refined manners. Unwilling to lose Daisy, Donald has to find an answer to the problem. But his solution involves his own look-alike who happens to have all the desired qualities. His unnamed look-alike happens to be unemployed at the moment and agrees to this plan. Donald provides the money for his dates with Daisy but soon comes to realize the look-alike serves as a rival suitor. The rest of the short focuses on his increasing jealousy and efforts to replace the look-alike during the next date. A failed attempt at a tunnel of love results in the two male Ducks exiting the tunnel in each other's hands by mistake. Daisy walks out completely drenched. She jumps up and down and sounds like a record played too fast as Donald and his look-alike run away. In Dumb Bell of the Yukon, Daisy is the motivation behind Donald's hunting trip after he reads a letter from her saying she likes fur coats. Daisy briefly appears in a non-speaking role in Donald's daydream, imagining how pleased she will be. Her next appearance in Sleepy Time Donald (May 9, 1947) involved Daisy attempting to rescue a sleepwalking Donald from wandering into danger. Donald is loose in an urban environment and the humor results from the problems Daisy herself suffers while trying to keep him safe. ===First starring role=== Daisy was the protagonist of Donald's Dilemma (July 11, 1947). In the short, Donald and Daisy are out on a date when a flower pot falls on his head. He regains consciousness soon enough but with some marked differences. Both his speaking and singing voices have been improved to the point of being able to enter a new career as a professional singer. He also acts more refined than usual. Most importantly Donald suffers from partial amnesia and has no memory of Daisy. Donald goes on becoming a well-known crooner and his rendition of When You Wish upon a Star becomes a hit. He is surrounded by female fans in his every step. Meanwhile, Daisy can't even approach her former lover and her loss results in a number of psychological symptoms. Various scenes feature her suffering from anorexia, insomnia, and self-described insanity. An often censored scene features her losing her will to live and contemplating various methods of suicide. She narrates her story to a psychologist who determines that Donald would regain his memory with another flower pot falling on his head but warns that his improved voice may also be lost along with his singing career. He offers Daisy a dilemma. Either the world has its singer, but Daisy loses him, or Daisy regains her Donald, but the world loses him. Posed with the question "her or the world", Daisy answers with a resounding and possessive scream of "Me, Me, Me". Soon Donald has returned to his old self and has forgotten about his career. His fans forget about him. But Daisy has regained her lover. This is considered a darkly humorous look at their relationship. ===Final Donald Duck shorts: 1948–1954=== Daisy also appears in Donald's Dream Voice (1948), where she encourages Donald to have faith in himself. 1950's Crazy Over Daisy features Donald going to Daisy's house for a date, and getting distracted by a fight with Chip 'n Dale. The short introduced Daisy's theme song "Crazy Over Daisy", and in later appearances, Donald can be heard whistling the tune, such as in "Out on a Limb" and "Donald the Dude Duck". Daisy's final appearance in the Golden Age of American animation was in Donald's Diary (1954). There she played the role of a beautiful lady who manages to start a long-term relationship with Donald. But after having a nightmare about the anxieties that would come from married life, Donald runs out on her and joins the French Foreign Legion. Several scenes of the short imply that Daisy has had several previous relationships with men. Donald carves their names on a tree. Not noticing than the opposing side of the tree features her name alongside that of several other boyfriends. The marriage scene in Donald's dream featured a group of sailors waving goodbye to Daisy and mourning the loss of their apparent lover. The story bore little continuity with the "real" Donald and Daisy as Huey, Dewey, and Louie appeared as Daisy's younger brothers. It was the only time in which Daisy's parents are seen. ===Later theatrical appearances=== In 1959, Daisy made a cameo in Donald in Mathmagic Land. When the Spirit finds Donald's mind to be too cluttered with "Antiquated Ideas", "Bungling", "False Concepts", "Superstitions" and "Confusion", there is a picture of her in the background that is signed "Love, Daisy". Daisy appeared in Mickey's Christmas Carol in 1983, playing the character Isabelle, the neglected love interest of a young Ebenezer Scrooge, played by Scrooge McDuck. The film was Daisy's first theatrical appearance in almost 30 years and was also the first time she appeared apart from Donald, although the nature of the film was that of Disney characters "playing" other characters and wasn't part of any story continuity. Daisy was voiced by Patricia Parris in the film. In 1988, Daisy made a cameo appearance in the finale of Who Framed Roger Rabbit along with many other Disney characters. Daisy's most recent theatrical appearance was Fantasia 2000, released in late 1999. Like the original Fantasia, the film constituted various musical segments. Donald and Daisy appeared in non-speaking roles for the seventh of eight segments, set to the Pomp and Circumstance marches. The segment is a retelling of Noah's Ark with the ducks acting as Noah's assistants. Donald and Daisy become separated in the chaos of the flood and each presumes the other to have drowned until they discover each other towards the near end afterwards. Daisy kisses Donald in happiness and joy when they are reunited and the duck couple walk out of the ark hand-in-hand admiring their new home. ===Non-theatrical appearances=== Daisy appeared in the direct-to-video films Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas, Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas and Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers. ==In comics== According to the unofficial timeline of Don Rosa, Daisy was born in 1920. According to Rosa, Daisy is Donald's sister-in-law – Daisy's brother had married Donald's twin sister, Della Duck, and together, the two became the parents of Huey, Dewey, and Louie Duck. This is his explanation of why the triplets tend to call her "Aunt Daisy" while no such courtesy is given to Gladstone Gander for example. Don Rosa has said that he considers Donald and Daisy to be nonrelated and that Duck simply is the Duckburg universe equal to Smith, being a common surname. Donna Duck served as a precursor for Daisy in both animation and comics. She first appeared in a one-page illustration titled "Don Donald" and published in Good Housekeeping #3701 (January 1937). The page was illustrated by Thomas "Tom" Wood (1870s – October 4, 1940) who was head of the Walt Disney Studios' publicity department from 1933 until his death. She made a brief appearance in the "Donald and Donna" comic strip published in Mickey Mouse Weekly from May 15 to August 21, 1937. The Weekly was a United Kingdom publication and the strip was illustrated at the time by William A. Ward. Daisy made her first comics appearance on November 4, 1940. She was introduced as the new neighbor of Donald and his potential love interest. The Donald Duck comic strip was at the time scripted by Bob Karp and illustrated by Al Taliaferro. She was seemingly soft-spoken but had a fiery temper and Donald often found himself a victim to her rage. For example, one strip had Daisy waiting for Donald to carve their names and their love for each other on a tree, only to discover the male Duck had carved "Daisy loves Donald" with her name hardly visible and his name in prominent bold letters, resulting in her breaking her umbrella on his head and dismissing him as a "conceited little pup". Her first original comic book appearance was a cameo in the story "The Mighty Trapper" by Carl Barks, first published in Walt Disney's Comics and Stories No. 36 (September 1943), wherein Huey, Dewey, and Louie ask her to lend them an old fur coat. Barks did not use the character again until "Donald Tames His Temper" (January 1946) when Daisy demands that Donald learns to manage his anger as a New Year's resolution. Donald has to agree but points early on that Daisy herself has the temper of a "wild-eyed wildcat". Her next appearance by Barks in "Biceps Blues" (June 1946) introduced a key concept to their relationship. When Daisy seems impressed by a certain type of male, Donald is forced to emulate that type, no matter how unsuited Donald is for emulating it successfully. In this early case, Daisy envies her "old school chum" Susy Swan for dating a notable weightlifter. Donald at first protests that she seems too impressed by a "gorilla" just because the "muscle-bound buffalo" can lift 300 pounds. But when Daisy simply ignores him and daydreams about dating Hercules, Donald decides to start weightlifting. The rest of the story focuses on his ineptitude at exercising and the eventual efforts of Huey, Dewey, and Louie to cheer him up by various tricks pointing to Donald becoming stronger. But when Donald arranges a demonstration for Daisy, Susy, and her boyfriend, their tricks are not able to save him from ridicule. Daisy then chases Donald in anger (Donald, in turn, chases Huey, Dewey, and Louie in anger) while Susy boasts about her luck in men to her weightlifter boyfriend, who simply grunts and nods and fails to understand her words. Daisy failed to see that Susy's boyfriend is strong but otherwise not too gifted, whereas Donald is one who would go great lengths for her. Daisy continued to make frequent appearances in stories by Barks but the next important one for her development was "Wintertime Wager" (January 1948). There she first attempts to act as the voice of reason between competing cousins Donald Duck and Gladstone Gander and in fact manages to prevent Donald losing his house to Gladstone because of a wager. This story established that both of them wanted to be in her good graces. Their next joined meeting in "Gladstone Returns" (August 1948) has Donald and Gladstone competing in raising enough money for her charity effort. Their rivalry increased when "Donald's Love Letters" (December 1949) revealed that both cousins were romantically interested in Daisy. From then on many stories by both Barks and others would develop around this love triangle. Daisy in turns dates both of them but this fact does not prevent the two competing suitors from attempting to earn more of her affection or trying to embarrass each other in front of her. Daisy can be counted on to be making regular appearances alongside either of them for several years to come. Often it would appear as if Gladstone had the upper hand in winning Daisy due to his luck, only to find fate thwarts his plans, such as a contest where the man who hunts the most turkeys gets to have dinner with Daisy, who has won a beauty contest. Gladstone wins the turkey hunt but finds himself having dinner with an ugly woman who is the runner-up queen, as Daisy is incapacitated, and Donald is the one nursing her. Similarly, Daisy's precursor Donna and Daisy herself were featured together as rivals for Donald's affection in a newspaper strip published on August 7, 1951. In her last appearance, on August 11, 1951, Donna had a fiancé, a caricature of Disney cartoonist Manuel Gonzales, establishing a distinction between her character and Daisy. In the comics, Daisy is also a member of a local gossip group called the "Chit-Chat Society", which plays bridge and sponsors charity fund-raisers. The core membership includes Clarabelle Cow and Clara Cluck, though occasionally some other unnamed characters appear. In later years, Carl Barks 'modernized' Daisy in two stories: 'The not-so-ancient mariner' and 'Hall of the mermaid queen'. In the first story, Daisy is wearing a lot of different wigs and outfits. Gladstone Gander is also seen wearing a wig and a new wardrobe in the story. In the second story, Daisy has short, curly hair and a bow that is much smaller than usual. In the 1950s, Disney launched a series of stories titled "Daisy Duck's Diary", where Daisy was given more of a leading role. This series, originally by such cartoonists as Dick Moores, Jack Bradbury, Tony Strobl and Carl Barks, have continued to the present day in Italy, Denmark and the Netherlands. Since 1999 Daisy, like Donald Duck has her own magazine in the Netherlands. She had one in Brazil between 1986 and 1997, and a short-lived series in 2004 with republications of old stories. ===Super Daisy=== Since the early 1970s, Daisy has been featured as a superhero crime fighter in Italian Disney comics. Daisy's alter ego as Super Daisy (Paperinika in Italian) was designed by writer Guido Martina and artist Giorgio Cavazzano as a female counterpart to the "Duck Avenger" ("Paperinik" in Italian). While Donald's superhero persona was originally created to place Donald into situations where he was finally a "winner" (versus his usual portrayal as a "loser"), when Super Daisy appeared in the same story as the Duck Avenger, she then became the "winner" and Donald was once more relegated to the role of "loser". This upset some children, who complained to the comics' editors, which resulted in the Italian comics ceasing to depict Daisy as a superhero, although Super Daisy continued to be featured in the Disney comics in Brazil. As Super Daisy, Daisy has no superpowers but instead uses devices created by high society fashion designer Genialina Edy Son. Genialina personally designed Daisy's costume, as well as supplying her with crime-fighting gear such as sleeping pills and a James Bond-esque sports car. Frequently, Super Daisy both fights alongside and against the Duck Avenger. In the Brazilian stories, Super Daisy often teams up with other Disney comic superheroes, such as Super Goof (Goofy), Super Gilly ("Gilbert"), and the Red Bat (Fethry Duck). While the Duck Avenger's main goal is enforcing justice in Duckburg, and proving himself better than Donald's usual, unlucky self, Super Daisy acts mostly on an extreme, somewhat warped form of feminism, donning her alternate identity to prove that women are better than men at whatever they do, openly antagonizing the Duck Avenger to prove her point. Later stories, such as the "Hero Club" inspired Italian story "Ultraheroes", show Super Daisy and the Duck Avenger at the center of a weird love triangle: Super Daisy, despite their bickering eventually warms to the Duck Avenger, feeling drawn to his righteous persona. They both feel unable to pursue their relationship, as they feel themselves cheating their non-superhero selves, as they do not realize each other's identity as companions in everyday life. ===Daisy and The Mysteries of Paris=== Set in Revolution-era France, Daisy and The Mysteries of Paris (French: Daisy et les mystères de Paris) is an eight-issue comic series featuring Daisy Duck as the best friend and lady in waiting of Queen Marie Ducklette. Secretly, Daisy is a mysterious masked swordswoman called The Rose of Paris, who helps the poor and those in need, as well as preventing attempts to steal the queen's throne. She must also protect her friends Donald Duck and Ludwig Von Drake from the plots of The Ignobles. The first three issues were illustrated by Carlo Cid Lauro, and currently the series is published by Panini Italia. The series consists of eight stories released in four issues: Episode 1: "The Sapphires of the Tsar" Episode 2: "The Enigma of the Seal" Episode 3: "The Stagecoach to Calais" Episode 4: "The Revenge of the Thistle" Episode 5: "The Secret of Marie Ducklette" Episode 6: "The Return of the Scarlet Swordsman" Episode 7: "Escape From The Bastille" Episode 8: "Adieu, Rose of Paris!" ==Name in other languages== ==Disney parks== At the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts and on the Disney Cruise Line ships, Daisy is a character for meet-and-greets, parades, and shows. Her semi-elusiveness has made her extra popular to an extent, adding to the fact that Daisy is a member of the Sensational Six, therefore making Daisy merchandise even more appealing to collectors. After Disney World expanded Fantasyland in 2012, Daisy became available for meet-and-greets at Pete's Silly Sideshow. At Epcot, she appears at the main entrance. She has also appeared in restaurants such as the Tusker House and Minnie's Springtime Diner at Hollywood & Vine. Daisy appears in an MMORPG game called Toontown Online, based on the theme parks, where she walks around Daisy Gardens leaving comments about passing toons. ==Television== In the 1996 television series Quack Pack, Daisy was presented as a much more liberated (and patient) woman than in her previous appearances, where she was employed as a television station reporter, with Donald as her cameraman. The couple also seem to have a better and steadier relationship compared to the other series. In Quack Pack, Daisy had a pet iguana named Knuckles. Daisy also appeared in the later television series Mickey Mouse Works and House of Mouse as a regular character. She is also part of the main characters in Mickey Mouse Clubhouse and its spin-offs Minnie's Bow-Toons, Mickey Mouse Mixed-Up Adventures and Mickey Mouse Funhouse. Daisy made her first appearance in the 2017 DuckTales series in the season 3 episode "Louie's Eleven", with MacNeille once again providing her voice. In this version, Daisy and Donald meet for the first time, and her appearance is similar to the theatrical short, Donald's Diary (1954). She is depicted as having a temper like Donald and is an assistant to Duckburg trendsetter, Emma Glamour. After Donald attempts to infiltrate one of Glamour's parties to help his band, the Three Caballeros, he and Daisy end up trapped in an elevator and develop a mutual attraction to each other. As of the episode "New Gods on the Block!", they became a couple. ==Video games== In the Kingdom Hearts video game series, appears as a countess in Disney Castle. In Kingdom Hearts II, she scolds Donald for being gone too long. She makes a cameo appearance in Kingdom Hearts Birth By Sleep and Kingdom Hearts III. Daisy is a playable character in the video game Disney Think Fast and a playable race driver in the Nintendo 64 and Game Boy Color racing game Mickey's Speedway USA. She is also a playable character in Disney Golf for the PlayStation 2 and in Disney's Party for the GameCube and Game Boy Advance. For the Nintendo Wii: In Epic Mickey, a robot version of Daisy appears in the game, and in Dance Dance Revolution Disney Grooves, Daisy appears as one of the random backup dancers. Daisy runs the Daisy Gardens neighborhood in Disney's Toontown Online.	[ "Kingdom Hearts (series)", "Smith (surname)", "Minnie's Bow-Toons", "Walt Disney Parks and Resorts", "Sleepy Time Donald", "Duck family (Disney)", "Rage (emotion)", "Dumb Bell of the Yukon", "Don Donald", "Mickey Mouse Weekly", "Mickey Mouse Clubhouse+", "Mickey Mouse Mixed-Up Adventures", "Ben Sharpsteen", "Kingdom Hearts II", "American Bison", "anger management", "Donald Duck universe", "Big Cartoon DataBase", "Russi Taylor", "Patricia Parris", "List of Donald Duck universe characters", "William A. Ward", "Walt Disney's Comics and Stories", "Game Boy Advance", "Manuel Gonzales", "Walt Disney Pictures", "Fantasia (1940 film)", "Giorgio Cavazzano", "Netherlands", "Brazil", "Noah's Ark", "superhero", "Mr. Duck Steps Out", "Who Framed Roger Rabbit", "Clarabelle Cow", "sleepwalking", "Della Duck", "iguana", "Ludwig Von Drake", "Gladstone Gander", "jealousy", "Quack Pack", "the Walt Disney Company", "feminism", "Nintendo 64", "Chip 'n Dale", "Donald Duck in comics", "amnesia", "Tress MacNeille", "Don Rosa", "Mickey Mouse Works", "Janet Waldo", "tunnel of love (amusement ride)", "Disney Golf", "Game Boy Color", "Toontown Online", "June Foray", "manners", "A Good Time for a Dime", "Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers", "gorilla", "Good Housekeeping", "Donna Duck", "the Red Bat", "Fan (person)", "Jack King (animator)", "Mickey Mouse universe", "Paperinik", "Donald's Dream Voice", "Gloria Blondell", "James Bond", "Al Taliaferro", "When You Wish upon a Star", "MMORPG", "Carl Barks", "Duck", "Dick Moores", "Donald Duck", "Debra Wilson", "duck", "Disneyland Records", "Mickey Saves Christmas", "The Three Caballeros", "Kingdom Hearts Birth By Sleep", "Minnie Mouse", "Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas", "The Nifty Nineties", "Jack Bradbury", "Disney comics", "Legend of the Three Caballeros", "wildcat", "crime fighter", "cameo appearance", "Huey, Dewey, and Louie", "Fantasia 2000", "mail order", "Diane Michelle", "psychologist", "Golden Age of American animation", "Clara Cluck", "Mickey Mouse (TV series)", "Romantic interest (theater)", "look-alike", "Clarence Nash", "Ruth Clifford", "Dance Dance Revolution Disney Grooves", "Vivi Janiss", "Mickey Mouse Clubhouse", "Wintertime Wager", "insomnia", "Rocky the Flying Squirrel", "alter ego", "love triangle", "Disney's Party", "Pete's Silly Sideshow", "April, May, and June", "House of Mouse", "Donald Duck (comic strip)", "GameCube", "Mickey's Christmas Carol", "New Year's resolution", "Mickey and Friends Trick or Treats", "Hercules (Disney character)", "Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas", "Disney Think Fast", "PlayStation 2", "Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film", "insanity", "Donald in Mathmagic Land", "Tony Anselmo", "Donald's Dilemma", "Crazy Over Daisy", "Goofy", "Powerlifting", "Tony Strobl", "Bob Karp", "Disney Cruise Line", "crooner", "direct-to-video", "The Spirit of Mickey", "Epic Mickey", "Mickey Mouse Funhouse", "Duckburg", "Guido Martina", "Super Goof", "jitterbug", "Scrooge McDuck", "comic book", "Pomp and Circumstance Marches", "The Wonderful World of Mickey Mouse", "Fethry Duck", "The French Revolution", "Anthropomorphism", "storyboard artist", "popcorn", "Mickey's Speedway USA", "Disney's Toontown Online", "Walt Disney's Classic Cartoon Favorites", "Kingdom Hearts III", "Anorexia (symptom)", "Wig (hair)", "screenwriter", "Kath Soucie", "Donald's Diary", "How to Have an Accident at Work", "IMDb", "French Foreign Legion", "Epcot", "dilemma", "Ebenezer Scrooge", "Cured Duck", "Judy Jetson", "Hollywood & Vine (restaurant)", "DuckTales (2017 TV series)", "Donald's Crime", "Donald's Double Trouble" ]
9,021	Dot-com bubble	The dot-com bubble (or dot-com boom) was a stock market bubble that ballooned during the late-1990s and peaked on Friday, March 10, 2000. This period of market growth coincided with the widespread adoption of the World Wide Web and the Internet, resulting in a dispensation of available venture capital and the rapid growth of valuations in new dot-com startups. Between 1995 and its peak in March 2000, investments in the NASDAQ composite stock market index rose by 800%, only to fall 78% from its peak by October 2002, giving up all its gains during the bubble. During the dot-com crash, many online shopping companies, notably Pets.com, Webvan, and Boo.com, as well as several communication companies, such as Worldcom, NorthPoint Communications, and Global Crossing, failed and shut down. Others, like Lastminute.com, MP3.com and PeopleSound remained through its sale and buyers acquisition. Larger companies like Amazon and Cisco Systems lost large portions of their market capitalization, with Cisco losing 80% of its stock value. ==Background== Historically, the dot-com boom can be seen as similar to a number of other technology-inspired booms of the past, including railroads in the 1840s, automobiles in the early 20th century, radio in the 1920s, television in the 1940s, transistor electronics in the 1950s, computer time-sharing in the 1960s, and home computers and biotechnology in the 1980s. ==Overview== Low interest rates in 1998–99 facilitated an increase in start-up companies. In 2000, the dot-com bubble burst, and many dot-com startups went out of business after burning through their venture capital and failing to become profitable. However, many others, particularly online retailers like eBay and Amazon, blossomed and became highly profitable. More conventional retailers found online merchandising to be a profitable additional source of revenue. While some online entertainment and news outlets failed when their seed capital ran out, others persisted and eventually became economically self-sufficient. Traditional media outlets (newspaper publishers, broadcasters and cablecasters in particular) also found the Web to be a useful and profitable additional channel for content distribution, and an additional means to generate advertising revenue. The sites that survived and eventually prospered after the bubble burst had two things in common: a sound business plan, and a niche in the marketplace that was, if not unique, particularly well-defined and well-served. In the aftermath of the dot-com bubble, telecommunications companies had a great deal of overcapacity as many Internet business clients went bust. That, plus ongoing investment in local cell infrastructure kept connectivity charges low, and helped to make high-speed Internet connectivity more affordable. During this time, a handful of companies found success developing business models that helped make the World Wide Web a more compelling experience. These include airline booking sites, Google's search engine and its profitable approach to keyword-based advertising, as well as eBay's auction site While some of the new entrepreneurs had experience in business and economics, the majority were simply people with ideas, and did not manage the capital influx prudently. Additionally, many dot-com business plans were predicated on the assumption that by using the Internet, they would bypass the distribution channels of existing businesses and therefore not have to compete with them; when the established businesses with strong existing brands developed their own Internet presence, these hopes were shattered, and the newcomers were left attempting to break into markets dominated by larger, more established businesses. The dot-com bubble burst in March 2000, with the technology heavy NASDAQ Composite index peaking at 5,048.62 on March 10 (5,132.52 intraday), more than double its value just a year before. By 2001, the bubble's deflation was running full speed. A majority of the dot-coms had ceased trading, after having burnt through their venture capital and IPO capital, often without ever making a profit. But despite this, the Internet continued to grow, driven by commerce, ever greater amounts of online information, knowledge, social networking and access by mobile devices. ==Prelude to the bubble== The 1993 release of Mosaic and subsequent web browsers during the following years gave computer users access to the World Wide Web, popularizing use of the Internet. Internet use increased as a result of the reduction of the "digital divide" and advances in connectivity, uses of the Internet, and computer education. Between 1990 and 1997, the percentage of households in the United States owning computers increased from 15% to 35% as computer ownership progressed from a luxury to a necessity. This marked the shift to the Information Age, an economy based on information technology, and many new companies were founded. At the same time, a decline in interest rates increased the availability of capital. The Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997, which lowered the top marginal capital gains tax in the United States, also made people more willing to make more speculative investments. Alan Greenspan, then-Chair of the Federal Reserve, allegedly fueled investments in the stock market by putting a positive spin on stock valuations. Between 1995 and 2000, the Nasdaq Composite stock market index rose 400%. It reached a price–earnings ratio of 200, dwarfing the peak price–earnings ratio of 80 for the Japanese Nikkei 225 during the Japanese asset price bubble of 1991. An unprecedented amount of personal investing occurred during the boom and stories of people quitting their jobs to trade on the financial market were common. The news media took advantage of the public's desire to invest in the stock market; an article in The Wall Street Journal suggested that investors "re-think" the "quaint idea" of profits, and CNBC reported on the stock market with the same level of suspense as many networks provided to the broadcasting of sports events. At the height of the boom, it was possible for a promising dot-com company to become a public company via an IPO and raise a substantial amount of money even if it had never made a profit—or, in some cases, realized any material revenue or even have a finished product. People who received employee stock options became instant paper millionaires when their companies executed IPOs; however, most employees were barred from selling shares immediately due to lock-up periods. The most successful entrepreneurs, such as Mark Cuban, sold their shares or entered into hedges to protect their gains. Sir John Templeton successfully shorted many dot-com stocks at the peak of the bubble during what he called "temporary insanity" and a "once-in-a-lifetime opportunity". He shorted stocks just before the expiration of lockup periods ending six months after initial public offerings, correctly anticipating many dot-com company executives would sell shares as soon as possible, and that large-scale selling would force down share prices. ===Spending tendencies of dot-com companies=== Most dot-com companies incurred net operating losses as they spent heavily on advertising and promotions to harness network effects to build market share or mind share as fast as possible, using the mottos "get big fast" and "get large or get lost". These companies offered their services or products for free or at a discount with the expectation that they could build enough brand awareness to charge profitable rates for their services in the future. The "growth over profits" mentality and the aura of "new economy" invincibility led some companies to engage in lavish spending on elaborate business facilities and luxury vacations for employees. Upon the launch of a new product or website, a company would organize an expensive event called a dot-com party. ===Bubble in telecom=== In the five years after the American Telecommunications Act of 1996 went into effect, telecommunications equipment companies invested more than $500 billion, mostly financed with debt, into laying fiber optic cable, adding new switches, and building wireless networks. In many areas, such as the Dulles Technology Corridor in Virginia, governments funded technology infrastructure and created favorable business and tax law to encourage companies to expand. The growth in capacity vastly outstripped the growth in demand. In Germany, in August 2000, the auctions raised £30 billion. A 3G spectrum auction in the United States in 1999 had to be re-run when the winners defaulted on their bids of $4 billion. The re-auction netted 10% of the original sales prices. When financing became difficult to obtain as the bubble burst, high debt ratios of some companies led to a number of bankruptcies. Bond investors recovered just over 20% of their investments. However, several telecom executives sold stock before the crash including Philip Anschutz, who reaped $1.9 billion, Joseph Nacchio, who reaped $248 million, and Gary Winnick, who sold $748 million worth of shares. ==Bursting the bubble== Nearing the turn of the 2000s, spending on technology was volatile as companies prepared for the Year 2000 problem. There were concerns that computer systems would have trouble changing their clock and calendar systems from 1999 to 2000 which might trigger wider social or economic problems, but there was virtually no impact or disruption due to adequate preparation. Spending on marketing also reached new heights for the sector: Two dot-com companies purchased ad spots for Super Bowl XXXIII, and 17 dot-com companies bought ad spots the following year for Super Bowl XXXIV. On January 10, 2000, America Online, led by Steve Case and Ted Leonsis, announced a merger with Time Warner, led by Gerald M. Levin. The merger was the largest to date and was questioned by many analysts. Then, on January 30, 2000, 12 ads of the 61 ads for Super Bowl XXXIV were purchased by dot-coms (sources state ranges from 12 up to 19 companies depending on the definition of dot-com company). At that time, the cost for a 30-second commercial was between $1.9 million and $2.2 million. Meanwhile, Alan Greenspan, then Chair of the Federal Reserve, raised interest rates several times; these actions were believed by many to have caused the bursting of the dot-com bubble. According to Paul Krugman, however, "he didn't raise interest rates to curb the market's enthusiasm; he didn't even seek to impose margin requirements on stock market investors. Instead, [it is alleged] he waited until the bubble burst, as it did in 2000, then tried to clean up the mess afterward". Finance author and commentator E. Ray Canterbery agreed with Krugman's criticism. On Friday March 10, 2000, the NASDAQ Composite stock market index peaked at 5,048.62. However, on March 13, 2000, news that Japan had once again entered a recession triggered a global sell off that disproportionately affected technology stocks. Soon after, Yahoo! and eBay ended merger talks and the Nasdaq fell 2.6%, but the S&P 500 rose 2.4% as investors shifted from strong performing technology stocks to poor performing established stocks. On March 20, 2000, Barron's featured a cover article titled "Burning Up; Warning: Internet companies are running out of cash—fast", which predicted the imminent bankruptcy of many Internet companies. This led many people to rethink their investments. That same day, MicroStrategy announced a revenue restatement due to aggressive accounting practices. Its stock price, which had risen from $7 per share to as high as $333 per share in a year, fell $140 per share, or 62%, in a day. The next day, the Federal Reserve raised interest rates, leading to an inverted yield curve, although stocks rallied temporarily. Tangentially to all of speculation, Judge Thomas Penfield Jackson issued his conclusions of law in the case of United States v. Microsoft Corp. (2001) and ruled that Microsoft was guilty of monopolization and tying in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. This led to a one-day 15% decline in the value of shares in Microsoft and a 350-point, or 8%, drop in the value of the Nasdaq. Many people saw the legal actions as bad for technology in general. That same day, Bloomberg News published a widely read article that stated: "It's time, at last, to pay attention to the numbers". On Friday, April 14, 2000, the Nasdaq Composite index fell 9%, ending a week in which it fell 25%. Investors were forced to sell stocks ahead of Tax Day, the due date to pay taxes on gains realized in the previous year. By June 2000, dot-com companies were forced to reevaluate their spending on advertising campaigns. On November 9, 2000, Pets.com, a much-hyped company that had backing from Amazon.com, went out of business only nine months after completing its IPO. By that time, most Internet stocks had declined in value by 75% from their highs, wiping out $1.755 trillion in value. In January 2001, just three dot-com companies bought advertising spots during Super Bowl XXXV. The September 11 attacks accelerated the stock-market drop. Investor confidence was further eroded by several accounting scandals and the resulting bankruptcies, including the Enron scandal in October 2001, the WorldCom scandal in June 2002, and the Adelphia Communications Corporation scandal in July 2002. By the end of the stock market downturn of 2002, stocks had lost $5 trillion in market capitalization since the peak. At its trough on October 9, 2002, the NASDAQ-100 had dropped to 1,114, down 78% from its peak. ==Aftermath== After venture capital was no longer available, the operational mentality of executives and investors completely changed. A dot-com company's lifespan was measured by its burn rate, the rate at which it spent its existing capital. Many dot-com companies ran out of capital and went through liquidation. Supporting industries, such as advertising and shipping, scaled back their operations as demand for services fell. However, many companies were able to endure the crash; 48% of dot-com companies survived through 2004, albeit at lower valuations. After suffering losses, retail investors transitioned their investment portfolios to more cautious positions. Popular Internet forums that focused on high tech stocks, such as Silicon Investor, Yahoo! Finance, and The Motley Fool declined in use significantly. ===Job market and office equipment glut=== Layoffs of programmers resulted in a general glut in the job market. University enrollment for computer-related degrees dropped noticeably. Aeron chairs, which retailed for $1,100 each, were liquidated en masse. ===Legacy=== As growth in the technology sector stabilized, companies consolidated; some, such as Amazon.com, eBay, Nvidia and Google, gained market share and came to dominate their respective fields. The most valuable public companies are now generally in the technology sector. In a 2015 book, venture capitalist Fred Wilson, who funded many dot-com companies and lost 90% of his net worth when the bubble burst, said about the dot-com bubble:	[ "Google", "quaternary sector of the economy", "mind share", ".com", "Amazon.com", "MIT Press", "Kiplinger's Personal Finance", "Global Crossing", "accounting scandal", "biotechnology", "news media", "Paul Krugman", "Profit (accounting)", "suffix", "Merrill Lynch", "web browser", "Mosaic (web browser)", "E. Ray Canterbery", "Bloomsbury Books", "high tech", "Free Press (publisher)", "mergers and acquisitions", "telecommunications equipment", "BBC News", "Internet", "MarketWatch", "Japanese asset price bubble", "San Francisco Chronicle", "programmer", "CNBC", "initial public offering", "Los Angeles Times", "List of stock market crashes and bear markets", "Pets.com", "HarperCollins", "Elsevier", "price–earnings ratio", "Houston Chronicle", "customer relationship management", "Information Age", "Gerald M. Levin", "eBay", "The News-Gazette (Champaign-Urbana)", "AI boom", "search engine", "NorthPoint Communications", "digital divide", "September 11 attacks", "burn rate", "Startup company", "Mark Cuban", "Kenneth Lay", "Wired (magazine)", "Qualcomm", "The Daily Telegraph", "fraud", "Venture capital", "New York (magazine)", "CNN", "Citigroup", "Hedge (finance)", "Telecommunications Act of 1996", "MSNBC", "Sherman Antitrust Act", "monopolization", "Ted Leonsis", "Boo.com", "Super Bowl XXXV", "dot-com company", "Lost Decades", "network effect", "Dulles Technology Corridor", "Internet-related prefixes", "Investment bank", "market share", "MicroStrategy", "Adelphia Communications Corporation", "general glut", "Gary Winnick", "Fred Wilson (financier)", "Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997", "venture capitalist", "United States v. Microsoft Corp. (2001)", "online shopping", "Gordon Brown", "Tax Day (United States)", "3G", "Year 2000 problem", "Penguin Books", "new economy", "Webvan", "Time Warner", "capital gains tax in the United States", "liquidation", "Philip Anschutz", "Forbes", "Joseph Nacchio", "Bureau of Labor Statistics", "Yahoo!", "Nikkei 225", "Brookings Institution", "stock market bubble", "CNET", "throughput", "Home computer", "NASDAQ", "MP3.com", "AdWeek", "U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission", "The Motley Fool", "employee stock option", "S&P 500", "Spectrum auction", "Bernard Ebbers", "irrational exuberance", "PeopleSound", "The Wall Street Journal", "The Guardian", "venture capital", "Lastminute.com", "Enron scandal", "Nvidia", "spectrum auction", "bankruptcy", "brand awareness", "Fortune (magazine)", "Worldcom", "Modo (wireless device)", "Super Bowl XXXIII", "radio", "lock-up period", "Internet forum", "television", "Bloomberg News", "stock market downturn of 2002", "VentureBeat", "Barron's (newspaper)", "World Wide Web", "WorldCom scandal", "Yahoo! Finance", "Orion Publishing Group", "debt ratio", "Super Bowl XXXIV", "market capitalization", "net operating loss", "mail-order", "Chair of the Federal Reserve", "Time (magazine)", "Mint (newspaper)", "information technology", "broadcasting of sports events", "Cisco Systems", "public company", "Alan Greenspan", "America Online", "tying (commerce)", "Silicon Investor", "dot-com party", "Steve Case", "inverted yield curve", "U.S. Department of Labor", "Amazon (company)", "Jeffrey Skilling", "Business Insider", "Thomas Penfield Jackson", "Chancellor of the Exchequer", "Financial Times", "The New York Times", "Stock market crash", "Railway mania", "short (finance)", "Sir John Templeton", "John Wiley & Sons", "economy of Japan", "transistor", "Social networking service", "Aeron chair", "killer app", "Salon (website)", "Bloomberg Businessweek" ]
9,023	Discounted cash flow	The discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis, in financial analysis, is a method used to value a security, project, company, or asset, that incorporates the time value of money. Discounted cash flow analysis is widely used in investment finance, real estate development, corporate financial management, and patent valuation. Used in industry as early as the 1700s or 1800s, it was widely discussed in financial economics in the 1960s, and U.S. courts began employing the concept in the 1980s and 1990s. ==Application== {\| class="wikitable floatright" \| width="250" \|- style="text-align:center;" \| Main Elements \|- \| On a very high level, the main elements in valuing a corporate by Discounted Cash Flow are as follows; see Valuation using discounted cash flows, and graphics below, for detail: Free Cash Flow Projections: Projections of the amount of Cash produced by a company's business operations after paying for operating expenses and capital expenditures. Discount Rate: The cost of capital (Debt and Equity) for the business. This rate, which acts like an interest rate on future Cash inflows, is used to convert them into current dollar equivalents. Terminal Value: The value of a business at the end of the projection period (typical for a DCF analysis is either a 5-year projection period or, occasionally, a 10-year projection period). see aside. For further context see ; and for the mechanics see valuation using discounted cash flows, which includes modifications typical for startups, private equity and venture capital, corporate finance "projects", and mergers and acquisitions. Using DCF analysis to compute the NPV takes as input cash flows and a discount rate and gives as output a present value. The opposite process takes cash flows and a price (present value) as inputs, and provides as output the discount rate; this is used in bond markets to obtain the yield. ==History== Discounted cash flow calculations have been used in some form since money was first lent at interest in ancient times. Studies of ancient Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics suggest that they used techniques similar to discounting future cash flows. Modern discounted cash flow analysis has been used since at least the early 1700s in the UK coal industry. Discounted cash flow valuation is differentiated from the accounting book value, which is based on the amount paid for the asset. Following the stock market crash of 1929, discounted cash flow analysis gained popularity as a valuation method for stocks. Irving Fisher in his 1930 book The Theory of Interest and John Burr Williams's 1938 text The Theory of Investment Value first formally expressed the DCF method in modern economic terms. ==Mathematics== ===Discounted cash flows=== The discounted cash flow formula is derived from the present value formula for calculating the time value of money DCF = \frac{CF_1}{(1+r)^1} + \frac{CF_2}{(1+r)^2} + \dotsb + \frac{CF_n}{(1+r)^n} and compounding returns: FV = DCF \cdot (1+r)^n. Thus the discounted present value (for one cash flow in one future period) is expressed as: DPV = \frac{FV}{(1+r)^n} where DPV is the discounted present value of the future cash flow (FV), or FV adjusted for the delay in receipt; FV is the nominal value of a cash flow amount in a future period (see Mid-year adjustment); r is the interest rate or discount rate, which reflects the cost of tying up capital and may also allow for the risk that the payment may not be received in full; n is the time in years before the future cash flow occurs. Where multiple cash flows in multiple time periods are discounted, it is necessary to sum them as follows: DPV = \sum_{t=0}^{N} \frac{FV_t}{(1+r)^{t}} for each future cash flow (FV) at any time period (t) in years from the present time, summed over all time periods. The sum can then be used as a net present value figure. If the amount to be paid at time 0 (now) for all the future cash flows is known, then that amount can be substituted for DPV and the equation can be solved for r, that is the internal rate of return. All the above assumes that the interest rate remains constant throughout the whole period. If the cash flow stream is assumed to continue indefinitely, the finite forecast is usually combined with the assumption of constant cash flow growth beyond the discrete projection period. The total value of such cash flow stream is the sum of the finite discounted cash flow forecast and the Terminal value (finance). ===Continuous cash flows=== For continuous cash flows, the summation in the above formula is replaced by an integration: DPV= \int_0^T FV(t) \, e^{-\lambda t} dt = \int_0^T \frac{FV(t)}{(1 + r)^t} \, dt\,, where FV(t) is now the rate of cash flow, and \lambda = \ln(1+r). ==Discount rate== The act of discounting future cash flows asks "how much money would have to be invested currently, at a given rate of return, to yield the forecast cash flow, at its future date?" In other words, discounting returns the present value of future cash flows, where the rate used is the cost of capital that appropriately reflects the risk, and timing, of the cash flows. This "required return" thus incorporates: Time value of money (risk-free rate) – according to the theory of time preference, investors would rather have cash immediately than having to wait and must therefore be compensated by paying for the delay. Risk premium – reflects the extra return investors demand because they want to be compensated for the risk that the cash flow might not materialize after all. For the latter, various models have been developed, where the premium is (typically) calculated as a function of the asset's performance with reference to some macroeconomic variable – for example, the CAPM compares the asset's historical returns to the "overall market's"; see and . An alternate, although less common approach, is to apply a "fundamental valuation" method, such as the "T-model", which instead relies on accounting information. Other methods of discounting, such as hyperbolic discounting, are studied in academia and said to reflect intuitive decision-making, but are not generally used in industry. In this context the above is referred to as "exponential discounting". The terminology "expected return", although formally the mathematical expected value, is often used interchangeably with the above, where "expected" means "required" or "demanded" by investors. The method may also be modified by industry, for example various formulae have been proposed when choosing a discount rate in a healthcare setting; similarly in a mining setting, where risk-characteristics can differ (dramatically) by property. ==Methods of appraisal of a company or project== For these valuation purposes, a number of different DCF methods are distinguished today, some of which are outlined below. The details are likely to vary depending on the capital structure of the company. However the assumptions used in the appraisal (especially the equity discount rate and the projection of the cash flows to be achieved) are likely to be at least as important as the precise model used. Both the income stream selected and the associated cost of capital model determine the valuation result obtained with each method. (This is one reason these valuation methods are formally referred to as the Discounted Future Economic Income methods.) The below is offered as a high-level treatment; for the components / steps of business modeling here, see . ===Equity-approach=== Flows to equity approach (FTE) Discount the cash flows available to the holders of equity capital, after allowing for cost of servicing debt capital Advantages: Makes explicit allowance for the cost of debt capital Disadvantages: Requires judgement on choice of discount rate ===Entity-approach=== Adjusted present value approach (APV) Discount the cash flows before allowing for the debt capital (but allowing for the tax relief obtained on the debt capital) Advantages: Simpler to apply if a specific project is being valued which does not have earmarked debt capital finance Disadvantages: Requires judgement on choice of discount rate; no explicit allowance for cost of debt capital, which may be much higher than a risk-free rate Weighted average cost of capital approach (WACC) Derive a weighted cost of the capital obtained from the various sources and use that discount rate to discount the unlevered free cash flows from the project Advantages: Overcomes the requirement for debt capital finance to be earmarked to particular projects Disadvantages: Care must be exercised in the selection of the appropriate income stream. The net cash flow to total invested capital is the generally accepted choice. Total cash flow approach (TCF) This distinction illustrates that the Discounted Cash Flow method can be used to determine the value of various business ownership interests. These can include equity or debt holders. Alternatively, the method can be used to value the company based on the value of total invested capital. In each case, the differences lie in the choice of the income stream and discount rate. For example, the net cash flow to total invested capital and WACC are appropriate when valuing a company based on the market value of all invested capital. ==Shortcomings== The following difficulties are identified with the application of DCF in valuation: Forecast reliability: Traditional DCF models assume we can accurately forecast revenue and earnings 3–5 years into the future. But studies have shown that growth is neither predictable nor persistent. (See Stock valuation#Growth rate and Sustainable growth rate#From a financial perspective.) In other terms, using DCF models is problematic due to the problem of induction, i.e. presupposing that a sequence of events in the future will occur as it always has in the past. Colloquially, in the world of finance, the problem of induction is often simplified with the common phrase: past returns are not indicative of future results. In fact, the SEC demands that all mutual funds use this sentence to warn their investors.This observation has led some to conclude that DCF models should only be used to value companies with steady cash flows. For example, DCF models are widely used to value mature companies in stable industry sectors, such as utilities. For industries that are especially unpredictable and thus harder to forecast, DCF models can prove especially challenging. Industry Examples: Real Estate: Investors use DCF models to value commercial real estate development projects. This practice has two main shortcomings. First, the discount rate assumption relies on the market for competing investments at the time of the analysis, which may not persist into the future. Second, assumptions about ten-year income increases are usually based on historic increases in the market rent. Yet the cyclical nature of most real estate markets is not factored in. Most real estate loans are made during boom real estate markets and these markets usually last fewer than ten years. In this case, due to the problem of induction, using a DCF model to value commercial real estate during any but the early years of a boom market can lead to overvaluation. Early-stage Technology Companies: In valuing startups, the DCF method can be applied a number of times, with differing assumptions, to assess a range of possible future outcomes—such as the best, worst and mostly likely case scenarios. Even so, the lack of historical company data and uncertainty about factors that can affect the company's development make DCF models especially difficult for valuing startups. There is a lack of credibility regarding future cash flows, future cost of capital, and the company's growth rate. By forecasting limited data into an unpredictable future, the problem of induction is especially pronounced. Discount rate estimation: Traditionally, DCF models assume that the capital asset pricing model can be used to assess the riskiness of an investment and set an appropriate discount rate. Some economists, however, suggest that the capital asset pricing model has been empirically invalidated. various other models are proposed (see asset pricing), although all are subject to some theoretical or empirical criticism. Input-output problem: DCF is merely a mechanical valuation tool, which makes it subject to the principle "garbage in, garbage out." Small changes in inputs can result in large changes in the value of a company. This is especially the case with terminal values, which make up a large proportion of the Discounted Cash Flow's final value. Missing variables: Traditional DCF calculations only consider the financial costs and benefits of a decision. They do not include the environmental, social and governance performance of an organization. This criticism, true for all valuation techniques, is addressed through an approach called "IntFV" discussed below. == Integrated future value == To address the lack of integration of the short and long term importance, value and risks associated with natural and social capital into the traditional DCF calculation, companies are valuing their environmental, social and governance (ESG) performance through an Integrated Management approach to reporting, that expands DCF or Net Present Value to Integrated Future Value (IntFV). This allows companies to value their investments not just for their financial return but also the long term environmental and social return of their investments. By highlighting environmental, social and governance performance in reporting, decision makers have the opportunity to identify new areas for value creation that are not revealed through traditional financial reporting. As an example, the social cost of carbon is one value that can be incorporated into Integrated Future Value calculations to encompass the damage to society from greenhouse gas emissions that result from an investment. This is an integrated approach to reporting that supports Integrated Bottom Line (IBL) decision making, which takes triple bottom line (TBL) a step further and combines financial, environmental and social performance reporting into one balance sheet. This approach provides decision makers with the insight to identify opportunities for value creation that promote growth and change within an organization.	[ "T-model", "market portfolio", "healthcare economics", "British Accounting Review", "private equity", "Cost of capital", "Stock valuation", "risk-free rate", "problem of induction", "Debt ratio", "Irving Fisher", "risk-averse", "financial analysis", "mergers and acquisitions", "United States Treasury security", "TheStreet.com", "interest rate", "capital structure", "Flows to equity", "Net present value", "risk-free interest rate", "financial asset", "economic model", "Capital budgeting", "corporate finance", "expected value", "climate change", "Startup company", "internal rate of return", "cost of capital", "asset pricing", "amortization (business)", "real estate developer", "sensitivity analysis", "Capital asset pricing model", "Market value added", "expected return", "triple bottom line", "Total cash flow", "Discounting", "Time value of money", "Ancient Egyptian mathematics", "cash flow", "Wiley (publisher)", "Adjusted present value", "capital stock", "Real versus nominal value (economics)", "Real estate appraisal", "John Burr Williams", "Yield (finance)", "Queen's University at Kingston", "Owner earnings", "Enterprise value", "patent valuation", "Patent valuation", "capital asset pricing model", "Integrated management", "Financial report", "Compound interest", "net present value", "Sustainable growth rate", "time preference", "The Theory of Investment Value", "Forecast period (finance)", "book value", "Valuation using discounted cash flows", "Otto Eduard Neugebauer", "venture capital", "Federal Reserve Bank", "Weighted average cost of capital", "Dividend discount model", "present value", "corporate financial", "garbage in, garbage out", "social cost of carbon", "Risk premium", "Economic value added", "startup", "valuation using discounted cash flows", "PVGO", "Valuation (finance)", "Wall Street crash of 1929", "carbon discounted cash flow", "hyperbolic discounting", "time value of money", "cash flow forecast", "Internal rate of return", "liquidity", "security (finance)", "Mid-year adjustment", "Babylonian mathematics", "Free cash flow", "Residual income valuation", "Fair Value", "Capital (economics)", "Terminal value (finance)", "John Wiley & Sons", "Risk-free interest rate", "mineral rights" ]
9,025	Lists of deities	This is an index of lists of deities of the different religions, cultures and mythologies of the world. List of deities by classification Lists of deities by cultural sphere List of fictional deities List of goddesses List of people who have been considered deities; see also apotheosis, Imperial cult and Sacred king Names of God, names of deities of monotheistic religions	[ "Lists of deities by cultural sphere", "apotheosis", "List of people who have been considered deities", "List of fictional deities", "List of deities by classification", "Imperial cult", "Names of God", "Sacred king", "deity", "List of goddesses" ]
9,030	Dachau, Bavaria	Dachau () is a town in the Upper Bavaria district of Bavaria, a state in the southern part of Germany. It is a major district town—a Große Kreisstadt—of the administrative region of Upper Bavaria, about north-west of Munich. It is now a popular residential area for people working in Munich, with roughly 45,000 inhabitants. The historic centre of town with its 18th-century castle is situated on an elevation and visible over a great distance. Dachau was founded in the 9th century. It was home to many artists during the late 19th and early 20th centuries; well-known author and editor Ludwig Thoma lived here for two years. The town is known for its proximity to the Dachau concentration camp, operated by Nazi Germany between 1933 until 1945, in which tens of thousands of prisoners died. ==Etymology== The name “Dachau” originated in the Celtic Dahauua, which roughly translates to “loamy meadow” and also alludes to the loamy soil of the surrounding hills. Some theories assume the name “Amper” river, which the town lies on, may derive from the Celtic word for “water”. An alternative idea is that it comes from the Old High German word daha meaning clay, and ouwe, water overflown land. ==History== ===Prehistoric times and Early Middle Ages=== As the Amper River would divert into backwaters in several places, there were many fords making it possible to cross the river. The oldest findings of human presence here date back to the Stone Age. The most noteworthy findings were discovered near Feldgeding in the adjoining municipality Bergkirchen. Around 1000 B.C. the Celts arrived in this area and settled. Approximately at the turn of the first millennium the Romans conquered the area and incorporated it into the province of Rhaetia. A Roman trade road between Salzburg and today's Augsburg is said to have run through Dachau. Remains of this old route are found along the Amper marshlands. ===Middle Ages=== The first known documentation of Dachau occurs in a medieval deed issued by the Noble Erchana of Dahauua to the prince-bishop of Freising, both descendants of the lineage of the Aribonids. With this deed, dated to August 15, 805 A.D. (the Feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary), she donated her entire property in Dachau, including five so-called Colonenhöfe and some serfs and bondsman, to devolve to the Bishop of the Diocese of Freising after her death. During much of the 12th century, Dachau was the primary residence of a smaller branch from the House of Wittelsbach led by Otto I, Count of Scheyern-Dauchau. When Conrad III died in 1182, Duke Otto I of Bavaria purchased the land and granted it market rights, that were then affirmed between 1270 and 1280 by Duke Ludwig II der Strenge (the Strict). In 1467 Sigismund, Duke of Bavaria resigned and then kept only Bavaria-Dachau as his domain until his death in 1501. ===From the 16th century to modern times=== Between 1546 and 1577, the House of Wittelsbach had the Dachau Palace erected in the Renaissance style. From June 1715 to Autumn 1717, Joseph Effner remodeled the palace to suit the contemporary taste in style. At the beginning of the 19th century, the castle's north-, east- and south-wing had to be demolished due to their state of disrepair. The west-wing housing the dance hall with a superb view of the enchanting gardens, still remains today. On the first floor the original renaissance wood carved, coffered ceiling can be admired by visitors. During the second half of the 19th century, the town began to attract landscape artists. The Dachau art colony, which flourished between 1890 and 1914, brought the town recognition as one of the most important artist's colonies in Germany beside Worpswede. ===Nazi era=== In 1933, the Dachau concentration camp was built east of the city by the SS of Nazi Germany and operated until 1945. It was the first of what became many Nazi concentration camps. 14,100 prisoners were killed in the camp by the Nazis and almost another 10,000 in its sub-camps. ==Geography== ===Geographical location=== Dachau is northwest of Munich. It is 483 meters above sea level by the river Amper, with a boundary demarcated by lateral moraines formed during the last ice age and the Amper glacial valley. It is also close to a large marshy area called Dachauer Moos. Highest elevation of the district is the so-called "Schlossberg", the lowest point is near the neighborhood of Prittlbach, at the border to the next community of Hebertshausen. The bordering communities are Bergkirchen to the west, Schwabhausen to the northwest, Röhrmoos to the north, Hebertshausen to the northeast, and Karlsfeld to the south. To the east the greater district Dachau borders on the greater district of Munich with the community of Oberschleißheim. ==Local administrative divisions== ===Populated places=== The city is divided into 3 zones: Historic Center: Dachau Old Town, Mitterndorf, Udlding, Etzenhausen, Unterer Markt, Webling Dachau-East: Oberaugustenfeld, Unteraugustenfeld, Polln, Obergrashof, parts of Prittlbach Dachau-South: Himmelreich, Holzgarten, parts of Gröbenried ===Annexations=== Since 1972, the former municipality of Pellheim, along with the communities of Pellheim proper, Pullhausen, Assenhausen, Lohfeld, and Viehgarten, have been incorporated into Dachau. ==Bodies of water== Running from the west, the river Amper runs south of Dachau's old town, changes its direction at the former paper milling plant to the northeast and continues through Prittlbach into Hebertshausen. Coming from Karlsfeld, the Würm crosses Dachau-East and merges into the river Amper just outside the district limit of Hebertshausen. The Gröbenbach, which has its source south of Puchheim, runs through town coming from the south and merges into the Amper river at several locations near the festival grounds. The Mühlbach, a man made canal, is diverted from the river Amper at the electrical power plant and runs parallel and flows back into it after passing the paper mill. The name derives from the frequent mills in former times along the canal which took advantage of the decline between Mühlbach and Amper. West of the so-called Festwiese runs another canal, called Lodererbach. In town there are still parts of the Schleißheimer canal remaining today. This canal was built in the mid-eighteenth century as part of the northern Munich canal system to which the Nymphenburger Canal belongs as well. It functioned as a transportation route between Dachau and Schleißheim. The building material recovered from the demolition of three wings of the Dachau castle was transported to Schleißheim this way. By allowing it to run to seed and through deliberate cultivation by the town of Dachau the canal is only still recognizable as such between Frühlingstraße and the Pollnbach. Outside the city limit the original canal continues on to Schloss Schleißheim. Within the city boundaries, in Dachau Süd (South), there is also a small lake called Stadtweiher. ==Transport== The city is served by Munich S-Bahn (S2) and Deutsche Bahn via Dachau railway station located in the South of the town. The station is also annexed to the central bus terminal. In Dachau the line S2 is split in two directions: Petershausen and Altomünster. Both lines are named S2 but with different direction names. The offshoot to Altomünster is also served by Dachau Stadt Railway Station which is much smaller than the main railway station. There are five bus lines which are operated by Stadtwerke Dachau: 719, 720, 722, 724 and 726. There is no tramway transport. Dachau has a well-developed road infrastructure for regional transportation. The city is connected to Bundesautobahn 8 (via Fürstenfeldbruck) with Munich-Pasing southbound, and westbound terminating in Karlsruhe. Dachau is connected to Bundesautobahn 92 via Oberschleißheim connector which is located east of Dachau. Bundesautobahn 99 is connected with Dachau via Karlsfeld which is located south of Dachau. Bundesstraße No. 471 (via Rothschwaige) connects eastbound towns such as the neighboring city Fürstenfeldbruck and westbound towns such as Oberschleißheim. Bundesstraße No. 304 starts in the south of the city and connects southbound towns until the German-Austrian border. Additionally, several Staatsstraßen connect Dachau with surrounding towns and villages. ==Sights== Old town including the Town Hall Church of St. Jakob (St. James), built in the 17th century (Stadtpfarrkirche). Church of St. Nicolas and St. Mary, Mitterndorf (1496) Dachau Palace and Palace Garden: A medieval castle which became the favorite residence of the Bavarian dukes in the 16th century. It was once renovated into an enormous four-wing complex. Only one wing still exists today. Dachau Concentration Camp memorial Site: Dachau is best known for its proximity to the relatively well-preserved site of the infamous Dachau concentration camp, the first large-scale German concentration camp, converted from an old gunpowder factory by the Nazi regime in 1933. Dachauer Moos: a wetland area City of Dachau ==Twin-towns – sister-cities== Dachau is twinned with: Fondi, Italy Klagenfurt, Austria ===Cooperation=== Dachau also cooperates with: Léognan, France; future twin town Renkum, Netherlands; cultural cooperation Tervuren, Belgium; cultural cooperation Areguá, Paraguay; friendship ==Notable people== Hans-Jürgen Bäumler (born 1942), figure-skater and actor Efkan Bekiroğlu (born 1995), soccer-player Tony Binder (1868–1944), landscape painter Lovis Corinth (1858–1925), artist Heimito von Doderer (1896–1966), Austrian writer Joseph Effner (1687–1745), architect, landscape-architect, and decorator Anton Fink (born 1987), soccer-player Aloys Fleischmann Sr. (1880–1964), composer and choirmaster Josef Goller (1868–1947), glass painter and print-maker Thomas Guggeis (born 1993), German conductor Christiane Herzog (1936–2000), wife of Roman Herzog Roman Herzog (1934–2017), politician (CDU) Adolf Hölzel (1853–1934), painter Leonhard von Hohenhausen (1788–1872), military and war minister Patrick Lindner (born 1960), Volksmusik singer Jesse Martin (born 1981), sailor Walter Maurer (born 1942), artist, designer and racing driver Christian Morgenstern (1871–1914), author and poet Sigmund Rascher (1909–1945), concentration-camp-doctor Carl Spitzweg (1808–1885), painter Ludwig Thoma (1867–1921), author and publisher Wilhelm von Thoma (1891–1948), General of the Armored Forces in World War II Ernst Toller (1893–1939), playwright Egon Zill (1906–1974), Nazi SS concentration camp commandant	[ "Bergkirchen", "Bundesstraße", "House of Wittelsbach", "Wisconsin glaciation", "Adolf Hölzel", "Above mean sea level", "Hans-Jürgen Bäumler", "Munich", "German-Austrian border", "Celts", "Christiane Herzog", "Christian Morgenstern", "Munich S-Bahn", "Hebertshausen", "Salzburg", "Sister city", "Prince-Bishopric of Freising", "Pellheim", "Ernst Toller", "Nazi Germany", "Wilhelm von Thoma", "Germany", "Renkum", "Ludwig Thoma", "Anton Fink", "Oberschleißheim", "Fondi", "Sigmund Rascher", "Nazi concentration camps", "Staatsstraße", "Jesse Martin", "Assumption of Mary", "Deutsche Bahn", "Karlsruhe", "Walter Maurer (artist)", "Schwabhausen", "Areguá", "Otto I, Count of Scheyern-Dachau-Valley", "Lovis Corinth", "Town", "Florian Hartmann", "Regierungsbezirk", "Stone Age", "Dachau art colony", "Karlsfeld", "Bayerisches Landesamt für Statistik", "Dachau Palace", "glacial valley", "Louis II, Duke of Bavaria", "Pasing", "Josef Goller", "moraine", "Renaissance", "Große Kreisstadt", "Röhrmoos", "Egon Zill", "Thomas Guggeis", "Bavaria", "renaissance", "Klagenfurt", "Worpswede", "Augsburg", "Leonhard von Hohenhausen", "Rhaetia", "Tervuren", "Joseph Effner", "Sigismund, Duke of Bavaria", "Roman Herzog", "Bundesautobahn 8", "Patrick Lindner", "Aribonids", "Otto I, Duke of Bavaria", "Léognan", "Tony Binder", "SS", "Amper", "Aloys Fleischmann (Senior)", "Bundesautobahn 99", "Carl Spitzweg", "Upper Bavaria", "Dachau concentration camp", "Dachau railway station", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Munich and Freising", "Efkan Bekiroğlu", "Wittelsbach", "Bundesautobahn 92", "Market town", "Heimito von Doderer" ]
9,032	Drosophila	Drosophila (), from Ancient Greek δρόσος (drósos), meaning "dew", and φίλος (phílos), meaning "loving", is a genus of fly, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called "small fruit flies" or pomace flies, vinegar flies, or wine flies, a reference to the characteristic of many species to linger around overripe or rotting fruit. They should not be confused with the Tephritidae, a related family, which are also called fruit flies (sometimes referred to as "true fruit flies"); tephritids feed primarily on unripe or ripe fruit, with many species being regarded as destructive agricultural pests, especially the Mediterranean fruit fly. One species of Drosophila in particular, Drosophila melanogaster, has been heavily used in research in genetics and is a common model organism in developmental biology. The terms "fruit fly" and "Drosophila" are often used synonymously with D. melanogaster in modern biological literature. The entire genus, however, contains more than 1,500 species and is very diverse in appearance, behavior, and breeding habitat. ==Etymology== The term "Drosophila", meaning "dew-loving", is a modern scientific Latin adaptation from Greek words , ', "dew", and , ', "loving". ==Morphology== Drosophila species are small flies, typically pale yellow to reddish brown to black, with red eyes. When the eyes (essentially a film of lenses) are removed, the brain is revealed. Drosophila brain structure and function develop and age significantly from larval to adult stage. Developing brain structures make these flies a prime candidate for neuro-genetic research. According to a study published in Nature in October 2024, by the scientists examining the brain of an adult female Drosophila, the shape and location of each of its 130,000 neurons and 50 million synapsis were identified. In this study, the most detailed analysis ever conducted on the brain of an adult animal is represented. Many species, including the noted Hawaiian picture-wings, have distinct black patterns on the wings. The plumose (feathery) arista, bristling of the head and thorax, and wing venation are characters used to diagnose the family. Most are small, about long, but some, especially many of the Hawaiian species, are larger than a house fly. ==Evolution== ===Detoxification mechanisms=== Environmental challenge by natural toxins helped to prepare Drosophilae to detox DDT, ===Selection=== The Drosophila genome is subject to a high degree of selection, especially unusually widespread negative selection compared to other taxa. A majority of the genome is under selection of some sort, and a supermajority of this is occurring in non-coding DNA. Effective population size has been credibly suggested to positively correlate with the effect size of both negative and positive selection. Recombination is likely to be a significant source of diversity. There is evidence that crossover is positively correlated with polymorphism in D. populations. They can be found in deserts, tropical rainforest, cities, swamps, and alpine zones. Some northern species hibernate. The northern species D. montana is the best cold-adapted, and is primarily found at high altitudes. Most species breed in various kinds of decaying plant and fungal material, including fruit, bark, slime fluxes, flowers, and mushrooms. Drosophila species that are fruit-breeding are attracted to various products of fermentation, especially ethanol and methanol. Fruits exploited by Drosophila species include those with a high pectin concentration, which is an indicator of how much alcohol will be produced during fermentation. Citrus, morinda, apples, pears, plums, and apricots belong into this category. The larvae of at least one species, D. suzukii, can also feed in fresh fruit and can sometimes be a pest. A few species have switched to being parasites or predators. Many species can be attracted to baits of fermented bananas or mushrooms, but others are not attracted to any kind of baits. Males may congregate at patches of suitable breeding substrate to compete for the females, or form leks, conducting courtship in an area separate from breeding sites. Several Drosophila species, including Drosophila melanogaster, D. immigrans, and D. simulans, are closely associated with humans, and are often referred to as domestic species. These and other species (D. subobscura, and from a related genus Zaprionus indianus) have been accidentally introduced around the world by human activities such as fruit transports. ===Reproduction=== Males of this genus are known to have the longest sperm cells of any studied organism on Earth, including one species, Drosophila bifurca, that has sperm cells that are long. The cells mostly consist of a long, thread-like tail, and are delivered to the females in tangled coils. The other members of the genus Drosophila also make relatively few giant sperm cells, with that of D. bifurca being the longest. D. melanogaster sperm cells are a more modest 1.8 mm long, although this is still about 35 times longer than a human sperm. Several species in the D. melanogaster species group are known to mate by traumatic insemination. Drosophila species vary widely in their reproductive capacity. Those such as D. melanogaster that breed in large, relatively rare resources have ovaries that mature 10–20 eggs at a time, so that they can be laid together on one site. Others that breed in more-abundant but less nutritious substrates, such as leaves, may only lay one egg per day. The eggs have one or more respiratory filaments near the anterior end; the tips of these extend above the surface and allow oxygen to reach the embryo. Larvae feed not on the vegetable matter itself, but on the yeasts and microorganisms present on the decaying breeding substrate. Development time varies widely between species (between 7 and more than 60 days) and depends on the environmental factors such as temperature, breeding substrate, and crowding. Fruit flies lay eggs in response to environmental cycles. Eggs laid at a time (e.g., night) during which likelihood of survival is greater than in eggs laid at other times (e.g., day) yield more larvae than eggs that were laid at those times. Ceteris paribus, the habit of laying eggs at this 'advantageous' time would yield more surviving offspring, and more grandchildren, than the habit of laying eggs during other times. This differential reproductive success would cause D. melanogaster to adapt to environmental cycles, because this behavior has a major reproductive advantage. Their median lifespan is 35–45 days. ===Aging=== DNA damage accumulates in Drosophila intestinal stem cells with age. Deficiencies in the Drosophila DNA damage response, including deficiencies in expression of genes involved in DNA damage repair, accelerates intestinal stem cell (enterocyte) aging. Sharpless and Depinho reviewed evidence that stem cells undergo intrinsic aging and speculated that stem cells grow old, in part, as a result of DNA damage. === Mating systems === ==== Courtship behavior ==== The following section is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila simulans and Drosophila melanogaster. Courtship behavior of male Drosophila is an attractive behaviour. Females respond via their perception of the behavior portrayed by the male. Male and female Drosophila use a variety of sensory cues to initiate and assess courtship readiness of a potential mate. The cues include the following behaviours: positioning, pheromone secretion, following females, making tapping sounds with legs, singing, wing spreading, creating wing vibrations, genitalia licking, bending the stomach, attempt to copulate, and the copulatory act itself. Male Drosophila with the fru mutation direct their courtship towards other males as opposed to typical courtship, which would be directed towards females. Loss of the fru mutation leads back to the typical courtship behavior. These pheromones are triacylglycerides that are secreted exclusively by males from their ejaculatory bulb and transferred to females during mating. The function of the pheromones is to make the females unattractive to subsequent suitors and thus inhibit courtship by other males. ====Polyandry==== The following section is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila serrata, Drosophila pseudoobscura, Drosophila melanogaster, and Drosophila neotestacea. Polyandry is a prominent mating system among Drosophila. Females mating with multiple sex partners has been a beneficial mating strategy for Drosophila. ====Sperm competition==== The following section is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila melanogaster, Drosophila simulans, and Drosophila mauritiana. Sperm competition is a process that polyandrous Drosophila females use to increase the fitness of their offspring. The female Drosophila has two sperm storage organs, the spermathecae and seminal receptacle, that allows her to choose the sperm that will be used to inseminate her eggs. Females have little control when it comes to cryptic female choice. ==== Parthenogenesis and gynogenesis ==== Parthenogenesis does not occur in D. melanogaster, but in the gyn-f9 mutant, gynogenesis occurs at low frequency. The natural populations of D. mangebeirai are entirely female, making it the only obligate parthenogenetic species of Drosophila. Parthenogenesis is facultative in parthenogenetica and mercatorum. ===Laboratory-cultured animals=== D. melanogaster is a popular experimental animal because it is easily cultured en masse out of the wild, has a short generation time, and mutant animals are readily obtainable. In 1906, Thomas Hunt Morgan began his work on D. melanogaster and reported his first finding of a white eyed mutant in 1910 to the academic community. He was in search of a model organism to study genetic heredity and required a species that could randomly acquire genetic mutation that would visibly manifest as morphological changes in the adult animal. His work on Drosophila earned him the 1933 Nobel Prize in Medicine for identifying chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes. This and other Drosophila species are widely used in studies of genetics, embryogenesis, chronobiology, speciation, neurobiology, and other areas. However, some species of Drosophila are difficult to culture in the laboratory, often because they breed on a single specific host in the wild. For some, it can be done with particular recipes for rearing media, or by introducing chemicals such as sterols that are found in the natural host; for others, it is (so far) impossible. In some cases, the larvae can develop on normal Drosophila lab medium, but the female will not lay eggs; for these it is often simply a matter of putting in a small piece of the natural host to receive the eggs. The Drosophila Species Stock Center located at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, maintains cultures of hundreds of species for researchers. === Use in genetic research === Drosophila is considered one of the most valuable genetic model organisms; both adults and embryos are used in experiments. Drosophila is a prime candidate for genetic research because the relationship between human and fruit fly genes is very close; disease-producing genes in humans can be linked to those in Drosophila. The fly has approximately 15,500 genes on its four chromosomes, whereas humans have about 22,000 genes among their 23 chromosomes. The low number of chromosomes make Drosophila easier to study. Genetic traits can be studied through different Drosophila lineages, and the findings can be applied to deduce genetic trends in humans. Research conducted on Drosophila has helped to determine the ground rules for genetic inheritance in many organisms. Rhomboid proteases were first detected in Drosophila but then found to be highly conserved across eukaryotes, mitochondria, and bacteria. Melanin's ability to protect DNA against ionizing radiation has been most extensively demonstrated in Drosophila, including in the formative study by Hopwood et al. in 1985. ===Microbiome=== Like other animals, Drosophila is associated with various bacteria in its gut. The fly gut microbiota or microbiome seems to have a central influence on Drosophila fitness and life history characteristics. The microbiota in the gut of Drosophila represents an active current research field. Drosophila species also harbour vertically transmitted endosymbionts, such as Wolbachia and Spiroplasma. These endosymbionts can act as reproductive manipulators, such as cytoplasmic incompatibility induced by Wolbachia or male-killing induced by the D. melanogaster Spiroplasma poulsonii (named MSRO). The male-killing factor of the D. melanogaster MSRO strain was discovered in 2018, solving a decades-old mystery of the cause of male-killing. This represents the first bacterial factor that affects eukaryotic cells in a sex-specific fashion, and is the first mechanism identified for male-killing phenotypes. Alternatively, they may protect theirs hosts from infection. Drosophila Wolbachia can reduce viral loads upon infection, and is explored as a mechanism of controlling viral diseases (e.g. Dengue fever) by transferring these Wolbachia to disease-vector mosquitoes. The S. poulsonii strain of Drosophila neotestacea protects its host from parasitic wasps and nematodes using toxins that preferentially attack the parasites instead of the host. Since the Drosophila species is one of the most used model organisms, it was vastly used in genetics. However, the effect abiotic factors, such as temperature, has on the microbiome on Drosophila species has recently been of great interest. Certain variations in temperature have an impact on the microbiome. It was observed that higher temperatures (31 °C) lead to an increase of Acetobacter populations in the gut microbiome of Drosophila melanogaster as compared to lower temperatures (13 °C). In low temperatures (13 °C), the flies were more cold resistant and also had the highest concentration of Wolbachia. The microbiome in the gut can also be transplanted among organisms. It was found that Drosophila melanogaster became more cold-tolerant when the gut microbiota from Drosophila melanogaster that were reared at low temperatures. This depicted that the gut microbiome is correlated to physiological processes. Moreover, the microbiome plays a role in aggression, immunity, egg-laying preferences, locomotion and metabolism. As for aggression, it plays a role to a certain degree during courtship. It was observed that germ-free flies were not as competitive compared to the wild-type males. Microbiome of the Drosophila species is also known to promote aggression by octopamine OA signalling. The microbiome has been shown to impact these fruit flies' social interactions, specifically aggressive behaviour that is seen during courtship and mating. ===Predators=== Drosophila species are prey for many generalist predators, such as robber flies. In Hawaii, the introduction of yellowjackets from mainland United States has led to the decline of many of the larger species. The larvae are preyed on by other fly larvae, staphylinid beetles, and ants. ===Neurochemistry=== Fruit flies use several fast-acting neurotransmitters, similar to those found in humans, which allow neurons to communicate and coordinate behavior. Acetylcholine, glutamate, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), dopamine, serotonin, and histamine are all neurotransmitters that can be found in humans, but Drosophila also have another neurotransmitter, octopamine, the analog of norepinephrine. Acetylcholine is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter and GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter utilized in the drosophila central nervous system. In Drosophila, the effects of many neurotransmitters can vary depending on the receptors and signaling pathways involved, allowing them to act as excitatory or inhibitory signals under different contexts. This versatility enables complex neural processing and behavioral flexibility. Glutamate can serve as an excitatory neurotransmitter, specifically at the neuromuscular junction in fruit flies. This differs from vertebrates, where acetylcholine is used at these junctions. In Drosophila, histamine primarily functions as a neurotransmitter in the visual system. It is released by photoreceptor cells to transmit visual information from the eye to the brain, making it essential for vision. As with many Eukaryotes, this genus is known to express SNAREs, and as with several others the components of the SNARE complex are known to be somewhat substitutable: Although the loss of SNAP-25 - a component of neuronal SNAREs - is lethal, SNAP-24 can fully replace it. For another example, an R-SNARE not normally found in synapses can substitute for synaptobrevin. ===Immunity=== The Spätzle protein is a ligand of Toll. In addition to melanin's more commonly known roles in the endoskeleton and in neurochemistry, melanization is one step in the immune responses to some pathogens. while the total number of species is estimated at thousands. The majority of the species are members of two subgenera: Drosophila (about 1,100 species) and Sophophora (including D. (S.) melanogaster; around 330 species). The Hawaiian species of Drosophila (estimated to be more than 500, with roughly 380 species described) are sometimes recognized as a separate genus or subgenus, Idiomyia, but this is not widely accepted. About 250 species are part of the genus Scaptomyza, which arose from the Hawaiian Drosophila and later recolonized continental areas. Evidence from phylogenetic studies suggests these genera arose from within the genus Drosophila: Liodrosophila Duda, 1922 Mycodrosophila Oldenburg, 1914 Samoaia Malloch, 1934 Scaptomyza Hardy, 1849 Zaprionus Coquillett, 1901 Zygothrica Wiedemann, 1830 Hirtodrosophila Duda, 1923 (position uncertain) Several of the subgeneric and generic names are based on anagrams of Drosophila, including Dorsilopha, Lordiphosa, Siphlodora, Phloridosa, and Psilodorha. ==Genetics== Drosophila species are extensively used as model organisms in genetics (including population genetics), cell biology, biochemistry, and especially developmental biology. Therefore, extensive efforts are made to sequence drosophilid genomes. The genomes of these species have been fully sequenced: Drosophila (Sophophora) melanogaster Drosophila (Sophophora) simulans Drosophila (Sophophora) sechellia Drosophila (Sophophora) yakuba Drosophila (Sophophora) erecta Drosophila (Sophophora) ananassae Drosophila (Sophophora) pseudoobscura Drosophila (Sophophora) persimilis Drosophila (Sophophora) willistoni Drosophila (Drosophila) mojavensis Drosophila (Drosophila) virilis Drosophila (Drosophila) grimshawi The data have been used for many purposes, including evolutionary genome comparisons. D. simulans and D. sechellia are sister species, and provide viable offspring when crossed, while D. melanogaster and D. simulans produce infertile hybrid offspring. The Drosophila genome is often compared with the genomes of more distantly related species such as the honeybee Apis mellifera or the mosquito Anopheles gambiae. The Drosophila modEncode project conducted extensive work to annotate Drosophila genomes, profile transcripts, histone modifications, transcription factors, regulatory networks, and other aspects of Drosophila genetics, and make predictions about gene expression among others. FlyBase serves as a centralized database of curated genomic data on Drosophila. The has presented ten new genomes and combines those with previously released genomes for D. melanogaster and D. pseudoobscura to analyse the evolutionary history and common genomic structure of the genus. This includes the discovery of transposable elements (TEs) and illumination of their evolutionary history. Bartolomé et al. 2009 find at least of the TEs in D. melanogaster, D. simulans and D. yakuba have been acquired by horizontal transfer. They find an average rate of 0.035 horizontal transfer events per TE family per million years. Bartolomé also finds horizontal transfer of TEs follows other relatedness metrics, with transfer events between D. melanogaster and D. simulans being twice as common as either of them with D. yakuba.	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9,033	Dictatorship	A dictatorship is an autocratic form of government which is characterized by a leader, or a group of leaders, who hold governmental powers with few to no limitations. Politics in a dictatorship are controlled by a dictator, and they are facilitated through an inner circle of elites that includes advisers, generals, and other high-ranking officials. The dictator maintains control by influencing and appeasing the inner circle and repressing any opposition, which may include rival political parties, armed resistance, or disloyal members of the dictator's inner circle. Dictatorships can be formed by a military coup that overthrows the previous government through force or they can be formed by a self-coup in which elected leaders make their rule permanent. Dictatorships are authoritarian or totalitarian, and they can be classified as military dictatorships, one-party dictatorships, personalist dictatorships, or absolute monarchies. The Latin word dictator originated in the early Roman Republic to refer to a constitutional office with "a temporary grant of absolute power to a leader to handle some emergency." The earliest military dictatorships developed in the post-classical era, particularly in Shogun-era Japan and in England under Oliver Cromwell. Modern dictatorships first developed in the 19th century, which included Bonapartism in Europe and caudillos in Latin America. The 20th century saw the rise of fascist and communist dictatorships in Europe; fascism was largely eradicated in the aftermath of World War II in 1945, while communism spread to other continents, maintaining prominence until the end of the Cold War in 1991. The 20th century also saw the rise of personalist dictatorships in Africa and military dictatorships in Latin America, both of which became prominent in the 1960s and 1970s. The period following the collapse of the Soviet Union witnessed a sporadic rise in democracies around the world, despite several dictatorships persisting into the 21st century, particularly in Africa and Asia. During the early 21st century, democratic governments outnumbered authoritarian states by 98 to 80. The second decade was marked by a democratic recession, following the 2008 financial crisis which drastically reduced the appeal of the Western model around the world. By 2019, the number of authoritarian governments had again surmounted that of democracies by 92 to 87. Political philosopher Hannah Arendt describes totalitarianism as a new and extreme form of dictatorship composed of "atomized, isolated individuals" in which ideology plays a leading role in defining how the entire society should be organized. Political scientist Juan José Linz identifies a spectrum of political systems with democracies and totalitarian regimes separated by authoritarian regimes with varied classifications of hybrid systems. He describes totalitarian regimes as exercising control over politics and political mobilization rather than merely suppressing it. They are most common in developing nations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. They are often unstable, and the average duration of a military dictatorship is only five years, but they are often followed by additional military coups and military dictatorships. While common in the 20th century, the prominence of military dictatorships declined in the 1970s and 1980s. Military dictatorships are typically formed by a military coup in which senior officers use the military to overthrow the government. In democracies, the threat of a military coup is associated with the period immediately after a democracy's creation but before large-scale military reforms. In oligarchies, the threat of a military coup comes from the strength of the military weighed against the concessions made to the military. Other factors associated with military coups include extensive natural resources, limited use of the military internationally, and use of the military as an oppressive force domestically. Military coups do not necessarily result in military dictatorships, as power may then be passed to an individual or the military may allow democratic elections to take place. Military dictatorships often have traits in common due to the shared background of military dictators. These dictators may view themselves as impartial in their oversight of a country due to their nonpartisan status, and they may view themselves as "guardians of the state". The predominance of violent force in military training manifests in an acceptance of violence as a political tool and the ability to organize violence on a large scale. Military dictators may also be less trusting or diplomatic and underestimate the use of bargaining and compromise in politics. === One-party === One-party dictatorships are governments in which a single political party dominates politics. Single-party dictatorships are one-party states in which only the party in power is legalized, sometimes along with minor allied parties, and all opposition parties are banned. Dominant-party dictatorships or electoral authoritarian dictatorships are one-party dictatorships in which opposition parties are nominally legal but cannot meaningfully influence government. Single-party dictatorships were most common during the Cold War, with dominant-party dictatorships becoming more common after the fall of the Soviet Union. Ruling parties in one-party dictatorships are distinct from political parties that were created to serve a dictator in that the ruling party in a one-party dictatorship permeates every level of society. One-party dictatorships are more stable than other forms of authoritarian rule, as they are less susceptible to insurgency and see higher economic growth. Ruling parties allow a dictatorship to more broadly influence the populace and facilitate political agreement between party elites. Between 1950 and 2016, one-party dictatorships made up 57% of authoritarian regimes in the world, Due to the structure of their leadership, one-party dictatorships are significantly less likely to face civil conflict, insurgency, or terrorism than other forms of dictatorship. The use of ruling parties also provides more legitimacy to its leadership and elites than other forms of dictatorship and facilitates a peaceful transfer of power at the end of a dictator's rule. One-party dictatorships became prominent in Asia and Eastern Europe during the Cold War as communist governments were installed in several countries. One-party rule also developed in several countries in Africa during decolonization in the 1960s and 1970s, some of which produced authoritarian regimes. A ruling party in a one-party dictatorship may rule under any ideology or it may have no guiding ideology. Marxist one-party states are sometimes distinguished from other one-party states, but they function similarly. When a one-party dictatorship develops gradually through legal means, it can result in conflict between the party organization and the state apparatus and civil service, as the party rules in parallel and increasingly appoints its members to positions of power. Parties that take power through violence are often able to implement larger changes in a shorter period. These dictatorships often emerge either from loosely organized seizures of power, giving the leader opportunity to consolidate power, or from democratically elected leaders in countries with weak institutions, giving the leader opportunity to change the constitution. Personalist dictatorships are more common in Sub-Saharan Africa due to less established institutions in the region. There has been an increase in personalist dictatorships since the end of the Cold War. Personalist dictators typically favor loyalty over competence in their governments and have a general distrust of intelligentsia. Elites in personalist dictatorships often do not have a professional political career and are unqualified for the positions they are given. A personalist dictator will manage these appointees by segmenting the government so that they cannot collaborate. The result is that such regimes have no internal checks and balances, and are thus unrestrained when exerting repression on their people, making radical shifts in foreign policy, or starting wars with other countries. Due to the lack of accountability and the smaller group of elites, personalist dictatorships are more prone to corruption than other forms of dictatorship, and they are more repressive than other forms of dictatorship. Personalist dictatorships often collapse with the death of the dictator. They are more likely to end in violence and less likely to democratize than other forms of dictatorship. Personalist dictatorships fit the exact classic stereotype of authoritarian rule. Within a personalist regime, an issue called "the dictator's dilemma" arises. This idea references the heavy reliance on repression of the public to stay in power, which creates incentives for all constituents to falsify their preferences, which does not allow for dictators to know the genuine popular beliefs or their realistic measure of societal support. As a result of authoritarian politics, a series of major issues may ensue. Preference falsification, internal politics, data scarcity, and restriction on the freedom of the press are just a few examples of the dangers of a personalistic authoritarian regime. Although, when it comes to polling and elections a dictator could use their power to override private preferences. Many personalist regimes will install open ballots to protect their regimes and implement heavy security measures and censorship for those whose personal preferences do not align with the values of the leader. The shift in the power relation between the dictator and their inner circle has severe consequences for the behavior of such regimes as a whole. Personalist regimes diverge from other regimes when it comes to their longevity, methods of breakdown, levels of corruption, and proneness to conflicts. On average, they last twice as long as military dictatorships, but not as long as one-party dictatorships. Personalist dictatorships also experience growth differently, as they often lack the institutions or qualified leadership to sustain an economy. === Absolute monarchy === An absolute monarchy is a monarchy in which the monarch rules without legal limitations. This makes it distinct from constitutional monarchy and ceremonial monarchy. In an absolute monarchy, power is limited to the royal family, and historical factors establish legitimacy. Monarchies may be dynastic, in which the royal family serves as a ruling institution similar to a political party in a one-party state, or non-dynastic, in which the monarch rules independently of the royal family as a personalist dictator. Monarchies allow for strict rules of succession that produce a peaceful transfer of power on the monarch's death, but this can also result in succession disputes if multiple members of the royal family claim a right to succeed. In the modern era, absolute monarchies are most common in the Middle East. == History == === Early dictatorships === Dictatorship is historically associated with the Ancient Greek concept of tyranny, and several ancient Greek rulers have been described as "tyrants" who are comparable to modern dictators. The concept of "dictator" was first developed during the Roman Republic. A Roman dictator was a special magistrate that was temporarily appointed by the consul during times of crisis and granted total executive authority. The role of the dictator was created for instances when a single leader was needed to command and restore stability. Caesar subverted the tradition of temporary dictatorships when he was made , or a dictator for life, which led to the creation of the Roman Empire. The rule of a dictator was not necessarily considered tyrannical in Ancient Rome, though it has been described in some accounts as a "temporary tyranny" or an "elective tyranny". Asia saw several military dictatorships during the post-classical era. Korea experienced military dictatorships under the rule of Yeon Gaesomun in the 7th century and under the rule of the Goryeo military regime in the 12th and 13th centuries. Shoguns were de facto military dictators in Japan beginning in 1185 and continuing for over six hundred years. During the Lê dynasty of Vietnam between the 16th and 18th centuries, the country was under de facto military rule by two rival military families: the Trịnh lords in the north and the Nguyễn lords in the south. In Europe, the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell, formed in 1649 after the Second English Civil War, has been described as a military dictatorship by its contemporary opponents and by some modern academics. Maximilien Robespierre has been similarly described as a dictator while he controlled the National Convention in France and carried out the Reign of Terror in 1793 and 1794. Dictatorship developed as a major form of government in the 19th century, though the concept was not universally seen pejoratively at the time, with both a tyrannical concept and a quasi-constitutional concept of dictatorship understood to exist. In Europe it was often thought of in terms of Bonapartism and Caesarism, with the former describing the military rule of Napoleon and the latter describing the imperial rule of Napoleon III in the vein of Julius Caesar. The Spanish American wars of independence took place in the early-19th century, creating many new Latin American governments. Many of these governments fell under the control of caudillos, or personalist dictators. Most caudillos came from a military background, and their rule was typically associated with pageantry and glamor. Caudillos were often nominally constrained by a constitution, but the caudillo had the power to draft a new constitution as he wished. Many are noted for their cruelty, while others are honored as national heroes. === Interwar dictatorships and World War II === ==== Europe ==== In the time between World War I and World War II, several dictatorships were established in Europe through coups which were carried out by far-left and far-right movements. The aftermath of World War I resulted in a major shift in European politics, establishing new governments, facilitating internal change in older governments, and redrawing the boundaries between countries, allowing opportunities for these movements to seize power. The societal upheaval caused by World War I and the unstable peace it produced further contributed to the instability that benefited extremist movements and rallied support for their causes. Far-left and far-right dictatorships used similar methods to maintain power, including cult of personality, concentration camps, forced labour, mass murder, and genocide. The first communist state was created by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks with the establishment of Soviet Russia during the Russian Revolution in 1917. The government was described as a dictatorship of the proletariat in which power was exercised by soviets. The Bolsheviks consolidated power by 1922, forming the Soviet Union. Lenin was followed by Joseph Stalin in 1924, who consolidated total power and implemented totalitarian rule by 1929. The Russian Revolution inspired a wave of left-wing revolutionary movements in Europe between 1917 and 1923, but none saw the same level of success. At the same time, nationalist movements grew throughout Europe. These movements were a response to what they perceived as decadence and societal decay due to the changing social norms and race relations brought about by liberalism. Fascism developed in Europe as a rejection of liberalism, socialism, and modernism, and the first fascist political parties formed in the 1920s. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini seized power in 1922, and began implementing reforms in 1925 to create the first fascist dictatorship. These reforms incorporated totalitarianism, fealty to the state, expansionism, corporatism, and anti-communism. Several right-wing dictatorships also emerged in the Balkans and the Baltic states during the interwar period. Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party created a second fascist dictatorship in Germany in 1933, obtaining absolute power through a combination of electoral victory, violence, and emergency powers. Other nationalist movements in Europe established dictatorships based on the fascist model. After being defeated in World War II, the far-right dictatorships of Europe collapsed, with the exceptions of Spain and Portugal. The Soviet Union occupied nationalist dictatorships in the east and replaced them with communist dictatorships, while others established liberal democratic governments in the Western Bloc. and further military coups established new regimes, often in the name of nationalism. After a brief period of democratization, Latin America underwent a rapid transition toward dictatorship in the 1930s. Populist movements were strengthened following the economic turmoil of the Great Depression, producing populist dictatorships in several Latin American countries. European fascism was imported to Latin America as well, and the Vargas Era of Brazil was heavily influenced by the corporatism practiced in fascist Italy. Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo has ruled Equatorial Guinea as a dictator since he led a military coup in 1979. In 1973, King Sobhuza II of Swaziland suspended the constitution and ruled as an absolute monarch. Samuel Doe established a military dictatorship in Liberia in the 1980s. Libya was ruled by Muammar Gaddafi for several decades following a military coup. Moussa Traoré ruled as a dictator in Mali. Habib Bourguiba ruled as a dictator in Tunisia until he was deposed by a coup led by Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in 1987, who in turn ruled as a dictator until the Tunisian Revolution in 2011. Robert Mugabe ruled as a dictator in Zimbabwe. Early socialist dictatorships in Africa mainly developed as personalist dictatorships, in which a single socialist would take power instead of a ruling party. Later in the Cold War, the Soviet Union increased its influence in Africa as Marxist-Leninist dictatorships developed in several African countries. One-party Marxist states in Africa included Angola under the MPLA, Benin under Mathieu Kérékou, Cape Verde under the PAICV, the Congo under the Congolese Party of Labour, Ethiopia under the Workers' Party of Ethiopia, Madagascar under AREMA, Mozambique under FRELIMO, and Somalia under Siad Barre. Many African countries underwent several military coups that installed a series of military dictatorships throughout the Cold War. These include Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, the Central African Republic, Comoros, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sudan, and Uganda, each undergoing at least three successful military coups between 1959 and 2001. Some leaders of African countries abolished opposition parties, establishing one-party dictatorships. These include the National Liberation Front in Algeria, the Chadian Progressive Party under François Tombalbaye in Chad, the Gabonese Democratic Party under Omar Bongo in Gabon, the Democratic Party under Ahmed Sékou Touré in Guinea, the Malawi Congress Party under Hastings Banda in Malawi, the MNSD under Ali Saibou in Niger, MRND under Juvénal Habyarimana in Rwanda, the Socialist Party under Léopold Sédar Senghor in Senegal, Julius Nyerere in Tanzania, the RPT under Gnassingbé Eyadéma in Togo, and the United National Independence Party under Kenneth Kaunda in Zambia. The KANU in Kenya ruled under a de facto one-party state. ==== Asia ==== The Chinese Civil War ended in 1949, splitting the Republic of China under Chiang Kai-shek and the People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong. Mao established the People's Republic of China as a one-party communist state under his governing ideology of Maoism. While the People's Republic of China was initially aligned with the Soviet Union, relations between the two countries deteriorated as the Soviet Union underwent de-Stalinization in the late-1950s. Mao consolidated his control of the People's Republic of China with the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s, which involved the destruction of all elements of capitalism and traditionalism in China. Deng Xiaoping took power as the de facto leader of China after Mao's death and implemented reforms to restore stability following the Cultural Revolution and reestablish free market economics. Chiang Kai-shek continued to rule as dictator of the National government's rump state in Taiwan until he died in 1975. Marxist and nationalist movements became popular in Southeast Asia as a response to colonial control and the subsequent Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia, with both ideologies facilitating the creation of dictatorships after World War II. Communist dictatorships in the region aligned with China following the latter's establishment as a communist state. Three Communist dictatorships were formed in Southeast Asia: North Vietnam, Laos, and Kampuchea. North Vietnam conquered South Vietnam at the end of the Vietnam War, and the two merged into a single Communist country. Anti-Communist dictators also ruled in the region. Suharto became dictator in Indonesia after taking power in 1967. Ngo Dinh Diem ruled South Vietnam as a dictator until the 1963 military coup. Ferdinand Marcos ruled Philippines as a dictator until the People Power Revolution in 1986. A socialist military dictatorship was also created separately from the Communist governments in Burma until it was overthrown in 1988 and replaced by a new military dictatorship. A similar phenomenon took place in Korea, where Kim Il Sung created a Soviet-backed communist dictatorship in North Korea and Syngman Rhee created a US-backed nationalist dictatorship in South Korea. Park Chung Hee and Chun Doo-hwan would continue the pattern of dictatorship in South Korea until the June Democratic Struggle in 1987, which enabled the country's first free and fair elections and its subsequent democratization under Roh Tae Woo. The Middle East was decolonized during the Cold War, and many nationalist movements gained strength post-independence. These nationalist movements supported non-alignment, keeping most Middle Eastern dictatorships out of the American and Soviet spheres of influence. These movements supported pan-Arab Nasserism during most of the Cold War, but they were largely replaced by Islamic nationalism by the 1980s. A 1953 coup overseen by the American and British governments restored Mohammad Reza Pahlavi as the absolute monarch of Iran, who in turn was overthrown during the Iranian Revolution of 1979 that established Ruhollah Khomeini as the Supreme Leader of Iran under a Shia Islamist government, with Ali Khamenei taking over after Khomeini's death. ==== Europe ==== António de Oliveira Salazar became Prime Minister of Portugal in 1932 and established the Estado Novo. Francisco Franco took power in Spain after leading the Nationalist faction to victory in the Spanish Civil War and became a dictator in 1939. During World War II, many countries of Central and Eastern Europe had been occupied by the Soviet Union. When the war ended, these countries were incorporated into the Soviet sphere of influence, and the Soviet Union exercised control over their governments. Josip Broz Tito declared a communist government in Yugoslavia during World War II, which was initially aligned with the Soviet Union. The relations between the countries were strained by Soviet attempts to influence Yugoslavia, leading to the Tito–Stalin split in 1948. Albania was established as a communist dictatorship under Enver Hoxha in 1944. It was initially aligned with Yugoslavia, but its alignment shifted throughout the Cold War between Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union, and China. The stability of the Soviet Union weakened in the 1980s. The Soviet economy became unsustainable, and communist governments lost the support of intellectuals and their population in general. In 1989, the Soviet Union was dissolved, and communism was abandoned by the countries of Central and Eastern Europe through a series of revolutions. ==== Latin America ==== Military dictatorships remained prominent in Latin America during the Cold War, though the number of coups declined starting in the 1980s. Between 1967 and 1991, 12 Latin American countries underwent at least one military coup, with Haiti and Honduras experiencing three and Bolivia experiencing eight. A one-party communist dictatorship was formed in Cuba when the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista, weakened by an American arms embargo against his regime, was overthrown in the Cuban Revolution, creating the only Soviet-backed dictatorship in the western hemisphere. To maintain power, Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet organized Operation Condor with other South American dictators to facilitate cooperation between their respective intelligence agencies and secret police organizations. === 21st century dictatorships === The nature of dictatorship changed in much of the world at the onset of the 21st century. Between the 1990s and the 2000s, most dictators moved away from being "larger-than-life figures" that controlled the populace through terror and isolated themselves from the global community. This was replaced by a trend of developing a positive public image to maintain support among the populace and moderating rhetoric to integrate with the global community. In contrast to the overtly repressive nature of 20th-century dictatorships, authoritarian strongmen of the 21st century are sometimes labeled "spin dictators", rulers who attempt to monopolize power by authoritarian upgrading, appealing to democratic sentiments and covertly pursue repressive measures; such as embracing modern technology, manipulation of information content, regulation of cyberspace, slandering dissidents, etc. On the other hand, a handful of dictators like Bashar al-Assad and Kim Jong Un rule with deadly repression, violence and state-terrorism to establish extensive securitization through fear, in line with many 20th century dictatorships. 21st-century dictatorships regularly hold sham elections with massive approval ratings, for seeking public legitimacy and maintaining the autocrat's image as a popular figure loved by the masses. The manipulated election results are often weaponized as propaganda tools in information warfare, to galvanize supporters of the dictatorships against dissidents as well as to manufacture compliance of the masses by publicizing falsified data figures. Another objective is to portray the dictator as the guardian figure who unifies the country, without whom its security disintegrates and chaos ensues. North Korea is the only country in East Asia to be ruled by the Kim family after the death of Kim Il-sung and hands over to his son Kim Jong-il in 1994 and grandson Kim Jong-un in 2011, as of today in the 21st century. Dictatorship in Europe largely ended after the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, and the liberalization of most communist states. though the rule of Vladimir Putin in Russia has also been described as a dictatorship. Latin America saw a period of liberalization similar to that of Europe at the end of the Cold War, with Cuba being the only Latin American country that did not experience any degree of liberalization between 1992 and 2010. The countries of Central Asia did not liberalize after the fall of the Soviet Union, instead forming as dictatorships led by former elites of the Communist Party and then later by successive dictators. These countries maintain parliaments and human rights organizations, but these remain under the control of the countries' respective dictators. The Middle East and North Africa did not undergo liberalization during the third wave of democratisation, and most countries in this region remain dictatorships in the 21st century. Dictatorships in the Middle East and Northern Africa are either illiberal republics in which a president holds power through unfair elections, or they are absolute monarchies in which power is inherited, such as Saudi Arabia under Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, and Palestine are the only democratic nations in the region. Although Tunisia was seen as a pillar of the Arab Spring for democracy, by 2023, it was no longer classified as a democracy. Turkey's President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has been described by several sources as a dictator. == Economics == Most dictatorships exist in countries with high levels of poverty. Poverty has a destabilizing effect on government, causing democracy to fail and regimes to fall more often. The form of government does not correlate with the amount of economic growth, and dictatorships on average grow at the same rate as democracies, though dictatorships have been found to have larger fluctuations. Dictators are more likely to implement long-term investments into the country's economy if they feel secure in their power. Exceptions to the pattern of poverty in dictatorships include oil-rich Middle Eastern dictatorships and the East Asian Tigers during their periods of dictatorship. The type of economy in a dictatorship can affect how it functions. Economies based on natural resources allow dictators more power, as they can easily extract rents without strengthening or cooperating with other institutions. More complex economies require additional cooperation between the dictator and other groups. The economic focus of a dictatorship often depends on the strength of the opposition, as a weaker opposition allows a dictator to extract additional wealth from the economy through corruption. == Legitimacy and stability == Several factors determine the stability of a dictatorship, and they must maintain some degree of popular support to prevent resistance groups from growing. This may be ensured through incentives, such as distribution of financial resources or promises of security, or it may be through political repression, in which failing to support the regime is punished. Stability can be weakened when opposition groups grow and unify or when elites are not loyal to the regime. One-party dictatorships are generally more stable and last longer than military or personalist dictatorships. A study found that dictatorships that engage in oil drilling are more likely to remain in power, with 70.63% of the dictators who engage in oil drilling still being in power after five years of dictatorship, while only 59.92% of the non-oil producing dictators survive the first five years. === Elections === Most dictatorships hold elections to maintain legitimacy and stability, but these elections are typically uncompetitive and the opposition is not permitted to win. Elections allow a dictatorship to exercise some control over the opposition by setting the terms under which the opposition challenges the regime. Elections are also used to control elites within the dictatorship by requiring them to compete with one another and incentivizing them to build support with the populace, allowing the most popular and most competent elites to be promoted in the regime. Elections also support the legitimacy of a dictatorship by presenting the image of democracy, establishing plausible deniability of its status as a dictatorship for both the populace and foreign governments. Should a dictatorship fail, elections also permit dictators and elites to accept defeat without fearing violent recourse. Dictatorships may influence the results of an election through electoral fraud, intimidation or bribing of candidates and voters, use of state resources such as media control, manipulation of electoral laws, restricting who may run as a candidate, or disenfranchising demographics that may oppose the dictatorship. In the 20th century, most dictatorships held elections in which voters could only choose to support the dictatorship, with only one-quarter of partisan dictatorships permitting opposition candidates to participate. Since the end of the Cold War, more dictatorships have established "semi-competitive" elections in which opposition is allowed to participate in elections but is not allowed to win, with approximately two-thirds of dictatorships permitting opposition candidates in 2018. Opposition parties in dictatorships may be restricted by preventing them from campaigning, banning more popular opposition parties, preventing opposition members from forming a party, or requiring that candidates be a member of the ruling party. Dictatorships may hold semi-competitive elections to qualify for foreign aid, to demonstrate a dictator's control over the government, or to incentivize the party to expand its information-gathering capacity, particularly at the local level. Semi-competitive elections also have the effect of incentivizing members of the ruling party to provide better treatment of citizens so they will be chosen as party nominees due to their popularity. === Violence === In a dictatorship, violence is used to coerce or repress all opposition to the dictator's rule, and the strength of a dictatorship depends on its use of violence. This violence is frequently exercised through institutions such as military or police forces. The use of violence by a dictator is frequently most severe during the first few years of a dictatorship, because the regime has not yet solidified its rule and more detailed information for targeted coercion is not yet available. As the dictatorship becomes more established, it moves away from violence by resorting to the use of other coercive measures, such as restricting people's access to information and tracking the political opposition. Dictators are incentivized to avoid the use of violence once a reputation of violence is established, as it damages the dictatorship's other institutions and poses a threat to the dictator's rule should government forces become disloyal. Institutions that coerce the opposition through the use of violence may serve different roles or they may be used to counterbalance one another to prevent one institution from becoming too powerful. Secret police are used to gather information about specific political opponents and carry out targeted acts of violence against them, paramilitary forces defend the regime from coups, and formal militaries defend the dictatorship during foreign invasions and major civil conflicts. Terrorism is less common in dictatorships. Allowing the opposition to have representation in the regime, such as through a legislature, further reduces the likelihood of terrorist attacks in a dictatorship. File:Pasillo de la memoria UTN FRA (2015) 11.JPG\|Photographs of victims of the civic-military dictatorship of Argentina File:Cambodia 2011 monuments 10.jpg\|Rooms of the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum contain thousands of photos taken by the Khmer Rouge of their victims.	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9,039	Django Reinhardt	Jean Reinhardt (23 January 1910 – 16 May 1953), known by his Romani nickname Django ( or ), was a Belgian-French Manouche or Sinti jazz guitarist and composer. He was one of the first major jazz talents to emerge in Europe and has been hailed as one of its most significant exponents. With violinist Stéphane Grappelli, Reinhardt recorded in France with many visiting American musicians, including Coleman Hawkins and Benny Carter, and briefly toured the United States with Duke Ellington's orchestra in 1946. He died suddenly of a brain hemorrhage in 1953 at the age of 43. Reinhardt's most popular compositions have become standards within gypsy jazz, including "Minor Swing", "Daphne", "Belleville", "Djangology", "Swing '42", and "Nuages". The jazz guitarist Frank Vignola said that nearly every major popular music guitarist in the world has been influenced by Reinhardt. Over the last few decades, annual Django festivals have been held throughout Europe and the U.S., and a biography has been written about his life. into a French family His mother, Laurence Reinhardt, was a dancer. A number of authors have repeated the suggestion that Reinhardt's nickname, Django, is Romani for "I awake"; Reinhardt spent most of his youth in Romani encampments close to Paris, where he started playing the violin, banjo and guitar. He became adept at stealing chickens. His father reportedly played music in a family band comprising himself and seven brothers; a surviving photograph shows this band including his father on piano. Reinhardt was attracted to music at an early age, first playing the violin. At the age of 12, he received a banjo-guitar as a gift. He quickly taught himself to play, mimicking the fingerings of musicians he watched, who would have included local virtuoso players of the day such as Jean "Poulette" Castro and Auguste "Gusti" Malha, as well as from his uncle Guiligou, who played violin, banjo and guitar. Reinhardt received little formal education and acquired the rudiments of literacy only in adult life. On these recordings, made in 1928, Reinhardt plays the "banjo" (actually the banjo-guitar) accompanying the accordionists Maurice Alexander, Jean Vaissade and Victor Marceau, and the singer Maurice Chaumel. His name was now drawing international attention, such as from British bandleader Jack Hylton, who came to France just to hear him play. During his 18-month hospitalization, doctors recommended amputation of his badly damaged right leg. Reinhardt refused the surgery and was eventually able to walk with the aid of a cane. During many months of recuperation, Reinhardt retaught himself to play using primarily the index and middle fingers of his left hand, using the two injured fingers only for chord work. === Discovery of jazz === After parting from his wife and son, Reinhardt traveled throughout France, getting occasional jobs playing music at small clubs. He had no specific goals, living a hand-to-mouth existence, spending his earnings as quickly as he made them. In early 1934 both Reinhardt and Grappelli were members of Louis Vola's band. Reinhardt's brother Joseph and Roger Chaput also played on guitar, and Louis Vola was on bass. The Quintette was one of the few well-known jazz ensembles composed only of stringed instruments. but the all-string instrumentation is the one most often adopted by emulators of the Hot Club sound. Decca Records in the United States released three records of Quintette tunes with Reinhardt on guitar, and one other, credited to "Stephane Grappelli & His Hot 4 with Django Reinhardt", in 1935. Reinhardt also played and recorded with many American jazz musicians, such as Adelaide Hall, Coleman Hawkins, Benny Carter, and Rex Stewart (who later stayed in Paris). He participated in a jam session and radio performance with Louis Armstrong. Later in his career, Reinhardt played with Dizzy Gillespie in France. Also in the neighborhood was the artistic salon R-26, at which Reinhardt and Grappelli performed regularly as they developed their unique musical style. In 1938, Reinhardt's quintet played to thousands at an all-star show held in London's Kilburn State auditorium. During the war, Romani were systematically killed in concentration camps. Nonetheless, Goebbels stopped short of a complete ban on jazz, which now had many fans in Germany and elsewhere. At that time the tide of war turned against the Germans, with a considerable darkening of the situation in Paris. Severe rationing was in place, and members of Reinhardt's circle were being captured by the Nazis or joining the resistance. Reinhardt's first attempt at escape from Occupied France led to capture. Fortunately for him, a jazz-loving German, Luftwaffe officer , allowed him to return to Paris. Reinhardt made a second attempt a few days later, but was stopped in the middle of the night by Swiss border guards, who forced him to return to Paris again. One of his tunes, 1940's "Nuages", became an unofficial anthem in Paris to signify hope for liberation. as a special guest soloist with Duke Ellington and His Orchestra. He played with many musicians and composers, such as Maury Deutsch. At the end of the tour, Reinhardt played two nights at Carnegie Hall in New York City; he received a great ovation and took six curtain calls on the first night. Despite his pride in touring with Ellington (one of two letters to Grappelli relates his excitement), he was not fully integrated into the band. He played a few tunes at the end of the show, backed by Ellington, with no special arrangements written for him. After the tour, Reinhardt secured an engagement at Café Society Uptown, where he played four solos a day, backed by the resident band. These performances drew large audiences. In Rome in 1949, Reinhardt recruited three Italian jazz players (on bass, piano, and snare drum) and recorded over 60 tunes in an Italian studio. He united with Grappelli, and used his acoustic Selmer-Maccaferri. The recording was issued for the first time in the late 1950s. Back in Paris, in June 1950, Reinhardt was invited to join an entourage to welcome the return of Benny Goodman. He also attended a reception for Goodman, who, after the war ended, had asked Reinhardt to join him in the US. Goodman repeated his invitation and, out of politeness, Reinhardt accepted. Reinhardt later had second thoughts about what role he could play alongside Goodman, who was the "King of Swing", and remained in France. On 16 May 1953, while walking home from Fontainebleau–Avon station after playing in a Paris club, he collapsed outside his house from a brain hemorrhage.}} Because of his damaged left hand (his ring and pinky fingers helped little in his playing) Reinhardt had to modify both his chordal and melodic approach extensively. For chords he developed a novel system based largely around 3-note chords, each of which could serve as the equivalent of several conventional chords in different inversions; for the treble notes he could employ his ring and little fingers to fret the relevant high strings even though he could not articulate these fingers independently, while in some chords he also employed his left hand thumb on the lowest string. Within his rapid melodic runs he frequently incorporated arpeggios, which could be played using two notes per string (played with his two "good" fingers, being his index and middle fingers) while shifting up or down the fingerboard, as opposed to the more conventional "box" approach of moving across strings within a single fretboard position (location). He also produced some of his characteristic "effects" by moving a fixed shape (such as a diminished chord) rapidly up and down the fretboard, resulting in what one writer has called "intervallic cycling of melodic motifs and chords". For an unsurpassed insight into these techniques in use, interested persons should not miss viewing the only known synchronised (sound and vision) footage of Reinhardt in performance, playing on an instrumental version of the song "J'Attendrai" for the short jazz film Le Jazz Hot in 1938–39 (copies available on YouTube and elsewhere). Hugues Panassié, in his 1942 book The Real Jazz, wrote: Writing in 1945, Billy Neil and E. Gates stated that Django-style enthusiast John Jorgenson has been quoted as saying: In his later style ( onwards) Reinhardt began to incorporate more bebop influences in his compositions and improvisations, also fitting a Stimer electric pickup to his acoustic guitar. With the addition of amplification, his playing became more linear and "horn like", with the greater facility of the amplified instrument for longer sustain and to be heard in quiet passages, and in general less reliance on his gypsy "bag of tricks" as developed for his acoustic guitar style (also, in some of his late recordings, with a very different supporting group context from his "classic", pre-war Quintette sound). These "electric period" Reinhardt recordings have in general received less popular re-release and critical analysis than his pre-war releases (the latter also extending to the period from 1940 to 1945 when Grappelli was absent, which included some of his most famous compositions such as "Nuages"), but are also a fascinating area of Reinhardt's work to study, and have begun to be revived by players such as the Rosenberg Trio (with their 2010 release "Djangologists") and Biréli Lagrène. Wayne Jefferies, in his article "Django's Forgotten Era", writes: Jazz guitarists in the U.S., such as Charlie Byrd and Wes Montgomery, were influenced by his style. Byrd, who lived from 1925 to 1999, said that Reinhardt was his primary influence. The rock musician Mike Peters noted that "the word 'genius' is bantered about too much. But in jazz, Louis Armstrong was a genius, Duke Ellington was another one, and Reinhardt was also." and since 2017 in nearby Fontainebleau; the various DjangoFests held throughout Europe and the US; and "Django in June", an annual camp for Gypsy jazz musicians and aficionados held at Smith College in Massachusetts. == Influence == Many guitar players and other musicians have expressed admiration for Reinhardt or have cited him as a major influence. Jeff Beck described Reinhardt as "by far the most astonishing guitar player ever" and "quite superhuman". Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin said, "Django Reinhardt was fantastic. He must have been playing all the time to be that good." Andrew Latimer of the progressive rock band Camel said that he was influenced by Reinhardt. Denny Laine and Jimmy McCulloch, members of Paul McCartney's band Wings, mentioned him as an inspiration. Asked to name his ten greatest influences, Chet Atkins named Reinhardt as his number one. Grateful Dead's Jerry Garcia and Black Sabbath's Tony Iommi, both of whom lost fingers in accidents, were inspired by Reinhardt's example of becoming an accomplished guitar player despite his injuries. Garcia was quoted in June 1985 in Frets Magazine: Willie Nelson is a lifelong Reinhardt fan, writing in his memoir, "This was a man who changed my musical life by giving me a whole new perspective on the guitar and, on an even more profound level, on my relationship with sound...During my formative years, as I listened to Django's records, especially songs like 'Nuages' that I would play for the rest of my life, I studied his technique. Even more, I studied his gentleness. I love the human sound he gave his acoustic guitar." == Festivals named after Django Reinhardt == In Reinhardt's birth village Liberchies, an annual jazz festival is held every May. A large memorial has also been erected there. Jazz festivals under the name Djangofollies have also been organized all over Belgium. In 1984 the Kool Jazz Festival, held in Carnegie Hall and Avery Fisher Hall, was dedicated entirely to Reinhardt. Performers included Grappelli, Benny Carter, and Mike Peters with his group of seven musicians. The festival was organized by George Wein. Ramelton, Co. Donegal, Ireland, each year hosts a festival in tribute to Django called "Django sur Lennon" or "Django on the Lennon" the Lennon being the name of the local river that runs through the village. == Reinhardt in popular culture == ===Music=== Numerous musicians have written and recorded tributes to Reinhardt. The jazz standard "Django" (1954) was composed by John Lewis of the Modern Jazz Quartet in honour of Reinhardt. The Allman Brothers Band song "Jessica" was written by Dickey Betts in tribute to Reinhardt. In 1982's "Tanta til Beate" ("Beate's Aunt"), by the Norwegian singer-songwriter and folk musician Lillebjørn Nilsen, Reinhardt is hailed several times. ===Novels=== Reinhardt appears as a character in the fiction novel The Magic Strings of Frankie Presto (2015) by American author Mitch Albom. ===Comics=== Joan Sfar wrote the script for the graphic novel Jeangot (Gallimard, 2012), drawn by Clément Oubrerier, which is a biopic about Django Reinhardt, set in an anthropomorphic animal universe. In coincidence with the 110th anniversary in 2020 of Django's birth, a graphic novel depicting his youth years was published under the title Django Main de Feu, by writer Salva Rubio and artist Efa through Belgian publisher Dupuis. In the CD sleeve of Vinyl Story by Jean-Charles Baty, featuring music by Django Reinhardt (2022), a mini comic strip by Baty about Reinhardt's life can be read. ===Films=== Reinhardt's legacy is referred to in Woody Allen's 1999 Sweet and Lowdown. This fictional biopic features an imaginary American guitarist, Emmet Ray, who is obsessed with Reinhardt, with a soundtrack featuring Howard Alden. The 2003 animated film The Triplets of Belleville begins with a flashback showing The Triplets of Belleville, a trio of singers, performing on stage in the 1920s, dancing alongside other celebrities, including Josephine Baker and Django Reinhardt. The 2004 film Head in the Clouds features guitarist John Jorgenson as Django Reinhardt in a cameo role. The documentary film Djangomania! was released in 2005. The hour-long film was directed and written by Jamie Kastner, who traveled throughout the world to show the influence of Django's music in various countries. Emil Lager portrayed Reinhardt playing guitar in a French cafe in the 2011 film Hugo. The film Django, by the French filmmaker Étienne Comar, depicting Reinhardt's life during wartime was released in February 2017, with the French actor Reda Kateb performing the role of Reinhardt. The Berlin International Film Festival held the world premier of Django. The movie covers Django's escape from Nazi-occupied Paris in 1943 and the fact that even under "constant danger, flight and the atrocities committed against his family", he continued composing and performing. Reinhardt's music was re-recorded for the film by the Dutch jazz band Rosenberg Trio with lead guitarist Stochelo Rosenberg. It opened the 67th Berlin International Film Festival. === Video games === Reinhardt's music appears in the 2002 video game Mafia: The City of Lost Heaven. One of the songs featured in the game, "Belleville", would later appear again in its 2010 sequel Mafia II. Various Reinhardt songs, including his rendition of "La Mer", are included in the 2007 video game BioShock. ==Tributes== In 2005, during the election of The Greatest Belgian, Reinhardt was voted to the 66th place in the Flemish version In the Walloon version, he was voted to the 76th place. The Belgian government issued a commemorative coin in 92.5% sterling silver in 2010 coinciding with the 100th anniversary of his birth. It is a silver 10-Euro coin with a color image of Reinhardt on the reverse side. == Discography == === Releases in his lifetime === Reinhardt recorded over 900 sides in his recording career, from 1928 to 1953, the majority as sides of the then-prevalent 78-RPM records, with the remainder as acetates, transcription discs, private and off-air recordings (of radio broadcasts), and part of a film soundtrack. Only one session (eight tracks) from March 1953 was ever recorded specifically for album release by Norman Granz in the then-new LP format, but Reinhardt died before the album could be released. In his earliest recordings Reinhardt played banjo (or, more accurately, banjo-guitar) accompanying accordionists and singers on dances and popular tunes of the day, with no jazz content, whereas in the last recordings before his death he played amplified guitar in the bebop idiom with a pool of younger, more modern French musicians. A full chronological listing of his lifetime recorded output is available from the source cited here, and an index of individual tunes is available from the source cited here. A few fragments of film performance (without original sound) also survive, as does one complete performance with sound, of the tune "J'Attendrai" performed with the Quintet in 1938 for the short film Le Jazz Hot. === Posthumous compilations === Since his death, Reinhardt's music has been released on many compilations. Intégrale Django Reinhardt, volumes 1–20 (40 CDs), released by the French company Frémeaux from 2002 to 2005, tried to include every known track on which he played. The Great Artistry of Django Reinhardt (Clef, 1954) Parisian Swing (GNP Crescendo, 1965) Quintet of the Hot Club of France (GNP Crescendo, 1965) Paris 1945 with Glenn Miller All-Stars (French Columbia, 1973) Django Reinhardt: The Versatile Giant (Inner City Records, 1978) At Club St. Germain (Honeysuckle, 1983) Swing Guitar (Jass, 1991) Djano Reinhardt in Brussels (Verve, 1992) Django Reinhardt & Stephane Grappelli (GNP Crescendo, 1990) Peche à La Mouche: The Great Blue Star Sessions 1947–1953 (Verve, 1992) Django's Music (Hep, 1994) Brussels and Paris (DRG, 1996) Quintet of the Hot Club of France (Original Jazz Classics, 1997) Django with His American Friends (DRG, 1998) The Complete Django Reinhardt HMV Sessions (1998) The Classic Early Recordings in Chronological Order (2000) Djangology (Bluebird, 2002) Intégrale Django Reinhardt (Frémeaux, 2002) Jazz in Paris: Nuages (2003) Vol. 2: 1938–1939 (Naxos, 2001) Swing Guitars Vol. 3 1936–1937 (Naxos, 2003) Nuages Vol. 6 1940 (Naxos, 2004) Django on the Radio (2008) Djangology: Solo and Duet Recordings (2019) ===Sideman work=== Coleman Hawkins The Coleman Hawkins Collection 1927-1956 (2014; 1930s recordings) Charles Trenet Intégrale Charles Trénet: 1933-1947 (2004) === Unrecorded compositions === A small number of waltzes composed by Reinhardt in his youth were never recorded by the composer, but were retained in the repertoire of his associates and several are still played today. They came to light via recordings by Matelo Ferret in 1960 (the waltzes "Montagne Sainte-Genevieve", "Gagoug", "Chez Jacquet" and "Choti"; Disques Vogue (F)EPL7740) and 1961 ("Djalamichto" and "En Verdine"; Disques Vogue (F)EPL7829). The first four are now available on Matelo's CD Tziganskaïa and Other Rare Recordings, released by Hot Club Records (subsequently reissued as Tziganskaïa: The Django Reinhardt Waltzes); "Chez Jacquet" was also recorded by Baro Ferret in 1966. The names "Gagoug" and "Choti" were reportedly conferred by Reinhardt's widow Naguine on request from Matelo, who had learned the tunes without names. Reinhardt also worked on composing a Mass for use by the gypsies, which was not completed although an 8-minute extract exists, played by the organist Léo Chauliac for Reinhardt's benefit, via a 1944 radio broadcast; this can be found on the CD release "Gipsy Jazz School" and also on volume 12 of the "Intégrale Django Reinhardt" CD compilation.	[ "Hugo (film)", "Joe Venuti", "Vernon Story", "Jack Hylton", "clarinet", "Charlie Christian", "Radio France", "Luftwaffe", "BioShock", "Merle Haggard", "Avery Fisher Hall", "Sterilization of Romani women", "Howard Alden", "Salle Pleyel", "Oscar Alemán", "Verve Records", "La Mer (song)", "Djangology", "Gypsy ID triangle", "Columbia Records", "Mafia (video game)", "Django (web framework)", "Head in the Clouds (film)", "bal musette", "MusicRadar", "jazz", "Romani music", "Swing music", "LP record", "Nuages (song)", "List of compositions by Django Reinhardt", "Decca Records", "Biréli Lagrène", "Wes Montgomery", "Denny Laine", "Norman Granz", "Lonnie Johnson (musician)", "Woody Allen", "dead on arrival", "Stéphane Grappelli", "Radio Paris", "Belgium", "Eddie Cantor", "Jazz in Paris: Nuages", "Django (2017 film)", "Schnuckenack Reinhardt", "Tony Iommi", "Sinti", "WordPress", "Gaumont State Cinema", "Matelo Ferret", "Babik Reinhardt", "Louis Armstrong", "Black Sabbath", "Zazou", "Andrew Latimer", "Massachusetts", "plectrum", "Charles Trenet", "Eddie Lang", "graphic novel", "GNP Crescendo", "Jerry Garcia", "Café Society", "Mitch Albom", "Jimmy Page", "Louis Vola", "De Grootste Belg", "Inner City Records", "gypsy jazz", "Hitler", "Mike Peters (musician)", "Government of Belgium", "Liberchies", "bebop", "London Palladium", "Quintette du Hot Club de France", "accordion", "fr:Festivals de jazz Django Reinhardt", "DRG Records", "Duke Ellington", "Lousson Reinhardt", "Lillebjørn Nilsen", "Josephine Baker", "Ian Cruickshank", "Occupied France", "progressive rock", "Julian Bream", "Camel (band)", "Bluebird Records", "Jean Sablon", "rock and roll", "Joseph Goebbels", "The Triplets of Belleville", "Salbris", "swing music", "Django and Jimmie", "Original Jazz Classics", "Dizzy Gillespie", "Rex Stewart", "counterculture", "Festival Django Reinhardt", "Allman Brothers Band", "Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)", "Paul McCartney", "67th Berlin International Film Festival", "Jimmy McCulloch", "George Wein", "Steel-string acoustic guitar", "John Jorgenson", "Willie Nelson", "YouTube", "Paul Whiteman", "Fontainebleau", "Coleman Hawkins", "78 rpm", "Émile Savitry", "Manouche", "The Magic Strings of Frankie Presto", "Sweet and Lowdown", "Étienne Comar", "Fontainebleau–Avon station", "Wings (band)", "Django à Liberchies", "concentration camps", "Roger Chaput", "Clef Records", "widow", "Rosenberg Trio", "John Lewis (pianist)", "brain hemorrhage", "World War II", "Glenn Miller", "Disques Vogue", "Maury Deutsch", "Toots Thielemans", "Minor Swing (song)", "Kool Jazz Festival", "Joan Sfar", "Discogs", "Mafia II", "Pont-à-Celles", "Chet Atkins", "Cleveland Music Hall", "Dupuis", "Romani people", "Led Zeppelin", "Grateful Dead", "DjangodOr", "Carnegie Hall", "Reda Kateb", "the Holocaust", "Frank Vignola", "Benny Carter", "Adelaide Hall", "Léo Chauliac", "Gábor Szabó", "Django (composition)", "World Cafe (radio program)", "Nazis", "Walloon language", "celluloid", "Modern Jazz Quartet", "Charlie Byrd", "WXPN", "Hubert Rostaing", "Hugues Panassié", "Nuages", "Jazz", "Naxos Records", "Berlin International Film Festival", "DjangoFest", "Billy Arnold (bandleader)", "Dickey Betts", "IMDb", "List of Belgian bands and artists", "Metacritic", "R-26 (salon)", "Romani language", "Jeff Beck", "Smith College", "Stochelo Rosenberg", "Guitjo (six-string)", "Baro Ferret", "Benny Goodman", "Joseph Reinhardt", "Berklee College", "Samois-sur-Seine", "List of Romani people" ]
9,041	Digit	Digit may refer to: ==Mathematics and science== Numerical digit, as used in mathematics or computer science Hindu–Arabic numerals, the most common modern representation of numerical digits Digit (anatomy), the most distal part of a limb, such as a finger or toe Digit (unit), an ancient measurement unit Hartley (unit) or decimal digit, a unit of information entropy ==Personalities== Digit, a gorilla studied by Dian Fossey, killed by poachers and buried near Fossey's grave Digit Fund, now the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International, founded by Fossey to raise money for anti-poaching patrols ==Arts and media== Digit (Cyberchase), a character in the TV series Cyberchase Digit (EP), by Echobelly, 2000 Digit (magazine), an Indian information technology magazine Liquid and digits, a type of gestural, interpretive, rave and urban street dance	[ "Digit Fund", "Digit (unit)", "Digit (magazine)", "Hartley (unit)", "Digital (disambiguation)", "Digit (Cyberchase)", "Digit (anatomy)", "Dian Fossey", "Digit (EP)", "Dig It (disambiguation)", "Numerical digit", "Liquid and digits", "Hindu–Arabic numeral system" ]
9,048	Dana Plato	Dana Michelle Plato (; November 7, 1964 – May 8, 1999) was an American actress. She rose to fame for playing Kimberly Drummond on the sitcom Diff'rent Strokes (1978–1986), which established her as a teen idol of the late 1970s and early 1980s. Her personal struggles with substance abuse were well documented by the media and led to her premature death at the age of 34. Her life has retrospectively been called a "tragedy". Plato was born to a teen mother and was adopted as an infant. She was raised in the San Fernando Valley and was an accomplished figure skater before acting. Her acting career began with numerous commercial appearances, and her television debut came at the age of ten with a brief appearance on the television series The Six Million Dollar Man (1975). She then appeared in the horror film Return to Boggy Creek (1977) and the Oscar–winning film California Suite (1978). In recognition for her tenure on Diff'rent Strokes, she received nominations for a Young Artist Award and two TV Land Awards. Following the show, she worked sporadically in independent films and B movies, and appeared in the video game Night Trap (1992). Plato was married twice; she had a child in 1984 during her marriage to guitarist Lanny Lambert. She struggled with substance abuse for most of her life. She was arrested in 1991 for robbing a video store, and again the following year for forging a drug prescription. On May 8, 1999, at age 34, Plato was found dead in her motor home from an overdose of prescription drugs. Her death, while initially considered accidental, was ruled a suicide. == Early life == Dana Michelle Strain was born on November 7, 1964, in Huntington Park, California, at Mission Hospital. Her birth mother was Linda Strain, a teenager who was already caring for an 18-month-old child. In June 1965, the seven-month-old Dana was adopted by Dean Plato, who owned a trucking company, and his wife Florine "Kay" Plato. She was raised in the San Fernando Valley. When she was three, her adoptive parents divorced and she lived with her mother. In 1995, during an appearance on The Marilyn Kagen Show alongside co-star Todd Bridges, she spoke of her childhood with her mother, stating: "My mother made sure that I was normal. The only thing that she did, the mistake she made, was that she kept me in a plastic bubble. So, I didn't learn about reality and life skills." Kagen suggested that Plato may have been used for a free meal ticket, which Plato denied, explaining that her mother's ways were so that she would not become a prima donna. == Career == At a young age, Plato began attending auditions with her mother, and by the age of seven had appeared in over 100 television commercials. Both films were received negatively by critics. Better received was the family-comedy film California Suite (1978), in which Plato played Jenny Warren; the film was also a commercial success, and earned accolades at the Academy Awards and the Golden Globe Awards. When Plato made a brief appearance on The Gong Show, she was spotted by a producer who helped cast her as Kimberly Drummond, the older sister of adopted brothers Arnold and Willis Jackson, on the NBC/ABC sitcom Diff'rent Strokes. The series debuted in 1978 and became an immediate hit. Plato appeared regularly on the show throughout its run, notably top-billed for four years. She was nominated for a Young Artist Award for her work on the program, and also was part of two TV Land Award nominations given to its cast. She made a one-episode appearance on season 8 episode 12 of "The Love Boat". Thereafter, Plato appeared recurringly on Diff'rent Strokes from 1985 to 1986, the show's end; in season 8, the episode that aired on January 17, 1986, was Plato's final appearance on the show, which showed her character suffering from bulimia. CBC News described her performance in the episode as a "series highpoint". In 1981, Plato appeared in the television special A Step in Time, which earned her a second Young Artist Award nomination. In 1983, she starred in the television film High School U.S.A. as Cara Ames, alongside Diff'rent Strokes co-star Todd Bridges, who played Otto Lipton. In spite of the film being met with a mixed response from critics and viewers alike, it gained popularity at the time of its premiere, particularly for its cast. Plato attempted to establish herself as a serious actress, but found it difficult to achieve success. She had breast implants and modeled for a June 1989 Playboy pictorial. She also started taking roles in such B movies as Bikini Beach Race (1992) and Lethal Cowboy (1995). In 1990 she made a brief attempt at a musical career, sponsored by producer Howie Rice. She recorded six tracks with songwriter/producer Daniel Liston Keller at Paramount Studios in Hollywood, California, but the recordings were shelved and not released. In 1992, Plato starred in the video game Night Trap, becoming one of the first celebrities to appear in a video game. Night Trap received mixed to negative reviews upon release, and in retrospect has continued to polarize critics and audiences. It is best remembered for the controversy it created over the violence and sexuality that, along with that surrounding Mortal Kombat, eventually led to the creation of the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB). Toward the end of her career, Plato chose roles that were erotic; she appeared nude in Prime Suspect (1989) and Compelling Evidence (1995), and in the softcore erotic drama Different Strokes: The Story of Jack and Jill...and Jill (1998), the title of which was changed after filming in order to tie it to Plato's past. In the same year, following her appearance in the film, Plato appeared in a cover story of the lesbian lifestyle-magazine Girlfriends. Plato's last works include Desperation Boulevard (1998), in which she appears as herself and that appears to be based on her life; Silent Scream (1999), in which she appears as Emma Jones; and Pacino Is Missing (2002), which was released after her death, in which she appears as an attorney. == Personal life and legal troubles== During her years on Diff'rent Strokes, Plato struggled with drug and alcohol problems; she admitted to drinking alcohol, using cannabis and cocaine, and suffering an overdose of diazepam when she was aged 14. Her co-star Conrad Bain revealed that she was happy about her baby, In her March 1990 divorce, Plato lost custody of her son to Lambert and was given visitation rights. Plato then became engaged to Fred Potts, a filmmaker, but the romance ended. She was later married to actor and producer Scott Atkins (Scotty Gelt) in Vancouver for one month, but the marriage was annulled. Plato got engaged to her manager Robert Menchaca, six years her junior, with whom she lived in a motor home in Navarre, Florida. Approximately fifteen minutes after the robbery, Plato returned to the scene and was immediately arrested. She had stolen $164 ($387 in 2025 adjusting for inflation) Entertainer Wayne Newton posted her $13,000 bail, and Plato was given five years' probation. In January 1992, Plato was arrested for forging a prescription for diazepam. Many callers to the show insulted Plato and questioned her sobriety, which angered and provoked her, and she defiantly offered to take a drug test on the air. Some callers, as well as host Howard Stern, came to Plato's defense, though Stern also referred to himself as "an enabler" and sarcastically offered Plato drugs. == Death == On May 8, 1999, Plato and Menchaca were returning to California and stopped at Menchaca's mother's home in Moore, Oklahoma, for a Mother's Day visit. and went to lie down with Menchaca, inside her Winnebago recreational vehicle, which was parked outside the house. Upon waking up, Menchaca and the family discovered that Plato had died in her sleep at the age of 34. It was initially assumed to be an accidental overdose but was later ruled a suicide based on Plato's long history of substance abuse and past suicidal gestures. Some of Plato's friends and associates, including her former Diff'rent Strokes co-star Todd Bridges, have publicly disagreed with the medical examiner's ruling, with Bridges stating that Plato had consumed the fatal cocktail of drugs in an ambiguous amount in order to fall asleep. Plato's body was cremated and her ashes were scattered over the Pacific Ocean. == Aftermath == Plato became a subject of the national debate surrounding troubled child stars, particularly given the difficulties of her Diff'rent Strokes co-stars Todd Bridges and Gary Coleman. In 2000, Fox broadcast a television movie based on Plato, titled After Diff'rent Strokes: When the Laughter Stopped. The film was focused on her life and work after the show, including her death. It featured actors who at the time were unknown, as well as Bridges, who made a cameo appearance. In 2006, NBC aired the television film Behind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Diff'rent Strokes, which was based on the lives of the child stars who had worked on the show. Bridges and Coleman appear at the end of the film standing near Plato's grave. On May 6, 2010, two days before the eleventh anniversary of Plato's death, her son Tyler committed suicide with a gunshot wound to the head. He was 25 years old. On November 7, 2019, on what would have been Plato's 55th birthday, Bridges commented on Twitter about their friendship, leaving a tribute to Plato: "You were the one person I could always talk to. You were one of my best friends. I will never forget you and love you forever. HAPPY BIRTHDAY Dana Plato R.I.P you are free my friend." == Filmography == === Film === === Television === === Video games === Night Trap (1992) as Kelli Medd == Accolades ==	[ "5th Youth in Film Awards", "bulimia", "List of Family episodes", "Growing Pains", "Young Artist Award", "Rotten Tomatoes", "Hollywood, California", "Girlfriends (magazine)", "figure skating", "independent film", "Drug fraud", "The Howard Stern Show", "ABC Afterschool Special", "List of The Love Boat episodes", "Deseret News", "Chicago Tribune", "People (magazine)", "Return to Boggy Creek", "Children's film", "cocaine", "Family (1976 TV series)", "CBC News", "Conrad Bain", "wisdom teeth", "Entertainment Software Rating Board", "Vancouver", "Winnebago Industries", "power of attorney", "Young Artist Awards", "New York Daily News", "annulled", "recreational vehicle", "child custody", "Night Trap", "Moore, Oklahoma", "Rob Fulop", "Howard Stern", "Lubbock Avalanche-Journal", "The Six Million Dollar Man", "teen idol", "Willis Jackson (character)", "substance abuse", "bail", "Recreational vehicle", "List of Growing Pains episodes", "The Facts of Life (TV series)", "Huntington Park, California", "New York Post", "Desperation Boulevard", "painkiller", "The Love Boat", "San Fernando Valley", "Arnold Jackson (character)", "American Broadcasting Company", "drug rehabilitation", "softcore pornography", "CHiPs", "air gun", "probation", "The Biography Channel", "Playboy", "Times Herald-Record", "carisoprodol", "Exorcist II: The Heretic", "Todd Bridges", "Diff'rent Strokes", "prescription drug", "Academy Awards", "Twitter", "Variety (magazine)", "Hello, Larry", "Hydrocodone/paracetamol", "E! News", "breast implant", "High School U.S.A.", "Game show", "Associated Press", "Mortal Kombat (1992 video game)", "TV Land Award", "9-1-1", "cannabis (drug)", "Wayne Newton", "Prime Suspect (1989 film)", "substance use disorder", "Television film", "KSNV", "Drugs.com", "B movie", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "The Washington Post", "California Suite (film)", "Golden Globe Awards", "3rd Youth in Film Awards", "List of The Six Million Dollar Man episodes", "Kimberly Drummond", "scleroderma", "Navarre, Florida", "Reuters", "Gary Coleman", "IMDb", "cremation", "Long Island Press", "The Spokesman-Review", "Direct-to-video", "USA Today", "The New York Times", "What Really Happened to the Class of '65? (TV series)", "Different Strokes (film)", "Mother's Day", "NBC", "diazepam", "The Gong Show" ]
9,051	Drop kick	A drop kick is a type of kick in various codes of football. It involves a player intentionally dropping the ball onto the ground and then kicking it either (different sports have different definitions) 'as it rises from the first bounce' (rugby) or 'as, or immediately after, it touches the ground' (gridiron football). Drop kicks are used as a method of restarting play and scoring points in rugby union and rugby league. Also, association football goalkeepers often return the ball to play with drop kicks. The kick was once in wide use in both Australian rules football and gridiron football, but it is rarely used anymore in either sport. == Rugby football == === Drop kick technique === The drop kick technique in rugby codes is usually to hold the ball with one end pointing downwards in two hands above the kicking leg. The ball is dropped onto the ground in front of the kicking foot, which makes contact at the moment or fractionally after the ball touches the ground, called the half-volley. The kicking foot usually makes contact with the ball slightly on the instep. In a rugby union kick-off, or drop out, the kicker usually aims to kick the ball high but not a great distance, and so usually strikes the ball after it has started to bounce off the ground, so the contact is made close to the bottom of the ball. === Rugby league === In rugby league, drop kicks are mandatory to restart play from the goal line (called a goal line drop-out) after the defending team is tackled or knocks on in the in-goal area or the defending team causes the ball to go dead or into touch-in-goal. Drop kicks are also mandatory to restart play from the 20 metre line after an unsuccessful penalty goal attempt goes dead or into touch-in-goal and to score a drop goal (sometimes known as a field goal) in open play, which is worth one point. Drop kicks are optional for a penalty kick to score a penalty goal (this being done rarely, as place kicks are generally used) and when kicking for touch (the sideline) from a penalty, although the option of a punt kick is usually taken instead. === Rugby union === In rugby union, a drop kick is used for the kick-off and restarts and to score a drop goal (sometimes called a field goal). Originally, it was one of only two ways to score points, along with the place kick. Drop kicks are mandatory from the centre spot to start a half (a kick-off), from the centre spot to restart the game after points have been scored, to restart play from the 22-metre line (called a drop-out) after the ball is touched down or made dead in the in-goal area by the defending team when the attacking team kicked or took the ball into the in-goal area, and to score a drop goal (sometimes called a field goal) in open play, which is worth three points. Drop kicks are optional for a conversion kick after a try has been scored. As in rugby league this is done rarely, as place kicks are generally used. === Rugby sevens === The usage of drop kicks in rugby sevens is the same as in rugby union, except that drop kicks are used for all conversion attempts and for penalty kicks, both of which must be taken within 40 seconds of the try being scored or the award of the penalty. ==Gridiron football== In both American and Canadian football, one method of scoring a field goal, fair-catch kick (American only), or extra point is by drop-kicking the football through the goal, although the technique is very rarely used in modern play. It contrasts with the punt, wherein the player kicks the ball without letting it hit the ground first, and the place kick, wherein the player kicks a stationary ball off the ground: "from placement". A drop kick is significantly more difficult; as Jim Thorpe explained in 1926 when both kick types were common, "I regard the place kick as almost two to one safer than the drop kick in attempting a goal from the field." The drop kick was often used in early football as a surprise tactic. The ball was snapped or lateraled to a back, who faked a run or pass, then drop-kicked a field goal attempt. This method of scoring worked well in the 1920s and early 1930s, when the ball was rounder at the ends, similar to a modern rugby ball. Early football stars Thorpe, Charles Brickley, Frank Hudson, Paddy Driscoll, and Al Bloodgood were skilled drop-kickers; Driscoll in and Bloodgood in hold a tied NFL record of four drop kicked field goals in a single game. Driscoll's 55-yard drop kick in stood as the unofficial record for field goal range until Bert Rechichar kicked a 56-yard field goal (by placekick) in . The ball was made more pointed at the ends in ; this change is generally credited to Shorty Ray, a college football official at the time, and later the NFL's head of officiating. This made passing the ball easier, as was its intent, but made the drop kick almost immediately obsolete, as the more pointed ball did not bounce up from the ground reliably. The drop kick was supplanted by the place kick, which cannot be attempted out of a formation generally used as a running or passing set. While it remains in the rules, the drop kick is seldom seen, and as explained below, is rarely effective when attempted. In Canadian football, there are no formal restrictions on the circumstances under which a drop or a place kick can be attempted. === NFL === Since 1941, the only successful drop kick for points in the NFL was by Doug Flutie, the backup quarterback of the New England Patriots, against the Miami Dolphins on January 1, 2006, for an extra point after a touchdown. Flutie, 43 at the time, was given the opportunity to make a historic kick in what was his last play in the NFL. Flutie estimated he had "an 80 percent chance" of making the drop kick. The last successful drop kick before 2006 in the NFL was executed 64 years earlier in , on an extra point by Ray McLean of the Chicago Bears, against the New York Giants in the NFL Championship Game at Chicago's Wrigley Field on December 21. The last drop kick for a field goal was a nine-yarder by player-coach Dutch Clark of the Detroit Lions in against the Chicago Cardinals on September 19. The All-America Football Conference (AAFC) saw its last successful drop kick in 1948, when Joe Vetrano of the San Francisco 49ers drop kicked an extra point after a muffed snap in a 31–28 home loss to the undefeated Cleveland Browns on November 28. Still rarely but more commonly, kickers have attempted drop kicks from kick-offs or free kicks, especially in the case of onside kicks. Patriots kicker Stephen Gostkowski took an onside drop kick on a free kick against the Pittsburgh Steelers on October 30, . Seattle Seahawks punter Michael Dickson, an Australian punter who considered himself more adept at drop kicking than place kicking, has drop kicked both kick-offs and onside kick-offs when called on to serve as back-up kicker. In 2019, Baltimore Ravens' kicker Justin Tucker drop-kicked a short, high kick-off against the Kansas City Chiefs with 2:01 left in the fourth quarter to force a fair catch and prevent the Chiefs from running out the clock; it was later confirmed that this kick was illegal, as Tucker had kicked the ball not immediately after it bounced, but rather after it had bounced and reached the apex of its rebound. === NCAA === The last successful drop kick extra point in the NCAA was by Jason Millgan of Hartwick College on December 11, 1998, St. Lawrence University. Frosty Peters of Montana State College made 17 drop kicks in one game in 1924. === Arena football === In the former Arena Football League, a drop-kicked extra point was worth two points, rather than one point, while a drop-kicked field goal counted for four points rather than three. The most recent conversion of a drop kick was by Geoff Boyer of the Pittsburgh Power on June 16, 2012; it was the first successful conversion in the AFL since 1997. In 2022, Salina Liberty kicker Jimmy Allen successfully converted three drop kick PAT attempts against the Topeka Tropics in a Champions Indoor Football game. Allen also converted a drop kick PAT playing for the Iowa Barnstormers in the Indoor Football League during a game against the Colorado Crush during a 2016 game. In 2018, Maine Mammoths kicker Henry Nell converted a drop kick as a PAT against the Massachusetts Pirates in the National Arena League. == Australian rules football == Once the preferred method of conveying the ball over long distances, the drop kick has been superseded by the drop punt as a more accurate means of delivering the ball to a fellow player. Drop kicks were last regularly used in the 1970s, and by that time mostly for kicking in after a behind and very rarely in general play. AFL historian and statistician Col Hutchison believes that Sam Newman was the last player to kick a set-shot goal with a drop kick, in 1980, although goals in general play from a drop kick do occur on rare occasions, including subsequent goals by players such as Alastair Lynch and Darren Bewick. Hutchison says drop kicks were phased out of the game by Norm Smith in defence due to their risky nature; Ron Barassi, a player Smith coached, took this onboard for his own coaching career, banning it for all but Barry Cable, who, according to Hutchison, was a "magnificent disposer of the ball". Similarly, in 1971, under Port Adelaide coach Fos Williams, Williams had a rule that nobody playing in his side could do a drop kick. However, according to teammate Brian Cunningham, after Russell Ebert kicked a couple of goals in a game with a drop kick, Williams acknowledged Ebert's skill and made a special dispensation for him—and him alone.	[ "Col Hutchinson", "Charles Brickley", "Stephen Gostkowski", "1937 Detroit Lions season", "Rugby union", "Arena Football League", "trick play", "Paddy Driscoll", "Port Adelaide Football Club", "Justin Tucker", "Pittsburgh Power", "Glossary of American football", "Sam Newman", "Brian Cunningham (footballer)", "Grubber kick", "National Arena League", "Punt (Australian football)", "Maine Mammoths", "Barry Cable", "Indoor Football League", "2018 Seattle Seahawks season", "2005 Miami Dolphins season", "association football", "2019 Kansas City Chiefs season", "Fair catch kick", "Norm Smith", "goalkeeper (association football)", "field goal", "Ray McLean", "1912 college football season", "The Boston Globe", "2019 Baltimore Ravens season", "gridiron football", "The Age", "All-America Football Conference", "Telegram & Gazette", "Lateral pass", "2011 Pittsburgh Steelers season", "Kick (football)", "1948 San Francisco 49ers season", "1941 New York Giants season", "Champions Indoor Football", "American football", "1937 Chicago Cardinals season", "Doug Flutie", "rugby ball", "Bert Rechichar", "Bomb (kick)", "Montana State College", "Set shot", "Hartwick College", "1941 NFL Championship Game", "Michael Dickson (American football)", "Canadian football", "Punt (gridiron football)", "Newspapers.com", "Shorty Ray", "field goal range", "Dutch Clark", "drop goal", "Snap (football)", "1948 Cleveland Browns season", "kick (football)", "Dropped-ball", "Frank Hudson (American football)", "kick-in", "fr:Drop (rugby à XV)", "Russell Ebert", "rugby league", "1941 Chicago Bears season", "Joe Vetrano", "Drop goal", "1980 VFL season", "1912 Harvard Crimson football team", "place kick", "football", "St. Lawrence University", "2005 New England Patriots season", "Wrigley Field", "rugby union", "Salina Liberty", "rugby sevens", "Frosty Peters", "The Australian", "2011 New England Patriots season", "running out the clock", "Australian rules football", "Alastair Lynch", "Jim Thorpe", "Ron Barassi", "Conversion (gridiron football)", "Field goal (football)", "Rugby League International Federation", "quarterback", "Topeka Tropics", "Darren Bewick", "Glossary of rugby league terms", "Fos Williams", "Al Bloodgood", "1912 Dartmouth football team", "Massachusetts Pirates", "extra point" ]
9,053	Diaeresis	Diaeresis (dieresis, diæresis, diëresis) may refer to: Diaeresis (prosody), pronunciation of vowels in a diphthong separately, or the division made in a line of poetry when the end of a foot coincides with the end of a word Diaeresis (linguistics), or hiatus, the separation of adjacent vowels into syllables, not separated by a consonant or pause and not merged into a diphthong Diaeresis (diacritic), a diacritic consisting of two side-by-side dots that marks disyllabicity Diaeresis (computing), the name used by the Unicode Consortium for the "two-dots above" diacritic	[ "Two dots (diacritic)", "Diaeresis (linguistics)", "sv:Trema", "Diaeresis (prosody)", "Diairesis", "Diaeresis (computing)", "Diaeresis (diacritic)" ]
9,055	Derry	Derry,{{Efn\| or ; is the second-largest city in Northern Ireland, and the fifth-largest on the island of Ireland. Located in County Londonderry, the city now covers both banks of the River Foyle. Cityside and the old walled city being on the west bank and Waterside on the east, with two road bridges and one footbridge crossing the river in-between. The population of the city was 85,279 in the 2021 census, while the Derry Urban Area had a population of 105,066 in 2011. The district administered by Derry City and Strabane District Council contains both Londonderry Port and City of Derry Airport. Derry is close to the border with County Donegal, with which it has had a close link for many centuries. The person traditionally seen as the founder of the original Derry is Saint , a holy man from , the old name for almost all of modern County Donegal, of which the west bank of the Foyle was a part before 1610. In 2013, Derry was the inaugural UK City of Culture, having been awarded the title in 2010. ==Name== Despite the official name, the city is commonly known as Derry, which is an anglicisation of the Irish or , which translates as 'oak-grove/oak-wood'. The name derives from the settlement's earliest references, ('oak-grove of Calgach'). The name was changed from Derry in 1613 during the Plantation of Ulster to reflect the establishment of the city by the London guilds. Derry has been used in the names of the local government district and council since 1984, when the council changed its name from Londonderry City Council to Derry City Council. This also changed the name of the district, which had been created in 1973 and included both the city and surrounding rural areas. In the 2015 local government reform, the district was merged with the Strabane district to form the Derry City and Strabane district, with the councils likewise merged. According to the city's royal charter of 10 April 1662, the official name is Londonderry. This was reaffirmed in a High Court decision in 2007. The 2007 court case arose because Derry City Council wanted clarification on whether the 1984 name change of the council and district had changed the official name of the city and what the procedure would be to effect a name change. Derry City Council afterwards began this process and was involved in conducting an equality impact assessment report (EQIA). Firstly it held an opinion poll of district residents in 2009, which reported that 75% of Catholics and 77% of Nationalists found the proposed change acceptable, compared to 6% of Protestants and 8% of Unionists. The EQIA then held two consultative forums and solicited comments from the general public on whether or not the city should have its name changed to Derry. On 23 July 2015, the council voted in favour of a motion to change the official name of the city to Derry and to write to Mark H. Durkan, the Northern Irish Minister for the Environment, to ask how the change could be effected. The name Derry is preferred by nationalists and it is broadly used throughout Northern Ireland's Catholic community, as well as that of the Republic of Ireland, whereas many unionists prefer Londonderry; however, in everyday conversation Derry is used by most Protestant residents of the city. Linguist Kevin McCafferty argues that "It is not, strictly speaking, correct that Northern Ireland Catholics call it Derry, while Protestants use the Londonderry form, although this pattern has become more common locally since the mid-1980s, when the city council changed its name by dropping the prefix". In McCafferty's survey of language use in the city, "only very few interviewees—all Protestants—use the official form". Apart from the name of the local council, the city is usually In April 2009, however, the Republic of Ireland's Minister for Foreign Affairs, Micheál Martin, announced that Irish passport holders who were born there could record either Derry or Londonderry as their place of birth. Whereas official road signs in the Republic use the name Derry, those in Northern Ireland bear Londonderry (sometimes abbreviated to L'derry), although some of these have been defaced with the reference to London obscured. Usage varies among local organisations, with both names being used. Examples are City of Derry Airport, City of Derry Rugby Club, Derry City FC and the Protestant Apprentice Boys of Derry, as opposed to Londonderry Port, Londonderry YMCA Rugby Club and Londonderry Chamber of Commerce. The bishopric has always remained that of Derry, both in the (Protestant, formerly-established) Church of Ireland (now combined with the bishopric of Raphoe) and in the Roman Catholic Church. Most companies within the city choose local area names such as Pennyburn, Rosemount or Foyle from the River Foyle to avoid alienating the other community. Derry~Londonderry railway station is often referred to as Waterside railway station within the city, but is called Derry/Londonderry at other stations. The council changed the name of the local government district covering the city to Derry on 7 May 1984, consequently renaming itself Derry City Council. This did not change the name of the city, although the city is coterminous with the district, and in law the city council is also the Corporation of Londonderry or, more formally, the Mayor, Aldermen and Citizens of the City of Londonderry. The form Londonderry is used for the post town by the Royal Mail; It was also nicknamed "Stroke City" by local broadcaster Gerry Anderson, owing to the politically correct use by some of the dual name Derry/Londonderry A later addition to the landscape has been the erection of several large stone columns on main roads into the city welcoming drivers, euphemistically, to 'the Walled City'. Derry is a common place name in Ireland, with at least six towns bearing that name and at least a further 79 places. The word Derry often forms part of the place name, for example, Derrybeg, Derryboy, Derrylea and Derrymore. Londonderry, Yorkshire, near the Yorkshire Dales, was named for the Marquesses of Londonderry, as is Londonderry Island off Tierra del Fuego in Chile. In the United States, twin towns in New Hampshire called Derry and Londonderry lie about 75 miles from Londonderry, Vermont, with additional namesakes in Derry, Pennsylvania, Londonderry, Ohio, and in Canada Londonderry, Nova Scotia and Londonderry, Edmonton, Alberta. There is also Londonderry, New South Wales and the associated Londonderry electorate. ==City walls== Derry is the only remaining city in Ireland with completely intact city walls, some of the finest in Europe. The walls constitute the largest monument in State care in Northern Ireland and, as part of the last walled city to be built in Europe, stand as the most complete and spectacular. The Walls were built in 1613–1619 by The Honourable The Irish Society as defences for early 17th-century settlers from England and Scotland. The Walls, which are approximately in circumference and which vary in height and width between , are completely intact and form a walkway around the inner city. They provide a unique promenade to view the layout of the original town which still preserves its Renaissance-style street plan. The four original gates to the Walled City are Bishop's Gate, Ferryquay Gate, Butcher Gate and Shipquay Gate. Three further gates were added later, Magazine Gate, Castle Gate and New Gate, making seven gates in total. The architect was Peter Benson, a London-born builder, who was rewarded with several grants of land. It is one of the few cities in Europe that never saw its fortifications breached, withstanding several sieges, including the famous Siege of Derry in 1689 which lasted 105 days; hence the city's nickname, The Maiden City. ==History== ===Early history=== Derry is one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in Ireland. The earliest historical references date to the 6th century when a monastery was founded there by St Columba or Colmcille, a famous saint from what is now County Donegal, but for thousands of years before that people had been living in the vicinity. Before leaving Ireland to spread Christianity elsewhere, Colmcille founded a monastery at Derry (which was then called ), on the west bank of the Foyle. According to oral and documented history, the site was granted to Colmcille by a local king. The monastery then remained in the hands of the federation of Columban churches who regarded Colmcille as their spiritual mentor. The year 546 is often referred to as the date that the original settlement was founded. However, it is now accepted by historians that this was an erroneous date assigned by medieval chroniclers. The soldier and statesman Sir Henry Docwra made vigorous efforts to develop the town, earning the reputation of being "the founder of Derry"; but he was accused of failing to prevent the O'Doherty attack and returned to England. ===Plantation=== What became the City of Derry was part of the relatively new County Donegal up until 1610. The central diamond within a walled city with four gates was thought to be a good design for defence. The grid pattern chosen was subsequently much copied in the colonies of British North America. The charter initially defined the city as extending three Irish miles (about 6.1 km) from the centre. The modern city preserves the 17th-century layout of four main streets radiating from a central Diamond to four gateways – Bishop's Gate, Ferryquay Gate, Shipquay Gate and Butcher's Gate. The city's oldest surviving building was also constructed at this time: the 1633 Plantation Gothic cathedral of St Columb. In the porch of the cathedral is a stone that records completion with the inscription: "If stones could speake, then London's prayse should sound, Who built this church and cittie from the grounde." ===17th-century upheavals=== During the 1640s, the city suffered in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which began with the Irish Rebellion of 1641, when the Gaelic Irish insurgents made a failed attack on the city. In 1649 the city and its garrison, which supported the republican Parliament in London, were besieged by Scottish Presbyterian forces loyal to King Charles I. The Parliamentarians besieged in Derry were relieved by a strange alliance of Roundhead troops under George Monck and the Irish Catholic general Owen Roe O'Neill. These temporary allies were soon fighting each other again however, after the landing in Ireland of the New Model Army in 1649. The war in Ulster was finally brought to an end when the Parliamentarians crushed the Irish Catholic Ulster army at the Battle of Scarrifholis, near Letterkenny in nearby County Donegal, in 1650. During the Glorious Revolution, only Derry and nearby Enniskillen had a Protestant garrison by November 1688. An army of around 1,200 men, mostly "Redshanks" (Highlanders), under Alexander MacDonnell, 3rd Earl of Antrim, was slowly organised (they set out on the week William of Orange landed in England). When they arrived on 7 December 1688 the gates were closed against them and the Siege of Derry began. In April 1689, King James came to the city and summoned it to surrender. The King was rebuffed and the siege lasted until the end of July with the arrival of a relief ship. ===18th and 19th centuries=== The city was rebuilt in the 18th century with many of its fine Georgian style houses still surviving. The city's first bridge across the River Foyle was built in 1790. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the port became an important embarkation point for Irish emigrants setting out for North America. Also during the 19th century, it became a destination for migrants fleeing areas more severely affected by the Great Famine. One of the most notable shipping lines was the McCorkell Line operated by Wm. McCorkell & Co. Ltd. from 1778. The McCorkell's most famous ship was the Minnehaha, which was known as the "Green Yacht from Derry".]] During the Irish War of Independence, the area was rocked by sectarian violence, partly prompted by the guerilla war raging between the Irish Republican Army and British forces, but also influenced by economic and social pressures. By mid-1920 there was severe sectarian rioting in the city. Many people died and in addition, many Catholics and Protestants were expelled from their homes during this communal unrest. After a week's violence, a truce was negotiated by local politicians on both unionist and republican sides. (See: The Troubles in Ulster (1920–1922)). In 1921, following the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the Partition of Ireland, it unexpectedly became a 'border city', separated from much of its traditional economic hinterland in County Donegal. ====World War II==== During World War II, the city played an important part in the Battle of the Atlantic. Ships from the Royal Navy, the Royal Canadian Navy and other Allied navies were stationed in the city and the United States military established a base. Over 20,000 Royal Navy, 10,000 Royal Canadian Navy and 6,000 United States Navy personnel were stationed in the city during the war. The establishment of the American presence in the city was the result of a secret agreement between the Americans and the British before the Americans entered the war. It was the first American naval base in Europe and the terminal for American convoys en route to Europe. The reason for such a high degree of military and naval activity was self-evident: Derry was the United Kingdom's westernmost port; indeed, the city was the westernmost Allied port in Europe: thus, Derry was a crucial jumping-off point, together with Glasgow and Liverpool, for the shipping convoys that ran between Europe and North America. The large numbers of military personnel in Derry substantially altered the character of the city, bringing in some outside colour to the local area, as well as some cosmopolitan and economic buoyancy during these years. Several airfields were built in the outlying regions of the city at this time, Maydown, Eglinton and Ballykelly. RAF Eglinton went on to become City of Derry Airport. The city contributed a significant number of men to the war effort throughout the services, most notably the 500 men in the 9th (Londonderry) Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, known as the 'Derry Boys'. This regiment served in North Africa, the Sudan, Italy and mainland UK. Many others served in the Merchant Navy taking part in the convoys that supplied the UK and Russia during the war. The border location of the city and the influx of trade from the military convoys allowed for significant smuggling operations to develop in the city. At the conclusion of the Second World War, eventually some 60 U-boats of the German Kriegsmarine ended in the city's harbour at Lisahally after their surrender. The initial surrender was attended by Admiral Sir Max Horton, Commander-in-Chief of the Western Approaches, and Sir Basil Brooke, third Prime Minister of Northern Ireland. In the late 1960s the city became the flashpoint of disputes about institutional gerrymandering. Political scientist John Whyte explains that: A civil rights demonstration in 1968 led by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association was banned by the Government and blocked using force by the Royal Ulster Constabulary. ==Governance== From 1613 the city was governed by the Londonderry Corporation. In 1898 this became Londonderry County Borough Council, until 1969 when administration passed to the unelected Londonderry Development Commission. In 1973 a new district council with boundaries extending to the rural south-west was established under the name Londonderry City Council, renamed in 1984 to Derry City Council, consisting of five electoral areas: Cityside, Northland, Rural, Shantallow and Waterside. The council of 30 members was re-elected every four years. The council merged with Strabane District Council in April 2015 under local government reorganisation to become Derry and Strabane District Council. The councillors elected in 2019 for the city are: ===Coat of arms and motto=== The devices on the city's arms are a skeleton and a three-towered castle on a black field, with the "chief" or top third of the shield showing the arms of the City of London: a red cross and sword on white. In the centre of the cross is a gold harp. In unofficial use the harp sometimes appears above the arms as a crest. The arms were confirmed by Daniel Molyneux, the Ulster King of Arms, in 1613, following the town's incorporation. Another identifies it as Cahir O'Doherty himself, who was killed in a skirmish near Kilmacrennan in 1608 (but was popularly believed to have wasted away while sequestered in his castle at Buncrana). The 1613 arms depicted a harp in the centre of the cross, but this was omitted from later depictions of the city arms, and in the 1952 letters patent confirming the arms to the Londonderry Corporation. In 2002 Derry City Council applied to the College of Arms to have the harp restored. Garter and Norroy & Ulster Kings of Arms issued letters patent to that effect in 2003, having accepted the 17th-century evidence. The River Foyle forms a deep valley as it flows through the city, giving it a steep topography. The original walled city of Londonderry lies on a hill on the west bank of the River Foyle. In the past, the river branched and enclosed this hill as an island; over the centuries, however, the western branch of the river dried up and became a low-lying and boggy district that is now called the Bogside. Today, modern Derry extends considerably north and west of the city walls and east of the river. The half of the city on the west of the Foyle is known as the Cityside and the area east is called the Waterside. The Cityside and Waterside are connected by the Craigavon Bridge and Foyle Bridge and by a footbridge in the centre of the city called Peace Bridge. The district also extends into rural areas to the southeast of the city. This much larger city, however, remains characterised by the often extremely steep hills that form much of its terrain on both sides of the river. A notable exception to this lies on the northeastern edge of the city, on the shores of Lough Foyle, where large expanses of sea and mudflats were reclaimed in the middle of the 19th century. Today, these sloblands are protected from the sea by miles of sea walls and dikes. The area is an internationally important bird sanctuary, ranked among the top 30 wetland sites in the UK. Other important nature reserves lie at Ness Country Park, east of Derry; and at Prehen Wood, within the city's south-eastern suburbs. ===Climate=== Derry has, like most of Ireland, a temperate maritime climate (Cfb) according to the Köppen climate classification system. The nearest official Met Office Weather Station for which climate data is available is Carmoney, just west of City of Derry Airport and about northeast of the city centre. However, observations ceased in 2004 and the nearest Weather Station is currently Ballykelly, due east-northeast. Typically, 27 nights of the year will report an air frost at Ballykelly, while at least 1 mm of precipitation will be reported on 170 days (1981–2010 averages). The lowest temperature recorded at Carmoney was on 27 December 1995. ==Demography== Derry Urban Area (DUA), including the city and the neighbouring settlements of Culmore, Newbuildings and Strathfoyle, is classified as a city by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA) since its population exceeds 75,000. The mid-2006 population estimate for the wider Derry City Council area was 107,300. Population growth in 2005/06 was driven by natural change, with net out-migration of approximately 100 people. ===2021 Census=== On census day (21 March 2021) there were 85,279 people living in Derry City and of these: 21.11% were aged under 16, 64.36% were aged between 16 and 65 and 14.53% were aged 66 and over. 51.65% of the usually resident population were female and 48.35% were male. 77.88% (66,413) were from a Catholic background, 16.98% (14,481) were from Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related) background, 1.24% had another religious background and 3.9% had no religion. 64.55% indicated they had an Irish national identity, 21.86% indicated they had a Northern Irish national identity, 17.37% indicated they had a British national identity, and 4.01% indicated they had an 'other' national identity. (respondents could select more than one national identity). 16.42% had some knowledge of Irish (Gaeilge) and 4.22% had some knowledge of Ulster Scots. ===Protestant minority=== Concerns have been raised by both communities over the increasingly divided nature of the city. There were about 17,000 Protestants on the west bank of the River Foyle in 1971. The proportion rapidly declined during the 1970s; the 2011 census recorded 3,169 Protestants on the west bank, compared to 54,976 Catholics, and it is feared that the city could become permanently divided. However, concerted efforts have been made by the local community, church and political leaders from both traditions to redress the problem. A conference to bring together key actors and promote tolerance was held in October 2006. Ken Good, the Church of Ireland Bishop of Derry and Raphoe, said he was happy living on the cityside. "I feel part of it. It is my city and I want to encourage other Protestants to feel exactly the same", he said. ==Economy== ===History=== The economy of the district was based significantly on the textile industry until relatively recently. For many years women were commonly the sole wage earners working in the shirt factories while the men in comparison had high levels of unemployment. This led to significant male emigration. The history of shirt making in the city dates to 1831, said to have been started by William Scott and his family who first exported shirts to Glasgow. Within 50 years, shirt making in the city was the most prolific in the UK with garments being exported all over the world. It was known so well that the industry received a mention in Das Kapital by Karl Marx, when discussing the factory system: The industry reached its peak in the 1920s employing around 18,000 people. A long-term foreign employer in the area is Du Pont, which has been based at Maydown since 1958, its first European production facility. Originally Neoprene was manufactured at Maydown and subsequently followed by Hypalon. More recently Lycra and Kevlar production units were active. Thanks to a worldwide demand for Kevlar, which is made at the plant, the facility undertook a £40 million upgrade to expand its global Kevlar production. ===Inward investment=== As of 2002, the three largest private-sector employers were American firms. Economic successes have included call centres and a large investment by Seagate, which has operated a factory in the Springtown Industrial Estate since 1993. As of 2019, Seagate was employing approximately 1,400 people in Derry. A controversial new employer in the area was Raytheon Systems Limited, a software division of the American defence contractor, which was set up in Derry in 1999. Although some of the local people welcomed the jobs boost, others in the area objected to the jobs being provided by a firm involved heavily in the arms trade. Following four years of protest by the Foyle Ethical Investment Campaign, in 2004 Derry City Council passed a motion declaring the district "a 'no – go' area for the arms trade", and in 2006 its offices were briefly occupied by anti-war protestors who became known as the Raytheon 9. In 2009, the company announced that it was not renewing its lease when it expired in 2010 and was looking for a new location for its operations. Other significant multinational employers in the region include Firstsource of India, INVISTA, Stream International, Perfecseal, NTL, Northbrook Technology of the United States, Arntz Belting and Invision Software of Germany and Homeloan Management of the UK. Major local business employers include Desmonds, Northern Ireland's largest privately owned company, manufacturing and sourcing garments, E&I Engineering, St. Brendan's Irish Cream Liqueur and McCambridge Duffy, one of the largest insolvency practices in the UK. Even though the city provides cheap labour by standards in Western Europe, critics have noted that the grants offered by the Northern Ireland Industrial Development Board have helped land jobs for the area that only last as long as the funding lasts. This was reflected in questions to the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Richard Needham, in 1990. It was noted that it cost £30,000 to create one job in an American firm in Northern Ireland. Critics of investment decisions affecting the district often point to the decision to build a new university building in nearby (predominantly Protestant) Coleraine rather than developing the Ulster University Magee Campus. Another major government decision affecting the city was the decision to create the new town of Craigavon outside Belfast, which again was detrimental to the development of the city. Even in October 2005, there was perceived bias against the comparatively impoverished North West of the province, with a major civil service job contract going to Belfast. Mark Durkan, the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) leader and Member of Parliament (MP) for Foyle was quoted in the Belfast Telegraph as saying: In July 2005, the Irish Minister for Finance, Brian Cowen, called for a joint task force to drive economic growth in the cross-border region. ===Shopping=== The city is the north west's foremost shopping district, housing two large shopping centres along with numerous shop-packed streets serving much of the greater county, as well as Tyrone and Donegal. The city centre has two main shopping centres; the Foyleside Shopping Centre, which has 45 stores and 1,430 parking spaces, and the Richmond Centre, which has 39 retail units. The Quayside Shopping Centre also serves the city side and there is also Lisnagelvin Shopping Centre on the Waterside. These centres, as well as local-run businesses, feature numerous national and international stores. Crescent Link Retail Park, located in the Waterside, has several chain stores and has become the second largest retail park in Northern Ireland (second only to Sprucefield in Lisburn). Plans have also been approved for Derry's first Asda store, which will be located at the retail park sharing a unit with Homebase. Sainsbury's also applied for planning permission for a store at Crescent Link, but Environment Minister Alex Attwood turned it down. Until the store's closure in March 2016, the city was also home to the world's oldest independent department store, Austins. Established in 1830, Austins predates Jenners of Edinburgh by 5 years, Harrods of London by 15 years and Macy's of New York by 25 years. The store's five-story Edwardian building is located within the walled city in the area known as The Diamond. ==Landmarks== Derry is renowned for its architecture. This can be primarily ascribed to the formal planning of the historic walled city of Derry at the core of the modern city. This is centred on the Diamond with a collection of late Georgian, Victorian and Edwardian buildings maintaining the gridlines of the main thoroughfares (Shipquay Street, Ferryquay Street, Butcher Street and Bishop Street) to the City Gates. St Columb's Cathedral does not follow the grid pattern reinforcing its civic status. This Church of Ireland Cathedral was the first post-Reformation Cathedral built for an Anglican church. The construction of the Roman Catholic St Eugene's Cathedral in the Bogside in the 19th century was another major architectural addition to the city. The Townscape Heritage Initiative has funded restoration works to key listed buildings and other older structures. In the three centuries since their construction, the city walls have been adapted to meet the needs of a changing city. The best example of this adaptation is the insertion of three additional gates – Castle Gate, New Gate and Magazine Gate – into the walls in the course of the 19th century. Today, the fortifications form a continuous promenade around the city centre, complete with cannon, avenues of mature trees and views across Derry. Historic buildings within the city walls include St Augustine's Church, which sits on the city walls close to the site of the original monastic settlement; the copper-domed Austin's department store, which claims to be the oldest such store in the world; and the imposing Greek Revival Courthouse on Bishop Street. The red-brick late-Victorian Guildhall, also crowned by a copper dome, stands just beyond Shipquay Gate and close to the riverfront. There are many museums and sites of interest in and around the city, including the Foyle Valley Railway Centre, the Amelia Earhart Centre And Wildlife Sanctuary, the Apprentice Boys Memorial Hall, Ballyoan Cemetery, The Bogside, numerous murals by the Bogside Artists, Derry Craft Village, Free Derry Corner, O'Doherty Tower (now home to part of the Tower Museum), the Harbour Museum, the Museum of Free Derry, Chapter House Museum, the Workhouse Museum, the Nerve Centre, St. Columb's Park and Leisure Centre, Creggan Country Park, Brooke Park, The Millennium Forum, the Void Gallery, and the Foyle and Craigavon bridges. Attractions include museums, a vibrant shopping centre and trips to the Giant's Causeway, which is approximately away, though poorly connected by public transport. Lonely Planet called Derry the fourth best city in the world to see in 2013. On 25 June 2011, the Peace Bridge opened. It is a cycle and footbridge that begins from the Guild Hall in the city centre of Derry City to Ebrington Square and St Columb's Park on the far side of the River Foyle. It was funded jointly by the Department for Social Development (NI), the Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government along with matching funding, totalling £14 million, from the SEUPB Peace III programme. Future projects include the Walled City Signature Project, which intends to ensure that the city's walls become a world-class tourist experience. ==Transport== The transport network is built out of a complex array of old and modern roads and railways throughout the city and county. The city's road network also makes use of two bridges to cross the River Foyle, the Craigavon Bridge and the Foyle Bridge, the longest bridge in Ireland. Derry also serves as a major transport hub for travel throughout nearby County Donegal. In spite of it being the second city of Northern Ireland (and it being the second-largest city in all of Ulster), road and rail links to other cities are below par for its standing. Many business leaders claim that government investment in the city and infrastructure has been badly lacking. Some have stated that this is due to its outlying border location whilst others have cited a sectarian bias against the region west of the River Bann due to its high proportion of Catholics. There is no direct motorway link with Dublin or Belfast. The rail link to Belfast has been downgraded over the years so that, presently, it is not a viable alternative to the roads for industry to rely on. As of 2008, there were plans for £1 billion worth of transport infrastructure investment in and around the district. Planned upgrades to the A5 Dublin road agreed as part of the Good Friday Agreement and St Andrews Talks fell through when the government of the Republic of Ireland reneged on its funding citing the post-2008 economic downturn. ===Buses=== Most public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by the subsidiaries of Translink. Originally the city's internal bus network was run by Ulsterbus, which still provides the city's connections with other towns in Northern Ireland. The city's buses are now run by Ulsterbus Foyle, just as Translink Metro now provides the bus service in Belfast. The Ulsterbus Foyle network offers 13 routes across the city into the suburban areas, excluding an Easibus link which connects to the Waterside and Drumahoe, and a free Rail Link Bus runs from the Waterside Railway Station to the city centre. All buses leave from the Foyle Street Bus Station in the city centre. Long-distance buses depart from Foyle Street Bus Station to destinations throughout Ireland. Buses are operated by both Ulsterbus and Bus Éireann on cross-border routes. Lough Swilly formerly operated buses to County Donegal, but the company entered liquidation and is no longer in operation. There is a half-hourly service to Belfast every day, called the Maiden City Flyer, which is the Goldline Express flagship route. There are hourly services to Strabane, Omagh, Coleraine, Letterkenny and Buncrana, and up to twelve services a day to bring people to Dublin. There is a daily service to Sligo, Galway, Shannon Airport and Limerick. TFI Local Link provides additional cross-border public transport routes, with route 244 (Moville/Derry), 245 (Greencastle/Derry), 288 (Ballybofey/Derry), 952 (Carndonagh/Derry),1426 (Stranorlar/Derry) (to the Leonardo Hotel in Belfast city centre, formerly Jurys Inn), and another that runs from County Donegal to the city. ===Air=== City of Derry Airport, the council-owned airport near Eglinton, has grown during the early 21st century, with new investment in extending the runway and plans to redevelop the terminal. The A2 (a dual carriageway) from Maydown to Eglinton, serves the airport. City of Derry airport is the main regional airport for County Donegal, County Londonderry and west County Tyrone as well as Derry City itself. The airport is served by Loganair and Ryanair with scheduled flights to Glasgow Airport, Edinburgh Airport, Manchester Airport, Liverpool John Lennon Airport and London Stansted all year round with a summer schedule to Mallorca with TUI Airways ===Railways=== The city is served by a single rail link terminating at Derry ~ Londonderry railway station in Waterside that is subsidised, alongside much of Northern Ireland's railways, by Northern Ireland Railways (N.I.R.). The link primarily provides passenger services from the city to Belfast, via several stops that include , and , and connections to links with other parts of Northern Ireland. The route itself is the only remaining rail link used by trains; most of the lines developed in the mid-19th century fell into decline towards the mid-20th century from competition by new road networks. The original rail network that served the city included four different railways that, between them, linked the city with much of the province of Ulster, plus a harbour railway network that linked the other four lines, and a tramway on the City side of the Foyle. Usage of the rail link between Derry and Belfast remains questionable for commuters, due to the journey time of over two hours making it slower centre-to-centre than the 100-minute Ulsterbus Goldline Express service. ====Railway history==== =====19th century – early 20th century growth===== Several railways began operation around the city of Derry within the middle of the 19th century. The companies that set up links helped to provide key links for the city towards other towns and cities across Ireland, for the transportation of passengers and freight. The lines that were constructed featured a mixture of Irish gauge and narrow gauge railways. Companies that operated them included: The Londonderry and Enniskillen Railway (L&ER) – The rail company constructed Derry's first railway in 1845 with Irish gauge () track. The line operated from a temporary station at Cow Market on the City side of the Foyle, reaching Strabane in 1847, before being extended from Cow Market to its permanent terminus at Foyle Road in 1850. The L&ER reached Omagh in 1852 and Enniskillen in 1854, The Londonderry and Coleraine Railway (L&CR) – The rail company constructed an Irish gauge line to the city in 1852, opening a terminus at Waterside. In 1906 the Northern Counties Committee (NCC, successor to the B&NCR) and the GNR jointly took over the Donegal Railway, making it the County Donegal Railways Joint Committee (CDRJC). Alongside the railways, the city was served by a standard gauge () tramway, the City of Derry Tramways. The tramway was opened in 1897 and consisted of horse trams that operated along a single line, long, which ran along the City side of the Foyle parallel to the LPHC's line on that side of the river. The Ulster Transport Authority, who took over the NCC in 1949 and the GNR's lines in Northern Ireland in 1958, took control of the LPHC railway before closing it in 1962, before eventually shutting down the former GNR line to Derry in 1965, after the submission of The Benson Report to the Northern Ireland Government two years prior to the closure. This left the former L&CR line to Coleraine as the sole railway link for the city, providing a passenger service to Belfast, alongside CIÉ freight services to Donegal. By the 1990s, the service began to deteriorate. =====21st century regeneration===== In 2008, the Department for Regional Development announced plans to relay the track between Derry and Coleraine. The plan, aimed at being completed by 2013, included adding a passing loop to increase traffic capacity and increasing the number of trains with two additional diesel multiple units. Additional phases of the plan also included improvements to existing stations along the line and the restoration of the former Victoria Road terminus building to prepare for the relocation of the city's current terminus station to the site, all for completion by late 2019. Costing around £86 million, the improvements were aimed at reducing the journey time to Belfast by 30 minutes and allowing commuter trains to arrive before 9 a.m. for the first time. and announcement of the 'A6 Londonderry to Dungiven Dualling Scheme' with the intention to reduce the travel time to Belfast. The latter project brings a dual-carriageway link between Northern Ireland's two largest cities one step closer. The project is costing £320 million and is expected to be completed in 2016. In October 2006 the Government of Ireland announced that it was to invest €1 billion in Northern Ireland; with the planned projects including 'the A5 Western Transport Corridor', the complete upgrade of the A5 Derry – Omagh – Aughnacloy (– Dublin) road, around long, to dual carriageway standard. In June 2008 Conor Murphy, Minister for Regional Development, announced that there will be a study into the feasibility of connecting the A5 and A6. The port gave vital Allied service in the longest-running campaign of the Second World War, the Battle of the Atlantic, and saw the surrender of the German U-boat fleet at Lisahally on 8 May 1945. ===Inland waterways=== The tidal River Foyle is navigable from the coast at Derry to approximately inland. In 1796, the Strabane Canal was opened, continuing the navigation a further southwards to Strabane. The canal was closed in 1962. ==Education== Derry is home to the Magee Campus of Ulster University, formerly Magee College. However, Lockwood's 1960s decision to locate Northern Ireland's second university in Coleraine rather than Derry helped contribute to the formation of the civil rights movement that ultimately led to The Troubles. Derry was the town more closely associated with higher learning, with Magee College already more than a century old by that time. In the mid-1980s an attempt was made at address this by forming Magee College as a campus of the Ulster University, but this failed to stifle calls for the establishment of an independent University in Derry. As of 2021, the Magee campus reportedly accommodated approximately 4,400 students, out of a total Ulster University student population of approximately 24,000, of which 15,000 are in the Belfast campus. The North West Regional College is also based in the city and accommodates over 10,000 student enrolments annually. One of the two oldest secondary schools in Northern Ireland, Foyle College, is located in Derry. It was founded in 1616 by the Merchant Taylors. Other secondary schools include St. Columb's College, Oakgrove Integrated College, St Cecilia's College, St Mary's College, St. Joseph's Boys' School, Lisneal College, Thornhill College, Lumen Christi College and St. Brigid's College. There are also numerous primary schools. ==Sports== The city is home to sports clubs and teams. Both association football and Gaelic football are popular in the area. ===Association football=== In association football, the city's most prominent clubs include Derry City who play in the national league of the Republic of Ireland; Institute of the NIFL Championship as well as Maiden City and Trojans, both of the Northern Ireland Intermediate League. In addition to these clubs, which all play in national leagues, other clubs are based in the city. The local football league governed by the IFA is the North-West Junior League, which contains many clubs from the city, such as BBOB (Boys Brigade Old Boys) and Lincoln Courts. The city's other junior league is the Derry and District League and teams from the city and surrounding areas participate, including Don Boscos and Creggan Swifts. The Foyle Cup youth soccer tournament is held annually in the city. It has attracted many notable teams in the past, including Werder Bremen, IFK Göteborg and Ferencváros. ===Gaelic football=== In Gaelic football Derry GAA are the county team and play in the Gaelic Athletic Association's National Football League, Ulster Senior Football Championship and All-Ireland Senior Football Championship. They also field hurling teams in the equivalent tournaments. There are many Gaelic games clubs in and around the city, for example Na Magha CLG, Steelstown GAC, Doire Colmcille CLG, Seán Dolans GAC, Na Piarsaigh CLG Doire Trasna and Slaughtmanus GAC. ===Boxing=== There are many boxing clubs. The best-known is the Ring Amateur Boxing Club, which is based on the City side and is associated with boxers Charlie Nash and John Duddy. Rochester's Amateur Boxing club is a club in the city's Waterside area. ===Rugby union=== Rugby union is also quite popular in the city, with the City of Derry Rugby Club situated not far from the city centre. City of Derry won both the Ulster Towns Cup and the Ulster Junior Cup in 2009. Londonderry YMCA RFC is another rugby club and is based in the village of Drumahoe which is on the outskirts of the city. ===Basketball=== The city's only basketball club is North Star Basketball Club which has teams in the Basketball Northern Ireland senior and junior Leagues. ===Cricket=== Cricket is also played in the city, particularly in the Waterside. The city is home to two cricket clubs, Brigade Cricket Club and Glendermott Cricket Club, both of whom play in the North West Senior League. ===Golf=== There are two golf clubs situated in the city, City of Derry Golf Club and Foyle International Golf Centre. ==Culture== Artists and writers associated with the city and surrounding countryside include the Nobel Prize-winning poet Seamus Heaney, poet Seamus Deane, playwright Brian Friel, writer and music critic Nik Cohn, artist Willie Doherty, socio-political commentator and activist Eamonn McCann and bands such as the Undertones. The large political gable-wall murals of Bogside Artists, Free Derry Corner, the Foyle Film Festival, the Derry Walls, St Eugene's and St Columb's Cathedrals and the annual Halloween street carnival are popular tourist attractions. In 2010, Derry was named the UK's tenth 'most musical' city by PRS for Music. In May 2013 a perpetual Peace Flame Monument was unveiled by Martin Luther King III and Presbyterian minister Rev. David Latimer. The flame was lit by children from both traditions in the city and is one of only 15 such flames across the world. ===Media=== The local newspapers, the Derry Journal (known as the Londonderry Journal until 1880) and the Londonderry Sentinel, reflect the divided history of the city: the Journal was founded in 1772 and is Ireland's second oldest newspaper; and the commercial station Q102.9. There was a locally based television station, C9TV, one of only two local or 'restricted' television services in Northern Ireland, which ceased broadcasts in 2007. ===Nightlife=== The city's nightlife is mainly focused on the weekends, with several bars and clubs providing "student nights" during the weekdays. Waterloo Street and Strand Road provide the main venues. Waterloo Street, a steep street lined with both Irish traditional and modern pubs, frequently has live rock and traditional music at night. ===Events=== In 2013, Derry became the first city to be designated UK City of Culture, having been awarded the title in July 2010. and the Lumiere light festival. The "Banks of the Foyle Hallowe'en Carnival" (known in Irish as Féile na Samhna) in Derry is a huge tourism boost for the city. The carnival is promoted as being the first and longest-running Halloween carnival in the whole of Ireland, It is called the largest street party in Ireland by the Derry Visitor and Convention Bureau with more than 30,000 ghoulish revellers taking to the streets annually. In March, the city hosts the Big Tickle Comedy Festival, which in 2006 featured Dara Ó Briain and Colin Murphy. In April the city plays host to the City of Derry Jazz and Big Band Festival and in November the Foyle Film Festival, the biggest film festival in Northern Ireland. The Siege of Derry is commemorated annually by the fraternal organisation the Apprentice Boys of Derry in the week-long Maiden City Festival. The Instinct Festival is an annual youth festival celebrating the Arts. It is held around Easter and has proven a success in recent years. Celtronic is a major annual electronic dance festival held at venues all around the city. The 2007 Festival featured the DJ, Erol Alkan. The Millennium Forum is the main theatre in the city; it holds numerous shows weekly. On 9 December 2007 Derry entered the Guinness Book of Records when 13,000 Santas gathered to break the world record, beating previous records held by Liverpool and Las Vegas. Winner of the 2005 Britain in Bloom competition (City category). Runner-up 2009. ===References in popular music=== ==Notable people== Notable people who were born or have lived in Derry include: Raphael Armattoe (1913–1953), scientist James Burke, science historian and broadcaster Amanda Burton (born 1956), actress William C. Campbell (born 1930), scientist and Nobel laureate Joyce Cary (1888–1957), novelist Nadine Coyle (born 1985), singer Clare Crockett (1982–2016), nun Dana (born 1950), singer and politician Seamus Deane (1940–2021), poet, novelist Roma Downey (born 1960), actress Shane Duffy (born 1992), footballer George Farquhar (1677–1707), dramatist Darron Gibson (born 1987), footballer Daryl Gurney (born 1986), darts player Neil Hannon (born 1970), singer Seamus Heaney (1939–2013), poet and Nobel laureate Frederick Hervey (1730–1803), Lord Bishop of Derry John Hume (1937–2020), politician and Nobel laureate Jennifer Johnston (born 1930), novelist Edward Pemberton Leach (1847–1913), recipient of the Victoria Cross Nell McCafferty (born 1944), journalist, playwright James McClean (born 1989), footballer Aaron McEneff (born 1995), footballer Damian McGinty (born 1992), singer Martin McGuinness (1950–2017), politician Tom McGuinness (born 1949), Gaelic footballer Jimmy McShane (1957–1995), singer Aileen Morrison (born 1982), triathlete Martin O'Neill (born 1952), footballer, manager John Park (1835–1863), recipient of the Victoria Cross Miles Ryan (1826–1887), recipient of the Victoria Cross William Sampson (1764–1836), American abolitionist and jurist Feargal Sharkey (born 1958), lead singer of The Undertones Leah Totton (born 1989), doctor and 2013 winner of The Apprentice ==Freedom of the City== The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Derry. ===Individuals=== General Duke of Schomberg : 1690. William Pitt the Younger: 1786. Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington: 1807. Sir Robert Peel: 1817. President Ulysses S. Grant: 1879. Duke of York: 1924. Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery: 1945. Sir Winston Churchill: 16 December 1955. John Hume: 1 May 2000. Edward Daly: 24 March 2015. James Mehaffey: 24 March 2015. James McLaughlin: 30 May 2019. Daniel Quigley: 26 November 2021. Philip Coulter: 5 April 2022. Lisa McGee: 5 December 2022. Jon McCourt: 26 July 2023.	[ "St. Columb's Park", "hurling", "Irish mile", "Eglinton, County Londonderry", "Great Northern Railway (Ireland)", "Crolly", "Shantallow", "Good Friday Agreement", "Rugby union", "Norroy and Ulster King of Arms", "Lough Foyle", "The North/South Language Body", "United States Navy", "Battle of Scarrifholis", "Austins (department store)", "Londonderry Port", "monastery", "John Hume", "Roma Downey", "Helen Quigley", "Roman Catholic", "Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association", "Metropolitan area", "The Millennium Forum", "Royal Ulster Constabulary", "Victorian architecture", "Austins of Derry", "Lumiere (festival)", "St Mary's College, Derry", "English Crown", "Amanda Burton", "Unionists (Ireland)", "Derry Girls", "Derry Journal", "County Coleraine", "Carnmoney", "NIFL Championship", "Belfast and Northern Counties Railway", "Charlie Nash (boxer)", "Belfast", "Diocese of Derry and Raphoe", "Culmore", "Catholic University of America Press", "Victoria Cross", "Scouting in Northern Ireland", "Foyle Cup", "Ferencvárosi TC", "County Londonderry", "Crescent Link Retail Park", "sectarian", "Clare Crockett", "Catholic emancipation", "Derry Urban Area", "British Army", "President of the United States", "Northbrook Technology", "The Irish Post", "maritime climate", "Rough Guides", "Jennifer Johnston (novelist)", "Social Democratic and Labour Party", "Georgian architecture", "Q Radio Network", "Strabane District Council", "TheFreeLibrary.com", "Martin McGuinness", "Tír Chonaill", "Glendermott Cricket Club", "TUI Airways", "Karl Marx", "Bogside Artists", "Limerick", "Aaron McEneff", "Department for Regional Development", "Met Office", "Londonderry, New South Wales", "Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State", "Collins English Dictionary", "narrow gauge", "William C. Campbell (scientist)", "DuPont (1802–2017)", "Iarnród Éireann", "Strabane", "City of Derry Jazz and Big Band Festival", "Brooke Park", "dual carriageway", "Freedom of the City", "post town", "National Football League (Ireland)", "Mark H. Durkan", "Wars of the Three Kingdoms", "Ulsterbus", "Lumen Christi College (Derry, Northern Ireland)", "Republic of Ireland", "Apprentice Boys", "Martin O'Neill", "The Sash", "Feargal Sharkey", "St Columb's Cathedral", "Leah Totton", "Das Kapital", "Irish border", "The One Show", "Maydown", "Battle of Newtownbutler", "Londonderry Cow Market railway station", "Chief (heraldry)", "George Monck", "Daryl Gurney", "St. Columb's College", "All-Ireland Senior Football Championship", "Bus Éireann", "Northern Ireland", "Presbyterian", "North Africa campaign", "Henry Docwra, 1st Baron Docwra of Culmore", "Manchester University Press", "Ryanair", "Irish Football Association", "slobland", "Ulster Senior Football Championship", "Derry city walls", "Londonderry, New Hampshire", "St Cecilia's College", "Erol Alkan", "New Model Army", "Trojans F.C.", "Public Record Office of Northern Ireland", "Gaelic football", "North West Senior League", "Foyle Bridge", "Enniskillen", "Seagate Technology", "PRS for Music", "Max Kennedy Horton", "Derry walls", "City of Derry Airport", "Phil Coulter", "Londonderry, Guernsey County, Ohio", "Londonderry Victoria Road railway station", "Slash (punctuation)", "Apprentice Boys of Derry", "The Town I Loved So Well", "Ulster King of Arms", "HarperCollins", "Cricket", "BBC Online", "SV Werder Bremen", "Nell McCafferty", "Aileen Morrison", "RTÉ Archives", "Millennium Forum", "Reach plc", "BBC Radio Foyle", "CIÉ", "The Irish News", "Ulsterbus Foyle", "Northern Ireland Railways", "World War I", "Glorious Revolution", "Raytheon 9", "letters patent", "Kilmacrennan", "League of Ireland", "UK telephone code misconceptions", "Derry and Strabane District Council", "orca", "Nadine Coyle", "Parliament of England", "Tudor conquest of Ireland", "Saint Brendan's", "Derry City FC", "the Undertones", "Granta Books", "List of abbeys and priories in Northern Ireland", "William Donn de Burgh, 3rd Earl of Ulster", "WP:DERRY", "Foyle College", "Foyle (Assembly constituency)", "Edwardian architecture", "Dana Rosemary Scallon", "Irish gauge", "John Park (VC)", "Dictionary of Irish Biography", "County Tyrone", "John Duddy", "Royal Canadian Navy", "Irish language", "Shane Duffy", "BBC Television", "Alex Attwood", "Derry City Council", "Peace Bridge (Foyle)", "Nik Cohn", "Coleraine", "The Honourable The Irish Society", "abolitionism in the United States", "Metro (Belfast)", "Darron Gibson", "Edwardian", "Edward Pemberton Leach", "livery companies", "Stranorlar", "dual gauge", "George Farquhar", "Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency", "John Benjamins", "County Antrim", "Bishop Street Courthouse", "the Troubles", "arms industry", "Loganair", "George Paulet (1553–1608)", "Londonderry and Enniskillen Railway", "Basketball Northern Ireland", "Letterkenny", "INVISTA", "IFK Göteborg", "Omagh", "Alexander MacDonnell, 3rd Earl of Antrim", "James Burke (science historian)", "Moville", "Tom McGuinness (Gaelic footballer)", "Mark Durkan", "Strabane Canal", "Guildhall, Derry", "Bogside", "Kevlar", "Craigavon Bridge", "Köppen climate classification", "Anglo-Irish Treaty", "Seán Dolans GAC", "Frederick Hervey, 4th Earl of Bristol", "David & Charles", "Northern Ireland Executive", "Doire Colmcille CLG", "St. Joseph's Boys' School", "Shannon Airport", "River Bann", "John Henry Whyte", "The O'Brien Press", "Richmond Centre (Derry)", "Burning of Derry", "Great Famine (Ireland)", "Derry, Pennsylvania", "Meteorological Office", "Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister", "anglicisation", "New Hampshire", "Derry City Council, Re Application for Judicial Review", "Nobel Foundation", "Na Magha CLG", "BBC", "Ian Allan Publishing", "Martin Luther King III", "Giant's Causeway", "DuPont", "County Donegal", "Buncrana", "City of Derry Tramways", "U-boat", "Museum of Free Derry", "City of Derry Rugby Club", "Garter Principal King of Arms", "Thornhill College", "James Mehaffey", "Neil Hannon", "River Foyle", "Oxford University Press", "Neoprene", "Seamus Heaney", "Eamonn McCann", "RAF Ballykelly", "Diamond War Memorial", "reform of local government in Northern Ireland", "Privy Council", "Kriegsmarine", "Cahir O'Doherty", "Derry City F.C.", "Harrods", "Joyce Cary", "The Troubles", "Springer Science+Business Media", "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington", "Field marshal (United Kingdom)", "US Department of State", "Ballynagalliagh", "The Undertones", "List of towns and villages in Northern Ireland", "Lycra", "The Troubles in Ulster (1920–1922)", "Donegal County Council", "Sligo", "Raphael Armattoe", "Edinburgh", "Maiden City F.C.", "UK City of Culture", "Raytheon", "McCorkell Line", "Protestant", "Jimmy McShane", "Free Derry Corner", "Battle of Aughrim", "crest (heraldry)", "Walls of Derry", "oak", "Bloody Sunday (Northern Ireland 1972)", "Church of Ireland", "Ballybofey", "Maiden City Festival", "Lough Swilly", "Nerve Centre (organisation)", "Magee Campus", "Johnston Press", "Colin Murphy (comedian)", "BBC1", "Prime Minister of Northern Ireland", "Londonderry, Nova Scotia", "Battle of the Boyne", "Irish Republican Army (1917–22)", "C9TV", "Amelia Earhart", "London Stansted Airport", "Drumahoe", "Shrove, County Donegal", "Londonderry and Coleraine Railway", "Irish nationalism", "Steelstown GAC", "Edinburgh Airport", "Derry ~ Londonderry railway station", "Merchant Taylors' Company", "Charles I of England", "post-2008 Irish economic downturn", "Northern Ireland Intermediate League", "Glasgow", "Tower Museum", "Jim McLaughlin (footballer)", "Jenners", "Lisneal College", "royal charter", "Creggan Country Park", "Ulster Scots dialect", "D. C. Heath & Co.", "Derry GAA", "New South Wales Electoral Commission", "Partition of Ireland", "Electoral district of Londonderry", "William Pitt the Younger", "City of London", "Translink (Northern Ireland)", "Irish Independent", "Murals", "Radio 1's Big Weekend", "Roundhead", "civil rights", "Macy's", "HM Stationery Office", "Glasgow Airport", "diesel multiple unit", "Lisa McGee", "Oakgrove Integrated College", "partition of Ireland", "Walter Liath de Burgh", "Newbuildings", "Derry City and Strabane", "Royal Engineers Museum", "Q102.9", "Yorkshire Dales", "Tourism Northern Ireland", "Peter Benson (architect)", "National Football League (Ireland) 2009", "A2 road (Northern Ireland)", "Conor Murphy", "Basil Brooke, 1st Viscount Brookeborough", "Ulster Transport Authority", "Ulster", "Londonderry Island", "Carndonagh", "James McClean", "Ulysses S. Grant", "Department of the Environment (Northern Ireland)", "British Library", "Robert Peel", "Richard Needham", "Anglican", "Office of Communications", "House of Commons of the United Kingdom", "Connecticut College", "Dara Ó Briain", "Government of Ireland", "livery company", "TFI Local Link", "Mallorca", "Special EU Programmes Body", "Derry, New Hampshire", "Greencastle, County Donegal", "Ulster University", "Londonderry and Lough Swilly Railway", "Lonely Planet", "Royal Mail", "Londonderry Sentinel", "Northern Counties Committee", "standard gauge", "Marquess of Londonderry", "The Irish Times", "North West Regional College", "Political science", "Columba", "County Donegal Railways Joint Committee", "Gaelic Athletic Association", "Strathfoyle", "Nobel Prize", "Routledge", "Void Gallery", "Winston Churchill", "Charles H. Kerr & Co.", "Scottish Highlands", "Ken Good", "Irish Rebellion of 1641", "blazon", "Gerry Anderson (broadcaster)", "Belfast Central railway station", "Bonded warehouse", "Horsecar", "Tierra del Fuego", "O'Doherty's Rebellion", "City status in the United Kingdom", "Dublin", "Londonderry, Edmonton, Alberta", "Manchester Airport", "Derry and District League", "A5 road (Northern Ireland)", "Nerve Centre", "Owen Roe O'Neill", "Belfast Telegraph", "Brigade Cricket Club", "Willie Doherty", "Royal Navy", "Battle of the Bogside", "Galway", "Institute F.C.", "Londonderry, Yorkshire", "Allies of World War II", "Londonderry, Vermont", "Damian McGinty", "Britain in Bloom", "Liverpool John Lennon Airport", "walled city", "Frederick Schomberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg", "Wiley-Blackwell", "World War II", "Edward Daly (bishop)", "gerrymandering", "Jurys Inn", "St Eugene's Cathedral", "planned city", "Western Approaches", "Seamus Deane", "Waterside, Derry", "Slaughtmanus GAC", "English Reformation", "passing loop", "Siege of Derry", "Miles Ryan", "Ballyoan Cemetery", "Brian Cowen", "The Divine Comedy (band)", "Foyleside Shopping Centre", "Irish War of Independence", "Lord Bishop", "The Apprentice (British TV series)", "Bernard Montgomery", "William Sampson (lawyer)", "Bobby Sands", "local government in Northern Ireland", "Ballykelly, County Londonderry", "Craigavon (planned town)", "Brian Friel", "Plantation of Ulster", "Hypalon", "Magee College", "Inishowen", "University for Derry Committee", "Daily Mirror", "Derry-Londonderry name dispute", "Lisahally", "The National Archives (United Kingdom)", "George VI", "Arqiva", "Ireland", "Battle of the Atlantic", "Micheál Martin", "General (United Kingdom)", "Foyle (UK Parliament constituency)" ]
9,058	European influence in Afghanistan	European influence in Afghanistan has been present in the country since the Victorian era, when the competing imperial powers of Britain and Russia contested for control over Afghanistan as part of the Great Game. ==Rise of Dost Mohammad Khan== After the decline of the Durrani dynasty in 1823, Dost Mohammad Khan established the Barakzai dynasty. Dost Mohammad achieved prominence among his brothers through clever use of the support of his mother's Qizilbash tribesmen and his own youthful apprenticeship under his brother, Fateh Khan. However, in the same year, the Afghans lost their former stronghold of Peshawar to the Sikh Khalsa Army of Ranjit Singh at the Battle of Nowshera. The Afghan forces in the battle were supported by Azim Khan, half-brother of Dost Mohammad. In 1834 Dost Mohammad defeated an invasion by the former ruler, Shuja Shah Durrani, but his absence from Kabul gave the Sikhs the opportunity to expand westward. Ranjit Singh's forces moved from Peshawar into territory ruled directly by Kabul. In 1836 Dost Mohammad's forces, under the command of his son Akbar Khan, defeated the Sikhs at the Battle of Jamrud, a post fifteen kilometres west of Peshawar. This was a pyrrhic victory and they failed to fully dislodge the Sikhs from Jamrud. The Afghan leader did not follow up this triumph by retaking Peshawar, however, but instead contacted Lord Auckland, the new British governor-general in British India, for help in dealing with the Sikhs. The letter marked the beginning of British influence in Afghanistan, and the subsequent Anglo-Russian struggle known as the Great Game. ==The Great Game== The British became the major European power in the Indian subcontinent after the 1763 Treaty of Paris and began to show interest in Afghanistan as early as their 1809 treaty with Shuja Shah Durrani. It was the threat of the expanding Russian Empire beginning to push for an advantage in the Afghanistan region that placed pressure on British India, in what became known as the Great Game. The Great Game set in motion the confrontation of the British and Russian empires, whose spheres of influence moved steadily closer to one another until they met in Afghanistan. It also involved repeated attempts by the British to establish a puppet government in Kabul. The remainder of the 19th century saw greater European involvement in Afghanistan and her surrounding territories and heightened conflict among the ambitious local rulers as Afghanistan's fate played out globally. The débâcle of the Afghan civil war left a vacuum in the Hindu Kush area that concerned the British, who were well aware of the many times in history it had been employed as an invasion route to South Asia. In the early decades of the 19th century, it became clear to the British that the major threat to their interests in India would not come from the fragmented Afghan empire, the Iranians, or the French, but from the Russians, who had already begun a steady advance southward from the Caucasus winning decisive wars against the Ottomans and Persians. At the same time, the Russians feared the possibility a permanent British foothold in Central Asia as the British expanded northward, incorporating the Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir into their empire; later to become Pakistan. The British viewed Russia's absorption of the Caucasus, the Kyrgyz and Turkmen lands, the Khanate of Khiva, and the Emirate of Bukhara with equal suspicion as a threat to their interests in the Indian subcontinent. In addition to this rivalry between Britain and Russia, there were two specific reasons for British concern over Russia's intentions. First was the Russian influence at the Iranian court, which prompted the Russians to support Iran in its attempt to take Herat, historically the western gateway to Afghanistan and northern India. In 1837 Iran advanced on Herat with the support and advice of Russian officers. The second immediate reason was the presence in Kabul in 1837 of a Russian agent, Yan Vitkevich, who was ostensibly there, as was the British agent Alexander Burnes, for commercial discussions. The British demanded that Dost Mohammad sever all contact with the Iranians and Russians, remove Vitkevich from Kabul, surrender all claims to Peshawar, and respect Peshawar's independence as well as that of Kandahar, which was under the control of his brothers at the time. In return, the British government intimated that it would ask Ranjit Singh to reconcile with the Afghans. When Auckland refused to put the agreement in writing, Dost Mohammad suspended negotiations the British and began negotiations with Vitkevich. In 1838 Auckland, Ranjit Singh, and Shuja signed an agreement stating that Shuja would regain control of Kabul and Kandahar with the help of the British and Sikhs; he would accept Sikh rule of the former Afghan provinces already controlled by Ranjit Singh, and that Herat would remain independent. In practice, the plan replaced Dost Mohammad with a British figurehead whose autonomy would be similar to the princes who ruled over the princely states in British India. It soon became apparent to the British that Sikh participation, advancing toward Kabul through the Khyber Pass while Shuja and the British advanced through Kandahar, would not be forthcoming. Auckland's plan in the spring of 1838 was for the Sikhs to place Shuja on the Afghan throne, with British support. By the end of the summer however, the plan had changed; now the British alone would impose the pliant Shuja Shah. ==First Anglo-Afghan War, 1838–1842== As a prelude to his invasion plans, the Governor-General of India Lord Auckland issued the Simla Manifesto in October 1838, setting forth the necessary reasons for British intervention in Afghanistan. The manifesto stated that in order to ensure the welfare of India, the British must have a trustworthy ally on India's western frontier. The British claim that their troops were merely supporting Shah Shujah's small army in retaking what was once his throne fooled no one. Although the Simla Manifesto stated that British troops would be withdrawn as soon as Shuja was installed in Kabul, Shuja's rule depended entirely on British support to suppress rebellion and on British funds to buy the support of tribal chiefs. The British denied that they were invading Afghanistan, instead claiming they were supporting its legitimate Shuja government "against foreign interference and factious opposition". In November 1841 insurrection and massacre flared up in Kabul. The British vacillated and disagreed and were beleaguered in their inadequate cantonments. The British negotiated with the most influential sirdars, cut off as they were by winter and insurgent tribes from any hope of relief. Mohammad Akbar Khan, son of the captive Dost Mohammad, arrived in Kabul and became effective leader of the sirdars. At a conference with them Sir William MacNaghten was killed, but in spite of this, the sirdars' demands were agreed to by the British and they withdrew. During the withdrawal they were attacked by Ghilzai tribesmen and in running battles through the snowbound passes nearly the entire column of 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers were killed. Of the British only one, Dr. William Brydon, reached Jalalabad, while a few others were captured. Afghan forces loyal to Akbar Khan besieged the remaining British contingents at Kandahar, Ghazni and Jalalabad. Ghazni fell, but the other garrisons held out, and with the help of reinforcements from India their besiegers were defeated. While preparations were under way for a renewed advance on Kabul, the new Governor-General Lord Ellenborough ordered British forces to leave Afghanistan after securing the release of the prisoners from Kabul and taking reprisals. The forces from Kandahar and Jalalabad again defeated Akbar Khan, retook and sacked Ghazni and Kabul, rescuing the prisoners before withdrawing through the Khyber Pass. ==Mid-nineteenth century== After months of chaos in Kabul, Mohammad Akbar Khan secured local control and in April 1843 his father Dost Mohammad, who had been released by the British, returned to the throne in Afghanistan. In the following decade, Dost Mohammad concentrated his efforts on reconquering Mazari Sharif, Konduz, Badakhshan, and Kandahar. Mohammad Akbar Khan died in 1845. During the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49), Dost Mohammad's last effort to take Peshawar failed. By 1854 the British wanted to resume relations with Dost Mohammad, whom they had essentially ignored in the intervening twelve years. The 1855 Treaty of Peshawar reopened diplomatic relations, proclaimed respect for each side's territorial integrity, and pledged both sides as friends of each other's friends and enemies of each other's enemies. In 1857 an addendum to the 1855 treaty permitted a British military mission to become a presence in Kandahar (but not Kabul) during a conflict with the Persians, who had attacked Herat in 1856. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, some British officials suggested restoring Peshawar to Dost Mohammad, in return for his support against the rebellious sepoys of the Bengal Army, but this view was rejected by British political officers on the North West frontier, who believed that Dost Mohammad would see this as a sign of weakness and turn against the British. In 1863 Dost Mohammad retook Herat with British acquiescence. A few months later, he died. Sher Ali Khan, his third son, and proclaimed successor, failed to recapture Kabul from his older brother, Mohammad Afzal (whose troops were led by his son, Abdur Rahman) until 1868, after which Abdur Rahman retreated across the Amu Darya and bided his time. In the years immediately following the First Anglo-Afghan War, and especially after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British in India, Liberal Party governments in London took a political view of Afghanistan as a buffer state. By the time Sher Ali had established control in Kabul in 1868, he found the British ready to support his regime with arms and funds, but nothing more. Over the next ten years, relations between the Afghan ruler and Britain deteriorated steadily. The Afghan ruler was worried about the southward encroachment of Russia, which by 1873 had taken over the lands of the khan, or ruler, of Khiva. Sher Ali sent an envoy seeking British advice and support. The previous year the British had signed an agreement with the Russians in which the latter agreed to respect the northern boundaries of Afghanistan and to view the territories of the Afghan Emir as outside their sphere of influence. The British, however, refused to give any assurances to the disappointed Sher Ali. ==Second Anglo-Afghan War, 1878–1880== After tension between Russia and Britain in Europe ended with the June 1878 Congress of Berlin, Russia turned its attention to Central Asia. That same summer, Russia sent an uninvited diplomatic mission to Kabul. Sher Ali tried, but failed, to keep them out. Russian envoys arrived in Kabul on 22 July 1878 and on 14 August, the British demanded that Sher Ali accept a British mission too. The amir not only refused to receive a British mission but threatened to stop it if it were dispatched. Lord Lytton, the viceroy, ordered a diplomatic mission to set out for Kabul in September 1878 but the mission was turned back as it approached the eastern entrance of the Khyber Pass, triggering the Second Anglo-Afghan War. A British force of about 40,000 fighting men was distributed into military columns which penetrated Afghanistan at three different points. An alarmed Sher Ali attempted to appeal in person to the Tsar for assistance, but unable to do so, he returned to Mazari Sharif, where he died on 21 February 1879. With British forces occupying much of the country, Sher Ali's son and successor, Mohammad Yaqub Khan, signed the Treaty of Gandamak in May 1879 in order to put a quick end to the conflict. According to this agreement and in return for an annual subsidy and vague assurances of assistance in case of foreign aggression, Yaqub relinquished control of Afghan foreign affairs to the British. British representatives were installed in Kabul and other locations, British control was extended to the Khyber and Michni Passes, and Afghanistan ceded various frontier areas and Quetta to Britain. The British forces then withdrew. Soon afterwards, an uprising in Kabul led to the killings of Britain's Resident in Kabul, Sir Pierre Cavagnari and his guards and staff on 3 September 1879, provoking the second phase of the Second Afghan War. Major General Sir Frederick Roberts led the Kabul Field Force over the Shutargardan Pass into central Afghanistan, defeated the Afghan Army at Char Asiab on 6 October 1879 and occupied Kabul. Ghazi Mohammad Jan Khan Wardak staged an uprising and attacked British forces near Kabul in the Siege of the Sherpur Cantonment in December 1879, but his defeat there resulted in the collapse of this rebellion. Yaqub Khan, suspected of complicity in the killings of Cavagnari and his staff, was obliged to abdicate. The British considered a number of possible political settlements, including partitioning Afghanistan between multiple rulers or placing Yaqub's brother Ayub Khan on the throne, but ultimately decided to install his cousin Abdur Rahman Khan as emir instead. Ayub Khan, who had been serving as governor of Herat, rose in revolt, defeated a British detachment at the Battle of Maiwand in July 1880 and besieged Kandahar. Roberts then led the main British force from Kabul and decisively defeated Ayub Khan in September at the Battle of Kandahar, bringing his rebellion to an end. Abdur Rahman had confirmed the Treaty of Gandamak, leaving the British in control of the territories ceded by Yaqub Khan and ensuring British control of Afghanistan's foreign policy in exchange for protection and a subsidy. Abandoning the provocative policy of maintaining a British resident in Kabul, but having achieved all their other objectives, the British withdrew. ==The Iron Amir, 1880–1901== As far as British interests were concerned, Abdur Rahman answered their prayers: a forceful, intelligent leader capable of welding his divided people into a state; and he was willing to accept limitations to his power imposed by British control of his country's foreign affairs and the British buffer state policy. His twenty-one-year reign was marked by efforts to modernize and establish control of the kingdom, whose boundaries were delineated by the two empires bordering it. Abdur Rahman turned his considerable energies to what evolved into the creation of the modern state of Afghanistan. He achieved this consolidation of Afghanistan in three ways. He suppressed various rebellions and followed up his victories with harsh punishment, execution, and deportation. He broke the stronghold of Pashtun tribes by forcibly transplanting them. He transplanted his most powerful Pashtun enemies, the Ghilzai, and other tribes from southern and south-central Afghanistan to areas north of the Hindu Kush with predominantly non-Pashtun populations. The last non-Muslim Afghans of Kafiristan north of Kabul were forcefully converted to Islam. Finally, he created a system of provincial governorates different from old tribal boundaries. Provincial governors had a great deal of power in local matters, and an army was placed at their disposal to enforce tax collection and suppress dissent. Abdur Rahman kept a close eye on these governors, however, by creating an effective intelligence system. During his reign, tribal organization began to be eroded as provincial government officials allowed land to change hands outside the traditional clan and tribal limits. The Pashtuns battled and conquered the Uzbeks and forced them into the status of ruled people who were discriminated against. Out of anti-Russian strategic interests, the British assisted the Afghan conquest of the Uzbek Khanates, giving weapons to the Afghans and supporting the Afghan government's colonization of northern Afghanistan by Pashtuns, which involved sending massive amounts of Pashtun colonists onto Uzbek land. In addition to forging a nation from the splintered regions making up Afghanistan, Abdur Rahman tried to modernize his kingdom by forging a regular army and the first institutionalized bureaucracy. Despite his distinctly authoritarian personality, Abdur Rahman called for a loya jirga, an assemblage of royal princes, important notables, and religious leaders. According to his autobiography, Abdur Rahman had three goals: subjugating the tribes, extending government control through a strong, visible army, and reinforcing the power of the ruler and the royal family. During his visit to Rawalpindi in 1885, the Amir requested the Viceroy of India to depute a Muslim Envoy to Kabul who was noble birth and of ruling family background. Mirza Atta Ullah Khan, Sardar Bahadur s/o Khan Bahadur Mirza Fakir Ullah Khan (Saman Burj Wazirabad), a direct descendant of Jarral Rajput Rajas of Rajauri, was selected and approved by the Amir to be the British Envoy to Kabul. Abdur Rahman also paid attention to technological advance. He brought foreign physicians, engineers (especially for mining), geologists, and printers to Afghanistan. He imported European machinery and encouraged the establishment of small factories to manufacture soap, candles, and leather goods. He sought European technical advice on communications, transport, and irrigation. Local Afghan tribes strongly resisted this modernization. Workmen making roads had to be protected by the army against local warriors. Nonetheless, despite these sweeping internal policies, Abdur Rahman's foreign policy was completely in foreign hands. The first important frontier dispute was the Panjdeh crisis of 1885, precipitated by Russian encroachment into Central Asia. Having seized the Merv (now Mary) Oasis by 1884, Russian forces were directly adjacent to Afghanistan. Claims to the Panjdeh Oasis were in debate, with the Russians keen to take over all the region's Turkoman domains. After battling Afghan forces in the spring of 1885, the Russians seized the oasis. Russian and British troops were quickly alerted, but the two powers reached a compromise; Russia was in possession of the oasis, and Britain believed it could keep the Russians from advancing any farther. Without an Afghan say in the matter, the Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission agreed that the Russians would relinquish the farthest territory captured in their advance but retain Panjdeh. This agreement on these border sections delineated for Afghanistan a permanent northern frontier at the Amu Darya, but also involved the loss of much territory, especially around Panjdeh. The second section of Afghan border demarcated during Abdur Rahman's reign was in the Wakhan. The British insisted that Abdur Rahman accept sovereignty over this remote region, where unruly Kyrgyz held sway; he had no choice but to accept Britain's compromise. In 1895 and 1896, another Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission agreed on the frontier boundary to the far northeast of Afghanistan, which bordered Chinese territory (although the Chinese did not formally accept this as a boundary between the two countries until 1964.) For Abdur Rahman, delineating the boundary with India (through the Pashtun area) was far more significant, and it was during his reign that the Durand Line was drawn. Under pressure, Abdur Rahman agreed in 1893 to accept a mission headed by the British Indian foreign secretary, Sir Mortimer Durand, to define the limits of British and Afghan control in the Pashtun territories. Boundary limits were agreed on by Durand and Abdur Rahman before the end of 1893, but there is some question about the degree to which Abdur Rahman willingly ceded certain regions. There were indications that he regarded the Durand Line as a delimitation of separate areas of political responsibility, not a permanent international frontier, and that he did not explicitly cede control over certain parts (such as Kurram and Chitral) that were already in British control under the Treaty of Gandamak. The Durand Line cut through tribes and bore little relation to the realities of demography or military strategy. The line laid the foundation not for peace between the border regions, but for heated disagreement between the governments of Afghanistan and British India, and later, Afghanistan and Pakistan over what came to be known as the issue of Pashtunistan or 'Land of the Pashtuns'. (See Siege of Malakand). The clearest manifestation that Abdur Rahman had established control in Afghanistan was the peaceful succession of his eldest son, Habibullah Khan, to the throne on his father's death in October 1901. Although Abdur Rahman had fathered many children, he groomed Habibullah to succeed him, and he made it difficult for his other sons to contest the succession by keeping power from them and sequestering them in Kabul under his control. ==Habibullah Khan, 1901–1919== Habibullah Khan, Abdur Rahman Khan's eldest son and child of a slave mother, kept a close watch on the palace intrigues revolving around his father's more distinguished wife (a granddaughter of Dost Mohammad), who sought the throne for her own son. Although made secure in his position as ruler by virtue of support from the army which was created by his father, Habibullah was not as domineering as Abdur Rahman. Consequently, the influence of religious leaders as well as that of Mahmud Tarzi, a cousin of the king, increased during his reign. Mahmud Tarzi, a highly educated, well-traveled poet and journalist, founded an Afghan nationalist newspaper with Habibullah's agreement, and until 1919 he used the newspaper as a platform for rebutting clerical criticism of Western-influenced changes in government and society, for espousing full Afghan independence, and for other reforms. Tarzi's passionate Afghan nationalism influenced a future generation of Asian reformers. The boundary with Iran was firmly delineated in 1904, replacing the ambiguous line made by a British commission in 1872. Agreement could not be reached, however, on sharing the waters of the Helmand River. Like all foreign policy developments of this period affecting Afghanistan, the conclusion of the "Great Game" between Russia and Britain occurred without the Afghan ruler's participation. The 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention (the Convention of St. Petersburg) not only divided the region into separate areas of Russian and British influence but also established foundations for Afghan neutrality. The convention provided for Russian acquiescence that Afghanistan was now outside this sphere of influence, and for Russia to consult directly with Britain on matters relating to Russian-Afghan relations. Britain, for its part, would not occupy or annex Afghan territory, or interfere in Afghanistan's internal affairs. During World War I, Afghanistan remained neutral despite pressure to support Turkey when its sultan proclaimed his nation's participation in what it considered a holy war. Habibullah did, however, entertain an Indo-German–Turkish mission in Kabul in 1915 that had as its titular head the Indian nationalist Mahendra Pratap and was led by Oskar Niedermayer and the German legate Werner Otto von Hentig. After much procrastination, he won an agreement from the Central Powers for a huge payment and arms provision in exchange for attacking British India. But the crafty Afghan ruler clearly viewed the war as an opportunity to play one side off against the other, for he also offered the British to resist a Central Powers attack on India in exchange for an end to British control of Afghan foreign policy. ==Third Anglo-Afghan War and Independence== Amanullah's ten years of reign initiated a period of dramatic change in Afghanistan in both foreign and domestic politics. Amanullah declared full independence and sparked the Third Anglo-Afghan War. Amanullah altered foreign policy in his new relations with external powers and transformed domestic politics with his social, political, and economic reforms. Although his reign ended abruptly, he achieved some notable successes, and his efforts failed as much due to the centrifugal forces of tribal Afghanistan and the machinations of Russia and Britain as to any political folly on his part. Amanullah came to power just as the entente between Russia and Britain broke down following the Russian Revolution of 1917. Once again Afghanistan provided a stage on which the great powers played out their schemes against one another. Keen to modernise his country and remove all foreign influence, Amanullah, sought to shore up his powerbase. Amidst intrigue in the Afghan court, and political and civil unrest in India, he sought to divert attention from the internal divisions of Afghanistan and unite all faction behind him by attacking the British. Using the civil unrest in India as an excuse to move troops to the Durand Line, Afghan troops crossed the border at the western end of the Khyber Pass on 3 May 1919 and occupied the village of Bagh, the scene of an earlier uprising in April. In response, the Indian government ordered a full mobilisation and on 6 May 1919 declared war. For the British it had come at a time when they were still recovering from the First World War. The troops that were stationed in India were mainly reserves and Territorials, who were awaiting demobilisation and keen to return to Britain, whilst the few regular regiments that were available were tired and depleted from five years of fighting. British forces deployed air forces for the first time in the region, and the King's home was directly targeted in what is the first case of aerial bombardment in Afghanistan's history. The attacks played a key role in forcing an armistice but brought an angry rebuke from King Amanullah. He wrote: "It is a matter of great regret that the throwing of bombs by zeppelins on London was denounced as a most savage act and the bombardment of places of worship and sacred spots was considered a most abominable operation. While we now see with our own eyes that such operations were a habit which is prevalent among all civilized people of the west". The fighting concluded in August 1919 and Britain virtually dictated the terms of the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919, a temporary armistice that provided, on one somewhat ambiguous interpretation, for Afghan self-determination in foreign affairs. Before final negotiations were concluded in 1921, however, Afghanistan had already begun to establish its own foreign policy without repercussions anyway, including diplomatic relations with the new government in the Soviet Union in 1919. During the 1920s, Afghanistan established diplomatic relations with most major countries. ==Amanullah Khan, 1919–1929== On 20 February 1919, Habibullah Khan was assassinated on a hunting trip. He had not declared a succession, but left his third son, Amanullah Khan, in charge in Kabul. Amanullah did have an older brother, Nasrullah Khan. But, because Amanullah controlled both the national treasury and the army, Amanullah was well situated to seize power. The army's support allowed Amanullah to suppress other claims and imprison those relatives who would not swear loyalty to him. Within a few months, the new amir had gained the allegiance of most tribal leaders and established control over the cities. Amanullah Khan's reforms were heavily influenced by Europe. This came through the influence of Mahmud Tarzi, who was both Amanullah Khan's father-in-law and Foreign Minister. Mahmud Tarzi, a highly educated, well-traveled poet, journalist, and diplomat, was a key figure that brought Western dress and etiquette to Afghanistan. He also fought for progressive reforms such as woman's rights, educational rights, and freedom of press. All of these influences, brought by Tarzi and others, were welcomed by Amanullah Khan. In 1926, Amanullah ended the Emirate of Afghanistan and proclaimed the Kingdom of Afghanistan with himself as king. In 1927 and 1928, King Amanullah Khan and his wife Soraya Tarzi visited Europe. On this trip they were honored and feted. In fact, in 1928 the King and Queen of Afghanistan received honorary degrees from the University of Oxford. This was an era when other Muslim nations, like Turkey and Egypt were also on the path to modernization. King Amanullah was so impressed with the social progress of Europe that he tried to implement them right away, this met with heavy resistance from the conservative society and eventually led to his demise. Amanullah enjoyed early popularity within Afghanistan and he used his power to modernize the country. Amanullah created new cosmopolitan schools for both boys and girls in the region and overturned centuries-old traditions such as strict dress codes for women. He created a new capital city and increased trade with Europe and Asia. He also advanced a modernist constitution that incorporated equal rights and individual freedoms. This rapid modernization though, created a backlash, and a reactionary uprising known as the Khost rebellion which was suppressed in 1925. After Amanullah travelled to Europe in late 1927, opposition to his rule increased. An uprising in Jalalabad culminated in a march to the capital, and much of the army deserted rather than resist. On 14 January 1929, Amanullah abdicated in favor of his brother, King Inayatullah Khan. On 17 January, Inayatullah abdicated and Habibullah Kalakani became the next ruler of Afghanistan and restored the emirate. However, his rule was short lived and, on 17 October 1929, Habibullah Kalakani was overthrown and replaced by King Nadir Khan. After his abdication in 1929, Amanullah went into temporary exile in India. When he attempted to return to Afghanistan, he had little support from the people. From India, the ex-king traveled to Europe and settled in Italy, and later in Switzerland. Meanwhile, Nadir Khan made sure his return to Afghanistan was impossible by engaging in a propaganda war. Nadir Khan accused Amanullah Khan of kufr with his pro western policies. ==Mohammed Zahir Shah, 1933–1973== In 1933, after the assassination of Nadir Khan, Mohammed Zahir Shah became king. In 1940, the Afghan legation in Berlin asked that if Germany won the Second World War would the Reich give all of British India up to the Indus river to Afghanistan. Ernst von Weizsacker, the State Secretary at the Auswärtiges Amt wrote to the German minister in Kabul on 3 October 1940: "The Afghan minister called on me on September 30 and conveyed greetings from his minister president, as well as their good wishes for a favourable outcome of the war. He inquired whether German aims in Asia coincided with Afghan hopes; he alluded to the oppression of Arab countries and referred to the 15m Afghans (Pashtuns, mainly in the North West Frontier province) who were forced to suffer on Indian territory.My statement that Germany's goal was the liberation of the peoples of the region referred to, who were under the British yoke was received with satisfaction by the Afghan minister. He stated that justice for Afghanistan would be created only when the country's frontier had been extended to the Indus; this would also apply if India should secede from Britain. The Afghan remarked that Afghanistan had given proof of her loyal attitude by vigorously resisting English pressure to break off relations with Germany." No Afghan government ever accepted the Durand Line which divided the ethnically Pashtun population into the North-West Frontier Province of the British Indian Empire (modern north-western Pakistan) and Afghanistan, and it was the hope of Kabul that if Germany won the war, then all of the Pashtun people might be united into one realm.	[ "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa", "Indian Rebellion of 1857", "Sphere of influence", "Emirate of Bukhara", "Mohammed Zahir Shah", "Bengal Army", "Fateh Khan", "Project Gutenberg", "Pierre Louis Napoleon Cavagnari", "Nadir Khan", "Western imperialism in Asia", "Ottoman Empire", "Qizilbash", "Michni Pass", "pyrrhic victory", "Oskar Niedermayer", "Russian Empire", "Archibald Forbes", "Mahmud Tarzi", "Mohammad Yaqub Khan", "Panjdeh", "Qajar dynasty", "Ghilzai", "demography", "Massacre of Elphinstone's Army", "Abdur Rahman Khan", "Kashmir", "Jalalabad", "Ayub Khan (Emir of Afghanistan)", "Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition", "Afghanistan", "Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough", "Chitral", "Caucasus", "Sikh Khalsa Army", "Herat", "Habibullah Kalakani", "Ranjit Singh", "buffer state", "Werner Otto von Hentig", "Yan Vitkevich", "Governor-General of India", "Russian Revolution of 1917", "the Great Game", "Kabul Field Force", "Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war", "Khanate of Khiva", "Mortimer Durand", "Alexander Burnes", "Second Anglo-Sikh War", "Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts", "Mahendra Pratap", "s:The Empire and the century/The Frontier Question", "Punjab region", "cantonments", "Shah Shujah Durrani", "Battle of Jamrud", "Merv", "Battle of Nowshera", "Barakzai dynasty", "Kandahar", "authoritarian personality", "Turkey", "Peshawar", "Inayatullah Khan", "Amanullah Khan", "British Indian Empire", "Sher Ali Khan", "Anglo-Russian Convention", "Wakhan", "Habibullah Khan", "Siege of Malakand", "Afghan Boundary Commission", "Shuja Shah Durrani", "Treaty of Gandamak", "Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919", "Treaty of Peshawar", "Sindh", "sepoy", "Simla Manifesto", "Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA)", "Siege of the Sherpur Cantonment", "Helmand River", "Nasrullah Khan (Afghanistan)", "North-West Frontier Province", "Khost rebellion (1924–1925)", "Durand Line", "Kurram Valley", "George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland", "University of Oxford", "Durrani dynasty", "Victorian era", "Central Powers", "Amu Darya", "Congress of Berlin", "Ghazi warriors", "princely states", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Kafiristan", "loya jirga", "Switzerland", "Herat campaign of 1862–1863", "Wazir Akbar Khan", "bureaucracy", "Dost Mohammad Khan", "Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton", "The Liberal Party (UK)", "Battle of Kandahar (1880)", "Azim Khan", "Turkmen people", "William Brydon", "Hindu Kush", "Pashtunistan", "British Empire", "Kingdom of Afghanistan", "Afghan Army", "Kyrgyz people", "Aurora Nilsson", "Iran", "Pashtun colonization of northern Afghanistan", "Company rule in India", "kufr", "Panjdeh Oasis", "Soraya Tarzi", "Battle of Maiwand", "Indian subcontinent", "Char Asiab District", "Royal Air Force", "Mohammad Afzal Khan", "Mazari Sharif", "Treaty of Paris (1763)", "Khiva" ]
9,059	Dementia praecox	Dementia praecox (meaning a "premature dementia" or "precocious madness") is a disused psychiatric diagnosis that originally designated a chronic, deteriorating psychotic disorder characterized by rapid cognitive disintegration, usually beginning in the late teens or early adulthood. Over the years, the term dementia praecox was gradually replaced by the term schizophrenia, which initially had a meaning that included what is today considered the autism spectrum. The term dementia praecox was first used by German psychiatrist Heinrich Schüle in 1880. It was also used in 1891 by Arnold Pick (1851–1924), a professor of psychiatry at Charles University in Prague. In a brief clinical report, he described a person with a psychotic disorder resembling "hebephrenia" (an adolescent-onset psychotic condition). German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926) popularised the term dementia praecox in his first detailed textbook descriptions of a condition that eventually became a different disease concept later relabeled as schizophrenia. Kraepelin reduced the complex psychiatric taxonomies of the nineteenth century by dividing them into two classes: manic-depressive psychosis and dementia praecox. This division, commonly referred to as the Kraepelinian dichotomy, had a fundamental impact on twentieth-century psychiatry, though it has also been questioned. The primary disturbance in dementia praecox was seen to be a disruption in cognitive or mental functioning in attention, memory, and goal-directed behaviour. Kraepelin contrasted this with manic-depressive psychosis, now termed bipolar disorder, and also with other forms of mood disorder, including major depressive disorder. Eventually, he concluded it was not possible to distinguish his categories on the basis of cross-sectional symptoms. Kraepelin viewed dementia praecox as a progressively deteriorating disease from which no one recovered. However, by 1913, and more explicitly by 1920, Kraepelin admitted that while there may be a residual cognitive defect in most cases, the prognosis was not as uniformly dire as he had stated in the 1890s. Still, he regarded it as a specific disease concept that implied incurable, inexplicable madness. ==History== ===First use of the term=== Dementia is an ancient term which has been in use since at least the time of Lucretius in 50 BC where it meant "being out of one's mind". Until the seventeenth century, dementia referred to states of cognitive and behavioural deterioration leading to psychosocial incompetence. This condition could be innate or acquired, and the concept had no reference to a necessarily irreversible condition. It is the concept in this popular notion of psychosocial incapacity that forms the basis for the idea of legal incapacity. By the eighteenth century, at the period when the term entered into European medical discourse, clinical concepts were added to the vernacular understanding such that dementia was now associated with intellectual deficits arising from any cause and at any age. By the end of the nineteenth century, the modern 'cognitive paradigm' of dementia was taking root. This holds that dementia is understood in terms of criteria relating to aetiology, age and course which excludes former members of the family of the demented such as adults with acquired head trauma or children with cognitive deficits. Moreover, it was now understood as an irreversible condition and a particular emphasis was placed on memory loss in regard to the deterioration of intellectual functions. The term was used in passing to describe the characteristics of a subset of young mental patients by the French physician Bénédict Augustin Morel in 1852 in the first volume of his . and the term is used more frequently in his textbook which was published in 1860. Morel, whose name will be forever associated with religiously inspired concept of degeneration theory in psychiatry, used the term in a descriptive sense and not to define a specific and novel diagnostic category. It was applied as a means of setting apart a group of young men and women with "stupor". As such their condition was characterised by a certain torpor, enervation, and disorder of the will and was related to the diagnostic category of melancholia. He did not conceptualise their state as irreversible and thus his use of the term dementia was equivalent to that formed in the eighteenth century as outlined above. While some have sought to interpret, if in a qualified fashion, the use by Morel of the term as amounting to the discovery of schizophrenia, others have argued convincingly that Morel's descriptive use of the term should not be considered in any sense as a precursor to Kraepelin's dementia praecox disease concept. This is due to the fact that their concepts of dementia differed significantly from each other, with Kraepelin employing the more modern sense of the word and that Morel was not describing a diagnostic category. Indeed, until the advent of Pick and Kraepelin, Morel's term had vanished without a trace and there is little evidence to suggest that either Pick or indeed Kraepelin were even aware of Morel's use of the term until long after they had published their own disease concepts bearing the same name. As Eugène Minkowski stated, "An abyss separates Morel's from that of Kraepelin." Morel described several psychotic disorders that ended in dementia, and as a result he may be regarded as the first alienist or psychiatrist to develop a diagnostic system based on presumed outcome rather than on the current presentation of signs and symptoms. Morel, however, did not conduct any long-term or quantitative research on the course and outcome of dementia praecox (Kraepelin would be the first in history to do that) so this prognosis was based on speculation. It is impossible to discern whether the condition briefly described by Morel was equivalent to the disorder later called dementia praecox by Pick and Kraepelin. ===Time component=== Psychiatric nosology in the nineteenth-century was chaotic and characterised by a conflicting mosaic of contradictory systems. Psychiatric disease categories were based upon short-term and cross-sectional observations of patients from which were derived the putative characteristic signs and symptoms of a given disease concept. The dominant psychiatric paradigms which gave a semblance of order to this fragmentary picture were Morelian degeneration theory and the concept of "unitary psychosis" (). This latter notion, derived from the Belgian psychiatrist Joseph Guislain (1797–1860), held that the variety of symptoms attributed to mental illness were manifestations of a single underlying disease process. While these approaches had a diachronic aspect they lacked a conception of mental illness that encompassed a coherent notion of change over time in terms of the natural course of the illness and based upon an empirical observation of changing symptomatology. In 1863, the Danzig-based psychiatrist Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum (1828–1899) published his text on psychiatric nosology (The Classification of Psychiatric Diseases). Although with the passage of time this work would prove profoundly influential, when it was published it was almost completely ignored by German academia despite the sophisticated and intelligent disease classification system which it proposed. In this book Kahlbaum categorized certain typical forms of psychosis () as a single coherent type based upon their shared progressive nature which betrayed, he argued, an ongoing degenerative disease process. For Kahlbaum the disease process of was distinguished by the passage of the patient through clearly defined disease phases: a melancholic stage; a manic stage; a confusional stage; and finally a demented stage. In 1866, Kahlbaum became the director of a private psychiatric clinic in Görlitz (Prussia, today Saxony, a small town near Dresden). He was accompanied by his younger assistant, Ewald Hecker (1843–1909), and during a ten-year collaboration they conducted a series of research studies on young psychotic patients that would become a major influence on the development of modern psychiatry. Together Kahlbaum and Hecker were the first to describe and name such syndromes as dysthymia, cyclothymia, paranoia, catatonia, and hebephrenia. Perhaps their most lasting contribution to psychiatry was the introduction of the "clinical method" from medicine to the study of mental diseases, a method which is now known as psychopathology. When the element of time was added to the concept of diagnosis, a diagnosis became more than just a description of a collection of symptoms: diagnosis now also defined by prognosis (course and outcome). An additional feature of the clinical method was that the characteristic symptoms that define syndromes should be described without any prior assumption of brain pathology (although such links would be made later as scientific knowledge progressed). Karl Kahlbaum made an appeal for the adoption of the clinical method in psychiatry in his 1874 book on catatonia. Without Kahlbaum and Hecker there would be no dementia praecox. Upon his appointment to a full professorship in psychiatry at the University of Dorpat (now Tartu, Estonia) in 1886, Kraepelin gave an inaugural address to the faculty outlining his research programme for the years ahead. Attacking the "brain mythology" of Meynert and the positions of Griesinger and Gudden, Kraepelin advocated that the ideas of Kahlbaum, who was then a marginal and little known figure in psychiatry, should be followed. Therefore, he argued, a research programme into the nature of psychiatric illness should look at a large number of patients over time to discover the course which mental disease could take. It has also been suggested that Kraepelin's decision to accept the Dorpat post was informed by the fact that there he could hope to gain experience with chronic patients and this, it was presumed, would facilitate the longitudinal study of mental illness. ===Quantitative component=== Understanding that objective diagnostic methods must be based on scientific practice, Kraepelin had been conducting psychological and drug experiments on patients and normal subjects for some time when, in 1891, he left Dorpat and took up a position as professor and director of the psychiatric clinic at Heidelberg University. There he established a research program based on Kahlbaum's proposal for a more exact qualitative clinical approach, and his own innovation: a quantitative approach involving meticulous collection of data over time on each new patient admitted to the clinic (rather than only the interesting cases, as had been the habit until then). Kraepelin believed that by thoroughly describing all of the clinic's new patients on index cards, which he had been using since 1887, researcher bias could be eliminated from the investigation process. He described the method in his posthumously published memoir: The fourth edition of his textbook, , published in 1893, two years after his arrival at Heidelberg, contained some impressions of the patterns Kraepelin had begun to find in his index cards. Prognosis (course and outcome) began to feature alongside signs and symptoms in the description of syndromes, and he added a class of psychotic disorders designated "psychic degenerative processes", three of which were borrowed from Kahlbaum and Hecker: dementia paranoides (a degenerative type of Kahlbaum's paranoia, with sudden onset), catatonia (per Kahlbaum, 1874) and dementia praecox, (Hecker's hebephrenia of 1871). Kraepelin continued to equate dementia praecox with hebephrenia for the next six years. In the March 1896 fifth edition of , Kraepelin expressed confidence that his clinical method, involving analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data derived from long term observation of patients, would produce reliable diagnoses including prognosis: In this edition dementia praecox is still essentially hebephrenia, and it, dementia paranoides and catatonia are described as distinct psychotic disorders among the "metabolic disorders leading to dementia". ==Kraepelin's influence on the next century== In the 1899 (6th) edition of , Kraepelin established a paradigm for psychiatry that would dominate the following century, sorting most of the recognized forms of insanity into two major categories: dementia praecox and manic-depressive illness. Dementia praecox was characterized by disordered intellectual functioning, whereas manic-depressive illness was principally a disorder of affect or mood; and the former featured constant deterioration, virtually no recoveries and a poor outcome, while the latter featured periods of exacerbation followed by periods of remission, and many complete recoveries. The class, dementia praecox, comprised the paranoid, catatonic and hebephrenic psychotic disorders, and these forms were found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders until the fifth edition was released, in May 2013. These terms, however, are still found in general psychiatric nomenclature. ===Change in prognosis=== In the seventh, 1904, edition of , Kraepelin accepted the possibility that a small number of patients may recover from dementia praecox. Eugen Bleuler reported in 1908 that in many cases there was no inevitable progressive decline, there was temporary remission in some cases, and there were even cases of near recovery with the retention of some residual defect. In the eighth edition of Kraepelin's textbook, published in four volumes between 1909 and 1915, he described eleven forms of dementia, and dementia praecox was classed as one of the "endogenous dementias". Modifying his previous more gloomy prognosis in line with Bleuler's observations, Kraepelin reported that about 26% of his patients experienced partial remission of symptoms. Kraepelin died while working on the ninth edition of with Johannes Lange (1891–1938), who finished it and brought it to publication in 1927. ===Cause=== Though his work and that of his research associates had revealed a role for heredity, Kraepelin realized nothing could be said with certainty about the aetiology of dementia praecox, and he left out speculation regarding brain disease or neuropathology in his diagnostic descriptions. Nevertheless, from the 1896 edition onwards Kraepelin made clear his belief that poisoning of the brain, "auto-intoxication," probably by sex hormones, may underlie dementia praecox – a theory also entertained by Eugen Bleuler. Both theorists insisted dementia praecox is a biological disorder, not the product of psychological trauma. Thus, rather than a disease of hereditary degeneration or of structural brain pathology, Kraepelin believed dementia praecox was due to a systemic or "whole body" disease process, probably metabolic, which gradually affected many of the tissues and organs of the body before affecting the brain in a final, decisive cascade. Kraepelin, recognizing dementia praecox in Chinese, Japanese, Tamil and Malay patients, suggested in the eighth edition of that, "we must therefore seek the real cause of dementia praecox in conditions which are spread all over the world, which thus do not lie in race or in climate, in food or in any other general circumstance of life..." ===Treatment=== Kraepelin had experimented with hypnosis but found it wanting, and disapproved of Freud's and Jung's introduction, based on no evidence, of psychogenic assumptions to the interpretation and treatment of mental illness. He argued that, without knowing the underlying cause of dementia praecox or manic-depressive illness, there could be no disease-specific treatment, and recommended the use of long baths and the occasional use of drugs such as opiates and barbiturates for the amelioration of distress, as well as occupational activities, where suitable, for all institutionalized patients. Based on his theory that dementia praecox is the product of autointoxication emanating from the sex glands, Kraepelin experimented, without success, with injections of thyroid, gonad and other glandular extracts. ===Use of term spreads=== Kraepelin noted the dissemination of his new disease concept when in 1899 he enumerated the term's appearance in almost twenty articles in the German-language medical press. In the early years of the twentieth century the twin pillars of the Kraepelinian dichotomy, dementia praecox and manic depressive psychosis, were assiduously adopted in clinical and research contexts among the Germanic psychiatric community. German-language psychiatric concepts were always introduced much faster in America (than, say, Britain) where émigré German, Swiss and Austrian physicians essentially created American psychiatry. Swiss-émigré Adolf Meyer (1866–1950), arguably the most influential psychiatrist in America for the first half of the 20th century, published the first critique of dementia praecox in an 1896 book review of the 5th edition of Kraepelin's textbook. But it was not until 1900 and 1901 that the first three American publications regarding dementia praecox appeared, one of which was a translation of a few sections of Kraepelin's 6th edition of 1899 on dementia praecox. Adolf Meyer was the first to apply the new diagnostic term in America. He used it at the Worcester Lunatic Hospital in Massachusetts in the fall of 1896. He was also the first to apply Eugen Bleuler's term "schizophrenia" (in the form of "schizophrenic reaction") in 1913 at the Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic of the Johns Hopkins Hospital. The dissemination of Kraepelin's disease concept to the Anglophone world was facilitated in 1902 when Ross Diefendorf, a lecturer in psychiatry at Yale, published an adapted version of the sixth edition of the . This was republished in 1904 and with a new version, based on the seventh edition of Kraepelin's appearing in 1907 and reissued in 1912. Both dementia praecox (in its three classic forms) and "manic-depressive psychosis" gained wider popularity in the larger institutions in the eastern United States after being included in the official nomenclature of diseases and conditions for record-keeping at Bellevue Hospital in New York City in 1903. The term lived on due to its promotion in the publications of the National Committee on Mental Hygiene (founded in 1909) and the Eugenics Records Office (1910). But perhaps the most important reason for the longevity of Kraepelin's term was its inclusion in 1918 as an official diagnostic category in the uniform system adopted for comparative statistical record-keeping in all American mental institutions, The Statistical Manual for the Use of Institutions for the Insane. Its many revisions served as the official diagnostic classification scheme in America until 1952 when the first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual: Mental Disorders, or DSM-I, appeared. Dementia praecox disappeared from official psychiatry with the publication of DSM-I, replaced by the Bleuler/Meyer hybridization, "schizophrenic reaction". Schizophrenia was mentioned as an alternate term for dementia praecox in the 1918 Statistical Manual. In both clinical work as well as research, between 1918 and 1952 five different terms were used interchangeably: dementia praecox, schizophrenia, dementia praecox (schizophrenia), schizophrenia (dementia praecox) and schizophrenic reaction. This made the psychiatric literature of the time confusing since, in a strict sense, Kraepelin's disease was not Bleuler's disease. They were defined differently, had different population parameters, and different concepts of prognosis. The reception of dementia praecox as an accepted diagnosis in British psychiatry came more slowly, perhaps only taking hold around the time of World War I. There was substantial opposition to the use of the term "dementia" as misleading, partly due to findings of remission and recovery. Some argued that existing diagnoses such as "delusional insanity" or "adolescent insanity" were better or more clearly defined. In France a psychiatric tradition regarding the psychotic disorders predated Kraepelin, and the French never fully adopted Kraepelin's classification system. Instead the French maintained an independent classification system throughout the 20th century. From 1980, when DSM-III totally reshaped psychiatric diagnosis, French psychiatry began to finally alter its views of diagnosis to converge with the North American system. Kraepelin thus finally conquered France via America. ==From dementia praecox to schizophrenia== Due to the influence of alienists such as Adolf Meyer, August Hoch, George Kirby, Charles Macphie Campbell, Smith Ely Jelliffe and William Alanson White, psychogenic theories of dementia praecox dominated the American scene by 1911. In 1925 Bleuler's schizophrenia rose in prominence as an alternative to Kraepelin's dementia praecox. When Freudian perspectives became influential in American psychiatry in the 1920s schizophrenia became an attractive alternative concept. Bleuler corresponded with Freud and was connected to Freud's psychoanalytic movement, and the inclusion of Freudian interpretations of the symptoms of schizophrenia in his publications on the subject, as well as those of C.G. Jung, eased the adoption of his broader version of dementia praecox (schizophrenia) in America over Kraepelin's narrower and prognostically more negative one. The term "schizophrenia" was first applied by American alienists and neurologists in private practice by 1909 and officially in institutional settings in 1913, but it took many years to catch on. It is first mentioned in The New York Times in 1925. Until 1952 the terms dementia praecox and schizophrenia were used interchangeably in American psychiatry, with occasional use of the hybrid terms "dementia praecox (schizophrenia)" or "schizophrenia (dementia praecox)". ==Diagnostic manuals== Editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders since the first in 1952 had reflected views of schizophrenia as "reactions" or "psychogenic" (DSM-I), or as manifesting Freudian notions of "defense mechanisms" (as in DSM-II of 1969 in which the symptoms of schizophrenia were interpreted as "psychologically self-protected"). The diagnostic criteria were vague, minimal and wide, including either concepts that no longer exist or that are now labeled as personality disorders (for example, schizotypal personality disorder). There was also no mention of the dire prognosis Kraepelin had made. Schizophrenia seemed to be more prevalent and more psychogenic and more treatable than either Kraepelin or Bleuler would have allowed. ==Conclusions== As a direct result of the effort to construct Research Diagnostic Criteria in the 1970s that were independent of any clinical diagnostic manual, Kraepelin's idea that categories of mental disorder should reflect discrete and specific disease entities with a biological basis began to return to prominence. Vague dimensional approaches based on symptoms—so highly favored by the Meyerians and psychoanalysts—were overthrown. For research purposes, the definition of schizophrenia returned to the narrow range allowed by Kraepelin's dementia praecox concept. Furthermore, after 1980 the disorder was a progressively deteriorating one once again, with the notion that recovery, if it happened at all, was rare. This revision of schizophrenia became the basis of the diagnostic criteria in DSM-III (1980). Some of the psychiatrists who worked to bring about this revision referred to themselves as the "neo-Kraepelinians". ==Footnotes==	[ "paranoia", "quantitative research", "Dementia", "medical diagnosis", "prognosis", "Dresden", "hebephrenia", "cross-sectional", "Social degeneration", "Kingdom of Prussia", "cyclothymia", "Kraepelinian dichotomy", "symptoms", "Lucretius", "Tartu", "dysthymia", "autism spectrum", "major depressive disorder", "Heidelberg University", "Research Diagnostic Criteria", "Theodor Meynert", "schizophrenia", "Emil Kraepelin", "psychiatric", "Eugen Bleuler", "clinical trial", "qualitative research", "scientific method", "Danzig", "Arnold Pick", "psychotic disorder", "Daniel Paul Schreber", "Bénédict Morel", "dream speech", "bipolar disorder", "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders", "research", "Wilhelm Griesinger", "nosology", "Görlitz", "Bernhard von Gudden", "medical sign", "unitary psychosis", "The New York Times", "Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum", "syndrome", "researcher", "melancholia", "Saxony", "catatonia", "Karl-Ferdinands-Universität", "Ewald Hecker", "mood disorder", "Joseph Guislain", "psychopathology" ]
9,061	Dolphin	A dolphin is an aquatic mammal in the clade Odontoceti (toothed whale). Dolphins belong to the families Delphinidae (the oceanic dolphins), Platanistidae (the Indian river dolphins), Iniidae (the New World river dolphins), Pontoporiidae (the brackish dolphins), and possibly extinct Lipotidae (baiji or Chinese river dolphin). There are 40 extant species named as dolphins. Dolphins range in size from the and Maui's dolphin to the and orca. Various species of dolphins exhibit sexual dimorphism where the males are larger than females. They have streamlined bodies and two limbs that are modified into flippers. Though not quite as flexible as seals, they are faster; some dolphins can briefly travel at speeds of or leap about . Dolphins use their conical teeth to capture fast-moving prey. They have well-developed hearing which is adapted for both air and water; it is so well developed that some can survive even if they are blind. Some species are well adapted for diving to great depths. They have a layer of fat, or blubber, under the skin to keep warm in the cold water. Dolphins are widespread. Most species prefer the warm waters of the tropic zones, but some, such as the right whale dolphin, prefer colder climates. Dolphins feed largely on fish and squid, but a few, such as the orca, feed on large mammals such as seals. Male dolphins typically mate with multiple females every year, but females only mate every two to three years. Calves are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear all the responsibility for raising them. Mothers of some species fast and nurse their young for a relatively long period of time. Dolphins produce a variety of vocalizations, usually in the form of clicks and whistles. Dolphins are sometimes hunted in places such as Japan, in an activity known as dolphin drive hunting. Besides drive hunting, they also face threats from bycatch, habitat loss, and marine pollution. Dolphins have been depicted in various cultures worldwide. Dolphins are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to perform tricks. The most common dolphin species in captivity is the bottlenose dolphin, while there are around 60 orcas in captivity. ==Etymology== The name is originally from Greek (delphís), "dolphin", which was related to the Greek (delphus), "womb". The name was transmitted via the Latin delphinus (the romanization of the later Greek δελφῖνος – delphinos The term dolphin can be used to refer to most species in the family Delphinidae (oceanic dolphins) and the river dolphin families of Iniidae (South American river dolphins), Pontoporiidae (La Plata dolphin), Lipotidae (Yangtze river dolphin) and Platanistidae (Ganges river dolphin and Indus river dolphin). In common usage, the term whale is used only for the larger cetacean species, while the smaller ones with a beaked or longer nose are considered dolphins. The name dolphin is used casually as a synonym for bottlenose dolphin, the most common and familiar species of dolphin. There are six species of dolphins commonly thought of as whales, collectively known as blackfish: the orca, the melon-headed whale, the pygmy killer whale, the false killer whale, and the two species of pilot whales, all of which are classified under the family Delphinidae and qualify as dolphins. Although the terms dolphin and porpoise are sometimes used interchangeably, porpoise usually refers to the Phocoenidae family, which have a shorter beak and spade-shaped teeth and differ in their behavior. ==Hybridization== In 1933, three hybrid dolphins beached off the Irish coast; they were hybrids between Risso's and bottlenose dolphins. This mating was later repeated in captivity, producing a hybrid calf. In captivity, a bottlenose and a rough-toothed dolphin produced hybrid offspring. A common-bottlenose hybrid lives at SeaWorld California. Other dolphin hybrids live in captivity around the world or have been reported in the wild, such as a bottlenose-Atlantic spotted hybrid. The best known hybrid is the wholphin, a false killer whale-bottlenose dolphin hybrid. The wholphin is a fertile hybrid. Two wholphins currently live at the Sea Life Park in Hawaii; the first was born in 1985 from a male false killer whale and a female bottlenose. Wholphins have also been observed in the wild. ==Evolution== Dolphins are descendants of land-dwelling mammals of the artiodactyl order (even-toed ungulates). They are related to the Indohyus, an extinct chevrotain-like ungulate, from which they split approximately 48 million years ago. The primitive cetaceans, or archaeocetes, first took to the sea approximately 49 million years ago and became fully aquatic by 5–10 million years later. Archaeoceti is a parvorder comprising ancient whales. These ancient whales are the predecessors of modern whales, stretching back to their first ancestor that spent their lives near (rarely in) the water. Likewise, the archaeocetes can be anywhere from near fully terrestrial, to semi-aquatic to fully aquatic, but what defines an archaeocete is the presence of visible legs or asymmetrical teeth. Their features became adapted for living in the marine environment. Major anatomical changes include the hearing set-up that channeled vibrations from the jaw to the earbone which occurred with Ambulocetus 49 million years ago, a streamlining of the body and the growth of flukes on the tail which occurred around 43 million years ago with Protocetus, the migration of the nasal openings toward the top of the cranium and the modification of the forelimbs into flippers which occurred with Basilosaurus 35 million years ago, and the shrinking and eventual disappearance of the hind limbs which took place with the first odontocetes and mysticetes 34 million years ago. The modern dolphin skeleton has two small, rod-shaped pelvic bones thought to be vestigial hind limbs. In October 2006, an unusual bottlenose dolphin was captured in Japan; it had small fins on each side of its genital slit, which scientists believe to be an unusually pronounced development of these vestigial hind limbs. Today, the closest living relatives of cetaceans are the hippopotamuses; these share a semi-aquatic ancestor that branched off from other artiodactyls some 60 million years ago. Around 40 million years ago, a common ancestor between the two branched off into cetacea and anthracotheres; anthracotheres became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene two-and-a-half million years ago, eventually leaving only one surviving lineage: the two species of hippo. ==Anatomy== Dolphins have torpedo-shaped bodies with generally non-flexible necks, limbs modified into flippers, a tail fin, and bulbous heads. Dolphin skulls have small eye orbits, long snouts, and eyes placed on the sides of its head; they lack external ear flaps. Dolphins range in size from the long and Maui's dolphin to the and orca. Overall, they tend to be dwarfed by other Cetartiodactyls. Several species have female-biased sexual dimorphism, with the females being larger than the males. Dolphins have conical teeth, as opposed to porpoises' spade-shaped teeth. These conical teeth are used to catch swift prey such as fish, squid or large mammals, such as seals. All dolphins have a thick layer of blubber, thickness varying on climate. This blubber can help with buoyancy, protection to some extent as predators would have a hard time getting through a thick layer of fat, and energy for leaner times; the primary usage for blubber is insulation from the harsh climate. Calves, generally, are born with a thin layer of blubber, which develops at different paces depending on the habitat. or three-chambered stomach that is similar in cellular structure to that of terrestrial carnivores. They have fundic and pyloric chambers. Females have one genital slit, housing the vagina and the anus, with a mammary slit on either side. === Integumentary system === The integumentary system is an organ system mostly consisting of skin, hair, nails and endocrine glands. The skin of dolphins is specialized to satisfy specific requirements, including protection, fat storage, heat regulation, and sensory perception. The skin of a dolphin is made up of two parts: the epidermis and the blubber, which consists of two layers including the dermis and subcutis. The dolphin's skin is known to have a smooth rubber texture and is without hair and glands, except mammary glands. At birth, a newborn dolphin has hairs lined up in a single band on both sides of the rostrum, which is their jaw, and usually has a total length of 16–17 cm . The thickness of a dolphin's epidermis varies, depending on species and age. ==== Blubber ==== Blubber is found within the dermis and subcutis layer. The dermis blends gradually with the adipose layer, which is known as fat, because the fat may extend up to the epidermis border and collagen fiber bundles extend throughout the whole subcutaneous blubber which is fat found under the skin. The blubber functions to streamline the body and to form specialized locomotor structures such as the dorsal fin, propulsive fluke blades and caudal keels. Blood vessels and nerve endings can be found within the dermis. There is a plexus of parallel running arteries and veins in the dorsal fin, fluke, and flippers. This allows the dolphin to spend less energy heating its own body, ultimately keeping the animal warmer without burning energy as quick. In order to release heat, the heat must pass the blubber layer. There are thermal windows that lack blubber, are not fully insulated and are somewhat thin and highly vascularized, including the dorsal fin, flukes, and flippers. These thermal windows are a good way for dolphins to get rid of excess heat if overheating. Additionally in order to conserve heat, dolphins use countercurrent heat exchange. Blood flows in different directions in order for heat to transfer across membranes. Heat from warm blood leaving the heart will heat up the cold blood that is headed back to the heart from the extremities, meaning that the heart always has warm blood and it decreases the heat lost to the water in those thermal windows. The fusing of the neck vertebrae, while increasing stability when swimming at high speeds, decreases flexibility, which means most dolphins are unable to turn their heads. River dolphins have non-fused neck vertebrae and can turn their heads up to 90°. Dolphins swim by moving their fluke and rear body vertically, while their flippers are mainly used for steering. Some species porpoise out of the water, which allows them to travel faster. Their skeletal anatomy allows them to be fast swimmers. All species have a dorsal fin to prevent themselves from involuntarily spinning in the water. Some dolphins are adapted for diving to great depths. In addition to their streamlined bodies, some can selectively slow their heart rate to conserve oxygen. Some can also re-route blood from tissue tolerant of water pressure to the heart, brain and other organs. Their hemoglobin and myoglobin store oxygen in body tissues, and they have twice as much myoglobin as hemoglobin. ===Senses=== A dolphin ear has specific adaptations to the marine environment. In humans, the middle ear works as an impedance equalizer between the outside air's low impedance and the cochlear fluid's high impedance. In dolphins, and other marine mammals, there is no great difference between the outer and inner environments. Instead of sound passing through the outer ear to the middle ear, dolphins receive sound through the throat, from which it passes through a low-impedance fat-filled cavity to the inner ear. The ear is acoustically isolated from the skull by air-filled sinus pockets, which allow for greater directional hearing underwater. Dolphins generate sounds independently of respiration using recycled air that passes through air sacs and phonic (alternatively monkey) lips. Integral to the lips are oil-filled organs called dorsal bursae that have been suggested to be homologous to the sperm whale's spermaceti organ. High-frequency clicks pass through the sound-modifying organs of the extramandibular fat body, intramandibular fat body and the melon. This melon consists of fat, and the skull of any such creature containing a melon will have a large depression. This allows dolphins to use echolocation for orientation. Though most dolphins do not have hair, they do have hair follicles that may perform some sensory function. Beyond locating an object, echolocation also provides the animal with an idea on an object's shape and size, though how exactly this works is not yet understood. The small hairs on the rostrum of the boto (river dolphins of South America) are believed to function as a tactile sense, possibly to compensate for the boto's poor eyesight. A dolphin eye is relatively small for its size, yet they do retain a good degree of eyesight. As well as this, the eyes of a dolphin are placed on the sides of its head, so their vision consists of two fields, rather than a binocular view like humans have. When dolphins surface, their lens and cornea correct the nearsightedness that results from the water's refraction of light. Their eyes contain both rod and cone cells, meaning they can see in both dim and bright light, but they have far more rod cells than they do cone cells. They lack short wavelength sensitive visual pigments in their cone cells, indicating a more limited capacity for color vision than most mammals. Most dolphins have slightly flattened eyeballs, enlarged pupils (which shrink as they surface to prevent damage), slightly flattened corneas and a tapetum lucidum (eye tissue behind the retina); these adaptations allow for large amounts of light to pass through the eye and, therefore, a very clear image of the surrounding area. They also have glands on the eyelids and outer corneal layer that act as protection for the cornea. The neocortex of many species is home to elongated spindle neurons that, prior to 2007, were known only in hominids. In humans, these cells are involved in social conduct, emotions, judgment, and theory of mind. Cetacean spindle neurons are found in areas of the brain that are analogous to where they are found in humans, suggesting that they perform a similar function. Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of the intelligence of an animal. Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks. Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales at approximately the two-thirds or three-fourths exponent of the body mass. Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an encephalization quotient that can be used as another indication of animal intelligence. Orcas have the second largest brain mass of any animal on earth, next to the sperm whale. The brain to body mass ratio in some is second only to humans. Self-awareness is seen, by some, to be a sign of highly developed, abstract thinking. Self-awareness, though not well-defined scientifically, is believed to be the precursor to more advanced processes like meta-cognitive reasoning (thinking about thinking) that are typical of humans. Research in this field has suggested that cetaceans, among others, possess self-awareness. The most widely used test for self-awareness in animals is the mirror test in which a mirror is introduced to an animal, and the animal is then marked with a temporary dye. If the animal then goes to the mirror in order to view the mark, it has exhibited strong evidence of self-awareness. Some disagree with these findings, arguing that the results of these tests are open to human interpretation and susceptible to the Clever Hans effect. This test is much less definitive than when used for primates, because primates can touch the mark or the mirror, while cetaceans cannot, making their alleged self-recognition behavior less certain. Skeptics argue that behaviors that are said to identify self-awareness resemble existing social behaviors, and so researchers could be misinterpreting self-awareness for social responses to another individual. The researchers counter-argue that the behaviors shown are evidence of self-awareness, as they are very different from normal responses to another individual. Whereas apes can merely touch the mark on themselves with their fingers, cetaceans show less definitive behavior of self-awareness; they can only twist and turn themselves to observe the mark. They showed dolphins real-time video of themselves, video of another dolphin and recorded footage. They concluded that their evidence suggested self-awareness rather than social behavior. While this particular study has not been repeated since then, dolphins have since passed the mirror test. ==Behavior== ===Socialization=== Dolphins are highly social animals, often living in pods of up to a dozen individuals, though pod sizes and structures vary greatly between species and locations. In places with a high abundance of food, pods can merge temporarily, forming a superpod; such groupings may exceed 1,000 dolphins. Membership in pods is not rigid; interchange is common. They establish strong social bonds, and will stay with injured or ill members, helping them to breathe by bringing them to the surface if needed. This altruism does not appear to be limited to their own species. The dolphin Moko in New Zealand has been observed guiding a female pygmy sperm whale together with her calf out of shallow water where they had stranded several times. They have also been seen protecting swimmers from sharks by swimming circles around the swimmers or charging the sharks to make them go away. Dolphins communicate using a variety of clicks, whistle-like sounds and other vocalizations. Dolphins also use nonverbal communication by means of touch and posturing. Dolphins also display culture, something long believed to be unique to humans (and possibly other primate species). In May 2005, a discovery in Australia found Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) teaching their young to use tools. They cover their snouts with sponges to protect them while foraging. This knowledge is mostly transferred by mothers to daughters, unlike simian primates, where knowledge is generally passed on to both sexes. Using sponges as mouth protection is a learned behavior. Another learned behavior was discovered among river dolphins in Brazil, where some male dolphins use weeds and sticks as part of a sexual display. Forms of care-giving between fellows and even for members of different species (see Moko (dolphin)) are recorded in various species – such as trying to save weakened fellows or female pilot whales holding up dead calves for long periods. Dolphins engage in acts of aggression towards each other. The older a male dolphin is, the more likely his body is to be covered with bite scars. Male dolphins can get into disputes over companions and females. Acts of aggression can become so intense that targeted dolphins sometimes go into exile after losing a fight. Male bottlenose dolphins have been known to engage in infanticide. Dolphins have also been known to kill porpoises (porpicide) for reasons which are not fully understood, as porpoises generally do not share the same diet as dolphins and are therefore not competitors for food supplies. The Cornwall Wildlife Trust records about one such death a year. Possible explanations include misdirected infanticide, misdirected sexual aggression or play behaviour. ===Reproduction and sexuality=== Dolphin copulation happens belly to belly; though many species engage in lengthy foreplay, the actual act is usually brief, but may be repeated several times within a short timespan. The gestation period varies with species; for the small tucuxi dolphin, this period is around 11 to 12 months, while for the orca, the gestation period is around 17 months. Typically dolphins give birth to a single calf, which is, unlike most other mammals, born tail first in most cases. They usually become sexually active at a young age, even before reaching sexual maturity. Dolphins are known to display non-reproductive sexual behavior, engaging in masturbation, stimulation of the genital area of other individuals using the rostrum or flippers, and homosexual contact. Various species of dolphin have been known to engage in sexual behavior including copulation with dolphins of other species, and occasionally exhibit sexual behavior towards other animals, including humans. Sexual encounters may be violent, with male bottlenose dolphins sometimes showing aggressive behavior towards both females and other males. Male dolphins may also work together and attempt to herd females in estrus, keeping the females by their side by means of both physical aggression and intimidation, to increase their chances of reproductive success. ===Sleeping=== Generally, dolphins sleep with only one brain hemisphere in slow-wave sleep at a time, thus maintaining enough consciousness to breathe and to watch for possible predators and other threats. Sleep stages earlier in sleep can occur simultaneously in both hemispheres. In captivity, dolphins seemingly enter a fully asleep state where both eyes are closed and there is no response to mild external stimuli. In this case, respiration is automatic; a tail kick reflex keeps the blowhole above the water if necessary. Anesthetized dolphins initially show a tail kick reflex. Though a similar state has been observed with wild sperm whales, it is not known if dolphins in the wild reach this state. The Indus river dolphin has a sleep method that is different from that of other dolphin species. Living in water with strong currents and potentially dangerous floating debris, it must swim continuously to avoid injury. As a result, this species sleeps in very short bursts which last between 4 and 60 seconds. ===Feeding=== There are various feeding methods among and within species, some apparently exclusive to a single population. Fish and squid are the main food, but the false killer whale and the orca also feed on other marine mammals. Orcas on occasion also hunt whale species larger than themselves. Different breeds of dolphins vary widely in the number of teeth they possess. The orca usually carries 40–56 teeth while the popular bottlenose dolphin has anywhere from 72 to 116 conical teeth and its smaller cousin the common dolphin has 188–268 teeth: the number of teeth that an individual carries varies widely between within a single species. Hybrids between common and bottlenose bred in captivity had a number of teeth intermediate between that of their parents. One common feeding method is herding, where a pod squeezes a school of fish into a small volume, known as a bait ball. Individual members then take turns plowing through the ball, feeding on the stunned fish. Some species also whack fish with their flukes, stunning them and sometimes knocking them out of the water. A modern human-dolphin partnership currently operates in Laguna, Santa Catarina, Brazil. Here, dolphins drive fish towards fishermen waiting along the shore and signal the men to cast their nets. The dolphins' reward is the fish that escape the nets. In Shark Bay, Australia, dolphins catch fish by trapping them in huge conch shells. In "shelling", a dolphin brings the shell to the surface and shakes it, so that fish sheltering within fall into the dolphin's mouth. From 2007 to 2018, in 5,278 encounters with dolphins, researchers observed 19 dolphins shelling 42 times. The behavior spreads mainly within generations, rather than being passed from mother to offspring. ===Vocalization=== Dolphins are capable of making a broad range of sounds using nasal airsacs located just below the blowhole. Roughly three categories of sounds can be identified: frequency modulated whistles, burst-pulsed sounds, and clicks. Dolphins communicate with whistle-like sounds produced by vibrating connective tissue, similar to the way human vocal cords function, and through burst-pulsed sounds, though the nature and extent of that ability is not known. The clicks are directional and are for echolocation, often occurring in a short series called a click train. The click rate increases when approaching an object of interest. Dolphin echolocation clicks are amongst the loudest sounds made by marine animals. Bottlenose dolphins have been found to have signature whistles, a whistle that is unique to a specific individual. These whistles are used in order for dolphins to communicate with one another by identifying an individual. It can be seen as the dolphin equivalent of a name for humans. These signature whistles are developed during a dolphin's first year; it continues to maintain the same sound throughout its lifetime. In order to obtain each individual whistle sound, dolphins undergo vocal production learning. This consists of an experience with other dolphins that modifies the signal structure of an existing whistle sound. An auditory experience influences the whistle development of each dolphin. Dolphins are able to communicate to one another by addressing another dolphin through mimicking their whistle. The signature whistle of a male bottlenose dolphin tends to be similar to that of his mother, while the signature whistle of a female bottlenose dolphin tends to be more distinguishing. Bottlenose dolphins have a strong memory when it comes to these signature whistles, as they are able to relate to a signature whistle of an individual they have not encountered for over twenty years. Research done on signature whistle usage by other dolphin species is relatively limited. The research on other species done so far has yielded varied outcomes and inconclusive results. Because dolphins are generally associated in groups, communication is necessary. Signal masking is when other similar sounds (conspecific sounds) interfere with the original acoustic sound. In larger groups, individual whistle sounds are less prominent. Dolphins tend to travel in pods, upon which there are groups of dolphins that range from a few to many. Although they are traveling in these pods, the dolphins do not necessarily swim right next to each other. Rather, they swim within the same general vicinity. In order to prevent losing one of their pod members, there are higher whistle rates. Because their group members were spread out, this was done in order to continue traveling together. ===Jumping and playing=== Dolphins frequently leap above the water surface, this being done for various reasons. When travelling, jumping can save the dolphin energy as there is less friction while in the air. This type of travel is known as porpoising. Dolphins show various types of playful behavior, often including objects, self-made bubble rings, other dolphins or other animals. When playing with objects or small animals, common behavior includes carrying the object or animal along using various parts of the body, passing it along to other members of the group or taking it from another member, or throwing it out of the water. Juvenile dolphins off the coast of Western Australia have been observed chasing, capturing, and chewing on blowfish. While some reports state that the dolphins are becoming intoxicated on the tetrodotoxin in the fishes' skin, other reports have characterized this behavior as the normal curiosity and exploration of their environment in which dolphins engage. ===Tail-walking=== Although this behaviour is highly unusual in wild dolphins, several Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) of the Port River, north of Adelaide, South Australia, have been seen to have exhibit "tail-walking". This activity mimicks a standing posture, using the tail to run backwards along the water. To perform this movement, the dolphin "forces the majority of its body vertically out of the water and maintains the position by vigorously pumping its tail". and spent two weeks recuperating with captive dolphins. Billie had previously been observed swimming and frolicking with racehorses exercising in the Port River in the 1980s. After becoming trapped in a reedy estuary further down the coast, she was rescued and placed with several captive dolphins at a marine park to recuperate. There she observed the captive dolphins performing tail-walking. After Billie's premature death, Wave started tail-walking much more frequently, and other dolphins in the group were observed also performing the behaviour. In October 2021, a dolphin was observed tail-walking over a number of hours. Some of the larger dolphin species, especially orcas, may also prey on smaller dolphins, but this seems rare. Dolphins also suffer from a wide variety of diseases and parasites. The Cetacean morbillivirus in particular has been known to cause regional epizootics often leaving hundreds of animals of various species dead. Symptoms of infection are often a severe combination of pneumonia, encephalitis and damage to the immune system, which greatly impair the cetacean's ability to swim and stay afloat unassisted. A study at the U.S. National Marine Mammal Foundation revealed that dolphins, like humans, develop a natural form of type 2 diabetes which may lead to a better understanding of the disease and new treatments for both humans and dolphins. Dolphins can tolerate and recover from extreme injuries such as shark bites although the exact methods used to achieve this are not known. The healing process is rapid and even very deep wounds do not cause dolphins to hemorrhage to death. Furthermore, even gaping wounds restore in such a way that the animal's body shape is restored, and infection of such large wounds seems rare. A study published in the journal Marine Mammal Science suggests that at least some dolphins survive shark attacks using everything from sophisticated combat moves to teaming up against the shark. ===Humans=== Some dolphin species are at risk of extinction, especially some river dolphin species such as the Amazon river dolphin, and the Ganges and Yangtze river dolphin, which are critically or seriously endangered. A 2006 survey found no individuals of the Yangtze river dolphin. The species now appears to be functionally extinct. Pesticides, heavy metals, plastics, and other industrial and agricultural pollutants that do not disintegrate rapidly in the environment concentrate in predators such as dolphins. Injuries or deaths due to collisions with boats, especially their propellers, are also common. Various fishing methods, most notably purse seine fishing for tuna and the use of drift and gill nets, unintentionally kill many dolphins. Accidental by-catch in gill nets and incidental captures in antipredator nets that protect marine fish farms are common and pose a risk for mainly local dolphin populations. In some parts of the world, such as Taiji in Japan and the Faroe Islands, dolphins are traditionally considered food and are killed in harpoon or drive hunts. Dolphin meat is high in mercury and may thus pose a health danger to humans when consumed. Queensland's shark culling program, which has killed roughly 50,000 sharks since 1962, has also killed thousands of dolphins as bycatch. Queensland's "shark control" program has killed more than 1,000 dolphins in recent years, and at least 32 dolphins have been killed in Queensland since 2014. A shark culling program in KwaZulu-Natal has killed at least 2,310 dolphins. Dolphin safe labels attempt to reassure consumers that fish and other marine products have been caught in a dolphin-friendly way. The earliest campaigns with "dolphin safe" labels were initiated in the 1980s as a result of cooperation between marine activists and the major tuna companies, and involved decreasing incidental dolphin kills by up to 50% by changing the type of nets used to catch tuna. The dolphins are netted only while fishermen are in pursuit of smaller tuna. Albacore are not netted this way, making albacore the only truly dolphin-safe tuna. Loud underwater noises, such as those resulting from naval sonar use, live firing exercises, and certain offshore construction projects such as wind farms, may be harmful to dolphins, increasing stress, damaging hearing, and causing decompression sickness by forcing them to surface too quickly to escape the noise. Dolphins and other smaller cetaceans are also hunted in an activity known as dolphin drive hunting. This is accomplished by driving a pod together with boats and usually into a bay or onto a beach. Their escape is prevented by closing off the route to the ocean with other boats or nets. Dolphins are hunted this way in several places around the world, including the Solomon Islands, the Faroe Islands, Peru, and Japan, the most well-known practitioner of this method. By numbers, dolphins are mostly hunted for their meat, though some end up in dolphinariums. Despite the controversial nature of the hunt resulting in international criticism, and the possible health risk that the often polluted meat causes, thousands of dolphins are caught in drive hunts each year. === Impacts of climate change === Dolphins are marine mammals with broad geographic extent, making them susceptible to climate change in various ways. The most common effect of climate change on dolphins is the increasing water temperatures across the globe. This has caused a large variety of dolphin species to experience range shifts, in which the species move from their typical geographic region to cooler waters. Another side effect of increasing water temperatures is the increase in harmful algae blooms, which has caused a mass die-off of bottlenose dolphins. The Pacific white-sided dolphin has had a decline in population in the southwest Gulf of California, the southern boundary of their distribution. In the 1980s they were abundant with group sizes up to 200 across the entire cool season. Then, in the 2000s, only two groups were recorded with sizes of 20 and 30, and only across the central cool season. This decline was not related to a decline of other marine mammals or prey, so it was concluded to have been caused by climate change as it occurred during a period of warming. Additionally, the Pacific white-sided dolphin had an increase in occurrence on the west coast of Canada from 1984 to 1998. In the Mediterranean, sea surface temperatures have increased, as well as salinity, upwelling intensity, and sea levels. Because of this, prey resources have been reduced causing a steep decline in the short-beaked common dolphin Mediterranean subpopulation, which was deemed endangered in 2003. This species now only exists in the Alboran Sea, due to its high productivity, distinct ecosystem, and differing conditions from the rest of the Mediterranean. In northwest Europe, many dolphin species have experienced range shifts from the region's typically colder waters. Warm water dolphins, like the short-beaked common dolphin and striped dolphin, have expanded north of western Britain and into the northern North Sea, even in the winter, which may displace the white-beaked and Atlantic white-sided dolphin that are in that region. The white-beaked dolphin has shown an increase in the southern North Sea since the 1960s because of this. The rough-toothed dolphin and Atlantic spotted dolphin may move to northwest Europe. Additionally, Fraser's dolphin, found in tropical waters, was recorded in the UK for the first time in 1996. River dolphins typically have a higher densities when rivers have a lox index of freshwater degradation and better water quality. The resultant decrease in fish population due to warming waters has also influenced humans to see dolphins as fishing competitors or even bait. Humans use dusky dolphins as bait or are killed off because they consume the same fish humans eat and sell for profit. The Ancient Greeks welcomed dolphins; spotting dolphins riding in a ship's wake was considered a good omen. In both ancient and later art, Cupid is often shown riding a dolphin. A dolphin rescued the poet Arion from drowning and carried him safe to land, at Cape Matapan, a promontory forming the southernmost point of the Peloponnesus. There was a temple to Poseidon and a statue of Arion riding the dolphin. The Greeks reimagined the Phoenician god Melqart as Melikertês (Melicertes) and made him the son of Athamas and Ino. He drowned but was transfigured as the marine deity Palaemon, while his mother became Leucothea. (cf Ino.) At Corinth, he was so closely connected with the cult of Poseidon that the Isthmian Games, originally instituted in Poseidon's honor, came to be looked upon as the funeral games of Melicertes. Phalanthus was another legendary character brought safely to shore (in Italy) on the back of a dolphin, according to Pausanias. Dionysus was once captured by Etruscan pirates who mistook him for a wealthy prince they could ransom. After the ship set sail Dionysus invoked his divine powers, causing vines to overgrow the ship where the mast and sails had been. He turned the oars into serpents, so terrifying the sailors that they jumped overboard, but Dionysus took pity on them and transformed them into dolphins so that they would spend their lives providing help for those in need. Dolphins were also the messengers of Poseidon and sometimes did errands for him as well. Dolphins were sacred to both Aphrodite and Apollo. "Dolfin" was the name of an aristocratic family in the maritime Republic of Venice, whose most prominent member was the 13th-century Doge Giovanni Dolfin. In Hindu mythology the Ganges river dolphin is associated with Ganga, the deity of the Ganges river. The dolphin is said to be among the creatures which heralded the goddess' descent from the heavens and her mount, the Makara, is sometimes depicted as a dolphin. The Boto, a species of river dolphin that resides in the Amazon River, are believed to be shapeshifters, or encantados, who are capable of having children with human women. There are comparatively few surviving myths of dolphins in Polynesian cultures, in spite of their maritime traditions and reverence of other marine animals such as sharks and seabirds; unlike these, they are more often perceived as food than as totemic symbols. Dolphins are most clearly represented in Rapa Nui Rongorongo, and in the traditions of the Caroline Islands they are depicted similarly to the Boto, being sexually active shapeshifters. ====Heraldry==== Dolphins are also used as symbols, for instance in heraldry. When heraldry developed in the Middle Ages, little was known about the biology of the dolphin and it was often depicted as a sort of fish. The stylised heraldic dolphin still conventionally follows this tradition, sometimes showing the dolphin skin covered with fish scales. A well-known historical example was the coat of arms of the former province of the Dauphiné in southern France, from which were derived the arms and the title of the Dauphin of France, the heir to the former throne of France (the title literally meaning "The Dolphin of France"). Dolphins are present in the coat of arms of Anguilla and the coat of arms of Romania, and the coat of arms of Barbados has a dolphin supporter. The coat of arms of the town of Poole, Dorset, England, first recorded in 1563, includes a dolphin, which was historically depicted in stylised heraldic form, but which since 1976 has been depicted naturalistically. ===In captivity=== ====Species==== The renewed popularity of dolphins in the 1960s resulted in the appearance of many dolphinaria around the world, making dolphins accessible to the public. Criticism and animal welfare laws forced many to close, although hundreds still exist around the world. In the United States, the best known are the SeaWorld marine mammal parks. In the Middle East the best known are Dolphin Bay at Atlantis, The Palm and the Dubai Dolphinarium. Various species of dolphins are kept in captivity. These small cetaceans are more often than not kept in theme parks, such as SeaWorld, commonly known as a dolphinarium. Bottlenose dolphins are the most common species of dolphin kept in dolphinariums as they are relatively easy to train, have a long lifespan in captivity and have a friendly appearance. Hundreds if not thousands of bottlenose dolphins live in captivity across the world, though exact numbers are hard to determine. Other species kept in captivity are spotted dolphins, false killer whales and common dolphins, Commerson's dolphins, as well as rough-toothed dolphins, but all in much lower numbers than the bottlenose dolphin. There are also fewer than ten pilot whales, Amazon river dolphins, Risso's dolphins, spinner dolphins, or tucuxi in captivity. An unusual and very rare hybrid dolphin, known as a wolphin, is kept at the Sea Life Park in Hawaii, which is a cross between a bottlenose dolphin and a false killer whale. The number of orcas kept in captivity is very small, especially when compared to the number of bottlenose dolphins, with 60 captive orcas being held in aquaria . The orca's intelligence, trainability, striking appearance, playfulness in captivity and sheer size have made it a popular exhibit at aquaria and aquatic theme parks. From 1976 to 1997, 55 whales were taken from the wild in Iceland, 19 from Japan, and three from Argentina. These figures exclude animals that died during capture. Live captures fell dramatically in the 1990s, and by 1999, about 40% of the 48 animals on display in the world were captive-born. ====Controversy==== There is debate over the welfare of cetaceans in captivity, and often welfare can vary greatly dependent on the levels of care being provided at a particular facility. In the United States, facilities are regularly inspected by federal agencies to ensure that a high standard of welfare is maintained. Additionally, facilities can apply to become accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), which (for accreditation) requires "the highest standards of animal care and welfare in the world" to be achieved. Facilities such as SeaWorld and the Georgia Aquarium are accredited by the AZA. Organizations such as World Animal Protection and the Whale and Dolphin Conservation campaign against the practice of keeping them in captivity. In captivity, they often develop pathologies, such as the dorsal fin collapse seen in 60–90% of male orca. Captives have vastly reduced life expectancies, on average only living into their 20s, although there are examples of orcas living longer, including several over 30 years old, and two captive orcas, Corky II and Lolita, are in their mid-40s. In the wild, females who survive infancy live 46 years on average, and up to 70–80 years in rare cases. Wild males who survive infancy live 31 years on average, and up to 50–60 years. Captivity usually bears little resemblance to wild habitat, and captive whales' social groups are foreign to those found in the wild. Critics claim captive life is stressful due to these factors and the requirement to perform circus tricks that are not part of wild orca behavior. Wild orcas may travel up to in a day, and critics say the animals are too big and intelligent to be suitable for captivity. Captives occasionally act aggressively towards themselves, their tankmates, or humans, which critics say is a result of stress. Although dolphins generally interact well with humans, some attacks have occurred, most of them resulting in small injuries. Orcas, the largest species of dolphin, have been involved in fatal attacks on humans in captivity. The record-holder of documented orca fatal attacks is a male named Tilikum, who lived at SeaWorld from 1992 until his death in 2017. Tilikum has played a role in the death of three people in three different incidents (1991, 1999 and 2010). Tilikum's behaviour sparked the production of the documentary Blackfish, which focuses on the consequences of keeping orcas in captivity. There are documented incidents in the wild, too, but none of them fatal. Fatal attacks from other species are less common, but there is a registered occurrence off the coast of Brazil in 1994, when a man died after being attacked by a bottlenose dolphin named Tião. Tião had suffered harassment by human visitors, including attempts to stick ice cream sticks down his blowhole. Non-fatal incidents occur more frequently, both in the wild and in captivity. While dolphin attacks occur far less frequently than attacks by other sea animals, such as sharks, some scientists are worried about the careless programs of human-dolphin interaction. Dr. Andrew J. Read, a biologist at the Duke University Marine Laboratory who studies dolphin attacks, points out that dolphins are large and wild predators, so people should be more careful when they interact with them. Four countries – Chile, Costa Rica, Hungary, and India – have declared dolphins to be "non-human persons" and have banned the capture and import of live dolphins for entertainment. ====Military==== A number of militaries have employed dolphins for various purposes from finding mines to rescuing lost or trapped humans. The military use of dolphins drew scrutiny during the Vietnam War, when rumors circulated that the United States Navy was training dolphins to kill Vietnamese divers. The United States Navy denies that at any point dolphins were trained for combat. Dolphins are still being trained by the United States Navy for other tasks as part of the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program. The Russian military is believed to have closed its marine mammal program in the early 1990s. In 2000 the press reported that dolphins trained to kill by the Soviet Navy had been sold to Iran. The military is also interested in disguising underwater communications as artificial dolphin clicks. ====Therapy==== Dolphins are an increasingly popular choice of animal-assisted therapy for psychological problems and developmental disabilities. For example, a 2005 study found dolphins an effective treatment for mild to moderate depression. This study was criticized on several grounds, including a lack of knowledge on whether dolphins are more effective than common pets. Reviews of this and other published dolphin-assisted therapy (DAT) studies have found important methodological flaws and have concluded that there is no compelling scientific evidence that DAT is a legitimate therapy or that it affords more than fleeting mood improvement. ===Consumption=== ====Cuisine==== In some parts of the world, such as Taiji, Japan and the Faroe Islands, dolphins are traditionally considered as food, and are killed in harpoon or drive hunts. and Peru (where it is referred to as chancho marino, or "sea pork"). While Japan may be the best-known and most controversial example, only a very small minority of the population has ever sampled it. Dolphin meat is dense and such a dark shade of red as to appear black. Fat is located in a layer of blubber between the meat and the skin. When dolphin meat is eaten in Japan, it is often cut into thin strips and eaten raw as sashimi, garnished with onion and either horseradish or grated garlic, much as with sashimi of whale or horse meat (basashi). When cooked, dolphin meat is cut into bite-size cubes and then batter-fried or simmered in a miso sauce with vegetables. Cooked dolphin meat has a flavor very similar to beef liver. ====Health concerns==== There have been human health concerns associated with the consumption of dolphin meat in Japan after tests showed that dolphin meat contained high levels of mercury. Similar concerns exist with the consumption of dolphin meat in the Faroe Islands, where prenatal exposure to methylmercury and PCBs primarily from the consumption of pilot whale meat has resulted in neuropsychological deficits amongst children.	[ "penis", "Basilosaurus", "wholphin", "Marine (ocean)", "pilot whale", "porpoises", "Pink River Dolphin", "American Museum of Natural History", "primate", "sexual dimorphism", "functionally extinct", "United States Navy", "Pyloric stomach", "tucuxi", "ancient Greece", "Dauphiné", "bull shark", "romanization", "fin", "Cornwall Wildlife Trust", "slow-wave sleep", "Brazil", "wind farm", "Indus river dolphin", "common dolphin", "non-verbal communication", "Minoans", "Fundic stomach", "Ganges", "mercury poisoning", "Republic of Venice", "White-beaked dolphin", "extant species", "Clever Hans", "Reference.com", "Maui's dolphin", "North Sea", "Canada", "tiger shark", "Atlantic spotted dolphin", "New Zealand", "drift net", "parasite", "Posture (psychology)", "Nauka (publisher)", "shark culling", "wolphin", "Mote Marine Laboratory", "Asian Correspondent", "rostrum (anatomy)", "Melqart", "Iniidae", "morality", "miso", "animal welfare", "Indohyus", "conch", "Cape Matapan", "Phoenicia", "aquatic mammal", "Peloponnesus", "Poseidon", "Polynesia", "play behaviour", "sperm whale", "short-beaked common dolphin", "Iklaina", "coat of arms of Barbados", "beef liver", "Dolphin Bay", "blowfish", "Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary", "Hybrid (biology)", "Amazon River", "Crete", "frequency modulated", "Self-awareness", "Faroe Islands", "Sean B. Carroll", "rete pegs", "Soviet Navy", "Dusky dolphin", "brain to body mass ratio", "river dolphin", "Costa Rica", "Athamas", "Nadia Drake", "Ambulocetus", "Cetacean morbillivirus", "market squid", "order (biology)", "Commerson's dolphin", "endangered species", "Scotland", "PBS", "Iran", "Estrus", "Cupid", "The New York Times", "Orca", "streamline (fluid dynamics)", "mirror test", "Whale sound", "whale meat", "melon-headed whale", "Pinniped", "Pausanias (geographer)", "Mycenaean Greece", "bait ball", "Encantado (mythology)", "Pontoporiidae", "military dolphins", "Adelaide", "Mediterranean", "Moko (dolphin)", "melon (cetacean)", "KwaZulu-Natal", "Diabetes mellitus", "Port River", "Red Sea", "Ancient Greece", "altruism", "marine pollution", "apex predator", "marine mammal park", "brackish", "anesthesia", "Cetacean surfacing behaviour", "shark", "Nazca culture", "Aphrodite", "epizootics", "harpoon", "dorsal fin", "Ocean acidification", "Dolphin (heraldry)", "vagina", "bubble ring", "Sea Life Park", "Ganges river dolphin", "bottlenose dolphin", "dolphinarium", "Hungary", "sharks", "Ancient Greek", "orca", "Chile", "pirate", "SeaWorld", "hemoglobin", "coat of arms of Anguilla", "Atlantic white-sided dolphin", "Animal co-opted sexual behavior", "cranium", "metacognition", "olfactory nerve", "nonverbal communication", "Dolphin safe label", "foreplay", "archaeocetes", "pneumonia", "mycosis", "navy", "Gulf of California", "encephalitis", "simian", "lobomycosis", "YouTube", "Etruscan civilization", "The Guardian", "supporter", "Dubai Dolphinarium", "Hans Thewissen", "myoglobin", "corneal epithelium", "mahi-mahi", "toothed whale", "Prenatal development", "Melicertes", "horseradish", "boto", "Delphinidae", "right whale dolphin", "Rongorongo", "sashimi", "Ganga in Hinduism", "Delphinus", "Atlantis, The Palm", "pygmy killer whale", "Cross-species sex", "Doge of Venice", "South Australia", "Acoustic impedance", "Protocetus", "sexual maturity", "dog", "spindle neurons", "Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin", "Amazon river dolphin", "Wildlife rehabilitation", "List of individual cetaceans", "Sea surface temperature", "Greek mythology", "hybrid (biology)", "Middle Ages", "Boto", "fish scale", "Biol. Lett.", "Neuropsychology", "Pliny the Elder", "New South Wales", "Hakai Magazine", "Rapa Nui", "anthracotheres", "Cetartiodactyl", "Alboran Sea", "bycatch", "ancient Rome", "United Nations Environment Programme", "pygmy sperm whale", "dolphin drive hunting", "stress (medicine)", "Solomon Islands", "humpback whale", "Animal echolocation", "porpoise", "Brain size", "blowhole (anatomy)", "Risso's dolphin", "proprioception", "Taiji, Wakayama", "tetrodotoxin", "Frontiers in Physiology", "Phalanthus of Tarentum", "anus", "Ino (Greek mythology)", "Giovanni Dolfin", "coat of arms of Romania", "Dauphin of France", "Leucothea", "by-catch", "false killer whale", "animal-assisted therapy", "tuna", "striped dolphin", "Queensland", "middle ear", "Mullet (fish)", "Isthmian Games", "methylmercury", "Hindu mythology", "tapetum lucidum", "mercury (element)", "Orca attacks on humans", "marina", "natural philosophy", "hippopotamus", "Cerebral hemisphere", "Mammary gland", "Whale and Dolphin Conservation", "Adelaide Now", "cone cell", "World Animal Protection", "Walking with Prehistoric Beasts", "spinner dolphin", "Old French", "Hong Kong Dolphin Conservation Society", "cochlea", "horse meat", "blackfish", "Japan Times", "offshore construction", "gill net", "olfactory lobes", "Archaeoceti", "seine fishing", "Bottlenose dolphin", "Heathcote Williams", "Animal sexual behavior", "Tilikum (orca)", "sonar", "rough-toothed dolphin", "Peru", "propeller", "Pesticides", "chevrotain", "Homosexual behavior in animals", "animal intelligence", "Baiji", "Ichthyosaur", "Sea", "Pacific white-sided dolphin", "La Plata dolphin", "clade", "racehorse", "Arion", "Allometric", "Harmful algal bloom", "hemorrhage", "encephalization quotient", "National Geographic Society", "infanticide (zoology)", "hair follicle", "Laguna, Santa Catarina", "Polychlorinated biphenyl", "dusky shark", "shark attack", "salinity", "Shark Bay", "Predation", "Lipotidae", "captive orca", "gestation period", "Medieval Latin", "Knossos", "Fraser's dolphin", "Apollo", "Review", "sea sponge", "Makara (Hindu mythology)", "copulation (zoology)", "India", "El Niño", "rod cell", "orcas", "Caroline Islands", "Tião (dolphin)", "non-human person", "The Sunday Times", "California", "tucuxi dolphin", "drum line (shark control)", "great white shark", "World Health Organization", "decompression sickness", "List of captive orcas", "Herodotus", "vestigial", "U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program", "healing", "Dionysus", "Platanistidae", "Coat of arms of Poole", "somatosensory system", "skeleton", "Latin", "heart rate", "Thucydides", "River dolphin", "upwelling", "snout", "Blackfish (film)", "Reuters", "blubber", "seabirds", "shapeshifting", "shark nets", "reflex", "artiodactyl" ]
9,067	Division ring	In algebra, a division ring, also called a skew field (or, occasionally, a sfield), is a nontrivial ring in which division by nonzero elements is defined. Specifically, it is a nontrivial ring in which every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse, that is, an element usually denoted , such that . So, (right) division may be defined as , but this notation is avoided, as one may have . A commutative division ring is a field. Wedderburn's little theorem asserts that all finite division rings are commutative and therefore finite fields. Historically, division rings were sometimes referred to as fields, while fields were called "commutative fields". In some languages, such as French, the word equivalent to "field" ("corps") is used for both commutative and noncommutative cases, and the distinction between the two cases is made by adding qualificatives such as "corps commutatif" (commutative field) or "corps gauche" (skew field). All division rings are simple. That is, they have no two-sided ideal besides the zero ideal and itself. == Relation to fields and linear algebra == All fields are division rings, and every non-field division ring is noncommutative. The best known example is the ring of quaternions. If one allows only rational instead of real coefficients in the constructions of the quaternions, one obtains another division ring. In general, if is a ring and is a simple module over , then, by Schur's lemma, the endomorphism ring of is a division ring; every division ring arises in this fashion from some simple module. Much of linear algebra may be formulated, and remains correct, for modules over a division ring instead of vector spaces over a field. Doing so, one must specify whether one is considering right or left modules, and some care is needed in properly distinguishing left and right in formulas. In particular, every module has a basis, and Gaussian elimination can be used. So, everything that can be defined with these tools works on division algebras. Matrices and their products are defined similarly. However, a matrix that is left invertible need not to be right invertible, and if it is, its right inverse can differ from its left inverse. (See .) Determinants are not defined over noncommutative division algebras. Most things that require this concept cannot be generalized to noncommutative division algebras, although generalizations such as quasideterminants allow some results to be recovered. Working in coordinates, elements of a finite-dimensional right module can be represented by column vectors, which can be multiplied on the right by scalars, and on the left by matrices (representing linear maps); for elements of a finite-dimensional left module, row vectors must be used, which can be multiplied on the left by scalars, and on the right by matrices. The dual of a right module is a left module, and vice versa. The transpose of a matrix must be viewed as a matrix over the opposite division ring in order for the rule to remain valid. Every module over a division ring is free; that is, it has a basis, and all bases of a module have the same number of elements. Linear maps between finite-dimensional modules over a division ring can be described by matrices; the fact that linear maps by definition commute with scalar multiplication is most conveniently represented in notation by writing them on the opposite side of vectors as scalars are. The Gaussian elimination algorithm remains applicable. The column rank of a matrix is the dimension of the right module generated by the columns, and the row rank is the dimension of the left module generated by the rows; the same proof as for the vector space case can be used to show that these ranks are the same and define the rank of a matrix. Division rings are the only rings over which every module is free: a ring is a division ring if and only if every -module is free. The center of a division ring is commutative and therefore a field. Every division ring is therefore a division algebra over its center. Division rings can be roughly classified according to whether or not they are finite dimensional or infinite dimensional over their centers. The former are called centrally finite and the latter centrally infinite. Every field is one dimensional over its center. The ring of Hamiltonian quaternions forms a four-dimensional algebra over its center, which is isomorphic to the real numbers. == Examples == As noted above, all fields are division rings. The quaternions form a noncommutative division ring. The subset of the quaternions , such that , , , and belong to a fixed subfield of the real numbers, is a noncommutative division ring. When this subfield is the field of rational numbers, this is the division ring of rational quaternions. Let \sigma: \Complex \to \Complex be an automorphism of the field Let \Complex((z,\sigma)) denote the ring of formal Laurent series with complex coefficients, wherein multiplication is defined as follows: instead of simply allowing coefficients to commute directly with the indeterminate for define z^i\alpha := \sigma^i(\alpha) z^i for each index If \sigma is a non-trivial automorphism of complex numbers (such as the conjugation), then the resulting ring of Laurent series is a noncommutative division ring known as a skew Laurent series ring; if then it features the standard multiplication of formal series. This concept can be generalized to the ring of Laurent series over any fixed field given a nontrivial == Main theorems == Wedderburn's little theorem: All finite division rings are commutative and therefore finite fields. (Ernst Witt gave a simple proof.) Frobenius theorem: The only finite-dimensional associative division algebras over the reals are the reals themselves, the complex numbers, and the quaternions. == Related notions == Division rings used to be called "fields" in an older usage. In many languages, a word meaning "body" is used for division rings, in some languages designating either commutative or noncommutative division rings, while in others specifically designating commutative division rings (what we now call fields in English). A more complete comparison is found in the article on fields. The name "skew field" has an interesting semantic feature: a modifier (here "skew") widens the scope of the base term (here "field"). Thus a field is a particular type of skew field, and not all skew fields are fields. While division rings and algebras as discussed here are assumed to have associative multiplication, nonassociative division algebras such as the octonions are also of interest. A near-field is an algebraic structure similar to a division ring, except that it has only one of the two distributive laws.	[ "distributive law", "Frobenius theorem (real division algebras)", "zero ring", "multiplicative inverse", "octonion", "Matrix (mathematics)", "Field (mathematics)", "French language", "identity function", "Hamiltonian quaternions", "Gaussian elimination", "Wedderburn's little theorem", "algebra", "ring of formal Laurent series", "basis (linear algebra)", "Free module", "center of a ring", "van der Waerden", "Ernst Witt", "zero ideal", "division (mathematics)", "quasideterminant", "near-field (mathematics)", "Emmy Noether", "Graduate Texts in Mathematics", "OED", "simple ring", "invertible matrix", "Emil Artin", "lexical semantics", "finite field", "Hua's identity", "ring (mathematics)", "endomorphism ring", "formal Laurent series", "Schur's lemma", "matrix (mathematics)", "quaternion", "real number", "rational number", "vector space", "Ideal (ring theory)", "division algebra", "Cambridge University Press", "Division algebra", "automorphism", "Determinant", "Invariant basis number", "free module", "complex number", "module (mathematics)", "simple module", "linear algebra", "complex conjugate" ]
9,069	Dia (software)	Dia () is free and open source general-purpose diagramming software, developed originally by Alexander Larsson. Dia has special objects to help draw entity-relationship models, Unified Modeling Language (UML) diagrams, flowcharts, network diagrams, and simple electrical circuits. It is also possible to add support for new shapes by writing simple XML files, using a subset of Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) to draw the shape. Dia loads and saves diagrams in a custom XML format which is, by default, gzipped to save space. It can print large diagrams spanning multiple pages and can also be scripted using the Python programming language. == Exports == Dia can export diagrams to various formats, including: EPS (Encapsulated PostScript) SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) DXF (Autocad's Drawing Interchange format) CGM (Computer Graphics Metafile, defined by ISO standard 8632) WMF (Windows Meta File) PNG (Portable Network Graphics) JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) VDX (Microsoft's XML for Visio Drawing) == Development == Dia was originally created by Alexander Larsson but he moved on to work on GNOME and other projects. James Henstridge took over as lead developer, but he also moved on to other projects. He was followed by Cyrille Chepelov, then Lars Ræder Clausen. Dia is currently maintained by Hans Breuer, Steffen Macke and Sameer Sahasrabuddhe. It is written in C, and has an extension system which also supports writing extensions in Python.	[ "Scalable Vector Graphics", "Norwegian language", "single document interface", "Diagrams.net", "GIMP", "Encapsulated PostScript", "Inkscape", "GNOME", "Linux", "flowchart", "ISO standard", "C (programming language)", "Computer Graphics Metafile", "ATLAS Transformation Language", "macOS", "GNU General Public License", "free and open source software", "VDX (file format)", "Windows Metafile", "Unix", "AutoCAD DXF", "Microsoft Visio", "Ruby (programming language)", "gzip", "XML", "Computer network diagram", "entity-relationship model", "Python (programming language)", "JPEG", "Windows Vista", "List of vector graphics editors", "circuit diagram", "Windows", "Unified Modeling Language", "List of UML tools", "Portable Network Graphics" ]
9,070	Deep Space 1	{{Infobox spaceflight \|auto=all \| name = Deep Space 1 \| image = Deep Space 1 clean (PIA04242).png \| image_caption = Artist concept of Deep Space 1 firing its ion thrusters \| image_size = 300px \| mission_type = Technology demonstrator \| operator = NASAJPL \| COSPAR_ID = 1998-061A \| SATCAT = 25508 \| website = jpl.nasa.gov \| mission_duration = \| manufacturer = Orbital Sciences \| launch_mass = \| dry_mass = \| launch_rocket = Delta II 7326 ==Technologies== The purpose of Deep Space 1 was technology development and validation for future missions; 12 technologies were tested: Solar Electric Propulsion Solar Concentrator Arrays Multi-functional Structure Miniature Integrated Camera and Imaging Spectrometer Ion and Electron Spectrometer Small Deep Space Transponder Ka-Band Solid State Power Amplifier Beacon Monitor Operations Autonomous Remote Agent Low Power Electronics Power Actuation and Switching Module Autonomous Navigation ===Autonav=== The Autonav system, developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, takes images of known bright asteroids. The asteroids in the inner Solar System move in relation to other bodies at a noticeable, predictable speed. Thus a spacecraft can determine its relative position by tracking such asteroids across the star background, which appears fixed over such timescales. Two or more asteroids let the spacecraft triangulate its position; two or more positions in time let the spacecraft determine its trajectory. Existing spacecraft are tracked by their interactions with the transmitters of the NASA Deep Space Network (DSN), in effect an inverse GPS. However, DSN tracking requires many skilled operators, and the DSN is overburdened by its use as a communications network. The use of Autonav reduces mission cost and DSN demands. The Autonav system can also be used in reverse, tracking the position of bodies relative to the spacecraft. This is used to acquire targets for the scientific instruments. The spacecraft is programmed with the target's coarse location. After initial acquisition, Autonav keeps the subject in frame, even commandeering the spacecraft's attitude control. The next spacecraft to use Autonav was Deep Impact. ===SCARLET concentrating solar array=== Primary power for the mission was produced by a new solar array technology, the Solar Concentrator Array with Refractive Linear Element Technology (SCARLET), which uses linear Fresnel lenses made of silicone to concentrate sunlight onto solar cells. ABLE Engineering developed the concentrator technology and built the solar array for DS1, with Entech Inc, who supplied the Fresnel optics, and the NASA Glenn Research Center. The activity was sponsored by the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, developed originally for the SSI - Conestoga 1620 payload, METEOR. The concentrating lens technology was combined with dual-junction solar cells, which had considerably better performance than the GaAs solar cells that were the state of the art at the time of the mission launch. The SCARLET arrays generated 2.5 kilowatts at 1 AU, with less size and weight than conventional arrays. ===NSTAR ion engine=== Although ion engines had been developed at NASA since the late 1950s, with the exception of the SERT missions in the 1960s, the technology had not been demonstrated in flight on United States spacecraft, though hundreds of Hall-effect engines had been used on Soviet and Russian spacecraft. This lack of a performance history in space meant that despite the potential savings in propellant mass, the technology was considered too experimental to be used for high-cost missions. Furthermore, unforeseen side effects of ion propulsion might in some way interfere with typical scientific experiments, such as fields and particle measurements. Therefore, it was a primary mission of the Deep Space 1 demonstration to show long-duration use of an ion thruster on a scientific mission. The NASA Solar Technology Application Readiness (NSTAR) electrostatic ion thruster, developed at NASA Glenn, achieves a specific impulse of 1000–3000 seconds. This is an order of magnitude higher than traditional space propulsion methods, resulting in a mass savings of approximately half. This leads to much cheaper launch vehicles. Although the engine produces just thrust at maximal power (2,100 W on DS1), the craft achieved high speeds because ion engines thrust continuously for long periods. ===Remote Agent=== Remote Agent (RAX), remote intelligent self-repair software developed at NASA's Ames Research Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, was the first artificial-intelligence control system to control a spacecraft without human supervision. Remote Agent successfully demonstrated the ability to plan onboard activities and correctly diagnose and respond to simulated faults in spacecraft components through its built-in REPL environment. Autonomous control will enable future spacecraft to operate at greater distances from Earth and to carry out more sophisticated science-gathering activities in deep space. Components of the Remote Agent software have been used to support other NASA missions. Major components of Remote Agent were a robust planner (EUROPA), a plan-execution system (EXEC) and a model-based diagnostic system (Livingstone). ===PEPE=== Once at a target, DS1 senses the particle environment with the PEPE (Plasma Experiment for Planetary Exploration) instrument. This instrument measured the flux of ions and electrons as a function of their energy and direction. The composition of the ions was determined by using a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. ===MICAS=== The MICAS (Miniature Integrated Camera And Spectrometer) instrument combined visible light imaging with infrared and ultraviolet spectroscopy to determine chemical composition. All channels share a telescope, which uses a silicon carbide mirror. Both PEPE and MICAS were similar in capabilities to larger instruments or suites of instruments on other spacecraft. They were designed to be smaller and require lower power than those used on previous missions. ==Mission overview== Prior to launch, Deep Space 1 was intended to visit comet 76P/West–Kohoutek–Ikemura and asteroid 3352 McAuliffe. Because of the delayed launch, the targets were changed to asteroid 9969 Braille (at the time called 1992 KD) and comet 19P/Borrelly, with comet 107P/Wilson–Harrington being added following the early success of the mission. During the mission, high quality infrared spectra of Mars were also taken. It was thought that the ion engine exhaust might interfere with other spacecraft systems, such as radio communications or the science instruments. The PEPE detectors had a secondary function to monitor such effects from the engine. No interference was found although the flux of ions from the thruster prevented PEPE from observing ions below approximately 20 eV. Another failure was the loss of the star tracker. The star tracker determines spacecraft orientation by comparing the star field to its internal charts. The mission was saved when the MICAS camera was reprogrammed to substitute for the star tracker. Although MICAS is more sensitive, its field-of-view is an order of magnitude smaller, creating a greater information processing burden. Ironically, the star tracker was an off-the-shelf component, expected to be highly reliable. Without a working star tracker, ion thrusting was temporarily suspended. The loss of thrust time forced the cancellation of a flyby past comet 107P/Wilson–Harrington. The Autonav system required occasional manual corrections. Most problems were in identifying objects that were too dim, or were difficult to identify because of brighter objects causing diffraction spikes and reflections in the camera, causing Autonav to misidentify targets. The Remote Agent system was presented with three simulated failures on the spacecraft and correctly handled each event. a failed electronics unit, which Remote Agent fixed by reactivating the unit. a failed sensor providing false information, which Remote Agent recognized as unreliable and therefore correctly ignored. an attitude control thruster (a small engine for controlling the spacecraft's orientation) stuck in the "off" position, which Remote Agent detected and compensated for by switching to a mode that did not rely on that thruster. Overall this constituted a successful demonstration of fully autonomous planning, diagnosis, and recovery. The MICAS instrument was a design success, but the ultraviolet channel failed due to an electrical fault. Later in the mission, after the star tracker failure, MICAS assumed this duty as well. This caused continual interruptions in its scientific use during the remaining mission, including the Comet Borrelly encounter. During late October and early November 1999, during the spacecraft's post-Braille encounter coast phase, Deep Space 1 observed Mars with its MICAS instrument. Although this was a very distant flyby, the instrument did succeed in taking multiple infrared spectra of the planet. ===Current status=== Deep Space 1 succeeded in its primary and secondary objectives, returning valuable science data and images. DS1's ion engines were shut down on 18 December 2001 at approximately 20:00:00 UTC, signaling the end of the mission. On-board communications were set to remain in active mode in case the craft should be needed in the future. However, attempts to resume contact in March 2002 were unsuccessful. It remains within the Solar System, in orbit around the Sun. ==Statistics== Launch mass: Dry mass: Fuel: of hydrazine for attitude control thrusters; of xenon for the NSTAR ion engine Power: 2,500 watts, of which 2,100 watts powers the ion engine Prime contractor: Spectrum Astro, later acquired by General Dynamics, and later sold to Orbital Sciences Corporation Launch vehicle: Boeing Delta II 7326 Launch site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17A Total cost: Development cost: Personnel: Project manager: David Lehman Mission manager: Philip Varghese Chief mission engineer and deputy mission manager: Marc Rayman Project scientist: Robert Nelson	[ "Delta II", "hydrazine", "GaAs", "silicone", "SERT-1", "McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet", "silicon carbide", "star tracker", "Spectrum Astro", "Curiosity (rover)", "NASA Deep Space Network", "9969 Braille", "NASA Solar Technology Application Readiness", "3352 McAuliffe", "Mars Exploration Rover", "ion thruster", "time-of-flight mass spectrometer", "Dawn (spacecraft)", "Boeing", "Wired (magazine)", "List of minor planets and comets visited by spacecraft", "Orbital Sciences Corporation", "4015 Wilson–Harrington", "Jet Propulsion Laboratory", "Ka band", "Hall-effect thruster", "Global Positioning System", "NASA", "Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17", "Mars Science Laboratory", "76P/West–Kohoutek–Ikemura", "albedo", "General Dynamics", "New Horizons", "carrier signal", "Solar panels on spacecraft", "Cape Canaveral Air Force Station", "Halley's Comet", "National Space Science Data Center", "Mars Polar Lander", "Spectrometer", "Glenn Research Center", "Ion thruster", "Fresnel lens", "Phoenix (spacecraft)", "Dryden Flight Research Center", "spacecraft", "Mars", "New Millennium program", "19P/Borrelly", "Earth Observing-1", "Beacon mode service", "Small Deep Space Transponder", "xenon", "New Millennium Program", "Earth", "Ames Research Center", "Deep Space 2", "specific impulse", "Deep Impact (spacecraft)", "asteroid", "107P/Wilson–Harrington", "electrostatic ion thruster", "ion engine", "comet", "Giotto (spacecraft)" ]
9,071	King David (disambiguation)	David was the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah. King David may also refer to: ==People== === Kings === David I (disambiguation) David II (disambiguation) David III of Tao David IV of Georgia (1073–1125) David V of Georgia (died 1155) David VI of Georgia (1225–1293) David VII of Georgia (1215–1270) David VIII of Georgia (1273–1311) David IX of Georgia (died 1360) David X of Kartli (1482–1526) === Others === Capleton (born 1967), Jamaican reggae artist also known as King David Kalākaua (1836–1891), born David Laʻamea Kamanakapuʻu Māhinulani Nālaʻiaʻehuokalani Lumialani Kalākaua, the penultimate Hawaiian monarch David Barksdale (1947–1974), Chicago gang leader ==Other uses== King David (film), 1985 biographical film starring Richard Gere King David (musical), 1997 musical created by Tim Rice and Alan Menken Le roi David, composition by Arthur Honegger The King David Hotel in Jerusalem Nickname for David Hartley, Cragg Vale coiner	[ "Kalākaua", "David IX of Georgia", "Capleton", "David VI of Georgia", "David IV of Georgia", "King David Hotel", "David III of Tao", "Le roi David", "David King (disambiguation)", "King David (musical)", "King David (film)", "David X of Kartli", "David Barksdale", "David II (disambiguation)", "David I (disambiguation)", "Cragg Vale Coiners", "David VII of Georgia", "David", "King David School (disambiguation)", "David VIII of Georgia", "David V of Georgia" ]
9,072	Jacques-Louis David	Jacques-Louis David (; 30 August 1748 – 29 December 1825) was a French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the era. In the 1780s, his cerebral brand of history painting marked a change in taste away from Rococo frivolity toward classical austerity, severity, and heightened feeling, which harmonized with the moral climate of the final years of the Ancien Régime. David later became an active supporter of the French Revolution and friend of Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794), and was effectively a dictator of the arts under the French Republic. Imprisoned after Robespierre's fall from power, he aligned himself with yet another political regime upon his release: that of Napoleon, the First Consul of France. At this time he developed his Empire style, notable for its use of warm Venetian colours. After Napoleon's fall from Imperial power and the Bourbon revival, David exiled himself to Brussels, then in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, where he remained until his death. David had many pupils, making him the strongest influence in French art of the early 19th century, especially academic Salon painting. ==Early life== Jacques-Louis David was born into a prosperous French family in Paris on 30 August 1748. When he was about nine his father was killed in a duel and his mother left him with his well-off architect uncles. They saw to it that he received an excellent education at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, University of Paris, but he was never a good student—he had a facial tumor that impeded his speech, and he was always preoccupied with drawing. He covered his notebooks with drawings, and he once said, "I was always hiding behind the instructor's chair, drawing for the duration of the class". Soon, he desired to be a painter, but his uncles and mother wanted him to be an architect. He overcame the opposition, and went to learn from François Boucher (1703–1770), the leading painter of the time, who was also a distant relative. Boucher was a Rococo painter, but tastes were changing, and the fashion for Rococo was giving way to a more classical style. Boucher decided that instead of taking over David's tutelage, he would send David to his friend, Joseph-Marie Vien (1716–1809), a painter who embraced the classical reaction to Rococo. There, David attended the Royal Academy, based in what is now the Louvre. Each year the academy awarded an outstanding student the prestigious , which funded a 3- to 5-year stay in Rome. Since artists were now revisiting classical styles, the trip provided its winners the opportunity to study the remains of classical antiquity and the works of the Italian Renaissance masters at first hand. Called pensionnaire they were housed in the French Academy's Rome outpost, which from the years 1737 to 1793 was the Palazzo Mancini in the Via del Corso. David made three consecutive attempts to win the annual prize, (with Minerva Fighting Mars, Diana and Apollo Killing Niobe's Children and The Death of Seneca) with each failure allegedly contributing to his lifelong grudge against the institution. After his second loss in 1772, David went on a hunger strike, which lasted two and a half days before the faculty encouraged him to continue painting. Confident he now had the support and backing needed to win the prize, he resumed his studies with great zeal—only to fail to win the again the following year. Finally, in 1774, David was awarded the on the strength of his painting of Erasistratus Discovering the Cause of Antiochus' Disease, a subject set by the judges. In October 1775 he made the journey to Italy with his mentor, Joseph-Marie Vien, who had just been appointed director of the French Academy at Rome. As part of the , David toured the newly excavated ruins of Pompeii in 1779, which deepened his belief that the persistence of classical culture was an index of its eternal conceptual and formal power. During the trip David also assiduously studied the High Renaissance painters, Raphael making a profound and lasting impression on the young French artist. ==Early work== Although David's fellow students at the academy found him difficult to get along with, they recognized his genius. David's stay at the French Academy in Rome was extended by a year. In July 1780, he returned to Paris. The issue of gender roles also becomes apparent in this piece, as the women in Horatii greatly contrast the group of brothers. David depicts the father with his back to the women, shutting them out of the oath. They also appear to be smaller in scale and physically isolated from the male figures. The masculine virility and discipline displayed by the men's rigid and confident stances is also severely contrasted to the slouching, swooning female softness created in the other half of the composition. Here we see the clear division of male-female attributes that confined the sexes to specific roles under Rousseau's popularized doctrine of "separate spheres". These revolutionary ideals are also apparent in the Distribution of Eagles. While Oath of the Horatii and The Tennis Court Oath stress the importance of masculine self-sacrifice for one's country and patriotism, the Distribution of Eagles would ask for self-sacrifice for one's Emperor (Napoleon) and the importance of battlefield glory. In 1787, David did not become the Director of the French Academy in Rome, which was a position he wanted dearly. The Count in charge of the appointments said David was too young, but said he would support him in 6 to 12 years. This situation would be one of many that would cause him to lash out at the academy in years to come. For the Salon of 1787, David exhibited his famous Death of Socrates. "Condemned to death, Socrates, strong, calm and at peace, discusses the immortality of the soul. Surrounded by Crito, his grieving friends and students, he is teaching, philosophizing, and in fact, thanking the God of Health, Asclepius, for the hemlock brew which will ensure a peaceful death... The wife of Socrates can be seen grieving alone outside the chamber, dismissed for her weakness. Plato is depicted as an old man seated at the end of the bed." Critics compared the Socrates with Michelangelo's Sistine Ceiling and Raphael's Stanze, and one, after ten visits to the Salon, described it as "in every sense perfect". Denis Diderot said it looked as if he copied it from some ancient bas-relief. The painting was very much in tune with the political climate at the time. For this painting, David was not honored by a royal "works of encouragement". For his next painting, David created The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons. The work had tremendous appeal for the time. Before the opening of the Salon, the French Revolution had begun. The National Assembly had been established, and the Bastille had fallen. The royal court did not want propaganda agitating the people, so all paintings had to be checked before being hung. David's portrait of Lavoisier, who was a chemist and physicist as well as an active member of the Jacobin party, was banned by the authorities for such reasons. When the newspapers reported that the government had not allowed the showing of The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons, the people were outraged, and the royals were forced to give in. The painting was hung in the exhibition, protected by art students. The painting depicts Lucius Junius Brutus, the Roman leader, grieving for his sons. Brutus's sons had attempted to overthrow the government and restore the monarchy, so the father ordered their death to maintain the republic. Brutus was the heroic defender of the republic, sacrificing his own family for the good of the republic. On the right, the mother holds her two daughters, and the nurse is seen on the far right, in anguish. Brutus sits on the left, alone, brooding, seemingly dismissing the dead bodies of his sons. Knowing what he did was best for his country, but the tense posture of his feet and toes reveals his inner turmoil. The whole painting was a Republican symbol, and obviously had immense meaning during these times in France. It exemplified civic virtue, a value highly regarded during the Revolution. ==The French Revolution== In the beginning, David was a supporter of the Revolution, a friend of Maximilien Robespierre, and a member of the Jacobin Club. While others were leaving the country for new and greater opportunities, David stayed behind to help destroy the old order; he was a regicide who voted in the National Convention for the execution of Louis XVI. It is uncertain why he did this, as there were many more opportunities for him under the King than the new order; some people suggest David's love for the classical made him embrace everything about that period, including a republican government. Others believed that they found the key to the artist's revolutionary career in his personality. Undoubtedly, David's artistic sensibility, mercurial temperament, volatile emotions, ardent enthusiasm, and fierce independence might have been expected to help turn him against the established order but they did not fully explain his devotion to the republican regime. Nor did the vague statements of those who insisted upon his "powerful ambition...and unusual energy of will" actually account for his revolutionary connections. Those who knew him maintained that "generous ardor", high-minded idealism and well-meaning though sometimes fanatical enthusiasm, rather than opportunism and jealousy, motivated his activities during this period. Soon, David turned his critical sights on the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. This attack was probably caused primarily by the hypocrisy of the organization and their personal opposition to his work, as seen in previous episodes in David's life. The Royal Academy was controlled by royalists, who opposed David's attempts at reform; so the National Assembly finally ordered it to make changes to conform to the new constitution. David then began work on something that would later hound him: propaganda for the new republic. David's painting of Brutus was shown during the play Brutus by Voltaire. In 1789, David attempted to leave his artistic mark on the historical beginnings of the French Revolution with his painting of The Oath of the Tennis Court. He undertook this task not out of personal political conviction but rather because he was commissioned to do so. The painting was meant to commemorate the event of the same name but was never completed. A meeting of the Estates General was convened in May to address reforms of the monarchy. Dissent arose over whether the three estates would meet separately, as had been tradition, or as one body. The King's acquiescence in the demands of the upper orders led to the deputies of the Third Estate renaming themselves as the National Assembly on 17 June. They were locked out of the meeting hall three days later when they attempted to meet, and forced to reconvene to the royal indoor tennis court. Presided over by Jean-Sylvain Bailly, they made a 'solemn oath never to separate' until a national constitution had been created. In 1789 this event was seen as a symbol of the national unity against the ancien regime. Rejecting the current conditions, the oath signified a new transition in human history and ideology. David was enlisted by the Society of Friends of the Constitution, the body that would eventually form the Jacobins, to enshrine this symbolic event. This instance is notable in more ways than one because it eventually led David to finally become involved in politics as he joined the Jacobins. The picture was meant to be massive in scale; the figures in the foreground were to be life-sized portraits of the counterparts, including Jean-Sylvain Bailly, the President of the Constituent Assembly. Seeking additional funding, David turned to the Society of Friends of the Constitution. The funding for the project was to come from over three thousand subscribers hoping to receive a print of the image. However, when the funding was insufficient, the state ended up financing the project. David set out in 1790 to transform the contemporary event into a major historical picture which would appear at the Salon of 1791 as a large pen-and-ink drawing. As in the Oath of the Horatii, David represents the unity of men in the service of a patriotic ideal. The outstretched arms which are prominent in both works betray David's deeply held belief that acts of republican virtue akin to those of the Romans were being played out in France. In what was essentially an act of intellect and reason, David creates an air of drama in this work. The very power of the people appears to be "blowing" through the scene with the stormy weather, in a sense alluding to the storm that would be the revolution. Symbolism in this work of art closely represents the revolutionary events taking place at the time. The figure in the middle is raising his right arm making the oath that they will never disband until they have reached their goal of creating a "constitution of the realm fixed upon solid foundations". The importance of this symbol is highlighted by the fact that the crowd's arms are angled to his hand forming a triangular shape. Additionally, the open space in the top half contrasted to the commotion in the lower half serves to emphasize the magnitude of the Tennis Court Oath. In his attempt to depict political events of the Revolution in "real time", David was venturing down a new and untrodden path in the art world. However, Thomas Crow argues that this path "proved to be less a way forward than a cul-de-sac for history painting". In his speech during the procession, David "explicitly emphasized the opposition between people and monarchy; Hercules was chosen, after all, to make this opposition more evident". The ideals that David linked to his Hercules single-handedly transformed the figure from a sign of the old regime into a powerful new symbol of revolution. "David turned him into the representation of a collective, popular power. He took one of the favorite signs of monarchy and reproduced, elevated, and monumentalized it into the sign of its opposite." Hercules, the image, became to the revolutionaries, something to rally around. In June 1791, the King made an ill-fated attempt to flee the country, but was apprehended short of his goal on the Austrian Netherlands border and was forced to return under guard to Paris. Louis XVI had made secret requests to Emperor Leopold II of Austria, Marie-Antoinette's brother, to restore him to his throne. This was granted and Austria threatened France if the royal couple were hurt. In reaction, the people arrested the King. This led to an Invasion after the trials and execution of Louis and Marie-Antoinette. The Bourbon monarchy was destroyed by the French people in 1792—it would be restored after Napoleon, then destroyed again with the Restoration of the House of Bonaparte. When the new National Convention held its first meeting, David was sitting with his friends Jean-Paul Marat and Robespierre. In the convention, David soon earned the nickname "ferocious terrorist". Robespierre's agents discovered a secret vault containing the King's correspondence which proved he was trying to overthrow the government, and demanded his execution. The National Convention held the trial of Louis XVI; David voted for the death of the King, causing his wife, Marguerite Charlotte, a royalist, to divorce him. When Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793, another man had already died as well—Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau. Le Peletier was killed on the preceding day by a royal bodyguard in revenge for having voted for the death of the King. David was called upon to organize a funeral, and he painted Le Peletier Assassinated. In it, the assassin's sword was seen hanging by a single strand of horsehair above Le Peletier's body, a concept inspired by the proverbial ancient tale of the sword of Damocles, which illustrated the insecurity of power and position. The sword pierces a piece of paper on which is written "I vote the death of the tyrant", and as a tribute at the bottom right of the picture David placed the inscription "David to Le Peletier. 20 January 1793". The painting was later destroyed by Le Peletier's royalist daughter, and is known by only a drawing, an engraving, and contemporary accounts. Nevertheless, this work was important in David's career because it was the first completed painting of the French Revolution, made in less than three months, and a work through which he initiated the regeneration process that would continue with The Death of Marat, David's masterpiece. On 13 July 1793, David's friend Marat was assassinated by Charlotte Corday with a knife she had hidden in her clothing. She gained entrance to Marat's house on the pretense of presenting him a list of people who should be executed as enemies of France. Marat thanked her and said that they would be guillotined next week upon which Corday immediately fatally stabbed him. She was guillotined shortly thereafter. Corday was of an opposing political party, whose name can be seen in the note Marat holds in David's subsequent painting, The Death of Marat. Marat, a member of the National Convention and a journalist, had a skin disease that caused him to itch horribly. The only relief he could get was in his bath over which he improvised a desk to write his list of suspect counter-revolutionaries who were to be quickly tried and, if convicted, guillotined. David once again organized a spectacular funeral, and Marat was buried in the Panthéon. Marat's body was to be placed upon a Roman bed, his wound displayed and his right arm extended holding the pen which he had used to defend the Republic and its people. This concept was to be complicated by the fact that the corpse had begun to putrefy. Marat's body had to be periodically sprinkled with water and vinegar as the public crowded to see his corpse prior to the funeral on 15 and 16 July. The stench became so bad however that the funeral had to be brought forward to the evening of 16 July. The Death of Marat, perhaps David's most famous painting, has been called the Pietà of the revolution. Upon presenting the painting to the convention, he said "Citizens, the people were again calling for their friend; their desolate voice was heard: David, take up your brushes..., avenge Marat... I heard the voice of the people. I obeyed." The Death of Marat, 1793, became the leading image of the Terror and immortalized both Marat and David in the world of the revolution. This piece stands today as "a moving testimony to what can be achieved when an artist's political convictions are directly manifested in his work". A political martyr was instantly created as David portrayed Marat with all the marks of the real murder, in a fashion which greatly resembles that of Christ or his disciples. The subject although realistically depicted remains lifeless in a rather supernatural composition. With the surrogate tombstone placed in front of him and the almost holy light cast upon the whole scene; alluding to an out of this world existence. "Atheists though they were, David and Marat, like so many other fervent social reformers of the modern world, seem to have created a new kind of religion." At the very center of these beliefs, there stood the republic. After the King's execution, war broke out between the new Republic and virtually every major power in Europe. David, as a member of the Committee of General Security, contributed directly to the Reign of Terror. David organized his last festival: the festival of the Supreme Being. Robespierre had realized what a tremendous propaganda tool these festivals were, and he decided to create a new religion, mixing moral ideas with the Republic and based on the ideas of Rousseau. This process had already begun by confiscating church lands and requiring priests to take an oath to the state. The festivals, called fêtes, would be the method of indoctrination. On the appointed day, 20 Prairial by the revolutionary calendar, Robespierre spoke, descended steps, and with a torch presented to him by David, incinerated a cardboard image symbolizing atheism, revealing an image of wisdom underneath. Soon, the war began to go well; French troops marched across the southern half of the Netherlands (which would later become Belgium), and the emergency that had placed the Committee of Public Safety in control was no more. Then plotters seized Robespierre at the National Convention and he was later guillotined, in effect ending the Reign of Terror. As Robespierre was arrested, David yelled to his friend "if you drink hemlock, I shall drink it with you." After this, he supposedly fell ill, and did not attend the evening session because of "stomach pain", which saved him from being guillotined along with Robespierre. David was arrested and placed in prison twice, first from 2 August to 28 December 1794 and then from 29 May to 3 August 1795. Most of the time he served his sentence in the not uncomfortable Palais du Luxembourg in Paris. especially since, in a private exhibition of the painting, the artist used a large mirror in his installation so that spectators could view themselves within the reflection of the work. David conceived a new style for this painting, one which he called the "Pure Greek Style", as opposed to the "Roman style" of his earlier historical paintings. The new style was influenced heavily by the work of art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann. In David's words, "the most prominent general characteristics of the Greek masterpieces are a noble simplicity and silent greatness in pose as well as in expression." Instead of the muscularity and angularity of the figures of his past works, these were smoother, more feminine, and painterly. This work also brought him to the attention of Napoleon. The story for the painting is as follows: "The Romans have abducted the daughters of their neighbors, the Sabines. To avenge this abduction, the Sabines attacked Rome, although not immediately—since Hersilia, the daughter of Tatius, the leader of the Sabines, had been married to Romulus, the Roman leader, and then had two children by him in the interim. Here we see Hersilia between her father and husband as she adjures the warriors on both sides not to take wives away from their husbands or mothers away from their children. The other Sabine Women join in her exhortations." During this time, the martyrs of the Revolution were taken from the Pantheon and buried in common ground, and revolutionary statues were destroyed. When David was finally released to the country, France had changed. His wife managed to get him released from prison, and he wrote letters to his former wife, and told her he never ceased loving her. He remarried her in 1796. Finally, wholly restored to his position, he retreated to his studio, took pupils and for the most part retired from politics. In August 1796, David and many other artists signed a petition orchestrated by Quatremère de Quincy which questioned the wisdom of the planned seizure of works of art from Rome. The Director Barras believed that David was "tricked" into signing, although one of David's students recalled that in 1798 his master lamented the fact that masterpieces had been imported from Italy. ==Napoleon== David's close association with the Committee of Public Safety during the Terror resulted in his signing of the death warrant for Alexandre de Beauharnais, a minor noble. Beauharnais's widow, Joséphine, went on to marry Napoleon Bonaparte and became his empress; David himself depicted their coronation in the Coronation of Napoleon and Josephine, 2 December 1804. David had been an admirer of Napoleon from their first meeting, struck by Bonaparte's classical features. Requesting a sitting from the busy and impatient general, David was able to sketch Napoleon in 1797. David recorded the face of the conqueror of Italy, but the full composition of Napoleon holding the peace treaty with Austria remains unfinished. This was likely a decision by Napoleon himself after considering the current political situation. He may have considered the publicity the portrait would bring about to be ill-timed. Bonaparte had high esteem for David, and asked him to accompany him to Egypt in 1798, but David refused, seemingly unwilling to give up the material comfort, safety, and peace of mind he had obtained through the years. Draftsman and engraver Dominique Vivant Denon went to Egypt instead, providing mostly documentary and archaeological work. After Napoleon's successful coup d'état in 1799, as First Consul he commissioned David to commemorate his daring crossing of the Alps. The crossing of the St. Bernard Pass had allowed the French to surprise the Austrian army and win victory at the Battle of Marengo on 14 June 1800. Although Napoleon had crossed the Alps on a mule, he requested that he be portrayed "calm upon a fiery steed". David complied with Napoleon Crossing the Saint-Bernard. After the proclamation of the Empire in 1804, David became the official court painter of the regime. During this period he took students, one of whom was the Belgian painter Pieter van Hanselaere. One of the works David was commissioned for was The Coronation of Napoleon (1805–1807). David was permitted to watch the event. He had plans of Notre Dame delivered and participants in the coronation came to his studio to pose individually, though never the Emperor. (The only time David obtained a sitting from Napoleon had been in 1797.) David did manage to get a private sitting with the Empress Joséphine and Napoleon's sister, Caroline Murat, through the intervention of erstwhile art patron Marshal Joachim Murat, the Emperor's brother-in-law. For his background, David had the choir of Notre Dame act as his fill-in characters. Pope Pius VII came to sit for the painting, and actually blessed David. Napoleon came to see the painter, stared at the canvas for an hour and said "David, I salute you." David had to redo several parts of the painting because of Napoleon's various whims, and for this painting, he received twenty-four thousand Francs. David was made a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur in 1803. He was promoted to an Officier in 1808. And, in 1815, he was promoted to a Commandant (now Commandeur) de la Légion d'honneur. ==Exile and death== On the Bourbons returning to power, David figured in the list of proscribed former revolutionaries and Bonapartists for having voted execution for the deposed King Louis XVI; and for participating in the death of Louis XVII, the deposed king's son who was mistreated, starved and forced into a false confession of incest with his mother, Queen Marie Antoinette, which contributed to her death sentence. The newly restored Bourbon King, Louis XVIII, however, granted amnesty to David and even offered him the position of court painter. David refused, preferring self-exile in Brussels. There, he trained and influenced Brussels artists such as François-Joseph Navez and Ignace Brice, painted Cupid and Psyche and quietly lived the remainder of his life with his wife (whom he had remarried). In that time, he painted smaller-scale mythological scenes, and portraits of citizens of Brussels and Napoleonic émigrés, such as the Baron Gerard. David created his last great work, Mars Being Disarmed by Venus and the Three Graces, from 1822 to 1824. In December 1823, he wrote: "This is the last picture I want to paint, but I want to surpass myself in it. I will put the date of my seventy-five years on it and afterwards I will never again pick up my brush." The finished painting—evoking painted porcelain because of its limpid coloration—was exhibited first in Brussels, then in Paris, where his former students flocked to view it. The exhibition was profitable—13,000 francs, after deducting operating costs, thus, more than 10,000 people visited and viewed the painting. In his later years, David remained in full command of his artistic faculties, even after a stroke in the spring of 1825 disfigured his face and slurred his speech. In June 1825, he resolved to embark on an improved version of his The Anger of Achilles (also known as the Sacrifice of Iphigenie); the earlier version was completed in 1819 and is now in the collection of the Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth, Texas. David remarked to his friends who visited his studio "this [painting] is what is killing me" such was his determination to complete the work, but by October it must have already been well advanced, as his former pupil Gros wrote to congratulate him, having heard reports of the painting's merits. By the time David died, the painting had been completed and the commissioner Ambroise Firmin-Didot brought it back to Paris to include it in the exhibition "Pour les grecs" that he had organised and which opened in Paris in April 1826. When David was leaving a theater, the driver of a carriage struck him, and he later died, on 29 December 1825. At his death, some portraits were auctioned in Paris, they sold for little; the famous Death of Marat was exhibited in a secluded room, to avoid outraging public sensibilities. Disallowed return to France for burial, for having been a regicide of King Louis XVI, the body of the painter Jacques-Louis David was buried in Brussels and moved in 1882 to Brussels Cemetery, while some say his heart was buried with his wife at Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris. ==Freemasonry== The theme of the oath found in several works such as The Oath of the Tennis Court, The Distribution of the Eagles, and Leonidas at Thermopylae, was perhaps inspired by the rituals of Freemasonry. In 1989 during the "David against David" conference Albert Boime presented evidence, a document dated in 1787, showing the painter's membership in the "La Moderation" Masonic Lodge. ==Medical analysis of David's face== Jacques-Louis David's facial abnormalities were traditionally reported to be a consequence of a deep facial sword wound after a fencing incident. These left him with a noticeable asymmetry during facial expression and resulted in his difficulty in eating or speaking. (He could not pronounce some consonants such as the letter 'r'.) A sword scar wound on the left side of his face is present in his self-portrait and sculptures and corresponds to some of the buccal branches of the facial nerve. An injury to this nerve and its branches are likely to have resulted in the difficulties with his left facial movement. Furthermore, as a result of this injury, he suffered from a growth on his face that biographers and art historians have defined as a benign tumor. These, however, may have been a granuloma, or even a post-traumatic neuroma. As historian Simon Schama has pointed out, witty banter and public speaking ability were key aspects of the social culture of 18th-century France, so David's tumor could have been a heavy obstacle in his social life. David was sometimes referred to as "David of the Tumor". ==Portraiture== In addition to his history paintings, David completed a number of privately commissioned portraits. Warren Roberts, among others, has pointed out the contrast between David's "public style" of painting, as shown in his history paintings, and his "private style", as shown in his portraits. His portraits were characterized by a sense of truth and realism. He focused on defining his subjects' features and characters without idealizing them. This is different from the style seen in his historical paintings, in which he idealizes his figures' features and bodies to align with Greek and Roman ideals of beauty. He puts a great deal of detail into his portraits, defining smaller features such as hands and fabric. The compositions of his portraits remain simple with blank backgrounds that allow the viewer to focus on the details of the subject. The portrait he did of his wife (1813) is an example of his typical portrait style. Other portraits include paintings of his sister-in-law and her husband, Madame and Monsieur Seriziat. The picture of Monsieur Seriziat depicts a man of wealth, sitting comfortably with his horse-riding equipment. The picture of the Madame shows her wearing an unadorned white dress, holding her young child's hand as they lean against a bed. David painted these portraits of Madame and Monsieur Seriziat out of gratitude for letting him stay with them after he was in jail. Towards the end of David's life, he painted a portrait of his old friend Abbé Sieyès. Both had been involved in the Revolution, both had survived the purging of political radicals that followed the reign of terror. ==Shift in attitude== The shift in David's perspective played an important role in the paintings of David's later life, including this one of Sieyès. During the height of The Terror, David was an ardent supporter of radicals such as Robespierre and Marat, and twice offered up his life in their defense. He organized revolutionary festivals and painted portraits of martyrs of the revolution, such as Lepeletier, who was assassinated for voting for the death of the king. David was an impassioned speaker at times in the National Assembly. In speaking to the Assembly about the young boy named Bara, another martyr of the revolution, David said, "O Bara! O Viala! The blood that you have spread still smokes; it rises toward Heaven and cries for vengeance." After Robespierre was sent to the guillotine, however, David was imprisoned and changed the attitude of his rhetoric. During his imprisonment he wrote many letters, pleading his innocence. In one he wrote, "I am prevented from returning to my atelier, which, alas, I should never have left. I believed that in accepting the most honorable position, but very difficult to fill, that of legislator, that a righteous heart would suffice, but I lacked the second quality, understanding." Later, while explaining his developing "Grecian style" for paintings such as The Intervention of the Sabine Women, David further commented on a shift in attitude: "In all human activity the violent and transitory develops first; repose and profundity appear last. The recognition of these latter qualities requires time; only great masters have them, while their pupils have access only to violent passions." ==Legacy== Jacques-Louis David was, in his time, regarded as the leading painter in France, and arguably all of Western Europe; many of the painters honored by the restored Bourbons following the French Revolution had been David's pupils. David's student Antoine-Jean Gros for example, was made a Baron and honored by Napoleon Bonaparte's court. He called on the more advanced students, such as Jérôme-Martin Langlois, to help him paint his large canvases. Musician and artist Therese Emilie Henriette Winkel; and painter Jean Baptiste Vermay also studied with David. Despite David's reputation, he was more fiercely criticized right after his death than at any point during his life. His style came under the most serious criticism for being static, rigid, and uniform throughout all his work. David's art was also attacked for being cold and lacking warmth. David, however, made his career precisely by challenging what he saw as the earlier rigidity and conformity of the French Royal Academy's approach to art. David's later works also reflect his growth in the development of the Empire style, notable for its dynamism and warm colors. It is likely that much of the criticism of David following his death came from David's opponents; during his lifetime David made a great many enemies with his competitive and arrogant personality as well as his role in the "Terror." David refused to intervene in her favor, and she was executed. Vernet allegedly blamed David for his sister's death, although he was not a member of the Committee of Public Safety or Committee of General Security, the two primary Committees responsible for enacting laws within the National Convention. In the last 50 years David has enjoyed a revival in popular favor and in 1948 his two-hundredth birthday was celebrated with an exhibition at the Musée de l'Orangerie in Paris and at Versailles showing his life's works. Following World War II, Jacques-Louis David was increasingly regarded as a symbol of French national pride and identity, as well as a vital force in the development of European and French art in the modern era. The birth of Romanticism is traditionally credited to the paintings of eighteenth-century French artists such as Jacques-Louis David. There are streets named after David in the French cities of Carcassonne and Montpellier. ==Filmography== Danton (Andrzej Wajda, France, 1982) – Historical drama. Many scenes include David as a silent character watching and drawing. The film focuses on the period of the Terror. Napoleon (Ridley Scott, 2023) - Historical drama. David appears during Napoleon's coronation, sketching the scene for his painting of the event. ==Gallery== File:Jacques-Louis David - Jupiter et Antiope.jpg\|Jupiter et Antiope (1768), an early work showing the influence of Greuze Niobe JacquesLouisDavid 1772 Dallas Museum of Art.jpg\|Diana and Apollo Piercing Niobe's Children with their Arrows (1772), Dallas Museum of Art File:Jacques-Louis David - Antiochus and Stratonica - WGA06042.jpg\|Antiochus and Stratonica (1774), École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts File:Jacques-Louis David - Patroclus - WGA06044.jpg\|Patroclus, study (1780), Musée Thomas-Henry File:Le corps d'Hector - Hector's body - El cuerpo de Héctor.jpg\| Hector's body (1778) David - Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and His Wife.jpg\|Portrait of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and his wife (1788), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Les Amours de Pâris et d'Hélène (painting by Jacques-Louis David).jpg\|Paris and Helen (1788), Musée du Louvre, Paris (detail) David98.jpg\|Portrait of Anne-Marie-Louise Thélusson, Comtesse de Sorcy (1790), Neue Pinakothek, Munich File:Seriziat.jpg\| Portrait of Pierre Sériziat, (1795), Louvre Museum Portrait de madame de Verninac by David Louvre RF1942-16 n2.jpg\|Portrait of Madame de Verninac (1798–1799), born Henriette Delacroix, elder sister of Eugène Delacroix, Musée du Louvre, Paris Madame Récamier by Jacques-Louis David.jpg\|Madame Récamier (1800), Musée du Louvre, Paris File:Jacques-Louis David - Suzanne Le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau - Google Art Project.jpg\|Suzanne Le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau (1804), The J. Paul Getty Museum Jacques-Louis_David_018.jpg\|Portrait of Pope Pius VII (1805), Musée du Louvre, Paris Madame David by Jacques-Louis David, 1813, oil on canvas - National Gallery of Art, Washington - DSC09988.JPG\|Marguerite-Charlotte David (1813), National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. David_Etienne_Maurice_Gerard.jpg\|Portrait of Étienne Maurice Gérard (1816), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York David Vilain.jpg\|The Comtesse Vilain XIIII and Her Daughter (1816), National Gallery, London File:Jacques-Louis David - Portrait of the Comte de Turenne - Google Art Project.jpg\|Portrait of the Comte de Turenne (1816), Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen Clevelandart 1962.37.jpg\|Cupid and Psyche (1817), Cleveland Museum of Art File:Jacques-Louis David - The Farewell of Telemachus and Eucharis - Google Art Project.jpg\|The Farewell of Telemachus and Eucharis (1818), J. Paul Getty Museum Jacques-Louis David - The Anger of Achilles - Google Art Project.jpg\|The Anger of Achilles (1819), Kimbell Art Museum File:Jacques-Louis David - The Sisters Zénaïde and Charlotte Bonaparte - Google Art Project.jpg\|The Sisters Zénaïde and Charlotte Bonaparte (1821), J. Paul Getty Museum	[ "Harry Abrams", "Legion of Honour", "Tennis Court Oath", "Mars Being Disarmed by Venus", "The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons", "Therese Emilie Henriette Winkel", "Georges Rouget", "Portrait of Madame Récamier", "University of North Carolina Press", "Dallas Museum of Art", "Andrzej Wajda", "Henriette Delacroix", "Munich", "Cult of the Supreme Being", "Denis Diderot", "University of Paris", "Marc Guillaume Alexis Vadier", "François-Joseph Navez", "Erasistratus Discovering the Cause of Antiochus' Disease", "The Anger of Achilles", "Diana and Apollo Killing Niobe's Children", "National Assembly (French Revolution)", "Salon (Paris)", "Helen of Troy", "Marie Antoinette", "rape of the Sabine women", "Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès", "Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution", "Nicolas Poussin", "The Coronation of Napoleon", "Eugène Delacroix", "Brutus (tragedy)", "Antoine-Jean Gros", "Napoleon Crossing the Alps", "Quatremère de Quincy", "history painting", "The Sisters Zénaïde and Charlotte Bonaparte", "The Mountain", "Panthéon, Paris", "Kingdom of France", "United Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Yale University Press", "University of California Press", "granuloma", "Jupiter et Antiope", "Portrait of Pierre Seriziat", "Carcassonne", "Category:Pupils of Jacques-Louis David", "Portrait of Étienne Maurice Gérard", "Jacobin Club", "French Revolution", "Joseph-Marie Vien", "The Vestal Virgin (David)", "Joséphine de Beauharnais", "Marianne", "Matthew Collings", "Maximilien Robespierre", "Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres", "Marguerite Charlotte Pécoul", "Voltaire", "flight to Varennes", "Collège des Quatre-Nations", "Louis XVI", "Musée de l'Orangerie", "Palace of Versailles", "The Death of Seneca (David)", "Jean-Sylvain Bailly", "Committee of General Security", "Metropolitan Museum of Art", "The Death of Socrates", "court painter", "Hazan (publishing house)", "Danton (1983 film)", "Raphael Mengs", "Luxembourg Palace", "J. Paul Getty Museum", "Ancien Régime", "Rousseau", "The Death of Marat", "The Intervention of the Sabine Women", "Dominique Vivant Denon", "National Gallery of Art", "Napoleon", "François Boucher", "Joseph-Benoît Suvée", "relief", "Egypt", "Battle of Marengo", "18 Brumaire", "Pompeii", "Simon Schama", "Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau", "Penguin Books", "Reign of Terror", "Montpellier", "the Carracci", "The Tennis Court Oath (David)", "Pope Pius VII", "Johann Joachim Winckelmann", "Minerva Fighting Mars", "Académie de peinture et de sculpture", "Rococo", "Pietà", "Louvre Museum", "Portrait of Pope Pius VII", "National Gallery, London", "Découvertes Gallimard", "Agnès Humbert", "fencing", "École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts", "Portrait of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and his wife", "Cleveland Museum of Art", "Musée du Louvre", "Carle Vernet", "Empire style", "Georges Couthon", "Ridley Scott", "Caroline Bonaparte", "Italy", "Brussels", "Thomas E. Crow", "benign tumor", "French people", "neuroma", "Age of Enlightenment", "Jean-Baptiste Greuze", "execution of Louis XVI", "Mélanges de l'École française de Rome", "Legacy and memory of Napoleon", "Sistine Chapel", "Michelangelo", "French Republican Calendar", "The Farewell of Telemachus and Eucharis", "Alexandre de Beauharnais", "Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor", "separate spheres", "Lucius Junius Brutus", "French painter", "Fall of Robespierre", "Jérôme-Martin Langlois", "Louis XVII", "Grave of Jacques-Louis David", "Jean-Paul Marat", "Liberty (personification)", "Paris Salon", "Ignace Brice", "Oath of the Horatii", "Raphael", "Prix de Rome", "Venetian school (art)", "Jean-Germain Drouais", "Thames & Hudson", "Guillotine", "Love and Psyche (David)", "Joachim Murat", "Vilain XIIII", "President of the National Convention", "Charlotte Corday", "House of Bourbon", "Bastille", "Notre Dame de Paris", "Romulus", "French First Republic", "Paris (mythology)", "Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek", "Jean Baptiste Vermay", "Neoclassicism", "Musée Thomas-Henry", "Pieter van Hanselaere", "Neoclassicism in France", "Freemasonry", "Napoleon (2023 film)", "Self-Portrait (David)", "Paris", "The University of Chicago Press", "Patroclus", "Rococo painting", "Caravaggio", "Kimbell Art Museum", "duel", "French Academy in Rome", "Louvre", "Fort Worth, Texas", "Distribution of Eagles", "Conium", "Père Lachaise Cemetery", "Neue Pinakothek", "Princeton University Press" ]
9,074	Design Science License	Design Science License (DSL) is a copyleft license for any type of free content such as text, images, music. Unlike other open source licenses, the DSL was intended to be used on any type of copyrightable work, including documentation and source code. It was the first “generalized copyleft” license. The DSL was written by Michael Stutz. The DSL came out in the 1990s, before the formation of the Creative Commons. Once the Creative Commons arrived, Stutz considered the DSL experiment "over" and no longer recommended its use.	[ "copyleft", "Creative Commons", "free content" ]
9,075	David Bowman (Space Odyssey)	Redirect Space Odyssey#Characters	[ "Space Odyssey" ]
9,079	Drum kit	A drum kit or drum set (also known as a trap set, or simply drums in popular music and jazz) is a collection of drums, cymbals, and sometimes other auxiliary percussion instruments set up to be played by one person. The drummer typically holds a pair of matching drumsticks or special wire or nylon brushes; and uses their feet to operate hi-hat and bass drum pedals. A standard kit usually consists of: A snare drum, mounted on a stand A bass drum, played with a beater moved by one or more foot-operated pedals One or more tom-toms, including rack toms and/or floor toms One or more cymbals, including a ride cymbal and crash cymbal Hi-hat cymbals, a pair of cymbals that can be played with a foot-operated pedal The drum kit is a part of the standard rhythm section and is used in many types of popular and traditional music styles, ranging from rock and pop to blues and jazz. __TOC__ ==History== ===Early development=== Before the development of the classic drum kit, drums and cymbals used in military and orchestral music settings were played separately by different percussionists. In the 1840s, percussionists began to experiment with foot pedals as a way to enable them to play more than one instrument, but these devices would not be mass-produced for another 75 years. By the 1860s, percussionists started combining multiple drums into a kit. The bass drum, snare drum, cymbals, and other percussion instruments were all struck with hand-held drumsticks. Drummers in musical theater appeared in stage shows, where the budget for pit orchestras was often limited due to an insufficient amount of money able to purchase a full percussionist team. This contributed to the creation of the drum kit by developing techniques and devices that would enable one person to replace multiple percussionists. Double-drumming was developed to enable one person to play both bass and snare drums with sticks, while the cymbals could be played by tapping the foot on a "low-boy". With this approach, the bass drum was usually played on beats one and three (in time). While the music was first designed to accompany marching soldiers, this simple and straightforward drumming approach led to the birth of ragtime music, when the simple marching beats became more syncopated. This resulted in a greater swing and dance feel. The drum kit was initially referred to as a "trap set", and from the late 1800s to the 1930s, drummers were referred to as "trap drummers". By the 1870s, drummers were using an overhang pedal. Most drummers in the 1870s preferred to do double-drumming without any pedal to play multiple drums, rather than use an overhang pedal. Companies patented their pedal systems, such as that of drummer Edward "Dee Dee" Chandler of New Orleans in 1904 or 1905. This led to the bass drum being played by percussionists standing and using their feet, hence the term "kick drum". William F. Ludwig Sr. and his brother Theobald founded Ludwig & Ludwig Co. in 1909 and patented the first commercially successful bass drum pedal system. Drummers such as Baby Dodds, Zutty Singleton, and Ray Bauduc took the idea of marching rhythms and combined the bass drum, snare drum, and "traps"a term used to refer to the percussion instruments associated with immigrant groups, which included miniature cymbals, tom toms, cowbells, and woodblocks. They started incorporating these elements into ragtime, which had been popular for a few decades, creating an approach that evolved into a jazz drumming style. Budget constraints and space considerations in musical theater pit orchestras led bandleaders to pressure percussionists to cover more percussion parts. Metal consoles were developed to hold Chinese tom-toms, with swing-out stands for snare drums and cymbals. On top of the console was a "contraption" tray (shortened to "trap"), used to hold items like whistles, klaxons, and cowbells. These kits were dubbed "trap kits". Hi-hat stands became available around 1926. In 1918, Baby Dodds, playing on Mississippi River riverboats with Louis Armstrong, modified the military marching setup, experimenting with playing the drum rims instead of woodblocks, hitting cymbals with sticks (which was not yet common), and adding a side cymbal above the bass drum, which became known as the ride cymbal. William Ludwig developed the "sock" or early low-mounted hi-hat after observing Dodds' drumming. Dodds asked Ludwig to raise the newly produced low-hat cymbal nine inches to make them easier to play, thus creating the modern hi-hat cymbal. Dodds was one of the first drummers to play the broken-triplet beat that became the standard rhythm of modern ride cymbal playing. He also popularized the use of Chinese cymbals. Recording technology was crude, which meant loud sounds could distort the recording. To get around this, Dodds used woodblocks and drum rims as quieter alternatives to cymbals and drum skins. In the 1920s, freelance drummers were hired to play at shows, concerts, theaters, and clubs to support dancers and musicians of various genres. Orchestras were hired to accompany silent films, and the drummer was responsible for providing the sound effects. Sheet music from the 1920s shows that the drummer's sets were starting to evolve in size to support the various acts. However, by 1930, films with audio were more popular, and many were accompanied by pre-recorded soundtracks. This technological breakthrough put thousands of drummers who served as sound effects specialists out of work, with some drummers obtaining work as Foley artists for those motion-picture sound tracks. ==Playing== ===Grooves=== Kit drumming, whether accompanying voices and other instruments or performing a drum solo, consists of two elements: A groove that sets the basic time-feel and provides a rhythmic framework for the song (examples include a backbeat or shuffle). Grooves can set the mood of the song. Drum fills and other ornaments and variations that provide variety and add interest to the drum sound. Fills could include a sting at the end of a musical section or act as a drum showpiece. ===Fills=== A fill is a departure from the repetitive rhythm pattern in a song. A drum fill can be used to "fill in" the space between the end of one verse and the beginning of another verse or chorus. Fills vary from a simple few strokes on a tom or snare to a distinctive rhythm played on the hi-hat, to sequences several bars long that are short virtuosic drum solos. As well as adding interest and variation to the music, fills serve an important function in indicating significant changes of sections in songs as well as linking them together. A vocal cue is a short drum fill that introduces a singer's entrance into the piece. A fill ending with a cymbal crash on beat one is often used to lead into a chorus or verse. ===Drum solos=== A drum solo is an instrumental section that highlights the drums. While other instrument solos are typically accompanied by the other rhythm section instruments (e.g., bass guitar and electric guitar), for most drum solos, the band members stop playing so that all focus will be on the drummer. In some drum solos, the other rhythm section instrumentalists may play "punches" at certain pointssudden, loud chords of short duration. Drum solos are common in jazz but are also used in several rock genres, such as heavy metal and progressive rock. During drum solos, drummers have a degree of creative freedom, allowing them to use complex polyrhythms that would otherwise be unsuitable with an ensemble. In live concerts, drummers may be given extended drum solos, even in genres where drum solos are rare on recordings. ===Grip=== Most drummers hold the drumsticks in one of two types of grip: The traditional grip, originally developed for playing side drum in marching ensembles where the sticks are most commonly held with an overhand grip for the right hand and an underhand grip for the left The matched grip, in which both sticks are held the same way, with the palms facing down. Matched grip is considerably more popular among modern drummers. ==Components== ===Drums=== ====Bass drum==== The bass drum (also known as the "kick drum") is the lowest-pitched drum and usually provides the beat or timing element with basic pulse patterns. Some drummers may use two or more bass drums or a double pedal on a single bass drum, which enables a drummer to play a double-bass-drum style with only one drum. This saves space in recording/performance areas and reduces time and effort during set-up, taking down, and transportation. Double bass drumming is a technique used in certain genres, including heavy metal and progressive rock. ====Snare drum==== The snare drum provides the backbeat. When applied in this fashion, it supplies strong regular accents played by the non-dominant hand and is the backbone for many fills. Its distinctive sound can be attributed to the bed of stiff metal wires held under tension against the bottom head (known as the snare head). When the top head (known as the batter head) is struck with a drumstick, the snare wires vibrate, creating a snappy, staccato buzzing sound, along with the sound of the stick striking the batter head. ====Toms==== Tom-tom drums, or toms for short, are drums without snares and played with sticks (or whatever tools the music style requires) and are the most numerous drums in most kits. They provide the bulk of most drum fills and solos. They include: Traditional double-headed rack toms of varying diameters and depths Floor toms (generally the widest and largest toms, which also makes them the lowest-pitched toms) Single-headed concert toms Rototoms The smallest and largest drums without snares (octobans and gong drums, respectively) are sometimes considered toms. The naming of common configurations (four-piece, five-piece, etc.) is largely a reflection of the number of toms, as conventionally only the drums are counted, and these configurations all contain one snare and one or more bass drums, (though not regularly any standardized use of two bass/kick drums) the balance usually being made up by toms. ====Other drums==== Octobans are smaller toms designed for use in a drum kit, extending the tom range upwards in pitch, primarily by their great depth and small diameter. They are also called rocket toms and tube toms. Timbales are tuned much higher than a tom of the same diameter, typically have drum shells made of metal, and are normally played with very light, thin, non-tapered sticks. Timbales are more common in Latin music. They have thin heads and a very different tone than a tom but are used by some drummers/percussionists to extend the tom range upwards. Alternatively, they can be fitted with tom heads and tuned as shallow concert toms. Attack timbales and mini timbales are reduced-diameter timbales designed for drum kit usage, the smaller diameter allowing for thicker heads providing the same pitch and head tension. They are recognizable in genres of the 2010s and more traditional forms of Latin, reggae, and numerous other styles. Gong drums are a rare extension of a drum kit. This single-headed mountable drum appears similar to a bass drum (around 20–24 inches in diameter) but is played with sticks rather than a foot-operated pedal and therefore has the same purpose as a floor tom. Most hand drums cannot be played with drumsticks without risking damage to the head and bearing edge, which is not protected by a metal drum rim. For use in a drum kit, they may be fitted with a metal drum head and played with sticks with care, or played by hand. ===Cymbals=== In most drum kits and drum/percussion kits, cymbals are as prominent as the drums themselves. The oldest idiophones in music are cymbals, a version of which were used throughout the ancient Near East very early in the Bronze Age period. Cymbals are mostly associated with Turkey and Turkish craftsmanship, where Zildjian has made them since 1623. While most drummers purchase cymbals individually, beginner cymbal packs were brought to market to provide entry-level cymbals for the novice drummer. The kits normally contain four cymbals: one ride, one crash, and a pair of hi-hats. Some contain only three cymbals, using a crash/ride instead of the separate ride and crash. The sizes closely follow those given in Common configurations below. Most drummers extend the normal configuration by adding another crash, a splash, and/or a china/effects cymbal. ====Ride cymbal==== The ride cymbal is most often used for keeping a constant rhythm pattern, every beat or more often, as the music requires. Development of this ride technique is generally credited to jazz drummer Baby Dodds. Most drummers have a single main ride, located near their dominant handwithin easy playing reach, as it is used regularlyoften a 20"–22" in diameter, but diameters of 16"–26" are not uncommon. It is usually a medium-heavy- to heavy-weight cymbal whose sound that cuts through other instrumental sounds. Some drummers use a swish cymbal, sizzle cymbal, or other exotic or lighter metal rides, as the main or only ride in their kit, particularly for jazz, gospel, or ballad/folk sounds. In the 1960s, Ringo Starr of the Beatles used a sizzle cymbal as a second ride, particularly during guitar solos. ====Hi-hats==== Hi-hat cymbals (nicknamed "hats") consist of two cymbals mounted, one upside down, with their bottoms facing each other, on a hollow metal support cylinder with folding support legs that keep the support cylinder vertical. Like the bass drum, the hi-hat has a foot pedal. The bottom cymbal is fixed in place. The top cymbal is mounted on a thin rod, which is inserted into the hollow cymbal stand. The thin rod is connected to a foot pedal. When the foot pedal is pressed down, it causes the thin rod to move down, causing the upper cymbal to move and strike the lower. When the foot is lifted off the pedal, the upper cymbal rises, due to the pedal's spring-loaded mechanism. The hi-hats can be sounded by striking the cymbals with one or two sticks or just by closing and opening the cymbals with the foot pedal. The ability to create rhythms on the hi-hats with the foot alone expands the drummer's ability to create sounds, as the hands are freed up to play on the drums or other cymbals. Different sounds can be created by striking "open hi-hats" (without the pedal depressed, which creates a noisy sound nicknamed "sloppy hats") or a crisp "closed hi-hats" sound (with the pedal pressed down). High hats can also be struck with the pedal partially depressed. A unique effect can be created by striking an open hi-hat (where the two cymbals are apart) and then closing the cymbals with the foot pedal. This effect is widely used in disco and funk. The hi-hat has a similar function to the ride cymbal; the two are rarely played consistently for long periods at the same time, but one or the other is often used to keep what is known as the "ride rhythm" (e.g., eighth or sixteenth notes) in a song. The hi-hats are played by the right stick of a right-handed drummer. Changing between ride and hi-hat, or between either and a "leaner" sound with neither, is often used to mark a change from one song section to another. ====Crashes==== Crash cymbals are usually the strongest accent markers within the kit, marking crescendos and climaxes, vocal entries, and major changes of mood, swells, and effects. A crash cymbal is often accompanied by a strong kick on the bass drum pedal, both for musical effect and to support the stroke. It provides a fuller sound and is a commonly taught technique. In jazz, using the smallest kits and at very high volumes, ride cymbals may be played with the technique and sound of a crash cymbal. Some hi-hats will also give a useful crash, particularly thinner hats or those with a severe taper. Alternatively, specialized crash/ride and ride/crash cymbals are designed to combine both functions. ====Other cymbals==== =====Effects cymbals===== All cymbals, other than rides, hi-hats, and crashes/splashes, are usually called effects cymbals when used in a drum kit, though this is a non-classical or colloquial designation that has become standardized. Most extended kits include one or more splash cymbals and at least one china cymbal. Major cymbal makers produce cymbal extension packs consisting of one splash and one china, or more rarely a second crash, a splash, and a china, to match some of their starter packs of ride, crash, and hi-hats. However, any combination of options can be found in the marketplace. Some cymbals may be considered effects in some kits but "basic" in another set of components. Likewise, Ozone crashes have the same purpose as a standard crash cymbal, but are considered to be effects cymbals due to their rarity, and the holes cut into them, which provide a darker, more resonant attack. =====Accent cymbals===== Cymbals, of any type, used to provide an accent, rather than a regular pattern or groove, are known as accent cymbals. While any cymbal can be used to provide an accent, the term is more narrowly applied to cymbals for which the main purpose is to provide an accent. Accent cymbals include chime cymbals, small-bell domed cymbals, and those cymbals with a clear sonorous/oriental chime to them, such as specialized crash, splash, and china cymbals. =====Low-volume cymbals===== Low-volume cymbals are a specialty type of cymbal, made to produce about 80% less volume than a typical cymbal. The entire surface of the cymbal is perforated by holes. Drummers use low-volume cymbals to play in small venues or as a way to practice without disturbing others. ===Other acoustic instruments=== Other instruments that have regularly been incorporated into drum kits include: Wood block and cowbell, especially in classic rock and other genres. Tambourine, particularly mounted on the hi-hat stand above the cymbals; an ordinary tambourine can be used, or a tambourine produced specially for drum kit use. Timbales can be used to extend the range of tom-toms, particularly when the drummer owns them for other musical settings; a traditional timbale is tuned far higher than a tom of the same diameter, so the result is not always the most ideal. Keyboard percussion instruments, such as tubular bells or a glockenspiel. Gongs. Triangles. Found objects, including spanners, brake drums, buckets, cardboard boxes, washboards, oil barrels, and jam and kerosene tins (anything ordinary that can be struck to produce sounds, patterns, and grooves). See also Extended kits below. ===Electronic drums=== Electronic drums are used for many reasons. Some drummers use electronic drums for playing in small venues, such as coffeehouses or church services, where a very low volume for the band is desired. Since fully electronic drums do not create any acoustic sound (apart from the quiet sound of the stick hitting the sensor pads), all of the drum sounds come from a keyboard amplifier or PA system; as such, the volume of electronic drums can be much lower than an acoustic kit. Some use electronic drums as practice instruments because they can be listened to with headphones, which enable a drummer to practice without disturbing others. Others use electronic drums to take advantage of the huge range of sounds that modern drum modules can produce, which range from sampled sounds of real drums, cymbals, and percussion instruments such as gongs or tubular bells that would be impractical to take to a small gig, to electronic and synthesized sounds, including non-instrument sounds such as ocean waves. A fully electronic kit is easier to soundcheck than acoustic drums, assuming that the electronic drum module has levels that the drummer has preset in their practice room; in contrast, when an acoustic kit is sound checked, most drums and cymbals need to be mic'd and each mic needs to be tested by the drummer so its level and tone equalization can be adjusted by the sound engineer. Also, even after all the individual drum and cymbal mics are sound checked, the engineer needs to listen to the drummer play a standard groove, to check that the balance between the kit instruments is right. Finally, the engineer needs to set up the monitor mix for the drummer, which the drummer uses to hear their instruments and the instruments and vocals of the rest of the band. With a fully electronic kit, many of these steps can be eliminated. Drummers' usage of electronic drum equipment can range from adding a single electronic pad to an entire drum kit (e.g., to have access to an instrument that might otherwise be impractical, such as a large gong), to using a mix of acoustic drums/cymbals and electronic pads, to using an acoustic kit in which the drums and cymbals have triggers, which can be used to sound electronic drums and other sounds, to having an exclusively electronic kit, which is often set up with the rubber or mesh drum pads and rubber "cymbals" in the usual drum kit locations. A fully electronic kit weighs much less and takes up less space to transport than an acoustic kit and it can be set up more quickly. One of the disadvantages of a fully electronic kit is that it may not have the same "feel" as an acoustic kit, and the drum sounds, even if they are high-quality samples, may not sound the same as acoustic drums. Electronic drum pads are the second most widely used type of MIDI performance controllers, after electronic keyboards. Drum controllers may be built into drum machines, they may be standalone control surfaces (e.g., rubber drum pads), or they may emulate the look and feel of acoustic percussion instruments. The pads built into drum machines are typically too small and fragile to be played with sticks, so they are usually played with fingers. Dedicated drum pads such as the Roland Octapad or the DrumKAT are playable with hands or sticks and are often built to resemble the general form of acoustic drums. There are also percussion controllers such as the vibraphone-style MalletKAT, MIDI triggers can also be installed into acoustic drum and percussion instruments. Pads that trigger a MIDI device can be homemade from a piezoelectric sensor and a practice pad or other piece of foam rubber, which is possible in two ways: Triggers are sensors that can be attached to acoustic drum kit components. In this way, an electronic drum sound will be produced when the instrument is played/struck, as well as the original acoustic sound, if so desired. Trigger pads can be mounted alongside other kit components. These pads make no significant acoustic sound themselves (if not modified to do otherwise), but are used purely to trigger the electronic sounds from the "drum brain". They are played with the same drum sticks as are used on other drum kit components. In either case, an electronic control unit (sound module/"brain") with suitable sampled/modeled or synthesized drum sounds, amplification equipment (a PA system, keyboard amp, etc.), and stage monitor speakers are required to hear the electronically produced sounds. See Triggered drum kit. A trigger pad could contain up to four independent sensors, each of them capable of sending information describing the timing and dynamic intensity of a stroke to the drum module/brain. A circular drum pad may have only one sensor for triggering, but a 2016-era cymbal-shaped rubber pad/cymbal will often contain two; one for the body and one for the bell at the center of the cymbal, and perhaps a cymbal choke trigger, to allow drummers to produce this effect. Trigger sensors are most commonly used to replace the acoustic drum sounds, but they can also be used effectively with an acoustic kit to augment or supplement an instrument's sound for the needs of the session or show. For example, in a live performance in a difficult acoustical space, a trigger may be placed on each drum or cymbal and used to trigger a similar sound on a drum module. These sounds are then amplified through a PA system so the audience can hear them, and they can be amplified to any level without the risks of audio feedback or bleed problems associated with microphones and PAs in certain settings. The sound of electronic drums and cymbals themselves is heard by the drummer and possibly other musicians in close proximity, but, even so, the foldback (audio monitor) system is usually fed from the electronic sounds rather than the live acoustic sounds. The drums can be heavily dampened (made to resonate less or have the sound subdued), and their tuning and quality is less critical in the latter scenario. In this way, much of the atmosphere of the live performance is retained in a large venue, but without some of the problems associated with purely microphone-amplified drums. Triggers and sensors can also be used in conjunction with conventional or built-in microphones. If some components of a kit prove more difficult to mic than others (e.g., an excessively "boomy" low tom), triggers may be used on only the more difficult instruments, balancing out a drummer's/band's sound in the mix. Trigger pads and drums, on the other hand, when deployed in a conventional set-up, are most commonly used to produce sounds not possible with an acoustic kit, or at least not with what is available. Any sound that can be sampled/recorded can be played when the pad is struck, by assigning the recorded sounds to specific triggers. Recordings or samples of barking dogs, sirens, breaking glass, and stereo recordings of aircraft taking off and landing have all been used. Along with the more obvious electronically generated drums, there are other sounds that (depending on the device used) can also be played/triggered by electronic drums. ====Virtual drums==== Virtual drums are a type of audio software that simulates the sound of a drum kit using synthesized drum kit sounds or digital samples of acoustic drum sounds. Different drum software products offer a recording function, the ability to select from several acoustically distinctive drum kits (e.g., jazz, rock, metal), as well as the option to incorporate different songs into the session. Some computer software can turn any hard surface into a virtual drum kit using only one microphone. ===Hardware=== Hardware is the name given to the metal stands that support the drums, cymbals, and other percussion instruments. Generally, the term also includes the hi-hat pedal and clutch, and bass drum pedal or pedals, and the drum stool. Hardware is carried along with sticks and other accessories in the traps case, and includes: Cymbal stands Hi-hat stand Floor tom legs Tom-tom drum brackets or arms Snare drum stand Bass drum pedal or pedals Drum key Assorted accessories such as spare washers, cymbal sleeves, wire snare cords, washers for tension rods, etc. Many or even all of the stands may be replaced by a drum rack, which is particularly useful for large drum kits. Drummers often set up their own drum hardware onstage and adjust it to their comfort level. Major bands on tour will often have a drum tech who knows how to set up the drummer's hardware and instruments in the desired location and with the desired configuration. ==Common configurations== Drum kits are traditionally categorized by the number of drums, ignoring cymbals and other instruments. Snare, tom-tom, and bass drums are always counted; other drums, such as octobans, may or may not be counted. Traditionally, in America and the United Kingdom, drum sizes are expressed as depth x diameter, both measured in inches. Many drum kit manufacturers have recently been expressing sizes as diameter x depth, still in inches. For example, a hanging tom 12 inches in diameter and 8 inches deep would be described by Tama as 8 inches × 12 inches, but by Pearl as 12 inches × 8 inches, and a standard diameter Ludwig snare drum 5 inches deep is a 5-inch × 14-inch instrument, while the UK's Premier Manufacturer offers the same dimensions as a 14-inch × 5-inch snare. The sizes of drums and cymbals given below are typical. Many instruments differ slightly or radically from them. Where no size is given, it is because there is too much variety to give a typical size. ===Three-piece=== A conventional three-piece kit consists of a bass drum, snare drum (14" diameter), hi-hat (12–14"), hanging tom (12 x 8-9" depth), and a suspended 14"–18" cymbal, the latter two mounted on the bass drum. These kits were most common in the 1950s and 1960s. It is a common configuration for children. ===Four-piece=== A four-piece kit adds a second mounted tom (a notable user is Chris Frantz of Talking Heads) which displaces the cymbal. It is 10" diameter and 8" deep for fusion, or 13" diameter and one inch deeper than for the 12" diameter tom. Otherwise, a 14" diameter hanging tom is added to the 12", both being 8" deep. In any case, both toms are most often mounted on the bass drum with the smaller of the two next to the hi-hats (which are to the left for a right-handed drummer). Typically another cymbal is added, so there are separate ride and crash, either on two stands, or with the ride mounted on the bass drum to the player's right and the crash on a separate stand. The standard crash is a 16" diameter, and 18"–20" ride (20" being the most common). These kits are particularly useful for smaller venues, where space is limited, such as coffeehouses, cafés, hotel lounges, and small pubs. ====Four piece with floor tom==== When a floor tom is added rather than a mounted tom to make a four-piece kit, the floor tom is usually 14" for jazz, and 16" otherwise. This configuration is common in jazz and rock. Notable users include Ringo Starr of The Beatles, Mitch Mitchell of the Jimi Hendrix Experience, John Barbata of the Turtles, and numerous jazz drummers throughout the 20th century including Art Blakey, Buddy Rich, and Jo Jones. For jazz, which normally emphasizes the use of a ride cymbal for swing patterns, the lack of second hanging tom in a four-piece kit allows the cymbal to be positioned closer to the drummer, making it easier to play. ===Five-piece=== The five-piece kit is the full-size kit and is the most common configuration used across various genres and styles. It adds a third tom to the four-piece kit, making for three toms in all. A fusion kit will normally add a 14" tom, either a floor tom or a hanging tom on a stand to the right of the bass drum; in either case, making the tom lineup 10", 12" and 14". Having three toms enables drummers to have high-, middle-, and low-pitched toms, which gives them more options for fills and solos. Other kits will normally have 12" and 13" hanging toms and either a 14" hanging tom on a stand, a 14" floor tom, or a 16" floor tom. It is common to have 10" and 12" hanging toms, with a 16" floor tom. This configuration is often called a hybrid setup. The bass drum is most commonly 22" in diameter, but rock kits may use 24", fusion 20", jazz 18", The use of muffled drums has been written about by such poets as Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Mayne, and Theodore O'Hara. Drums have also been used for therapy and learning purposes, such as when an experienced player will sit with a number of students and by the end of the session have all of them relaxed and playing complex rhythms. ===Stick holder=== There are various types of stick holder accessories, including bags that can be attached to a drum and angled sheath-style stick holders, which can hold a single pair of sticks. ===Sizzlers=== A sizzler is a metal chain, or combination of chains, that is hung across a cymbal, creating a distinctive metallic sound when the cymbal is struck, similar to that of a sizzle cymbal. Using a sizzler is the non-destructive alternative to drilling holes in a cymbal and putting metal rivets in the holes. Another benefit of using a "sizzler" chain is that the chain is removable, with the cymbal being easily returned to its normal sound. Some sizzlers feature pivoting arms that allow the chains to be quickly lowered onto, or raised from, the cymbal, allowing the effect to be used for some songs and removed for others. ===Cases=== Three types of protective covers are common for kit drums: Drum bags are made from robust cloth such as cordura or from cloth-backed vinyl. They give minimal protection from bumps and impacts, but they do protect drums and cymbals from precipitation. They are adequate for drums transported in private vehicles to local gigs and sessions. They are often the only option for young drummers who are just starting out. Mid-price hard cases are of similar construction to suitcases, commonly made of fiber composite. The offer more protection from bumps than cloth bags. Flight cases or road cases are standard for professional touring drummers. As with all musical instruments, the best protection is provided by a combination of a hard-shelled case with interior padding, such as foam, next to the drums and cymbals. ===Microphones=== Microphones ("mics") are used with drum kits to pick up the sound of the drums and cymbals for a sound recording and/or to pick up the sound of the drum kit so that it can be amplified through a PA system or sound reinforcement system. While most drummers use microphones and amplification in live shows, so that the sound engineer can adjust the levels of the drums and cymbals, some bands that play quieter genres of music and in small venues, such as coffeehouses, play acoustically, without mics or PA amplification. Small jazz groups, such as jazz quartets or organ trios that are playing in a small bar, will often just use acoustic drums. Of course, if the same small jazz groups play on the mainstage of a big jazz festival, the drums will be miced so that they can be adjusted in the sound system mix. A middle-ground approach is used by some bands that play in small venues: they do not mic every drum and cymbal, but only the instruments that the sound engineer wants to be able to control in the mix, such as the bass drum and the snare. In miking a drum kit, dynamic microphones, which can handle high sound-pressure levels, are usually used to close-mic drums, which is predominantly the way to mic drums for live shows. Condenser microphones are used for overheads and room mics, an approach which is more common with sound recording applications. Close miking of drums may be done using stands or by mounting the microphones on the rims of the drums, or even using microphones built into the drum itself, which eliminates the need for stands for such microphones, reducing both clutter and set-up time, as well as better isolating them. For some styles of music, drummers use electronic effects on drums, such as individual noise gates that mute the attached microphone when the signal is below a threshold volume. This allows the sound engineer to use a higher overall volume for the drum kit by reducing the number of "active" mics which could produce unwanted feedback at any one time. When a drum kit is entirely miked and amplified through the sound reinforcement system, the drummer or the sound engineer can add other electronic effects to the drum sound, such as reverb or digital delay. Some drummers arrive at the venue with their drum kit and use the mics and mic stands provided by the venue's sound engineer. Other drummers bring all their own mics, or selected mics (e.g., good-quality snare and bass drum mics), to ensure that they have good quality mics on hand. In bars and nightclubs, the microphones supplied by the venue can sometimes be in substandard condition, due to the heavy use they experience. ===Monitors=== Drummers using electronic drums, drum machines, or hybrid acoustic-electric kits (which blend traditional acoustic drums and cymbals with electronic pads) typically use a monitor speaker, keyboard amplifier, or even a small PA system to hear the electronic drum sounds. Even a drummer playing entirely acoustic drums may use a monitor speaker to hear the drums, especially if playing in a loud rock or metal band, where there is substantial onstage volume from large, powerful guitar stacks. Drummers are often given a large speaker cabinet with a 15" subwoofer to help them monitor their bass drum sound (along with a full-range monitor speaker to hear the rest of their kit). Some sound engineers and drummers prefer to use an electronic vibration system, colloquially known as a "butt shaker" or "throne thumper" to monitor the bass drum, because this lowers the stage volume. With a "butt shaker", the "thump" of each bass drum strike causes a vibration in the drum stool; this way the drummer feels their beat on the posterior, rather than hears it. In-Ear Monitors are also popular among drummers since they also work as earplugs. ===Bass drum gear=== A number of accessories are designed for the bass drum. The bass drum can take advantage of the bass reflex speaker design, in which a tuned port (a hole and a carefully measured tube) are put in a speaker enclosure to improve the bass response at the lowest frequencies. Bass drumhead patches protect the drumhead from the impact of the felt beater. Bass drum pillows are fabric bags with filling or stuffing that can be used to alter the tone or resonance of the bass drum. A less expensive alternative to using a specialized bass drum pillow is to use an old sleeping bag. ===Gloves=== Some drummers wear special drummer's gloves to improve their grip on the sticks when they play. Drumming gloves often have a textured grip surface made of a synthetic or rubber material and mesh or vents on the parts of the glove not used to hold sticks, to ventilate perspiration. Some drummers wear gloves to prevent blisters. ===Drum screen=== In some styles or settings—such as country music clubs or churches, small venues, or when a live recording is being made—the drummer may use a transparent Perspex or Plexiglas drum screen (also known as a drum shield) to dampen the onstage volume of the drums. A screen that completely surrounds the drum kit is known as a drum booth. In live sound applications, drum shields are used so that the audio engineer can have more control over the volume of drums that the audience hears through the PA system mix, or to reduce the overall volume of the drums, as a way to reduce the overall volume of the band. In some recording studios, foam and fabric baffles are used in addition to, or in place of, clear panels. The drawback with foam/cloth baffle panels is that the drummer cannot see well other performers, the record producer, or the audio engineer. ===Carpets=== Drummers often bring a carpet, mats, or rugs to venues to prevent the bass drum and hi-hat stand from "crawling" (moving away) on a slippery surface, which can be caused by the drum head striking the bass drum. The carpet also reduces short reverberations (which is generally but not always an advantage), and helps to prevent damage to the flooring or floor coverings. In shows where multiple drummers will bring their kits onstage over the night, it is common for drummers to mark the location of their stands and pedals with tape, to allow for quicker positioning of a kit to a drummer's accustomed position. Bass drums and hi-hat stands commonly have retractable spikes, to help them grip surfaces such as carpet, or rubber feet, to remain stationary on hard surfaces. ===Practice equipment=== Drummers use a variety of accessories when practicing. Metronomes and beat counters are used to develop a sense of a steady beat. Drum muffling pads may be used to lessen the volume of drums during practicing. A practice pad, held on the lap, on a leg, or mounted on a stand, is used for near-silent practice with drumsticks. A set of practice pads mounted to simulate an entire drum kit is known as a practice kit. In the 2010s, these have largely been superseded by electronic drums, which can be listened to with headphones for quiet practice and by kits with non-sounding mesh heads. ===Tuning equipment=== Drummers use a drum key for tuning their drums and adjusting some drum hardware. Besides the basic type of drum key (a T-handled wrench) there are various tuning wrenches and tools. Basic drum keys are divided into three types which allows for tuning of three types of tuning screws on drums: square (most used), slotted, and hexagonal. Ratchet-type wrenches allow high-tension drums to be tuned easily. Spin keys (utilizing a ball joint) allow for rapid head changing. Torque-wrench keys are available, graphically revealing the torque given to each lug. Also, tension gauges, or meters, which are set on the head, aid drummers to achieve a consistent tuning. Drummers can tune drums "by ear" or use a digital drum tuner, which "measures tympanic pressure" on the drumhead to provide accurate tuning. ===Notation and improvisation=== Drum kit music is either written in music notation (called "drum parts"), learned and played by ear, improvised, or some combination of any of all three of these methods. Professional session musician drummers and big-band drummers are often required to read drum parts. Drum parts are most commonly written on a standard five-line staff. As of 2016, a special percussion clef is used, while previously the bass clef was used. However, even if the bass, or no, clef is used, each line and space is assigned an instrument in the kit, rather than a pitch. In jazz, traditional music, folk music, rock music, and pop music, drummers are expected to be able to learn songs by ear (from a recording or from another musician who is playing or singing the song) and improvise. The degree of improvisation differs among different styles. Jazz and jazz fusion drummers may have lengthy improvised solos in every song. In rock music and blues, there are also drum solos in some songs, although they tend to be shorter than those in jazz. Drummers in all popular music and traditional music styles are expected to be able to improvise accompaniment parts to songs, once they are told the genre or style (e.g., shuffle, ballad, blues). ===Recording=== On early recording media (until 1925), such as wax cylinders and discs carved with an engraving needle, sound balancing meant that musicians had to be moved back in the room. Drums were often put far from the horn (part of the mechanical transducer) to reduce sound distortion. In the 2020s, drum parts in many popular music styles are often recorded apart from the other instruments and singers, using multitrack recording techniques. Once the drums are recorded, the other instruments (rhythm guitar, piano, etc.), and then vocals, are added. To ensure that the drum tempo is consistent at this type of recording, the drummer usually plays along with a click track (a type of digital metronome) in headphones. The ability to play accurately along with a click track has become an important skill for professional drummers. ==Drum manufacturers== Manufacturers using the American traditional format in their catalogs include these: ddrum Camco Drum Workshop Gretsch Drums Ludwig-Musser Slingerland Drum Company Tama Drums Those using the European measures of diameter and depth include these: Brady Drum Company Mapex Drums Meinl Percussion Pearl Drums Premier Percussion Rogers Drums Sonor Yamaha Drums	[ "drummer", "Fill (music)", "cowbell (instrument)", "marching band", "reverb", "Sting (percussion)", "Ludwig Drums", "cymbal stand", "The Who", "groove (music)", "Mitch Mitchell", "snare drum stand", "Drum Workshop", "sound module", "timbales", "bass reflex", "wax cylinder", "concert tom", "jump blues", "octobans", "Drum machine", "Drum key", "bongo drums", "Hal Leonard", "China cymbal", "china cymbal", "cocktail lounge", "BoPET", "List of drummers", "Slingerland Drum Company", "Rogers Drums", "tin can", "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow", "Jimi Hendrix Experience", "overtone", "Floor tom", "double bass pedal", "Woodblock (instrument)", "bass drum pedal", "Chris Frantz", "jazz", "Swing music", "wrench", "ragtime", "foldback (sound engineering)", "drum stool", "In-ear monitor", "Drummer", "snare drum", "piezoelectric sensor", "groove (drumming)", "Ringo Starr", "pop music", "rock music", "cymbal extension pack", "Cymbal stack", "click track", "PA system", "Baby Dodds", "rhythm section", "thunder sheet", "Tambourine", "Found object (music)", "cartwheel mallet", "speaker enclosure", "Drum beat", "the Turtles", "percussion mallet", "Cymbal stand", "Yamaha Drums", "drum", "vaudeville", "Playing by ear", "Backbeat Books", "Electronic drum", "music sequencer", "Louis Armstrong", "metronome", "Mapex Drums", "World War I", "drum key", "cymbal pack", "sound engineer", "double bass drumming", "Ray Bauduc", "crash cymbal", "Hi-hat cymbals", "Gretsch Drums", "Keyboard percussion instrument", "Cowbell (instrument)", "Drum fill", "orchestral percussion", "Theodore O'Hara", "Heavy metal music", "Octobans", "Dream Theater", "effects cymbal", "bucket", "jam session", "ddrum", "cardboard box", "hi-hat", "Timbales", "Rack tom", "Guitar technician", "Rhythm section", "Moongel", "bebop", "Don Buchla", "Bass drum pedal", "Tama Drums", "taper (cymbal)", "William F. Ludwig Sr.", "Buddy Rich", "Idiophone", "synth module", "jazz quartet", "common time", "Jazz drumming", "electronic drum", "bleed (audio)", "DrumKAT", "Foldback (sound engineering)", "Plexiglas", "progressive rock", "Triangle (musical instrument)", "MIDI", "drum module", "road case", "sound reinforcement system", "traditional grip", "Alfred Music", "drum (container)", "Rowman & Littlefield", "Double bass drum", "brake drum", "rack tom", "staccato", "Dixieland", "backbeat", "Gong drum", "crash/ride cymbal", "Roland Octapad", "Zildjian", "bass drum", "traps case", "pit orchestra", "multitrack recording", "Drum stick", "Condenser microphone", "keyboard amplifier", "John Barbata", "Meinl Percussion", "Rototoms", "Sampling (music)", "side drum", "Tom-tom drum", "accent (music)", "crotales", "mute (music)", "Rosanna shuffle", "Brady Drum Company", "5A (drum stick)", "YouTube", "Talking Heads", "cymbal", "Trigger pad", "distortion", "funk", "soundcheck", "hand drum", "x-hats", "Art Blakey", "Effects cymbal", "audio feedback", "sound recording", "Sonor", "Rute (music)", "Pearl Drums", "sizzle cymbal", "glockenspiel", "sizzler (percussion)", "Gramophone record", "Syncopation", "Mississippi River", "matched grip", "blues", "cymbal choke", "drum rack", "butt shaker", "hanging tom", "Tom drum", "jazz fusion", "mini timbales", "rockabilly", "drum fill", "splash cymbal", "Queen Victoria", "organ trio", "disco", "octoban", "gong", "John Mayne", "swish cymbal", "dynamic microphone", "Drum kit tuning", "Percussion mallet", "Guitar amplifier", "Cymbal", "iarchive:jazzfromitsorigi00port/page/18/mode/2up", "Marimba Lumina", "gong drum", "Hi-hat (instrument)", "cordura", "noise gate", "Premier Percussion", "Perspex", "Gong", "ornament (music)", "vibraphone", "Double-drumming", "bodhrán", "Microphone", "Acoustic feedback", "Foley artist", "Ludwig-Musser", "cocktail drum", "trad jazz", "effect units", "Snare drum stand", "crash/ride", "ride cymbal", "Polyrhythm", "tubular bells", "Public address system", "heavy metal music", "floor tom", "The Beatles", "Daniel Glass (drummer)", "traditional music", "musical theatre", "digital delay", "John F. Kennedy", "popular music", "MalletKAT", "Hi-hat stand", "practice pad", "cable hats", "variation (music)", "timpani", "Jo Jones", "Madison Square Garden", "Trigger (drums)", "keyboard amp", "Flight case", "Zutty Singleton", "Percussion instrument", "drumline", "Camco Drum Company", "Washboard (musical instrument)" ]
9,080	Dying Earth	Dying Earth is a speculative fiction series by the American author Jack Vance, comprising four books originally published from 1950 to 1984. The first book in the series, The Dying Earth, was ranked number 16 of 33 "All Time Best Fantasy Novels" by Locus in 1987, based on a poll of subscribers, although it was marketed as a collection and the Internet Speculative Fiction Database (ISFDB) calls it a "loosely connected series of stories". ==Setting== The stories of the Dying Earth series are set in the distant future, at a point when the sun is almost exhausted and magic has asserted itself as a dominant force. The Moon has disappeared and the Sun is in danger of burning out at any time, often flickering as if about to go out, before shining again. The various civilizations of Earth have collapsed for the most part into decadence or religious fanaticism and its inhabitants overcome with a fatalistic outlook. The Earth is mostly barren and cold, and has become infested with various predatory monsters (possibly created by a magician in a former age). Magic in the Dying Earth is performed by memorizing syllables, and the human brain can only accommodate a certain number at once. When a spell is used, the syllables vanish from the caster's mind. Creatures called sandestins can be summoned and used to perform more complex actions, but are considered dangerous to rely upon. Magic has loose links to the science of old, and advanced mathematics is treated like arcane lore. The Dying Earth exists alongside several Overworlds and Underworlds. These help add a sense of profound longing and entrapment to the series. While humans can, with relative ease, physically travel to the horrific Underworlds (as Cugel does on several occasions, to his dismay) the vast majority of the population are only capable of mentally visiting the wondrous Overworlds through rare artifacts (e.g. through the "Eyes of the Overworld") or dangerous magic phenomena (such as the ship Cugel encounters in the deserts). Though they can look at the wonders and pretend they are really there, humans can never truly inhabit or escape to these utopias as their physical bodies remain stuck on the Dying Earth and will die with the sun regardless. These siren-like visions of paradise lead to the deaths, insanity, and suffering of many, especially during Cugel's journeys. While most remaining civilizations on the Dying Earth are utterly unique in their customs and cultures, there are some common threads. Because the moon is gone and wind is often weak (the sun no longer heats the earth as much) the oceans are largely placid bodies of water with no tide and tiny waves. To cross them, boats are propelled by giant sea-worms. These worms are cared for and controlled by "Wormingers". In addition, the manses of magicians, protected by walls and spells and monsters, are relatively common sights in inhabited lands. ==Origins== Vance wrote the stories of the first book while he served in the United States Merchant Marine during World War II. In the late 1940s several of his other stories were published in magazines. Science fiction historian Brian Stableford has noted the influence of Clark Ashton Smith and his "Zothique" stories on the "Dying Earth" series. According to pulp editor Sam Merwin, Vance's earliest magazine submissions in the 1940s were heavily influenced by the style of James Branch Cabell. Fantasy historian Lin Carter has noted several probable lasting influences of Cabell on Vance's work, and suggests that the early "pseudo-Cabell" experiments bore fruit in The Dying Earth (1950). ==Series== The series comprises four books by Vance and some sequels by other authors that may be or may not have been canonical. The Dying Earth — 1950 collection of original, related stories The Eyes of the Overworld — 1966 fix-up Cugel's Saga — 1983 novel Rhialto the Marvellous — 1984 collection of related stories and one canonical essay One 741-page omnibus edition has been issued as The Compleat Dying Earth (SF Book Club, 1999) and in both the US and UK as Tales of the Dying Earth (2000). ===Stories by Vance=== All four books were published with Tables of Contents, the first and fourth as collections. The second and third contained mostly material previously published in short story form but were marketed as novels, the second as a fix-up and the third without acknowledging any previous publication. The Dying Earth (the author's preferred title is Mazirian the Magician) was openly a collection of six stories, all original, although written during Vance's war service. ISFDB calls them "slightly connected" and catalogs the last as a novella (17,500 to 40,000 word count). The tribute anthology Songs of the Dying Earth (2009) contains short fiction set in the world of the Dying Earth by numerous writers alongside tributes to Vance's work and influence. In 2010 Shea wrote another authorized story belonging to the Dying Earth series and featuring Cugel as one of characters: "Hew the Tintmaster", published in the anthology Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery, ed. Jonathan Strahan and Lou Anders (Eos, 2010, pp. 323–362). === Translations === WorldCat contributing libraries report holding all four books in French, Spanish, and (in omnibus edition) Hebrew translations; and report holding The Dying Earth in five other languages: Finnish, German, Japanese, Polish, and Russian. The whole first volume (of six stories) has been translated also into Esperanto together with two Cugel stories and made available on-line as e-books by a long-time fan and Vance Integral Edition co-worker. Permission to translate and distribute (only into Esperanto) was obtained informally direct from the author and, since his death in 2013, continues with ongoing permission from the author's estate. To date these are three: Mazirian the Magician, The Sorcerer Pharesm, and The Bagful of Dreams available for free download as EPub, Mobi and PDF. The entire series has seen several Italian translations, and in Italy Vance remains one of the US scifi authors most often translated and published == Legacy == The Dying Earth subgenre of science fiction is named in recognition of Vance's role in standardizing a setting, the entropically dying earth and sun. Its importance was recognized with the publication of Songs of the Dying Earth, a tribute anthology edited by George R. R. Martin and Gardner Dozois (Subterranean, 2009). Each short story in the anthology is set on the Dying Earth, and concludes with a short acknowledgement by the author of Vance's influence on them. ===Print=== Gene Wolfe's The Book of the New Sun (1980–83) is set in a slightly similar world, and was written under Vance's influence. Wolfe suggested in The Castle of the Otter, a collection of essays, that he inserted the book The Dying Earth into his fictional world under the title The Book of Gold (specifically, Wolfe wrote that the "Book of Gold" mentioned in The Book of the New Sun is different for each reader, but for him it was "The Dying Earth"). Wolfe has extended the series. Michael Shea's novel Nifft the Lean (1982), his second book eight years after A Quest for Simbilis, also owes much debt to Vance's creation, since the protagonist of the story is a petty thief (not unlike Cugel the Clever), who travels and struggles in an exotic world. Shea returned to Nifft with 1997 and 2000 sequels. The Archonate stories by Matthew Hughes — the 1994 novel Fools Errant and numerous works in this millennium — take place in "the penultimate age of Old Earth," a period of science and technology that is on the verge of transforming into the magical era of the time of the Dying Earth. Booklist has called him Vance's "heir apparent." (Review by Carl Hays of The Gist Hunter and Other Stories, Booklist, August 2005) ===Role-playing=== The original creators of the Dungeons & Dragons games were fans of Jack Vance and incorporated many aspects of the Dying Earth series into the game. The magic system, in which a wizard is limited in the number of spells that can be simultaneously remembered and forgets them once they are cast, was based on the magic of Dying Earth. In role-playing game circles, this sort of magic system is called "Vancian" or "Vancean". Some of the spells from Dungeons & Dragons are based on spells mentioned in the Dying Earth series, such as the prismatic spray. Magic items from the Dying Earth stories such as ioun stones also made their way into Dungeons & Dragons. One of the deities of magic in Dungeons & Dragons is named Vecna, an anagram of "Vance". Goodman Games have announced the publication of the setting using their Dungeon Crawl Classics roleplaying game system, running a successful Kickstarter campaign for it. The game was released in 2023.	[ "Cugel's Saga", "Lin Carter", "Brian Stableford", "Dungeons & Dragons", "Liane the Wayfarer", "The Eyes of the Overworld", "Speculative fiction", "Howard Andrew Jones", "Michael Shea (author)", "Novella", "Jonathan Strahan", "Magic (gaming)", "short story", "Stephan Michael Sechi", "James Branch Cabell", "United States Merchant Marine", "The Dying Earth", "speculative fiction", "Lou Anders", "Gene Wolfe", "Internet Speculative Fiction Database", "Kickstarter", "Numenera", "George R. R. Martin", "Gerald Brom", "omnibus edition", "Mazirian the Magician", "DAW Books", "Gardner Dozois", "The Chronicles of Talislanta", "The Dying Earth Roleplaying Game", "Dying Earth (subgenre)", "sword and sorcery", "Book of Kells", "F&SF", "WorldCat", "Grue (monster)", "Matt Hughes (writer)", "Goodman Games", "Clark Ashton Smith", "Jack Vance", "role-playing game", "fix-up", "Flashing Swords! 1", "Dungeon Crawl Classics", "The Book of the New Sun", "A Quest for Simbilis", "World War II", "ioun stones", "List of The Dying Earth characters", "Rhialto the Marvellous", "picaresque", "The Castle of the Otter", "Locus (magazine)", "Vecna", "Bard Games", "Pelgrane Press", "Talislanta", "Eos", "Dying Earth subgenre", "Songs of the Dying Earth", "Flashing Swords! 4: Barbarians and Black Magicians" ]
9,082	Dispute resolution	Dispute resolution or dispute settlement is the process of resolving disputes between parties. The term dispute resolution is conflict resolution through legal means. Prominent venues for dispute settlement in international law include the International Court of Justice (formerly the Permanent Court of International Justice); the United Nations Human Rights Committee (which operates under the ICCPR) and European Court of Human Rights; the Panels and Appellate Body of the World Trade Organization; and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. Half of all international agreements include a dispute settlement mechanism. States are also known to form their own arbitration tribunals to settle disputes. ==Methods== Methods of dispute resolution include: lawsuits (litigation) (legislative) arbitration collaborative law mediation conciliation negotiation facilitation avoidance One could theoretically include violence or even war as part of this spectrum, but dispute resolution practitioners do not usually do so; violence rarely ends disputes effectively, and indeed, often only escalates them. Also, violence rarely causes the parties involved in the dispute to no longer disagree on the issue that caused the violence. For example, a country successfully winning a war to annex part of another country's territory does not cause the former waring nations to no longer seriously disagree to whom the territory rightly belongs to and tensions may still remain high between the two nations. Dispute resolution processes fall into two major types: Adjudicative processes, such as litigation or arbitration, in which a judge, jury or arbitrator determines the outcome. Consensual processes, such as collaborative law, mediation, conciliation, or negotiation, in which the parties attempt to reach agreement. Not all disputes, even those in which skilled intervention occurs, end in resolution. Such intractable disputes form a special area in dispute resolution studies. Dispute resolution is an important requirement in international trade, including negotiation, mediation, arbitration and litigation. ==Legal dispute resolution== The legal system provides resolutions for many different types of disputes. Some disputants will not reach agreement through a collaborative process. Some disputes need the coercive power of the state to enforce a resolution. Perhaps more importantly, many people want a professional advocate when they become involved in a dispute, particularly if the dispute involves perceived legal rights, legal wrongdoing, or threat of legal action against them. The most common form of judicial dispute resolution is litigation. Litigation is initiated when one party files suit against another. In the United States, litigation is facilitated by the government within federal, state, and municipal courts. While litigation is often used to resolve disputes, it is strictly speaking a form of conflict adjudication and not a form of conflict resolution per se. This is because litigation only determines the legal rights and obligations of parties involved in a dispute and does not necessarily solve the disagreement between the parties involved in the dispute. For example, supreme court cases can rule on whether US states have the constitutional right to criminalize abortion but will not cause the parties involved in the case to no longer disagree on whether states do indeed have the constitutional authority to restrict access to abortion as one of the parties may disagree with the supreme courts reasoning and still disagree with the party that the supreme court sided with. Litigation proceedings are very formal and are governed by rules, such as rules of evidence and procedure, which are established by the legislature. Outcomes are decided by an impartial judge and/or jury, based on the factual questions of the case and the application law. The verdict of the court is binding, not advisory; however, both parties have the right to appeal the judgment to a higher court. Judicial dispute resolution is typically adversarial in nature, for example, involving antagonistic parties or opposing interests seeking an outcome most favorable to their position. Due to the antagonistic nature of litigation, collaborators frequently opt for solving disputes privately. Retired judges or private lawyers often become arbitrators or mediators; however, trained and qualified non-legal dispute resolution specialists form a growing body within the field of alternative dispute resolution (ADR). In the United States, many states now have mediation or other ADR programs annexed to the courts, to facilitate settlement of lawsuits. ==Extrajudicial dispute resolution== Some use the term dispute resolution to refer only to alternative dispute resolution (ADR), that is, extrajudicial processes such as arbitration, collaborative law, and mediation used to resolve conflict and potential conflict between and among individuals, business entities, governmental agencies, and (in the public international law context) states. ADR generally depends on agreement by the parties to use ADR processes, either before or after a dispute has arisen. ADR has experienced steadily increasing acceptance and utilization because of a perception of greater flexibility, costs below those of traditional litigation, and speedy resolution of disputes, among other perceived advantages. However, some have criticized these methods as taking away the right to seek redress of grievances in the courts, suggesting that extrajudicial dispute resolution may not offer the fairest way for parties not in an equal bargaining relationship, for example in a dispute between a consumer and a large corporation. In addition, in some circumstances, arbitration and other ADR processes may become as expensive as litigation or more so.	[ "consumer", "Conflict avoidance", "Investor-state dispute settlement", "corporation", "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", "conflict resolution", "lawsuit", "mediation", "Appellate Body", "arbitration", "adjudication", "Party-directed mediation", "Peacekeeping", "public international law", "violence", "Arbitral tribunal", "alternative dispute resolution", "Diplomacy", "Restorative justice", "Dispute pyramid", "International Chamber of Commerce", "International Court of Justice", "negotiation", "war", "business", "National Arbitration Forum", "Facilitator", "UN Peacemaker", "Sovereign state", "United Nations Human Rights Committee", "International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea", "William Ury", "party (law)", "International Court of Arbitration", "judge", "court", "conciliation", "Collaborative divorce", "law", "intractable conflict", "London Court of International Arbitration", "jury", "legal system", "World Trade Organization", "collaborative law", "international law", "Permanent Court of International Justice", "European Court of Human Rights" ]
9,085	Catan: Cities & Knights	Catan: Cities & Knights (), formerly The Cities and Knights of Catan, is an expansion to the board game The Settlers of Catan for three to four players (five to six player play is also possible with the Settlers and Cities & Knights five to six player extensions; two-player play is possible with the Traders & Barbarians expansion). It contains features taken from The Settlers of Catan, with emphasis on city development and the use of knights, which are used as a method of attacking other players as well as helping opponents defend Catan against a common foe. Cities & Knights can also be combined with the Catan: Seafarers expansion or with Catan: Traders & Barbarians scenarios (again, five to six player play only possible with the applicable five to six player extension(s)). == Differences from The Settlers of Catan == Because of the new rules introduced in Cities & Knights, the game is played to 13 victory points, as opposed to 10 as in the base game The Settlers of Catan. The following cards are not used in Cities & Knights: the Development Cards—which have been replaced by Progress Cards. the Building Cost Cards—the information on these cards is provided by the City Upgrade Calendar. the "Largest Army" Card—having a large army is still an advantage, but does not earn victory points so directly as in the regular version of The Settlers of Catan. Instead of soldier cards, one is now able to purchase the eponymous knights. == Commodities == One of the main additions to the game is commodities, which are a type of secondary resource produced only by cities. Like resources, commodities are associated with a type of terrain, can be stolen by the robber (with Seafarers, also the pirate), count against the resource hand limit, and may not be collected if the robber is on the terrain. Resources may be traded for commodities, and commodities may be traded for resources. Commodities can then be used to build city improvements (provided the player has a city), which provide additional benefits. The commodities are paper (which comes from forest terrain), coin (from mountain terrain), and cloth (from pasture terrain). When combining Cities & Knights with Barbarian Attack, the written rules are ambiguous with regards to whether commodities are collected along with normal resources when collecting from a Gold River tile, as well as whether or not commodities can be collected directly from Gold River tiles. However, online rules state that "Gold can only buy you resources, not commodities." A city on grain or brick gives two of each, as in the original Settlers. A city on wool, ore, or wood, produces one corresponding resource as well as one corresponding commodity (cloth, coin, or paper). Grain and brick, however, are used for new purchasing options: grain activates knights, and brick can be used to build city walls. In total there are 36 commodity cards: 12 paper (from forest), 12 cloth (from pasture), and 12 coin (from mountains). == City improvements == A player with a city may use commodities to build city improvements, which allow several advantages. There are city improvements in five levels, and in three different categories. Each category of improvements requires a different commodity and higher levels require more cards of that commodity. At the third level, players earn a special ability, depending on the type of improvement. The first player with an improvement at the fourth level can claim any of their cities as a metropolis, worth four victory points instead of two for that city. Each type of improvement has only one associated metropolis, and no city can be a metropolis of two different types (because of this, a player without a non-metropolis city may not build improvements beyond the third level). If a player is the first to build an improvement to the final level (out-building the current holder of the metropolis), they take the metropolis from its current holder. == Knights == The other significant concept in Cities & Knights is the concept of knights, which replace the concept of soldiers and the largest army. Knights are units that require continuous maintenance through their activation mechanism, but have a wide variety of functions. Knights can be promoted through three ranks, although promotion to the final rank is a special ability granted by the city improvement the Fortress. Knights are placed on the board in a similar manner to settlements, and can be used to block opposing roads, active or not. However, knights must be activated in order to perform other functions, which immediately deactivate the knight. Knights cannot perform actions on the same turn they are activated, but can be reactivated on the same turn as performing an action. These actions include: Moving along a road (with Seafarers, a line of ships) Displacing opposing knights of a lower rank, forcing the lower ranked knight to retreat Dispelling the robber (with Seafarers, also the pirate) if it is stationed nearby If a knight is promoted or forced to retreat, its active status does not change. The standard Cities & Knights game comes with 24 knights, 6 of each color. The 5/6 player extension adds a further 12 knights, 6 each of two new colors. == Barbarian attacks == Cities & Knights introduces a third die, known as the event die, which serves two functions. The first applies to the concept of barbarians, a periodic foe that all players must work together to defend against. Three of the sides of the event die have a picture of a ship on them. The other three sides have a symbol of a city gate, allowing players who have sufficiently built up a city to obtain progress cards (see below). The barbarians are represented by a ship positioned on a track representing the distance between the ship and Catan (i.e. the board). Each time the event die shows a black ship, the barbarian ship takes one step closer to Catan. When the barbarians arrive at Catan, a special phase is immediately performed before all other actions (including collecting resources). In this special phase, the barbarians' attack strength, corresponding to the combined number of cities and metropolises held by all players, is compared to Catan's defense strength, corresponding to the combined levels (i.e. 1 point for each basic, 2 for each strong, and 3 for each mighty) of all activated knights in play. If the barbarians are successful in their attack (if they have a strength greater than Catan), then the players must pay the consequence. The player(s) who had the least defense will be attacked, and will have one city reduced to a settlement. If they only have settlements, or metropolises, then they are immune to barbarians and do not count as the player contributing the least defense. Should Catan prevail, the player who contributes the most to Catan's defense receives a special Defender of Catan card, worth a victory point. Regardless of the outcome, all knights are immediately deactivated, and the barbarian ship returns to its starting point on the track. In the event of a tie among the greatest contributors of knights, none of the tied players earn a Defender of Catan card. Instead, each of the tied players draw a progress card (explained below) of the type of their choosing. There are 6 Defender of Catan cards. As the likelihood of having the barbarian move closer to Catan is very high, a variant in common usage is that the robber (and with Seafarers, the pirate) does not move until the first barbarian attack, nor can a knight move the robber before that point. Examples where cities are lost: Player A has 3 cities and 1 active strong knight. Player B has 1 city and 2 active basic knights. Player C has 2 cities and 1 active basic knight. When the barbarians attack, player C will lose one of their cities, because the attack strength (6 cities) is greater than all knights combined (5 knights). Player A has 3 cities and 2 active basic knights. Player B has 1 city, which is a metropolis, and no active knights. Player C has 2 cities and 1 active mighty knight. Player B's city is a metropolis, and metropolises cannot be destroyed by the barbarians, so Player A loses a city because they have the next fewest active knights. Player A has 2 cities and 2 active basic knights. Player B has 3 cities and 1 active strong knight. Player C has 2 cities and 2 active basic knights. All players will lose a city, because they all tie in the number of knights activated, and the barbarian attack strength (7 cities) is greater than number of active knights (6 knights). Player A has 3 cities and 1 active mighty knight and 1 active basic knight. Player B has 2 cities, which both are metropolises, and 1 active basic knight. Player C has 1 city, which is a metropolis, and no active knights. First in line to lose a city is player C, but because their city is a metropolis we need to look at the person next in line. This would be player B, but the same applies for them: they have activated only 1 knight, but both of their cities are metropolises. This leaves player A to lose a city. == Progress cards == The other significant outcome of the event die is Progress cards, which replace development cards. Because of the mechanics of progress cards explained below, one of the two white dice used in Settlers is replaced by a red die. Progress cards are organized into three categories, corresponding to the three types of improvements. Yellow progress cards aid in commercial development, green progress cards aid in technological advancements, and blue progress cards allow for political moves. When a castle appears on the event die, progress cards of the corresponding type may be drawn depending on the value of the red die. Higher levels of city improvements increase the chance that progress cards will be drawn, with the highest level of city improvement allowing progress cards to be drawn regardless of the value on the red die. Progress cards, unlike the development cards they replace, can be played on the turn that they are drawn, and more than one progress card can be played per turn. However, they can generally only be played after the dice are rolled. Progress cards granting victory points are an exception, being played immediately (without regards to whose turn it is), while the Alchemist progress card, which allows a player to select the roll of the white and red dice, necessitates the card being played instead of rolling the numerical dice. (The event die is still rolled as normal.) Players are allowed to keep four progress cards (five in a five to six player game), and any additional ones must be discarded on the spot (unless the 5th card is a victory point, which is played immediately and the original progress cards remain). The only exception to this rule is when the player receives a 5th non-victory point progress card during their turn, in which case the player may choose to play any one of the five progress cards in hand, bringing the progress card count back down to four. While this clarification is not overtly stated in the Cities & Knights rule book, it is enforced in the online version of the game. In total, there are 54 progress cards: 18 science, 18 politics, and 18 trade. Out of all the available progress cards, progress cards containing victory points can be only earned in the science and politics categories. == City walls == City walls are a minor addition to Cities & Knights that increase the number of resource and commodity cards a player is allowed in their hand before having to discard on a roll of 7. However, they do not protect the player from the robber or barbarians. Only cities and metropolises may have walls, and each city or metropolis can only have one wall, up to three walls per player. Each wall that the player has deployed permits the player to hold two more cards before being required to discard on a roll of seven. This results in a maximum of 13 cards. If the barbarians pillage your city, then the city wall is also destroyed and the wall is removed from the board. The game comes with 12 city walls, 3 of each color. == The Merchant == The merchant is another addition to Cities & Knights. Like the robber, the merchant is placed on a single land hex. Unlike the robber, the merchant has a beneficial effect. The merchant can only be deployed through the use of a Merchant progress card (of which there are six), on a land hex near a city or a settlement. The player with the control of the merchant can trade the resource (not commodity) of that type at a two-to-one rate, as if the player had a control of a corresponding two-to-one harbor. The player with the control of the merchant also earns a victory point. Both the victory point and the trade privilege are lost if another player takes control of the merchant. == City Upgrade Calendar == In place of The Settlers of Catan standard improvement cost card, Cities & Knights gives a calendar type flip-chart to each player, matching that player's color. The top of the chart has the standard costs from the Settlers game (for settlements, upgrade to city, and roads). It does not include the Development Card cost as those cards are not used in a Cities & Knights game. It does include the costs of hiring a knight, upgrading a knight's level or strength, and the cost to activate a knight. It also includes the cost of a ship, which are not used in a regular game of Cities & Knights, but presumably this is to cater for players who have combined Cities & Knights and Seafarers. Those are only the rudimentary costs of the game however. The calendar also shows the costs of the next city improvement in each of the three categories — as a city is improved in a category, that segment has its card flipped down calendar style to reveal the newly built improvement, any advantages gained by the improvement, and the updated cost of upgrading to the next level in that category. Each segment, as it is flipped down, also shows the updated dice pattern needed to earn the player a progress card in that category. == Catan Legend of the Conquerors == Catan: Legend of the Conquerors is a scenario released in 2017 for the expansion Catan: Cities & Knights. A blog post was made in connection with the release. The game adds swamp hexes to the board. The game also adds a cannon which can be combined with a knight to increase the strength of a knight by one, which makes the maximum possible strength 4, when applied to a mighty knight of strength 3 (1+3=4). To build a cannon, you pay 1 lumber and 1 ore for a foundry. When you combine a cannon and a knight you have a cannoneer. The game also adds a horse farm that you can build for one lumber and one grain. The horse farm gives you a horse that you can use to turn one of your knights into cavalry. A cavalry unit can move between road networks, even if there is no connection between them. The cannon and horse cannot be combined. The blog post writes, "Some strategists may like the idea of equipping a knight with a horse and a cannon, thus making it some kind of overpowering “mounted cannoneer.” However, you are not allowed to place both playing pieces adjacent to a knight. This being said, it's also hard to imagine a knight on a horse holding a cannon in his arms and firing it in all directions... " ==Reviews== Pyramid	[ "Trade", "Catan: Cities & Knights", "Capcom", "board game", "999 Games", "The Settlers of Catan", "Catan: Seafarers", "Kosmos (game publisher)", "Catan: Traders & Barbarians", "Dice", "knight", "Pyramid (magazine)", "Klaus Teuber", "Mayfair Games" ]
9,086	Catan: Seafarers	Catan: Seafarers, or Seafarers of Catan in older editions, () is an expansion of the board game Catan for three to four players (five-to-six-player play is also possible with both of the respective five-to-six-player extensions). The main feature of this expansion is the addition of ships, gold fields, and the pirate to the game, allowing play between multiple islands. The expansion also provides numerous scenarios, some of which have custom rules. The Seafarers rules and scenarios are also, for the most part, compatible with Catan: Cities & Knights and Catan: Traders & Barbarians. The concepts introduced in Seafarers were part of designer Klaus Teuber's original design for Settlers. ==Ships== Seafarers introduces the concept of ships, which serve as roads over water or along the coast. Each ship costs one lumber and one wool to create (lumber for the hull and wool for the sails). A settlement must first be built before a player can switch from building roads to building ships, or vice versa. Thus, a chain of ships is always anchored at a settlement on the coast. A shipping line that is not anchored at both ends by different settlements can also move the last ship at the open end, although this can only be done once per turn and may not be done with any ships that were created on the same turn. The "Longest Road" card is now renamed the "Longest Trade Route" since this is now calculated by counting the number of contiguous ships plus roads that a player has. A settlement or city is necessary between a road and a ship for the two to be considered continuous for the purposes of this card. The Road Building card allows a player to build 2 roads, 2 ships, or one of each when used. Along with the concept of ships, Seafarers also introduces the notion of the pirate, which acts as a waterborne robber which steals from nearby ships (similar to how the robber steals from nearby settlements). The pirate can also prevent ships from being built or moved nearby, but it does not interfere with harbors. The pirate does not prevent settlements from being built. When a seven is rolled or a Knight card is played, the player may move either the robber OR the pirate. ==Gold Rivers== Seafarers also introduces the "Gold River" or "Gold Field" terrain, which grants nearby players one resource of their choice for every settlement adjacent to a gold tile and 2 resources for every city. Since being able to choose any resource type allows more building power, gold rivers are often either marked with number token of only 2 or 3 dots and/or are far away from starting positions to offset this. When combined with Cities & Knights, the rules state that you are not allowed to take commodities instead of resources if a city is nearby. ==Exploration== Some scenarios have extra rules encompassing the concept of exploration, which is done by having the hex tiles placed face down. Should a player build next to unexplored terrain, the terrain tile is turned face up, and the player is rewarded with a resource should the tile revealed be resource-producing. In other scenarios, the board is divided into islands, and if the player builds a settlement on an island other than the ones they begin on, the settlement is worth extra victory points. The Cities and Knights manual recommends that players not use the Cities & Knights rules in scenarios where exploration is a factor. ==Scenarios== Unlike The Settlers of Catan and Catan: Cities & Knights, in which the only random element of setup is the placement of land tiles, number tokens, and harbors in an identically shaped playing area, Catan: Seafarers has a number of different scenarios or maps from which to choose. Each map uses a different selection of tiles laid out in a specific pattern, which may not use all of the tiles. Other attributes also set each map apart, for example, restrictions on the placement of initial settlements, whether tiles are distributed randomly, the number of victory points needed to win, and special victory point awards, usually for building on islands across the sea. Seafarers provides scenarios for three or four players (the older fourth edition used the same maps for three- and four-player versions of the scenarios), while the extension provides scenarios for six players (the older third edition also included separate maps for five- and six-player scenarios). The scenarios between the older editions of Seafarers and the newest are generally incompatible, knowing the different frames included with the game. (In particular, older editions of Settlers did not come with a frame for their board; a separate add-on was made available for players of the older-edition Settlers games, containing the newer edition frames, so as to make them compatible with the newer edition of Seafarers; the older edition of Seafarers included a square frame, and while both older and newer editions of the frames have the same width across, the newer editions are not square-shaped, and are longer down the middle of the board compared to the sides.) ===Heading to New Shores=== Heading to New Shores (New Shores in older editions) is the scenario resembling Teuber's original design for the game. The game board consists of the main Settlers island as well as a few smaller islands, which award a special victory point to each player for their first settlements on them. This scenario is meant for players new to Seafarers, with elements of Seafarers incorporated into the more familiar main board. ===The Four Islands=== The Four Islands is the first scenario introduced where new mechanics introduced to Seafarers is brought into the forefront. In this scenario, the map is split up into four islands of roughly equal size and resource distribution. (The six-player version found in the extension has the map split into six islands; the scenario is titled The Six Islands, but is played identically. Older editions of the extension had a five-player version with five islands, called The Five Islands.) Players may claim up to two of the islands as their home islands, and settling on any of the other islands awards a special victory point. ===The Fog Island=== The Fog Island (Oceans in older editions) is the first scenario where exploration is used. The board starts off with a portion of the map left blank: when players expand into the blank region, terrain hexes are drawn at random from a supply and placed in the empty space, and, if a land hex is "discovered", a number token may be assigned. As a reward for discovering land, the player making the discovery is rewarded with a bonus resource card corresponding to the type of land hex discovered. ===Through the Desert=== Through the Desert (Into the Desert in older edition) is similar to The Four Islands, but consists of a large continent and smaller outlying islands. On the large island, there exists a "wall of deserts" that separates the island into a large main area and separate smaller strips of land. As the name of the scenario implies, expanding through the desert into these smaller strips of land, or by sea to the outlying islands, award bonus victory points. ===The Forgotten Tribe=== The Forgotten Tribe, originally titled Friendly Neighbors, was a downloadable scenario (but only in the German language) which was incorporated into newer editions of Seafarers. The map consists of a main island and smaller outlying islands, where the namesake forgotten tribe resides. Players may not expand into the outlying islands, but by building ships so that they border the outlying islands, players may be awarded with victory points, development cards, or harbors that players may place on the coast of the main island at a later time. ===Cloth for Catan=== Introduced in the newer editions, Cloth for Catan continues the adventures with the Forgotten Tribe. The scenario was previously available for older editions as a downloadable scenario (but only in German), titled Coffee for Catan. Players begin with settlements on the outside of the map, but may build ships to reach the Forgotten Tribe's islands, which are in the center. By connecting to the Forgotten Tribe's settlements (represented by number tokens), players may earn cloth tokens when the number token for the Forgotten Tribe's villages are rolled. Cloth tokens, in turn, are worth one victory point for each pair obtained. ===The Pirate Island=== The Pirate Island, introduced in newer editions, is the first scenario which changes the mechanics of new gameplay elements introduced in Seafarers. The Pirate Island had previously been available as a downloadable scenario (but only in German) suitable for the older editions. In this scenario, players begin with a pre-placed settlement on a main island. Ships may only be built in one single line, which must pass through a fixed waypoint (different for each player) en route to a pirate fortress (each player has their own pirate fortress). Once ships connect to the pirate fortress, they may attempt to attack the pirate fortress once per turn. Ships may be lost if the attack is unsuccessful, but after three successful attacks, the pirate fortress is converted into a settlement. Players must convert their pirate fortresses and have 10 victory points before being able to claim victory. Furthermore, the pirate mechanics have also changed: the pirate moves through the middle of the map in a fixed path every turn, and attacks the owner of any nearby settlements. Players win resources if they are able to fend off the pirate attack (which depends on the number rolled by the dice, as well as the number of warships in the defending player's possession; warships are created from using Knight cards on existing ships), but lose resources if they are unsuccessful. Maritime expansion is only permitted by building a settlement at the waypoint, however, this increases the chances of a pirate attack. ===The Wonders of Catan=== The Wonders of Catan was a downloadable scenario for older editions of Seafarers in both German and English, and was incorporated into Seafarers in newer editions. In this scenario, there are a number of "wonders", each with a large cost of building as well as a prerequisite. If a player meets the prerequisite for a wonder, they may claim the wonder for themselves. A player may only claim one wonder, and each wonder may only be claimed by one player. Wonders must be built in four parts, and each wonder has a different build cost. The winner is the first player to complete their wonder, or the first player to have 10 victory points and have more parts of their wonder complete than any other player. ===The Great Crossing=== The Great Crossing was a scenario in the older editions of Seafarers, which has been dropped in newer editions. The map is divided into two islands, Catan and Transcatania. Players begin with both settlements on one of the islands, and must build ships connecting settlements between the two islands. Players earn victory points for connecting their settlements with settlements (not necessarily theirs) from the opposite island using ships, or to another player's shipping lines which connect two settlements together. ===Greater Catan=== Greater Catan was a scenario included in the older editions of Seafarers but is not included in newer editions. Due to the sheer amounts of equipment needed, two copies of Settlers and Seafarers are required to set up this scenario. The map consists of a standard Settlers island, along with a smaller chain of outlying islands. Only the main island initially has number tokens: number tokens are assigned to the outlying islands as they are expanded. However, the supply of number tokens is smaller than the number of hexes in the scenario: when the number tokens run out and players expand into a new part of the outlying islands, number tokens are moved from the main island to the outlying islands. Hexes on the main island for which there are no number tokens do not produce resources, but number tokens are moved in such a way so as to avoid rendering a city unproductive; furthermore, whenever possible number tokens must be reassigned from hexes bordering a player's own settlements and cities, so as to prevent harming another player's economy without harming a player's own economy at the same time. ===New World=== New World is a scenario that blankets all other scenarios that may be created from the parts of Settlers and Seafarers. This scenario uses an entirely random map, and players are encouraged to try and create a tile layout that plays well. The only difference between versions in Seafarers, the extension, and the older editions therein is the size of the frames. ==Reception== The Seafarers of Catan was reviewed in the online second volume of Pyramid.	[ "Catan: Cities & Knights", "pl:Żeglarze z Catanu", "board game", "The Settlers of Catan", "Catan", "Catan: Traders & Barbarians", "Pyramid (magazine)", "Klaus Teuber" ]
9,087	Dynamical system	In mathematics, a dynamical system is a system in which a function describes the time dependence of a point in an ambient space, such as in a parametric curve. Examples include the mathematical models that describe the swinging of a clock pendulum, the flow of water in a pipe, the random motion of particles in the air, and the number of fish each springtime in a lake. The most general definition unifies several concepts in mathematics such as ordinary differential equations and ergodic theory by allowing different choices of the space and how time is measured. Time can be measured by integers, by real or complex numbers or can be a more general algebraic object, losing the memory of its physical origin, and the space may be a manifold or simply a set, without the need of a smooth space-time structure defined on it. At any given time, a dynamical system has a state representing a point in an appropriate state space. This state is often given by a tuple of real numbers or by a vector in a geometrical manifold. The evolution rule of the dynamical system is a function that describes what future states follow from the current state. Often the function is deterministic, that is, for a given time interval only one future state follows from the current state. However, some systems are stochastic, in that random events also affect the evolution of the state variables. The study of dynamical systems is the focus of dynamical systems theory, which has applications to a wide variety of fields such as mathematics, physics, biology, chemistry, engineering, economics, history, and medicine. Dynamical systems are a fundamental part of chaos theory, logistic map dynamics, bifurcation theory, the self-assembly and self-organization processes, and the edge of chaos concept. ==Overview== The concept of a dynamical system has its origins in Newtonian mechanics. There, as in other natural sciences and engineering disciplines, the evolution rule of dynamical systems is an implicit relation that gives the state of the system for only a short time into the future. (The relation is either a differential equation, difference equation or other time scale.) To determine the state for all future times requires iterating the relation many times—each advancing time a small step. The iteration procedure is referred to as solving the system or integrating the system. If the system can be solved, then, given an initial point, it is possible to determine all its future positions, a collection of points known as a trajectory or orbit. Before the advent of computers, finding an orbit required sophisticated mathematical techniques and could be accomplished only for a small class of dynamical systems. Numerical methods implemented on electronic computing machines have simplified the task of determining the orbits of a dynamical system. For simple dynamical systems, knowing the trajectory is often sufficient, but most dynamical systems are too complicated to be understood in terms of individual trajectories. The difficulties arise because: The systems studied may only be known approximately—the parameters of the system may not be known precisely or terms may be missing from the equations. The approximations used bring into question the validity or relevance of numerical solutions. To address these questions several notions of stability have been introduced in the study of dynamical systems, such as Lyapunov stability or structural stability. The stability of the dynamical system implies that there is a class of models or initial conditions for which the trajectories would be equivalent. The operation for comparing orbits to establish their equivalence changes with the different notions of stability. The type of trajectory may be more important than one particular trajectory. Some trajectories may be periodic, whereas others may wander through many different states of the system. Applications often require enumerating these classes or maintaining the system within one class. Classifying all possible trajectories has led to the qualitative study of dynamical systems, that is, properties that do not change under coordinate changes. Linear dynamical systems and systems that have two numbers describing a state are examples of dynamical systems where the possible classes of orbits are understood. The behavior of trajectories as a function of a parameter may be what is needed for an application. As a parameter is varied, the dynamical systems may have bifurcation points where the qualitative behavior of the dynamical system changes. For example, it may go from having only periodic motions to apparently erratic behavior, as in the transition to turbulence of a fluid. The trajectories of the system may appear erratic, as if random. In these cases it may be necessary to compute averages using one very long trajectory or many different trajectories. The averages are well defined for ergodic systems and a more detailed understanding has been worked out for hyperbolic systems. Understanding the probabilistic aspects of dynamical systems has helped establish the foundations of statistical mechanics and of chaos. ==History== Many people regard French mathematician Henri Poincaré as the founder of dynamical systems. Poincaré published two now classical monographs, "New Methods of Celestial Mechanics" (1892–1899) and "Lectures on Celestial Mechanics" (1905–1910). In them, he successfully applied the results of their research to the problem of the motion of three bodies and studied in detail the behavior of solutions (frequency, stability, asymptotic, and so on). These papers included the Poincaré recurrence theorem, which states that certain systems will, after a sufficiently long but finite time, return to a state very close to the initial state. Aleksandr Lyapunov developed many important approximation methods. His methods, which he developed in 1899, make it possible to define the stability of sets of ordinary differential equations. He created the modern theory of the stability of a dynamical system. In 1913, George David Birkhoff proved Poincaré's "Last Geometric Theorem", a special case of the three-body problem, a result that made him world-famous. In 1927, he published his Dynamical Systems. Birkhoff's most durable result has been his 1931 discovery of what is now called the ergodic theorem. Combining insights from physics on the ergodic hypothesis with measure theory, this theorem solved, at least in principle, a fundamental problem of statistical mechanics. The ergodic theorem has also had repercussions for dynamics. Stephen Smale made significant advances as well. His first contribution was the Smale horseshoe that jumpstarted significant research in dynamical systems. He also outlined a research program carried out by many others. Oleksandr Mykolaiovych Sharkovsky developed Sharkovsky's theorem on the periods of discrete dynamical systems in 1964. One of the implications of the theorem is that if a discrete dynamical system on the real line has a periodic point of period 3, then it must have periodic points of every other period. In the late 20th century the dynamical system perspective to partial differential equations started gaining popularity. Palestinian mechanical engineer Ali H. Nayfeh applied nonlinear dynamics in mechanical and engineering systems. His pioneering work in applied nonlinear dynamics has been influential in the construction and maintenance of machines and structures that are common in daily life, such as ships, cranes, bridges, buildings, skyscrapers, jet engines, rocket engines, aircraft and spacecraft. == Formal definition == In the most general sense, a dynamical system is a tuple (T, X, Φ) where T is a monoid, written additively, X is a non-empty set and Φ is a function \Phi: U \subseteq (T \times X) \to X with \mathrm{proj}_{2}(U) = X (where \mathrm{proj}_{2} is the 2nd projection map) and for any x in X: \Phi(0,x) = x \Phi(t_2,\Phi(t_1,x)) = \Phi(t_2 + t_1, x), for \, t_1,\, t_2 + t_1 \in I(x) and \ t_2 \in I(\Phi(t_1, x)) , where we have defined the set I(x) := \{ t \in T : (t,x) \in U \} for any x in X. In particular, in the case that U = T \times X we have for every x in X that I(x) = T and thus that Φ defines a monoid action of T on X. The function Φ(t,x) is called the evolution function of the dynamical system: it associates to every point x in the set X a unique image, depending on the variable t, called the evolution parameter. X is called phase space or state space, while the variable x represents an initial state of the system. We often write \Phi_x(t) \equiv \Phi(t,x) \Phi^t(x) \equiv \Phi(t,x) if we take one of the variables as constant. The function \Phi_x:I(x) \to X is called the flow through x and its graph is called the trajectory through x. The set \gamma_x \equiv\{\Phi(t,x) : t \in I(x)\} is called the orbit through x. The orbit through x is the image of the flow through x. A subset S of the state space X is called Φ-invariant if for all x in S and all t in T \Phi(t,x) \in S. Thus, in particular, if S is Φ-invariant, I(x) = T for all x in S. That is, the flow through x must be defined for all time for every element of S. More commonly there are two classes of definitions for a dynamical system: one is motivated by ordinary differential equations and is geometrical in flavor; and the other is motivated by ergodic theory and is measure theoretical in flavor. === Geometrical definition === In the geometrical definition, a dynamical system is the tuple \langle \mathcal{T}, \mathcal{M}, f\rangle . \mathcal{T} is the domain for time – there are many choices, usually the reals or the integers, possibly restricted to be non-negative. \mathcal{M} is a manifold, i.e. locally a Banach space or Euclidean space, or in the discrete case a graph. f is an evolution rule t → f t (with t\in\mathcal{T}) such that f t is a diffeomorphism of the manifold to itself. So, f is a "smooth" mapping of the time-domain \mathcal{T} into the space of diffeomorphisms of the manifold to itself. In other terms, f(t) is a diffeomorphism, for every time t in the domain \mathcal{T} . ==== Real dynamical system ==== A real dynamical system, real-time dynamical system, continuous time dynamical system, or flow is a tuple (T, M, Φ) with T an open interval in the real numbers R, M a manifold locally diffeomorphic to a Banach space, and Φ a continuous function. If Φ is continuously differentiable we say the system is a differentiable dynamical system. If the manifold M is locally diffeomorphic to Rn, the dynamical system is finite-dimensional; if not, the dynamical system is infinite-dimensional. This does not assume a symplectic structure. When T is taken to be the reals, the dynamical system is called global or a flow; and if T is restricted to the non-negative reals, then the dynamical system is a semi-flow. ==== Discrete dynamical system ==== A discrete dynamical system, discrete-time dynamical system is a tuple (T, M, Φ), where M is a manifold locally diffeomorphic to a Banach space, and Φ is a function. When T is taken to be the integers, it is a cascade or a map. If T is restricted to the non-negative integers we call the system a semi-cascade. ==== Cellular automaton ==== A cellular automaton is a tuple (T, M, Φ), with T a lattice such as the integers or a higher-dimensional integer grid, M is a set of functions from an integer lattice (again, with one or more dimensions) to a finite set, and Φ a (locally defined) evolution function. As such cellular automata are dynamical systems. The lattice in M represents the "space" lattice, while the one in T represents the "time" lattice. ==== Multidimensional generalization ==== Dynamical systems are usually defined over a single independent variable, thought of as time. A more general class of systems are defined over multiple independent variables and are therefore called multidimensional systems. Such systems are useful for modeling, for example, image processing. ==== Compactification of a dynamical system ==== Given a global dynamical system (R, X, Φ) on a locally compact and Hausdorff topological space X, it is often useful to study the continuous extension Φ* of Φ to the one-point compactification X* of X. Although we lose the differential structure of the original system we can now use compactness arguments to analyze the new system (R, X, Φ). In compact dynamical systems the limit set of any orbit is non-empty, compact and simply connected. ===Measure theoretical definition=== A dynamical system may be defined formally as a measure-preserving transformation of a measure space, the triplet (T, (X, Σ, μ), Φ). Here, T is a monoid (usually the non-negative integers), X is a set, and (X, Σ, μ) is a probability space, meaning that Σ is a sigma-algebra on X and μ is a finite measure on (X, Σ). A map Φ: X → X is said to be Σ-measurable if and only if, for every σ in Σ, one has \Phi^{-1}\sigma \in \Sigma. A map Φ is said to preserve the measure if and only if, for every σ in Σ, one has \mu(\Phi^{-1}\sigma ) = \mu(\sigma). Combining the above, a map Φ is said to be a measure-preserving transformation of X , if it is a map from X to itself, it is Σ-measurable, and is measure-preserving. The triplet (T, (X, Σ, μ), Φ), for such a Φ, is then defined to be a dynamical system. The map Φ embodies the time evolution of the dynamical system. Thus, for discrete dynamical systems the iterates \Phi^n = \Phi \circ \Phi \circ \dots \circ \Phi for every integer n are studied. For continuous dynamical systems, the map Φ is understood to be a finite time evolution map and the construction is more complicated. ====Relation to geometric definition==== The measure theoretical definition assumes the existence of a measure-preserving transformation. Many different invariant measures can be associated to any one evolution rule. If the dynamical system is given by a system of differential equations the appropriate measure must be determined. This makes it difficult to develop ergodic theory starting from differential equations, so it becomes convenient to have a dynamical systems-motivated definition within ergodic theory that side-steps the choice of measure and assumes the choice has been made. A simple construction (sometimes called the Krylov–Bogolyubov theorem) shows that for a large class of systems it is always possible to construct a measure so as to make the evolution rule of the dynamical system a measure-preserving transformation. In the construction a given measure of the state space is summed for all future points of a trajectory, assuring the invariance. Some systems have a natural measure, such as the Liouville measure in Hamiltonian systems, chosen over other invariant measures, such as the measures supported on periodic orbits of the Hamiltonian system. For chaotic dissipative systems the choice of invariant measure is technically more challenging. The measure needs to be supported on the attractor, but attractors have zero Lebesgue measure and the invariant measures must be singular with respect to the Lebesgue measure. A small region of phase space shrinks under time evolution. For hyperbolic dynamical systems, the Sinai–Ruelle–Bowen measures appear to be the natural choice. They are constructed on the geometrical structure of stable and unstable manifolds of the dynamical system; they behave physically under small perturbations; and they explain many of the observed statistics of hyperbolic systems. == Construction of dynamical systems == The concept of evolution in time is central to the theory of dynamical systems as seen in the previous sections: the basic reason for this fact is that the starting motivation of the theory was the study of time behavior of classical mechanical systems. But a system of ordinary differential equations must be solved before it becomes a dynamic system. For example, consider an initial value problem such as the following: \dot{\boldsymbol{x}}=\boldsymbol{v}(t,\boldsymbol{x}) \boldsymbol{x}\|_=\boldsymbol{x}_0 where \dot{\boldsymbol{x}} represents the velocity of the material point x M is a finite dimensional manifold v: T × M → TM is a vector field in Rn or Cn and represents the change of velocity induced by the known forces acting on the given material point in the phase space M. The change is not a vector in the phase space M, but is instead in the tangent space TM. There is no need for higher order derivatives in the equation, nor for the parameter t in v(t,x), because these can be eliminated by considering systems of higher dimensions. Depending on the properties of this vector field, the mechanical system is called autonomous, when v(t, x) = v(x) homogeneous when v(t, 0) = 0 for all t The solution can be found using standard ODE techniques and is denoted as the evolution function already introduced above \boldsymbol(t)=\Phi(t,\boldsymbol_0) The dynamical system is then (T, M, Φ). Some formal manipulation of the system of differential equations shown above gives a more general form of equations a dynamical system must satisfy \dot{\boldsymbol{x}}-\boldsymbol{v}(t,\boldsymbol{x})=0 \qquad\Leftrightarrow\qquad \mathfrak\left(t,\Phi(t,\boldsymbol_0)\right)=0 where \mathfrak{G}:{{(T\times M)}^M}\to\mathbf{C} is a functional from the set of evolution functions to the field of the complex numbers. This equation is useful when modeling mechanical systems with complicated constraints. Many of the concepts in dynamical systems can be extended to infinite-dimensional manifolds—those that are locally Banach spaces—in which case the differential equations are partial differential equations. == Examples == Arnold's cat map Baker's map is an example of a chaotic piecewise linear map Billiards and outer billiards Bouncing ball dynamics Circle map Complex quadratic polynomial Double pendulum Dyadic transformation Dynamical system simulation Hénon map Irrational rotation Kaplan–Yorke map List of chaotic maps Lorenz system Quadratic map simulation system Rössler map Swinging Atwood's machine Tent map ==Linear dynamical systems== Linear dynamical systems can be solved in terms of simple functions and the behavior of all orbits classified. In a linear system the phase space is the N-dimensional Euclidean space, so any point in phase space can be represented by a vector with N numbers. The analysis of linear systems is possible because they satisfy a superposition principle: if u(t) and w(t) satisfy the differential equation for the vector field (but not necessarily the initial condition), then so will u(t) + w(t). ===Flows=== For a flow, the vector field v(x) is an affine function of the position in the phase space, that is, \dot{x} = v(x) = A x + b, with A a matrix, b a vector of numbers and x the position vector. The solution to this system can be found by using the superposition principle (linearity). The case b ≠ 0 with A = 0 is just a straight line in the direction of b: \Phi^t(x_1) = x_1 + b t. When b is zero and A ≠ 0 the origin is an equilibrium (or singular) point of the flow, that is, if x0 = 0, then the orbit remains there. For other initial conditions, the equation of motion is given by the exponential of a matrix: for an initial point x0, \Phi^t(x_0) = e^{t A} x_0. When b = 0, the eigenvalues of A determine the structure of the phase space. From the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of A it is possible to determine if an initial point will converge or diverge to the equilibrium point at the origin. The distance between two different initial conditions in the case A ≠ 0 will change exponentially in most cases, either converging exponentially fast towards a point, or diverging exponentially fast. Linear systems display sensitive dependence on initial conditions in the case of divergence. For nonlinear systems this is one of the (necessary but not sufficient) conditions for chaotic behavior. ===Maps=== A discrete-time, affine dynamical system has the form of a matrix difference equation: x_{n+1} = A x_n + b, with A a matrix and b a vector. As in the continuous case, the change of coordinates x → x + (1 − A) –1b removes the term b from the equation. In the new coordinate system, the origin is a fixed point of the map and the solutions are of the linear system A nx0. The solutions for the map are no longer curves, but points that hop in the phase space. The orbits are organized in curves, or fibers, which are collections of points that map into themselves under the action of the map. As in the continuous case, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A determine the structure of phase space. For example, if u1 is an eigenvector of A, with a real eigenvalue smaller than one, then the straight lines given by the points along α u1, with α ∈ R, is an invariant curve of the map. Points in this straight line run into the fixed point. There are also many other discrete dynamical systems. ==Local dynamics== The qualitative properties of dynamical systems do not change under a smooth change of coordinates (this is sometimes taken as a definition of qualitative): a singular point of the vector field (a point where v(x) = 0) will remain a singular point under smooth transformations; a periodic orbit is a loop in phase space and smooth deformations of the phase space cannot alter it being a loop. It is in the neighborhood of singular points and periodic orbits that the structure of a phase space of a dynamical system can be well understood. In the qualitative study of dynamical systems, the approach is to show that there is a change of coordinates (usually unspecified, but computable) that makes the dynamical system as simple as possible. ===Rectification=== A flow in most small patches of the phase space can be made very simple. If y is a point where the vector field v(y) ≠ 0, then there is a change of coordinates for a region around y where the vector field becomes a series of parallel vectors of the same magnitude. This is known as the rectification theorem. The rectification theorem says that away from singular points the dynamics of a point in a small patch is a straight line. The patch can sometimes be enlarged by stitching several patches together, and when this works out in the whole phase space M the dynamical system is integrable. In most cases the patch cannot be extended to the entire phase space. There may be singular points in the vector field (where v(x) = 0); or the patches may become smaller and smaller as some point is approached. The more subtle reason is a global constraint, where the trajectory starts out in a patch, and after visiting a series of other patches comes back to the original one. If the next time the orbit loops around phase space in a different way, then it is impossible to rectify the vector field in the whole series of patches. ===Near periodic orbits=== In general, in the neighborhood of a periodic orbit the rectification theorem cannot be used. Poincaré developed an approach that transforms the analysis near a periodic orbit to the analysis of a map. Pick a point x0 in the orbit γ and consider the points in phase space in that neighborhood that are perpendicular to v(x0). These points are a Poincaré section S(γ, x0), of the orbit. The flow now defines a map, the Poincaré map F : S → S, for points starting in S and returning to S. Not all these points will take the same amount of time to come back, but the times will be close to the time it takes x0. The intersection of the periodic orbit with the Poincaré section is a fixed point of the Poincaré map F. By a translation, the point can be assumed to be at x = 0. The Taylor series of the map is F(x) = J · x + O(x2), so a change of coordinates h can only be expected to simplify F to its linear part h^{-1} \circ F \circ h(x) = J \cdot x. This is known as the conjugation equation. Finding conditions for this equation to hold has been one of the major tasks of research in dynamical systems. Poincaré first approached it assuming all functions to be analytic and in the process discovered the non-resonant condition. If λ1, ..., λν are the eigenvalues of J they will be resonant if one eigenvalue is an integer linear combination of two or more of the others. As terms of the form λi – Σ (multiples of other eigenvalues) occurs in the denominator of the terms for the function h, the non-resonant condition is also known as the small divisor problem. ===Conjugation results=== The results on the existence of a solution to the conjugation equation depend on the eigenvalues of J and the degree of smoothness required from h. As J does not need to have any special symmetries, its eigenvalues will typically be complex numbers. When the eigenvalues of J are not in the unit circle, the dynamics near the fixed point x0 of F is called hyperbolic and when the eigenvalues are on the unit circle and complex, the dynamics is called elliptic. In the hyperbolic case, the Hartman–Grobman theorem gives the conditions for the existence of a continuous function that maps the neighborhood of the fixed point of the map to the linear map J · x. The hyperbolic case is also structurally stable. Small changes in the vector field will only produce small changes in the Poincaré map and these small changes will reflect in small changes in the position of the eigenvalues of J in the complex plane, implying that the map is still hyperbolic. The Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser (KAM) theorem gives the behavior near an elliptic point. ==Bifurcation theory== When the evolution map Φt (or the vector field it is derived from) depends on a parameter μ, the structure of the phase space will also depend on this parameter. Small changes may produce no qualitative changes in the phase space until a special value μ0 is reached. At this point the phase space changes qualitatively and the dynamical system is said to have gone through a bifurcation. Bifurcation theory considers a structure in phase space (typically a fixed point, a periodic orbit, or an invariant torus) and studies its behavior as a function of the parameter μ. At the bifurcation point the structure may change its stability, split into new structures, or merge with other structures. By using Taylor series approximations of the maps and an understanding of the differences that may be eliminated by a change of coordinates, it is possible to catalog the bifurcations of dynamical systems. The bifurcations of a hyperbolic fixed point x0 of a system family Fμ can be characterized by the eigenvalues of the first derivative of the system DFμ(x0) computed at the bifurcation point. For a map, the bifurcation will occur when there are eigenvalues of DFμ on the unit circle. For a flow, it will occur when there are eigenvalues on the imaginary axis. For more information, see the main article on Bifurcation theory. Some bifurcations can lead to very complicated structures in phase space. For example, the Ruelle–Takens scenario describes how a periodic orbit bifurcates into a torus and the torus into a strange attractor. In another example, Feigenbaum period-doubling describes how a stable periodic orbit goes through a series of period-doubling bifurcations. ==Ergodic systems== In many dynamical systems, it is possible to choose the coordinates of the system so that the volume (really a ν-dimensional volume) in phase space is invariant. This happens for mechanical systems derived from Newton's laws as long as the coordinates are the position and the momentum and the volume is measured in units of (position) × (momentum). The flow takes points of a subset A into the points Φ t(A) and invariance of the phase space means that \mathrm{vol} (A) = \mathrm{vol} ( \Phi^t(A) ). In the Hamiltonian formalism, given a coordinate it is possible to derive the appropriate (generalized) momentum such that the associated volume is preserved by the flow. The volume is said to be computed by the Liouville measure. In a Hamiltonian system, not all possible configurations of position and momentum can be reached from an initial condition. Because of energy conservation, only the states with the same energy as the initial condition are accessible. The states with the same energy form an energy shell Ω, a sub-manifold of the phase space. The volume of the energy shell, computed using the Liouville measure, is preserved under evolution. For systems where the volume is preserved by the flow, Poincaré discovered the recurrence theorem: Assume the phase space has a finite Liouville volume and let F be a phase space volume-preserving map and A a subset of the phase space. Then almost every point of A returns to A infinitely often. The Poincaré recurrence theorem was used by Zermelo to object to Boltzmann's derivation of the increase in entropy in a dynamical system of colliding atoms. One of the questions raised by Boltzmann's work was the possible equality between time averages and space averages, what he called the ergodic hypothesis. The hypothesis states that the length of time a typical trajectory spends in a region A is vol(A)/vol(Ω). The ergodic hypothesis turned out not to be the essential property needed for the development of statistical mechanics and a series of other ergodic-like properties were introduced to capture the relevant aspects of physical systems. Koopman approached the study of ergodic systems by the use of functional analysis. An observable a is a function that to each point of the phase space associates a number (say instantaneous pressure, or average height). The value of an observable can be computed at another time by using the evolution function φ t. This introduces an operator U t, the transfer operator, (U^t a)(x) = a(\Phi^{-t}(x)). By studying the spectral properties of the linear operator U it becomes possible to classify the ergodic properties of Φ t. In using the Koopman approach of considering the action of the flow on an observable function, the finite-dimensional nonlinear problem involving Φ t gets mapped into an infinite-dimensional linear problem involving U. The Liouville measure restricted to the energy surface Ω is the basis for the averages computed in equilibrium statistical mechanics. An average in time along a trajectory is equivalent to an average in space computed with the Boltzmann factor exp(−βH). This idea has been generalized by Sinai, Bowen, and Ruelle (SRB) to a larger class of dynamical systems that includes dissipative systems. SRB measures replace the Boltzmann factor and they are defined on attractors of chaotic systems. == Nonlinear dynamical systems and chaos == Simple nonlinear dynamical systems, including piecewise linear systems, can exhibit strongly unpredictable behavior, which might seem to be random, despite the fact that they are fundamentally deterministic. This unpredictable behavior has been called chaos. Hyperbolic systems are precisely defined dynamical systems that exhibit the properties ascribed to chaotic systems. In hyperbolic systems the tangent spaces perpendicular to an orbit can be decomposed into a combination of two parts: one with the points that converge towards the orbit (the stable manifold) and another of the points that diverge from the orbit (the unstable manifold). This branch of mathematics deals with the long-term qualitative behavior of dynamical systems. Here, the focus is not on finding precise solutions to the equations defining the dynamical system (which is often hopeless), but rather to answer questions like "Will the system settle down to a steady state in the long term, and if so, what are the possible attractors?" or "Does the long-term behavior of the system depend on its initial condition?" The chaotic behavior of complex systems is not the issue. Meteorology has been known for years to involve complex—even chaotic—behavior. Chaos theory has been so surprising because chaos can be found within almost trivial systems. The Pomeau–Manneville scenario of the logistic map and the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem arose with just second-degree polynomials; the horseshoe map is piecewise linear. === Solutions of finite duration === For non-linear autonomous ODEs it is possible under some conditions to develop solutions of finite duration, meaning here that in these solutions the system will reach the value zero at some time, called an ending time, and then stay there forever after. This can occur only when system trajectories are not uniquely determined forwards and backwards in time by the dynamics, thus solutions of finite duration imply a form of "backwards-in-time unpredictability" closely related to the forwards-in-time unpredictability of chaos. This behavior cannot happen for Lipschitz continuous differential equations according to the proof of the Picard-Lindelof theorem. These solutions are non-Lipschitz functions at their ending times and cannot be analytical functions on the whole real line. As example, the equation: y'= -\text{sgn}(y)\sqrt,\,\,y(0)=1 Admits the finite duration solution: y(t)=\frac{1}{4}\left(1-\frac{t}{2}+\left\|1-\frac{t}{2}\right\|\right)^2 that is zero for t \geq 2 and is not Lipschitz continuous at its ending time t = 2.	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9,090	Dhimmi	( ', , collectively / "the people of the covenant") or ' () is a historical The word literally means "protected person", referring to the state's obligation under sharia to protect the individual's life, property, as well as freedom of religion, in exchange for loyalty to the state and payment of the jizya tax, in contrast to the zakat, or obligatory alms, paid by the Muslim subjects. Dhimmi were exempt from military service and other duties assigned specifically to Muslims if they paid the poll tax (jizya) but were otherwise equal under the laws of property, contract, and obligation. Dhimmis were subject to specific restrictions as well, which were codified in agreements like the Pact of ʿUmar''. These included prohibitions on building new places of worship, repairing existing ones in areas where Muslims lived, teaching children the Qurʾān, and preventing relatives from converting to Islam. They were also required to wear distinctive clothing, refrain from carrying weapons, and avoid riding on saddles. Historically, dhimmi status was originally applied to Jews, Christians, and Sabians, who are considered "People of the Book" in Islamic theology. Later, this status was also applied to Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists. Jews, Christians and others were required to pay the jizyah, and forced conversions were forbidden. During the rule of al-Mutawakkil, the tenth Abbasid Caliph, numerous restrictions reinforced the second-class citizen status of dhimmīs and forced their communities into ghettos. For instance, they were required to distinguish themselves from their Muslim neighbors by their dress. They were not permitted to build new churches or synagogues or repair old churches without Muslim consent according to the Pact of Umar. Under Sharia, the dhimmi communities were usually governed by their own laws in place of some of the laws applicable to the Muslim community. For example, the Jewish community of Medina was allowed to have its own Halakhic courts, Some Muslims reject the dhimma system by arguing that it is a system which is inappropriate in the age of nation-states and democracies. There is a range of opinions among 20th-century and contemporary Islamic theologians about whether the notion of dhimma is appropriate for modern times, and, if so, what form it should take in an Islamic state. There are differences among the Islamic Madhhabs regarding which non-Muslims can pay jizya and have dhimmi status. The Hanafi and Maliki Madhabs generally allow non-Muslims to have dhimmi status. In contrast, the Shafi'i and Hanbali Madhabs only allow Christians, Unitarians, Jews, Sabeans and Zoroastrians to have dhimmi status, and they maintain that all other non-Muslims must either convert to Islam or be fought. ==The "Dhimma contract"== Based on Quranic verses and Islamic traditions, sharia law distinguishes between Muslims, followers of other Abrahamic religions, and Pagans or people belonging to other polytheistic religions. As monotheists, Jews and Christians have traditionally been considered "People of the Book", and afforded a special legal status known as dhimmi derived from a theoretical contract—"dhimma" or "residence in return for taxes". Islamic legal systems based on sharia law incorporated the religious laws and courts of Christians, Jews, and Hindus, as seen in the early caliphate, al-Andalus, Indian subcontinent, and the Ottoman Millet system. In Yemenite Jewish sources, a treaty was drafted between Muhammad and his Jewish subjects, known as kitāb ḏimmat al-nabi, written in the 17th year of the Hijra (638 CE), which gave express liberty to the Jews living in Arabia to observe the Sabbath and to grow-out their side-locks, but required them to pay the jizya (poll-tax) annually for their protection. Muslim governments in the Indus basin readily extended the dhimmi status to the Hindus and Buddhists of India. Eventually, the largest school of Islamic jurisprudence applied this term to all Non-Muslims living in Muslim lands outside the sacred area surrounding Mecca, Arabia. In medieval Islamic societies, the qadi (Islamic judge) usually could not interfere in the matters of non-Muslims unless the parties voluntarily chose to be judged according to Islamic law, thus the dhimmi communities living in Islamic states usually had their own laws independent from the sharia law, as with the Jews who would have their own rabbinical courts. These courts did not cover cases that involved other religious groups, or capital offences or threats to public order. By the 18th century, however, dhimmi frequently attended the Ottoman Muslim courts, where cases were taken against them by Muslims, or they took cases against Muslims or other dhimmi. Oaths sworn by dhimmi in these courts were tailored to their beliefs. Non-Muslims were allowed to engage in certain practices (such as the consumption of alcohol and pork) that were usually forbidden by Islamic law, in point of fact, any Muslim who pours away their wine or forcibly appropriates it is liable to pay compensation. Some Islamic theologians held that Zoroastrian "self-marriages", considered incestuous under sharia, should also be tolerated. Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) opined that most scholars of the Hanbali school held that non-Muslims were entitled to such practices, as long as they were not presented to sharia courts and the religious minorities in question held them to be permissible. This ruling was based on the precedent that there were no records of the Islamic prophet Muhammad forbidding such self-marriages among Zoroastrians, despite coming into contact with Zoroastrians and knowing about this practice. Religious minorities were also free to do as they wished in their own homes, provided they did not publicly engage in illicit sexual activity in ways that could threaten public morals. There are parallels for this in Roman and Jewish law. According to law professor H. Patrick Glenn of McGill University, "[t]oday it is said that the dhimmi are 'excluded from the specifically Muslim privileges, but on the other hand they are excluded from the specifically Muslim duties' while (and here there are clear parallels with western public and private law treatment of aliens—Fremdenrecht, la condition de estrangers), '[f]or the rest, the Muslim and the dhimmi are equal in practically the whole of the law of property and of contracts and obligations'." Quoting the Qur'anic statement, "Let Christians judge according to what We have revealed in the Gospel", Muhammad Hamidullah writes that Islam decentralized and "communalized" law and justice. However, the classical dhimma contract is no longer enforced. Western influence over the Muslim world has been instrumental in eliminating the restrictions and protections of the dhimma contract. ===The Dhimma contract and Sharia law=== The dhimma contract is an integral part of traditional Islamic law. From the 9th century AD, the power to interpret and refine law in traditional Islamic societies was in the hands of the scholars (ulama). This separation of powers served to limit the range of actions available to the ruler, who could not easily decree or reinterpret law independently and expect the continued support of the community. Through succeeding centuries and empires, the balance between the ulema and the rulers shifted and reformed, but the balance of power was never decisively changed. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution introduced an era of European world hegemony that included the domination of most of the Muslim lands. At the end of the Second World War, the European powers found themselves too weakened to maintain their empires. The wide variety in forms of government, systems of law, attitudes toward modernity and interpretations of sharia are a result of the ensuing drives for independence and modernity in the Muslim world. Muslim states, sects, schools of thought and individuals differ as to exactly what sharia law entails. In addition, Muslim states today utilize a spectrum of legal systems. Most states have a mixed system that implements certain aspects of sharia while acknowledging the supremacy of a constitution. A few, such as Turkey, have declared themselves secular. Local and customary laws may take precedence in certain matters, as well. Islamic law is therefore polynormative, and despite several cases of regression in recent years, the trend is towards liberalization. Questions of human rights and the status of minorities cannot be generalized with regards to the Muslim world. They must instead be examined on a case-by-case basis, within specific political and cultural contexts, using perspectives drawn from the historical framework. ===The end of the Dhimma contract=== The status of the dhimmi "was for long accepted with resignation by the Christians and with gratitude by the Jews" but the rising power of Christendom and the radical ideas of the French Revolution caused a wave of discontent among Christian dhimmis. The continuing and growing pressure from the European powers combined with pressure from Muslim reformers gradually relaxed the inequalities between Muslims and non-Muslims. On 18 February 1856, the Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856 () was issued, building upon the 1839 edict. It came about partly as a result of pressure from and the efforts of the ambassadors of France, Austria and the United Kingdom, whose respective countries were needed as allies in the Crimean War. It again proclaimed the principle of equality between Muslims and non-Muslims, and produced many specific reforms to this end. For example, the jizya tax was abolished and non-Muslims were allowed to join the army. According to some scholars, discrimination against dhimmis did not end with the Edict of 1856, and they remained second-class citizens at least until the end of World War I. H.E.W. Young, the British Council in Mosul, wrote in 1909, "The attitude of the Muslims toward the Christians and the Jews is that of a master towards slaves, whom he treats with a certain lordly tolerance so long as they keep their place. Any sign of pretension to equality is promptly repressed." ===Views of modern Islamic scholars on the status of non-Muslims in an Islamic society=== The Iranian Shi'a Muslim Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini indicates in his book Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist that non-Muslims should be required to pay the poll tax, in return for which they would profit from the protection and services of the state; they would, however, be excluded from all participation in the political process. Bernard Lewis remarks about Khomeini that one of his main grievances against the Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, was that his legislation allowed the theoretical possibility of non-Muslims exercising political or judicial authority over Muslims. The Egyptian theologian Yusuf al-Qaradawi, chairman of the International Union of Muslim Scholars, has stated in his Al Jazeera program Sharia and Life, which has an estimated audience of 35 to 60 million viewers: "When we say dhimmis (ahl al-dhimma) it means that [...] they are under the covenant of God and His Messenger and the Muslim community and their responsibility (ḍamān), and it is everyone's duty to protect them, and this is what is intended by the word. At present many of our brethren are offended by the word dhimmis, and I have stated in what I wrote in my books that I don't see anything to prevent contemporary Islamic ijtihad from discarding this word dhimmis and calling them non-Muslim citizens." Another Egyptian Islamist, Mohammad Salim al-Awa argued the concept of dhimmi must be re-interpreted in the context of Egyptian nationalism. Al-Awa and other Muslim scholars based this on the idea that while the previous dhimma condition result from the Islamic conquest, the modern Egyptian state results from a joint Muslim-Christian campaign to end the British occupation of Egypt. In modern-day Egypt, he argues, the constitution replaces the dhimma contract. Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i, a 20th-century Shia scholar writes that dhimmis should be treated "in a good and decent manner". He addresses the argument that good treatment of dhimmis was abrogated by Quranic verse 9:29 by stating that, in the literal sense, this verse is not in conflict with good treatment of dhimmis. Javed Ahmad Ghamidi, a Pakistani theologian, writes in Mizan that certain directives of the Quran were specific only to Muhammad against peoples of his times, besides other directives, the campaign involved asking the polytheists of Arabia for submission to Islam as a condition for exoneration and the others for jizya and submission to the political authority of the Muslims for exemption from capital punishment and for military protection as the dhimmis of the Muslims. Therefore, after Muhammad and his companions, there is no concept in Islam obliging Muslims to wage war for propagation or implementation of Islam. The Iranian Shia jurist Grand Ayatollah Naser Makarem Shirazi states in Selection of the Tafsir Nemooneh that the main philosophy of jizya is that it is only a financial aid to those Muslims who are in the charge of safeguarding the security of the state and dhimmis' lives and properties on their behalf. Prominent Islamic thinkers like Fahmi Huwaidi and Tarek El-Bishry have based their justification for full citizenship of non-Muslims in an Islamic states on the precedent set by Muhammad in the Constitution of Medina. They argue that in this charter the People of Book, have the status of citizens (muwatinun) rather than dhimmis, sharing equal rights and duties with Muslims. Legal scholar L. Ali Khan also points to the Constitution of Medina as a way forward for Islamic states in his 2006 paper titled The Medina Constitution. He suggests this ancient document, which governed the status of religions and races in the first Islamic state, in which Jewish tribes are "placed on an equal footing with [...] Muslims" and granted "the freedom of religion," can serve as a basis for the protection of minority rights, equality, and religious freedom in the modern Islamic state. Tariq Ramadan, Professor of Islamic Studies at the University of Oxford, advocates the inclusion of academic disciplines and Islamic society, along with traditional Islamic scholars, in an effort to reform Islamic law and address modern conditions. He speaks of remaining faithful to the higher objectives of sharia law. He posits universal rights of dignity, welfare, freedom, equality and justice in a religiously and culturally pluralistic Islamic (or other) society, and proposes a dialogue regarding the modern term "citizenship," although it has no clear precedent in classical fiqh. He further includes the terms "non-citizen", "foreigner", "resident" and "immigrant" in this dialogue, and challenges not only Islam, but modern civilization as a whole, to come to terms with these concepts in a meaningful way with regards to problems of racism, discrimination and oppression. ==Dhimmi communities== Jews and Christians living under early Muslim rule were considered dhimmis, a status that was later also extended to other non-Muslims like Hindus and Buddhists. They were allowed to "freely practice their religion, and to enjoy a large measure of communal autonomy" and guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, in return for paying tribute and acknowledging Muslim rule. Islamic law and custom prohibited the enslavement of free dhimmis within lands under Islamic rule. Taxation from the perspective of dhimmis who came under the Muslim rule, was "a concrete continuation of the taxes paid to earlier regimes" (but much lower under the Muslim rule The dhimmi communities had their own leaders, courts, personal and religious laws, and "generally speaking, Muslim tolerance of unbelievers was far better than anything available in Christendom, until the rise of secularism in the 17th century". "Muslims guaranteed freedom of worship and livelihood, provided that they remained loyal to the Muslim state and paid a poll tax". and a pattern of stricter, then more lax, enforcement developed over time. Marshall Hodgson, a historian of Islam, writes that during the era of the High Caliphate (7th–13th Centuries), zealous Shariah-minded Muslims gladly elaborated their code of symbolic restrictions on the dhimmis. From an Islamic legal perspective, the pledge of protection granted dhimmis the freedom to practice their religion and spared them forced conversions. The dhimmis also served a variety of useful purposes, mostly economic, which was another point of concern to jurists. Religious minorities were free to do whatever they wished in their own homes, but could not "publicly engage in illicit sex in ways that threaten public morals". In some cases, religious practices that Muslims found repugnant were allowed. One example was the Zoroastrian practice of incestuous "self-marriage" where a man could marry his mother, sister or daughter. According to the medieval Islamic legal scholar Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, non-Muslims had the right to engage in such religious practices even if it offended Muslims, under the conditions that such cases not be presented to Islamic Sharia courts and that these religious minorities believed that the practice in question is permissible according to their religion. This ruling was based on the precedent that Muhammad did not forbid such self-marriages among Zoroastrians despite coming in contact with them and having knowledge of their practices. The Arabs generally established garrisons outside towns in the conquered territories, and had little interaction with the local dhimmi populations for purposes other than the collection of taxes. The conquered Christian, Jewish, Mazdean and Buddhist communities were otherwise left to lead their lives as before. ===Christians=== According to historians Lewis and Stillman, local Christians in Syria, Iraq, and Egypt were non-Chalcedonians and many may have felt better off under early Muslim rule than under that of the Byzantine Orthodox of Constantinople. In 1095, Pope Urban II urged western European Christians to come to the aid of the Christians of Palestine. The subsequent Crusades brought Roman Catholic Christians into contact with Orthodox Christians whose beliefs they discovered to differ from their own perhaps more than they had realized, and whose position under the rule of the Muslim Fatimid Caliphate was less uncomfortable than had been supposed. Consequently, the Eastern Christians provided perhaps less support to the Crusaders than had been expected. When the Arab East came under Ottoman rule in the 16th century, Christian populations and fortunes rebounded significantly. The Ottomans had long experience dealing with Christian and Jewish minorities, and were more tolerant towards religious minorities than the former Muslim rulers, the Mamluks of Egypt. However, Christians living under Islamic rule have suffered certain legal disadvantages and at times persecution. In the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the dhimmi system implemented in Muslim countries, they, like all other Christians and also Jews, were accorded certain freedoms. The dhimmi system in the Ottoman Empire was largely based upon the Pact of Umar. The client status established the rights of the non-Muslims to property, livelihood and freedom of worship but they were in essence treated as second-class citizens in the empire and referred to in Turkish as gavours, a pejorative word meaning "infidel" or "unbeliever". The clause of the Pact of Umar which prohibited non-Muslims from building new places of worship was historically imposed on some communities of the Ottoman Empire and ignored in other cases, at discretion of the local authorities. Although there were no laws mandating religious ghettos, this led to non-Muslim communities being clustered around existing houses of worship. In addition to other legal limitations, dhimmis, including the Christians among them, were not considered equals to Muslims and several prohibitions were placed on them. Their testimony against Muslims was inadmissible in courts of law wherein a Muslim could be punished; this meant that their testimony could only be considered in commercial cases. They were forbidden to carry weapons or ride atop horses and camels. Their houses could not overlook those of Muslims; and their religious practices were severely circumscribed (e.g., the ringing of church bells was strictly forbidden). ===Jews=== Because the early Islamic conquests initially preserved much of the existing administrative machinery and culture, in many territories they amounted to little more than a change of rulers for the subject populations, which "brought peace to peoples demoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the years of Byzantine-Persian warfare". María Rosa Menocal, argues that the Jewish dhimmis living under the caliphate, while allowed fewer rights than Muslims, were still better off than in the Christian parts of Europe. Jews from other parts of Europe made their way to al-Andalus, where in parallel to Christian sects regarded as heretical by Catholic Europe, they were not just tolerated, but where opportunities to practice faith and trade were open without restriction save for the prohibitions on proselytization. Bernard Lewis states: Professor of Jewish medieval history at Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Hayim Hillel Ben-Sasson, notes: According to the French historian Claude Cahen, Islam has "shown more toleration than Europe towards the Jews who remained in Muslim lands." Comparing the treatment of Jews in the medieval Islamic world and medieval Christian Europe, Mark R. Cohen notes that, in contrast to Jews in Christian Europe, the "Jews in Islam were well integrated into the economic life of the larger society", and that they were allowed to practice their religion more freely than they could do in Christian Europe. ===Hindus and Buddhists=== By the 10th century, the Turks of Central Asia had invaded the Indic plains, and spread Islam in Northwestern parts of India. At the end of the 12th century, the Muslims advanced quickly into the Ganges Plain. In one decade, a Muslim army led by Turkic slaves consolidated resistance around Lahore and brought northern India, as far as Bengal, under Muslim rule. From these Turkic slaves would come sultans, including the founder of the sultanate of Delhi. By the 15th century, major parts of Northern India was ruled by Muslim rulers, mostly descended from invaders. In the 16th century, India came under the influence of the Mughals. Babur, the first ruler of the Mughal empire, established a foothold in the north which paved the way for further expansion by his successors. Although the Mughal emperor Akbar has been described as a universalist, most Mughal emperors were oppressive of native Hindu, Buddhist and later Sikh populations. Aurangzeb specifically was inclined towards a highly fundamentalist approach. ==Restrictions== There were a number of restrictions on dhimmis. In a modern sense the dhimmis would be described as second-class citizens. According to historian Marshall Hodgson, from very early times Muslim rulers would very often humiliate and punish dhimmis (usually Christians or Jews that refused to convert to Islam). It was official policy that dhimmis should “feel inferior and to know ‘their place". Although dhimmis were allowed to perform their religious rituals, they were obliged to do so in a manner not conspicuous to Muslims. Loud prayers were forbidden, as were the ringing of church bells and the blowing of the shofar. They were also not allowed to build or repair churches and synagogues without Muslim consent. In the Mamluk Egypt, where non-Mamluk Muslims were not allowed to ride horses and camels, dhimmis were prohibited even from riding donkeys inside cities. Sometimes, Muslim rulers issued regulations requiring dhimmis to attach distinctive signs to their houses. Most of the restrictions were social and symbolic in nature, Ira M. Lapidus states that the "payment of the poll tax seems to have been regular, but other obligations were inconsistently enforced and did not prevent many non-Muslims from being important political, business, and scholarly figures. In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, Jewish bankers and financiers were important at the 'Abbasid court." The jurists and scholars of Islamic sharia law called for humane treatment of the dhimmis. A Muslim man may marry a Jewish or Christian dhimmī woman, who may keep her own religion (though her children were automatically considered Muslims and had to be raised as such), but a Muslim woman cannot marry a dhimmī man unless he converts to Islam. Dhimmīs are prohibited from converting Muslims under severe penalties, while Muslims are encouraged to convert dhimmīs. ===Jizya tax=== Payment of the jizya obligated Muslim authorities to protect dhimmis in civil and military matters. Sura 9 (At-Tawba), verse 29 stipulates that jizya be exacted from non-Muslims as a condition required for jihad to cease. Islamic jurists required adult, free, healthy males among the dhimma community to pay the jizya, while exempting women, children, the elderly, slaves, those affected by mental or physical handicaps, and travelers who did not settle in Muslim lands. According to Abu Yusuf dhimmi should be imprisoned until they pay the jizya in full. Other jurists specified that dhimmis who don't pay jizya should have their heads shaved and made to wear a dress distinctive from those dhimmis who paid the jizya and Muslims. Lewis states there are varying opinions among scholars as to how much of a burden jizya was. Both agree that ultimately, the additional taxation on non-Muslims was a critical factor that drove many dhimmis to leave their religion and accept Islam. However, in some regions the jizya on populations was significantly lower than the zakat, meaning dhimmi populations maintained an economic advantage. According to Cohen, taxation, from the perspective of dhimmis who came under Muslim rule, was "a concrete continuation of the taxes paid to earlier regimes". Montgomery Watt states, "the Christians were probably better off as dhimmis under Muslim-Arab rulers than they had been under the Byzantine Greeks." In some places, for example Egypt, the jizya was a tax incentive for Christians to convert to Islam. The importance of dhimmis as a source of revenue for the Rashidun Caliphate is illustrated in a letter ascribed to Umar I and cited by Abu Yusuf: "if we take dhimmis and share them out, what will be left for the Muslims who come after us? By God, Muslims would not find a man to talk to and profit from his labors." The early Islamic scholars took a relatively humane and practical attitude towards the collection of jizya, compared to the 11th century commentators writing when Islam was under threat both at home and abroad. The jurist Abu Yusuf, the chief judge of the caliph Harun al-Rashid, rules as follows regarding the manner of collecting the jizya ===Administration of law=== Religious pluralism existed in medieval Islamic law and ethics. The religious laws and courts of other religions, including Christianity, Judaism and Hinduism, were usually accommodated within the Islamic legal framework, as exemplified in the Caliphate, Al-Andalus, Ottoman Empire and Indian subcontinent. In medieval Islamic societies, the qadi (Islamic judge) usually could not interfere in the matters of non-Muslims unless the parties voluntarily chose to be judged according to Islamic law. The dhimmi communities living in Islamic states usually had their own laws independent from the Sharia law, such as the Jews who had their own Halakha courts. Dhimmis were allowed to operate their own courts following their own legal systems. However, dhimmis frequently attended the Muslim courts in order to record property and business transactions within their own communities. Cases were taken out against Muslims, against other dhimmis and even against members of the dhimmi's own family. Dhimmis often took cases relating to marriage, divorce or inheritance to the Muslim courts so these cases would be decided under sharia law. Oaths sworn by dhimmis in the Muslim courts were sometimes the same as the oaths taken by Muslims, sometimes tailored to the dhimmis' beliefs. Muslim men could generally marry dhimmi women who are considered People of the Book, however Islamic jurists rejected the possibility any non-Muslim man might marry a Muslim woman. Bernard Lewis notes that "similar position existed under the laws of Byzantine Empire, according to which a Christian could marry a Jewish woman, but a Jew could not marry a Christian woman under pain of death". The phrase "Unto you your religion, and unto me my religion.", from has been used as a "proof-text for pluralism and coexistence". is cited as a foundation for the right of non-Muslim citizens to live peacefully and undisturbed in an Islamic state. Anwar Shah Kashmiri writes in his commentary on Sahih al-Bukhari Fayd al-Bari on this hadith: "You know the gravity of sin for killing a Muslim, for its odiousness has reached the point of disbelief, and it necessitates that [the killer abides in Hell] forever. As for killing a non-Muslim citizen [], it is similarly no small matter, for the one who does it will not smell the fragrance of Paradise." ===Constitution of Medina=== The Constitution of Medina, a formal agreement between Muhammad and all the significant tribes and families of Medina (including Muslims, Jews and pagans), declared that non-Muslims in the Ummah had the following rights: The security (dhimma) of God is equal for all groups, Non-Muslim members have equal political and cultural rights as Muslims. They will have autonomy and freedom of religion. Non-Muslims will take up arms against the enemy of the Ummah and share the cost of war. There is to be no treachery between the two. Non-Muslims will not be obliged to take part in religious wars of the Muslims. ===Khaybar agreement=== A precedent for the dhimma contract was established with the agreement between Muhammad and the Jews after the Battle of Khaybar, an oasis near Medina. Khaybar was the first territory attacked and conquered by Muslims. When the Jews of Khaybar surrendered to Muhammad after a siege, Muhammad allowed them to remain in Khaybar in return for handing over to the Muslims one half their annual produce. ===Pact of Umar=== The Pact of Umar, traditionally believed to be between caliph Umar and the conquered Jerusalem Christians in the seventh century, was another source of regulations pertaining to dhimmis. However, Western orientalists doubt the authenticity of the pact, arguing it is usually the victors and not the vanquished who impose rather than propose, the terms of peace, and that it is highly unlikely that the people who spoke no Arabic and knew nothing of Islam could draft such a document. Academic historians believe the Pact of Umar in the form it is known today was a product of later jurists who attributed it to Umar in order to lend greater authority to their own opinions. The similarities between the Pact of Umar and the Theodosian and Justinian Codes of the Eastern Roman Empire suggest that perhaps much of the Pact of Umar was borrowed from these earlier codes by later Islamic jurists. At least some of the clauses of the pact mirror the measures first introduced by the Umayyad caliph Umar II or by the early Abbasid caliphs. ==Cultural interactions and cultural differences== During the Middle Ages, local associations known as futuwwa clubs developed across the Islamic lands. There were usually several futuwwah in each town. These clubs catered to varying interests, primarily sports, and might involve distinctive manners of dress and custom. They were known for their hospitality, idealism and loyalty to the group. They often had a militaristic aspect, purportedly for the mutual protection of the membership. These clubs commonly crossed social strata, including among their membership local notables, dhimmi and slaves – to the exclusion of those associated with the local ruler, or amir. Muslims and Jews were sometimes partners in trade, with the Muslim taking days off on Fridays and Jews taking off on Saturdays. Andrew Wheatcroft describes how some social customs such as different conceptions of dirt and cleanliness made it difficult for the religious communities to live close to each other, either under Muslim or under Christian rule. == In modern times == The dhimma and the jizya poll tax are no longer imposed in Muslim majority countries. In the 21st century, jizya is widely regarded as being at odds with contemporary secular conceptions of citizens' civil rights and equality before the law, although there have been occasional reports of religious minorities in conflict zones and areas subject to political instability being forced to pay jizya. In 2009 it was claimed that a group of militants that referred to themselves as the Taliban imposed the jizya on Pakistan's minority Sikh community after occupying some of their homes and kidnapping a Sikh leader. In 2013, the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt occupied the town of Dalga immediately following the overthrow of Mohammed Morsi on 3 July, and reportedly imposed jizya on the 15,000 Christian Copts living there. However, in autumn of that same year Egyptian authorities were able to retake control of the town following two prior failed attempts. In February 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) announced that it intended to extract jizya from Christians in the city of Raqqa, Syria, which it controlled at the time. Christians who refused to accept the dhimma contract and pay the tax were to have to either convert to Islam, leave or be executed. Wealthy Christians would have to pay half an ounce of gold, the equivalent of $664 twice a year; middle-class Christians were to have to pay half that amount and poorer ones were to be charged one-fourth that amount. In June 2014 the Institute for the Study of War reported that ISIL claims to have collected jizya and fay. On 18 July 2014 ISIL ordered the Christians in Mosul to accept the dhimma contract and pay the jizya or convert to Islam. If they refused to accept either of the options they would be killed.	[ "Religious pluralism", "Western culture", "Catholic Church", "W. P. Heinrichs", "Ira M. Lapidus", "Hijri year", "Abbasid Caliphate", "Al-Mutawakkil", "Corpus Juris Civilis", "Companions of the Prophet", "Umayyad Caliphate", "Palestine (region)", "Francis Robinson", "Madhhab", "University of Chicago Press", "Islam", "Mecca", "HarperOne", "International Journal of Middle East Studies", "Ottoman Empire", "Mohammad Salim al-Awa", "Maccabees", "Naser Makarem Shirazi", "P. J. Bearman", "Rashidun Caliphate", "jizya", "Xwedodah", "zakat", "Paganism", "Mark R. Cohen", "Kurdistan", "orientalism", "Joseph Schacht", "Mughal Empire", "Hejaz", "2013 Egyptian coup d'état", "H. Patrick Glenn", "Encyclopedia of Islam", "forced conversion", "Muhammad bin Qasim", "University of Chicago", "Mosul", "Millet (Ottoman Empire)", "At-Tawba", "Hanbali", "Muslim Brotherhood", "tax incentive", "Khaybar", "HarperCollins", "Tarek El-Bishry", "Al-Andalus", "infidel", "Brill Publishers", "Sabians", "The Washington Times", "Beit din", "Industrial Revolution", "Hayim Hillel Ben-Sasson", "Egyptian nationalism", "ulama", "Battle of Khaybar", "The Venture of Islam", "French Revolution", "Pact of Umar", "Ummah", "At-Tawba 29", "Kafir", "Monotheism", "sharia", "Bengal", "Dalga", "futuwwa", "Mamluk", "John V. Tolan", "Christians", "religious law", "Norman Stillman", "Halakha", "Hinduism", "Pope Urban II", "capital punishment", "Ruhollah Khomeini", "Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam", "Islamic state", "A&C Black", "Encyclopaedia of Islam", "Al-Baqara 256", "Oxford University Press", "Medina", "Turkic peoples", "Cultural pluralism", "Zoroastrianism", "fiqh", "Richard Bonney", "Damascus", "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "McGill University", "Taliban", "People of the Book", "Palgrave Macmillan", "al-Andalus", "William Montgomery Watt", "Delhi Sultanate", "Abbasid caliph", "Constitution of Medina", "Central Asia", "Austrian Empire", "Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856", "Umar", "Egypt", "synod", "Sahih al-Bukhari", "Persecution of Christians", "Google Books", "Routledge", "Second French Empire", "Tariq Ramadan", "Claude Cahen", "Akbar", "tribal chief", "International Union of Muslim Scholars", "Hebrew University of Jerusalem", "Shelomo Dov Goitein", "First Crusade", "Caliphate", "2 Maccabees", "Jewish tribes of Arabia", "Infobase Publishing", "Byzantine Empire", "Bernard Lewis", "ijtihad", "Fahmi Huwaidi", "Fiqh", "Jews", "Shafi'i", "Christianity", "Constantinople", "kharaj", "Al Jazeera Media Network", "Quran", "unbeliever", "qadi", "Indic plains", "University of Oxford", "Abu Yusuf", "Institute for the Study of War", "Nuh Ha Mim Keller", "Crusades", "Clifford Edmund Bosworth", "Abrahamic religions", "Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent", "Non-Chalcedonianism", "Babur", "Tafsir Nemooneh", "Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i", "Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist", "Javed Ahmad Ghamidi", "Yusuf al-Qaradawi", "Roman law", "beit din", "Cambridge University Press", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Maliki", "Giaour", "World War II", "Mohammad Reza Pahlavi", "Maribel Fierro", "Hanafi", "Islamic eschatology", "Egypt in the Middle Ages", "Muhammad", "The Jews of Islam", "Islamic dietary laws", "Al-Mawrid Institute", "Umar II", "Hellenization", "Ibrahim Oweiss", "Eric Silverman", "Javed Ahmed Ghamidi", "Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya", "Sabianism", "Lahore", "Copts", "Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya", "Jainism", "Fatimid Caliphate", "Harun al-Rashid", "History of Egypt under the British", "Theodosian dynasty", "Raqqa", "incest", "shofar", "Islamic ethics", "Sikhism", "Judaism", "Sharia", "Polytheism", "Crimean War", "United States dollar", "Marshall Hodgson", "caliphate", "Mizan", "Sikhs in Pakistan", "Greek Orthodox Church", "Muslim conquest of Egypt", "Schools of Islamic theology", "Muhammad Hamidullah", "Aurangzeb", "María Rosa Menocal", "Buddhism", "Mordechai Zaken", "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant", "Emir", "Torah", "Islamic prophet", "second-class citizen", "Minhaj-ul-Quran UK", "The University of Chicago", "Islamic Golden Age", "al-Mutawakkil", "Ottoman law", "Arabian Peninsula", "Shia Islam", "Middle Ages", "Tax per head", "Pakistan", "Princeton University Press" ]
9,091	Doctor V64	The Doctor V64 (also referred to simply as the V64) is a development and backup device made by Bung Enterprises Ltd that is used in conjunction with the Nintendo 64. The Doctor V64 also had the ability to play video CDs and audio CDs. Additionally, it could apply stereo 3D effects to the audio. == History == The V64 was released in 1996 and was priced around US$450. It was one of the first commercially available backup devices for the Nintendo 64, appearing not long after the console's international release. The Partner N64 development kit, which was manufactured by Silicon Graphics and sold officially by Nintendo, was a comparatively expensive development machine. The V64 served as a lower-cost development machine, though its unofficial status would later lead to conflict with Nintendo. Some third-party developers used a number of V64s in their development process, with games such as Turok: Dinosaur Hunter utilizing the device during development. === Specifications === The CPU of the V64 is a 6502, and the operating system is contained in a BIOS. The V64 unit contains a CD-ROM drive which sits underneath the Nintendo 64 and plugs into the expansion slot on the underside of the Nintendo 64. The expansion slot is essentially a mirror image of the cartridge slot on the top of the unit, with the same electrical connections; thus, the Nintendo 64 reads data from the Doctor V64 in the same manner as it would from a cartridge plugged into the normal slot. == Usage == === Game booting === In order to get around Nintendo's lockout chip, when using the V64, a game cartridge is plugged into the Nintendo 64 through an adapter which connects only the lockout chip. The game cart used for the operation had to contain the same lockout chip used by the game back up. === Saving game progress === The second problem concerned saving progress. Most N64 games are saved to the cart itself instead of external memory cards. If the player wanted to keep their progress, then the cartridge used had to have the same type of non-volatile memory hardware. Alternatively, Bung produced the "DX256" and "DS1" add-ons to allow (EEPROM and SRAM respectively) saves to be made without using the inserted cartridge. These devices were inserted into the top-slot of the N64 with the game cartridge being then inserted into the top of them to just provide the security bypass. Save slots on the DX256 were selected using an alpha and numeric encoder knobs on the front of the device. === Uploading game images === The Doctor V64 could be used to read the data from a game cartridge and transfer the data to a PC via the parallel port. This allowed developers and homebrew programmers to upload their game images to the Doctor V64 without having to create a CD backup each time. It also allowed users to upload game images taken from the Internet. == Doctor V64 Jr. == Following the Doctor V64's success, Bung released the Doctor V64 Jr. in December 1998. This was a condensed, cost-efficient version of the original V64. The Doctor V64 Jr. has no CD drive and plugs into the normal cartridge slot on the top of the Nintendo 64. Data is loaded into the Doctor V64 Jr.'s battery-backed RAM from a PC via a parallel port connection. The Doctor V64 Jr. has up to 512 megabits (64 MB) of memory storage. This was done to provide for future Nintendo 64 carts that employed larger memory storage, but the high costs associated with ordering large storage carts kept this occurrence at a minimum. Only a handful of 512-megabit games were released for the Nintendo 64 system. == Promotions == In 1998 and 1999, there was a homebrew competition known as "Presence of Mind" (POM), an N64 demo competition led by dextrose.com. The contest consisted of submitting a user-developed N64 program, game, or utility. Bung Enterprises promoted the event and supplied prizes (usually Doctor V64 related accessories). Though a contest was planned for 2000, the interest in the N64 was already fading, and so did the event. POM contest demo entries can still be found on the Internet. == Legal issues == === Role in piracy === The Doctor V64 unit was the first commercially available backup device for the Nintendo 64 unit. Though the unit was sold as a development machine, it could be modified to enable the creation and use of commercial game backups. Unlike official development units, the purchase of V64s was not restricted to software companies only. For this reason, the unit became a popular choice among those looking to proliferate unlicensed copies of games. Original Doctor V64 units sold by Bung did not allow the playing of backups. A person would have to modify the unit by themselves in order to make it backup friendly. This usually required a user to download and install a modified Doctor V64 BIOS. Additionally, the cartridge adapter had to be opened and soldered in order to allow for the operational procedure. Though Bung never sold backup enabled V64s, many re-sellers would modify the units themselves. === Conflicts with Nintendo === During the N64's lifetime, Nintendo revised the N64's model, making the serial port area smaller. This slight change in the N64's plastic casing made the connection to the Doctor V64 difficult to achieve without user modification. This revision may have been a direct reaction from Nintendo to discourage the use of V64 devices, and may also explain why Bung decided to discontinue the use of this port in the later Doctor V64 Jr. models. Nintendo made many legal efforts worldwide in order to stop the sale of Doctor V64 units. == Main menu == The Doctor V64 implemented text-based menu-driven screens. The menus consisted of white text superimposed over a black background. Utilizing the buttons on the V64 unit, a user would navigate the menus and issue commands. Though the menu was mainly designed for game developers, it is possible to back up cartridges with it (through the use of an unofficial V64 BIOS). Some of the menu items related to game backups were removed from the V64's BIOS near the end of its life due to pressure from Nintendo. These items are only available by obtaining a patched V64 BIOS. == Detailed specifications == === CD-ROM access speed === Most early V64 models shipped with a standard IDE 8X CD-ROM . During the manufacturing lifetime of the device, latter V64 models shipped with 16X and eventually 20X drives. V64 units could be purchased without a CD-ROM drive. It is possible to replace the unit with a faster IDE CD-ROM unit (such as the 52X model in the image on this page). Many Doctor V64s shipped internationally were ordered without an installed CD-ROM drive, to save on shipping costs associated with weight, to avoid import duty on the drive, and to allow users to customize the units in response to the ever-increasing speeds of drives available. The variance in the power draw of different manufacturers drives at different speeds caused issues with disc spin-ups exceeding the wattage rating of the included Bung PSU. This led to users swapping out the Bung PSU for a more powerful model, or selecting low draw drives (mainly Panasonic drives sometimes badged as Creative). === CD-Media === V64s can read CD-Rs and CD-RWs (provided the installed CD-ROM unit supports rewritable media). Supported media has to be recorded in Mode 1, ISO 9660 format. Doctor V64s only support the 8.3 DOS naming convention. As such, Joliet file system is not supported. === RAM === Depending on the model, V64s came with either 128 megabits (16 MB) or 256 megabits (32 MB) of RAM. Original V64 units shipped with 128 megabits of RAM. V64 units started shipping with 256 megabits when developers started using bigger sized memory carts for their games. Users had the option of buying a memory upgrade from Bung and other re-sellers. === Power supply === The Doctor V64 uses a 4 Pin MiniDIN jack (as used for S-Video) for connecting the power supply cord. Power supplies included with Doctor V64s were very unreliable. Bung replaced the power supply with a sturdier version in later V64 units. Replacing broken power supplies became one of the most common maintenance problems with the V64. It is possible to modify an AT PC power supply for V64 use. Only 4 cables have to be connected to the V64 for it to function. == Additional information == The ROM extensions ".v64" and ".z64" started out as the preferred naming conventions by Doctor V64 and Z64 users, respectively. It would also imply the file's "endianness" as those units employed little endian (V64) and big endian (Z64) byte alignment. ".n64" was used as well but not as much (it became more popular as N64 emulators began to appear). The terms ".v64" and ".z64" are still widely used today by the emulation community. Acclaim Entertainment subsidiary Iguana Entertainment used Doctor V64 units as their development hardware of choice during the N64 era. They were best known for developing the Turok, NBA Jam, NFL Quarterback Club, and South Park video games.	[ "game backup device", "Iguana Entertainment", "BIOS", "Nintendo", "Nintendo 64", "8.3 filename", "parallel port", "Silicon Graphics", "MOS Technology 6502", "video CD", "Wired (website)", "Turok: Dinosaur Hunter", "S-Video", "NBA Jam", "10NES", "AT form factor", "Game development kit", "Acclaim Entertainment", "Joliet (file system)", "South Park (video game)", "Bung Enterprises Ltd", "Central processing unit", "MiniDIN", "endianness", "Parallel ATA", "ISO 9660", "NFL Quarterback Club '98" ]
9,093	De Havilland Mosquito	The de Havilland DH.98 Mosquito is a British twin-engined, multirole combat aircraft, introduced during the Second World War. Unusual in that its airframe was constructed mostly of wood, it was nicknamed the "Wooden Wonder", or "Mossie". In 1941, it was one of the fastest operational aircraft in the world. Originally conceived as an unarmed fast bomber, the Mosquito's use evolved during the war into many roles, including low- to medium-altitude daytime tactical bomber, high-altitude night bomber, pathfinder, day or night fighter, fighter-bomber, intruder, maritime strike, and photo-reconnaissance aircraft. It was also used by the British Overseas Airways Corporation as a fast transport to carry small, high-value cargo to and from neutral countries through enemy-controlled airspace. The crew of two, pilot and navigator, sat side by side. A single passenger could ride in the aircraft's bomb bay when necessary. The Mosquito FB Mk. VI was often flown in special raids, such as Operation Jericho (an attack on Amiens Prison in early 1944), and precision attacks against military intelligence, security, and police facilities (such as Gestapo headquarters). On 30 January 1943, the 10th anniversary of Hitler being made chancellor and the Nazis gaining power, a morning Mosquito attack knocked out the main Berlin broadcasting station while Hermann Göring was speaking, taking his speech off the air. The Mosquito flew with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and other air forces in the European, Mediterranean, and Italian theatres. The Mosquito was also operated by the RAF in the Southeast Asian theatre and by the Royal Australian Air Force based in the Moluccas and Borneo during the Pacific War. During the 1950s, the RAF replaced the Mosquito with the jet-powered English Electric Canberra. ==Development== By the early to mid-1930s, de Havilland had built a reputation for innovative high-speed aircraft with the DH.88 Comet racer. Later, the DH.91 Albatross airliner pioneered the composite wood construction used for the Mosquito. The 22-passenger Albatross could cruise at at , faster than the Handley Page H.P.42 and other biplanes it was replacing. The wooden monocoque construction not only saved weight and compensated for the low power of the de Havilland Gipsy Twelve engines used by this aircraft, but also simplified production and reduced construction time. ===Air Ministry bomber requirements and concepts=== On 8 September 1936, the British Air Ministry issued Specification P.13/36, which called for a twin-engined medium bomber capable of carrying a bomb load of for with a maximum speed of at ; a maximum bomb load of carried over shorter ranges was also required. Aviation firms entered heavy designs with new high-powered engines and multiple defensive turrets, leading to the production of the Avro Manchester and Handley Page Halifax. In May 1937, as a comparison to P.13/36, George Volkert, the chief designer of Handley Page, put forward the concept of a fast, unarmed bomber. In 20 pages, Volkert planned an aerodynamically clean, medium bomber to carry of bombs at a cruising speed of . Support existed in the RAF and Air Ministry; Captain R. N. Liptrot, Research Director Aircraft 3, appraised Volkert's design, calculating that its top speed would exceed that of the new Supermarine Spitfire, but counter-arguments held that although such a design had merit, it would not necessarily be faster than enemy fighters for long. The ministry was also considering using non-strategic materials for aircraft production, which, in 1938, had led to specification B.9/38 and the Armstrong Whitworth Albemarle medium bomber, largely constructed from spruce and plywood attached to a steel-tube frame. The idea of a small, fast bomber gained support at a much earlier stage than is sometimes acknowledged, though the Air Ministry likely envisaged it using light alloy components. ===Inception of the de Havilland fast bomber=== Based on his experience with the Albatross, Geoffrey de Havilland believed that a bomber with a good aerodynamic design and smooth, minimal skin area, would exceed the P.13/36 specification. Furthermore, adapting the Albatross principles could save time. In April 1938, performance estimates were produced for a twin Rolls-Royce Merlin-powered DH.91, with the Bristol Hercules (radial engine) and Napier Sabre (H-engine) as alternatives.\|group=nb}} Although inferior in tension, the strength-to-weight ratio of wood is equal to or better than light alloys or steel, hence this approach was feasible. A follow-up letter to Freeman on 27 July said that the P.13/36 specification could not be met by a twin Merlin-powered aircraft and either the top speed or load capacity would be compromised, depending on which was paramount. For example, a larger, slower, turret-armed aircraft would have a range of carrying a 4,000 lb bomb load, with a maximum of at , and a cruising speed of at . De Havilland believed that a compromise, including eliminating surplus equipment, would improve matters. At a meeting in early October 1938 with Geoffrey de Havilland and Charles Walker (de Havilland's chief engineer), the Air Ministry showed little interest, and instead asked de Havilland to build wings for other bombers as a subcontractor. By September 1939, de Havilland had produced preliminary estimates for single- and twin-engined variations of light-bomber designs using different engines, speculating on the effects of defensive armament on their designs. One design, completed on 6 September, was for an aircraft powered by a single Napier Sabre, with a wingspan of and capable of carrying a bomb load . On 20 September, in another letter to Wilfrid Freeman, de Havilland wrote "...we believe that we could produce a twin-engine bomber which would have a performance so outstanding that little defensive equipment would be needed." For more versatility, Bishop made provision for four 20 mm cannon in the forward half of the bomb bay, under the cockpit, firing via blast tubes and troughs under the fuselage. The DH.98 was too radical for the ministry, which wanted a heavily armed, multirole aircraft, combining medium bomber, reconnaissance, and general-purpose roles, that was also capable of carrying torpedoes. and suggested the incorporation of two forward- and two rear-firing machine guns for defence. The ministry also opposed a two-man bomber, wanting at least a third crewman to reduce the work of the others on long flights. On 12 December, the Vice-Chief of the Air Staff, Director General of Research and Development, and the Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief (AOC-in-C) of RAF Bomber Command met to finalise the design and decide how to fit it into the RAF's aims. The AOC-in-C would not accept an unarmed bomber, but insisted on its suitability for reconnaissance missions with F8 or F24 cameras. After company representatives, the ministry, and the RAF's operational commands examined a full-scale mock-up at Hatfield on 29 December 1939, the project received backing. This was confirmed on 1 January 1940, when Freeman chaired a meeting with Geoffrey de Havilland, John Buchanan (Deputy of Aircraft Production), and John Connolly (Buchanan's chief of staff). De Havilland claimed the DH.98 was the "fastest bomber in the world ... it must be useful". Freeman supported it for RAF service, ordering a single prototype for an unarmed bomber to specification B.1/40/dh, which called for a light bomber/reconnaissance aircraft powered by two Rolls-Royce RM3SM (an early designation for the Merlin 21) with ducted radiators, capable of carrying a bomb load. In May 1940, specification F.21/40 was issued, calling for a long-range fighter armed with four 20 mm cannon and four .303 machine guns in the nose, after which de Havilland was authorised to build a prototype of a fighter version of the DH.98. After debate, it was decided that this prototype, given the military serial number W4052, was to carry aircraft interception (AI) Mk IV radar equipment as both a day fighter and night fighter. By June 1940, the DH.98 had been named "Mosquito". Work was cancelled again after the evacuation of the British Army from France, when Lord Beaverbrook, as Minister of Aircraft Production, concentrating production on aircraft types for the defence of the UK decided no production capacity remained for aircraft like the DH.98, which was not expected to be in service until early 1942. Beaverbrook told Air Vice-Marshal Freeman that work on the project should stop, but he did not issue a specific instruction, and Freeman ignored the request. In June 1940, however, Lord Beaverbrook and the Air Staff ordered that production should concentrate on five existing types, namely the Supermarine Spitfire, Hawker Hurricane fighter, Vickers Wellington, Armstrong-Whitworth Whitley, and Bristol Blenheim bombers. The Mosquito was only reinstated as a priority in July 1940, after de Havilland's general manager, L.C.L. Murray, promised Lord Beaverbrook 50 Mosquitoes by December 1941. This was only after Beaverbrook was satisfied that Mosquito production would not hinder de Havilland's primary work of producing Tiger Moth and Airspeed Oxford trainers, repairing Hurricanes, and manufacturing Merlin engines under licence. During the Battle of Britain, interruptions to production due to air raid warnings caused nearly a third of de Havilland's factory time to be lost. Nevertheless, work on the prototype went ahead quickly at Salisbury Hall since E-0234 was completed by November 1940. In the aftermath of the Battle of Britain, the original order was changed to 20 bomber variants and 30 fighters. Whether the fighter version should have dual or single controls, or should carry a turret, was still uncertain, so three prototypes were built: W4052, W4053, and W4073. The second and third, both turret armed, were later disarmed, to become the prototypes for the T.III trainer. This caused some delays, since half-built wing components had to be strengthened for the required higher combat loading. The nose sections also had to be changed from a design with a clear perspex bomb-aimer's position, to one with a solid nose housing four .303 machine guns and their ammunition. The aircraft reached , with the only problem being the undercarriage doors, which were operated by bungee cords attached to the main undercarriage legs, and remained open by some at that speed. On 5 December 1940, the prototype, with the military serial number W4050, experienced tail buffeting at speeds between . The pilot noticed this most in the control column, with handling becoming more difficult. During testing on 10 December, wool tufts were attached to suspect areas to investigate the direction of airflow. The conclusion was that the airflow separating from the rear section of the inner engine nacelles was disturbed, leading to a localised stall and the disturbed airflow was striking the tailplane, causing buffeting. To smooth the air flow and deflect it from forcefully striking the tailplane, nonretractable slots fitted to the inner engine nacelles and to the leading edge of the tailplane were tested. These slots and wing-root fairings fitted to the forward fuselage and leading edge of the radiator intakes stopped some of the vibration experienced, but did not cure the tailplane buffeting. In February 1941, buffeting was eliminated by incorporating triangular fillets on the trailing edge of the wings and lengthening the nacelles, the trailing edge of which curved up to fair into the fillet some behind the wing's trailing edge; this meant the flaps had to be divided into inboard and outboard sections.{{refn\|On W4050, the nacelle extensions were not as long as those fitted to production Mosquitoes; nacelles of the definitive shape and length were first fitted to the fighter prototype W4052. The extended nacelles and fillets were not fitted to the first nine PR Mk Is, some of which were converted to B Mk IV series 1 bombers. On 24 February, as W4050 taxied across the rough airfield, the tailwheel jammed leading to the fuselage fracturing. Repairs were made by early March, using part of the fuselage of the photo-reconnaissance prototype W4051. In spite of this setback, the Initial Handling Report 767 issued by the AAEE stated, "The aeroplane is pleasant to fly ... aileron control light and effective..." The maximum speed reached was at , with an estimated maximum ceiling of and a maximum rate of climb of at . In late October 1941, it returned to the factory to be fitted with Merlin 61s, the first production Merlins fitted with a two-speed, two-stage supercharger. The first flight with the new engines was on 20 June 1942. W4050 recorded a maximum speed of at (fitted with straight-through air intakes with snow guards, engines in full supercharger gear) and at without snow guards. In October 1942, in connection with development work on the NF Mk.XV, W4050 was fitted with extended wingtips, increasing the span to , first flying in this configuration on 8 December. Fitted with high-altitude-rated, two-stage, two-speed Merlin 77s, it reached in December 1943. W4051, which was designed from the outset to be the prototype for the photo-reconnaissance versions of the Mosquito, was slated to make its first flight in early 1941. However, the fuselage fracture in W4050 meant that W4051's fuselage was used as a replacement; W4051 was then rebuilt using a production standard fuselage and first flew on 10 June 1941. This prototype continued to use the short engine nacelles, single-piece trailing-edge flaps, and the "No. 1" tailplane used by W4050, but had production-standard wings and became the only Mosquito prototype to fly operationally. Construction of the fighter prototype, W4052, was also carried out at Salisbury Hall. It was powered by Merlin 21s, and had an altered canopy structure with a flat, bullet-proof windscreen; the solid nose had mounted four .303 British Browning machine guns and their ammunition boxes, accessible by a large, sideways hinged panel. Four 20-mm Hispano Mk.II cannon were housed in a compartment under the cockpit floor with the breeches projecting into the bomb bay and the automatic bomb bay doors were replaced by manually operated bay doors, which incorporated cartridge ejector chutes. As a day and night fighter, prototype W4052 was equipped with AI Mk IV equipment, complete with an "arrowhead" transmission aerial mounted between the central Brownings and receiving aerials through the outer wing tips, and it was painted in black RDM2a "Special Night" finish. It was also the first prototype constructed with the extended engine nacelles. W4052 was later tested with other modifications, including bomb racks, drop tanks, barrage balloon cable cutters in the leading edge of the wings, Hamilton airscrews and braking propellers, and drooping aileron systems that enabled steep approaches and a larger rudder tab. It continued to serve as a test machine until it was scrapped on 28 January 1946. On 20 April 1941, W4050 was demonstrated to Lord Beaverbrook, the Minister of Aircraft Production. The Mosquito made a series of flights, including one rolling climb on one engine. Also present were US General Henry H. Arnold and his aide Major Elwood Quesada, who wrote "I ... recall the first time I saw the Mosquito as being impressed by its performance, which we were aware of. We were impressed by the appearance of the airplane that looks fast usually is fast, and the Mosquito was, by the standards of the time, an extremely well-streamlined airplane, and it was highly regarded, highly respected." The trials set up future production plans between Britain, Australia, and Canada. Six days later, Arnold returned to America with a full set of manufacturer's drawings. As a result of his report, five companies (Beech, Curtiss-Wright, Fairchild, Fleetwings, and Hughes) were asked to evaluate the de Havilland data. The report by Beech Aircraft summed up the general view: "It appears as though this airplane has sacrificed serviceability, structural strength, ease of construction and flying characteristics in an attempt to use construction material which is not suitable for the manufacture of efficient airplanes." The Americans did not pursue the proposal for licensed production, the consensus arguing that the Lockheed P-38 Lightning could fulfill the same duties. However, Arnold urged the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) to evaluate the design even if they would not adopt it. On 12 December 1941, after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the USAAF requested one airframe for this purpose. ==Design and manufacture== ===Overview=== While timber construction for aircraft was considered outmoded by some, de Havilland claimed that their successes with techniques used for the DH 91 Albatross could lead to a fast, light bomber using monocoque-sandwich shell construction. Arguments in favour of this included speed of prototyping, rapid development, minimisation of jig-building time, and employment of a separate category of workforce; many production facilities and skilled carpenters that previously manufactured furniture were repurposed to create components for the Mosquito, leveraging an existing workforce whose expertise was generally not being utilised during the war effort. The ply-balsa-ply monocoque fuselage and one-piece wings with doped fabric covering would give excellent aerodynamic performance and low weight, combined with strength and stiffness. At the same time, the design team had to fight conservative Air Ministry views on defensive armament. Guns and gun turrets, favoured by the ministry, would impair the aircraft's aerodynamic properties and reduce speed and manoeuvrability, in the opinion of the designers. Whilst submitting these arguments, Geoffrey de Havilland funded his private venture until a very late stage. The project was a success beyond all expectations. As a multi-role warplane, the Mosquito came in multiple versions: photo-reconnaissance (PR), bomber (B), fighter (F), night fighter (NF), fighter-bomber (FB), torpedo bomber (TR) with fold-up wings to fit more on a carrier, and trainer (T), each with varying modifications and weapon loadouts. Typical gun armament was four .303 caliber Browning machine guns and four 20 mm Hispano autocannons. Bomb load could be up to 4,000 lb (1,800 kg), allowing the Mosquito to carry a single "Cookie" blockbuster bomb, or a number of smaller ones. The most-produced variant, designated the FB Mk. VI (Fighter-bomber Mark 6), was powered by two Merlin Mk.23 or Mk.25 engines driving three-bladed de Havilland hydromatic propellers. The typical fixed armament for an FB Mk. VI was four Browning .303 machine guns and four 20-mm Hispano cannons, while the offensive load consisted of up to of bombs, or eight RP-3 unguided rockets. ===Performance=== The design was noted for light and effective control surfaces that provided good manoeuvrability, but required that the rudder not be used aggressively at high speeds. Poor aileron control at low speeds when landing and taking off was also a problem for inexperienced crews. For flying at low speeds, the flaps had to be set at 15°, speed reduced to , and rpm set to 2,650. The speed could be reduced to an acceptable for low-speed flying. Early on in the Mosquito's operational life, the intake shrouds that were to cool the exhausts on production aircraft overheated. Flame dampers prevented exhaust glow on night operations, but they had an effect on performance. Multiple ejector and open-ended exhaust stubs helped solve the problem and were used in the PR.VIII, B.IX, and B.XVI variants. This increased speed performance in the B.IX alone by . In many generally smaller but vital areas, such as around apertures and attachment zones, stronger timbers, including aircraft-quality spruce, replaced the balsa core. The main areas of the sandwich skin were only thick. Together with various forms of wood reinforcement, often of laminated construction, the sandwich skin gave great stiffness and torsional resistance. The separate fuselage halves speeded construction, permitting access by personnel working in parallel with others, as the work progressed. Work on the separate half-fuselages included installation of control mechanisms and cabling. Screwed inserts into the inner skins that would be under stress in service were reinforced using round shear plates made from a fabric-Bakelite composite. Transverse bulkheads were also compositely built-up with several species of timber, plywood, and balsa. Seven vertically halved bulkheads were installed within each moulded fuselage shell before the main "boxing up" operation. Bulkhead number seven was especially strongly built, since it carried the fitments and transmitted the aerodynamic loadings for the tailplane and rudder. The fuselage had a large ventral section cut-out, strongly reinforced, that allowed the fuselage to be lowered onto the wing centre-section at a later stage of assembly. To provide for the edge joints for the fuselage halves, zones near the outer edges of the shells had their balsa sandwich cores replaced by much stronger inner laminations of birch plywood. For the bonding together of the two halves ("boxing up"), a longitudinal cut was machined into these edges. The profile of this cut was a form of V-groove. Part of the edge bonding process also included adding further longitudinal plywood lap strips on the outside of the shells. For finishing, a covering of doped madapollam (a fine, plain-woven cotton) fabric was stretched tightly over the shell and several coats of red, followed by silver dope, were added, followed by the final camouflage paint. ===Wing=== The all-wood wing pairs formed a single structural unit throughout the wingspan, with no central longitudinal joint. Instead, the spars ran from wingtip to wingtip. There was a single continuous main spar and another continuous rear spar. Because of the combination of dihedral with the forward sweep of the trailing edges of the wings, this rear spar was one of the most complex units to laminate and to finish machining after the bonding and curing. It had to produce the correct 3D tilt in each of two planes. Also, it was designed and made to taper from the wing roots towards the wingtips. Both principal spars were of ply box construction, using in general 0.25-in plywood webs with laminated spruce flanges, plus a number of additional reinforcements and special details. Spruce and plywood ribs were connected with gusset joints. Some heavy-duty ribs contained pieces of ash and walnut, as well as the special five ply that included veneers laid up at 45°. The upper skin construction was in two layers of 0.25-in five-ply birch, separated by Douglas fir stringers running in the span-wise direction. The wings were covered with madapollam fabric and doped in a similar manner to the fuselage. The wing was installed into the roots by means of four large attachment points. The engine radiators were fitted in the inner wing, just outboard of the fuselage on either side. These gave less drag. The radiators themselves were split into three sections: an oil cooler section outboard, the middle section forming the coolant radiator and the inboard section serving the cabin heater. The wing contained metal-framed and -skinned ailerons, but the flaps were made of wood and were hydraulically controlled. The nacelles were mostly wood, although for strength, the engine mounts were all metal, as were the undercarriage parts. Engine mounts of welded steel tube were added, along with simple landing gear oleos filled with rubber blocks. Wood was used to carry only in-plane loads, with metal fittings used for all triaxially loaded components such as landing gear, engine mounts, control-surface mounting brackets, and the wing-to-fuselage junction. The outer leading wing edge had to be brought further forward to accommodate this design. In November 1944, several crashes occurred in the Far East. At first, these were thought to be a result of wing-structure failures. The casein glue, it was said, cracked when exposed to extreme heat and/or monsoon conditions. This caused the upper surfaces to lift from the main spar. An investigating team led by Major Hereward de Havilland travelled to India and produced a report in early December 1944 stating, "the accidents were not caused by the deterioration of the glue, but by shrinkage of the airframe during the wet monsoon season". However, a later inquiry by Cabot & Myers firmly attributed the accidents to faulty manufacture and this was confirmed by a further investigation team by the Ministry of Aircraft Production at Defford, which found faults in six Mosquito marks (all built at de Havilland's Hatfield and Leavesden plants). The defects were similar, and none of the aircraft had been exposed to monsoon conditions or termite attack. The investigators concluded that construction defects occurred at the two plants. They found that the "...standard of glueing ... left much to be desired." Records at the time showed that accidents caused by "loss of control" were three times more frequent on Mosquitoes than on any other type of aircraft. The Air Ministry forestalled any loss of confidence in the Mosquito by holding to Major de Havilland's initial investigation in India that the accidents were caused "largely by climate" To solve the problem of seepage into the interior, a strip of plywood was set along the span of the wing to seal the entire length of the skin joint. These were complemented by two inner wing fuel tanks, each containing , located between the wing root and engine nacelle. In the central fuselage were twin fuel tanks mounted between bulkhead number two and three aft of the cockpit. In the FB.VI, these tanks contained each, Both the inner wing, and fuselage tanks are listed as the "main tanks" and the total internal fuel load of was initially deemed appropriate for the type. The FB.VI had a wingspan of , a length (over guns) of . It had a maximum speed of at . Maximum take-off weight was and the range of the aircraft was with a service ceiling of . To reduce fuel vaporisation at the high altitudes of photographic reconnaissance variants, the central and inner wing tanks were pressurised. The pressure venting cock located behind the pilot's seat controlled the pressure valve. As the altitude increased, the valve increased the volume applied by a pump. This system was extended to include field modifications of the fuel tank system. The engine oil tanks were in the engine nacelles. Each nacelle contained a oil tank, including a air space. The oil tanks themselves had no separate coolant controlling systems. The coolant header tank was in the forward nacelle, behind the propeller. The remaining coolant systems were controlled by the coolant radiators shutters in the forward inner wing compartment, between the nacelle and the fuselage and behind the main engine cooling radiators, which were fitted in the leading edge. Electric-pneumatic operated radiator shutters directed and controlled airflow through the ducts and into the coolant valves, to predetermined temperatures. Electrical power came from a 24 volt DC generator on the starboard (No. 2) engine and an alternator on the port engine, which also supplied AC power for radios. The main landing gear, housed in the nacelles behind the engines, were raised and lowered hydraulically. The main landing gear shock absorbers were de Havilland manufactured and used a system of rubber in compression, rather than hydraulic oleos, with twin pneumatic brakes for each wheel. The Dunlop-Marstrand anti-shimmy tailwheel was also retractable. ==Operational history== The de Havilland Mosquito operated in many roles, performing medium bomber, reconnaissance, tactical strike, anti-submarine warfare, shipping attacks and night fighter duties, until the end of the war. On the 13th of July 1941, the first production PR Mosquito W4051 (a production fuselage combined with some prototype flying surfaces – see Prototypes and test flights) was sent to No. 1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (PRU), at RAF Benson. The secret reconnaissance flights of this aircraft were the first operational missions of the Mosquito. In 1944, the journal Flight gave 19 September 1941 as date of the first PR mission, at an altitude "of some 20,000 ft". On 15 November 1941, 105 Squadron, RAF, took delivery at RAF Swanton Morley, Norfolk, of the first operational Mosquito Mk. B.IV bomber, serial no. W4064. Throughout 1942, 105 Squadron, based next at RAF Horsham St. Faith, then from 29 September, RAF Marham, undertook daylight low-level and shallow dive attacks. Apart from the Oslo and Berlin raids, the strikes were mainly on industrial and infrastructure targets in occupied Netherlands and Norway, France and northern and western Germany. The crews faced deadly flak and fighters, particularly Focke-Wulf Fw 190s, which they called snappers. Germany still controlled continental airspace and the Fw 190s were often already airborne and at an advantageous altitude. Collisions within the formations also caused casualties. It was the Mosquito's excellent handling capabilities, rather than pure speed, that facilitated successful evasions. The Mosquito was first announced publicly on 26 September 1942 after the Oslo Mosquito raid of 25 September. It was featured in The Times on 28 September and the next day the newspaper published two captioned photographs illustrating the bomb strikes and damage. On 6 December 1942, Mosquitoes from Nos. 105 and 139 Squadrons made up part of the bomber force used in Operation Oyster, the large No. 2 Group raid against the Philips works at Eindhoven. From mid-1942 to mid-1943, Mosquito bombers flew high-speed, medium and low-altitude daylight missions against factories, railways and other pinpoint targets in Germany and German-occupied Europe. From June 1943, Mosquito bombers were formed into the Light Night Striking Force to guide RAF Bomber Command heavy bomber raids and as "nuisance" bombers, dropping Blockbuster bombs – "cookies" – in high-altitude, high-speed raids that German night fighters were almost powerless to intercept. As a night fighter from mid-1942, the Mosquito intercepted Luftwaffe raids on Britain, notably those of Operation Steinbock in 1944. Starting in July 1942, Mosquito night-fighter units raided Luftwaffe airfields. As part of 100 Group, it was flown as a night fighter and as an intruder supporting Bomber Command heavy bombers that reduced losses during 1944 and 1945.{{refn\|The Mosquito increased German night-fighter losses to such an extent the Germans were said to have awarded two victories for shooting one down. The main objective was to prepare for the invasion of occupied Europe a year later. In Operation Overlord three Mosquito FB Mk. VI wings flew close air support for the Allied armies in co-operation with other RAF units equipped with the North American B-25 Mitchell medium bomber. In the months between the foundation of 2TAF and its duties from D day onwards, vital training was interspersed with attacks on V-1 flying bomb launch sites. In another example of the daylight precision raids carried out by the Mosquitoes of Nos. 105 and 139 Squadrons, on 30 January 1943, the 10th anniversary of the Nazis' seizure of power, a morning Mosquito attack knocked out the main Berlin broadcasting station while Luftwaffe Chief Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring was speaking, putting his speech off the air. A second sortie in the afternoon inconvenienced another speech, by Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels. Lecturing a group of German aircraft manufacturers, Göring said: During this daylight-raiding phase, Nos. 105 and 139 Squadrons flew 139 combat operations and aircrew losses were high. Even the losses incurred in the squadrons' dangerous Blenheim era were exceeded in percentage terms. The Roll of Honour shows 51 aircrew deaths from the end of May 1942 to April 1943. In the corresponding period, crews gained three Mentions in Despatches, two DFMs and three DFCs. The low-level daylight attacks finished on 27 May 1943 with strikes on the Schott glass and Zeiss instrument works, both in Jena. Subsequently, when low-level precision attacks required Mosquitoes, they were allotted to squadrons operating the FB.IV version. Examples include the Aarhus air raid and Operation Jericho. Since the beginning of the year, the German fighter force had become seriously overstretched. In April 1943, in response to "political humiliation" caused by the Mosquito, Göring ordered the formation of special Luftwaffe units (Jagdgeschwader 25, commanded by Oberstleutnant Herbert Ihlefeld and Jagdgeschwader 50, under Major Hermann Graf) to combat the Mosquito attacks, though these units, which were "little more than glorified squadrons", were unsuccessful against the elusive RAF aircraft. Post-war German histories also indicate that there was a belief within the Luftwaffe that Mosquito aircraft "gave only a weak radar signal.". The first Mosquito Squadron to be equipped with the Oboe bomb aiming system was No. 109, based at RAF Wyton, after working as an experimental unit at RAF Boscombe Down. They used Oboe operationally for the first time on 31 December 1942 and 1 January 1943, target marking for a force of heavy bombers attacking Düsseldorf.{{refn\|For some time, RAF 109 Squadron had been working as an R&D unit for trials on radar and radio counter-measures, using Anson and Wellington aircraft. In April 1942 it was ordered to develop Oboe for use in Mosquito bombers. Completing trials in August 1942, the squadron moved to RAF Wyton as part of No. 8 (Pathfinder Force) Group, to introduce it into operational service. A calibration sortie over enemy territory took place on 20/21 December, using six Mosquitoes against a power station at Lutterade in Holland. Then on 31 December/1 January 1943, No. 109 Squadron pioneered Oboe target marking for a force of heavy bombers attacking Düsseldorf. Particularly after the introduction of H2S (radar) in some Mosquitoes, raids carrying large bombs succeeded to the extent that they provided a significant additional form of attack to the large formations of "heavies." Latterly in the war, there were a significant number of all-Mosquito raids on big German cities involving up to 100 or more aircraft. On the night of 20/21 February 1945, for example, Mosquitoes of No. 8 Group mounted the first of 36 consecutive night raids on Berlin. From 1943, Mosquitoes with RAF Coastal Command attacked Kriegsmarine U-boats and intercepted transport ship concentrations. After Operation Overlord, the U-boat threat in the Western Approaches decreased fairly quickly, but correspondingly the Norwegian and Danish waters posed greater dangers. Hence the RAF Coastal Command Mosquitoes were moved to Scotland to counter this threat. The Strike Wing at Banff stood up in September 1944 and comprised Mosquito aircraft of No's 143, 144, 235 and 248 Squadrons Royal Air Force and No.333 Squadron Royal Norwegian Air Force. Despite an initially high loss rate, the Mosquito bomber variants ended the war with the lowest losses of any aircraft in RAF Bomber Command service. The Mosquito also proved a very capable night fighter. Some of the most successful RAF pilots flew these variants. For example, Wing Commander Branse Burbridge claimed 21 kills. Mosquitoes of No. 100 Group RAF acted as night intruders operating at high level in support of the Bomber Command "heavies", to counter the enemy tactic of merging into the bomber stream, which, towards the end of 1943, was causing serious allied losses. These RCM (radio countermeasures) aircraft were fitted with a device called "Serrate" to allow them to track down German night fighters from their Lichtenstein B/C (low-UHF-band) and Lichtenstein SN-2 (lower end of the VHF FM broadcast band) radar emissions, as well as a device named "Perfectos" that tracked German IFF signals. These methods were responsible for the destruction of 257 German aircraft from December 1943 to April 1945. Mosquito fighters from all units accounted for 487 German aircraft during the war, the vast majority of which were night fighters. Night fighter Mosquitos were often tasked with attacking German planes landing at airfields. In 1943, the Germans became acquainted with Moskitoschreck, "Mosquito terror," the constant fear of an unexpected Mosquito attack during a nighttime landing. The Mosquito flew its last official European war mission on 21 May 1945, when Mosquitoes of 143 Squadron and 248 Squadron RAF were ordered to continue to hunt German submarines that might be tempted to continue the fight; instead of submarines all the Mosquitoes encountered were passive E-boats. The last operational RAF Mosquitoes were the Mosquito TT.35's, which were finally retired from No. 3 Civilian Anti-Aircraft Co-Operation Unit (CAACU) in May 1963. In 1947–49, up to 180 Canadian surplus Mosquitoes flew many operations for the Nationalist Chinese under Chiang Kai-shek in the civil war against Communist forces. Pilots from three squadrons of Mosquitoes claimed to have sunk or damaged 500 ships during one invasion attempt. As the Communists assumed control, the remaining aircraft were evacuated to Formosa, where they flew missions against shipping. ==Variants== Until the end of 1942 the RAF always used Roman numerals (I, II, ...) for mark numbers; 1943–1948 was a transition period during which new aircraft entering service were given Arabic numerals (1, 2, ...) for mark numbers, but older aircraft retained their Roman numerals. From 1948 onwards, Arabic numerals were used exclusively. ===Prototypes=== Three prototypes were built, each with a different configuration. The first to fly was W4050 on 25 November 1940, followed by the fighter W4052 on 15 May 1941 and the photo-reconnaissance prototype W4051 on 10 June 1941. W4051 later flew operationally with 1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (1 PRU). ===Photo-reconnaissance=== A total of 10 Mosquito PR Mk.Is were built, four of them "long range" versions equipped with a overload fuel tank in the fuselage. All of the PR Mk.Is, and the B Mk.IV Series 1s, had the original short engine nacelles and short span (19 ft 5.5 in) tailplanes. Their engine cowlings incorporated the original pattern of integrated exhaust manifolds, which, after relatively brief flight time, had a troublesome habit of burning and blistering the cowling panels. The first operational sortie by a Mosquito was made by a PR Mk.I, W4055, on 17 September 1941; during this sortie the unarmed Mosquito PR.I evaded three Messerschmitt Bf 109s at . Powered by two Merlin 21s, the PR Mk.I had a maximum speed of , a cruise speed of , a ceiling of , a range of , and a climb rate of per minute. The first operational flight by a PR Mk.IV was made by DK284 in April 1942. The Mosquito PR Mk.VIII, built as a stopgap pending the introduction of the refined PR Mk.IX, was the next photo-reconnaissance version. The five VIIIs were converted from B Mk.IVs and became the first operational Mosquito version to be powered by two-stage, two-speed supercharged engines, using Rolls-Royce Merlin 61 engines in place of Merlin 21/22s. The first PR Mk.VIII, DK324 first flew on 20 October 1942. The PR Mk.VIII had a maximum speed of , an economical cruise speed of at 20,000 ft, and at 30,000 ft, a ceiling of , a range of , and a climb rate of 2,500 ft per minute (760 m). The Mosquito PR Mk.IX, 90 of which were built, was the first Mosquito variant with two-stage, two-speed engines to be produced in quantity; the first of these, LR405, first flew in April 1943. A total of 435 of the PR Mk.XVI were built. The Mosquito PR Mk.34 and PR Mk.34A was a very long-range unarmed high altitude photo-reconnaissance version. The fuel tank and cockpit protection armour were removed. Additional fuel was carried in a bulged bomb bay: 1,192 gallons—the equivalent of . A further two 200-gallon (910-litre) drop tanks under the outer wings gave a range of cruising at . Powered by two Merlin 114s first used in the PR.32. The port Merlin 114 drove a Marshal cabin supercharger. A total of 181 were built, including 50 built by Percival Aircraft Company at Luton. All PR.34s were installed with four split F52 vertical cameras, two forward, two aft of the fuselage tank and one F24 oblique camera. Sometimes a K-17 camera was used for air surveys. In August 1945, the PR.34A was the final photo-reconnaissance variant with one Merlin 113A and 114A each delivering . Colonel Roy M. Stanley II, USAF (RET) wrote: "I consider the Mosquito the best photo-reconnaissance aircraft of the war". After the end of World War II Spartan Air Services used ten ex-RAF Mosquitoes, mostly B.35s plus one of only six PR.35s built, for high-altitude photographic survey work in Canada. ===Bombers=== On 21 June 1941 the Air Ministry ordered that the last 10 Mosquitoes, ordered as photo-reconnaissance aircraft, should be converted to bombers. These 10 aircraft were part of the original 1 March 1940 production order and became the B Mk.IV Series 1. W4052 was to be the prototype and flew for the first time on 8 September 1941. The bomber prototype led to the B Mk.IV, of which 273 were built: apart from the 10 Series 1s, all of the rest were built as Series 2s with extended nacelles, revised exhaust manifolds, with integrated flame dampers, and larger tailplanes. Series 2 bombers also differed from the Series 1 in having an increased payload of four bombs, instead of the four bombs of Series 1. This was made possible by cropping, or shortening the tail of the bomb so that these four heavier weapons could be carried (or a 2,000 lb (920 kg) total load). In April 1943 it was decided to convert a B Mk.IV to carry a Blockbuster bomb (nicknamed "cookie"). The conversion, including modified bomb bay suspension arrangements, bulged bomb bay doors and fairings, was relatively straightforward and 54 B.IVs were modified and distributed to squadrons of the Light Night Striking Force. 27 B Mk.IVs were later converted for special operations with the Highball anti-shipping weapon, and were used by 618 Squadron, formed in April 1943 specifically to use this weapon. A B Mk.IV, DK290 was initially used as a trials aircraft for the bomb, followed by DZ471,530 and 533. The B Mk.IV had a maximum speed of , a cruising speed of , ceiling of , a range of , and a climb rate of 2,500 ft per minute (12.7 m/s). The Merlin 31 powered B Mk.VII was built by de Havilland Canada and first flown on 24 September 1942. It only saw service in Canada, 25 were built. Six were handed over to the United States Army Air Forces. B Mk.IX (54 built) was powered by the Merlin 72,73, 76 or 77. The two-stage Merlin variant was based on the PR.IX. The prototype DK 324 was converted from a PR.VIII and first flew on 24 March 1943. In October 1943 it was decided that all B Mk.IVs and all B Mk.IXs then in service would be converted to carry the "Cookie", and all B Mk.IXs built after that date were designed to allow them to be converted to carry the weapon. The B Mk.IX had a maximum speed of , an economical cruise speed of at 20,000 ft, and at 30,000 ft, The B Mk.XVI was powered by the same variations as the B.IX. All B Mk.XVIs were capable of being converted to carry the "Cookie". A total of 174 B.35s were delivered up to the end of 1945. A further 100 were delivered from 1946 for a grand total of 274, 65 of which were built by Airspeed Ltd. In the summer of 1942, Britain experienced day-time incursions of the high-altitude reconnaissance bomber, the Junkers Ju 86P. Although the Ju 86P only carried a light bomb load, it overflew sensitive areas, including Bristol, Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire. Bombs were dropped on Luton and elsewhere, and this particular aircraft was seen from the main de Havilland offices and factory at Hatfield. An attempt to intercept it with a Spitfire from RAF Manston was unsuccessful. As a result of the potential threat, a decision was quickly taken to develop a high-altitude Mosquito interceptor, using the MP469 prototype. MP469 entered the experimental shop on 7 September and made its initial flight on 14 September, piloted by John de Havilland. The bomber nose was altered using a normal fighter nose, armed with four standard .303 (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns. The low pressure cabin retained a bomber canopy structure and a two-piece windscreen. The control wheel was replaced with a fighter control stick. The wingspan was increased to . The airframe was lightened by removing armour plating, some fuel tanks and other fitments. Smaller-diameter main wheels were fitted after the first few flights. At a loaded weight of this HA Mk.XV was lighter than a standard Mk.II. For this first conversion, the engines were a pair of Merlin 61s. On 15 September, John de Havilland reached an altitude of in this version. The aircraft was delivered to a High Altitude Flight which had been formed at RAF Northolt. However, the high-level German daylight intruders were no longer to be seen. It was subsequently revealed that only five Ju 86P aircraft had been built and they had only flown 12 sorties. Nevertheless, the general need for high altitude interceptors was recognised – but now the emphasis was to be upon night fighters. The A&AEE tested the climb and speed of night fighter conversion of MP469 in January 1943 for the Ministry of Aircraft Production. Wingspan had been increased to , the Brownings had been moved to a fairing below the fuselage. According to Birtles, an AI radar was mounted in the nose and the Merlins were upgraded to Mk76 type, although Boscombe Down reported Merlin 61s. In addition to MP469, four more B Mk.IVs were converted into NF MK XVs. The Fighter Interception Unit at RAF Ford carried out service trials, March 1943, and then these five aircraft went to 85 Squadron, Hunsdon, where they were flown from April until August of that year. The greatest height reached in service was . Apart from the F Mk.XV, all Mosquito fighters and fighter bombers featured a modified canopy structure incorporating a flat, single piece armoured windscreen, and the crew entry/exit door was moved from the bottom of the forward fuselage to the right side of the nose, just forward of the wing leading edge. ===Night fighters=== At the end of 1940, the Air Staff's preferred turret-equipped night fighter design to Operational Requirement O.R. 95 was the Gloster F.18/40 (derived from their F.9/37). However, although in agreement as to the quality of the Gloster company's design, the Ministry of Aircraft Production was concerned that Gloster would not be able to work on the F.18/40 and also the jet fighter design, considered the greater priority. Consequently, in mid-1941 the Air Staff and MAP agreed that the Gloster aircraft would be dropped and the Mosquito, when fitted with a turret would be considered for the night fighter requirement. The first production night fighter Mosquitoes – minus turrets – were designated NF Mk.II. A total of 466 were built with the first entering service with No. 157 Squadron in January 1942, replacing the Douglas Havoc. These aircraft were similar to the F Mk.II, but were fitted with the AI Mk.IV metric wavelength radar. The herring-bone transmitting antenna was mounted on the nose and the dipole receiving antennae were carried under the outer wings. A number of NF IIs had their radar equipment removed and additional fuel tanks installed in the bay behind the cannon for use as night intruders. These aircraft, designated NF II (Special) were first used by 23 Squadron in operations over Europe in 1942. 23 Squadron was then deployed to Malta on 20 December 1942, and operated against targets in Italy. Ninety-seven NF Mk.IIs were upgraded with 3.3 GHz frequency, low-SHF-band AI Mk.VIII radar and these were designated NF Mk.XII. The NF Mk.XIII, of which 270 were built, was the production equivalent of the Mk.XII conversions. These "centimetric" radar sets were mounted in a solid "thimble" (Mk.XII / XIII) or universal "bull nose" (Mk.XVII / XIX) radome, which required the machine guns to be dispensed with. Four F Mk.XVs were converted to the NF Mk.XV. These were fitted with AI Mk.VIII in a "thimble" radome, and the .303 Brownings were moved into a gun pack fitted under the forward fuselage. NF Mk.XVII was the designation for 99 NF Mk.II conversions, with single-stage Merlin 21, 22, or 23 engines, but British AI.X (US SCR-720) radar. The NF Mk.XIX was an improved version of the NF XIII. It could be fitted with American or British AI radars; 220 were built. The NF Mk.30 was the final wartime variant and was a high-altitude version, powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 76s. The NF Mk.30 had a maximum speed of at . It also carried early electronic countermeasures equipment. 526 were built. Other Mosquito night fighter variants planned but never built included the NF Mk.X and NF Mk.XIV (the latter based on the NF Mk.XIII), both of which were to have two-stage Merlins. The NF Mk.31 was a variant of the NF Mk.30, but powered by Packard Merlins. After the war, two more night fighter versions were developed: The NF Mk.36 was similar to the Mosquito NF Mk.30, but fitted with the American-built AI.Mk.X radar. Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 113/114 piston engines; 266 built. Max level speeds (TAS) with flame dampers fitted were at sea level, at , and at . According to the Pilot's Notes and Air Ministry 'Special Flying Instruction TF/487', which posted limits on the Mosquito's maximum speeds, the NF Mk.38 had a VNE of 370 knots (425 mph), without under-wing stores, and within the altitude range of sea level to . However, from 10,000 to the maximum speed was 348 knots (400 mph). As the height increased other recorded speeds were; 15,000 to 320 knots (368 mph); 20,000 to , 295 knots (339 mph); 25,000 to , 260 knots (299 mph); 30,000 to , 235 knots (270 mph). With two added 100-gallon fuel tanks this performance fell; between sea level and 15,000 feet 330 knots (379 mph); between 15,000 and 320 knots (368 mph); 20,000 to , 295 knots (339 mph); 25,000 to , 260 knots (299 mph); 30,000 to , 235 knots (270 mph). Little difference was noted above . ===Strike ("fighter-bomber") variants === The FB Mk. VI, which first flew on 1 June 1942, was powered by two, single-stage two-speed, Merlin 21s or Merlin 25s, and introduced a re-stressed and reinforced "basic" wing structure capable of carrying single bombs on racks housed in streamlined fairings under each wing, or up to eight RP-3 25lb or 60 lb rockets. In addition fuel lines were added to the wings to enable single or drop tanks to be carried under each wing. The usual fixed armament was four 20 mm Hispano Mk.II cannon and four .303 (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns, while two bombs could be carried in the bomb bay.{{refn\|The FB Mk. VI was built in two sub-series, differentiated by the weight of offensive stores able to be carried: Series i aircraft could only carry bombs, while Series ii could carry the bombs. The maximum fuel load was distributed between internal fuel tanks, plus two overload tanks, each of capacity, which could be fitted in the bomb bay, and two drop tanks. 2,298 FB Mk. VIs were built, nearly one-third of Mosquito production. while shooting down five Fw 190s. Another fighter-bomber variant was the Mosquito FB Mk. XVIII (sometimes known as the Tsetse) of which one was converted from a FB Mk. VI to serve as prototype and 17 were purpose-built. The Mk.XVIII was armed with a Molins "6-pounder Class M" cannon: this was a modified QF 6-pounder (57 mm) anti-tank gun fitted with an auto-loader to allow both semi- or fully automatic fire.{{refn\|"Molins" refers specifically to the auto-loading mechanism produced by the Molins company. Two or four .303 (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns were retained in the nose and were used to "sight" the main weapon onto the target. The prototype HJ732 was converted from a FB.VI and was first flown on 8 June 1943. On 10 June, was abandoned in the face of intense air attack from No. 248 Squadron, and was later sunk by a Liberator of No. 206 Squadron. On 5 April 1945 Mosquitoes with Molins attacked five German surface ships in the Kattegat and again demonstrated their value by setting them all on fire and sinking them. A German Sperrbrecher ("minefield breaker") was lost with all hands, with some 200 bodies being recovered by Swedish vessels. and followed on 19 April and 2 May 1945, also sunk by rockets. Despite the preference for rockets, a further development of the large gun idea was carried out using the even larger, 96 mm calibre QF 32-pounder, a gun based on the QF 3.7-inch AA gun designed for tank use, the airborne version using a novel form of muzzle brake. Developed to prove the feasibility of using such a large weapon in the Mosquito, this installation was not completed until after the war, when it was flown and fired in a single aircraft without problems, then scrapped. Designs based on the Mk.VI were the FB Mk. 26, built in Canada, and the FB Mk.40, built in Australia, powered by Packard Merlins. The FB.26 improved from the FB.21 using single stage Packard Merlin 225s. Some 300 were built and another 37 converted to T.29 standard. (wartime + 2 afterwards) Mosquitoes were built by De Havilland Canada at Downsview Airfield in Downsview Ontario (now Downsview Park in Toronto Ontario). Mosquito B Mk.VII : Canadian version based on the Mosquito B Mk.V bomber aircraft. Powered by two Packard Merlin 31 piston engines; 25 built. Mosquito B Mk.XX : Canadian version of the Mosquito B Mk.IV bomber aircraft; 145 built, of which 40 were converted into F-8 photo-reconnaissance aircraft for the USAAF. Mosquito FB Mk.21 : Canadian version of the Mosquito FB Mk. VI fighter-bomber aircraft. Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 31 piston engines, three built. Mosquito T Mk.22 : Canadian version of the Mosquito T Mk.III training aircraft. Mosquito B Mk.23 : Unused designation for a bomber variant. Mosquito FB Mk.24 : Canadian fighter-bomber version. Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 301 piston engines; two built. Mosquito B Mk.25 : Improved version of the Mosquito B Mk.XX Bomber aircraft. Powered by two Packard Merlin 225 piston engines; 400 built. Mosquito FB Mk.26 : Improved version of the Mosquito FB Mk.21 fighter-bomber aircraft. Powered by two Packard Merlin 225 piston engines; 338 built. Mosquito T Mk.27 : Canadian-built training aircraft. Mosquito T Mk.29 : A number of FB Mk.26 fighters were converted into T Mk.29 trainers. ===Australian-built=== Mosquito FB Mk.40 : Two-seat fighter-bomber version for the RAAF. Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 31 piston engines. A total of 178 built in Australia. Mosquito PR Mk.40 : This designation was given to six FB Mk.40s, which were converted into photo-reconnaissance aircraft. Mosquito FB Mk.41 : Two-seat fighter-bomber version for the RAAF. A total of 11 were built in Australia. Mosquito PR Mk.41 : Two-seat photo-survey version for the RAAF. A total of 17 were built in Australia. Mosquito FB Mk.42 : Two-seat fighter-bomber version. Powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 69 piston engines. One FB Mk.40 aircraft was converted into a Mosquito FB Mk.42. Mosquito T Mk.43 : Two-seat training version for the RAAF. A total of 11 FB Mk.40s were converted into Mosquito T Mk.43s. ===Highball=== A number of Mosquito IVs were modified by Vickers-Armstrongs to carry Highball "bouncing bombs" and were allocated Vickers Type numbers: Type 463 – Prototype Highball conversion of Mosquito IV DZ741. Type 465 – Conversion of 33 Mosquito IVs to carry Highball. ==Production== About 5,000 of the total of 7,781 Mosquitoes built had major structural components fabricated from wood in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, England. Fuselages, wings and tailplanes were made at furniture companies such as Ronson, E. Gomme, Parker Knoll, Parslow Furniture, Austinsuite and Styles & Mealing. Wing spars were made by J. B. Heath and Dancer & Hearne. Many of the other parts, including flaps, flap shrouds, fins, leading edge assemblies and bomb doors were also produced in the Buckinghamshire town. Dancer & Hearne processed much of the wood from start to finish, receiving timber and transforming it into finished wing spars at their factory in Penn Street on the outskirts of High Wycombe. Initially much of the specialised yellow birch wood veneer and finished plywood used for the prototypes and early production aircraft was shipped from firms in Wisconsin, US. Prominent in this role were Roddis Plywood and Veneer Manufacturing in Marshfield. In conjunction with the USDA Forest Products Laboratory, Hamilton Roddis had developed new plywood adhesives and hot pressing technology. Later on, paper birch was logged in large quantities from the interior of British Columbia along the Fraser and Quesnel Rivers and processed in Quesnel and New Westminster by the Pacific Veneer Company. According to the Quesnel archives, BC paper birch supplied ½ of the wartime British Empire birch used for Mosquitoes and other aircraft. As the supply of Ecuadorean balsa was threatened by the U-boats in the Atlantic Ocean, the Ministry of Aircraft Production approved a research effort to supplant the balsa with calcium alginate foam, made from local brown algae. By 1944 the foam was ready, but the U-boat threat had been reduced, the larger B-25 bombers were in sufficient supply to handle most of the bombing raids, and the foam was not used in Mosquito production. ===Canada=== In July 1941, it was decided that DH Canada would build Mosquitoes at Downsview, Ontario. This was to continue even if Germany invaded Great Britain. Packard Merlin engines produced under licence were bench-tested by August and the first two aircraft were built in September. Production was to increase to fifty per month by early 1942. Initially, the Canadian production was for bomber variants; later, fighters, fighter-bombers and training aircraft were also made. DH Chief Production Engineer, Harry Povey, was sent first, then W. D. Hunter followed on an extended stay, to liaise with materials and parts suppliers. As was the case with initial UK production, Tego-bonded plywood and birch veneer was obtained from firms in Wisconsin, principally Roddis Plywood and Veneer Manufacturing, Marshfield. Enemy action delayed the shipping of jigs and moulds and it was decided to build these locally. During 1942, production improved to over 80 machines per month, as sub-contractors and suppliers became established. A mechanised production line based in part on car building methods started in 1944. As the war progressed, Canadian Mosquitoes may have utilized paper birch supplied by the Pacific Veneer Company of New Westminster using birch logs from the Cariboo, although records only say this birch was shipped to England for production there. When flight testing could no longer keep up, this was moved to the Central Aircraft Company airfield, London, Ontario, where the approved Mosquitoes left for commissioning and subsequent ferry transfer to Europe. Ferrying Mosquitoes and many other types of WWII aircraft from Canada to Europe was dangerous, resulting in losses of lives and machines, but in the exigencies of war it was regarded as the best option for twin-engine and multi-engine aircraft. In the parlance of the day, among RAF personnel, "it was no piece of cake." Considerable efforts were made by de Havilland Canada to resolve problems with engine and oil systems and an additional five hours of flight testing were introduced before the ferry flight, but the actual cause of some of the losses was unknown. Nevertheless, by the end of the war, nearly 500 Mosquito bombers and fighter-bombers had been ferried successfully by the Canadian operation. After DH Canada had been established for the Mosquito, further manufacturing was set up at DH Australia, in Sydney. One of the DH staff who travelled there was the distinguished test pilot, Pat Fillingham. These production lines added totals of 1,133 aircraft of varying types from Canada plus 212 aircraft from Australia. ===Exports=== In total, both during the war and after, de Havilland exported 46 FB.VIs and 29 PR. XVIs to Australia; two FB.VI and 18 NF.30s to Belgium; approximately 250 FB.26, T.29 and T.27s from Canada to Nationalist China. A significant number never went into service due to deterioration on the voyage and to crashes during Chinese pilot training; however, five were captured by the People's Liberation Army during the Chinese Civil War; 19 FB.VIs to Czechoslovakia in 1948; 6 FB.VIs to Dominica; a few B.IVs, 57 FB.VIs, 29 PR.XVIs and 23 NF.30s to France. Some T.IIIs were exported to Israel along with 60 FB.VIs, and at least five PR.XVIs and 14 naval versions. Four T.IIIs, 76 FB.VIs, one FB.40 and four T.43s were exported to New Zealand. Three T.IIIs were exported to Norway, and 18 FB.VIs, which were later converted to night fighter standard. South Africa received two F.II and 14 PR.XVI/XIs and Sweden received 60 NF.XIXs. Turkey received 96 FB.VIs and several T.IIIs, and Yugoslavia had 60 NF.38s, 80 FB.VIs and three T.IIIs delivered. ===Sites=== Total Mosquito production was 7,781, of which 6,710 were built during the war. {\| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right" \|+Production On 25 October 1943, G-AGGG crashed near RAF Leuchars. At the time, this was the last airworthy Mosquito, a T.III. == Operators == == Surviving aircraft == There are approximately 30 non-flying Mosquitoes around the world with five airworthy examples: three in the United States; one in Canada; and one in New Zealand. The largest collection of Mosquitoes is at the de Havilland Aircraft Museum in the United Kingdom, which owns three aircraft, including the first prototype, W4050, the only initial prototype of a Second World War British aircraft design still in existence in the 21st century. ==Specifications (B Mk.XVI)== ==Notable appearances in media==	[ "Light bomber", "De Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre", "Universal Newsreel", "No. 157 Squadron RAF", "Variable-pitch propeller (aeronautics)", "RAF Coastal Command", "CFB Downsview", "V-2 rocket", "casein", "Imperial War Museums", "Pacific War", "Branse Burbridge", "Handley Page H.P.42", "test pilot", "monocoque", "invasion stripes", "Hatfield, Hertfordshire", "Scientific American", "Vickers-Armstrongs", "Chester", "Douglas P-70", "Focke-Wulf Fw 190", "Photo-reconnaissance", "North Sea", "No. 105 Squadron RAF", "Canada", "Bouncing bomb", "Luton", "New Zealand", "Oberstleutnant", "order of battle", "Fairey Aviation", "List of aircraft of the United Kingdom in World War II", "stepless cockpit", "Fairey Aviation Company", "Sylt", "Lioré et Olivier LeO 45", "United Kingdom aircraft test serials", "Saab 18", "Flight International", "V-1 flying bomb", "Rolls-Royce Griffon", "Science Museum, London", "Tsetse fly", "GEE (navigation)", "Joseph Goebbels", "RAAF", "Westland Whirlwind (fighter)", "tactical bomber", "Wilfrid Freeman", "Airborne Interception radar", "Italian Campaign (World War II)", "de Havilland DH.88", "No. 140 Squadron RAF", "wavelength", "Ground-attack aircraft", "Lichtenstein radar", "de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre", "Max Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook", "Wood drying", "Junkers Ju 88", "Roderic Hill", "Peenemünde", "radio-navigation", "Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment", "anti-submarine", "Nazi Party", "Tupolev Tu-2", "No. 143 Squadron RAF", "Junkers Ju 86", "Neutrality (international relations)", "RAF Bomber Command", "Blockbuster bomb", "Australia", "Nazis", "Herbert Ihlefeld", "Oboe (navigation)", "de Havilland", "Canley", "Operation Overlord", "Maritime strike aircraft", "Allen Wheeler", "Dunkirk evacuation", "Shipham", "G-Plan", "Eric Brown (pilot)", "No. 23 Squadron RAF", "Norway", "Armstrong-Whitworth Whitley", "Adolf Galland", "depth charge", "Hermann Göring", "Wing Commander (rank)", "No. 100 Group RAF", "Meredith effect", "multirole combat aircraft", "Tension (physics)", "Operation Jericho", "F24 camera", "Focke-Wulf Ta 154 Moskito", "Radio frequency heating", "British military aircraft designation systems", "Consolidated B-24 Liberator", "AI Mk. VIII radar", "Israel", "Kattegat", "Arabic numeral", "Air Marshal", "nacelle", "Lockheed PV-1 Ventura", "radial engine", "Martin Baltimore", "North American B-25 Mitchell", "Victory in Europe Day", "1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit", "attack aircraft", "Eindhoven", "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "Hitler", "VHF", "Serrate radar detector", "turn and bank indicator", "AI Mk. IV radar", "Coventry", "concrete", "wood veneer", "Lidköping-Hovby Airport", "urea-formaldehyde", "UHF", "Henry H. Arnold", "sortie", "Napier Sabre", "No. 618 Squadron RAF", "electronic countermeasures", "Petlyakov Pe-2", "madapollam", "Geoffrey de Havilland", "aircraft interception radar", "Packard V-1650", "M1919 Browning machine gun", "band clamp", "strategic bombing", "Hermann Graf", "List of bomber aircraft", "de Havilland Australia", ".303 British", "Northrop F-15 Reporter", "Grindor", "Bristol Blenheim", "radar", "Heinkel He 219", "venturi effect", "Archive", "CH-53E Super Stallion", "No. 109 Squadron RAF", "Aerial reconnaissance", "caster", "Oslo Mosquito Raid (1942)", "Flightglobal", "Flap (aircraft)", "mahogany", "Supermarine Spitfire (early Merlin powered variants)", "HMS Indefatigable (R10)", "Minister of Aircraft Production", "night bomber", "A-20 Havoc", "Trainer (aircraft)", "Kawasaki Ki-102", "Percival Aircraft", "RP-3", "United States Army Air Forces", "Supermarine Spitfire", "Operation Carthage", "fighter-bomber", "Battle of Britain", "Lockheed P-38 Lightning", "night fighter", "Hawker Hurricanes", "Handley Page", "France", "Fighter Interception Unit", "The Times", "Luftwaffe", "Fighter-bomber", "balsa", "receiver (radio)", "Bristol Beaufighter", "strategic materials", "Roman numeral", "Airspeed Oxford", "Fife", "Elwood Quesada", "Stall (flight)", "Operation Oyster", "Dominica", "QF 3.7-inch AA gun", "Jagdgeschwader 5", "de Havilland Flamingo", "Bulletproof glass", "Air Ministry", "Royal Australian Air Force", "RAF Defford", "Forest Products Laboratory", "Hawarden Airport", "muzzle brake", "Portsmouth", "U-boat", "Messerschmitt Me 410 Hornisse", "Spartan Air Services", "Kriegsmarine", "Avro Manchester", "High Wycombe", "gun camera", "Vickers Type 432", "Rolls-Royce Merlin", "List of fighter aircraft", "Specific strength", "Ordnance QF 32 pounder", "Belgian Air Force", "Gestapo", "E-boat", "Test Stand VII", "Ivor Broom", "Elevator (aircraft)", "Ronald Eric Bishop", "Royal Canadian Air Force", "Ordnance QF 6 pounder", "aircraft dope", "de Havilland Albatross", "Bristol Aeroplane Company", "Advanced Landing Ground", "English Electric Canberra", "photo-reconnaissance", "de Havilland Gipsy Twelve", "RAF Wyton", "List of Air Ministry specifications", "Jagdgeschwader 25", "Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen", "Maluku Islands", "Pathfinder (RAF)", "Gothenburg", "Vice-Chief of the Air Staff (United Kingdom)", "barrage balloon", "Speed wobble", "Second Tactical Air Force", "Jagdgeschwader 50", "RAF Boscombe Down", "Mediterranean, Middle East and African theatres of World War II", "Perthshire", "List of aircraft of World War II", "Poly(methyl methacrylate)", "British Overseas Airways Corporation", "fast bomber", "633 Squadron", "No. 8 Group RAF", "Far East", "intruder (air combat)", "John Cunningham (RAF officer)", "United Kingdom military aircraft serials", "Leuchars", "Ministry of Aircraft Production", "Day fighter", "Percival Aircraft Company", "Sweden", "Fairchild Aircraft", "Royal Air Force", "fighter aircraft", "Downsview Park", "Oslo Mosquito raid", "100 Group RAF", "Operation Steinbock", "Kampfgeschwader 200", "transmitter", "H2S (radar)", "Vickers Wellington", "Heinkel He 111", "rudder", "de Havilland Aircraft Museum", "list of Air Ministry specifications", "brown algae", "Toronto", "Aerolite (adhesive)", "Fleet Air Arm", "Dowty Group", "N.15/44", "South-East Asian theatre of World War II", "Leading edge slats", "Handley Page Halifax", "Marshfield, Wisconsin", "Norman de Bruyne", "Belgium", "bomb bay", "Pat Fillingham", "H-engine", "Bristol Hercules", "Sydney", "Northrop P-61 Black Widow", "Night fighter", "Schnellbomber", "auto-loader", "bungee cord", "Identification friend or foe", "Hispano-Suiza HS.404", "maritime strike aircraft", "Sperrbrecher", "Revolutions per minute", "Turkey", "George Volkert", "RAF Leuchars", "Blackburn Aircraft", "de Havilland Canada", "attack on Pearl Harbor", "Hereward de Havilland", "Aero Research Limited", "bouncing bomb", "Geoffrey de Havilland Jr.", "German-occupied Europe", "Airspeed Aircraft", "de Havilland Hornet", "Philips", "Air Force blue", "Manchester Airport", "Curtiss-Wright", "National Museum of the United States Air Force", "Armstrong Whitworth Albemarle", "Vorpostenboot", "Royal Navy", "Tiger Moth", "Aarhus Air Raid", "Parker Knoll", "No. 248 Squadron RAF", "calcium alginate", "medium bomber", "Very high frequency", "Standard Motor Company", "World War II", "Glenshee", "Perfectos", "European Theatre of World War II", "aluminium", "Chiang Kai-shek", "Air Officer Commanding", "Czechoslovakia", "Jena", "Chinese Civil War", "South Africa", "USAAF", "Royal Society of Chemistry", "People's Liberation Army", "Gloster F.9/37", "RAF Benson", "Super high frequency", "Foggia", "oleo strut", "Hawker Hurricane", "Borneo", "aircraft carrier", "I.Ae. 24 Calquin", "Major (rank)", "Messerschmitt Bf 109", "ailerons", "Republic of China (1912–1949)", "Antenna (radio)", "Battle of the Atlantic", "D day", "Nakajima J1N", "Reichsmarschall", "Leading edge slot" ]
9,099	Dave Thomas (businessman)	Rex David Thomas (July 2, 1932 – January 8, 2002) was an American businessman, philanthropist, and fast-food tycoon who was the founder and chief executive officer of Wendy's, a fast-food restaurant chain specializing in hamburgers. In this role, Thomas appeared in more than 800 commercial advertisements for the chain from 1989 to 2002, more than any other company founder in television history. ==Early life== Rex David Thomas was born July 2, 1932, in Atlantic City, New Jersey. His biological father's name was Sam and his biological mother's name was Molly. Thomas was adopted between six weeks and six months later by Rex and Auleva Thomas, and as an adult became a well-known advocate for adoption, founding the Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption. After his adoptive mother's death when he was five, his father moved around the country seeking work. Thomas spent some of his early childhood near Kalamazoo, Michigan, with his grandmother, Minnie Sinclair, whom he credited with teaching him the importance of service and treating others well and with respect, lessons that helped him in his future business life. At age 12, Thomas had his first job at Regas Restaurant, a fine dining restaurant in downtown Knoxville, Tennessee, then lost it in a dispute with his boss. He vowed never to lose another job. Decades later, Regas Restaurant installed a large autographed poster of Thomas just inside their entrance, which remained until the business closed in 2010. By 15, he was moving with his father and working at the Hobby House Restaurant in Fort Wayne, Indiana. When his father prepared to move again, Thomas decided to stay in Fort Wayne, dropping out of high school to work full-time at the restaurant. Thomas, who considered ending his schooling the greatest mistake of his life, did not graduate from high school until 1993, when he obtained a GED. He subsequently became an education advocate and founded the Dave Thomas Education Center in Coconut Creek, Florida, which offers GED classes to young adults. ==Career== ===U.S. Army=== At the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, rather than waiting for the draft, he volunteered for the U.S. Army at age 18 to have some choice in assignments. Having food production and service experience, Thomas requested the Cook's and Baker's School at Fort Benning, Georgia. He was sent to West Germany as a mess sergeant and was responsible for the daily meals of 2,000 soldiers, rising to the rank of staff sergeant. After his discharge in 1953, Thomas returned to Fort Wayne and the Hobby House. ===Fast food career=== ====Kentucky Fried Chicken==== In the mid-1950s, Kentucky Fried Chicken founder Col. Harland Sanders came to Fort Wayne, hoping to find restaurateurs with established businesses to whom he could try to sell KFC franchises. At first, Thomas – who was the head cook at a restaurant – and the Clauss family declined Sanders' offer, but Sanders persisted, and the Clauss family franchised their restaurant with KFC; they also later owned many other KFC franchises in the Midwest. During this time, Thomas worked with Sanders on many projects to make KFC more profitable and give it brand recognition. Among other ideas for improvements, Thomas suggested that KFC reduce the number of items on its menu and instead focus on a signature dish; he also proposed that KFC make commercials in which Sanders would personally appear. Thomas was sent by the Clauss family in the mid-1960s to help turn around four of their failing KFC stores in Columbus, Ohio. By 1968, Thomas had increased sales in the four fried chicken restaurants so much that he sold his share in them back to Sanders for more than $1.5 million. This experience would prove invaluable to Thomas when he began Wendy's about a year later. ====Arthur Treacher's==== After serving as a regional director for Kentucky Fried Chicken, Thomas became part of the investor group which founded Arthur Treacher's. His involvement with the new restaurant lasted less than a year before he went on to found Wendy's. ====Wendy's==== Thomas opened his first Wendy's in Columbus, Ohio, November 15, 1969. This original restaurant remained operational until March 2, 2007, when it was closed due to lagging sales. Thomas named the restaurant after his eight-year-old daughter Melinda Lou, whose nickname was "Wendy", stemming from the child's inability to say her own name at a young age. According to Bio TV, Dave claims that people nicknamed his daughter "Wenda. Not Wendy, but Wenda. 'I'm going to call it Wendy's Old Fashioned Hamburgers'." Before his death in 2002, Thomas admitted regret for naming the franchise after his daughter, saying "I should've just named it after myself, because it put a lot of pressure on [her]." In 1982, Thomas resigned from his day-to-day operations at Wendy's. However, by 1985, several company business decisions, including an awkward new breakfast menu and loss in brand awareness due to fizzled marketing efforts, led the company's new president to urge Thomas back into a more active role with Wendy's. Thomas began to visit franchises and espouse his hardworking, so-called "mop-bucket attitude". In 1989, he took on a significant role as the TV spokesperson in a series of commercials for the brand. Thomas was not a natural actor, and initially, his performances were criticized as stiff and ineffective by advertising critics. By 1990, after efforts by Wendy's advertising agency, Backer Spielvolgel Bates, to get humor into the campaign, a decision was made to portray Thomas in a more self-deprecating and folksy manner, which proved much more popular with test audiences. He was married for 47 years to Lorraine Thomas and started his family with her in Upper Arlington, Ohio. In addition to Melinda, they had three more daughters – Pam, Lori, and Molly – and a son, Kenny. After Kenny died in 2013, his sisters still continued to own and run multiple Wendy's locations. Thomas founded the chain Sisters Chicken and Biscuits in 1978, named in reference to his other three daughters. ===Death=== He had been afflicted with a carcinoid neuroendocrine tumor for a decade, before it metastasized to his liver. Thomas died at his home in Fort Lauderdale, Florida on January 8, 2002, at the age of 69. He was buried in Union Cemetery in Columbus, Ohio. At the time of his death, there were more than 6,000 Wendy's restaurants operating in North America. ==Honors and memberships== In 1979, Thomas received the Horatio Alger Award for his success with his restaurant chain Wendy's, which had reached annual sales of US$1 billion with franchises then. In 1980, Thomas received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. Thomas, realizing that his success as a high school dropout might convince other teenagers to quit school (something he later claimed was a mistake), became a student at Coconut Creek High School. He earned a GED in 1993. Thomas was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1999. Thomas was an honorary Kentucky colonel, as was former boss Harland Sanders. Thomas was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2003. Thomas was raised a Master Mason in Sol. D. Bayless Lodge No. 359 of Fort Wayne, Indiana, and became a 32° Mason, N.M.J., on November 16, 1961, in the Scottish Rite Bodies of Fort Wayne. He was unanimously elected to the Scottish Rite's highest honor, the Grand Cross, by The Supreme Council, 33°, in Executive Session on October 3, 1997, in Washington, D.C. A small triangular block and the surrounding streets and traffic pattern in the Northeast quadrant of Washington, D.C., is unofficially known in the D.C. area as Dave Thomas Circle, due to the longtime presence of a Wendy's franchise and its parking lot on that block.	[ "History (U.S. TV channel)", "carcinoid", "Harland Sanders", "West Germany", "fast food", "Upper Arlington, Ohio", "neuroendocrine tumor", "Kentucky Fried Chicken", "Presidential Medal of Freedom", "Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans", "WOSU-TV", "Today (American TV program)", "Fort Wayne, Indiana", "Atlantic City, New Jersey", "Where's the beef?", "Dave Thomas Circle", "CBC.ca", "Christianity", "Clara Peller", "Coconut Creek, Florida", "Kentucky colonel", "Arthur Treacher's", "The Boston Globe", "General Educational Development", "Midwestern United States", "fast-food restaurant", "American Academy of Achievement", "CNN", "Northeast (Washington, D.C.)", "Fort Benning", "American National Biography", "hamburger", "Knoxville, Tennessee", "Woman's Day", "Business Insider", "Columbus, Ohio", "Union Cemetery (Columbus)", "The Wellington School", "Academy of Achievement", "adoption", "JA Worldwide", "The New York Times", "Los Angeles Times", "Kalamazoo, Michigan", "chief executive officer", "Quartermaster Center and School", "GED", "Wendy Thomas", "Biography.com", "United States Army", "Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption", "fried chicken restaurant", "Columbus Monthly", "Staff sergeant", "Associated Press", "Wendy's", "Coconut Creek High School", "Colonel Sanders", "Korean War", "Fort Lauderdale, Florida", "Conscription in the United States" ]
9,101	Device driver	In the context of an operating system, a device driver is a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer or automaton. A driver provides a software interface to hardware devices, enabling operating systems and other computer programs to access hardware functions without needing to know precise details about the hardware being used. A driver communicates with the device through the computer bus or communications subsystem to which the hardware connects. When a calling program invokes a routine in the driver, the driver issues commands to the device (drives it). Once the device sends data back to the driver, the driver may invoke routines in the original calling program. Drivers are hardware dependent and operating-system-specific. They usually provide the interrupt handling required for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interface. ==Purpose== The main purpose of device drivers is to provide abstraction by acting as a translator between a hardware device and the applications or operating systems that use it. The task of writing drivers thus usually falls to software engineers or computer engineers who work for hardware-development companies. This is because they have better information than most outsiders about the design of their hardware. Moreover, it was traditionally considered in the hardware manufacturer's interest to guarantee that their clients can use their hardware in an optimal way. Typically, the Logical Device Driver (LDD) is written by the operating system vendor, while the Physical Device Driver (PDD) is implemented by the device vendor. However, in recent years, non-vendors have written numerous device drivers for proprietary devices, mainly for use with free and open source operating systems. In such cases, it is important that the hardware manufacturer provide information on how the device communicates. Although this information can instead be learned by reverse engineering, this is much more difficult with hardware than it is with software. Windows uses a combination of driver and minidriver, where the full class/port driver is provided with the operating system, and miniclass/miniport drivers are developed by vendors and implement hardware- or function-specific subset of the full driver stack. Miniport model is used by NDIS, WDM, WDDM, WaveRT, StorPort, WIA, and HID drivers; each of them uses device-specific APIs and still requires the developer to handle tedious device management tasks. Microsoft has attempted to reduce system instability due to poorly written device drivers by creating a new framework for driver development, called Windows Driver Frameworks (WDF). This includes User-Mode Driver Framework (UMDF) that encourages development of certain types of drivers—primarily those that implement a message-based protocol for communicating with their devices—as user-mode drivers. If such drivers malfunction, they do not cause system instability. The Kernel-Mode Driver Framework (KMDF) model continues to allow development of kernel-mode device drivers but attempts to provide standard implementations of functions that are known to cause problems, including cancellation of I/O operations, power management, and plug-and-play device support. Apple has an open-source framework for developing drivers on macOS, called I/O Kit. In Linux environments, programmers can build device drivers as parts of the kernel, separately as loadable modules, or as user-mode drivers (for certain types of devices where kernel interfaces exist, such as for USB devices). Makedev includes a list of the devices in Linux, including ttyS (terminal), lp (parallel port), hd (disk), loop, and sound (these include mixer, sequencer, dsp, and audio). Microsoft Windows .sys files and Linux .ko files can contain loadable device drivers. The advantage of loadable device drivers is that they can be loaded only when necessary and then unloaded, thus saving kernel memory. ==Privilege levels== Depending on the operating system, device drivers may be permitted to run at various different privilege levels. The choice of which level of privilege the drivers are in is largely decided by the type of kernel an operating system uses. An operating system that uses a monolithic kernel, such as the Linux kernel, will typically run device drivers with the same privilege as all other kernel objects. By contrast, a system designed around microkernel, such as Minix, will place drivers as processes independent from the kernel but that use it for essential input-output functionalities and to pass messages between user programs and each other. On Windows NT, a system with a hybrid kernel, it is common for device drivers to run in either kernel-mode or user-mode. The most common mechanism for segregating memory into various privilege levels is via protection rings. On many systems, such as those with x86 and ARM processors, switching between rings imposes a performance penalty, a factor that operating system developers and embedded software engineers consider when creating drivers for devices which are preferred to be run with low latency, such as network interface cards. The primary benefit of running a driver in user mode is improved stability since a poorly written user-mode device driver cannot crash the system by overwriting kernel memory. ==Applications== Because of the diversity of hardware and operating systems, drivers operate in many different environments. Drivers may interface with: Printers Video adapters Network cards Sound cards PC chipsets Power and battery management Local buses of various sorts—in particular, for bus mastering on modern systems Low-bandwidth I/O buses of various sorts (for pointing devices such as mice, keyboards, etc.) Computer storage devices such as hard disk, CD-ROM, and floppy disk buses (ATA, SATA, SCSI, SAS) Implementing support for different file systems Image scanners Digital cameras Digital terrestrial television tuners Radio frequency communication transceiver adapters for wireless personal area networks as used for short-distance and low-rate wireless communication in home automation, (such as example Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), Thread, Zigbee, and Z-Wave). IrDA adapters Common levels of abstraction for device drivers include: For hardware: Interfacing directly Writing to or reading from a device control register Using some higher-level interface (e.g. Video BIOS) Using another lower-level device driver (e.g. file system drivers using disk drivers) Simulating work with hardware, while doing something entirely different For software: Allowing the operating system direct access to hardware resources Implementing only primitives Implementing an interface for non-driver software (e.g. TWAIN) Implementing a language, sometimes quite high-level (e.g. PostScript) So choosing and installing the correct device drivers for given hardware is often a key component of computer system configuration. ==Virtual device drivers== Virtual device drivers represent a particular variant of device drivers. They are used to emulate a hardware device, particularly in virtualization environments, for example when a DOS program is run on a Microsoft Windows computer or when a guest operating system is run on, for example, a Xen host. Instead of enabling the guest operating system to dialog with hardware, virtual device drivers take the opposite role and emulates a piece of hardware, so that the guest operating system and its drivers running inside a virtual machine can have the illusion of accessing real hardware. Attempts by the guest operating system to access the hardware are routed to the virtual device driver in the host operating system as e.g., function calls. The virtual device driver can also send simulated processor-level events like interrupts into the virtual machine. Virtual devices may also operate in a non-virtualized environment. For example, a virtual network adapter is used with a virtual private network, while a virtual disk device is used with iSCSI. A good example for virtual device drivers can be Daemon Tools. There are several variants of virtual device drivers, such as VxDs, VLMs, and VDDs. ==Open source drivers== Graphics device driver Printers: CUPS RAIDs: CCISS (Compaq Command Interface for SCSI-3 Support) Scanners: SANE Video: Vidix, Direct Rendering Infrastructure Solaris descriptions of commonly used device drivers: fas: Fast/wide SCSI controller hme: Fast (10/100 Mbit/s) Ethernet isp: Differential SCSI controllers and the SunSwift card glm: (Gigabaud Link Module) UltraSCSI controllers scsi: Small Computer Serial Interface (SCSI) devices sf: soc+ or social Fiber Channel Arbitrated Loop (FCAL) soc: SPARC Storage Array (SSA) controllers and the control device social: Serial optical controllers for FCAL (soc+) ==APIs== Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) – the graphic display driver architecture for Windows Vista and later. Unified Audio Model (UAM) Windows Driver Foundation (WDF) Declarative Componentized Hardware (DCH) - Universal Windows Platform driver Windows Driver Model (WDM) Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS) – a standard network card driver API Advanced Linux Sound Architecture (ALSA) – the standard Linux sound-driver interface Scanner Access Now Easy (SANE) – a public-domain interface to raster-image scanner-hardware Installable File System (IFS) – a filesystem API for IBM OS/2 and Microsoft Windows NT Open Data-Link Interface (ODI) – network card API similar to NDIS Uniform Driver Interface (UDI) – a cross-platform driver interface project Dynax Driver Framework (dxd) – C++ open source cross-platform driver framework for KMDF and IOKit ==Identifiers== A device on the PCI bus or USB is identified by two IDs which consist of two bytes each. The vendor ID identifies the vendor of the device. The device ID identifies a specific device from that manufacturer/vendor. A PCI device has often an ID pair for the main chip of the device, and also a subsystem ID pair that identifies the vendor, which may be different from the chip manufacturer. ==Security== Computers often have many diverse and customized device drivers running in their operating system (OS) kernel which often contain various bugs and vulnerabilities, making them a target for exploits. A Bring Your Own Vulnerable Driver (BYOVD) attacker installs any signed, old third-party driver with known vulnerabilities that allow malicious code to be inserted into the kernel. Drivers that may be vulnerable include those for WiFi and Bluetooth, gaming/graphics drivers, and drivers for printers. There is a lack of effective kernel vulnerability detection tools, especially for closed-source OSes such as Microsoft Windows where the source code of the device drivers is mostly proprietary and not available to examine, and drivers often have many privileges. A group of security researchers considers the lack of isolation as one of the main factors undermining kernel security, and published an isolation framework to protect operating system kernels, primarily the monolithic Linux kernel whose drivers they say get ~80,000 commits per year.	[ "Open Data-Link Interface", "Vidix", "16550 UART", "parallel port", "network adapter", "privilege (computing)", "Linux", "x86", "Linux kernel", "Microcontroller", "WaveRT", "monolithic kernel", "interface (computer science)", "Computer bug", "Abstraction (computer science)", "macOS", "automaton", "Privilege (computing)", "SCSI", "bandwidth (computing)", "Scanner Access Now Easy", "subroutine", "Uniform Driver Interface", "Makedev", "Microsoft Windows", "reverse engineering", "udev", "software engineer", "bus mastering", "loadable kernel module", "Digital signal processor", "Exploit (computer security)", "computer bus", "Open-source hardware", "Windows Driver Frameworks", "Power management", "Network interface card", "Video adapters", "Kernel-Mode Driver Framework", "Thread (network protocol)", "PCI bus", "Digital terrestrial television", "battery management", "Device driver synthesis and verification", "free and open source", "manufacturer", "User-Mode Driver Framework", "Free software", "Printer driver", "input-output", "Personal area network", "Serial Attached SCSI", "Sandbox (computer security)", "Driver wrapper", "serial port", "floppy disk", "microkernel", "PC chipset", "Image scanner", "Direct Rendering Infrastructure", "Driver (software)", "Xen", "Microsoft", "interrupt", "FTDI", "message-based protocol", "Windows Driver Foundation", "Network cards", "IrDA", "SourceForge", "Class driver", "Loadable kernel module", "computer program", "Computer hardware", "computer engineer", "Sound card", "CUPS", "I/O", "Zigbee", "Sound card mixer", "Commit (version control)", "Windows NT", "user space", "Proprietary software", "function call", "Ars Technica", "Computer bus", "Computing platform", "Advanced Linux Sound Architecture", "TWAIN", "Video BIOS", "System call", "pointing device", "Bluetooth Low Energy", "Firmware", "Computer printer", "Windows Image Acquisition", "Hard disk drive", "Music sequencer", "Human Interface Device", "Embedded software", "user mode", "iSCSI", "Peripheral", "CD-ROM", "Windows Driver Model", "Installable File System", "CPU modes", "DOS", "Logical Device Driver", "Universal Windows Platform", "Computer storage", "virtual private network", "ARM (processor)", "Apple Inc.", "Computer keyboard", "Windows Display Driver Model", "hard disk", "SATA", "Z-Wave", "device control register", "network card", "Pennsylvania State University", "Digital camera", "Computer security", "Physical Device Driver", "Computer mouse", "Interface (computing)", "PostScript", "byte", "primitive (computer science)", "computer", "Kernel (operating system)", "virtual machine", ".sys", "Erroneous program", "operating system", "Vulnerability (computing)", "VxD", "hybrid kernel", "protection ring", "Windows Vista", "Replicant (operating system)", "Network Driver Interface Specification", "file system", "Monolithic kernel", "VLM (NetWare)", "filesystem API", "Free and open-source graphics device driver", "Minix", "Solaris (operating system)", "StorPort", "Daemon Tools", "Advanced Technology Attachment" ]
9,103	Dimona	Dimona (, ) is an Israeli city in the Negev desert, to the south-east of Beersheba and west of the Dead Sea above the Arava valley in the Southern District of Israel. In , its population was . The Shimon Peres Negev Nuclear Research Center, colloquially known as the Dimona Reactor, is located southeast of the city. ==Etymology== The Negev Naming Committee chose the name based upon that of a biblical town, mentioned in Joshua 15:21-22, on the basis that "the sound of this name had been preserved in the Arabic name Harabat Umm Dumna." ==History== Dimona was one of the development towns created in the 1950s under the leadership of Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion. Dimona itself was conceived in 1953. The location chosen was close to the Dead Sea Works. It was established in 1955. The first residents were Jewish immigrants from North Africa, with an initial 36 families being the first to settle there. Its population in 1955 was about 300. The North African immigrants also constructed the city's houses. The population was composed mainly of North African, particularly Moroccan immigrants, though immigrants from Yemen and Eastern Europe also arrived, as did Bene Israel immigrants from India. When the Israeli nuclear program began in 1958, a location not far from the city was chosen for the Negev Nuclear Research Center due to its relative isolation in the desert and availability of housing. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, immigrants from Eastern Europe arrived. A textile factory was opened in 1958. That same year, Dimona became a local council. In 1961, it had a population of 5,000. The emblem of Dimona (as a local council), adopted 2 March 1961, appeared on a stamp issued on 24 March 1965. Dimona was declared a city in 1969. In 1971, it had a population of 23,700. In spite of a gradual decrease during the 1980s, the city's population began to grow once again in the 1990s when it took in immigrants from the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia. Currently, Dimona is the third largest city in the Negev, with the population of almost 34,000. Due to projected rapid population growth in the Negev, the city is expected to triple in size by 2025. ==Demography== Dimona is described as "mini-India" by many for its 7,500-strong Indian Jewish community. It is also home to Israel's Black Hebrew community, formerly governed by its founder and spiritual leader, Ben Ammi Ben-Israel, now deceased. The Black Hebrews number about 3,000 in Dimona, with additional families in Arad, Mitzpe Ramon and the Tiberias area. Their official status in Israel was an ongoing issue for many years, but in May 1990, the issue was resolved with the issuing of first B/1 visas, and a year later, issuing of temporary residency. Status was extended to August 2003, when the Israeli Ministry of Interior granted permanent residency. ==Economy== In the early 1980s, textile plants, such as Dimona Textiles Ltd., dominated the industrial landscape. Many plants have since closed. Dimona Silica Industries Ltd. manufactures precipitated silica and calcium carbonate fillers. About a third of the city's population works in industrial workplaces (chemical plants near the Dead Sea like the Dead Sea Works, high-tech companies and textile shops), and another third in the area of services. Due to the introduction of new technologies, many workers have been made redundant in the recent years, creating a total unemployment rate of about 10%. Dimona has taken part of Israel's solar transformation. The Rotem Industrial Complex outside of the city has dozens of solar mirrors that focus the sun's rays on a tower that in turn heats a water boiler to create steam, turning a turbine to create electricity. Luz II, Ltd. plans to use the solar array to test new technology for the three new solar plants to be built in California for Pacific Gas and Electric Company. ==Geography and climate== Dimona is located in the Negev Desert. The city stands at an elevation of around above sea level. ===Climate=== Dimona has a semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh). The average annual temperature is , and around of precipitation falls annually. ==Transportation== In the early 1950s, an extension to Dimona and south was constructed from the Railway to Beersheba, designed for freight traffic. A passenger service began in 2005, after pressure from Dimona's municipality. Dimona Railway Station is located in the southwestern part of the city. The main bus terminal is the Dimona Central Bus Station, with lines to Beersheba, Tel Aviv, Eilat, and nearby towns. ==Notable people== Lucy Aharish, news presenter, reporter, television host Jacques Amir (1933–2011), Knesset member Ben Israel Ben Ammi (1939–2014), spiritual leader of the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem Meir Cohen (born 1955), minister of welfare and social services, Knesset member Yoel Strick (born 1966), Major General in the IDF reserves Kfir Edri (born 1976), footballer Yossi Benayoun (born 1980), footballer Akiva Turgeman (born 1991), singer and songwriter ==Twin towns== Dimona is twinned with: Andernach, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany (1975)	[ "Pacific Gas and Electric Company", "Railway to Beersheba", "List of sovereign states", "Germany", "Knesset", "high-tech", "Beersheba", "ISO 259", "Dimona railway station", "Kfir Edri", "Local council (Israel)", "Above mean sea level", "Akiva (singer)", "Köppen climate classification", "Tel Aviv", "Joshua", "Jacques Amir", "List of cities in Israel", "development town", "permanent residency", "Meir Cohen (politician)", "semi-arid climate", "African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem", "Andernach", "Lucy Aharish", "African Hebrew Israelites in Israel", "Israel Defense Forces", "Yoel Strick", "Negev Nuclear Research Center", "Arabah", "Israeli Ministry of Interior", "Mitzpe Ramon", "Rhineland-Palatinate", "Ben Ammi Ben-Israel", "Reuters", "textile", "North Africa", "Shimon Peres Negev Nuclear Research Center", "Yossi Benayoun", "Dead Sea", "Southern District (Israel)", "Twin towns and sister cities", "Bene Israel", "David Ben-Gurion", "Arad, Israel", "Tiberias", "Negev", "Nuclear weapons and Israel", "Hebraization of Palestinian place names", "Associated Press", "Districts of Israel", "Solar power in Israel", "Ben Israel Ben Ammi", "Dead Sea Works", "Eilat" ]
9,105	DC Comics	{{Infobox publisher \| name = DC Comics \| image = DC Comics 2024.svg \| image_size = \| caption = \| parent = \| status = Active \| founded = \| founder = \| country = United States \| headquarters = 4000 Warner Boulevard, Burbank, California \| distribution = DC Comics (originally DC Comics, Inc., and also known simply as DC) is an American comic book publisher, a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Discovery. DC is an initialism for "Detective Comics", an American comic book series first published in 1937. DC Comics is one of the largest and oldest American comic book companies, the first comic under the DC banner being published in 1937. The majority of its publications are set in the fictional DC Universe and feature numerous culturally iconic heroic characters, such as Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern, the Flash, Aquaman, Martian Manhunter, and Cyborg; as well as famous fictional teams, including the Justice League, the Justice Society of America, the Teen Titans, and the Suicide Squad. The universe contains an assortment of well-known supervillains, such as the Joker, Lex Luthor, the Cheetah, Deathstroke, the Reverse-Flash, Black Manta, Brainiac, and Darkseid. The company has published non-DC Universe-related material, including Watchmen, V for Vendetta, Fables, and many other titles, under the alternative imprint Vertigo and DC Black Label. Originally at 432 Fourth Avenue in Manhattan, New York City, the company offices have been located at 480 and later 575 Lexington Avenue, 909 Third Avenue, 75 Rockefeller Plaza, 666 Fifth Avenue, and 1325 Avenue of the Americas. DC Comics was located at 1700 Broadway in Midtown Manhattan until April 2015, when DC Entertainment transferred its headquarters to Burbank, California. DC Comics books are distributed to the bookstore market by Penguin Random House Publisher Services. The comics shop direct market was supplied by Diamond Comic Distributors until June 2020, when Lunar Distribution and UCS Comic Distributors (who were by then dominating direct market distribution on account of the disruption to Diamond caused by the COVID-19 pandemic) replaced Diamond as the direct market distributor. In 2017, approximately 70% of the American comic book market was shared by DC Comics and its long-time major competitor Marvel Comics (acquired in 2009 by Warner Bros. Discovery's main competitor, The Walt Disney Company), though this figure may be distorted by the fact that sales of graphic novels are excluded. When all book sales are included, DC is the second largest publisher of comic books, after Viz Media; and Marvel is third. == History == === National Allied Publications === ==== Golden Age ==== thumb\|left\|Cover art of the first comic book by [[National Allied Publications, New Fun: The Big Comic Magazine #1 (cover date: February 1935). Unlike earlier comic book magazines series, characters in this book (such as the Western character Jack Wood) were original creations that were not taken from existing comic strips. Its debut publication was the tabloid-sized New Fun: The Big Comic Magazine #1 (the first of a comic series later called More Fun Comics) with a February 1935 cover date. An anthology title, essentially for original stories not reprinted from newspaper strips, it was unlike many comic book series before it. While DC Comics is now primarily associated with superhero comics, the genres in the first anthology titles consisted of funnies, Western comics, and adventure-related stories. The character Doctor Occult—created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster in December 1935 and included in issue No.6 of New Fun Comics—is considered to be the earliest recurring superhero created by DC that is still being used. The company created a second recurring title called New Comics, first released in December 1935, which was the start of the long-running Adventure Comics series that also featured many anthology titles. By 1936, the group had become Nicholson Publishing. Wheeler-Nicholson's next and final title, Detective Comics, was advertised with a cover illustration dated December 1936 but eventually premiered three months late with a March 1937 cover date. The themed anthology that revolved originally around fictional detective stories became in modern times the longest-running ongoing comic series. A notable debut in the first issue was Slam Bradley, created in a collaboration between Wheeler-Nicholson, Siegel and Shuster. Meanwhile, Max Gaines formed the sister company All-American Publications in 1939. Detective Comics, Inc. soon launched a new anthology title called Action Comics; the first issue, cover dated June 1938, featured new characters such as Superman by Siegel and Shuster, Zatara by Fred Guardineer, and Tex Thompson by Ken Finch and Bernard Baily. Considered as the first comic book to feature the character archetype later known as the "superhero", Action Comics was a sales hit that brought to life a new age of comic books, now affectionately termed the "Golden Age". Action Comics #1 is credited as featuring the first appearance of Superman, both on the cover illustration and inside the issue, and is now one of the most valuable and sought-after comic book issues of all time. The first Superman tale included a superhero origin story with the reveal of an unnamed planet, later known as Krypton, where he is said to have originated. The issue also contained the first essential supporting character and one of the earliest female characters in any comic, with Lois Lane as Superman's first depicted romantic interest. The Green Hornet-inspired character known as the Crimson Avenger by Jim Chamber was featured in Detective Comics No.20 (October 1938). This character is known to be the first masked vigilante published by DC. An unnamed "office boy", retconned as Jimmy Olsen's first appearance, was revealed in a Superman story by Siegel and Shuster in Action Comics No.6 (November 1938). Starting in 1939, Siegel and Shuster's Superman was the first comic-derived character to appear in other formats, later featuring in his own newspaper comic strip, which first introduced his biological parents Jor-El and Lara. All-American Publications' debut comic series, All-American Comics, was first published in April 1939. Despite being a parody, All-American Publications introduced the earliest female character who became the female superhero Red Tornado (though disguised as a male) in Ma Hunkel who first appeared in the "Scribbly" stories in All-American Comics No.3 (June 1939). Another important Batman debut was the introduction of the fictional mansion known as Wayne Manor first seen in Detective Comics No.28 (June 1939). Action Comics No.13 (June 1939) introduced the first recurring Superman enemy referred to as the Ultra-Humanite; created by Siegel and Shuster, this is commonly cited as one of the earliest supervillains in comic books. The Superman character had another breakthrough when he was given his own comic book series, which was previously unheard of. The first issue, published in June 1939, helped directly introduce Superman's adoptive parents, Jonathan and Martha Kent, also created by Siegel and Shuster. Fictional cities were a common theme of DC; the first revealed city was Superman's home city of Metropolis, originally named in Action Comics No.16 (September 1939). Detective Comics No.31 (September 1939) by Gardner Fox, Bob Kane and Sheldon Moldoff introduced a romantic interest for Batman named Julie Madison, as well as the Batarang weapon that Batman commonly uses, and the fictional aircraft called the Batplane. The Daily Planet (a common setting of Superman) was first named in a Superman newspaper strip around November 1939. Doll Man was the first superhero to be produced by Quality Comics, which DC now owns. Fawcett Comics was formed around 1939 and became DC's original competitor company over the next decade. At the end of 1944, All-American titles began using its own logo to distinguish it from the National comics. All-American Publications, an affiliate concern co-owned by Gaines and Liebowitz, merged with Detective Comics, Inc. on September 30, 1946, forming National Comics Publications. The previous year, in June 1945, Gaines had allowed Liebowitz to buy him out and had retained only Picture Stories from the Bible as the foundation of his own new company, EC Comics. At that point, "Liebowitz promptly orchestrated the merger of All-American and Detective Comics into National Comics... Next he took charge of organizing National Comics, [the self-distributorship] Independent News, and their affiliated firms into a single corporate entity, National Periodical Publications". National Periodical Publications became publicly traded on the stock market in 1961. Despite the official names "National Comics" and "National Periodical Publications", the company began branding itself as "Superman-DC" as early as 1940 and became known colloquially as DC Comics for years before the official adoption of that name in 1977. DC Comics began to move aggressively against what it saw as copyright-violating imitations from other companies, such as Fox Comics' Wonder Man, which (according to court testimony) Fox started as a copy of Superman. This extended to DC suing Fawcett Comics over Captain Marvel, who was at the time the top-selling comic character (see National Comics Publications, Inc. v. Fawcett Publications, Inc.). Faced with declining sales and the prospect of bankruptcy if it lost the lawsuit, Fawcett capitulated in 1953 and ceased publishing comics. Years later, Fawcett sold the rights for Captain Marvel to DC Comics, and in 1972 the character was revived in DC's new title Shazam!, which featured artwork by Captain Marvel's creator C. C. Beck. In the meantime, the abandoned 'Marvel' trademark had been seized by Marvel Comics in 1967, with the creation of their Captain Marvel, preventing DC from using the name in the title of their own comic series. While DC's Captain Marvel failed to recapture his earlier popularity, he later appeared in a Saturday morning live action TV adaptation and gained a prominent position in the mainstream continuity of the DC Universe. As the popularity of superheroes faded in the late 1940s, DC Comics focused on such genres as science fiction, Westerns, humor, and romance. The company also published crime and horror titles, although relatively tame contributions that avoided the mid-1950s backlash against such comic genres. A handful of the most popular superhero titles continued publication, including Action Comics and Detective Comics, the medium's two longest-running titles. ==== Silver Age ==== In the mid-1950s, editorial director Irwin Donenfeld and publisher Liebowitz directed editor Julius Schwartz (whose roots lay in the science-fiction book market) to produce a one-shot Flash story in the try-out title Showcase. Instead of reviving the old character, Schwartz had writers Robert Kanigher and John Broome, penciler Carmine Infantino, and inker Joe Kubert create an entirely new super-speedster, updating and modernizing the Flash's civilian identity, costume, and origin with a science-fiction bent. The Flash's reimagining in Showcase No.4 (October 1956) proved sufficiently popular that it soon led to a similar revamping of the Green Lantern character, the introduction of the modern all-star team Justice League of America (JLA), and many more superheroes, heralding what historians and fans call the Silver Age of Comic Books. National radically overhauled its continuing characters—primarily Superman, Batman, and Wonder Woman—rather than just reimagining them. The Superman family of titles, under editor Mort Weisinger, introduced such enduring characters as Supergirl, Bizarro, and Brainiac. The Batman titles, under editor Jack Schiff, introduced the successful Batwoman, Bat-Girl, Ace the Bat-Hound, and Bat-Mite in an attempt to modernize the strip with non-science-fiction elements. Schwartz and Infantino then revitalized Batman in what the company promoted as the "New Look", with relatively down-to-earth stories re-emphasizing Batman as a detective. Meanwhile, editor Kanigher successfully introduced a whole family of Wonder Woman characters having fantastic adventures in a mythical realm. Since the 1940s, when Superman, Batman, and many of the company's other heroes began appearing in stories together, DC's characters have inhabited a shared continuity that was later dubbed the "DC Universe" by fans. With the story "Flash of Two Worlds", in Flash No.123 (September 1961), editor Schwartz (with writer Gardner Fox and artists Infantino and Joe Giella) presented a conceptual mechanism for slotting the 1930s and 1940s Golden Age heroes into this continuity using the explanation that they inhabited an other-dimensional "Earth 2", whilst the modern heroes exist on "Earth 1", consequently laying the foundations of what was later called the DC Multiverse. === National Periodical Publications === DC's introduction of the reimagined superheroes did not go unnoticed by their competitors. In 1961, with DC's JLA as the specific inducement, Marvel Comics' writer-editor Stan Lee and artist Jack Kirby ushered in the sub-Silver Age "Marvel Age" of comics with the debut issue of The Fantastic Four. Reportedly, DC dismissed the initial success of Marvel's editorial change until its consistently strengthening sales—albeit also benefiting DC's parent company Independent News, as Marvel's distributor—made it impossible to ignore. This commercial situation was highlighted by Marvel's superior sell-through percentage numbers which were typically 70% to DC's roughly 50%, meaning that DC's publications were barely making a profit after returns from the distributors were factored in, while Marvel was making a healthy profit by comparison. Also in 1961, both DC and Marvel increased their cover price from ten cents to twelve cents, while the rival publisher Dell Comics was charging fifteen cents. At this time, the senior DC staff were reportedly unable to explain how this small publishing house was achieving its increasingly threatening commercial strength. For instance, when Marvel's product was examined in a meeting, the emphasis on more sophisticated character-based narrative and artist-driven visual storytelling was apparently overlooked. Instead, superficial reasons were put forward to account for the brand's popularity, like the presence of the color red or word balloons on the cover, or that the perceived crudeness of the interior art was somehow more appealing to readers. When Lee learned about DC's subsequent experimental attempts to imitate these perceived details, he amused himself by arranging direct defiance of those assumptions in Marvel's publications as sales strengthened further to frustrate the competition. However, this ignorance of Marvel's true appeal did not extend to some of the writing talent during this period, and attempts were made to emulate Marvel's narrative approach. For instance, there was the Doom Patrol series by Arnold Drake (who had previously warned DC's management about Marvel's strength), a superhero team of outsiders who resented their freakish powers, which Drake later speculated was plagiarized by Stan Lee to create The X-Men. There was also the young Jim Shooter who purposely emulated Marvel's writing when he wrote for DC after studying both companies' styles, such as for the Legion of Super-Heroes feature. In 1966, National Periodical Publications established its own television arm, led by Allen Ducovny, to develop and produce TV projects, with Superman TV Corporation handling the distribution of NPP's shows. A 1966 Batman TV show on the ABC network sparked a temporary spike in comic book sales and a brief fad for superheroes in Saturday morning animation (Filmation produced most of DC's initial cartoons) and other media. DC significantly lightened the tone of many of its comics—particularly Batman and Detective Comics—to better complement the "camp" tone of the TV series. This change in tone coincided with the prominent "Go-Go Checks" cover-dress that featured a black-and-white checkered strip at the top of each DC comic (all cover dates between February 1966 and August 1967), a misguided attempt by then-managing editor Irwin Donenfeld to make DC's output "stand out on the newsracks". In particular, DC artist Carmine Infantino complained that the distinctive cover made it easier for readers to spot DC's titles and avoid them in favor of Marvel's titles. In 1967, Infantino (who had designed popular Silver Age characters Batgirl and the Phantom Stranger) rose from art director to become DC's editorial director. With the growing popularity of upstart rival Marvel Comics threatening to topple DC from its longtime number-one position in the comics industry, he tried to direct DC's focus towards marketing new and existing titles and characters with more adult sensibilities, aimed at an emerging older age group of superhero comic book fans; this was in response to Marvel's efforts to market their superhero line to college-aged adults. Infantino also recruited major talents such as ex-Marvel artist and Spider-Man co-creator Steve Ditko, and promising newcomers Neal Adams and Denny O'Neil, and he replaced some existing DC editors with artist-editors, including Joe Kubert and Dick Giordano, to give DC's output a more artistic critical eye. === Kinney National / Warner Communications (1967–1990) === In 1967, National Periodical Publications was purchased by Kinney National Company, which purchased Warner Bros.-Seven Arts in 1969. Kinney National spun off its non-entertainment assets in 1972 (as National Kinney Corporation) and changed its name to Warner Communications Inc. In 1970, Jack Kirby moved from Marvel Comics to DC, at the end of the Silver Age of Comics, in which Kirby's contributions to Marvel played a large, integral role. As artist Gil Kane described: Jack was the single most influential figure in the turnaround in Marvel's fortunes from the time he rejoined the company ... It wasn't merely that Jack conceived most of the characters that are being done, but ... Jack's point of view and philosophy of drawing became the governing philosophy of the entire publishing company and, beyond the publishing company, of the entire field ... [Marvel took] Jack and use[d] him as a primer. They would get artists ... and they taught them the ABCs, which amounted to learning Jack Kirby ... Jack was like the Holy Scripture and they simply had to follow him without deviation. That's what was told to me ... It was how they taught everyone to reconcile all those opposing attitudes to one single master point of view. Given carte blanche to write and illustrate his own stories, he created a handful of thematically-linked series he called collectively "The Fourth World". In the existing series Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen and in his own, newly-launched series New Gods, Mister Miracle, and The Forever People, Kirby introduced such enduring characters and concepts as arch-villain Darkseid and the other-dimensional realm Apokolips. Furthermore, Kirby intended their stories to be reprinted in collected editions, in a publishing format that was later called the trade paperback, which became a standard industry practice decades later. While sales were respectable, they did not meet DC management's initially high expectations, and also suffered from a lack of comprehension and internal support from Infantino. By 1973 the "Fourth World" was all cancelled, although Kirby's conceptions soon became integral to the broadening of the DC Universe, especially after the major toy-company, Kenner Products, judged them ideal for their action-figure adaptation of the DC Universe, the Super Powers Collection. Obligated by his contract, Kirby created other unrelated series for DC, including Kamandi, The Demon, and OMAC, before ultimately returning to Marvel Comics in 1976. ==== Bronze Age ==== Following the science-fiction innovations of the Silver Age, the comics of the 1970s and 1980s became known as the Bronze Age, as fantasy gave way to more naturalistic and sometimes darker themes. Illegal drug use, banned by the Comics Code Authority, explicitly appeared in comics for the first time in Marvel Comics' story "Green Goblin Reborn!" in The Amazing Spider-Man No.96 (May 1971), and after the Code's updating in response, DC offered a drug-fueled storyline in writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Neal Adams' Green Lantern, beginning with the story "Snowbirds Don't Fly" in the retitled Green Lantern / Green Arrow No.85 (September 1971), which depicted Speedy, the teen sidekick of superhero archer Green Arrow, as having become a heroin addict. Jenette Kahn, a former children's magazine publisher, replaced Infantino as editorial director in January 1976. As it happened, her first task even before being formally hired, was to convince Bill Sarnoff, the head of Warner Publishing, to keep DC as a publishing concern, as opposed to simply managing their licensing of their properties. With that established, DC had attempted to compete with the now-surging Marvel by dramatically increasing its output and attempting to win the market by flooding it. This included launching series featuring such new characters as Firestorm and Shade, the Changing Man, as well as an increasing array of non-superhero titles, in an attempt to recapture the pre-Wertham days of post-War comicdom. === DC Comics === In 1977, the company officially changed its name to DC Comics. It had used the brand "Superman-DC" since the 1950s, and was colloquially known as DC Comics for years. In June 1978, five months before the release of the first Superman film, Kahn expanded the line further, increasing the number of titles and story pages, and raising the price from 35 cents to 50 cents. Most series received eight-page back-up features while some had full-length twenty-five-page stories. This was a move the company called the "DC Explosion". The move was not successful, however, and corporate parent Warner dramatically cut back on these largely unsuccessful titles, firing many staffers in what industry watchers dubbed "the DC Implosion". In September 1978, the line was dramatically reduced and standard-size books returned to 17-page stories but for a still increased 40 cents. By 1980, the books returned to 50 cents with a 25-page story count but the story pages replaced house ads in the books. Seeking new ways to boost market share, the new team of publisher Kahn, vice president Paul Levitz, and managing editor Giordano addressed the issue of talent instability. To that end—and following the example of Atlas/Seaboard Comics and such independent companies as Eclipse Comics—DC began to offer royalties in place of the industry-standard work-for-hire agreement in which creators worked for a flat fee and signed away all rights, giving talent a financial incentive tied to the success of their work. As it happened, the implementation of these incentives proved opportune considering Marvel Comics' Editor-in-Chief, Jim Shooter, was alienating much of his company's creative staff with his authoritarian manner and major talents there went to DC like Roy Thomas, Gene Colan, Marv Wolfman, and George Pérez. In addition, emulating the era's new television form, the miniseries while addressing the matter of an excessive number of ongoing titles fizzling out within a few issues of their start, DC created the industry concept of the comic book limited series. This publishing format allowed for the deliberate creation of finite storylines within a more flexible publishing format that could showcase creations without forcing the talent into unsustainable open-ended commitments. The first such title was World of Krypton in 1979, and its positive results led to subsequent similar titles and later more ambitious productions like Camelot 3000 for the direct market in 1982. These changes in policy shaped the future of the medium as a whole, and in the short term allowed DC to entice creators away from rival Marvel, and encourage stability on individual titles. In November 1980 DC launched the ongoing series The New Teen Titans, by writer Marv Wolfman and artist George Pérez, two popular talents with a history of success. Their superhero-team comic, superficially similar to Marvel's ensemble series X-Men, but rooted in DC history, earned significant sales in part due to the stability of the creative team, who both continued with the title for six full years. In addition, Wolfman and Pérez took advantage of the limited-series option to create a spin-off title, Tales of the New Teen Titans, to present origin stories of their original characters without having to break the narrative flow of the main series or oblige them to double their work load with another ongoing title. ==== Modern Age ==== This successful revitalization of the Silver Age Teen Titans led DC's editors to seek the same for the wider DC Universe. The result, the Wolfman/Pérez 12-issue limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths, gave the company an opportunity to realign and jettison some of the characters' complicated backstory and continuity discrepancies. A companion publication, two volumes entitled The History of the DC Universe, set out the revised history of the major DC characters. Crisis featured many key deaths that shaped the DC Universe for the following decades, and it separated the timeline of DC publications into pre- and post-"Crisis". Meanwhile, a parallel update had started in the non-superhero and horror titles. Since early 1984, the work of British writer Alan Moore had revitalized the horror series The Saga of the Swamp Thing, and soon numerous British writers, including Neil Gaiman and Grant Morrison, began freelancing for the company. The resulting influx of sophisticated horror-fantasy material led to DC in 1993 establishing the Vertigo mature-readers imprint, which did not subscribe to the Comics Code Authority. Two DC limited series, Batman: The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller and Watchmen by Moore and artist Dave Gibbons, drew attention in the mainstream press for their dark psychological complexity and promotion of the antihero. These titles helped pave the way for comics to be more widely accepted in literary-criticism circles and to make inroads into the book industry, with collected editions of these series as commercially successful trade paperbacks. The mid-1980s also saw the end of many long-running DC war comics, including series that had been in print since the 1960s. These titles, all with over 100 issues, included Sgt. Rock, G.I. Combat, The Unknown Soldier, and Weird War Tales. === Time Warner / Time Warner Entertainment / AOL Time Warner (1990–2018) === In March 1989, Warner Communications merged with Time Inc., making DC Comics a subsidiary of Time Warner. In June, the first Tim Burton-directed Batman film was released, and DC began publishing its hardcover series of DC Archive Editions; these were collections of many of their early, key comics series, featuring rare and expensive stories previously unseen by the majority of modern fans. Much of the restoration work was handled by Rick Keene, with colour restoration performed by DC's long-time resident colourist Bob LeRose. The Archive Editions attempted to retroactively credit many of the writers and artists who had worked for DC without receiving much recognition during the early age of comic books when individual credits were rare. The comics industry experienced a brief boom in the early 1990s, thanks to a combination of speculative purchasing—mass purchase of the books as collectible items, with the intention to resell at a higher value (as the rising value of older issues was thought to imply that all comics would rise dramatically in price)—and several storylines gaining attention from the mainstream media. DC's extended storylines in which Superman was killed, Batman was crippled, and Green Lantern turned into the supervillain Parallax, resulted in dramatically increased sales. However, the increases were temporary, and sales dropped off as the industry went into a major slump, while manufactured "collectables" numbering in the millions replaced quality with quantity until fans and speculators alike deserted the medium in droves. DC's Piranha Press and other imprints (including the mature readers' line Vertigo, and Helix, a short-lived science fiction imprint) were introduced to facilitate compartmentalized diversification and allow for specialized marketing of individual product lines. They increased the use of non-traditional contractual arrangements, including the dramatic rise of creator-owned projects, leading to a significant increase in critically lauded work (much of it for Vertigo) and the licensing of material from other companies. DC also increased publication of book-store friendly formats, including trade paperback collections of individual serial comics, as well as original graphic novels. One of the other imprints was Impact Comics from 1991 to 1992 in which the Archie Comics superheroes were licensed and revamped. The stories in the line were part of its own shared universe. DC entered into a publishing agreement with Milestone Media that gave DC a line of comics featuring a culturally and racially diverse range of superhero characters. Although the Milestone line ceased publication after a few years, it yielded the popular animated series Static Shock. DC established Paradox Press to publish material such as the large-format Big Book of... series of multi-artist interpretations on individual themes, and such crime fiction as the graphic novel Road to Perdition. In 1998, DC purchased WildStorm Comics, Jim Lee's imprint under the Image Comics banner, continuing it for many years as a wholly separate imprint (and fictional universe) with its own unique style and audience. As part of this purchase, DC also began to publish titles under the fledgling WildStorm sub-imprint America's Best Comics (ABC), a series of titles created by Alan Moore which included The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Tom Strong, and Promethea. Moore strongly opposed this move, and DC eventually stopped publishing ABC. In March 2003, DC acquired publishing and merchandising rights to the long-running fantasy series Elfquest, previously self-published by creators Wendy and Richard Pini under their WaRP Graphics publication banner. This series then followed another non-DC title, Tower Comics' series T.H.U.N.D.E.R. Agents, in collection into DC Archive Editions. In 2004, DC temporarily acquired the North American publishing rights to graphic novels from European publishers 2000 AD and Humanoids. It also rebranded its younger-audience titles with the mascot Johnny DC and established the CMX imprint to reprint translated manga. In 2006, CMX took over from Dark Horse Comics' publication of the webcomic Megatokyo in print form. DC also took advantage of the demise of Kitchen Sink Press and acquired the rights to much of the work of Will Eisner, such as his The Spirit series and his graphic novels. In 2004, DC began laying the groundwork for a full continuity-reshuffling sequel to Crisis on Infinite Earths, promising substantial changes to the DC Universe (and side-stepping the 1994 Zero Hour event which similarly tried to ret-con the history of the DCU). In 2005, the critically lauded Batman Begins film was released; also, the company published several limited series establishing increasingly escalating conflicts among DC's heroes, with events climaxing in the Infinite Crisis limited series. Immediately after this event, DC's ongoing series jumped forward a full year in their in-story continuity, as DC launched a weekly series, 52, to gradually fill in the missing time. Concurrently, DC lost the copyright to "Superboy" (while retaining the trademark) when the heirs of Jerry Siegel used a provision of the 1976 revision to the copyright law to regain ownership. In 2005, DC launched its "All-Star" line (evoking the title of the 1940s publication), designed to feature some of the company's best-known characters in stories that eschewed the long and convoluted continuity of the DC Universe. The line began with All-Star Batman & Robin the Boy Wonder and All-Star Superman, and All-Star Wonder Woman and All-Star Batgirl was announced in 2006, but neither of these stories had been released or scheduled as of the end of 2009. By 2007, DC was licensing characters from the Archie Comics imprint Red Circle Comics. They appeared in the Red Circle line, based in the DC Universe, with a series of one-shots followed by a miniseries that led into two ongoing titles that each lasted for ten issues. === DC Entertainment === In 2011, DC rebooted all of its running titles following the Flashpoint storyline. The reboot called The New 52 gave new origin stories and costume designs to many of DC's characters. DC licensed pulp characters including Doc Savage and the Spirit which it then used, along with some DC heroes, as part of the First Wave comics line launched in 2010 and lasting through fall 2011. In May 2011, DC announced it would begin releasing digital versions of their comics on the same day as paper versions. On June 1, 2011, DC announced that it would end all ongoing series set in the DC Universe in August and relaunch its comic line with 52 issue #1s, starting with Justice League on August 31 (written by Geoff Johns and drawn by Jim Lee), with the rest to follow later on in September. On June 4, 2013, DC unveiled two new digital comic innovations to enhance interactivity: DC2 and DC2 Multiverse. DC2 layers dynamic artwork onto digital comic panels, adding a new level of dimension to digital storytelling, while DC2 Multiverse allows readers to determine a specific story outcome by selecting individual characters, storylines and plot developments while reading the comic, meaning one digital comic has multiple outcomes. DC2 appeared in the digital-first title, Batman '66, based on the 1960s television series and DC2 Multiverse appeared in Batman: Arkham Origins, a digital-first title based on the video game of the same name. In 2014, DC announced an eight-issue miniseries titled Convergence which began in April 2015. In 2016, DC announced a line-wide relaunch titled DC Rebirth. The new line would launch with an 80-page one-shot titled DC Universe: Rebirth, written by Geoff Johns, with art from Gary Frank, Ethan Van Sciver, and more. After that, many new series would launch with a twice-monthly release schedule and new creative teams for nearly every title. The relaunch was meant to bring back the legacy and heart many felt had been missing from DC characters since the launch of the New 52. Rebirth brought huge success, both financially and critically. In January 2018, DC held an event in the now-defunct Newseum in Washington D.C.. The event featured a pop-up shop with autograph opportunities, panel discussions with stars and producers from Arrow, DC's Legends of Tomorrow, The Flash, Gotham, Supergirl, and Freedom Fighters: The Ray, comic book authors and artists, and premiere screenings of Black Lightning and Batman: Gotham By Gaslight. === WarnerMedia / Warner Bros. Discovery unit (2018–present) === On February 21, 2020, the Co-Publisher of DC Comics, Dan DiDio stepped down after 10 years at that position. The company did not give a reason for the move, nor did it indicate whether it was his decision or the company's. The leadership change was the latest event in the company restructuring which began the previous month, as several top executives were laid off from the company. However, Bleeding Cool reported that he was fired. In June 2020, Warner Bros. announced a separate DC-themed online-only convention. Known as DC FanDome, the free "immersive virtual fan experience" was a 24-hour-long event held on August 22, 2020. The main presentation, entitled "DC FanDome: Hall of Heroes", was held as scheduled on August 22. The remaining programming was provided through a one-day video on demand experience, "DC FanDome: Explore the Multiverse", on September 12. As Warner Bros. and DC's response to San Diego Comic-Con's cancellation due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the convention featured information about DC-based content including the DC Extended Universe film franchise, the Arrowverse television franchise, comic books, and video games. The convention also returned for the virtual premiere of Wonder Woman 1984 and returned once again on October 16, 2021. In August 2020, roughly one-third of DC's editorial ranks were laid off, including the editor-in-chief, senior story editor, executive editor, and several senior VPs. In March 2021, DC relaunched their entire line once again under the banner of Infinite Frontier. After the events of the Dark Nights: Death Metal storyline, the DC Multiverse was expanded into a larger "Omniverse" where everything is canon, effectively reversing the changes The New 52 introduced a decade prior. Furthermore, AT&T spun off WarnerMedia to Discovery, forming Warner Bros. Discovery. This merger was completed on April 8, 2022. In January 2023, DC relaunched their line under the banner of Dawn of DC following the conclusion of Dark Crisis on Infinite Earths and Lazarus Planet. Later that year, Jim Lee was promoted to President of DC in May. == Logo == The November 1941 DC titles introduced an updated logo. This was almost twice the size of the previous version and the first with a white background. The name "Superman" was added to "A DC Publication", effectively acknowledging both Superman and Batman. This logo was the first to occupy the top-left corner of the cover, which is where the logo has generally resided ever since. The company began to refer to itself in its advertising as "Superman-DC". When Jenette Kahn became DC's publisher in late 1976, she commissioned graphic designer Milton Glaser to design a new company logo. Popularly referred to as the "DC bullet", this logo premiered on the February 1977 titles. Although it varied in size and colour, was at times cropped by the edges of the cover, and was briefly rotated by 4degrees, the logo remained essentially unchanged for almost three decades. Despite the various logo changes since 2005, the old "DC bullet" continues to be used only on the DC Archive Editions series. On May 8, 2005, a new logo (dubbed the "DC spin") was unveiled, debuting on DC titles in June 2005 with DC Special: The Return of Donna Troy No.1 and the rest of the titles the following week. As well as being used for comics, the new logo was designed for DC properties in other media, including films since Batman Begins (with Superman Returns showing the logo's normal variant), the TV series Smallville, the animated series Justice League Unlimited and others, as well as for collectibles and other merchandise. The "DC Spin" logo was designed by Josh Beatman of Brainchild Studios and DC executive Richard Bruning. In March 2012, DC unveiled a new logo designed by Landor Associates, which consists of a letter "D" peeling back to reveal the letter "C". The logo was intended to signify the concept of superheroes having "dual" identities and was adaptable across different mediums. In May 2016, in conjunction with the DC Rebirth, DC replaced the "peel" logo with a circular logo reminiscent of the 1972 logo. In July 2024, an updated version of Glaser's 1977 "Bullet" logo was unveiled during San Diego Comic-Con, as well as an accompanying intro sequence featuring Superman for DC Studios. === Gallery === DC Bullet (SVG).svg\|1977–2005, aka the "DC Bullet" (first era logo) DC Spin.svg\|2005–2012, aka the "DC Spin" DC Peel.svg\|2012–2016, aka the "DC Page" DC Comics logo.svg\|2016–2024, logo introduced with the DC Rebirth relaunch DC Comics 2024.svg\|2024–present, aka the "DC Bullet" (second era / return logo) == Imprints == === Active === DC (1937–present) Elseworlds (1989–2010, 2024–present) Vertigo Comics (1993–2020, 2024–present) Sandman Universe (2018–present) WildStorm (1999–2010, 2017–present) Earth-M (1993–1997, 2018–present) Young Animal (2016–present) DC Black Label (2018–present) Hill House Comics (2019–present) Wonder Comics (2019–present) DC Graphic Novels for Young Adults (2020–present) DC Graphic Novels for Kids (2020–present) DC Horror (2021–present) DC Compact Comics (2024–present) Mad (1953–present) === Defunct === DC Archive Editions (1989–2014; replaced by DC Omnibus) Piranha Press (1989–1993; renamed Paradox Press) Impact Comics (1991–1993; licensed from Archie Comics) Amalgam Comics (1996–1997; jointly with Marvel Comics) Helix (1996–1998; merged with Vertigo) Tangent Comics (1997–1998) Paradox Press (1998–2003) WildStorm Productions (1999–2010) America's Best Comics (1999–2005) Homage Comics (1999–2004; merged to form WildStorm Signature) Cliffhanger (1999–2004; merged to form WildStorm Signature) WildStorm Signature (2004–2006; merged with main WildStorm line) CMX Manga (2004–2010) DC Focus (2004–2005; merged with main DC line) Johnny DC (2004–2012) All Star (2005–2008) Minx (2007–2008) Zuda Comics (2007–2010) First Wave (2010–2011; licensed from Condé Nast Publications and Will Eisner Library) DC Ink (2019; replaced by DC Graphic Novels for Young Adults) DC Zoom (2019; replaced by DC Graphic Novels for Kids)	[ "Steve Ditko", "Sheldon Moldoff", "All Star DC Comics", "Washington, D.C.", "inker", "Jack Adler", "List of television series based on DC Comics publications", "Western comics", "Management", "Independent News", "Spirit (comics character)", "Kryptonian", "Eclipse Comics", "List of comics characters which originated in other media", "Batgirl", "tone (literature)", "Gil Kane", "Showcase (comics)", "Green Goblin Reborn!", "Bizarro", "The New 52", "humor", "Phantom Stranger", "DC FanDome", "Flashpoint (comics)", "Darkseid", "Green Lantern", "X-Men", "miniseries", "Tangent Comics", "The Walt Disney Company", "action figure", "graphic novel", "Batwoman", "Dell Comics", "Reverse-Flash", "Silver Age of Comic Books", "Green Hornet", "Promethea", "Adventure Comics", "X-Men (comic book)", "Carmine Infantino", "National Kinney Corporation", "National Comics Publications", "Comics Code Authority", "work-for-hire", "List of films based on DC Comics publications", "Kinney National Company", "National Allied Publications", "Arrow (TV series)", "Action Comics 1", "Dave Gibbons", "Origins of Marvel Comics", "American Broadcasting Company", "Detective Comics", "Wayne Manor", "Infinite Crisis", "Ace the Bat-Hound", "52 (comics)", "Atlas/Seaboard Comics", "Fantastic Four (comic book)", "Jack Kirby", "Adventure fiction", "Smallville", "Romance comics", "Dennis O'Neil", "Stan Lee", "V for Vendetta", "Landor Associates", "Back Issue!", "Wonder Woman 1984", "mythical", "Marvel Fireside Books", "Etrigan the Demon", "Minx (comics)", "Johnny DC", "List of DC Comics publications", "Robert Kanigher", "Newseum", "All-American Publications", "Entertainment Weekly", "Roy Thomas", "Science fiction", "Vertigo Comics", "copyright infringement", "Sandman Universe", "Sandman (Wesley Dodds)", "DC Focus", "Amalgam Comics", "Warner Communications", "Newsarama", "Comics vocabulary", "Batman: Arkham Origins", "Silver Age of Comics", "DC Ink", "CMX (comics)", "Ultra-Humanite", "Joe Chill", "Legion of Super-Heroes", "Camelot 3000", "Viz Media", "Denny O'Neil", "Bob Kane", "Firestorm (comics)", "Batman's utility belt", "DC Rebirth", "Quality Comics", "The New York Times", "Bob LeRose", "Julius Schwartz", "Direct market", "DC Entertainment", "One-shot (comics)", "Doc Savage", "Wonder Woman", "Sgt. 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Studios Burbank", "Manhattan", "National Comics Publications, Inc. v. Fawcett Publications, Inc.", "Action fiction", "direct market", "Jack Schiff", "The Saga of the Swamp Thing", "Batman: Arkham", "Lexington Avenue", "Teen Titans", "The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen", "Crimson Avenger (Lee Travis)", "America's Best Comics", "Fantagraphics Books", "Wendy and Richard Pini", "Fifty Who Made DC Great", "T.H.U.N.D.E.R. Agents", "DC Omnibus", "Publication history of DC Comics crossover events", "Superman (1978 film)", "Joker (character)", "Filmation", "2000 AD (comics)", "Weird War Tales", "The Amazing Spider-Man", "Michael Uslan", "Naturalism (literature)", "supporting character", "Batman (TV series)", "Dick Giordano", "Zero Hour (comics)", "Fred Guardineer", "war comics", "National Comics Publications, Inc.", "Krypton (comics)", "Convergence (comics)", "Gardner Fox", "Editor-in-chief", "Emerald Twilight", "Captain Marvel (Mar-Vell)", "Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson", "List of video games based on DC Comics", "Aquaman", "Watchmen", "Dawn of DC", "Fables (comics)", "Batmobile", "trade paperbacks", "DC Graphic Novels for Kids", "Fourth World (comics)", "Crime comics", "Doom Patrol", "Lois Lane", "National Allied Publications, Inc.", "Tex Thompson", "Batarang", "newspaper strip", "Black Manta", "Jack Liebowitz", "Dark Horse Comics", "Polygon (website)", "Western (genre)", "Jor-El", "Road to Perdition (comics)" ]
9,109	Diophantine equation	In mathematics, a Diophantine equation is an equation, typically a polynomial equation in two or more unknowns with integer coefficients, for which only integer solutions are of interest. A linear Diophantine equation equates the sum of two or more unknowns, with coefficients, to a constant. An exponential Diophantine equation is one in which unknowns can appear in exponents. Diophantine problems have fewer equations than unknowns and involve finding integers that solve all equations simultaneously. Because such systems of equations define algebraic curves, algebraic surfaces, or, more generally, algebraic sets, their study is a part of algebraic geometry that is called Diophantine geometry. The word Diophantine refers to the Hellenistic mathematician of the 3rd century, Diophantus of Alexandria, who made a study of such equations and was one of the first mathematicians to introduce symbolism into algebra. The mathematical study of Diophantine problems that Diophantus initiated is now called Diophantine analysis. While individual equations present a kind of puzzle and have been considered throughout history, the formulation of general theories of Diophantine equations, beyond the case of linear and quadratic equations, was an achievement of the twentieth century. ==Examples== In the following Diophantine equations, , and are the unknowns and the other letters are given constants: ==Linear Diophantine equations== ===One equation=== The simplest linear Diophantine equation takes the form ax+by=c, where , and are given integers. The solutions are described by the following theorem: This Diophantine equation has a solution (where and are integers) if and only if is a multiple of the greatest common divisor of and . Moreover, if is a solution, then the other solutions have the form , where is an arbitrary integer, and and are the quotients of and (respectively) by the greatest common divisor of and . Proof: If is this greatest common divisor, Bézout's identity asserts the existence of integers and such that . If is a multiple of , then for some integer , and is a solution. On the other hand, for every pair of integers and , the greatest common divisor of and divides . Thus, if the equation has a solution, then must be a multiple of . If and , then for every solution , we have \begin{align} a(x+kv) + b(y-ku) &= ax+by+k(av-bu) \\ &= ax+by+k(udv-vdu) \\ &= ax+by, \end{align} showing that is another solution. Finally, given two solutions such that ax_1 + by_1 = ax_2 + by_2 = c, one deduces that u(x_2 - x_1) + v(y_2 - y_1) = 0. As and are coprime, Euclid's lemma shows that divides , and thus that there exists an integer such that both x_2 - x_1 = kv, \quad y_2 - y_1 = -ku. Therefore, x_2 = x_1 + kv, \quad y_2 = y_1 - ku, which completes the proof. ===Chinese remainder theorem=== The Chinese remainder theorem describes an important class of linear Diophantine systems of equations: let n_1, \dots, n_k be pairwise coprime integers greater than one, a_1, \dots, a_k be arbitrary integers, and be the product n_1 \cdots n_k. The Chinese remainder theorem asserts that the following linear Diophantine system has exactly one solution (x, x_1, \dots, x_k) such that , and that the other solutions are obtained by adding to a multiple of : \begin{align} x &= a_1 + n_1\,x_1\\ &\;\;\vdots\\ x &= a_k + n_k\,x_k \end{align} === System of linear Diophantine equations=== More generally, every system of linear Diophantine equations may be solved by computing the Smith normal form of its matrix, in a way that is similar to the use of the reduced row echelon form to solve a system of linear equations over a field. Using matrix notation every system of linear Diophantine equations may be written AX = C, where is an matrix of integers, is an column matrix of unknowns and is an column matrix of integers. The computation of the Smith normal form of provides two unimodular matrices (that is matrices that are invertible over the integers and have ±1 as determinant) and of respective dimensions and , such that the matrix B = [b_{i,j}] = UAV is such that is not zero for not greater than some integer , and all the other entries are zero. The system to be solved may thus be rewritten as B (V^{-1}X) = UC. Calling the entries of and those of , this leads to the system \begin{align} & b_{i,i}y_i = d_i, \quad 1 \leq i \leq k \\ & 0y_i = d_i, \quad k < i \leq n. \end{align} This system is equivalent to the given one in the following sense: A column matrix of integers is a solution of the given system if and only if for some column matrix of integers such that . It follows that the system has a solution if and only if divides for and for . If this condition is fulfilled, the solutions of the given system are V\, \begin{bmatrix} \frac{d_1}{b_{1,1}}\\ \vdots\\ \frac{d_k}{b_{k,k}}\\ h_{k+1}\\ \vdots\\ h_n \end{bmatrix}\,, where are arbitrary integers. Hermite normal form may also be used for solving systems of linear Diophantine equations. However, Hermite normal form does not directly provide the solutions; to get the solutions from the Hermite normal form, one has to successively solve several linear equations. Nevertheless, Richard Zippel wrote that the Smith normal form "is somewhat more than is actually needed to solve linear diophantine equations. Instead of reducing the equation to diagonal form, we only need to make it triangular, which is called the Hermite normal form. The Hermite normal form is substantially easier to compute than the Smith normal form." Integer linear programming amounts to finding some integer solutions (optimal in some sense) of linear systems that include also inequations. Thus systems of linear Diophantine equations are basic in this context, and textbooks on integer programming usually have a treatment of systems of linear Diophantine equations. ==Homogeneous equations== A homogeneous Diophantine equation is a Diophantine equation that is defined by a homogeneous polynomial. A typical such equation is the equation of Fermat's Last Theorem x^d+y^d -z^d=0. As a homogeneous polynomial in indeterminates defines a hypersurface in the projective space of dimension , solving a homogeneous Diophantine equation is the same as finding the rational points of a projective hypersurface. Solving a homogeneous Diophantine equation is generally a very difficult problem, even in the simplest non-trivial case of three indeterminates (in the case of two indeterminates the problem is equivalent with testing if a rational number is the th power of another rational number). A witness of the difficulty of the problem is Fermat's Last Theorem (for , there is no integer solution of the above equation), which needed more than three centuries of mathematicians' efforts before being solved. For degrees higher than three, most known results are theorems asserting that there are no solutions (for example Fermat's Last Theorem) or that the number of solutions is finite (for example Falting's theorem). For the degree three, there are general solving methods, which work on almost all equations that are encountered in practice, but no algorithm is known that works for every cubic equation. ===Degree two=== Homogeneous Diophantine equations of degree two are easier to solve. The standard solving method proceeds in two steps. One has first to find one solution, or to prove that there is no solution. When a solution has been found, all solutions are then deduced. For proving that there is no solution, one may reduce the equation modulo . For example, the Diophantine equation x^2+y^2=3z^2, does not have any other solution than the trivial solution . In fact, by dividing , and by their greatest common divisor, one may suppose that they are coprime. The squares modulo 4 are congruent to 0 and 1. Thus the left-hand side of the equation is congruent to 0, 1, or 2, and the right-hand side is congruent to 0 or 3. Thus the equality may be obtained only if , and are all even, and are thus not coprime. Thus the only solution is the trivial solution . This shows that there is no rational point on a circle of radius \sqrt{3}, centered at the origin. More generally, the Hasse principle allows deciding whether a homogeneous Diophantine equation of degree two has an integer solution, and computing a solution if there exist. If a non-trivial integer solution is known, one may produce all other solutions in the following way. ====Geometric interpretation==== Let Q(x_1, \ldots, x_n)=0 be a homogeneous Diophantine equation, where Q(x_1, \ldots, x_n) is a quadratic form (that is, a homogeneous polynomial of degree 2), with integer coefficients. The trivial solution is the solution where all x_i are zero. If (a_1, \ldots, a_n) is a non-trivial integer solution of this equation, then \left(a_1, \ldots, a_n\right) are the homogeneous coordinates of a rational point of the hypersurface defined by . Conversely, if \left(\frac {p_1}q, \ldots, \frac {p_n}q \right) are homogeneous coordinates of a rational point of this hypersurface, where q, p_1, \ldots, p_n are integers, then \left(p_1, \ldots, p_n\right) is an integer solution of the Diophantine equation. Moreover, the integer solutions that define a given rational point are all sequences of the form \left(k\frac{p_1}d, \ldots, k\frac{p_n}d\right), where is any integer, and is the greatest common divisor of the p_i. It follows that solving the Diophantine equation Q(x_1, \ldots, x_n)=0 is completely reduced to finding the rational points of the corresponding projective hypersurface. ====Parameterization==== Let now A=\left(a_1, \ldots, a_n\right) be an integer solution of the equation Q(x_1, \ldots, x_n)=0. As is a polynomial of degree two, a line passing through crosses the hypersurface at a single other point, which is rational if and only if the line is rational (that is, if the line is defined by rational parameters). This allows parameterizing the hypersurface by the lines passing through , and the rational points are those that are obtained from rational lines, that is, those that correspond to rational values of the parameters. More precisely, one may proceed as follows. By permuting the indices, one may suppose, without loss of generality that a_n\ne 0. Then one may pass to the affine case by considering the affine hypersurface defined by q(x_1,\ldots,x_{n-1})=Q(x_1, \ldots, x_{n-1},1), which has the rational point R= (r_1, \ldots, r_{n-1})=\left(\frac{a_1}{a_n}, \ldots, \frac{a_{n-1}}{a_n}\right). If this rational point is a singular point, that is if all partial derivatives are zero at , all lines passing through are contained in the hypersurface, and one has a cone. The change of variables y_i=x_i-r_i does not change the rational points, and transforms into a homogeneous polynomial in variables. In this case, the problem may thus be solved by applying the method to an equation with fewer variables. If the polynomial is a product of linear polynomials (possibly with non-rational coefficients), then it defines two hyperplanes. The intersection of these hyperplanes is a rational flat, and contains rational singular points. This case is thus a special instance of the preceding case. In the general case, consider the parametric equation of a line passing through : \begin{align} x_2 &= r_2 + t_2(x_1-r_1)\\ &\;\;\vdots\\ x_{n-1} &= r_{n-1} + t_{n-1}(x_1-r_1). \end{align} Substituting this in , one gets a polynomial of degree two in , that is zero for . It is thus divisible by . The quotient is linear in , and may be solved for expressing as a quotient of two polynomials of degree at most two in t_2, \ldots, t_{n-1}, with integer coefficients: x_1=\frac{f_1(t_2, \ldots, t_{n-1})}{f_n(t_2, \ldots, t_{n-1})}. Substituting this in the expressions for x_2, \ldots, x_{n-1}, one gets, for , x_i=\frac{f_i(t_2, \ldots, t_{n-1})}{f_n(t_2, \ldots, t_{n-1})}, where f_1, \ldots, f_n are polynomials of degree at most two with integer coefficients. Then, one can return to the homogeneous case. Let, for , F_i(t_1, \ldots, t_{n-1})=t_1^2 f_i\left(\frac{t_2}{t_1}, \ldots, \frac{t_{n-1}}{t_1} \right), be the homogenization of f_i. These quadratic polynomials with integer coefficients form a parameterization of the projective hypersurface defined by : \begin{align} x_1&= F_1(t_1, \ldots, t_{n-1})\\ &\;\;\vdots\\ x_n&= F_n(t_1, \ldots, t_{n-1}). \end{align} A point of the projective hypersurface defined by is rational if and only if it may be obtained from rational values of t_1, \ldots, t_{n-1}. As F_1, \ldots,F_n are homogeneous polynomials, the point is not changed if all are multiplied by the same rational number. Thus, one may suppose that t_1, \ldots, t_{n-1} are coprime integers. It follows that the integer solutions of the Diophantine equation are exactly the sequences (x_1, \ldots, x_n) where, for , x_i= k\,\frac{F_i(t_1, \ldots, t_{n-1})}{d}, where is an integer, t_1, \ldots, t_{n-1} are coprime integers, and is the greatest common divisor of the integers F_i(t_1, \ldots, t_{n-1}). One could hope that the coprimality of the , could imply that . Unfortunately this is not the case, as shown in the next section. ====Example of Pythagorean triples==== The equation x^2+y^2-z^2=0 is probably the first homogeneous Diophantine equation of degree two that has been studied. Its solutions are the Pythagorean triples. This is also the homogeneous equation of the unit circle. In this section, we show how the above method allows retrieving Euclid's formula for generating Pythagorean triples. For retrieving exactly Euclid's formula, we start from the solution , corresponding to the point of the unit circle. A line passing through this point may be parameterized by its slope: y=t(x+1). Putting this in the circle equation x^2+y^2-1=0, one gets x^2-1 +t^2(x+1)^2=0. Dividing by , results in x-1+t^2(x+1)=0, which is easy to solve in : x=\frac{1-t^2}{1+t^2}. It follows y=t(x+1) = \frac{2t}{1+t^2}. Homogenizing as described above one gets all solutions as \begin{align} x&=k\,\frac{s^2-t^2}{d}\\ y&=k\,\frac{2st}{d}\\ z&=k\,\frac{s^2+t^2}{d}, \end{align} where is any integer, and are coprime integers, and is the greatest common divisor of the three numerators. In fact, if and are both odd, and if one is odd and the other is even. The primitive triples are the solutions where and . This description of the solutions differs slightly from Euclid's formula because Euclid's formula considers only the solutions such that , and are all positive, and does not distinguish between two triples that differ by the exchange of and , ==Diophantine analysis== === Typical questions === The questions asked in Diophantine analysis include: Are there any solutions? Are there any solutions beyond some that are easily found by inspection? Are there finitely or infinitely many solutions? Can all solutions be found in theory? Can one in practice compute a full list of solutions? These traditional problems often lay unsolved for centuries, and mathematicians gradually came to understand their depth (in some cases), rather than treat them as puzzles. === Typical problem === The given information is that a father's age is 1 less than twice that of his son, and that the digits making up the father's age are reversed in the son's age (i.e. ). This leads to the equation , thus . Inspection gives the result , , and thus equals 73 years and equals 37 years. One may easily show that there is not any other solution with and positive integers less than 10. Many well known puzzles in the field of recreational mathematics lead to diophantine equations. Examples include the cannonball problem, Archimedes's cattle problem and the monkey and the coconuts. ===17th and 18th centuries=== In 1637, Pierre de Fermat scribbled on the margin of his copy of Arithmetica: "It is impossible to separate a cube into two cubes, or a fourth power into two fourth powers, or in general, any power higher than the second into two like powers." Stated in more modern language, "The equation has no solutions for any higher than 2." Following this, he wrote: "I have discovered a truly marvelous proof of this proposition, which this margin is too narrow to contain." Such a proof eluded mathematicians for centuries, however, and as such his statement became famous as Fermat's Last Theorem. It was not until 1995 that it was proven by the British mathematician Andrew Wiles. In 1657, Fermat attempted to solve the Diophantine equation (solved by Brahmagupta over 1000 years earlier). The equation was eventually solved by Euler in the early 18th century, who also solved a number of other Diophantine equations. The smallest solution of this equation in positive integers is , (see Chakravala method). ===Hilbert's tenth problem=== In 1900, David Hilbert proposed the solvability of all Diophantine equations as the tenth of his fundamental problems. In 1970, Yuri Matiyasevich solved it negatively, building on work of Julia Robinson, Martin Davis, and Hilary Putnam to prove that a general algorithm for solving all Diophantine equations cannot exist. ===Diophantine geometry=== Diophantine geometry, is the application of techniques from algebraic geometry which considers equations that also have a geometric meaning. The central idea of Diophantine geometry is that of a rational point, namely a solution to a polynomial equation or a system of polynomial equations, which is a vector in a prescribed field , when is not algebraically closed. ===Modern research=== The oldest general method for solving a Diophantine equationor for proving that there is no solution is the method of infinite descent, which was introduced by Pierre de Fermat. Another general method is the Hasse principle that uses modular arithmetic modulo all prime numbers for finding the solutions. Despite many improvements these methods cannot solve most Diophantine equations. The difficulty of solving Diophantine equations is illustrated by Hilbert's tenth problem, which was set in 1900 by David Hilbert; it was to find an algorithm to determine whether a given polynomial Diophantine equation with integer coefficients has an integer solution. Matiyasevich's theorem implies that such an algorithm cannot exist. During the 20th century, a new approach has been deeply explored, consisting of using algebraic geometry. In fact, a Diophantine equation can be viewed as the equation of an hypersurface, and the solutions of the equation are the points of the hypersurface that have integer coordinates. This approach led eventually to the proof by Andrew Wiles in 1994 of Fermat's Last Theorem, stated without proof around 1637. This is another illustration of the difficulty of solving Diophantine equations. ===Infinite Diophantine equations=== An example of an infinite Diophantine equation is: n = a^2 + 2b^2 + 3c^2 + 4d^2 + 5e^2 + \cdots, which can be expressed as "How many ways can a given integer be written as the sum of a square plus twice a square plus thrice a square and so on?" The number of ways this can be done for each forms an integer sequence. Infinite Diophantine equations are related to theta functions and infinite dimensional lattices. This equation always has a solution for any positive . Compare this to: n = a^2 + 4b^2 + 9c^2 + 16d^2 + 25e^2 + \cdots, which does not always have a solution for positive . ==Exponential Diophantine equations== If a Diophantine equation has as an additional variable or variables occurring as exponents, it is an exponential Diophantine equation. Examples include: the Ramanujan–Nagell equation, the equation of the Fermat–Catalan conjecture and Beal's conjecture, with inequality restrictions on the exponents the Erdős–Moser equation, A general theory for such equations is not available; particular cases such as Catalan's conjecture and Fermat's Last Theorem have been tackled. However, the majority are solved via ad-hoc methods such as Størmer's theorem or even trial and error.	[ "quadratic form", "cannonball problem", "column matrix", "Chinese remainder theorem", "Triviality (mathematics)", "modular arithmetic", "Hermite normal form", "Martin Davis (mathematician)", "unknown (mathematics)", "Brahmagupta", "homogeneous polynomial", "Ramanujan–Nagell equation", "Arithmetica", "Hilbert's problems", "exponentiation", "Fermat–Catalan conjecture", "Elkies", "Academic Press", "if and only if", "Julia Robinson", "Integer linear programming", "Hardy–Ramanujan number", "hyperplane", "parametric equation", "taxicab number", "Erdős–Moser equation", "MathWorld", "homogeneous coordinates", "Euclid's formula", "recreational mathematics", "Matiyasevich's theorem", "Størmer's theorem", "proof of impossibility", "polynomial equation", "inequation", "Wolfram Research", "algebraic surface", "Pythagorean triple", "Aryabhata", "rational point", "Kuṭṭaka", "Diophantus", "Mathematics of Computation", "Euler", "reduced row echelon form", "David Hilbert", "homogenization of a polynomial", "hypersurface", "Ramanujan", "projective hypersurface", "Hilary Putnam", "List of mathematical jargon", "Andrew Wiles", "affine algebraic variety", "Bézout's identity", "equation", "algebraic set", "conical surface", "algebraic curve", "Fermat's Last Theorem", "algorithm", "integer", "Pell's equation", "G. H. Hardy", "Euclid's lemma", "Diophantus and Diophantine Equations", "Mathematical symbol", "Falting's theorem", "exponent", "Springer-Verlag", "unit circle", "algebra", "system of linear equations", "system of polynomial equations", "Annals of Mathematics", "Archimedes's cattle problem", "Alexandria", "flat (geometry)", "rational number", "partial derivative", "Hilbert's tenth problem", "Yuri Matiyasevich", "Cambridge University Press", "circle", "John Pell (mathematician)", "Pierre de Fermat", "pairwise coprime", "Erdős–Straus conjecture", "quadratic equation", "Hasse principle", "Greek mathematics", "coprime", "Chakravala method", "field (mathematics)", "trial and error", "History of the Theory of Numbers", "unimodular matrix", "greatest common divisor", "Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem", "infinite descent", "projective space", "Smith normal form", "theta functions", "Beal's conjecture", "algebraically closed", "matrix (mathematics)", "singular point of an algebraic variety", "Diophantine geometry", "algebraic geometry", "Catalan's conjecture", "systems of equations", "the monkey and the coconuts", "coprime integers", "mathematics" ]
9,110	Diophantus	Diophantus of Alexandria (; born ; died ) was a Greek mathematician, who was the author of two main works: On Polygonal Numbers, which survives incomplete, and the Arithmetica in thirteen books, most of it extant, made up of arithmetical problems that are solved through algebraic equations. He has been referred to as "the father of algebra". Although not the earliest, the Arithmetica has the best-known use of algebraic notation to solve arithmetical problems coming from Greek antiquity. It was translated into Arabic in the 9th century AD and had influence in the development of later algebra: Diophantus' method of solution matches medieval Arabic algebra in its concepts and overall procedure, and some problems from the Arithmetica have inspired modern work in both abstract algebra and number theory. Diophantus was among the first to recognized positive rational numbers as numbers, by allowing fractions for coefficients and solutions. He coined the term παρισότης (parisotēs) to refer to an approximate equality. This term was rendered as adaequalitas in Latin, and became the technique of adequality developed by Pierre de Fermat to find maxima for functions and tangent lines to curves. In modern use, Diophantine equations are algebraic equations with integer coefficients for which integer solutions are sought. Diophantine geometry and Diophantine approximations are two other subareas of number theory that are named after him. ==Biography== Diophantus was born into a Greek family and is known to have lived in Alexandria, Egypt, during the Roman era, between AD 200 and 214 to 284 or 298.{{Efn\|There have been several fringe theories regarding Diophantus' origins. In modern times, a few authors have described him as possibly being an Arab, a Jew, a Hellenized Egyptian, or a Hellenized Babylonian. Some have even claimed that Diophantus was a convert to Christianity. All of these claims are seen as baseless and speculative. These misconceptions about his origin stem due to confusions (e.g. with Diophantus the Arab), conflation of different historical eras, transpositions of mathematical problems into ethnic categories and racialist reasons. Some Diophantine problems from Arithmetica have been found in Arabic sources. It should be mentioned here that Diophantus never used general methods in his solutions. Hermann Hankel, renowned German mathematician made the following remark regarding Diophantus:Our author (Diophantos) not the slightest trace of a general, comprehensive method is discernible; each problem calls for some special method which refuses to work even for the most closely related problems. For this reason it is difficult for the modern scholar to solve the 101st problem even after having studied 100 of Diophantos's solutions. ===History=== Like many other Greek mathematical treatises, Diophantus was forgotten in Western Europe during the Dark Ages, since the study of ancient Greek, and literacy in general, had greatly declined. The portion of the Greek Arithmetica that survived, however, was, like all ancient Greek texts transmitted to the early modern world, copied by, and thus known to, medieval Byzantine scholars. Scholia on Diophantus by the Byzantine Greek scholar John Chortasmenos (1370–1437) are preserved together with a comprehensive commentary written by the earlier Greek scholar Maximos Planudes (1260 – 1305), who produced an edition of Diophantus within the library of the Chora Monastery in Byzantine Constantinople. ==Other works== Diophantus wrote several other books besides Arithmetica, but only a few of them have survived. ===The Porisms=== Diophantus himself refers to a work which consists of a collection of lemmas called The Porisms (or Porismata), but this book is entirely lost. Although The Porisms is lost, we know three lemmas contained there, since Diophantus refers to them in the Arithmetica. One lemma states that the difference of the cubes of two rational numbers is equal to the sum of the cubes of two other rational numbers, i.e. given any and , with , there exist , all positive and rational, such that . ===Polygonal numbers and geometric elements=== Diophantus is also known to have written on polygonal numbers, a topic of great interest to Pythagoras and Pythagoreans. Fragments of a book dealing with polygonal numbers are extant. A book called Preliminaries to the Geometric Elements has been traditionally attributed to Hero of Alexandria. It has been studied recently by Wilbur Knorr, who suggested that the attribution to Hero is incorrect, and that the true author is Diophantus. ==Influence== Diophantus' work has had a large influence in history. Editions of Arithmetica exerted a profound influence on the development of algebra in Europe in the late sixteenth and through the 17th and 18th centuries. Diophantus and his works also influenced Arab mathematics and were of great fame among Arab mathematicians. Diophantus' work created a foundation for work on algebra and in fact much of advanced mathematics is based on algebra. How much he affected India is a matter of debate. Diophantus has been considered "the father of algebra" because of his contributions to number theory, mathematical notations and the earliest known use of syncopated notation in his book series Arithmetica.The symbolism that Diophantus introduced for the first time, and undoubtedly devised himself, provided a short and readily comprehensible means of expressing an equation... Since an abbreviation is also employed for the word 'equals', Diophantus took a fundamental step from verbal algebra towards symbolic algebra.Although Diophantus made important advances in symbolism, he still lacked the necessary notation to express more general methods. This caused his work to be more concerned with particular problems rather than general situations. Some of the limitations of Diophantus' notation are that he only had notation for one unknown and, when problems involved more than a single unknown, Diophantus was reduced to expressing "first unknown", "second unknown", etc. in words. He also lacked a symbol for a general number . Where we would write , Diophantus has to resort to constructions like: "... a sixfold number increased by twelve, which is divided by the difference by which the square of the number exceeds three". Algebra still had a long way to go before very general problems could be written down and solved succinctly.	[ "quadratic equation", "Fermat's Last Theorem", "Latin", "Greek mathematics", "integer", "Metrodorus (grammarian)", "Maximos Planudes", "Ptolemy", "Regiomontanus", "irrational number", "Erdős–Diophantine graph", "Diophantus and Diophantine Equations", "Thomas L. Heath", "Alexandrian Age", "abstract algebra", "Rafael Bombelli", "Polynomial Diophantine equation", "Christianity", "Pythagoreans", "algebra", "Hero of Alexandria", "T. L. Heath", "Norbert Schappacher", "Guilielmus Xylander", "Pythagoras", "Constantinople", "simultaneous equations", "Fringe theory", "Pappus of Alexandria", "adequality", "Diophantus II.VIII", "Oxford University Press", "John Chortasmenos", "Diophantine equation", "editio princeps", "Paul Tannery", "negative numbers", "Arab mathematics", "Alexandria", "Greeks", "Chora Monastery", "Collins English Dictionary", "Adequality", "Wilbur Knorr", "Arithmetica", "number theory", "Professor Layton and Pandora's Box", "rational number", "Diophantine geometry", "Greek language", "Dark Ages (historiography)", "Diophantine approximation", "Egypt", "Roman Egypt", "Andrew Wiles", "polygonal number", "algebraic equation", "Hypatia", "Bachet", "Perspectives on Science", "Lemma (mathematics)", "Diophantus the Arab", "Al-Khwarizmi", "King's College London", "equation", "Hermann Hankel", "Wilhelm Xylander", "Pierre de Fermat" ]
9,111	Dong	Dong or DONG may refer to: ==Places== Dong Lake, or East Lake, a lake in China Dong, Arunachal Pradesh, a village in India Dong (administrative division) (동 or 洞), a neighborhood division in Korea ==Person names== === Surnames === Dǒng (surname) or 董, a Chinese surname Dōng (surname) or 東, a Chinese surname === Persons === Queen Dong (1623–1681), princess consort of Koxinga and mother of Zheng Jing Empress Dong (Ran Min's wife), wife of Ran Min, emperor of Chinese state Ran Wei Empress Dowager Dong (died 189), empress dowager during Han dynasty ==Entertainment== Dong (film) (东), a documentary film by Jia Zhangke. Dong Open Air, a heavy metal festival in Germany. D!NG (previously Do Online Now Guys, or DONG), a YouTube channel created and hosted by Michael Stevens as a segment of the Vsauce, Vsauce2, Vsauce3 and WeSauce channels General Dong, villain of the 1992 Indian film Tahalka, played by Amrish Puri ==Other uses== Dong people, an ethnic minority group of China Dong language (China) Dong language (Nigeria) Vietnamese đồng, a unit of currency Ørsted (company), a Danish energy company formerly known as DONG Energy Danish Cup or DONG Cup, a trophy sponsored by the oil company from 2000 to 2004 Dong, a slang term for the human penis Dong, a jocular fan name for Donkey Kong	[ "Dōng", "Dǒng", "Empress Dong (Ran Min's wife)", "Vsauce", "Dong, Arunachal Pradesh", "Dong language (China)", "Dong (film)", "Amrish Puri", "Dong (administrative division)", "D!NG", "Rodong-1", "Danish Cup", "Long Duk Dong", "human penis", "Michael Stevens (educator)", "Ørsted (company)", "Vietnamese đồng", "Dong Open Air", "Dong language (Nigeria)", "Empress Dowager Dong", "Donkey Kong (character)", "Do Online Now Guys", "Dong quai", "Dong Lake", "Tahalka", "Taepodong (disambiguation)", "Queen Dong", "Lá dong", "Dong people" ]
9,118	Duke Kahanamoku	{{Infobox swimmer \| name = Duke Kahanamoku \| image = Anonymous photograph of Duke Paoa Kahanamoku with his surfboard.JPG \| alt = \| caption = Duke Kahanamoku c. 1912 \| fullname = Duke Paoa Kahinu Mokoe Hulikohola Kahanamoku \| national_team = United States \| strokes = Freestyle \| club = Waikiki Beach Boys \| collegeteam = \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Haleʻākala, Honolulu, Kingdom of Hawaii \| death_date = \| death_place = Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S. \| height = 6 ft 1 in \| weight = 190 lb Kahanamoku joined fraternal organizations: he was a Scottish Rite Freemason in the Honolulu lodge, and a Shriner. He worked as a law enforcement officer, an actor, a beach volleyball player, and a businessman. ==Family background== According to Kahanamoku, he was born in Honolulu at Haleʻākala, the home of Bernice Pauahi Bishop, which was later converted into the Arlington Hotel. He was born into a family of Native Hawaiians headed by Duke Halapu Kahanamoku and Julia Paʻakonia Lonokahikina Paoa. He had five brothers, and three sisters. His brothers were Sargent, Samuel, David, William and Louis, all of whom participated in competitive aquatic sports. His sisters were Bernice, Kapiolani and Maria. "Duke" was not a title or a nickname, but a given name. He was named after his father, Duke Halapu Kahanamoku, who was christened by Bernice Pauahi Bishop in honor of Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, who was visiting Hawaii at the time. His father was a policeman. His mother Julia Paakonia Lonokahikina Paoa was a deeply religious woman with a strong sense of family ancestry. His parents were from prominent Hawaiian ohana (families). The Kahanamoku and the Paoa ohana were considered to be lower-ranking nobles, who were in service to the aliʻi nui, or royalty. In 1893, his family moved to Kālia, Waikiki (near the present site of Hilton Hawaiian Village), to be closer to his mother's parents and family. Kahanamoku grew up with his siblings and 31 Paoa cousins. ==Early years== Growing up on the outskirts of Waikiki, Kahanamoku spent much of his youth at the beach, where he developed his surfing and swimming skills. In his youth, Kahanamoku preferred a traditional surf board, which he called his "papa nui", constructed after the fashion of ancient Hawaiian olo boards. Made from the wood of a koa tree, it was long and weighed . The board was without a skeg, which had yet to be invented. In his later surfing career, he would often use smaller boards but always preferred those made of wood. Kahanamoku was a powerful swimmer. On August 11, 1911, he was timed at 55.4 seconds in the freestyle, beating the existing world record by 4.6 seconds, in the salt water of Honolulu Harbor. He broke the record in the and equaled it in the . But the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), in disbelief, would not recognize these feats until many years later. The AAU initially claimed that the judges must have been using alarm clocks rather than stopwatches and later claimed that ocean currents aided Kahanamoku. ==Career== Kahanamoku easily qualified for the U.S. Olympic swimming team in 1912. At the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, he won a gold medal in the 100-meter freestyle, and a silver medal with the second-place U.S. team in the men's 4×200-meter freestyle relay. During the 1920 Olympics in Antwerp, Kahanamoku won gold medals in both the 100 meters (bettering fellow Hawaiian Pua Kealoha) and in the relay. He finished the 100 meters with a silver medal during the 1924 Olympics in Paris, with the gold going to Johnny Weissmuller and the bronze to Kahanamoku's brother, Samuel. By then age 34, Kahanamoku won no more Olympic medals. The board that Kahanamoku built from a piece of pine from a local hardware store is retained by the Freshwater Surf Life Saving Club. A statue of Kahanamoku was erected in his honor on the Northern headland of Freshwater Lake, New South Wales. During his time living in Southern California, Kahanamoku performed in Hollywood as a background actor and a character actor in several films. He made connections in this way with people who could further publicize the sport of surfing. Kahanamoku was involved with the Los Angeles Athletic Club, acting as a lifeguard and competing in both swimming and water polo teams. While living in Newport Beach, California, on June 14, 1925, Kahanamoku rescued eight men from a fishing vessel that capsized in heavy surf while it was attempting to enter the city's harbor. Using his surfboard, Kahanamoku made repeated trips from shore to the capsized ship, and helped rescue several people. Two other surfers saved four more fishermen, while five succumbed to the seas before they could be rescued. At the time the Newport Beach police chief called Kahanamoku's efforts "The most superhuman surfboard rescue act the world has ever seen." The widespread publicity surrounding the rescue influenced lifeguards across the US to begin the use of surfboards as standard equipment for water rescues. == Duncan v. Kahanamoku == In 1946, Kahanamoku was the pro forma defendant in the landmark Supreme Court case Duncan v. Kahanamoku. While Kahanamoku was a military police officer during World War II, he arrested Duncan, a civilian shipfitter, for public intoxication. At the time, Hawaii, not yet a state, was being administered by the United States under the Hawaiian Organic Act. This effectively instituted martial law on the island. After Duncan was tried by a military tribunal, he appealed to the Supreme Court. In a post hoc ruling, the court ruled that trial by military tribunal for the civilian was, in this case, unconstitutional. ==Personal life== On August 2, 1940, Kahanamoku married dance instructor Nadine Alexander, who had relocated to Hawaii from Cleveland, Ohio, after she had been hired to teach at the Royal Hawaiian Hotel. Duke was 50 years old, Nadine was 35. He was initiated, passed and raised to the degree of Master Mason in Hawaiian Lodge Masonic Lodge No 21 and was also a Noble (member) of the Shriners fraternal organization. He was a Republican. == Death and legacy == Kahanamoku died of a heart attack on January 22, 1968, at age 77. For his burial at sea, a long motorcade of mourners, accompanied by a 30-man police escort, traveled in procession across town to Waikiki Beach. Reverend Abraham Akaka, the pastor of Kawaiahao Church, performed the service. A group of beach boys sang Hawaiian songs, including "Aloha Oe", and Kahanamoku's ashes were scattered into the ocean. === Statues and monuments === In 1994, a statue of Kahanamoku by Barry Donohoo was inaugurated in Freshwater, NSW, Australia. It is the showpiece of the Australian Surfers Walk of Fame. On February 28, 2015, a monument featuring a replica of Kahanamoku's surfboard was unveiled at New Brighton beach, Christchurch, New Zealand in honor of the 100th anniversary of Kahanamoku's visit to New Brighton. A statue of Kahanamoku was installed in Huntington Beach, California. A nearby restaurant is named for him and is close to Huntington Beach pier. The City of Huntington Beach identifies with the legacy of surfing, and a museum dedicated to that sport is located here. In April 2022, NSW Heritage announced that Kahanamoku would be included in the first batch of Blue Plaques to be issued, to recognize his contribution to recreation and surfing. A sculpture of Kahanamoku flanked by a male knee paddler and a female prone paddler commemorating the Catalina Classic Paddleboard Race was installed on the Manhattan Beach Pier in 2023. === Additional tributes === Hawaii music promoter Kimo Wilder McVay capitalized on Kahanamoku's popularity by naming his Waikiki showroom "Duke Kahanamoku's" at the International Market Place and giving Kahanamoku a financial interest in the showroom in exchange for the use of his name. It was a major Waikiki showroom in the 1960s and is remembered as the home of Don Ho & The Aliis from 1964 through 1969. The showroom continued to be known as Duke Kahanamoku's until Hawaii showman Jack Cione bought it in the mid-1970s and renamed it Le Boom Boom. The Duke Kahanamoku Aquatic Complex (DKAC) serves as the home for the University of Hawai‘i's swimming and diving and women's water polo teams. The facility, located on the university's lower campus, includes a 50-meter training pool and a separate 25-yard competition and diving pool. The long course pool is four feet at both ends, seven feet in the middle, and an average depth of six feet. Kahanamoku's name is also used by Duke's Canoe Club & Barefoot Bar, known as Duke's Waikiki, a beachfront bar and restaurant in the Outrigger Waikiki on the Beach Hotel. There is a chain of restaurants named after him in California, Florida and Hawaii called Duke's. On August 24, 2002, the 112th anniversary of Kahanamoku's birth, the U.S. Postal Service issued a first-class commemorative stamp with Duke's picture on it. The First Day Ceremony was held at the Hilton Hawaiian Village in Waikiki and was attended by thousands. At this ceremony, attendees could attach the Duke stamp to an envelope and get it canceled with a First Day of Issue postmark. These first day covers are very collectible. On August 24, 2015, a Google Doodle honored the 125th anniversary of Duke Kahanamoku's birthday. In 2021, a 88-minute feature film was made about Kahanamoku's life. It was later broadcast by PBS as part of their American Masters series. ==Filmography==	[ "University of California, Los Angeles", "Freshwater Surf Life Saving Club", "Native Hawaiians", "Skeg", "World record progression 100 metres freestyle", "Franklin D. Roosevelt Jr.", "Around the World with Douglas Fairbanks (documentary)", "New South Wales", "Abraham Akaka", "Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics – Men's 100 metre freestyle", "first day cover", "Dorothy Becker", "Swimming at the Summer Olympics", "Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha", "Law enforcement in the United States", "This Is Your Life (American franchise)", "Isle of Sunken Gold", "Supreme Court of the United States", "Shriners", "Southern California", "given name", "Republican Party (United States)", "No Father to Guide Him (short)", "Huntington Beach, California", "Hula (film)", "Google Doodle", "Surfari (documentary)", "Honolulu, Hawaii", "Wake of the Red Witch", "Los Angeles Times", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "Free and Easy (documentary)", "military police", "1912 Summer Olympics", "Kingdom of Hawaii", "Don Ho", "Woman Wise", "Freshwater Beach", "World record progression 4 × 200 metres freestyle relay", "Swimming at the 1920 Summer Olympics – Men's 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay", "1932 Summer Olympics", "Surfing Hall of Fame", "International Market Place", "Christchurch", "American Masters", "List of multiple Olympic gold medalists", "New Zealand", "Hilton Hawaiian Village", "Manhattan Beach Pier", "Swimming at the 1924 Summer Olympics – Men's 100 metre freestyle", "koa", "Duke Kahanamoku Invitational Surfing Championship", "Outrigger Hotels & Resorts", "List of Olympic medalists in swimming (men)", "Duncan v. Kahanamoku", "shipfitter", "Sargent Kahanamoku", "The Rescue (1929 film)", "martial law", "Adventure (1925 film)", "unconstitutional", "Cleveland", "Where East Is East", "Amateur Athletic Union", "Shangri La (Doris Duke)", "Photoplay", "Bernice Pauahi Bishop", "Old Ironsides (film)", "Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics – Men's 100 metre freestyle", "The Black Camel (film)", "Girl of the Port", "Duke Paoa Kahanamoku Lagoon", "Johnny Weissmuller", "Swimming Hall of Fame", "commemorative stamp", "Mister Roberts (1955 film)", "Isle of Escape", "Swimming at the 1912 Summer Olympics – Men's 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay", "Kamehameha Schools", "1920 Summer Olympics", "Surfing at the Summer Olympics", "1924 Summer Olympics", "water polo", "Hawaiian Organic Act", "Samuel Kahanamoku", "freestyle swimming", "Hawaii Rainbow Warriors and Rainbow Wahine", "Los Angeles Athletic Club", "U.S. Postal Service", "Honolulu", "olo board", "pro forma", "surfing", "World War II", "Waikiki", "Kimo Wilder McVay", "The Pony Express (1925 film)", "Newport Beach, California", "overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom", "Hawaii Admission Act", "ohana", "Alapainui", "Kālia", "Masonic Lodge", "aliʻi", "Freestyle swimming", "Charles E. Young Research Library", "Aloha Oe", "Pua Kealoha", "burial at sea", "Scottish Rite Freemasonry", "PBS", "Oahu", "Doris Duke", "John Aspinwall Roosevelt", "United States Olympic Hall of Fame", "The New York Times", "Royal Hawaiian Hotel", "Haleʻākala", "Kawaiahao Church", "Sydney, Australia", "Lord Jim (1925 film)", "Native Hawaiian" ]
9,119	Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)	The Distinguished Service Medal (DSM) is a military decoration of the United States Army that is presented to soldiers who have distinguished themselves by exceptionally meritorious service to the government in a duty of great responsibility. The performance must be such as to merit recognition for service that is clearly exceptional. The exceptional performance of normal duty will not alone justify an award of this decoration. The Army's Distinguished Service Medal is equivalent to the Naval Service's Navy Distinguished Service Medal, Air and Space Forces' Distinguished Service Medal, and the Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal. Prior to the creation of the Air Force's Distinguished Service Medal in 1960, United States Air Force airmen were awarded the Army's Distinguished Service Medal. ==Description== The coat of arms of the United States in Gold surrounded by a circle of Dark Blue enamel, 1 ½ inches in diameter, bearing the inscription "FOR DISTINGUISHED SERVICE MCMXVIII". On the reverse is a scroll for the name of the recipient (which is to be engraved) upon a trophy of flags and weapons. The medal is suspended by a bar attached to the ribbon. ===Ribbon=== The ribbon is wide and consists of the following stripes: Scarlet 67111; Ultramarine Blue 67118; White 67101; Ultramarine Blue; Scarlet. Additional awards of the Distinguished Service Medal are denoted by oak leaf clusters. ==Criteria== The Distinguished Service Medal is awarded to any person - effectively, general officers - who, while serving in any capacity with the United States Army, has distinguished themselves by exceptionally meritorious service to the Government in a duty of great responsibility. The performance must be such as to merit recognition for service which is clearly exceptional. Exceptional performance of normal duty will not alone justify an award of this decoration. For service not related to actual war, the term "duty of a great responsibility" applies to a narrower range of positions than in time of war and requires evidence of a conspicuously significant achievement. However, justification of the award may accrue by virtue of exceptionally meritorious service in a succession of high positions of great importance. Awards may be made to persons other than members of the Armed Forces of the United States for wartime services only, and only then under exceptional circumstances with the express approval of the president in each case. ==Components== The following are authorized components of the Distinguished Service Medal and applicable specifications: Decoration (regular size): MIL-D-3943/7. NSN for decoration set: 8455-00-444-0007. NSN for replacement medal is 8455-00-246-3830. Decoration (miniature size): MIL-D-3943/7. NSN 8455-00-996-5008. Ribbon: MIL-R-11589/52. NSN 8455-00-252-9922. Lapel Button (metal replica of ribbon bar): MIL-L-11484/4. NSN 8455-00-253-0809. ==History of the Distinguished Service Medal== The Distinguished Service Medal was authorized by Presidential Order dated January 2, 1918, and confirmed by Congress on July 9, 1918. It was announced by War Department General Order No. 6, 1918-01-12, with the following information concerning the medal: "A bronze medal of appropriate design and a ribbon to be worn in lieu thereof, to be awarded by the President to any person who, while serving in any capacity with the Army shall hereafter distinguish himself or herself, or who, since 04-06-1917, has distinguished himself or herself by exceptionally meritorious service to the Government in a duty of great responsibility in time of war or in connection with military operations against an armed enemy of the United States." The Act of Congress on July 9, 1918, recognized the need for different types and degrees of heroism and meritorious service and included such provisions for award criteria. The current statutory authorization for the Distinguished Service Medal is Title 10, United States Code, Section 3743. ==Recipients== Among the first awards of the Distinguished Service Medal for service in World War I, were those to the Commanding Officers of the Allied Armies: Marshal Ferdinand Foch Marshal Joseph Joffre General Philippe Petain of France General Louis Franchet d'Espèrey of France General Sir Arthur Currie of Canada General Sir John Monash of Australia Field Marshal Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig of Britain General Armando Diaz of Italy General Cyriaque Gillain of Belgium General John Joseph Pershing of the United States Field Marshal Živojin Mišić of Serbia More than 2,000 awards were made during World War I, and by the time the United States entered World War II, approximately 2,800 awards had been made. From July 1, 1941, to June 6, 1969, when the Department of the Army stopped publishing awards of the DSM in Department of the Army General Orders, over 2,800 further awards were made. Prior to World War II the DSM was the only decoration for non-combat service in the U.S. Army. As a result, before World War II the DSM was awarded to a wider range of recipients than during and after World War II. During World War I awards of the DSM to officers below the rank of brigadier general were fairly common but became rare once the Legion of Merit was established in 1942. Until the first award of the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal in 1965, United States Air Force personnel received this award as well, as was the case with several other Department of the Army decorations until the Department of the Air Force fully established its own system of decorations. ===Notable recipients=== Because the Army Distinguished Service Medal is principally awarded to general officers, a list of notable recipients would include nearly every general, and some admirals, since 1918, many of whom received multiple awards, as well as a few civilians and sergeants major prominent for their contributions to national defense. General Martin Dempsey, former chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, holds the record for receiving the greatest number of awards of the Army Distinguished Service Medal, at six. He also received three awards of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal as well as one award each of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal, and the Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal, for a total of twelve Distinguished Service Medals. Generals of the Army Douglas MacArthur and Dwight Eisenhower are tied with five awards each received of the Army Distinguished Service Medal. They also each received one award of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, for a total of six DSMs each. General Lucius D. Clay (Four Star) received three Army DSM awards for his service that included Commanding General, U.S. Army Forces (European Theater) and Military Governor of Germany. During his tenure, Gen. Clay solved his greatest challenge: the Soviet Blockade of Berlin, which was imposed in June 1948. Gen. Clay triggered the Berlin Airlift, which served the city residents during the harsh winter of 1948–1949. He is also a recipient of the Legion of Merit. General Norman Schwarzkopf received two awards of the Army DSM and one award each of the Defense DSM, Navy DSM, the Air Force DSM and the Coast Guard DSM, for a total of six DSMs. General Lloyd Austin received four awards of the Army DSM and five awards of the Defense DSM for a total of nine DSMs. Among notable recipients below flag rank are: X-1 test pilot Chuck Yeager and X-15 test pilot Robert M. White, who both received the DSM as U.S. Air Force majors; director Frank Capra, decorated in 1945 as an army colonel; actor James Stewart, decorated in 1945 as an Army Air Forces colonel (later Air Force Brigadier General); Colonel Wendell Fertig, who led Filipino guerrillas behind Japanese lines; Colonel (later Major General) John K. Singlaub, who led partisan forces in the Korean War; and Major Maude C. Davison, who led the "Angels of Bataan and Corregidor" during their imprisonment by the Japanese, and Colonel William S. Taylor, Program Manager Multiple Launch Rocket System. Among notable civilian recipients are Harry L. Hopkins, Robert S. McNamara and Henry L. Stimson. Samuel W. Koster received a DSM, but this was rescinded due to his involvement in covering up the My Lai massacre Notable American and foreign recipients include: ===United States Army=== General of the Armies John J. Pershing – Commander of the American Expeditionary Forces General of the Army George C. Marshall – US Army Chief of Staff (two awards) General of the Army Douglas MacArthur – Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (five awards) General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower – NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe (five awards) General of the Army Omar N. Bradley – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (four awards) General John Abizaid – Commander US Central Command General Creighton Abrams – US Army Chief of Staff (five awards) General Lloyd Austin – Commander US Central Command (four awards) General Julius W. Becton Jr. – African American combat veteran of the Korean and Vietnam wars. General J. H. Binford Peay III – Commander US Central Command (two awards) General Tasker H. Bliss – US Army Chief of Staff General George W. Casey Jr. – US Army Chief of Staff (two awards) General Richard E. Cavazos - Commander United States Army Forces Command (FORSCOM) (two awards) General Peter W. Chiarelli – US Army Vice Chief of Staff General Mark W. Clark – Commander of the United Nations Command (four awards) General Lucius D. Clay – Commanding General European Theater and Military Governor of Germany (three awards) General J. Lawton Collins – US Army Chief of Staff (four awards) General Bantz J. Craddock – Commander US European Command General Malin Craig – US Army Chief of Staff (three awards) General Martin E. Dempsey – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (six awards) General Oliver W. Dillard – African American infantry officer and combat veteran of the Korean and Vietnam wars (two awards) General Ann E. Dunwoody – First female US Army four-star general United States Army Materiel Command (two awards) General John W. Foss – Commander Training and Doctrine Command (three awards) General Tommy Franks – Commander US Central Command (two awards) General John Galvin – NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe General Alfred Gruenther – NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe (four awards) General Alexander Haig – NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe General Carter Ham – Commander of United States Africa Command General John J. Hennessey – Commander United States Readiness Command General John L. Hines – US Army Chief of Staff General Harold K. Johnson – US Army Chief of Staff (two awards) General George Joulwan – NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe General Lyman L. Lemnitzer – NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe (four awards) General Peyton C. March – US Army Chief of Staff General Edward C. Meyer – US Army Chief of Staff General Mark Milley – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (four awards) General Lauris Norstad – NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe General George S. Patton – Commander US 3rd Army (three awards) General David Petraeus – Commander International Security Assistance Force (three awards) General Colin Powell – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (two awards) General Dennis Reimer – US Army Chief of Staff General Matthew B. Ridgeway – US Army Chief of Staff (four awards) General Bernard W. Rogers – NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe General Peter Schoomaker – US Army Chief of Staff (three awards) General Norman Schwarzkopf – Commander of Operation Desert Storm (three awards) General John Shalikashvili – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Hugh Shelton – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (three awards) General Eric Shinseki – US Army Chief of Staff (two awards) General Joseph Stilwell – Commander of the China Burma India Theater General Maxwell D. Taylor – US Army Chief of Staff General James Van Fleet – Commander US 8th Army in Korea General Jonathan M. Wainwright – Commander Allied Forces Philippines General Walton Walker – Commander US 8th Army in Korea (two awards) General William Westmoreland – US Army Chief of Staff (four awards) General Earle G. Wheeler – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (two awards) Lieutenant General A.C. Roper – Vice Commander, U.S. Element, North American Aerospace Defense Command and Deputy Commander, U.S. Northern Command Lieutenant General John B. Coulter (three awards) Lieutenant General Harris W. Hollis – Commanding General, 9th and 25th Infantry Divisions in South Vietnam Lieutenant General Henry E. Emerson – Commander XVIII Airborne Corps Lieutenant General Charles Flynn – 25th Infantry Division Lieutenant General Mark P. Hertling – Commanding General of US Army Europe Lieutenant General Kenneth W. Hunzeker Lieutenant General John C. H. Lee – Commanding General Army Service Forces Europe WWII Lieutenant General Hunter Liggett Lieutenant General Edward J. O'Neill – with 1 bronze oak leaf cluster in lieu of subsequent award of medal Lieutenant General Ricardo Sanchez – Commanding General V Corps (two awards) Lieutenant General Eric Schoomaker – 42nd Surgeon General of the United States Army Lieutenant General William Wilson Quinn – Chevalier of the French Legion of Honor Lieutenant General Nadja West – 44th Surgeon General of the United States Army Major General Gladeon M. Barnes – Chief of Research and Engineering Major General Chester V. Clifton – Military Aide to Presidents Kennedy and Johnson Major General William E. Cole – Commander 351st Field Artillery 1917–18 Major General William J. Donovan – founder of the Office of Strategic Services Major General James L. Dozier – deputy chief of staff at NATO's Southern European land forces Major General Lawrence J. Fuller – deputy director of the Defense Intelligence Agency Major General Charles M. Gettys – commanding general, 23rd Infantry Division Major General George W. Goethals – engineer of the Panama Canal Major General William C. Gorgas – Surgeon General of the Army Major General Patrick J. Hurley Major General Edward Mann Lewis Major General Henry Balding Lewis Major General Robert McGowan Littlejohn Major General Viet Xuan Luong – United States Army, Japan Major General Franklin Lane McKean - Commander 96th ARCOM, Fort Douglas Major General Mason M. Patrick Major General Lowell Ward Rooks - Commander of the 90th Infantry Division Major General Maurice Rose – commanding general 3rd Armored Division Major General John K. Singlaub Major General Charles F. Thompson Major General Arthur R. Wilson Major General Cedric T. Wins Brigadier General Sherwood Cheney – chief of the Army Transport Service during World War I Brigadier General Charles G. Dawes – Vice President of the United States Brigadier General Anna Mae Hays – chief of the United States Army Nurse Corps and first female US Army general Brigadier General Frank T. Hines – director of the Veterans Administration Brigadier General Howard Knox Ramey Brigadier General Frank Merrill Brigadier General Greg Parker Brigadier General Russell W. Volckmann Colonel Frank Capra – movie director (received as a colonel, Army of the United States in WW II) Colinel Laurie Buckhout – political candidate and business executive Colonel Harvey Williams Cushing – neurosurgeon Colonel Horatio B. Hackett – Assistant administrator of the Public Works Administration; noted architect and businessman; football official and player Colonel Oveta Culp Hobby – director of the Women's Army Corps during World War II Colonel Herbert H. Lehman – Governor of New York and United States Senator Colonel Floyd James Thompson – The longest-held prisoner of war in American history Lieutenant Colonel Clarence O. Sherrill Major David A. Reed – U.S. Senator for Pennsylvania, 1922, for service as a major in World War I Major Forsyth Wickes – socialite, philanthropist and collector Chaplain Francis P. Duffy – chaplain of the "Fighting 69th" Major Herbert O. Yardley – cryptologist Sergeant Major of the Army Daniel A. Dailey Command Sergeant Major Adam Nash Command Sergeant Major John P. McDwyer Sergeant First Class Kyle F. Salone Jr. ===United States Navy=== Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz – Chief of Naval Operations Fleet Admiral William F. Halsey – Commander of the 3rd Fleet Admiral William S. Benson - Chief of Naval Operations Admiral William J. Crowe, Jr. – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral William Fechteler - Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Albert Gleaves - Commander of the Asiatic Fleet Admiral Jonathan Greenert - Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid - Commander Sixteenth Fleet Admiral William V. Pratt - Chief of Naval Operations Admiral U. S. Grant Sharp Jr. - Commander US Pacific Command Admiral Raymond A. Spruance – Commander of the 5th Fleet (later Ambassador to the Philippines) Admiral Harold Rainsford Stark - Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Carlisle Trost – Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Henry B. Wilson - Commander of the Atlantic Fleet Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley Vice Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt (with oak leaf cluster) Rear Admiral Hilary P. Jones Rear Admiral Charles P. Plunkett ===United States Marine Corps=== General Paul X. Kelley General Vernon E. Megee, General Peter Pace – Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Major General Graves B. Erskine Major General Smedley Butler Major General John A. Lejeune ===United States Air Force=== Note – includes Army Air Service, Army Air Corps and Army Air Forces General of the Air Force Hap Arnold – commander of the Army Air Forces General Jimmy Doolittle General Edwin W. Rawlings General Joseph McNarney General Hoyt S. Vandenberg – Air Force Chief of Staff and Director of Central Intelligence General George C. Kenney General Curtis Lemay – Air Force Chief of Staff General Carl Spaatz – Air Force Chief of Staff General Michael E. Ryan Lieutenant General Claire Lee Chennault (with oak leaf cluster) – Leader of the Flying Tigers Major General Billy Mitchell, USAAC – Military air power prophet Brigadier General Chuck Yeager – Legendary test pilot Colonel Bernt Balchen, USAF – Legendary Norwegian-American pilot and arctic explorer. Captain John Birch, USAAF – Missionary, guerilla leader and namesake of the John Birch Society Brigadier General Darr H. Alkire ===Civilians=== Grace Banker – chief telephone operator of mobile for the American Expeditionary Forces Bernard Baruch – chairman, War Industries Board, 1918 Evangeline Booth – General of the Salvation Army Maude Cleveland (Woodworth) – chief of the home communication and casualty service, Red Cross, at Brest, France Jacqueline Cochran – Aviator and founder of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs) Henry Pomeroy Davison – director of the American Red Cross Jane Delano – Founder of the American Red Cross Nursing Service James Forrestal – Secretary of Defense Hugh Frayne – chairman, labor division of the War Industries Board Harry Augustus Garfield – U.S. Fuel Administrator Harry Hopkins – Presidential aide Edward N. Hurley – chairman, American Shipping Board Robert McNamara – Secretary of Defense Edwin B. Parker – member of the War Industries Board and arbiter with Germany, Austria and Hungary following World War I Hannah J. Patterson – resident director of the Women's Committee of the Council of National Defense Anna Howard Shaw – head of the Women's Committee of the Council of National Defense Edward R. Stettinius – director general of purchases for the War Department John F. Stevens – Engineer of the Panama Canal and the Great Northern Railway Henry L. Stimson – Secretary of War ===Foreigners=== Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby, General (later Field Marshal), British Army HM Albert I, King of Belgians Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke, field marshal, British Army Pietro Badoglio, general, Italian Army William Birdwood, 1st Baron Birdwood, general, British Indian Army (during secondment to Australian Army, later promoted to Field Marshal) Julian Byng, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy, General (later Field Marshal), British Army Sir Winston Churchill KG, OM, PC, CH, FRS – British Minister of Munitions (later Prime Minister) Harry Crerar, lieutenant general, Canadian Army Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope, Admiral of the Fleet, Royal Navy Sir Arthur Currie, lieutenant general, British Army, commanding Canadian Corps Georges de Bazelaire, major general, VII Army Corps of the French Army during World War I Sir Francis de Guingand, major general, British Army Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, general, French Army (later a Marshal of France) Sir Miles Dempsey, general, British Army Sir John Dill, field marshal, British Army Ferdinand Foch, Marshal of France, French Army Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig, field marshal, British Army Arthur T. Harris, air chief marshal, Royal Air Force (later a Marshal of the Royal Air Force) Chiang Kai-shek, general, Chinese Army Mariano Goybet, general, French Army Charles Mangin, general, French Army Paul Maistre, general, French Army Sir Richard McCreery, general, British Army Lord Alfred Milner, British Secretary of State for War Živojin Mišić, field marshal, Serbian Army Sir John Monash, general, Australian Army Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, field marshal, British Army Sir Frederick E. Morgan, lieutenant general, British Army Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, admiral, Royal Navy (later Admiral of the Fleet) Henri Petain, Marshal of France, French Army Alexander Pokryshkin, Marshal of the Soviet Air Force Charles Portal, 1st Viscount Portal of Hungerford, Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir William Robertson, 1st Baronet, field marshal, British Army Frederick Sykes, Chief of the Air Staff (United Kingdom) Arthur Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder, air chief marshal, Royal Air Force (later Marshal of the Royal Air Force) Sir Henry Worth Thornton, major general, British Army (American-born) Gerald Trotter, brigadier-general, British Army Sir Thomas Montgomery-Cuninghame, 10th Baronet of Corsehill, brevet lieutenant colonel, military attache, British Army Maxime Weygand, general, French Army Harold St. John Loyd Winterbotham, British	[ "Robert McNamara", "Federal Trade Commission", "John Joseph Pershing", "United States Air Force", "Edwin B. Parker", "The Scranton Times-Tribune", "George C. Marshall", "chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff", "Major (United States)", "69th New York Infantry", "United States Secretary of Defense", "Raymond A. Spruance", "Grace Banker", "Charles Mangin", "Hannah J. Patterson", "United States Africa Command", "American Red Cross", "Peyton C. March", "United Nations Command", "Cedric T. Wins", "Lloyd Austin", "Clarence O. Sherrill", "Veterans Administration", "Henry Pomeroy Davison", "Eric Schoomaker", "Harvey Williams Cushing", "King of Belgians", "Bernard Baruch", "William S. Benson", "Army Service Forces", "Robert S. McNamara", "oak leaf cluster", "William Westmoreland", "John J. Hennessey", "United States Department of the Army", "Angels of Bataan", "Arthur R. Wilson", "Jean de Lattre de Tassigny", "Joseph Joffre", "Women's Army Corps", "Hoyt S. Vandenberg", "Charles P. Plunkett", "Harold St. John Loyd Winterbotham", "Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke", "John C. H. Lee", "Henry Balding Lewis", "Albert Gleaves", "Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers", "Smedley Butler", "John Abizaid", "William J. Donovan", "Nadja West", "Mason M. Patrick", "Operation Desert Storm", "Anna Howard Shaw", "Henry E. Emerson", "William Wilson Quinn", "Harris W. Hollis", "Alexander Pokryshkin", "Newspapers.com", "Ferdinand Foch", "Peter W. Chiarelli", "Carl Spaatz", "Major general (United States)", "General of the Army (United States)", "Vernon E. Megee", "Command Sergeant Major", "Horatio B. Hackett", "Julius W. Becton Jr.", "Earle G. Wheeler", "Robert L. Ghormley", "John B. Coulter", "Jimmy Doolittle", "General of the Armies", "Ann E. Dunwoody", "Air Force Chief of Staff", "Defense Distinguished Service Medal", "Supreme Allied Commander Europe", "Matthew B. Ridgeway", "Charles A. Flynn", "Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)", "United States Army Institute of Heraldry", "Marshal of France", "Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig", "Carlisle Trost", "Harold K. Johnson", "Harold Rainsford Stark", "Bantz J. Craddock", "Peter Schoomaker", "Norman Schwarzkopf", "Armando Diaz", "Alexander Haig", "Air Force Distinguished Service Medal", "Omar N. Bradley", "Creighton Abrams", "Thomas C. Kinkaid", "American Expeditionary Forces", "Flying Tigers", "Malin Craig", "Sir William Robertson, 1st Baronet", "Patrick J. Hurley", "Sherwood Cheney", "Viet Xuan Luong", "George W. Casey Jr.", "Martin E. Dempsey", "Jane Delano", "Sir Thomas Montgomery-Cuninghame, 10th Baronet", "Edward C. Meyer", "David Petraeus", "United States Army Materiel Command", "Henri Petain", "Navy Distinguished Service Medal", "Awards and decorations of the United States Army", "Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope", "Paul Maistre", "Ricardo Sanchez", "Vice admiral (United States)", "China Burma India Theater", "Michael E. Ryan", "Adam Nash (soldier)", "James L. Dozier", "Service ribbon", "Lawrence J. Fuller", "Graves B. Erskine", "Chester W. Nimitz", "J. H. Binford Peay III", "William J. Crowe, Jr.", "Anna Mae Hays", "Frank T. Hines", "Oliver W. Dillard", "Miles Dempsey", "Council of National Defense", "Maxwell D. Taylor", "Harry Augustus Garfield", "Gerald Trotter", "Great Northern Railway (U.S.)", "George C. Kenney", "Arthur Currie", "Harry L. Hopkins", "Mark P. Hertling", "Richard McCreery", "John F. Stevens", "Harry Crerar", "Philippe Petain", "Edwin W. Rawlings", "Billy Mitchell", "Bernard W. Rogers", "American Red Cross Nursing Service", "Louis Franchet d'Espèrey", "Colonel (United States)", "Mark W. Clark", "Mariano Goybet", "Distinguished service medal", "Awards and decorations of the United States military", "Edward R. Stettinius", "Harry Hopkins", "Živojin Mišić", "Russell W. Volckmann", "Colin Powell", "Darr H. Alkire", "Rear admiral (United States)", "Daniel A. Dailey", "Curtis Lemay", "J. Lawton Collins", "Silver Star Medal", "Director of Central Intelligence", "Fleet admiral (United States)", "Maude C. Davison", "Francis P. Duffy", "Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner", "Women Airforce Service Pilots", "Hap Arnold", "Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby", "Frank Merrill", "Dennis Reimer", "John Birch Society", "George W. Goethals", "United States Army", "Hilary P. Jones", "Paul X. Kelley", "John A. Lejeune", "Joseph Stilwell", "Herbert O. Yardley", "Albert I of Belgium", "General of the Air Force", "Edward J. O'Neill (general)", "James Stewart", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "John K. Singlaub", "General (United States)", "Martin Dempsey", "Marshal of the Royal Air Force", "John P. McDwyer", "Jonathan Greenert", "US Central Command", "Claire Lee Chennault", "Legion of Merit", "William Birdwood, 1st Baron Birdwood", "Bernt Balchen", "Walton Walker", "Cyriaque Gillain", "George S. Patton", "John Galvin (general)", "United States Readiness Command", "David A. Reed", "John Birch (missionary)", "Public Works Administration", "United States Fifth Fleet", "Wendell Fertig", "Georges de Bazelaire", "Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein", "Gladeon M. Barnes", "Julian Byng, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy", "John W. Foss", "Field marshal (Serbia and Yugoslavia)", "Henry Kent Hewitt", "Frederick E. Morgan", "William Fechteler", "William C. Gorgas", "Office of Strategic Services", "Merchant Marine Distinguished Service Medal", "John J. Pershing", "Robert McGowan Littlejohn", "Maxime Weygand", "John L. Hines", "Chief of the Air Staff (United Kingdom)", "U. S. Grant Sharp Jr.", "Sir Henry Worth Thornton", "The Edinburgh Gazette", "Hugh Shelton", "Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal", "Brigadier general (United States)", "Lowell Ward Rooks", "United States Army Nurse Corps", "Forsyth Wickes", "Carter Ham", "Philippines", "Tasker H. Bliss", "US Army Chief of Staff", "William V. Pratt", "George Joulwan", "Chester V. Clifton", "Charles G. Dawes", "Chief of Naval Operations", "Kyle F. Salone Jr.", "Chuck Yeager", "Defense Intelligence Agency", "Sergeant Major of the Army", "Joseph McNarney", "Peter Pace", "My Lai massacre", "William E. Cole", "Evangeline Booth", "NATO", "Francis de Guingand", "Oveta Culp Hobby", "Panama Canal", "Edward Mann Lewis", "John Monash", "United States Code", "Henry L. Stimson", "James Van Fleet", "Alfred Gruenther", "Charles Portal, 1st Viscount Portal of Hungerford", "Richard E. Cavazos", "Arthur Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder", "Hugh Frayne", "Winston Churchill", "Frederick Sykes", "William F. Halsey", "United States Third Fleet", "Dwight Eisenhower", "Lyman L. Lemnitzer", "Arthur Travers Harris", "Floyd James Thompson", "Tommy Franks", "Robert M. White", "Charles M. Gettys", "Jonathan M. Wainwright (general)", "Mark Milley", "Kenneth W. Hunzeker", "Maurice Rose", "Henry B. Wilson", "Lucius D. Clay", "Chiang Kai-shek", "Army of the United States", "John Dill", "John Shalikashvili", "Admiral (United States)", "Herbert H. Lehman", "Frank Capra", "Homeland Security Distinguished Service Medal", "Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma", "Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff", "Jacqueline Cochran", "Charles F. Thompson", "Coast and Geodetic Survey Distinguished Service Medal", "Pietro Badoglio", "Lauris Norstad", "Eric Shinseki", "Salvation Army", "Howard Knox Ramey", "Hunter Liggett", "James Forrestal", "Douglas MacArthur", "Edward N. Hurley", "Samuel W. Koster", "Title 10 of the United States Code", "Lieutenant general (United States)" ]
9,120	Defense Distinguished Service Medal	The Defense Distinguished Service Medal is a military decoration of the United States Department of Defense, which is presented to United States Armed Forces service members for exceptionally distinguished performance of duty contributing to the national security or defense of the United States. The medal was created on July 9, 1970, by President Richard Nixon in . President Nixon awarded the first medal, on the day the Executive Order was signed, to General Earle Wheeler, who was retiring from the US Army after serving as Chief of Staff of the United States Army and then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. It is equivalent to the United States Department of Homeland Security's Homeland Security Distinguished Service Medal. ==Criteria== The Defense Distinguished Service Medal is the United States Department of Defense's highest non-combat related military award and it is the highest joint service decoration. The Defense Distinguished Service Medal is awarded only while assigned to a joint activity. Normally, such responsibilities deserving of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal are held by the most senior officers such as the Chairman and Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the chiefs and vice chiefs of the military services, and commanders and deputy commanders of the Combatant Commands, the Director of the Joint Staff, and others whose duties bring them frequently into direct contact with the Secretary of Defense, the Deputy Secretary of Defense, and other senior government officials. In addition, the medal may also be awarded to other service members whose direct and individual contributions to national security or national defense are recognized as being so exceptional in scope and value as to be equivalent to contributions normally associated with positions encompassing broader responsibilities. This decoration takes precedence over the Distinguished Service Medals of the services and is not to be awarded to any individual for a period of service for which an Army, Navy, Air Force or Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal is awarded. ==Appearance== The medal is gold in color and on the obverse it features a medium blue enameled pentagon (point up). Superimposed on this is an American bald eagle with wings outspread facing left grasping three crossed arrows in its talons and on its breast is a shield of the United States. The pentagon and eagle are enclosed within a gold pieced circle consisting, in the upper half of 13 five-pointed stars and in the lower half, a wreath of laurel on the left and olive on the right. At the top is a suspender of five graduated gold rays. The reverse of the medal has the inscription "For Distinguished Service" at the top in raised letters, and within the pentagon the inscription "FROM THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE TO", all in raised letters. Additional awards of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal are denoted by oak leaf clusters. ==Notable recipients== Ramon Colon-Lopez (first enlisted recipient) Jonathan Howe (six awards) Lloyd Austin (five awards) Wesley Clark (five awards) Raymond T. Odierno (five awards) Dennis C. Blair (four awards) James B. Busey IV (four awards) George W. Casey Jr. (four awards) William J. Crowe (four awards) James L. Jones (four awards) Timothy J. Keating (four awards) Michael Mullen (four awards) Richard Myers (four awards) Peter Pace (four awards) David Petraeus (four awards) Colin Powell (four awards) Victor E. Renuart Jr. (four awards) John Shalikashvili (four awards) Hugh Shelton (four awards) John Abizaid (three awards) John R. Allen (three awards) Peter W. Chiarelli (three awards) Vern Clark (three awards) James T. Conway (three awards) Martin Dempsey (three awards) Edmund P. Giambastiani Jr. (three awards) Gregory G. Johnson (three awards) George Joulwan (three awards) William H. McRaven (three awards) David M. Rodriguez (three awards) Curtis Scaparrotti (three awards) Peter Schoomaker (three awards) Kurt W. Tidd (three awards) Thomas D. Waldhauser (three awards) William E. Ward (three awards) James A. Winnefeld Jr. (three awards) Creighton Abrams (two awards) Jeremy M. Boorda (two awards) William A. Brown (two awards) Bantz J. Craddock (two awards) Walter Doran (two awards) James O. Ellis (two awards) William J. Fallon (two awards) Noel Gayler (two awards) Andrew Goodpaster (two awards) William E. Gortney (two awards) Alexander Haig (two awards) Harry B. Harris Jr. (two awards) Thomas B. Hayward (two awards) James L. Holloway III (two awards) Jay L. Johnson (two awards) Frank B. Kelso II (two awards) Joseph D. Kernan (two awards) George E. R. Kinnear II (two awards) Samuel J. Locklear (two awards) Deborah Loewer (two awards) Jim Mattis (two awards) Stanley A. McChrystal (two awards) Mark Milley (two awards) Thomas Hinman Moorer (two awards) Donald L. Pilling (two awards) Joseph Ralston (two awards) Bernard W. Rogers (two awards) Eric Shinseki (two awards) James G. Stavridis (two awards) Patricia Ann Tracey (two awards) Carlisle A.H. Trost (two awards) James D. Watkins (two awards) Maurice F. Weisner (two awards) Anthony Zinni (two awards) J. H. Binford Peay III Philip M. Breedlove Frank Bowman Nancy Elizabeth Brown Ronald Burgess (two awards) Wendi B. Carpenter Bruce W. Clingan Robert H. Conn Michael P. DeLong Leon A. Edney Craig S. Faller Mark E. Ferguson III James R. Fitzgerald Mark P. Fitzgerald William J. Flanagan Jr. Michael Flynn Lisa Franchetti Tommy Franks Douglas M. Fraser John Galvin Harold W. Gehman Jr. Jonathan W. Greenert Cecil D. Haney Huntington Hardisty John C. Harvey Jr. Michelle Howard Grace Hopper Rick Husband Daniel James Jr. David E. Jeremiah John F. Kelly Isaac C. Kidd Jr. Charles R. Larson Thomas J. Lopez Richard C. Macke William C. McCool Wesley L. McDonald Richard W. Mies Michael H. Miller Carl Epting Mundy Jr. Eric T. Olson William A. Owens Joseph Prueher Dennis Reimer Gary Roughead Ricardo Sanchez Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. Leighton W. Smith Jr. Vincent R. Stewart Harry D. Train II Stephen J. Townsend Carlisle Trost Earle Wheeler Charles E. Wilhelm Alexander F. Krichevsky Robert F. Willard Ronald J. Zlatoper Bradley A. Heithold Gregg A. Blevins H. Marshal Ward - John Zirkelbach (two awards) Jay Coupe, Jr.	[ "Jonathan Howe", "Samuel J. Locklear", "Michael P. DeLong", "Harold W. Gehman Jr.", "Thomas D. Waldhauser", "Harry B. Harris Jr.", "Thomas B. Hayward", "Curtis Scaparrotti", "Hugh Shelton", "Alexander Haig", "Michael H. Miller", "Gary Roughead", "Richard Nixon", "Air Force Distinguished Service Medal", "Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal", "Jonathan W. Greenert", "William H. McRaven", "Bay laurel", "William J. Flanagan Jr.", "Gregg A. Blevins", "Creighton Abrams", "Andrew Goodpaster", "Maurice F. Weisner", "United States Secretary of Defense", "Robert H. Conn", "James A. Winnefeld Jr.", "Cecil D. Haney", "Wesley L. McDonald", "James D. Watkins", "Joseph D. Kernan", "Carl Epting Mundy Jr.", "Eric T. Olson", "George Joulwan", "Distinguished Service Cross (United States)", "Jay L. Johnson", "Dennis Reimer", "United States Armed Forces", "Alexander F. Krichevsky", "Dennis C. Blair", "James B. Busey IV", "Walter Doran", "Lloyd Austin", "Peter Pace", "George W. Casey Jr.", "Chief of Staff of the United States Army", "Donald L. Pilling", "Richard C. Macke", "Charles R. Larson", "Gregory G. Johnson", "Harry D. Train II", "David M. Rodriguez", "Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff", "Oak leaf cluster", "Grace Hopper", "Deborah Loewer", "Thomas J. Lopez", "Air Force Cross (United States)", "H. Marshal Ward", "Anthony Zinni", "David Petraeus", "William A. Owens", "Navy Distinguished Service Medal", "Leighton W. Smith Jr.", "Ronald J. Zlatoper", "William E. Ward", "Ricardo Sanchez", "Frank B. Kelso II", "Director of the Joint Staff", "Charles E. Wilhelm", "Timothy J. Keating", "Kurt W. Tidd", "Vitreous enamel", "Richard Myers", "John C. Harvey Jr.", "Huntington Hardisty", "John F. Kelly", "James L. Holloway III", "Army Distinguished Service Medal", "Richard W. Mies", "John Abizaid", "Martin Dempsey", "James L. Jones", "Service ribbon", "Michelle Howard", "Earle Wheeler", "James G. Stavridis", "Noel Gayler", "Joseph Prueher", "Mark E. Ferguson III", "Peter W. Chiarelli", "Ronald Burgess", "J. H. Binford Peay III", "Tommy Franks", "Michael Mullen", "Bald eagle", "Joseph Ralston", "Jeremy M. Boorda", "James T. Conway", "Mark Milley", "John Galvin (general)", "James O. Ellis", "Mark P. Fitzgerald", "Michael Flynn", "George E. R. Kinnear II", "Bruce W. Clingan", "Nancy Elizabeth Brown", "William A. Brown (admiral)", "Douglas M. Fraser", "John Shalikashvili", "Carlisle A.H. Trost", "Daniel James Jr.", "United States Department of Defense", "Homeland Security Distinguished Service Medal", "Vincent R. Stewart", "Detroit Free Press", "Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.", "David E. Jeremiah", "Wendi B. Carpenter", "Isaac C. Kidd Jr.", "Stanley A. McChrystal", "United States Department of Homeland Security", "Patricia Ann Tracey", "Bernard W. Rogers", "Ramon Colon-Lopez", "Philip M. Breedlove", "Coast Guard Cross", "Navy Cross", "Craig S. Faller", "Leon A. Edney", "Bradley A. Heithold", "William J. Fallon", "William E. Gortney", "Jim Mattis", "William J. Crowe", "Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff", "Raymond T. Odierno", "James R. Fitzgerald", "Stephen J. Townsend", "Robert F. Willard", "Edmund P. Giambastiani Jr.", "Distinguished service medal", "Awards and decorations of the United States military", "Rick Husband", "Vern Clark", "Victor E. Renuart Jr.", "John R. Allen", "Thomas Hinman Moorer", "Eric Shinseki", "Wesley Clark", "Colin Powell", "Carlisle Trost", "Bantz J. Craddock", "Combatant Command", "United States Deputy Secretary of Defense", "olive", "Peter Schoomaker", "Frank Bowman", "William C. McCool", "Lisa Franchetti" ]
9,121	Dacoity	Dacoity is a term used for "banditry" in the Indian subcontinent. The spelling is the anglicised version of the Hindi word डाकू (ḍākū); "dacoit" is a colloquial Indian English word with this meaning. It appears in the Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases (1903). Banditry is a criminal activity involving robbery by groups of armed bandits. The East India Company established the Thuggee and Dacoity Department in 1830, and the Thuggee and Dacoity Suppression Acts, 1836–1848 were enacted in British India under East India Company rule. Areas with ravines or forests, such as Chambal and Chilapata Forests, were once known for dacoits. ==Etymology== The word "dacoity" is an anglicized version of the Hindi word ḍakaitī (historically transliterated dakaitee). Hindi डकैती comes from ḍākū (historically transliterated dakoo, Hindi: डाकू, meaning "armed robber"). The term dacoit (Hindi: डकैत ḍakait) means "a bandit" according to the OED ("A member of a class of robbers in India and Burma, who plunder in armed bands"). The exact reasons for the emergence of dacoity in the Chambal valley have been disputed. Most explanations have suggested feudal exploitation as the cause that provoked many people in this region to take arms. The area was also underdeveloped and poor, so banditry posed great economic incentives. It is notable that, unlike the rest of India, dacoits in Bengal did not come from a particular social class, caste, or creed. ==== The Gangs of Nadia and Hooghly ==== Dacoit gangs in Nadia and Hooghly were mainly known for their ceremonial practices before the night of dacoity. Before setting off for their mission, the members would assemble to perform “kalipuja” led by the Sirdar (leader). The dacoits would form a straight line, and a pot of liquor, torches, and weapons to be used in the dacoity would be laid down in a clear space. The Sirdar would then dip his finger in oil and touch the forehead of all the dacoits, making them promise never to confess. Even during the raid, when dacoits opened chests and discovered a good fortune, they would shout “Kali, Jai Kali”. These acts were primarily intended to counter the activities of the thuggee, groups of criminals who allegedly moved along the highways of India murdering and robbing unaware travellers. According to academic Mark Brown, the prevalence of the thuggee across India during the early 19th century and the East India Company's response to it "might best be viewed in light of anxieties in both British ruling and Indian subordinate groups produced by the rapid and far-reaching [British] colonial expansion" across South Asia. ==Notable dacoits== Notable dacoits include: Chavviram Singh Yadav Gabbar Singh Gujjar – inspired the famous 1975 film Sholay, based on his life Man Singh was a notorious Dacoit of the Rathore clan of Rajputs. He was also known as the Lion of Chambal. Malkhan Singh Rajpoot, a notorious bandit known as the Bandit King or King of Dacoits. He also had political aspirations in MP. Malangi Kallu Yadav (Kalua), also known as Katri King Mohar Singh Gurjar Nirbhay Singh Gujjar Nizam Lohar, a dacoit born into a Punjabi Muslim family during the Sikh Empire. He is known for his rebellion and freedom struggle against the British colonial government. Paan Singh Tomar, a former soldier in the Indian Army, an athlete that represented India in the Asian Games, who later resorted to becoming a Baaghi due to the injustices he faced. Also inspired the Bollywood film Paan Singh Tomar, in which he was played by Irrfan Khan. Phoolan Devi, known as Bandit Queen (even a movie with the same name was made), a lady bandit who initially rebelled against her rape and injustice her community she was subjected to. Rambabu Gadariya – Regarded as the last notorious dacoit of Chambal he is known as t-1 target one13 Gujjars were lined up and shot dead in gwalior 3 time police clame we killed him in encounter but he was enjoying because he nerve killed in encounter. Shiv Kumar Patel (Dadua) Ramashish Koeri was active in Rohtas Plateau of Bihar in 1980s. He was the leader of a group of bandits, who were supported by the people from lower strata of society. This dacoit group was known for challenging the hagemony of upper caste landlords in the region, who were exploitative. Jagat Singh Sidhu (Jagga Jatt) Koose Munusamy Veerappan, a notorious dacoit, poacher, and smuggler in South India. He was responsible for poaching approximately 500 of the 2000 elephants killed in the peninsular region where he was active and for smuggling ivory worth US$2.6 million (₹16 crore) worth approximately US$22 million (₹143 crore). Nazroo Narejo (1966-2015) ==Protection measures== In Madhya Pradesh, women belonging to a village defence group have been issued firearm permits to fend off dacoity. The Chief minister of the state, Shivraj Singh Chouhan, recognised the role the women had played in defending their villages without guns. He stated that he wanted to enable these women to better defend both themselves and their villages, and issued the gun permits to advance this goal. ==In popular culture== ===Dacoit films=== As the dacoits flourished through the 1940s–1970s, they were the subject of various Hindi films made during this era, leading to the emergence of the dacoit film genre in Hindi Film Industry. The genre began with Mehboob Khan's Aurat (1940), which he remade as Mother India (1957). Mother India received an Academy Award nomination, and defined the dacoit film genre, along with Dilip Kumar's Gunga Jumna (1961). Other popular films in this genre included Raj Kapoor’s Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai (1961) and Moni Bhattacharjee's Mujhe Jeene Do (1963). Pakistani actor Akmal Khan had two dacoit films, Malangi (1965) and Imam Din Gohavia (1967). Other films in this genre included Khote Sikkay (1973), Mera Gaon Mera Desh (1971), and Kuchhe Dhaage (1973) both by Raj Khosla. The most famous dacoit film is Sholay (1975), written by Salim–Javed, and starring Dharmendra, Amitabh Bachchan, and Amjad Khan as the dacoit character Gabbar Singh. It was a masala film that combined the dacoit film conventions of Mother India and Gunga Jumna with that of Spaghetti Westerns, spawning the "Dacoit Western" genre, Sholay became a classic in the genre, and its success led to a surge of films in this genre, including Ganga Ki Saugandh (1978), once again starring Amitabh Bachchan and Amjad Khan. An internationally acclaimed example of the genre is Bandit Queen (1994). The Tamil movie starring Karthi, Theeran Adhigaaram Ondru (2017) deals elaborately with bandits. The film reveals the real dacoity incidents which held in Tamil Nadu between 1995 and 2005. Director Vinoth did a two-year research about bandits to develop the script. A related genre of crime films are Mumbai underworld films. ===Other media=== Bengali novel Devi Chowdhurani by author Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in 1867. Bengali poem Birpurush by Rabindranath Tagore in 1903. A Hindi novel named Painstth Lakh ki Dacoity (1977) was written by Surender Mohan Pathak; it was translated as The 65 Lakh Heist. Dacoits armed with pistols and swords appear in Age of Empires III: Asian Dynasties. They frequently appeared in the French language Bob Morane series of novels by Henri Vernes, principally as the main thugs or assassins of the hero's recurring villain, Mr. Ming and in English as the agents of Sax Rohmer's Fu Manchu.	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