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8,504	Dublin	Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. On a bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the province of Leinster, bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, a part of the Wicklow Mountains range. At the 2022 census, the city council area had a population of 592,713, while Dublin and its suburbs had a population of 1,263,219, and County Dublin had a population of 1,501,500, making it the largest city by population on the island of Ireland. A settlement was established in the area by the Gaels during or before the 7th century, followed by the Vikings. As the Kingdom of Dublin grew, it became Ireland's principal settlement by the 12th century Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland. Following independence in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, renamed Ireland in 1937. , the city was listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) as a global city, with a ranking of "Alpha minus", which placed it among the top thirty cities in the world. ==Etymology== The name Dublin comes from the Middle Irish word (literally "Blackpool"), from "black, dark" and "pool". This evolved into the Early Modern Irish form , Divlin and Difflin. Variations on the name are also found in traditionally Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland (Gàidhealtachd, cognate with Irish Gaeltacht), such as ("the black pool"), which is part of Loch Linnhe. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, from which Dyflin took its name. Beginning in the 9th and 10th centuries, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The Viking settlement of about 841, Dyflin, and a Gaelic settlement, Áth Cliath ("ford of hurdles") further up the river, at the present-day Father Mathew Bridge (also known as Dublin Bridge), at the bottom of Church Street. , meaning "town of the hurdled ford", is the common name for the city in Modern Irish, which is often contracted to or when spoken. is a place name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, currently occupied by Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church. There are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is anglicised as Hurlford. ==History== The area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times; fish traps discovered from excavations during the construction of the Convention Centre Dublin indicate human habitation as far back as 6,000 years ago. Further traps were discovered closer to the old settlement of the city of Dublin on the south quays near St. James's Gate which also indicate mesolithic human activity. Ptolemy's map of Ireland, of about 140 AD, provides possibly the earliest reference to a settlement near Dublin. Ptolemy, the Greco-Roman astronomer and cartographer, called it Eblana polis (). Dublin celebrated its 'official' millennium in 1988, meaning the Irish government recognised 988 as the year in which the city was settled and that this first settlement would later become the city of Dublin. It is now thought the Viking settlement of about 841 was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, from which Dyflin took its name. Evidence indicating that Anglo-Saxons occupied Dublin before the Vikings arrived in 841 has been found in an archaeological dig in Temple Bar. Beginning in the 9th and 10th centuries, there were two settlements which later became modern Dublin. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay. The Dubhlinn was a pool on the lowest stretch of the Poddle, where ships used to moor. This pool was finally fully infilled during the early 18th century, as the city grew. The Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library within Dublin Castle. Táin Bó Cuailgne ("The Cattle Raid of Cooley") refers to Dublind rissa ratter Áth Cliath, meaning "Dublin, which is called Ath Cliath". ===Middle Ages=== In 841, the Vikings established a fortified base in Dublin. The town grew into a substantial commercial center under Olaf Guthfrithson in the mid-to-late 10th century and, despite a number of attacks by the native Irish, it remained largely under Viking control until the Norman invasion of Ireland was launched from Wales in 1169. The hinterland of Dublin in the Norse period was named in . It was upon the death of Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn in early 1166 that Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, King of Connacht, proceeded to Dublin and was inaugurated King of Ireland without opposition. According to some historians, part of the city's early economic growth is attributed to a trade in slaves. Slavery in Ireland and Dublin reached its pinnacle in the 9th and 10th centuries. Prisoners from slave raids and kidnappings, which captured men, women and children, brought revenue to the Gaelic Irish Sea raiders, as well as to the Vikings who had initiated the practice. The victims came from Wales, England, Normandy and beyond. Around this time, the county of the City of Dublin was established along with certain liberties adjacent to the city proper. This continued down to 1840 when the barony of Dublin City was separated from the barony of Dublin. Since 2001, both baronies have been redesignated as the City of Dublin. Dublin Castle, which became the centre of Anglo-Norman power in Ireland, was founded in 1204 as a major defensive work on the orders of King John of England. Following the appointment of the first Lord Mayor of Dublin in 1229, the city expanded and had a population of 8,000 by the end of the 13th century. Dublin prospered as a trade centre, despite an attempt by King Robert the Bruce of Scotland to capture the city in 1317. Dublin was the heart of the area known as the Pale, a narrow strip of English settlement along the eastern coast, under the control of the English Crown. The Tudor conquest of Ireland in the 16th century spelt a new era for Dublin, with the city enjoying a renewed prominence as the centre of administrative rule in Ireland where English control and settlement had become much more extensive. Determined to make Dublin a Protestant city, Queen Elizabeth I established Trinity College in 1592 as a solely Protestant university and ordered that the Catholic St. Patrick's and Christ Church cathedrals be converted to the Protestant church. The earliest map of the city of Dublin is John Speed's Map of Dublin (1610). The city had a population of 21,000 in 1640 before a plague from 1649 to 1651 wiped out almost half of the inhabitants. However, the city prospered again soon after as a result of the wool and linen trade with England and reached a population of over 50,000 in 1700. By 1698 the manufacture of wool employed 12,000 people. ===Early modern=== As the city continued to prosper during the 18th century, Georgian Dublin became, for a short period, the second-largest city of the British Empire and the fifth largest city in Europe, with the population exceeding 130,000. While some medieval streets and layouts (including the areas around Temple Bar, Aungier Street, Capel Street and Thomas Street) were less affected by the wave of Georgian reconstruction, much of Dublin's architecture and layout dates from this period. Dublin grew even more dramatically during the 18th century, with the construction of many new districts and buildings, such as Merrion Square, Parliament House and the Royal Exchange. The Wide Streets Commission was established in 1757 at the request of Dublin Corporation to govern architectural standards on the layout of streets, bridges and buildings. In 1759, the Guinness brewery was founded, and would eventually grow to become the largest brewery in the world and the largest employer in Dublin. During the 1700s, linen was not subject to the same trade restrictions with England as wool, and became the most important Irish export. Over 1.5 million yards of linen was exported from Ireland in 1710, rising to almost 19 million yards by 1779. ===Late modern and contemporary=== Dublin suffered a period of political and economic decline during the 19th century following the Acts of Union 1800, under which the seat of government was transferred to the Westminster Parliament in London. The city played no major role in the Industrial Revolution, but remained the centre of administration and a transport hub for most of the island. Ireland had no significant sources of coal, the fuel of the time, and Dublin was not a centre of ship manufacturing, the other main driver of industrial development in Britain and Ireland. By 1814, the population of Dublin was 175,319 as counted under the Population Act, making the population of Dublin higher than any town in England except London. The Easter Rising of 1916, the Irish War of Independence, and the subsequent Irish Civil War resulted in a significant amount of physical destruction in central Dublin. The Government of the Irish Free State rebuilt the city centre and located the new parliament, the Oireachtas, in Leinster House. Since the beginning of Norman rule in the 12th century, the city has functioned as the capital in varying geopolitical entities: Lordship of Ireland (1171–1541), Kingdom of Ireland (1541–1800), as part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922), and the Irish Republic (1919–1922). Following the partition of Ireland in 1922, it became the capital of the Irish Free State (1922–1937) and now is the capital of Ireland. One of the memorials to commemorate that time is the Garden of Remembrance. Dublin was also a victim of the Northern Irish Troubles, although during this 30-year conflict, violence mainly occurred within Northern Ireland. A Loyalist paramilitary group, the Ulster Volunteer Force, bombed the city during this time – notably in an atrocity known as the Dublin and Monaghan bombings in which 34 people died, mainly in central Dublin. Large parts of Georgian Dublin were demolished or substantially redeveloped in the mid-20th century during a boom in office building. After this boom, the recessions of the 1970s and 1980s slowed down the pace of building. Cumulatively, this led to a large decline in the number of people living in the centre of the city, and by 1985 the city had approximately 150 acres of derelict land which had been earmarked for development and of office space. Since 1997, the landscape of Dublin has changed. The city was at the forefront of Ireland's economic expansion during the Celtic Tiger period, with private sector and state development of housing, transport and business. Following an economic decline during the Great Recession, Dublin has rebounded and has close to full employment, but has a significant problem with housing supply in both the city and surrounds. ==Government== ===Local=== Dublin City Council is a unicameral assembly of 63 members elected every five years from local electoral areas. It is presided over by the Lord Mayor, who is elected for a yearly term and resides in Dublin's Mansion House. Council meetings occur at Dublin City Hall, while most of its administrative activities are based in the Civic Offices on Wood Quay. The party or coalition of parties with the majority of seats assigns committee members, introduces policies, and proposes the Lord Mayor. The Council passes an annual budget for spending on areas such as housing, traffic management, refuse, drainage, and planning. The Dublin City Manager is responsible for implementing City Council decisions but also has considerable executive power. Other neighbouring Dublin County Councils include South Dublin County Council, Fingal County Council and Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown County Council. ===National=== As the capital city, Dublin is the seat of the national parliament of Ireland, the Oireachtas. It is composed of the President of Ireland, Dáil Éireann as the house of representatives, and Seanad Éireann as the upper house. The President resides in Áras an Uachtaráin in Phoenix Park, while both houses of the Oireachtas meet in Leinster House, a former ducal residence on Kildare Street. It has been the home of the Irish parliament since the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922. The old Irish Houses of Parliament of the Kingdom of Ireland, which dissolved in 1801, are located in College Green. Government Buildings house the Department of the Taoiseach, the Council Chamber, the Department of Finance and the Office of the Attorney General. It consists of a main building (completed 1911) with two wings (completed 1921). It was designed by Thomas Manley Dean and Sir Aston Webb as the Royal College of Science. The First Dáil originally met in the Mansion House in 1919. The Irish Free State government took over the two wings of the building to serve as a temporary home for some ministries, while the central building became the College of Technology until 1989. Although both it and Leinster House were intended to be temporary locations, they became the permanent homes of parliament from then on. For elections to Dáil Éireann, there are five constituencies that are wholly or predominantly in the Dublin City area: Dublin Central (4 seats), Dublin Bay North (5 seats), Dublin North-West (3 seats), Dublin South-Central (4 seats) and Dublin Bay South (4 seats). Twenty TDs are elected in total. The constituency of Dublin West (4 seats) is partially in Dublin City, but predominantly in Fingal. At the 2024 general election, the Dublin city area elected 5 Sinn Féin, 4 Fianna Fáil, 4 Social Democrats, 3 Fine Gael, 2 Labour and 2 Independents. ==Geography== ===Landscape=== Dublin is situated at the mouth of the River Liffey and its urban area encompasses approximately in east-central Ireland. It is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range and sub range of the Wicklow Mountains, to the south and surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west. The city itself was founded where the River Poddle met the Liffey, and the early Viking settlement was also facilitated by the small Steine or Steyne River, the larger Camac and the Bradogue, in particular. Two secondary rivers further divide the city: the River Tolka, running southeast into Dublin Bay, and the River Dodder running northeast to near the mouth of the Liffey, and these and the Liffey have multiple tributaries. A number of lesser rivers and streams also flow to the sea within the suburban parts of the city. Two canals – the Grand Canal on the southside and the Royal Canal on the northside – ring the inner city on their way from the west, both connecting with the River Shannon. ===Climate=== Similar to much of the rest of northwestern Europe, Dublin experiences a maritime climate (Cfb) with mild-warm summers, cool winters, and a lack of temperature extremes. At Merrion Square, the coldest month is February, with an average minimum temperature of , and the warmest month is July, with an average maximum temperature of . Due to the urban heat island effect, Dublin city has the warmest summertime nights in Ireland. The average minimum temperature at Merrion Square in July is , and the lowest July temperature ever recorded at the station was on 3 July 1974. The highest temperature officially recorded in Dublin is on 18 July 2022, at the Phoenix Park. A non-official record of was also recorded at Phoenix Park in July 1876. Dublin's sheltered location on the east coast makes it the driest place in Ireland, receiving only about half the rainfall of the west coast. Ringsend in the south of the city records the lowest rainfall in the country, with an average annual precipitation of , with the average annual precipitation in the city centre being . At Merrion Square, the wettest year and driest year on record occurred within 5 years of each other, with 1953 receiving just of rainfall, while 1958 recorded . with the climate getting progressively duller inland. Dublin airport, located north of city and about from the coast, records an average of 1,485 hours of sunshine per year. The station at Dublin airport has been maintaining climate records since November 1941. The sunniest year on record was 1,740 hours in 1959, and the dullest year was 1987 with 1,240 hours of sunshine. The lowest amount of monthly sunshine on record was 16.4 hours in January 1996, while the highest was 305.9 hours in July 1955. In the 20th century, smog and air-pollution were an issue in the city, precipitating a ban on bituminous fuels across Dublin. The ban was implemented in 1990 to address black smoke concentrations, that had been linked to cardiovascular and respiratory deaths in residents. Since the ban, non-trauma death rates, respiratory death rates and cardiovascular death rates have declined – by an estimated 350 deaths annually. }} == Cityscape == ===Areas=== ====City centre==== The historic city centre of Dublin is encircled by the Royal Canal and Grand Canal, bounded to the west by Heuston railway station and Phoenix Park, and to the east by the IFSC and the Docklands. O'Connell Street is the main thoroughfare of the inner city and many Dublin Bus routes, as well as the Green line of the Luas, have a stop at O'Connell Street. The main shopping streets of the inner city include Henry Street on the Northside, and Grafton Street on the Southside. In some tourism and real-estate marketing contexts, inner Dublin is sometimes divided into a number of quarters. These include the Medieval Quarter (in the area of Dublin Castle, Christ Church and St Patrick's Cathedral and the old city walls), the Georgian Quarter (including the area around St Stephen's Green, Trinity College, and Merrion Square), the Docklands Quarter (around the Dublin Docklands and Silicon Docks), the Cultural Quarter (around Temple Bar), and Creative Quarter (between South William Street and George's Street). ====Suburbs==== Dublin has dozens of suburbs; northside suburbs include Blanchardstown, Finglas, Ballymun, Clontarf, Raheny, Malahide and Howth, while southside suburbs include Tallaght, Sandyford, Templeogue, Drimnagh, Rathmines, Dún Laoghaire and Dalkey. Starting in the late 2010s, there was a significant amount of high density residential developments in the suburbs of Dublin, with mid to high-rise apartments being built in Sandyford, Ashtown, and Tallaght. ===Cultural divide=== A north–south division once, to some extent, traditionally existed, with the River Liffey as the divider. The southside was, in recent times, generally seen as being more affluent and genteel than the northside. Largely complete by 1230, the castle was of typical Norman courtyard design, with a central square without a keep, bounded on all sides by tall defensive walls and protected at each corner by a circular tower. Sited to the south-east of Norman Dublin, the castle formed one corner of the outer perimeter of the city, using the River Poddle as a natural means of defence. One of Dublin's most prominent landmarks is the Spire of Dublin, officially entitled the "Monument of Light". It is a conical spire made of stainless steel, completed in 2003 and located on O'Connell Street, where it meets Henry Street and North Earl Street. It replaced Nelson's Pillar and is intended to mark Dublin's place in the 21st century. The spire was designed by Ian Ritchie Architects, who sought an "Elegant and dynamic simplicity bridging art and technology". The base of the monument is lit and the top is illuminated to provide a beacon in the night sky across the city. The Old Library of Trinity College Dublin, holding the Book of Kells, is one of the city's most visited sites. The Book of Kells is an illustrated manuscript created by Irish monks circa 800 AD. The Ha'penny Bridge, an iron footbridge over the River Liffey, is one of the most photographed sights in Dublin and is considered to be one of Dublin's most iconic landmarks. Other landmarks and monuments include Christ Church Cathedral and St Patrick's Cathedral, the Mansion House, the Molly Malone statue, the complex of buildings around Leinster House, including part of the National Museum of Ireland and the National Library of Ireland, The Custom House and Áras an Uachtaráin. Other sights include the Anna Livia monument. The Poolbeg Towers are also landmark features of Dublin, and visible from various spots around the city. ===Parks=== There are 302 parks and 66 green spaces within the Dublin City Council area as of 2018, with the council managing over of parks. Public parks include the Phoenix Park, Herbert Park, St Stephen's Green, Saint Anne's Park and Bull Island. The Phoenix Park is about west of the city centre, north of the River Liffey. Its perimeter wall encloses , making it one of the largest walled city parks in Europe. It includes large areas of grassland and tree-lined avenues, and since the 17th century has been home to a herd of wild fallow deer. The residence of the President of Ireland (Áras an Uachtaráin), which was built in 1751, is located in the park. The park is also home to Dublin Zoo, Ashtown Castle, and the official residence of the United States Ambassador. Music concerts are also sometimes held in the park. St Stephen's Green is adjacent to one of Dublin's main shopping streets, Grafton Street, and to a shopping centre named after it, while on its surrounding streets are the offices of a number of public bodies. Saint Anne's Park is a public park and recreational facility, shared between Raheny and Clontarf, both suburbs on the Northside. The park, the second largest municipal park in Dublin, is part of a former estate assembled by members of the Guinness family, beginning with Benjamin Lee Guinness in 1835. The largest municipal park is adjacent (North) Bull Island, also shared between Clontarf and Raheny, featuring a 5 km beach, Dollymount Strand. ===City boundaries=== From 1842, the boundaries of the city were comprehended by the baronies of Dublin City and the barony of Dublin. Over time, the city has absorbed area previously administered as part of County Dublin (now the three counties of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin), with a change in 1985 also returning areas to the county. == Economy == The Dublin region is the economic centre of Ireland, and was at the forefront of the country's economic expansion during the Celtic Tiger period. In 2009, Dublin was listed as the fourth richest city in the world by purchasing power and 10th richest by personal income. According to Mercer's 2011 Worldwide Cost of Living Survey, Dublin was the 13th most expensive city in the European Union (down from 10th in 2010) and the 58th most expensive place to live in the world (down from 42nd in 2010). , approximately 874,400 people were employed in the Greater Dublin Area. Around 60% of people who are employed in Ireland's financial, ICT, and professional sectors are located in this area. A number of Dublin's traditional industries, such as food processing, textile manufacturing, brewing, and distilling have gradually declined, although Guinness has been brewed at the St. James's Gate Brewery since 1759. Economic improvements in the 1990s attracted a number of global pharmaceutical, information and communications technology companies to the city and Greater Dublin Area. Companies such as Microsoft, Google, Amazon, eBay, PayPal, Yahoo!, Facebook, X, Accenture, TikTok and Pfizer now have European headquarters or operational bases in the city with several located in enterprise clusters like the Digital Hub and Silicon Docks. The presence of these companies has driven economic expansion in the city and led to Dublin sometimes being referred to as the "Tech Capital of Europe". Many international firms have established major headquarters in the city, such as Citibank. The Irish Stock Exchange (ISEQ), Internet Neutral Exchange (INEX) and Irish Enterprise Exchange (IEX) are also located in Dublin. Dublin has been positioned as one of the main cities vying to host Financial Services companies hoping to retain access to the Eurozone after Brexit. The Celtic Tiger also led to a temporary boom in construction, with large redevelopment projects in the Dublin Docklands and Spencer Dock. Completed projects include the Convention Centre, the 3Arena, and the Bord Gáis Energy Theatre. In the second quarter of 2018, Dublin touched its lowest unemployment rate in a decade, when it fell down to 5.7% as reported by the Dublin Economic Monitor. In November 2022, Dublin was ranked as one of the worst cities in the world for travel, health and cost of living. On 24 September 2022, thousands took to the streets in protest against the cost of living crisis. As of 2024, the Gross Domestic Product of Dublin is €253.6 billion, meaning it has one of the biggest city economies in the European Union. ==Transport== ===Road=== The road network in Ireland is primarily focused on Dublin. The M50 motorway, a semi-ring road which runs around the south, west and north of the city, connects important national primary routes to the rest of the country. In 2008, the West-Link toll bridge was replaced by the eFlow barrier-free tolling system, with a three-tiered charge system based on electronic tags and car pre-registration. The first phase of a proposed eastern bypass for the city is the Dublin Port Tunnel, which officially opened in 2006 to mainly cater for heavy vehicles. The tunnel connects Dublin Port and the M1 motorway close to Dublin Airport. The city is also surrounded by an inner and outer orbital route. The inner orbital route runs approximately around the heart of the Georgian city and the outer orbital route runs primarily along the natural circle formed by Dublin's two canals, the Grand Canal and the Royal Canal, as well as the North and South Circular Roads. The 2016 TomTom Traffic Index ranked Dublin the 15th most congested city in the world and the 7th most congested in Europe. ====Bus==== Dublin is served by a network of nearly 200 bus routes which cover the city and suburbs. The majority of these are provided by Dublin Bus, with a modest number having been transferred to Go Ahead Ireland in 2018. A number of smaller companies also operate. Fares are generally calculated on a stage system based on distance travelled. There are several different levels of fares, which apply on most services. A "Real Time Passenger Information" system was introduced at Dublin Bus bus stops in 2012 in which signs relay display the projected time of the next buses' arrival based on its GPS position. The National Transport Authority is responsible for integration of bus and rail services in Dublin and has been involved in introducing a pre-paid smart card, called a TFI Leap Card, which can be used on all of Dublin's public transport services. The BusConnects programme includes a number of proposed improvements to Dublin's bus network, including new spine and orbital routes. The spine routes are intended to increase the frequency of buses along major corridors, and the orbital routes aim to "provide connections between suburbs and town centres, without having to travel into the City Centre". In 2022, Dublin Bus began the process of electrifying its fleet with new battery-powered buses, with plans for 85% of Dublin buses to be zero-emission by 2032. ====Cycling==== The 2011 census indicated that 5.9% of commuters in Dublin cycled. A 2013 report by Dublin City Council on traffic flows crossing the canals in and out of the city found that just under 10% of all traffic was made up of cyclists, representing an increase of 14.1% over 2012 and an 87.2% increase over 2006 levels. The increase was attributed to measures such as the Dublinbikes bike rental scheme, the provision of cycle lanes, public awareness campaigns to promote cycling and the introduction of the 30 km/h city centre speed limit. Dublin City Council began installing cycle lanes and tracks throughout the city in the 1990s, and the city had over of specific on- and off-road tracks for cyclists. In 2011, the city was ranked 9th of major world cities on the Copenhagenize Index of Bicycle-Friendly Cities. The same index showed a fall to 15th in 2015, and Dublin was outside the top 20 in 2017. Dublinbikes is a self-service bicycle rental scheme which has been in operation in Dublin since 2009. Sponsored by JCDecaux and Just Eat, the scheme consists of hundreds of unisex bicycles stationed at 44 terminals throughout the city centre. Users must make a subscription for either an annual Long Term Hire Card or purchase a three-day ticket. , Dublinbikes had over 66,000 long-term subscribers making over 2 million journeys per year. ===Rail=== Heuston and Connolly stations are the two main railway termini in Dublin. Operated by Iarnród Éireann, the Dublin Suburban Rail network consists of five railway lines serving the Greater Dublin Area and commuter towns such as Drogheda and Dundalk in County Louth, Gorey in County Wexford, and extending as far as Portlaoise in County Laois, and once a day to Newry. One of the five lines is the electrified Dublin Area Rapid Transit (DART) line, which runs primarily along the coast of Dublin, comprising 31 stations, from Malahide and Howth southwards as far as Bray and Greystones in County Wicklow. Commuter rail operates on the other four lines using Irish Rail diesel multiple units. In 2013, passengers for DART and Dublin Suburban lines were 16 million and 11.7 million, respectively (around 75% of all Irish Rail passengers). Dublin once had an extensive system of trams but this was largely phased out by 1949. A new light rail system, often described as a tram system, the Luas, was launched in 2004, and is run by Transdev Ireland (under contract from Transport Infrastructure Ireland), carrying over 34 million passengers annually. The network consists of two interconnecting lines; the Red Line links the Docklands and city centre with the south-western suburbs of Tallaght and Saggart, while the Green Line connects northern inner city suburbs and the main city centre with suburbs to the south of the city including Sandyford and Brides Glen, mostly along the former route of the Harcourt Street railway line. Together these lines comprise a total 67 stops and of track. A metro service is proposed under the name of Metrolink, and planned to run from Dublin's northside to Charlemont via Dublin Airport and St. Stephen's Green. ===Rail and ferry=== Dublin Connolly is connected by bus to Dublin Port and ferries run by Irish Ferries and Stena Line to Holyhead for connecting trains on the North Wales Coast Line to Chester, Crewe and London Euston. Dublin Connolly to Dublin Port can be reached via Amiens Street, Dublin into Store Street or by Luas via Busáras where Dublin Bus operates services to the Ferry Terminal. ===Air=== ====Dublin Airport==== Dublin Airport (owned and operated by DAA) is located north of Dublin city, near Swords in the administrative county of Fingal. The headquarters of Ireland's flag carrier Aer Lingus and regional airline CityJet are located there, and those of low-cost carrier Ryanair nearby. The airport offers a short and medium-haul network, domestic services to regional airports in Ireland, and long-haul services to the United States, Canada, the Middle East and Hong Kong. Dublin Airport is the 11th busiest in the European Union, and by far the busiest airport on the island of Ireland. In 2015 and 2016, transatlantic traffic grew, with 158 summer flights a week to North America, making it the sixth largest European hub for that route over the year. Transatlantic traffic was also the fastest-growing segment of the market for the airport in 2016, in which a 16% increase from 2015 brought the yearly number of passengers travelling between Dublin and North America to 2.9 million. From 2010 to 2016, Dublin Airport saw an increase of nearly 9.5 million passengers in its annual traffic, In 2019, Dublin Airport was the 12th busiest airport in Europe, with almost 33 million passengers passing through the airport. ====Other air transport==== Dublin is also served by Weston Airport and other small facilities, by a range of helicopter operators, and the military and some State services use Casement Aerodrome nearby. ==Education== Dublin is the largest centre of education in Ireland, and is home to four universities and a number of other higher education institutions. It was the European Capital of Science in 2012. The University of Dublin is the oldest university in Ireland, dating from the 16th century, and is located in the city centre. Its sole constituent college, Trinity College (TCD), was established by Royal Charter in 1592 under Elizabeth I. It was closed to Roman Catholics until 1793, and the Catholic hierarchy then banned Roman Catholics from attending until 1970. It is situated in the city centre, on College Green, and has over 18,000 students. The National University of Ireland (NUI) has its seat in Dublin, which is also the location of the associated constituent university of University College Dublin (UCD), which has over 30,000 students. Founded in 1854, it is now the largest university in Ireland. UCD's main campus is at Belfield, about from the city centre, in the southeastern suburbs. As of 2019, Dublin's principal, and Ireland's largest, institution for technological education and research, Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT), with origins in 1887, has merged with two major suburban third level institutions, Institute of Technology, Tallaght and Institute of Technology, Blanchardstown, to form Technological University Dublin, Ireland's second largest university by student population. The new university offers a wide range of courses in areas include engineering, architecture, the sciences, health, journalism, digital media, hospitality, business, art and design, music and the humanities programmes, and has three long-term campuses, at Grangegorman, Tallaght and Blanchardstown. Dublin City University (DCU), formerly the National Institute for Higher Education (NIHE) Dublin, offers courses in business, engineering, science, communication courses, languages and primary education. It has around 16,000 students, and its main campus is located about from the city centre, in the northern suburbs. Aside from the main Glasnevin Campus, the Drumcondra campuses includes the former St. Patrick's College of Education, Drumcondra now also hosting students from the nearby Mater Dei Institute of Education and students from the Church of Ireland College of Education at the DCU Campus at All Hallows College. The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) conducts a medical school which is both a university (since 2019) and a recognised college of the NUI, and is situated at St. Stephen's Green in the city centre; there are also large medical schools within UCD and Trinity College. The National College of Art and Design (NCAD) provides education and research in art, design and media. The National College of Ireland (NCI) is also based in Dublin, as well as the Economic and Social Research Institute, a social science research institute, on Sir John Rogerson's Quay, and the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. The Institute of International and European Affairs is also in Dublin. Dublin Business School (DBS) is Ireland's largest private third level institution with over 9,000 students located on Aungier Street, and Griffith College Dublin has its main facility in Portobello. There are also smaller specialised colleges, including The Gaiety School of Acting. The Irish public administration and management training centre has its base in Dublin, the Institute of Public Administration provides a range of undergraduate and post graduate awards via the National University of Ireland and in some instances, Queen's University Belfast. Dublin is also home to the Royal Irish Academy, membership of which is considered Ireland's highest academic honour. The suburban town of Dún Laoghaire is home to the Dún Laoghaire Institute of Art, Design and Technology (IADT), which supports training and research in art, design, business, psychology and media technology. Dublin joined the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities in 2019. ==Demographics== The City of Dublin is the area administered by Dublin City Council. The traditional County Dublin includes the city and the administrative counties of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin. The Greater Dublin Area includes County Dublin and the adjoining counties, County Kildare, County Meath and County Wicklow. In the 2022 census, the population of the City of Dublin was 592,713, while the population of Dublin city and suburbs was 1,263,219. County Dublin had a population of 1,458,154, and the population of the Greater Dublin Area was 2,082,605. Of the population of Dublin city and its suburbs, 62.9% (794,925) were born in Dublin, 26.6% (336,021) were born outside of Ireland, while the remaining 10.5% (132,273) were born in a county other than Dublin. After World War II, Italians were by far the largest immigrant group in both Dublin and Ireland and became synonymous with the catering and restaurant landscape. Since the late 1990s, Dublin has experienced a significant level of net immigration, with the greatest numbers coming from the European Union, especially the United Kingdom, Poland and Lithuania. There is also immigration from outside Europe, including from Pakistan, Brazil, the Philippines, China, India and Nigeria. Dublin is home to a greater proportion of newer arrivals than any other part of the country. Sixty percent of Ireland's Asian population lives in Dublin. The capital attracts the largest proportion of non-Catholic migrants from other countries. Increased secularisation in Ireland has prompted a drop in regular Catholic church attendance in Dublin from over 90 percent in the mid-1970s down to 14 percent according to a 2011 survey and less than 2% in some areas As of the 2016 census, 68.2% of Dublin's population identified as Catholic, 12.7% as other stated religions, with 19.1% having no religion or no religion stated. According to the 2022 census, the population of County Dublin self-identified as 80.4% white (68.0% white Irish, 12.0% other white and 0.4% Irish traveller), 5.8% Asian, 3.0% mixed backgrounds, 2.2% Black and 8.5% not stated. In the same census, the ethnic makeup of Dublin city was 76.81% white (including 64.23% white Irish and 12.19% other white people), 12.98% not stated, 5.11% Asian, 3.50% other and 1.58% black. , there were 1,367 families within the Dublin region living in homeless accommodation or other emergency housing. ==Culture== ===The arts=== Dublin has a significant literary history, and produced many literary figures, including Nobel laureates William Butler Yeats, George Bernard Shaw and Samuel Beckett. Other influential writers and playwrights include Oscar Wilde, Jonathan Swift and the creator of Dracula, Bram Stoker. It is also the location of key and notable works of James Joyce, including Ulysses, which is set in Dublin and includes much topical detail. Dubliners is a collection of short stories by Joyce about incidents and typical characters of the city during the early 20th century. Other renowned writers include J. M. Synge, Seán O'Casey, Brendan Behan, Maeve Binchy, John Banville and Roddy Doyle. Ireland's biggest libraries and literary museums are found in Dublin, including the National Print Museum of Ireland and National Library of Ireland. In July 2010, Dublin was named as a UNESCO City of Literature, joining Edinburgh, Melbourne and Iowa City with the permanent title. Handel's oratorio Messiah was first performed at Neal's Music Hall, in Fishamble Street, on 13 April 1742. There are several theatres within the city centre, and various well-known actors have emerged from the Dublin theatrical scene, including Noel Purcell, Michael Gambon, Brendan Gleeson, Stephen Rea, Colin Farrell, Colm Meaney and Gabriel Byrne. The best known theatres include the Gaiety, Abbey, Olympia, Gate, and Grand Canal. The Gaiety specialises in musical and operatic productions, and also opens its doors after the evening theatre production to host a variety of live music, dancing, and films. The Abbey was founded in 1904 by a group that included Yeats with the aim of promoting indigenous literary talent. It went on to provide a breakthrough for some of the city's most famous writers, such as Synge, Yeats himself and George Bernard Shaw. The Gate was founded in 1928 to promote European and American Avant Garde works. The Grand Canal Theatre is a newer 2,111 capacity theatre which opened in 2010 in the Grand Canal Dock area. Apart from being the focus of the country's literature and theatre, Dublin is also the focal point for much of Irish art and the Irish artistic scene. The Book of Kells, a world-famous manuscript produced by Celtic monks in AD 800 and an example of Insular art, is on display in Trinity College. The Chester Beatty Library houses a collection of manuscripts, miniature paintings, prints, drawings, rare books and decorative arts assembled by American mining millionaire (and honorary Irish citizen) Sir Alfred Chester Beatty (1875–1968). The collections date from 2700 BCE onwards and are drawn from Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. In addition public art galleries are found across the city and are free to visit, including the Irish Museum of Modern Art, the National Gallery, the Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery, the Douglas Hyde Gallery, the Project Arts Centre and the exhibition space of the Royal Hibernian Academy. Private galleries in Dublin include Green on Red Gallery, Kerlin Gallery, Kevin Kavanagh Gallery and Mother's Tankstation. Three branches of the National Museum of Ireland are located in Dublin: Archaeology in Kildare Street, Decorative Arts and History in Collins Barracks and Natural History in Merrion Street. Dublin is home to the National College of Art and Design, which dates from 1746, and Dublin Institute of Design, founded in 1991. Dublinia is a living history attraction showcasing the Viking and Medieval history of the city. Dublin has long had an 'underground' arts scene, with Temple Bar hosting artists in the 1980s, and spaces such as the Project Arts Centre acting as a hub for collectives and new exhibitions. The Guardian noted that Dublin's independent and underground arts flourished during the economic recession of . Dublin also has many dramatic, musical and operatic companies, including Festival Productions, Lyric Opera Productions, the Pioneers' Musical & Dramatic Society, Rathmines and Rathgar Musical Society, the Glasnevin Musical Society, Third Day Chorale, Second Age Theatre Company, Irish National Opera. Dublin was shortlisted to be World Design Capital 2014. Taoiseach Enda Kenny was quoted to say that Dublin "would be an ideal candidate to host the World Design Capital in 2014". In October 2021, Dublin was shortlisted for the European Commission's 2022 European Capital of Smart Tourism award along with Bordeaux, Copenhagen, Florence, Ljubljana, Palma de Mallorca and Valencia. ===Entertainment=== Dublin has a vibrant nightlife and is reputedly one of Europe's most youthful cities; in 2009 it was estimated that 50% of its citizens were younger than 25. There are many pubs across the city centre, with the area around St. Stephen's Green and Grafton Street, especially Harcourt Street, Camden Street, Wexford Street and Leeson Street, the location of many nightclubs and pubs. The best known area for nightlife is Temple Bar, south of the River Liffey. The area has become popular among tourists, including stag and hen parties from the UK. It was developed as Dublin's cultural quarter and does retain this spirit as a centre for small arts productions, photographic and artists' studios, and in the form of street performers and small music venues; however, it has been criticised as overpriced, false and dirty by Lonely Planet. The areas around Leeson Street, Harcourt Street, South William Street and Camden/George's Street are popular nightlife spots for locals. ===Music=== Live music is played on streets and at venues throughout Dublin, and the city has produced several musicians and groups of international success, including the Dubliners, Thin Lizzy, the Boomtown Rats, U2, the Script, Sinéad O'Connor, Boyzone, Kodaline, Fontaines D.C. and Westlife. Dublin has several mid-range venues that host live music throughout the week, including Whelans and Vicar Street. The 3Arena venue in the Dublin Docklands plays host to visiting global performers. ===Shopping=== Dublin city centre is a popular shopping destination for both locals and tourists. The city has numerous shopping districts, particularly around Grafton Street and Henry Street. The city centre is also the location of large department stores, including Arnotts, Brown Thomas and (prior to its 2015 closure) Clerys. While the city has seen the loss of some traditional market sites, Moore Street remains one of the city's oldest trading districts. There has also been some growth in local farmers' markets and other markets. In 2007, Dublin Food Co-op relocated to a warehouse in The Liberties area, where it is home to market and community events. Suburban Dublin has several modern retail centres, including Dundrum Town Centre, Blanchardstown Centre, the Square in Tallaght, Liffey Valley Shopping Centre in Clondalkin, Omni Shopping Centre in Santry, Nutgrove Shopping Centre in Rathfarnham, Northside Shopping Centre in Coolock and Swords Pavilions in Swords. ===Media=== Dublin is the centre of both media and communications in Ireland, with many newspapers, radio stations, television stations and telephone companies based there. RTÉ is Ireland's national state broadcaster, and is based in Donnybrook. Fair City is RTÉ's soap opera, located in the fictional Dublin suburb of Carraigstown. Virgin Media Television, eir Sport, MTV Ireland and Sky News are also based in the city. The headquarters of An Post and telecommunications companies such as Eir, as well as mobile operators Vodafone and 3 are all located there. Dublin is also the headquarters of national newspapers such as The Irish Times and Irish Independent, as well as local newspapers such as The Evening Herald. As well as being home to RTÉ Radio, Dublin also hosts the national radio networks Today FM and Newstalk, and local stations. Commercial radio stations based in the city include 4fm (94.9 MHz), Dublin's 98FM (98.1 MHz), Radio Nova 100FM (100.3 MHz), Q102 (102.2 MHz), SPIN 1038 (103.8 MHz), FM104 (104.4 MHz), Sunshine 106.8 (106.8 MHz). There are also numerous community and special interest stations, including Dublin City FM (103.2 MHz), Dublin South FM (93.9 MHz), Liffey Sound FM (96.4 MHz), Near FM (90.3 MHz), and Raidió Na Life (106.4 MHz). ===Sport=== ====GAA==== Croke Park is the largest sport stadium in Ireland. The headquarters of the Gaelic Athletic Association, it has a capacity of 82,300. It is the third-largest stadium in Europe after Nou Camp in Barcelona and Wembley Stadium in London. It hosts the premier Gaelic football and hurling games, international rules football and irregularly other sporting and non-sporting events including concerts. Muhammad Ali fought there in 1972 and it played host to the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2003 Special Olympics. It also has conference and banqueting facilities. There is a GAA Museum there and tours of the stadium are offered, including a rooftop walk of the stadium. During the redevelopment of Lansdowne Road, Croke Park played host to the Irish Rugby Union Team and Republic of Ireland national football team as well as hosting the Heineken Cup rugby 2008–09 semi-final between Munster and Leinster, which set a world record attendance for a club rugby match. The Dublin GAA team plays most of their home league hurling games at Parnell Park. ====Rugby Union==== IRFU Stadium Lansdowne Road was laid out in 1874. This was the venue for home games of both the Irish Rugby Union Team and the Republic of Ireland national football team. A joint venture between the Irish Rugby Football Union, the FAI and the Government, saw it redeveloped into a new state-of-the-art 50,000 seat Aviva Stadium, which opened in May 2010. Lansdowne Road/Aviva Stadium hosted the Heineken Cup final in 1999, 2003, 2013, and 2023. Rugby union team Leinster Rugby play their competitive home games in the RDS Arena and the Aviva Stadium, while Donnybrook Stadium hosts their friendlies and A games, Ireland A and Women, Leinster Schools and Youths and the home club games of All Ireland League clubs Old Wesley and Bective Rangers. County Dublin is home for 13 of the senior rugby union clubs in Ireland including 5 of the 10 sides in the top division 1A. ====Association football==== Dublin is home to five League of Ireland association football clubs: Bohemian, Shamrock Rovers, Shelbourne, St Patrick's Athletic and University College Dublin. The first Irish side to reach the group stages of a European competition (2011–12 UEFA Europa League group stage) are Shamrock Rovers, who play at Tallaght Stadium in South Dublin. Bohemian F.C play at Dalymount Park, the oldest football stadium in the country, and home ground for the Ireland football team from 1904 to the 1970s. St Patrick's Athletic play at Richmond Park; University College Dublin at the UCD Bowl in Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown; and Shelbourne at Tolka Park. Tolka Park, Dalymount Park, UCD Bowl and Tallaght Stadium, along with the Carlisle Grounds in Bray, hosted all Group 3 games in the intermediary round of the 2011 UEFA Regions' Cup. The Aviva Stadium hosted the 2011 UEFA Europa League final and the 2024 UEFA Europa League final. ====Cricket==== Dublin has two ODI cricket grounds in Castle Avenue (Clontarf Cricket Club) and Malahide Cricket Club Ground. College Park has Test status and played host to Ireland's first Test cricket match, a women's match against Pakistan in 2000. The men's Irish cricket team also played their first Test match against Pakistan at Malahide Cricket Club Ground during 2018. Leinster Lightning play their home inter-provincial matches in Dublin at College Park. ====Other==== The Dublin Marathon has been run since 1980 at the end of October. The Women's Mini Marathon has been run since 1983 on the first Monday in June, which is also a bank holiday in Ireland. It is said to be the largest all female event of its kind in the world. The Great Ireland Run takes place in Dublin's Phoenix Park in mid-April. Two Dublin baseball clubs compete in the Irish Baseball League. The Dublin Spartans and the Dublin Bay Hurricanes are both based at The O'Malley Fields at Corkagh Park. The Portmarnock Red Rox, from outside the city, competes in the Baseball Ireland B League. The Dublin area hosts greyhound racing at Shelbourne Park and horse racing at Leopardstown. The Dublin Horse Show takes place at the RDS, which hosted the Show Jumping World Championships in 1982. The national boxing arena is located in The National Stadium on the South Circular Road. The National Basketball Arena is located in Tallaght, is the home of the Irish basketball team, the venue for the basketball league finals, and has also hosted boxing and wrestling events. The National Aquatic Centre in Blanchardstown is Ireland's largest indoor water leisure facility. There are also Gaelic Handball, hockey and athletics stadia, most notably Morton Stadium in Santry, which held the athletics events of the 2003 Special Olympics. ===Cuisine=== As of the 2024 Michelin Guide, seven Dublin restaurants shared ten Michelin stars – including Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud, Liath and Chapter One with two. Irish-born Kevin Thornton was awarded two Michelin stars in 2001 – though his restaurant, Thornton's, closed in 2016. The Dublin Institute of Technology commenced a bachelor's degree in culinary skills in 1999. Historically, Irish coffee houses and cafes were associated with those working in media. Since the beginning of the 21st century, with the growth of apartment living in the city, Dublin's cafés attracted younger patrons looking for an informal gathering place and an ad hoc office. Immigrant groups, such as Chinese, Japanese and Italian émigrés, have also opened restaurants around Dublin. A number of South-East Asians immigrated from places such as Hong Kong, Malaysia and Mainland China to Dublin during the 1960s and opened restaurants featuring their cuisines. Modern Irish adaptions of Chinese cuisine include the Spice bag, a takeaway dish consisting of mainly chicken, chips and vegetables. In 2020, it was voted 'Ireland's Favourite Takeaway Dish' in the Just Eat National Takeaway Awards. ==English and Irish languages== Dublin was traditionally a city of two languages, English and Irish, a situation found also in the area around it, the Pale. The Irish of County Dublin represented the easternmost extension of a broad central dialect area which stretched between Leinster and Connacht, but had its own local characteristics. It may also have been influenced by the east Ulster dialect of County Meath and County Louth to the north. In the words of a 16th-century English administrator, William Gerard (1518–1581): "All Englishe, and the most part with delight, even in Dublin, speak Irishe". The Old English historian Richard Stanihurst (1547–1618) wrote as follows: "When their posteritie became not altogither so warie in keeping, as their ancestors were valiant in conquering, the Irish language was free dennized in the English Pale: this canker tooke such deep root, as the bodie that before was whole and sound, was by little and little festered, and in manner wholly putrified". English authorities of the Cromwellian period accepted the fact that Irish was widely spoken in the city and its surrounds. In 1655 several local dignitaries were ordered to oversee a lecture in Irish to be given in Dublin. In March 1656 a converted Catholic priest, Séamas Corcy, was appointed to preach in Irish at Bride's parish every Sunday, and was also ordered to preach at Drogheda and Athy. In 1657 the English colonists in Dublin presented a petition to the Municipal Council complaining that in Dublin itself "there is Irish commonly and usually spoken". In early 18th century Dublin, Irish was the language of a group of poets and scribes led by Seán and Tadhg Ó Neachtain. Scribal activity in Irish persisted in Dublin right through the 18th century. There were still native Irish speakers in County Dublin at the time of the 1851 census. Though the number of Irish speakers declined throughout Ireland in the 19th century, the end of the century saw a Gaelic revival, centred in Dublin and accompanied by renewed literary activity. This was the harbinger of a steady renewal of urban Irish, though with new characteristics of its own. ===Current era=== The native language of most Dubliners today is English, and several local dialects are subsumed under the label Dublin English. Dublin also has many thousands of habitual Irish speakers, with the 2016 census showing that daily speakers (outside the education system) numbered 14,903. They form part of an urban Irish-speaking cohort which is generally better-educated than monoglot English speakers. The Dublin Irish-speaking cohort is supported by a number of Irish-medium schools. There are 12,950 students in the Dublin region attending 34 gaelscoileanna (Irish-language primary schools) and 10 gaelcholáistí (Irish-language secondary schools). Two Irish language radio stations, Raidió Na Life and RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta, have studios in the city, and the online station Raidió Rí-Rá broadcasts from studios in the city. A number of Irish language agencies are also located in the capital. offers language classes and is used as a meeting place for different groups. The closest Gaeltacht to Dublin is the County Meath Gaeltacht of Ráth Cairn and Baile Ghib which is away. ==International relations== Dublin city council has an International Relations Unit, established in 2007. It works on hosting of international delegations, staff exchanges, international promotion of the city, twinning and partnerships, work with multi-city organisations such as Eurocities, economic partnerships and advice to other Council units. ===Twin and partner cities=== Dublin is twinned with five places: The city also has "friendship" or "co-operation agreements" with a number of other cities: Moscow (since 2009) and St Petersburg (since 2010) in Russia and Guadalajara in Mexico (since 2013), Previous agreements have included those with Mexico City (2014−2018), Tbilisi in Georgia (2014−2017) and Wuhan in China (2016−2019). == Notable people ==	[ "Google", "Taoiseach", "hurling", "Eurocities", "Neale's Musick Hall, Dublin", "Ptolemy", "Hong Kong", "Malahide", "Rugby union", "Georgian Dublin", "Liverpool", "J. M. Synge", "Normans in Ireland", "First Dáil", "Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin", "Dublin Corporation Act 1900", "Brendan Gleeson", "Breton language", "Dundalk", "Irish Republic", "Dublin West (Dáil constituency)", "Battery electric bus", "Acts of Union 1800", "Moscow", "List of subdivisions of County Dublin", "Rathmines and Rathgar", "Omni Shopping Centre", "Project Arts Centre", "Emma Blain", "Dublin Marathon", "Eir (telecommunications)", "Gaels", "Today FM", "Poolbeg Generating Station", "Italian diaspora", "the Douglas Hyde Gallery", "Trinity College Dublin", "Dublinbikes", "Dublin Port", "Dublin Business School", "Castle Avenue, Dublin", "English Crown", "Scottish Society for Northern Studies", "unicameral", "Irish Sea", "JCDecaux", "Palma de Mallorca", "Saggart", "Griffith College Dublin", "Dún Laoghaire Institute of Art, Design and Technology", "Ballyfermot", "Ráth Cairn", "Dublin Castle", "Valencia", "Belfast", "TheJournal.ie", "Black people in Ireland", "Greenwich Mean Time", "Leinster House", "Howth", "Amiens Street, Dublin", "Irish National Opera", "Twin towns and sister cities", "Royal Irish Academy", "decorative art", "Leinster", "Charlemont Luas stop", "Michelin Guide", "Heineken Cup", "purchasing power", "National Museum of Ireland – Decorative Arts and History", "County Wexford", "Kevin Thornton (chef)", "Drimnagh", "County Dublin", "Rathfarnham", "James Larkin", "Southside (Dublin)", "maritime climate", "Yahoo!", "Great Ireland Run", "Gabriel Byrne", "Dublin Docklands", "Institute of Technology, Blanchardstown", "Black Death", "Leopardstown Racecourse", "River Tolka", "John Speed's Map of Dublin (1610)", "EuroScience", "Dublin Suburban Rail", "George Bernard Shaw", "Dublin English", "Three Ireland", "Whelan's (music venue)", "Sutton, Dublin", "Drumcondra, Clonliffe and Glasnevin", "Mainland China", "Government Buildings", "Rapid transit", "Barony (Ireland)", "Holyhead railway station", "Manx language", "Irish Baseball League", "Local Government (Dublin) Act 1993", "Wexford Street", "Clondalkin", "Iarnród Éireann", "Brexit", "O'Connell Bridge", "Dáil Éireann", "Bull Island", "Dublin Area Rapid Transit", "Guinness family", "Enda Kenny", "Seanad Éireann", "National Museum of Ireland – Archaeology", "Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church", "Samuel Beckett Bridge", "Chapter One (restaurant)", "Social Democrats (Ireland)", "the Boomtown Rats", "Near fm 90.3", "North Wales Coast Line", "Weston Airport", "Irish Museum of Modern Art", "Transport Infrastructure Ireland", "fallow deer", "Normans", "Olympia Theatre, Dublin", "Republic of Ireland", "Herbert Park", "British Empire", "Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair", "Joep Leerssen", "Ashtown Castle", "Scotland", "Royal Hibernian Academy", "Labour Party (Ireland)", "Ashtown, Dublin", "Florence", "Dublin GAA", "Pakistan national cricket team", "Grafton Street, Dublin", "Collins Barracks", "Croke Park", "Ljubljana", "New Kilmainham", "the Script", "Kings of Dublin", "RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta", "Thornton's Restaurant", "1742 in Ireland", "63 & 64 Vict.", "Irish art", "Dún Laoghaire", "National Print Museum of Ireland", "Ballymun", "2011–12 UEFA Europa League group stage", "2011 UEFA Europa League final", "Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland", "King of Connacht", "Brides Glen Luas stop", "Brendan Behan", "Ryanair", "O'Connell Street", "Rathmines and Rathgar Musical Society", "Middle Irish", "Dalymount Park", "Eircode", "Bram Stoker", "Cricket in Ireland", "Fingal", "Gaelic football", "Japanese diaspora", "Dublin Food Co-op", "Northside (Dublin)", "Baile Ghib", "Camden Street", "Raidió Rí-Rá", "Irish Houses of Parliament", "MetroLink (Dublin)", "local government in the Republic of Ireland", "Sandyford, Dublin", "National Museum of Ireland", "City of Literature", "eir Sport", "Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown County Council", "the Pale", "The Custom House", "Office of Public Works", "Casement Aerodrome", "RTÉ News", "County Louth", "MTV Ireland", "Frank McDonald (journalist)", "Rio de Janeiro", "Vikings", "University of Dublin", "Eblana", "Evening Herald", "Pat Liddy", "Swords Pavilions", "Terenure", "League of Ireland", "Transdev", "Dublin quays", "St. James's Gate", "Ha'penny Bridge", "List of One Day International cricket grounds", "Father Mathew Bridge", "Microsoft", "Dublin Central (Dáil constituency)", "Fontaines D.C.", "Tudor conquest of Ireland", "The Dubliners", "Ian Ritchie Architects", "Sunshine 106.8", "Clontarf, Dublin", "Loughborough University", "Connacht", "Dublin Connolly railway station", "Dublin and Monaghan bombings", "Irish Standard Time", "Finglas", "Irish Ferries", "international rules football", "South Dublin County Council", "Dublin Bay North (Dáil constituency)", "National Stadium (Ireland)", "Capital city", "RDS Arena", "Aston Webb", "Áras an Uachtaráin", "Moore Street", "Carlisle Grounds", "Lordship of Ireland", "TikTok", "Irish language", "Leixlip", "County Kildare", "Welsh language", "Crumlin, Dublin", "Dublin Bay", "Jonathan Swift", "Malahide Cricket Club Ground", "National Library of Ireland", "Regions of Ireland", "University College Dublin A.F.C.", "Gross domestic product", "Bayside, Dublin", "Crewe railway station", "Bachelorette Party", "Dublin South-Central (Dáil constituency)", "Dublin City FM", "Donnybrook, Dublin", "Ireland national rugby union team", "Elizabeth I", "The Guardian", "Old Wesley", "Spice bag", "Shelbourne F.C.", "Kilbarrack", "Ford (crossing)", "Bray, County Wicklow", "Noel Purcell (actor)", "Dubliners", "Old English", "National College of Ireland", "Facebook", "Oxford University Press US", "Iowa City", "3Arena", "Rathmines", "Messiah (Handel)", "RTÉ", "Irish Civil War", "Harcourt Street railway line", "National Gallery of Ireland", "Sandyford", "2011 census of Ireland", "Grand Canal Dock", "Michelin star", "Edward McParland", "European Rugby Champions Cup", "Leinster Lightning", "Gaelcholáiste", "Tolka Park", "greyhound racing", "Ulster Volunteer Force", "Greater Dublin Area", "Tallaght", "West-Link", "DAA (Irish company)", "Bord Gáis Energy Theatre", "Dublin City Hall", "River Shannon", "Táin Bó Cuailgne", "Grafton Street (Dublin)", "Ulysses (novel)", "Ringsend", "Football Association of Ireland", "2024 Irish general election", "Slavery in Ireland", "Institute of Technology, Tallaght", "Nelson's Pillar", "St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin", "Oscar Wilde", "Store Street", "Special Olympics", "Bective Rangers", "Gorey", "Dublin Port Tunnel", "Show Jumping World Championships", "ring road", "BusConnects", "Dublin Corporation", "Department of the Taoiseach", "Gaelic Handball", "urban heat island", "Amazon.com", "Dublin (barony)", "Templeogue", "Tallaght Stadium", "AIB League", "FM104", "2008–09 Heineken Cup", "Köppen climate classification", "Molly Malone", "PayPal", "Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies", "horse racing", "Silicon Docks", "Western Europe", "Olaf Guthfrithson", "Elizabeth I of England", "M1 motorway (Republic of Ireland)", "Grand Canal Theatre", "County Meath", "Book of Kells", "Leeson Street", "President of Ireland", "Dublin Bay South (Dáil constituency)", "Bicycle sharing system", "Heuston railway station", "Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn", "Bachelor Party", "Names of the Irish State", "eFlow", "longship", "East Ayrshire", "Colin Farrell", "Attorney General of Ireland", "Art gallery", "Colm Meaney", "Richmond Park (football ground)", "Steine of Dublin", "Beijing", "The Gaiety School of Acting", "Industrial Revolution", "eBay", "CityJet", "Donnybrook Stadium", "Grangegorman", "Greystones", "Saint Anne's Park", "Dublin City University", "Samuel Beckett", "Dublin Connolly", "St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin", "Gate Theatre", "European Commission", "M50 motorway (Ireland)", "Insular art", "global city", "Harcourt Street", "Early Modern Irish", "St Stephen's Green", "Economic and Social Research Institute", "Henry II of England", "Lord Mayor of Dublin", "Gàidhealtachd", "Church of Ireland College of Education", "William Butler Yeats", "TomTom", "South Dublin", "Mansion House, Dublin", "Corkagh Park", "RTÉ Radio", "The Troubles", "Maurice Craig (historian)", "Institute of International and European Affairs", "Busáras", "River Liffey", "Norman invasion of Ireland", "Dublin's Q102", "Hertz", "Nou Camp", "Royal College of Science (Ireland)", "Parnell Park", "Dublin City Council", "Vodafone Ireland", "National University of Ireland", "Conradh na Gaeilge", "Nobel Prize in Literature", "Kodaline", "Guinness brewery", "Wide Streets Commission", "Garden of Remembrance (Dublin)", "2003 Special Olympics World Summer Games", "Edinburgh", "Drumcondra, Dublin", "Athy", "Christ Church, Dublin", "cartographer", "Citibank", "Blanchardstown Centre", "Fine Gael", "Classic Hits 4FM", "Fianna Fáil", "Tbilisi", "Red Line (Luas)", "Wales", "Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery", "Bordeaux", "John Banville", "Sky News", "Fingal County Council", "Westlife", "Roddy Doyle", "Icelandic language", "Takeaway food", "Pfizer", "Abbey Theatre", "Overseas Chinese", "Guinness", "Merrion Square", "Michael Gambon", "Gaeltacht", "Spencer Dock", "Irish Stock Exchange", "World Design Capital", "Maeve Binchy", "Euston railway station", "Dublin tramways", "Ireland national basketball team", "Virgin Media Television (Ireland)", "Ramallah", "List of people from Dublin", "Malaysia", "Gaiety Theatre, Dublin", "Dublin Heuston railway station", "National Transport Authority (Ireland)", "Swords, Dublin", "British rule in Ireland", "Sir John Rogerson's Quay", "Kingdom of Ireland", "Raidió Na Life", "Internet Neutral Exchange", "Spire of Dublin", "United States Ambassador to Ireland", "Wembley Stadium", "Cabra, Dublin", "Barcelona", "Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud", "Merrion Street", "Melbourne", "Northside, Dublin", "Mater Dei Institute of Education", "Phoenix Park", "Northside Shopping Centre", "Liffey Valley Shopping Centre", "mesolithic", "Viking", "Republic of Ireland national football team", "Leinster Rugby", "Sinn Féin", "Bohemian F.C.", "Santry", "Globalization and World Cities Research Network", "River Poddle", "Irish Independent", "Boyzone", "Richard Stanihurst", "Raheny", "Arnotts (Ireland)", "The Liberties", "Irish Rugby Football Union", "Blanchardstown", "Dublin (European Parliament constituency)", "diesel multiple unit", "Easter Rising", "St. James's Gate Brewery", "Kerlin Gallery", "Test cricket", "2022 census of Ireland", "partition of Ireland", "Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland", "Newstalk", "keep", "Stena Line", "Vicar Street", "Dublin Bus", "Luas", "Temple Bar, Dublin", "Just Eat", "Ulster", "Yale University Press", "College Green, Dublin", "Dáil constituencies", "Brown Thomas", "Dundrum Town Centre", "Grand Canal of Ireland", "International Financial Services Centre, Dublin", "Green Line (Luas)", "Diarmait Mac Murchada", "Handel", "Royal Canal of Ireland", "TFI Leap Card", "Grand Canal (Ireland)", "2011 UEFA Regions' Cup", "hinterland", "Radio Nova 100FM (Ireland)", "College Park, Dublin", "Dublin Airport", "Nutgrove Shopping Centre", "Shelbourne Park", "Henry Street, Dublin", "Royal Canal", "Lord of Ireland", "William Gerard", "Stephen's Green Shopping Centre", "U2", "Lansdowne Road", "The Irish Times", "Dublin's 98FM", "St Petersburg", "European Union", "Seán O'Casey", "Fair City", "Dublinia", "Dublin North-West (Dáil constituency)", "Dublin Zoo", "Copenhagen", "Met Éireann", "Gaelic Athletic Association", "local electoral area", "Shamrock Rovers F.C.", "City Hall, Dublin", "Natural History Museum (Ireland)", "Gov.ie", "Celtic Tiger", "St Patrick's Athletic F.C.", "Sir Alfred Chester Beatty", "Dublin Institute of Design", "light rail", "the Dubliners", "Dublin Institute of Technology", "European Parliament constituencies in the Republic of Ireland", "All Hallows College", "National Institute for Higher Education", "University College Dublin", "gaelscoil", "Stephen Rea", "Old Norse", "Eastern and Midland Region", "County Wicklow", "Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown", "Sinéad O'Connor", "Chester railway station", "Henry Street (Dublin)", "Peritia", "Kildare Street", "Accenture", "Clerys", "Parliament of the United Kingdom", "SPIN 1038", "Government of the Irish Free State", "Hurlford", "South Circular Road (Dublin)", "Twitter", "Thin Lizzy", "Ptolemy's map of Ireland", "River Dodder", "St. Patrick's College of Education, Drumcondra", "The Square Shopping Centre", "Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke", "National Basketball Arena", "Wood Quay", "Wuhan", "Dalkey", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Dracula", "Counties of Ireland", "World War II", "2016 census of Ireland", "Irish Free State", "Provinces of Ireland", "Loch Linnhe", "San Jose, California", "George's Quay Plaza", "Fishamble Street", "living history", "Dublin South FM", "Liath (restaurant)", "Drogheda", "Royal Charter", "Gaelic revival", "Chester Beatty Library", "Robert the Bruce", "John of England", "Pembroke, Dublin", "Benjamin Lee Guinness", "National College of Art and Design", "James Joyce", "Aer Lingus", "The Digital Hub", "Coolock", "Anna Livia (monument)", "John, King of England", "Convention Centre Dublin", "Wicklow Mountains", "Commuter (Irish Rail)", "2024 UEFA Europa League final", "Technological University Dublin", "Guadalajara", "Oireachtas", "Portlaoise", "Dublin Women's Mini Marathon", "UCD Bowl", "Newry", "Irish War of Independence", "Liffey Sound FM", "Aviva Stadium", "Royal Dublin Society", "Catholic Church hierarchy", "Glasnevin", "The National Aquatic Centre", "St. Stephen's Green", "Ireland", "Mexico City", "An Post", "Grafton Street" ]
8,506	DirectX	Microsoft DirectX is a collection of application programming interfaces (APIs) for handling tasks related to multimedia, especially game programming and video, on Microsoft platforms. Originally, the names of these APIs all began with "Direct", such as Direct3D, DirectDraw, DirectMusic, DirectPlay, DirectSound, and so forth. The name DirectX was coined as a shorthand term for all of these APIs (the X standing in for the particular API names) and soon became the name of the collection. When Microsoft later set out to develop a gaming console, the X was used as the basis of the name Xbox to indicate that the console was based on DirectX technology. The X initial has been carried forward in the naming of APIs designed for the Xbox such as XInput and the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool (XACT), while the DirectX pattern has been continued for Windows APIs such as Direct2D and DirectWrite. Direct3D (the 3D graphics API within DirectX) is widely used in the development of video games for Microsoft Windows and the Xbox line of consoles. Direct3D is also used by other software applications for visualization and graphics tasks such as CAD/CAM engineering. As Direct3D is the most widely publicized component of DirectX, it is common to see the names "DirectX" and "Direct3D" used interchangeably. The DirectX software development kit (SDK) consists of runtime libraries in redistributable binary form, along with accompanying documentation and headers for use in coding. Originally, the runtimes were only installed by games or explicitly by the user. Windows 95 did not launch with DirectX, but DirectX was included with Windows 95 OEM Service Release 2. Windows 98 and Windows NT 4.0 both shipped with DirectX, as has every version of Windows released since. The SDK is available as a free download. While the runtimes are proprietary, closed-source software, source code is provided for most of the SDK samples. Starting with the release of Windows 8 Developer Preview, DirectX SDK has been integrated into Windows SDK. ==Development history== In late 1994, Microsoft was ready to release Windows 95, its next operating system. An important factor in its value to consumers was the programs that would be able to run on it. Microsoft employee Alex St. John had been in discussions with various game developers asking how likely they would be to bring their MS-DOS games to Windows 95, and found the responses mostly negative, since programmers had found that the Windows environment did not provide the necessary features which were available under MS-DOS using BIOS routines or direct hardware access. There were also strong fears of compatibility; a notable case of this was from Disney's Animated Storybook: The Lion King which was based on the WinG programming interface. Due to numerous incompatible graphics drivers from new Compaq computers that were not tested with the WinG interface which came bundled with the game, it crashed so frequently on many desktop systems that parents had flooded Disney's call-in help lines. St. John recognized the resistances for game development under Windows would be a limitation, and recruited two additional engineers, Craig Eisler and Eric Engstrom, to develop a better solution to get more programmers to develop games for Windows. The project was codenamed the Manhattan Project, like the World War II project of the same name, and the idea was to displace the Japanese-developed video game consoles with personal computers running Microsoft's operating system. Most of the work by the three was done among other assigned projects starting near the end of 1994. DirectSound for audio, and DirectPlay for communication between players over a network. Furthermore, an extended joystick API already present in Windows 95 was documented for the first time as DirectInput, while a description of how to implement the immediate start of the installation procedure of a software title after inserting its CD-ROM, a feature called AutoPlay, was also part of the SDK. The "Direct" part of the library was so named as these routines bypassed existing core Windows 95 routines and accessed the computer hardware only via a hardware abstraction layer (HAL). Though the team had named it the "Game SDK" (software development kit), the name "DirectX" came from one journalist that had mocked the naming scheme of the various libraries. The team opted to continue to use that naming scheme and call the project DirectX. and WinG APIs for Windows 3.1. DirectX allowed all versions of Microsoft Windows, starting with Windows 95, to incorporate high-performance multimedia. Eisler wrote about the frenzy to build DirectX 1 through 5 in his blog. To get more developers on board DirectX, Microsoft approached id Software's John Carmack and offered to port Doom and Doom 2 from MS-DOS to DirectX, free of charge, with id retaining all publishing rights to the game. Carmack agreed, and Microsoft's Gabe Newell led the porting project. The first game was released as Doom 95 in August 1996, the first published DirectX game. Microsoft promoted the game heavily with Bill Gates appearing in ads for the title. It was at this event that Microsoft first introduced Direct3D, and demonstrated multiplayer MechWarrior 2 being played over the Internet. The DirectX team faced the challenging task of testing each DirectX release against an array of computer hardware and software. A variety of different graphics cards, audio cards, motherboards, CPUs, input devices, games, and other multimedia applications were tested with each beta and final release. The DirectX team also built and distributed tests that allowed the hardware industry to confirm that new hardware designs and driver releases would be compatible with DirectX. Prior to DirectX Microsoft had added OpenGL to their Windows NT platform. OpenGL had been designed as a cross-platform, window system independent software interface to graphics hardware by Silicon Graphics, Inc. to bring 3D graphics programming into the mainstream of application programming. Besides it could also be used for 2D graphics and imaging and was controlled by the Architectural Review Board (ARB) which included Microsoft. Direct3D was intended to be a Microsoft controlled alternative to OpenGL, focused initially on game use. As 3D gaming grew game developers were discovering that OpenGL could be used effectively for game development. At that point a "battle" began between supporters of the cross-platform OpenGL and the Windows-only Direct3D. Incidentally, OpenGL was supported at Microsoft by the DirectX team. If a developer chose to use the OpenGL 3D graphics API in computer games, the other APIs of DirectX besides Direct3D were often combined with OpenGL because OpenGL does not include all of DirectX's functionality (such as sound or joystick support). In a console-specific version, DirectX was used as a basis for Microsoft's Xbox, Xbox 360 and Xbox One console API. The API was developed jointly between Microsoft and Nvidia, which developed the custom graphics hardware used by the original Xbox. The Xbox API was similar to DirectX version 8.1, but is non-updateable like other console technologies. The Xbox was code named DirectXbox, but this was shortened to Xbox for its commercial name. In 2002, Microsoft released DirectX 9 with support for the use of much longer shader programs than before with pixel and vertex shader version 2.0. Microsoft has continued to update the DirectX suite since then, introducing Shader Model 3.0 in DirectX 9.0c, released in August 2004. As of April 2005, DirectShow was removed from DirectX and moved to the Microsoft Platform SDK instead. DirectX has been confirmed to be present in Microsoft's Windows Phone 8. Real-time raytracing was announced as DXR in 2018. Support for compiling HLSL to SPIR-V was also added in the DirectX Shader Compiler the same year. ==Components== DirectX is composed of multiple APIs: Direct3D (D3D): Real-time 3D rendering API DXGI: Enumerates adapters and monitors and manages swap chains for Direct3D 10 and later. Direct2D: 2D graphics API DirectWrite: Text rendering API DirectCompute: API for general-purpose computing on graphics processing units DirectX Diagnostics (DxDiag): A tool for diagnosing and generating reports on components related to DirectX, such as audio, video, and input drivers XACT3: High-level audio API XAudio2: Low-level audio API DirectX Raytracing (DXR): Real-time raytracing API DirectStorage: GPU-oriented file I/O API DirectML: GPU-accelerated machine learning and artificial intelligence API DirectSR: GPU-accelerated resolution upscaling API Media Foundation DirectX Video Acceleration for accelerated video playback Microsoft has deprecated the following components: DirectX Media: Consists of: DirectAnimation for 2D/3D web animation, DirectShow for multimedia playback and streaming media DirectX Media Objects: Support for streaming objects such as encoders, decoders, and effects (Deprecated in favor of Media Foundation Transforms; MFTs) DirectX Transform for web interactivity, and Direct3D Retained Mode for higher level 3D graphics DirectX plugins for audio signal processing DirectDraw: 2D graphics API (Deprecated in favor of Direct2D) DirectInput: Input API for interfacing with keyboards, mice, joysticks, and game controllers (Deprecated after version 8 in favor of XInput for Xbox 360 controllers or standard WM_INPUT window message processing for keyboard and mouse input) DirectPlay: Network API for communication over a local-area or wide-area network (Deprecated after version 8 in favor of Games for Windows Live and Xbox Live) DirectSound: Audio API (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3) DirectSound3D (DS3D): 3D sounds API (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3) DirectMusic: Components for playing soundtracks authored in DirectMusic Producer (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3) DirectX functionality is provided in the form of COM-style objects and interfaces. Additionally, while not DirectX components themselves, managed objects have been built on top of some parts of DirectX, such as Managed Direct3D and the XNA graphics library on top of Direct3D 9. Microsoft distributes debugging tool for DirectX called "PIX". ==Versions== ===DirectX 9=== Introduced by Microsoft in 2002, DirectX 9 was a significant release in the DirectX family. It brought many important features and enhancements to the graphics capabilities of Windows. At the time of its release, it supported Windows 98, Windows Me, Windows 2000, and Windows XP. As of August 2024 it remains supported by all subsequent versions of Windows for backward compatibility. One of the key features introduced in DirectX 9 was Shader Model 2.0, which included Pixel Shader 2.0 and Vertex Shader 2.0. These allowed for more complex and realistic graphics rendering. It also brought much needed performance improvements through better hardware acceleration capabilities, and better utilization of GPU resources. It also introduced HLSL, which provided a more accessible way for developers to produce shaders. DirectX 9.0c was an update to the original, and has been continuously changed over the years affecting its compatibility with older operating systems. As of January 2007, Windows 2000 and Windows XP became the minimum required operating systems. This means support was officially dropped for Windows 98 and Windows Me. As of August 2024, DirectX 9.0c is still regularly updated. Windows XP SP2 and newer include DirectX 9.0c, but may require a newer DirectX runtime redistributable installation for DirectX 9.0c applications compiled with the February 2005 DirectX 9.0 SDK or newer. DirectX 9 had a significant impact on game development. Many games from the mid-2000s to early 2010s were developed using DirectX 9 and it became a standard target for developers. Even today, some games still use DirectX 9 as an option for older or less powerful hardware. ===DirectX 10=== A major update to DirectX API, DirectX 10 ships with and is only available with Windows Vista (launched in late 2006) and later. Previous versions of Windows such as Windows XP are not able to run DirectX 10-exclusive applications. Rather, programs that are run on a Windows XP system with DirectX 10 hardware simply resort to the DirectX 9.0c code path, the latest available for Windows XP computers. Changes for DirectX 10 were extensive. Many former parts of DirectX API were deprecated in the latest DirectX SDK and are preserved for compatibility only: DirectInput was deprecated in favor of XInput, DirectSound was deprecated in favor of the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool system (XACT) and additionally lost support for hardware accelerated audio, since the Vista audio stack renders sound in software on the CPU. The DirectPlay DPLAY.DLL was also removed and was replaced with dplayx.dll; games that rely on this DLL must duplicate it and rename it to dplay.dll. In order to achieve backwards compatibility, DirectX in Windows Vista contains several versions of Direct3D: Direct3D 9: emulates Direct3D 9 behavior as it was on Windows XP. Details and advantages of Vista's Windows Display Driver Model are hidden from the application if WDDM drivers are installed. This is the only API available if there are only XP graphic drivers (XDDM) installed, after an upgrade to Vista for example. Direct3D 9Ex (known internally during Windows Vista development as 9.0L or 9.L): allows full access to the new capabilities of WDDM (if WDDM drivers are installed) while maintaining compatibility for existing Direct3D applications. The Windows Aero user interface relies on D3D 9Ex. Direct3D 10: Designed around the new driver model in Windows Vista and featuring a number of improvements to rendering capabilities and flexibility, including Shader Model 4. Direct3D 10.1 is an incremental update of Direct3D 10.0 which shipped with, and required, Windows Vista Service Pack 1, which was released in February 2008. This release mainly sets a few more image quality standards for graphics vendors, while giving developers more control over image quality. It also adds support for cube map arrays, separate blend modes per-MRT, coverage mask export from a pixel shader, ability to run pixel shader per sample, access to multi-sampled depth buffers and requires that the video card supports Shader Model 4.1 or higher and 32-bit floating-point operations. Direct3D 10.1 still fully supports Direct3D 10 hardware, but in order to utilize all of the new features, updated hardware is required. ===DirectX 11=== Microsoft unveiled DirectX 11 at the Gamefest 08 event in Seattle. The Final Platform Update launched for Windows Vista on October 27, 2009, which was a week after the initial release of Windows 7, which launched with Direct3D 11 as a base standard. Major scheduled features including GPGPU support (DirectCompute), and Direct3D 11 with tessellation support and improved multi-threading support to assist video game developers in developing games that better utilize multi-core processors. Parts of the new API such as multi-threaded resource handling can be supported on Direct3D 9/10/10.1-class hardware. Hardware tessellation and Shader Model 5.0 require Direct3D 11 supporting hardware. Microsoft has since released the Direct3D 11 Technical Preview. Direct3D 11 is a strict superset of Direct3D 10.1 — all hardware and API features of version 10.1 are retained, and new features are added only when necessary for exposing new functionality. This helps to keep backwards compatibility with previous versions of DirectX. Four updates for DirectX 11 were released: DirectX 11.1 is included in Windows 8. It supports WDDM 1.2 for increased performance, features improved integration of Direct2D (now at version 1.1), Direct3D, and DirectCompute, and includes DirectXMath, XAudio2, and XInput libraries from the XNA framework. It also features stereoscopic 3D support for gaming and video. DirectX 11.1 was also partially backported to Windows 7, via the Windows 7 platform update. DirectX 11.2 is included in Windows 8.1 (including the RT version) and Windows Server 2012 R2. It added some new features to Direct2D like geometry realizations. It also added swap chain composition, which allows some elements of the scene to be rendered at lower resolutions and then composited via hardware overlay with other parts rendered at higher resolution. DirectX 11.X is a superset of DirectX 11.2 running on the Xbox One. It actually includes some features, such as draw bundles, that were later announced as part of DirectX 12. DirectX 11.3 was announced along with DirectX 12 at GDC and released in 2015. It is meant to complement DirectX 12 as a higher-level alternative. It is included with Windows 10. The release of Direct3D 12 comes alongside other initiatives for low-overhead graphics APIs including AMD's Mantle for AMD graphics cards, Apple's Metal for iOS and macOS and Khronos Group's cross-platform Vulkan. Multiadapter support will feature in DirectX 12 allowing developers to utilize multiple GPUs on a system simultaneously; multi-GPU support was previously dependent on vendor implementations such as AMD CrossFireX or NVIDIA SLI. Implicit Multiadapter support will work in a similar manner to previous versions of DirectX where frames are rendered alternately across linked GPUs of similar compute-power. Explicit Multiadapter will provide two distinct API patterns to developers. Linked GPUs will allow DirectX to view graphics cards in SLI or CrossFireX as a single GPU and use the combined resources; whereas Unlinked GPUs will allow GPUs from different vendors to be utilized by DirectX, such as supplementing the dedicated GPU with the integrated GPU on the CPU, or combining AMD and NVIDIA cards. However, elaborate mixed multi-GPU setups requires significantly more attentive developer support. DirectX 12 is supported on all Fermi and later Nvidia GPUs, on AMD's GCN-based chips and on Intel's Haswell and later processors' graphics units. At SIGGRAPH 2014, Intel released a demo showing a computer generated asteroid field, in which DirectX 12 was claimed to be 50–70% more efficient than DirectX 11 in rendering speed and CPU power consumption. Ashes of the Singularity was the first publicly available game to utilize DirectX 12. Testing by Ars Technica in August 2015 revealed slight performance regressions in DirectX 12 over DirectX 11 mode for the Nvidia GeForce 980 Ti, whereas the AMD Radeon R9 290x achieved consistent performance improvements of up to 70% under DirectX 12, and in some scenarios the AMD outperformed the more powerful Nvidia under DirectX 12. The performance discrepancies may be due to poor Nvidia driver optimizations for DirectX 12, or even hardware limitations of the card which was optimized for DirectX 11 serial execution; however, the exact cause remains unclear. The performance improvements of DirectX 12 on the Xbox are not as substantial as on the PC. In March 2018, DirectX Raytracing (DXR) was announced, capable of real-time ray-tracing on supported hardware, and the DXR API was added in the Windows 10 October 2018 update. In 2019 Microsoft announced the arrival of DirectX 12 to Windows 7 but only as a plug-in for certain game titles. ===DirectX 12 Ultimate=== Microsoft revealed DirectX 12 Ultimate in March 2020. DirectX 12 Ultimate will unify to a common library on both Windows 10 computers and the Xbox Series X and other ninth-generation Xbox consoles. Among the new features in Ultimate includes DirectX Raytracing 1.1, Variable Rate Shading, which gives programmers control over the level of detail of shading depending on design choices, Mesh Shaders, and Sampler Feedback. === Version history === The version number as reported by Microsoft's DxDiag tool (version 4.09.0000.0900 and higher) use the x.xx.xxxx.xxxx format for version numbers. However, the DirectX and Windows XP MSDN page claims that the registry always has been in the x.xx.xx.xxxx format. Therefore, when the above table lists a version as '4.09.00.0904' Microsoft's DxDiag tool may have it as '4.09.0000.0904'. ==Compatibility== Various releases of Windows have included and supported various versions of DirectX, allowing newer versions of the operating system to continue running applications designed for earlier versions of DirectX until those versions can be gradually phased out in favor of newer APIs, drivers, and hardware. APIs such as Direct3D and DirectSound need to interact with hardware, and they do this through a device driver. Hardware manufacturers have to write these drivers for a particular DirectX version's device driver interface (or DDI), and test each individual piece of hardware to make them DirectX compatible. Some hardware devices have only DirectX compatible drivers (in other words, one must install DirectX in order to use that hardware). Early versions of DirectX included an up-to-date library of all of the DirectX compatible drivers currently available. This practice was stopped however, in favor of the web-based Windows Update driver-update system, which allowed users to download only the drivers relevant to their hardware, rather than the entire library. Prior to DirectX 10, DirectX runtime was designed to be backward compatible with older drivers, meaning that newer versions of the APIs were designed to interoperate with older drivers written against a previous version's DDI. The application programmer had to query the available hardware capabilities using a complex system of "cap bits" each tied to a particular hardware feature. Direct3D 7 and earlier would work on any version of the DDI, Direct3D 8 requires a minimum DDI level of 6 and Direct3D 9 requires a minimum DDI level of 7. However, the Direct3D 10 runtime in Windows Vista cannot run on older hardware drivers due to the significantly updated DDI, which requires a unified feature set and abandons the use of "cap bits". Direct3D 10.1 introduces "feature levels" 10_0 and 10_1, which allow use of only the hardware features defined in the specified version of Direct3D API. Direct3D 11 adds level 11_0 and "10 Level 9" - a subset of the Direct3D 10 API designed to run on Direct3D 9 hardware, which has three feature levels (9_1, 9_2 and 9_3) grouped by common capabilities of "low", "med" and "high-end" video cards; the runtime directly uses Direct3D 9 DDI provided in all WDDM drivers. Feature level 11_1 has been introduced with Direct3D 11.1. ===.NET Framework=== In 2002, Microsoft released a version of DirectX compatible with the Microsoft .NET Framework, thus allowing programmers to take advantage of DirectX functionality from within .NET applications using compatible languages such as managed C++ or the use of the C# programming language. This API was known as "Managed DirectX" (or MDX for short), and claimed to operate at 98% of performance of the underlying native DirectX APIs. In December 2005, February 2006, April 2006, and August 2006, Microsoft released successive updates to this library, culminating in a beta version called Managed DirectX 2.0. While Managed DirectX 2.0 consolidated functionality that had previously been scattered over multiple assemblies into a single assembly, thus simplifying dependencies on it for software developers, development on this version has subsequently been discontinued, and it is no longer supported. The Managed DirectX 2.0 library expired on October 5, 2006. During the GDC 2006, Microsoft presented the XNA Framework, a new managed version of DirectX (similar but not identical to Managed DirectX) that is intended to assist development of games by making it easier to integrate DirectX, HLSL and other tools in one package. It also supports the execution of managed code on the Xbox 360. The XNA Game Studio Express RTM was made available on December 11, 2006, as a free download for Windows XP. Unlike the DirectX runtime, Managed DirectX, XNA Framework or the Xbox 360 APIs (XInput, XACT etc.) have not shipped as part of Windows. Developers are expected to redistribute the runtime components along with their games or applications. No Microsoft product including the latest XNA releases provides DirectX 10 support for the .NET Framework. The other approach for DirectX in managed languages is to use third-party libraries like: SlimDX, an open source library for DirectX programming on the .NET Framework SharpDX, which is an open source project delivering the full DirectX API for .NET on all Windows platforms, allowing the development of high performance game, 2D and 3D graphics rendering as well as real-time sound applications DirectShow.NET for the DirectShow subset Windows API CodePack for .NET Framework , which is an open source library from Microsoft. ==Alternatives== There are alternatives to the DirectX family of APIs, with OpenGL, its successor Vulkan, Metal and Mantle having the most features comparable to Direct3D. Examples of other APIs include SDL, Allegro, OpenMAX, OpenML, OpenAL, OpenCL, FMOD, SFML etc. Many of these libraries are cross-platform or have open codebases. There are also alternative implementations that aim to provide the same API, such as the one in Wine. Furthermore, the developers of ReactOS are trying to reimplement DirectX under the name "ReactX".	[ "Dr. Dobb's Journal", "streaming media", "video game console", "Eric Engstrom", "Game Developers Conference", "DirectShow", "Microsoft Developer Network", "Windows Update", "Windows 95", "Video game console", "OpenAL", "Linux", "High Level Shader Language", "Walt Disney Computer Software", "DirectML", "DXGI", "game programming", "Channel 9 (Microsoft)", "Geek.com", "DirectCompute", "DirectInput", "Windows CE", "device driver", "Vulkan", "DirectSound3D", "DirectSound", "Haswell (microarchitecture)", "video game", "DXVA", "Timeout Detection and Recovery", "3D rendering", "Graphics processing unit", "Microsoft Windows", "Graphics Device Interface", "Media Foundation", "AMD CrossFireX", "Managed code", "Standard Portable Intermediate Representation", "Windows Server 2008 R2", "application programming interface", "Windows 10", "Graphics Core Next", "Direct3D 11", "High-Level Shader Language", "Direct3D", "C Sharp (programming language)", "OpenCL", "Windows 11", "general-purpose computing on graphics processing units", "AMD Radeon Rx 200 series", "asteroid field", "GeForce 900 series", "Games for Windows Live", "Managed DirectX", "Gabe Newell", "Windows Server 2003", "Windows Aero", "Compaq", "Microsoft Platform SDK", "Windows XP", "Xbox Live", ".NET Framework", "tessellation (computer graphics)", "Hardware abstraction", "computer hardware", "API", "Windowing system", "Vulkan (API)", "Scalable Link Interface", "ray tracing (graphics)", "FMOD", "Windows Subsystem for Linux", "Windows Server 2012", "Windows 7 SP1", "XAudio2", "Windows 7 platform update", "multi-core", "Xbox One", "SlideShare", "MechWarrior 2", "XInput", "Xbox 360", "Microsoft", "video game programmer", "CRC Press", "Windows RT", "Windows Phone 8", "Windows 2000", "DirectX Raytracing", "GPGPU", "id Software", "Xbox (console)", "Windows 3.1", "SIGGRAPH", "Windows 8.1", "Windows 8", "DirectX Media", "Media Foundation Transform", "DirectMusic", "Direct2D", "computer keyboard", "BIOS", "Include directive", "Silicon Graphics", "Windows Server 2008 SP2", "Game Developer Magazine", "Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool", "Windows NT", "Ars Technica", "Ashes of the Singularity", "audio signal processing", "Simple and Fast Multimedia Library", "Intel", "Thread (computer science)", "stereoscopy", "Parallel computing", "DirectStorage", "ReactOS", "Windows 7", "Direct3D 10.1", "Windows API", "Gamasutra", "MS-DOS", "Windows Server 2012 R2", "Direct3D 11.1", "Metal (API)", "The Wall Street Journal", "lion", "PC Magazine", "Windows Me", "ActiveX", "Direct3D 12", "Alex St. John", "Shacknews", "Windows 98", "AnandTech", "Doom (1993 video game)", "Xbox Series X and Series S", "Manhattan Project", "Low-level programming language", "OpenMAX", "hardware acceleration", "WinG", "Nvidia", "Windows Vista Service Pack 1", "Brad Silverberg", "OpenGL", "Microsoft XNA", "Windows Display Driver Model", "software development kit", "John Carmack", "Component Object Model", "Windows Vista SP1", "multimedia", "PC Gamer", "Windows Server 2008", "3D audio effect", "Addison-Wesley", "Dreamcast", "Build (developer conference)", "Mantle (API)", "Shader", "Graphics pipeline", "joystick", "Windows NT 4.0", "Fermi (microarchitecture)", "Simple DirectMedia Layer", "DirectWrite", "Microsoft Docs", "Features new to Windows Vista", "Windows Vista audio architecture", "DirectSR", "backport", "operating system", "Allegro (software library)", "computer mouse", "Feature levels in Direct3D", "Disney's Animated Storybook", "DirectPlay", "software", "runtime library", "Windows 98 SE", "computer games", "Windows Vista", "Wine (software)", "Xbox Series X", "Ancient Rome", "Khronos Group", "radiation symbol", "Doom 2", "Xbox", "DxDiag", "DirectDraw", "game controller", "Bill Gates", "Windows Vista SP2" ]
8,508	Slalom skiing	Slalom is an alpine skiing and alpine snowboarding discipline, involving skiing between poles or gates. These are spaced more closely than those in giant slalom, super giant slalom and downhill, necessitating quicker and shorter turns. Internationally, the sport is contested at the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships, and at the Olympic Winter Games. == History == The term slalom comes from the Morgedal/Seljord dialect of the Norwegian word "slalåm": "sla", meaning "slightly inclining hillside", and "låm", meaning "track after skis". The inventors of modern skiing classified their trails according to their difficulty: Slalåm was a trail used in Telemark by boys and girls not yet able to try themselves on the more challenging runs. Ufsilåm was a trail with one obstacle (ufse) like a jump, a fence, a difficult turn, a gorge, a cliff (often more than high), et cetera. Uvyrdslåm was a trail with several obstacles. A Norwegian military downhill competition in 1767 included racing downhill among trees "without falling or breaking skis". Sondre Norheim and other skiers from Telemark practiced uvyrdslåm or "disrespectful/reckless downhill" where they raced downhill in difficult and untested terrain (i.e., off piste). The 1866 "ski race" in Oslo was a combined cross-country, jumping and slalom competition. In the slalom participants were allowed use poles for braking and steering, and they were given points for style (appropriate skier posture). During the late 19th century Norwegian skiers participated in all branches (jumping, slalom, and cross-country) often with the same pair of skis. Slalom and variants of slalom were often referred to as hill races. Around 1900 hill races were abandoned in the Oslo championships at Huseby and Holmenkollen. Mathias Zdarsky's development of the Lilienfeld binding helped change hill races into a specialty of the Alps region. The rules for the modern slalom were developed by Arnold Lunn in 1922 for the British National Ski Championships, and adopted for alpine skiing at the 1936 Winter Olympics. Under these rules gates were marked by pairs of flags rather than single ones, were arranged so that the racers had to use a variety of turn lengths to negotiate them, and scoring was on the basis of time alone, rather than on both time and style. ==Course== A course is constructed by laying out a series of gates, formed by alternating pairs of red and blue poles. The skier must pass between the two poles forming the gate, with the tips of both skis and the skier's feet passing between the poles. A course has 55 to 75 gates for men and 40 to 60 for women. The vertical drop for a men's course is and measures slightly less for women. The gates are arranged in a variety of configurations to challenge the competitor. ==Clearing the gates== Traditionally, bamboo poles were used for gates, the rigidity of which forced skiers to maneuver their entire body around each gate. In the early 1980s, rigid poles were replaced by hard plastic poles, hinged at the base. The hinged gates require, according to FIS rules, only that the skis and boots of the skier go around each gate. The new gates allow a more direct path down a slalom course through the process of cross-blocking or shinning the gates. Cross-blocking is a technique in which the legs go around the gate with the upper body inclined toward, or even across, the gate; in this case the racer's outside pole and shinguards hit the gate, knocking it down and out of the way. Cross-blocking is done by pushing the gate down with the arms, hands, or shins. By 1989, most of the top technical skiers in the world had adopted the cross-block technique. == Equipment == With the innovation of shaped skis around the turn of the 21st century, equipment used for slalom in international competition changed drastically. World Cup skiers commonly skied on slalom skis at a length of in the 1980s and 1990s but by the 2002 Olympic Winter Games in Salt Lake City, the majority of competitors were using skis measuring or less. The downside of the shorter skis was that athletes found that recoveries were more difficult with a smaller platform underfoot. Out of concern for the safety of athletes, the FIS began to set minimum ski lengths for international slalom competition. The minimum was initially set at for men and for women, but was increased to for men and for women for the 2003–2004 season. The equipment minimums and maximums imposed by the International Ski Federation (FIS) have created a backlash from skiers, suppliers, and fans. The main objection is that the federation is regressing the equipment, and hence the sport, by two decades. American Bode Miller hastened the shift to the shorter, more radical sidecut skis when he achieved unexpected success after becoming the first Junior Olympic athlete to adopt the equipment in giant slalom and super-G in 1996. A few years later, the technology was adapted to slalom skis as well. ==Men's slalom World Cup podiums== In the following table men's slalom World Cup podiums in the World Cup since first season in 1967. ==Women's slalom World Cup podiums== In the following table women's slalom World Cup podiums in the World Cup since first season in 1967.	[ "2001–02 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Heinrich Messner", "2020–21 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Norwegian language", "Norway", "Ramon Zenhäusern", "FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "1988–89 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "2000–01 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Holmenkollen", "Rainer Schönfelder", "Armin Bittner", "Katharina Liensberger", "Patrick Russel", "Hans Petter Buraas", "Claudia Riegler (skier)", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1994", "Kathrin Zettel", "Lena Dürr", "Julien Lizeroux", "2014–15 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "1999–00 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1974", "2008–09 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Piero Gros", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1978", "Lise-Marie Morerod", "Günther Mader", "Šárka Záhrobská", "Alberto Tomba", "Daniela Zini", "Thomas Fogdö", "Alpine Ski World Cup", "2017–18 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "2022-23 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Manfred Pranger", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1972", "2003–04 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Rudolf Nierlich", "Betsy Clifford", "Deborah Compagnoni", "alpine snowboarding", "Rok Petrovič", "Jean-Pierre Vidal", "2022–23 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Tyler Palmer", "Annemarie Moser-Pröll", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1975", "Ingrid Lafforgue", "Clément Noël", "2002–03 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Tamara McKinney", "2004 Alpine Skiing World Cup", "Nancy Greene", "Urska Hrovat", "Reinfried Herbst", "Danièle Debernard", "Paul Frommelt", "André Myhrer", "Ingemar Stenmark", "Marc Girardelli", "Regina Sackl", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2008", "Jean-Noel Augert", "Špela Pretnar", "2021–22 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Thomas Sykora", "Marielle Goitschel", "alpine skiing", "Henrik Kristoffersen", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1997", "2020-21 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Françoise Macchi", "Matjaž Vrhovnik", "Andrzej Bachleda (born 1947)", "2021-22 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1988", "FIS Alpine World Ski Championships", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1970", "Gustav Thöni", "Phil Mahre", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2012", "Marco Schwarz", "1973–74 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "1976–77 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Christin Cooper", "Lucas Braathen", "Hilde Gerg", "Barbara Cochran", "Ursula Konzett", "Giorgio Rocca", "Anita Wachter", "1974–75 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Erika Hess", "Downhill (ski competition)", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2013", "1990–91 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2011", "1983–84 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Petra Kronberger", "Maria Rosa Quario", "Hans Hinterseer", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2015", "Manfred Mölgg", "1993–94 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1989", "Finn Christian Jagge", "2013–14 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Michaela Kirchgasser", "Tina Maze", "1995–96 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "2004–05 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2014", "Jean-Noël Augert", "Ole Kristian Furuseth", "Ivica Kostelić", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1990", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1999", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1973", "Patricia Chauvet", "Washington, Pennsylvania", "Claudia Strobl", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1991", "1992–93 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2002", "Morgedal", "Aleksandr Khoroshilov (skier)", "giant slalom", "Sebastien Amiez", "2011–12 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Roswitha Steiner", "cs:Alpské lyžování", "Alfred Matt", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1977", "1986–87 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Marlies Schild", "Franz Gruber (alpine skier)", "Manuel Feller", "Veronika Velez-Zuzulová", "Christian Neureuther", "Christa Zechmeister", "Christel Pascal", "2023–24 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1971", "Sonja Nef", "AAU Junior Olympic Games", "1977–78 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Guy Perillat", "Telemark", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2001", "Felix McGrath", "Alps", "Patricia Emonet", "2023-24 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1980", "Kalle Palander", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1993", "Claudia Giordani", "Seljord", "alpine skiing at the 1936 Winter Olympics", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2003", "Florence Steurer", "Jean-Baptiste Grange", "Frida Hansdotter", "1984–85 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "1981–82 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Annelise Coberger", "Arnold Lunn", "Nicole Hosp", "Monika Maierhofer", "Paul Accola", "Kristina Koznick", "Heinz Schilchegger", "Mikaela Shiffrin", "Monika Kaserer", "Bode Miller", "Annie Famose", "2012–13 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Sondre Norheim", "Pernilla Wiberg", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1998", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2006", "Mario Matt", "Kjetil André Aamodt", "Britt Lafforgue", "Martina Ertl", "Fabienne Serrat", "1996–97 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Laure Pequegnot", "1998–99 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Roland Thöni", "Michèle Jacot", "Johann Kniewasser", "Steve Mahre", "Daniel Yule", "International Ski Federation", "Linus Straßer", "Kiki Cutter", "fi:Pujottelu", "Elfi Eder", "Benjamin Raich", "2015–16 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "2019–20 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Rosi Mittermaier", "Corinne Schmidhauser", "2019-20 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Dumeng Giovanoli", "Janica Kostelić", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1996", "Marcel Hirscher", "1985–86 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1979", "2009–10 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Atle Lie McGrath", "2007–08 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1983", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1982", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1992", "Ylva Nowén", "Jure Košir", "1982–83 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Veronika Zuzulová", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2007", "Trysil", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2009", "1989–90 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Anja Pärson", "Vreni Schneider", "1994–95 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Andreas Wenzel", "2005–06 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Jean-Claude Killy", "super-G", "Thomas Stangassinger", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1986", "Jens Byggmark", "Bojan Križaj", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2010", "2016–17 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Perrine Pelen", "2010–11 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Mathias Zdarsky", "Lea Sölkner", "Ida Ladstätter", "Maria Riesch", "1987–88 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1984", "2018–19 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "1979–80 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2000", "1975–76 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "1991–92 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1968", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1981", "Klaus Heidegger", "1997–98 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1985", "Timon Haugan", "Tanja Poutiainen", "Olympic Winter Games", "Salt Lake City", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2004", "Felix Neureuther", "Hanni Wenzel", "Monika Bergmann-Schmuderer", "Alpine Ski World Cup 2005", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1967", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1987", "Gertrud Gabl", "1978–79 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1969", "Blanca Fernández Ochoa", "Stig Strand", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1995", "Alpine Ski World Cup 1976", "Alpine skiing at the 2002 Winter Olympics", "Michael Tritscher", "Sabine Egger", "Lindsey Vonn", "Alain Penz", "Wendy Holdener", "Silvan Zurbriggen", "2006–07 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup", "Petra Vlhová", "1980–81 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup" ]
8,518	Dachshund	The dachshund ( or ; German: 'badger dog'), also known as the wiener dog or sausage dog, badger dog and doxie, is a short-legged, long-bodied, hound-type dog breed. The dog may be smooth-haired, wire-haired, or long-haired, with varied coloration. The dachshund was bred to scent, chase, and flush out badgers and other burrow-dwelling animals. The miniature dachshund was bred to hunt small animals such as rabbits. The dachshund was ranked 9th in registrations with the American Kennel Club in 2022. ==Etymology== The name dachshund is of German origin, and means 'badger dog', from ('badger') and ('dog, hound'). The German word Dachshund is pronounced . The pronunciation varies in English: variations of the first and second syllables include , and , , . The first syllable may be incorrectly pronounced as by some English speakers. Although is a German word, in modern Germany, the dogs are more commonly known by the short name . Working dogs are less commonly known as . Because of their long, narrow build, they are often nicknamed wiener or sausage dog. == Classification == While classified in the hound group or scent hound group in the United States and Great Britain, the breed has its own group in the countries which belong to the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (World Canine Federation). Many dachshunds, especially the wire-haired subtype, may exhibit behavior and appearance similar to the terrier group of dogs. An argument can be made for the scent (or hound) group classification because the breed was developed to use scent to trail and hunt animals, and probably descended from the Saint Hubert Hound like many modern scent hound breeds such as bloodhounds and Basset Hounds; but with the persistent personality and love for digging that probably developed from the terrier, it can also be argued that they could belong in the terrier, or "earth dog", group. ==== Coat and color ==== There are three dachshund coat varieties: smooth coat (short hair), long-haired, and wire-haired. The Dachshund Club of America (DCA) and the American Kennel Club (AKC) consider Double Dapple to be out of standard and a disqualifying color in the show ring. Piebald is now a recognized color in the Dachshund Club of America (DCA) breed standard. Dogs that are double-dappled have the merle pattern of a dapple, but with distinct white patches that occur when the dapple gene expresses itself twice in the same area of the coat. The DCA excluded the wording "double-dapple" from the standard in 2007 and now strictly uses the wording "dapple" as the double dapple gene is commonly responsible for blindness and deafness. ==== Size ==== Dachshunds come in three sizes: standard, miniature, and kaninchen (German for "rabbit"). Although the standard and miniature sizes are recognized almost universally, the rabbit size is not recognized by clubs in the United States and the United Kingdom. The rabbit size is recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (World Canine Federation) (FCI), which contain kennel clubs from 83 countries all over the world. An increasingly common size for family pets falls between the miniature and the standard size; these are frequently referred to as "tweenies," which is not an official classification. A full-grown standard dachshund typically weighs , while the miniature variety normally weighs less than . ==== Eye color ==== Light-colored dachshunds can sport amber, light brown, or green eyes; however, kennel club standards state that the darker the eye color, the better. Dapple and double dapple dachshunds can have multi-coloured "wall" eyes with fully blue, partially blue or patched irises owing to the effect of the dapple gene on eye pigmentation expression. "Wall" eye is permissible according to DCA standards but undesirable by AKC standards. === Temperament === Dachshunds can be stubborn and refuse commands, especially if chasing a small animal which they have a propensity for. As dachshunds were originally used as badger hunters they have a keen sense for chasing smaller animals. Dachshunds are often stubborn, making them a challenge to train.}} Dachshunds can be aggressive to strangers and other dogs. Despite this, they are rated in the intelligence of dogs as an average working dog with a persistent ability to follow trained commands 50% of the time or more. They can have a loud bark. Some bark quite a lot and may need training to stop, while others will not bark much at all. According to the American Kennel Club's breed standards, "the dachshund is clever, lively and courageous to the point of rashness, persevering in above and below ground work, with all the senses well-developed. Any display of shyness is a serious fault." Their temperament and body language give the impression that they do not know or care about their relatively small size. Like many small hunting dogs, they will challenge a larger dog. Indulged dachshunds may become snappy or extremely obstinate. A 2008 University of Pennsylvania study of 6,000 dog owners who were interviewed indicated that dogs of smaller breeds were more likely to be "genetically predisposed toward aggressive behaviour". Dachshunds were rated the most aggressive, with 20% having bitten strangers, as well as high rates of attacks on other dogs and their owners. The study noted that attacks by small dogs were unlikely to cause serious injuries and because of this were probably under-reported. == Health == The breed is prone to spinal problems, especially intervertebral disk disease (IVDD), due in part to an extremely long spinal column and short rib cage. The risk of injury may be worsened by obesity, jumping, rough handling, or intense exercise, which place greater strain on the vertebrae. About 20–25% of dachshunds will develop IVDD. Dachshunds with a number of calcified intervertebral discs at a young age have a higher risk of developing disc disease in later life. In addition, studies have shown that development of calcified discs is highly heritable in the breed. An appropriate screening programme for IVDD has been identified by Finnish researchers and a UK IVDD screening programme has been developed for breeders with the aim to reduce prevalence of spinal problems. Treatment consists of combinations of crate confinement and courses of anti-inflammatory medications (steroids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like carprofen and meloxicam), or chronic pain medications, like tramadol. Serious cases may require surgery to remove the troublesome disk contents. A dog may need the aid of a cart to get around if paralysis occurs. A minimally invasive procedure called "percutaneous laser disk ablation" has been developed at the Oklahoma State University Veterinary Hospital. Originally, the procedure was used in clinical trials Dachshunds may also be affected by osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease). The condition seems to be mainly limited to wire-haired Dachshunds, with 17% being carriers. A genetic test is available to allow breeders to avoid breeding carriers to carriers. In such pairings, each puppy will have a 25% chance of being affected. In some double dapples, there are varying degrees of vision and hearing loss, including reduced or absent eyes. Not all double dapples have problems with their eyes and/or ears, which may include degrees of hearing loss, full deafness, malformed ears, congenital eye defects, reduced or absent eyes, partial or full blindness, or varying degrees of both vision and hearing problems; but heightened problems can occur owing to the genetic process in which two dapple genes cross, particularly in certain breeding lines. Dapple genes, which are dominant genes, are considered "dilution" genes, meaning whatever color the dog would have originally carried is lightened, or diluted, randomly; two dominant "dilution" genes can cancel each other out, or "cross", removing all color and producing a white recessive gene, essentially a white mutation. When occurring genetically within the eyes or ears, this white mutation can be detrimental to development, causing hearing or vision problems. Other dachshund health problems include hereditary epilepsy, granulomatous meningoencephalitis, dental issues, Cushing's syndrome, thyroid various allergies and atopies, and various eye conditions including cataracts, glaucoma, progressive retinal atrophy, The records analyzed contained data on 42,855 litters. It was found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression. It was also found that young and older dams had smaller litter sizes and more stillborn puppies than middle-aged dams. A study in Japan found the Miniature Dachshund to have lower rates of glaucoma than other breeds. With 2.4% of cases belonging to the breed but the breed making up 10.1% of visits to the veterinary hospital. Dachshunds are predisposed to hypothyroidism. ===Life expectancy=== A 2018 study in Japan of pet cemetery data put the Miniature Dachshund life expectancy at 13.9 years compared to 13.7 overall and 15.1 for crossbreeds. A 2024 study in the UK found a life expectancy of 13.2 years for the breed compared to an average of 12.7 for purebreeds and 12 for crossbreeds with the Miniature Dachshund found to have a life expectancy of 14 years. A 2024 Italian study found a life expectancy of 11.5 years for the breed compared to 10 years overall. A 2005 Swedish study of insurance data found 28% of Dachshund died by the age of 10, less than the overall rate of 35% of dogs dying by the age of 10. == History == The dachshund is a creation of German breeders and includes elements of German, French, and English hounds and terriers. Dachshunds have been kept by royal courts all over Europe, including that of Queen Victoria, who was particularly enamored of the breed. The first verifiable references to the dachshund, originally named the "Dachs Kriecher" ("badger crawler") or "Dachs Krieger" ("badger warrior"), came from books written in the early 18th century. Prior to that, there exist references to "badger dogs" and "hole dogs", but these likely refer to purposes rather than to specific breeds. The original German dachshunds were larger than the modern full-size variety, weighing between , and originally came in straight-legged and crook-legged varieties (the modern dachshund is descended from the latter). Though the breed is famous for its use in exterminating badgers and badger-baiting, dachshunds were also commonly used for rabbit and fox hunting, for locating wounded deer, and in packs were known to hunt game as large as wild boar and as fierce as the wolverine. There are huge differences of opinion as to when dachshunds were specifically bred for their purpose of hunting badger, as the American Kennel Club states the dachshund was bred in the 15th century, while the Dachshund Club of America states that foresters bred the dogs in the 18th or 19th century. Double-dapple dachshunds, which are prone to eye disease, blindness, or hearing problems, are generally believed to have been introduced to the United States between 1879 and 1885. The flap-down ears and famous curved tail of the dachshund have deliberately been bred into the dog. In the case of the ears, this is to keep grass seeds, dirt, and other matter from entering the ear canal. The curved tail is dual-purposed: to be seen more easily in long grass and, in the case of burrowing dachshunds, to help haul the dog out if it becomes stuck in a burrow. The smooth-haired dachshund, the oldest style, may be a cross between the German Shorthaired Pointer, a Pinscher, and a Bracke (a type of bloodhound), or to have been produced by crossing a short Bruno Jura Hound with a pinscher. Others believe it was a cross from a miniature French pointer and a pinscher; others claim that it was developed from the St. Hubert Hound, also a bloodhound, in the 18th century, and still others believe that they were descended from Basset Hounds, based upon their scent abilities and general appearance. The exact origins of the dachshund are therefore unknown. According to William Loeffler, from The American Book of the Dog (1891), in the chapter on dachshunds: "The origin of the Dachshund is in doubt, our best authorities disagreeing as to the beginning of the breed." There are two theories about how the standard long-haired dachshund came about. One theory is that smooth dachshunds would occasionally produce puppies which had slightly longer hair than their parents. By selectively breeding these animals, breeders eventually produced a dog which consistently produced long-haired offspring, and the long-haired dachshund was born. Another theory is that the standard long-haired dachshund was developed by breeding smooth dachshunds with various land and water spaniels. The long-haired dachshund may be a cross among any of the small dog breeds in the spaniel group, including the German Stoeberhund, and the smooth dachshund. During World War I, the dachshund's popularity in the United States plummeted because of this association. As a result, they were often called "liberty hounds", just as "liberty cabbage" became a term for sauerkraut mostly in North America. The stigma of the association was revived to a lesser extent during World War II, though it was comparatively short-lived. Kaiser Wilhelm II and German field marshal Erwin Rommel were known for keeping dachshunds. Owing to the association of the breed with Germany, as well as its particular popularity among dog keepers in Munich at the time, the dachshund was chosen as the first official mascot for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, with the name Waldi. In the German sitcom Hausmeister Krause, the main protagonist, Dieter Krause, is portrayed as a typical German square and fuddy-duddy, who embodies many German stereotypes, and his obsession for dachshunds is one of them. The important role of dachshunds in the series even led to a new rise in popularity of dachshunds in Germany. == Sports == Some people train and enter their dachshunds to compete in dachshund races, such as the Wiener Nationals. Several races across the United States routinely draw several thousand attendees. Despite the popularity of these events, the Dachshund Club of America opposes "wiener racing", as many greyhound tracks use the events to draw large crowds to their facilities. The DCA is also worried about potential injuries to dogs, owing to their predisposition to back injuries. Another favorite sport is earthdog trials, in which dachshunds enter tunnels with dead ends and obstacles attempting to locate either an artificial bait or live but caged (and thus protected) rats. == Dackel versus Teckel == In Germany, dachshunds are widely called Dackel (both singular and plural). Among hunters, they are mainly referred to as Teckel. There are kennels which specialize in breeding hunting dachshunds, the so-called jagdliche Leistungszucht ("hunting-related performance breeding") or Gebrauchshundezucht ("working dog breeding"), as opposed to breeding family dogs. Therefore, it is sometimes incorrectly believed that Teckel is either a name for the hunting breed or a mark for passing the test for a trained hunting dog (called "VGP", "Verband-Gebrauchsprüfung") in Germany. ==Popularity== Dachshunds are one of the most popular dogs in the United States, ranking 12th in the 2018 AKC registration statistics. They are popular with urban and apartment dwellers, ranking among the top 10 most popular breeds in 76 of 190 major US cities surveyed by the AKC. There are organized local dachshund clubs in most major American cities, including New York, New Orleans, Portland, Los Angeles, and Chicago. As of 2024, the American Kennel Club found the Dachshund to be the 6th most popular dog breed. File:Adolf Eberle Dackelfamilie.jpg\|Die Dackelfamilie mit Jäger und Magd (The Dachshund family with Hunter and Maid) by Adolf Eberle File:Jean-Baptiste Oudry - Hound with Gun and Dead Game - WGA16780.jpg\|Jean-Baptiste Oudry – Dachshund with Gun and Dead Game, 1740 File:L Riedler Hunde 1 Wie wird es enden.jpg\|How will it end? Wie wird es enden? c. 1900. File:Dackel mit Bierkrug.jpg\|German (Swabian) postcard with inscription "This beer belongs to my master!" c. 1900. File:Carl Reichert - Curious dachshund puppies and a frog.jpg\|Curious Dachshund Puppies & A Frog. Carl Reichert. == Notable dogs and owners == John F. Kennedy bought a dachshund puppy while touring Europe in 1937 for his then-girlfriend Olivia. The puppy, named Dunker, never left Germany after Kennedy started to get allergic reactions. Grover Cleveland, the 22nd and 24th President, had a dachshund in the White House. William Randolph Hearst was an avid lover of dachshunds. When his own dachshund Helena died, he eulogized her in his "In The News" column. Fred, E. B. White's dachshund, appeared in many of his famous essays. Lump (; German for "rascal"), the pet of Pablo Picasso, who was thought to have inspired some of his artwork. Picasso & Lump tells the story of Picasso and Lump. Jack Ruby, the killer of Lee Harvey Oswald, had a dachshund named Sheba, which he often referred to as his wife. Andy Warhol had a pair of dachshunds, Archie and Amos, whom he depicted in his paintings and mentioned frequently in his diaries. Stanley and Boodgie, immortalized on canvas by owner David Hockney, and published in the book David Hockney's Dog Days. Wadl and Hexl, Kaiser Wilhelm II's famous ferocious pair. Upon arriving at Archduke Franz Ferdinand's country seat, Konopiště castle, on a semi-official visit, they promptly proceeded to do away with one of the Austro-Hungarian heir presumptive's priceless golden pheasants, thereby almost causing an international incident. Another one of his beloved dachshunds, Senta, is currently buried at Huis Doorn, Wilhelm's manor in the Netherlands. In Zelenogorsk, Russia, a parade of dachshunds pass by a dachshund monument every July 25 to commemorate the day the city was founded. Joe was the dachshund of General Claire Lee Chennault, commander of the Flying Tigers and then the China Air Task Force of the US Army Air Forces, and became the mascot of those organizations. Maxie, a dachshund owned by actress Marie Prevost, tried to awaken his dead mistress, who was found with small bites on her legs. Maxie's barking eventually summoned neighbors to the scene. The incident inspired the 1977 Nick Lowe song "Marie Prevost". Liliane Kaufmann, wife of Edgar J. Kaufmann who commissioned the home Fallingwater from Frank Lloyd Wright in 1935, was a well-known breeder and owner of long-haired dachshunds. At the Fallingwater bookstore, visitors are able to purchase a book titled Moxie, which is about one of the dachshunds who lived at Fallingwater. Liliane raised long-haired dachshunds and they traveled from Pittsburgh to Bear Run with her. The former Queen of Denmark, Margrethe II, is one of several Danish royals to keep dachshunds. Margrethe of Denmark has a particular fondness of dachshunds and has kept many throughout her life. Her 80th birthday, celebrated in 2020, was marked by posing with one of her favourites (Lilia) on the grounds of Fredensborg Castle. Obie is a dachshund who became infamous for his obesity, weighing as much as , more than twice a normal-weight standard dachshund. He reached his target weight of in July 2013. Carole Lombard and Clark Gable had a dachshund named Commissioner. Crusoe the Celebrity Dachshund gained fame on social media. In 2015, Crusoe came out with his The New York Times best-selling book titled Crusoe: Adventures of the Wiener Dog Extraordinaire!. In 2018, Crusoe came out with another book titled Crusoe: The Worldly Wiener Dog. At the 9th annual Shorty Awards, Crusoe won the best animal category. In 2018, Crusoe won the People's Choice Awards Animal Star of 2018. English singer-songwriter Adele has a dachshund named Louis Armstrong.	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Kennedy", "hunting", "dog breed", "Stereotypes of Germans", "Pablo Picasso", "The New York Times", "Degenerative disc disease", "Adolf Eberle", "Cushing's syndrome (veterinary)", "German Spaniel", "NBC Universal", "Adele", "wild boar", "Fredensborg Castle" ]
8,519	Data structure	In computer science, a data structure is a data organization and storage format that is usually chosen for efficient access to data. More precisely, a data structure is a collection of data values, the relationships among them, and the functions or operations that can be applied to the data, i.e., it is an algebraic structure about data. ==Usage == Data structures serve as the basis for abstract data types (ADT). The ADT defines the logical form of the data type. The data structure implements the physical form of the data type. Different types of data structures are suited to different kinds of applications, and some are highly specialized to specific tasks. For example, relational databases commonly use B-tree indexes for data retrieval, while compiler implementations usually use hash tables to look up identifiers. Data structures provide a means to manage large amounts of data efficiently for uses such as large databases and internet indexing services. Usually, efficient data structures are key to designing efficient algorithms. Some formal design methods and programming languages emphasize data structures, rather than algorithms, as the key organizing factor in software design. Data structures can be used to organize the storage and retrieval of information stored in both main memory and secondary memory. ==Implementation== Data structures can be implemented using a variety of programming languages and techniques, but they all share the common goal of efficiently organizing and storing data. Data structures are generally based on the ability of a computer to fetch and store data at any place in its memory, specified by a pointer—a bit string, representing a memory address, that can be itself stored in memory and manipulated by the program. Thus, the array and record data structures are based on computing the addresses of data items with arithmetic operations, while the linked data structures are based on storing addresses of data items within the structure itself. This approach to data structuring has profound implications for the efficiency and scalability of algorithms. For instance, the contiguous memory allocation in arrays facilitates rapid access and modification operations, leading to optimized performance in sequential data processing scenarios. The implementation of a data structure usually requires writing a set of procedures that create and manipulate instances of that structure. The efficiency of a data structure cannot be analyzed separately from those operations. This observation motivates the theoretical concept of an abstract data type, a data structure that is defined indirectly by the operations that may be performed on it, and the mathematical properties of those operations (including their space and time cost). ==Examples== There are numerous types of data structures, generally built upon simpler primitive data types. Well known examples are: An array is a number of elements in a specific order, typically all of the same type (depending on the language, individual elements may either all be forced to be the same type, or may be of almost any type). Elements are accessed using an integer index to specify which element is required. Typical implementations allocate contiguous memory words for the elements of arrays (but this is not always a necessity). Arrays may be fixed-length or resizable. A linked list (also just called list) is a linear collection of data elements of any type, called nodes, where each node has itself a value, and points to the next node in the linked list. The principal advantage of a linked list over an array is that values can always be efficiently inserted and removed without relocating the rest of the list. Certain other operations, such as random access to a certain element, are however slower on lists than on arrays. A record (also called tuple or struct) is an aggregate data structure. A record is a value that contains other values, typically in fixed number and sequence and typically indexed by names. The elements of records are usually called fields or members. In the context of object-oriented programming, records are known as plain old data structures to distinguish them from objects. Hash tables, also known as hash maps, are data structures that provide fast retrieval of values based on keys. They use a hashing function to map keys to indexes in an array, allowing for constant-time access in the average case. Hash tables are commonly used in dictionaries, caches, and database indexing. However, hash collisions can occur, which can impact their performance. Techniques like chaining and open addressing are employed to handle collisions. Graphs are collections of nodes connected by edges, representing relationships between entities. Graphs can be used to model social networks, computer networks, and transportation networks, among other things. They consist of vertices (nodes) and edges (connections between nodes). Graphs can be directed or undirected, and they can have cycles or be acyclic. Graph traversal algorithms include breadth-first search and depth-first search. Stacks and queues are abstract data types that can be implemented using arrays or linked lists. A stack has two primary operations: push (adds an element to the top of the stack) and pop (removes the topmost element from the stack), that follow the Last In, First Out (LIFO) principle. Queues have two main operations: enqueue (adds an element to the rear of the queue) and dequeue (removes an element from the front of the queue) that follow the First In, First Out (FIFO) principle. Trees represent a hierarchical organization of elements. A tree consists of nodes connected by edges, with one node being the root and all other nodes forming subtrees. Trees are widely used in various algorithms and data storage scenarios. Binary trees (particularly heaps), AVL trees, and B-trees are some popular types of trees. They enable efficient and optimal searching, sorting, and hierarchical representation of data. A trie, or prefix tree, is a special type of tree used to efficiently retrieve strings. In a trie, each node represents a character of a string, and the edges between nodes represent the characters that connect them. This structure is especially useful for tasks like autocomplete, spell-checking, and creating dictionaries. Tries allow for quick searches and operations based on string prefixes. ==Language support== Most assembly languages and some low-level languages, such as BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language), lack built-in support for data structures. On the other hand, many high-level programming languages and some higher-level assembly languages, such as MASM, have special syntax or other built-in support for certain data structures, such as records and arrays. For example, the C (a direct descendant of BCPL) and Pascal languages support structs and records, respectively, in addition to vectors (one-dimensional arrays) and multi-dimensional arrays. Most programming languages feature some sort of library mechanism that allows data structure implementations to be reused by different programs. Modern languages usually come with standard libraries that implement the most common data structures. Examples are the C++ Standard Template Library, the Java Collections Framework, and the Microsoft .NET Framework. Modern languages also generally support modular programming, the separation between the interface of a library module and its implementation. Some provide opaque data types that allow clients to hide implementation details. Object-oriented programming languages, such as C++, Java, and Smalltalk, typically use classes for this purpose. Many known data structures have concurrent versions which allow multiple computing threads to access a single concrete instance of a data structure simultaneously.	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8,520	Dmitri Shostakovich	Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich (9 August 1975) was a Soviet-era Russian composer and pianist who became internationally known after the premiere of his First Symphony in 1926 and thereafter was regarded as a major composer. Shostakovich achieved early fame in the Soviet Union, but had a complex relationship with its government. His 1934 opera Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk was initially a success but later condemned by the Soviet government, putting his career at risk. In 1948, his work was denounced under the Zhdanov Doctrine, with professional consequences lasting several years. Even after his censure was rescinded in 1956, performances of his music were occasionally subject to state interventions, as with his Thirteenth Symphony (1962). Nevertheless, Shostakovich was a member of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR (1947) and the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union (from 1962 until his death), as well as chairman of the RSFSR Union of Composers (1960–1968). Over the course of his career, he earned several important awards, including the Order of Lenin, from the Soviet government. Shostakovich combined a variety of different musical techniques in his works. His music is characterized by sharp contrasts, elements of the grotesque, and ambivalent tonality; he was also heavily influenced by neoclassicism and by the music of Gustav Mahler. His orchestral works include 15 symphonies and six concerti (two each for piano, violin, and cello). His chamber works include 15 string quartets, a piano quintet, and two piano trios. His solo piano works include two sonatas, an early set of 24 preludes, and a later set of 24 preludes and fugues. Stage works include three completed operas and three ballets. Shostakovich also wrote several song cycles, and a substantial quantity of music for theatre and film. Shostakovich's reputation has continued to grow after his death. Scholarly interest has increased significantly since the late 20th century, including considerable debate about the relationship between his music and his attitudes toward the Soviet government. == Biography == === Youth === Born into a Russian family that lived on Podolskaya Street in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, Shostakovich was the second of three children of Dmitri Boleslavovich Shostakovich and Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina. Shostakovich's immediate forebears came from Siberia, but his paternal grandfather, Bolesław Szostakowicz, was of Polish Roman Catholic descent, tracing his family roots to the region of the town of Vileyka in today's Belarus. A Polish revolutionary in the January Uprising of 1863–64, Szostakowicz was exiled to Narym in 1866 in the crackdown that followed Dmitry Karakozov's assassination attempt on Tsar Alexander II. When his term of exile ended, Szostakowicz decided to remain in Siberia. He eventually became a successful banker in Irkutsk and raised a large family. His son Dmitri Boleslavovich Shostakovich, the composer's father, was born in exile in Narym in 1875 and studied physics and mathematics at Saint Petersburg University, graduating in 1899. He then went to work as an engineer under Dmitri Mendeleev at the Bureau of Weights and Measures in Saint Petersburg. In 1903, he married another Siberian immigrant to the capital, Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina, one of six children born to a Siberian Russian. Their son, Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich, displayed musical talent after he began piano lessons with his mother at the age of nine. On several occasions, he displayed a remarkable ability to remember what his mother had played at the previous lesson, and would get "caught in the act" of playing the previous lesson's music while pretending to read different music placed in front of him. In 1918, he wrote a funeral march in memory of two leaders of the Kadet party murdered by Bolshevik sailors. In 1919, at age 13, Shostakovich was admitted to the Petrograd Conservatory, then headed by Alexander Glazunov, who monitored his progress closely and promoted him. Shostakovich studied piano with Leonid Nikolayev and Elena Rozanova, composition with Maximilian Steinberg, and counterpoint and fugue with Nikolay Sokolov, who became his friend. He also attended Alexander Ossovsky's music history classes. In 1925, he enrolled in the conducting classes of Nikolai Malko, where he conducted the conservatory orchestra in a private performance of Beethoven's First Symphony. According to the recollections of the composer's classmate, : Shostakovich stood at the podium, played with his hair and jacket cuffs, looked around at the hushed teenagers with instruments at the ready and raised the baton. ... He neither stopped the orchestra, nor made any remarks; he focused his entire attention on aspects of tempi and dynamics, which were very clearly displayed in his gestures. The contrasts between the "Adagio molto" of the introduction and "Allegro con brio" first theme were quite striking, as were those between the percussive accents of the chords (woodwinds, French horns, pizzicato strings) and the momentarily extended piano in the introduction following them. In the character given to the pattern of the first theme, I recall, there was both vigorous striving and lightness; in the bass part there was an emphasized pliancy of tenderly threaded articulation.... Moments of these sorts... were discoveries of an improvised order, born from an intuitively refined understanding of the character of a piece and the elements of musical imagery embedded in it. And the players enjoyed it. On 20 March 1925, Shostakovich's music was played in Moscow for the first time, in a program which also included works by his friend Vissarion Shebalin. To the composer's disappointment, the critics and public there received his music coolly. During his visit to Moscow, Mikhail Kvadri introduced him to Mikhail Tukhachevsky, who helped the composer find accommodation and work there, and sent a driver to take him to a concert in "a very stylish automobile". Shostakovich's musical breakthrough was the First Symphony, written as his graduation piece at the age of 19. Initially, Shostakovich aspired only to perform it privately with the conservatory orchestra and prepared to conduct the scherzo himself. By late 1925, Malko agreed to conduct its premiere with the Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra after Steinberg and Shostakovich's friend Boleslav Yavorsky brought the symphony to his attention. On 12 May 1926, Malko led the premiere of the symphony; the audience received it enthusiastically, demanding an encore of the scherzo. Thereafter, Shostakovich regularly celebrated the date of his symphonic debut. === Early career === After graduation, Shostakovich embarked on a dual career as concert pianist and composer, but his dry keyboard style was often criticized. Shostakovich maintained a heavy performance schedule until 1930; after 1933, he performed only his own compositions. Along with , Grigory Ginzburg, Lev Oborin, and Josif Shvarts, he was among the Soviet contestants in the inaugural I International Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw in 1927. Bogdanov-Berezhovsky later remembered: , who heard Shostakovich play his Chopin programs before he went to Warsaw, said that his "anti-sentimental" playing, which eschewed rubato and extreme dynamic contrasts, was unlike anything he had ever heard. called Shostakovich's playing "profound and lacking any salon-like mannerisms." Shostakovich was stricken with appendicitis on the opening day of the competition, but his condition improved by the time of his first performance on 27 January 1927. (He had his appendix removed on 25 April.) According to Shostakovich, his playing found favor with the audience. He persisted into the final round of the competition but ultimately earned only a diploma, no prize; Oborin was declared the winner. Shostakovich was upset about the result but for a time resolved to continue a career as performer. While recovering from his appendectomy in April 1927, Shostakovich said he was beginning to reassess those plans: After the competition, Shostakovich and Oborin spent a week in Berlin. There he met the conductor Bruno Walter, who was so impressed by Shostakovich's First Symphony that he conducted its first performance outside Russia later that year. Leopold Stokowski led the American premiere the next year in Philadelphia and also made the work's first recording. In 1927, Shostakovich wrote his Second Symphony (subtitled To October), a patriotic piece with a pro-Soviet choral finale. Owing to its modernism, it did not meet with the same enthusiasm as his First. This year also marked the beginning of Shostakovich's close friendship with musicologist and theatre critic Ivan Sollertinsky, whom he had first met in 1921 through their mutual friends Lev Arnshtam and Lydia Zhukova. Shostakovich later said that Sollertinsky "taught [him] to understand and love such great masters as Brahms, Mahler, and Bruckner" and that he instilled in him "an interest in music ... from Bach to Offenbach." While writing the Second Symphony, Shostakovich also began work on his satirical opera The Nose, based on the story by Nikolai Gogol. In June 1929, against the composer's wishes, the opera was given a concert performance; it was ferociously attacked by the Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians (RAPM). Its stage premiere on 18 January 1930 opened to generally poor reviews and widespread incomprehension among musicians. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Shostakovich worked at TRAM, a proletarian youth theatre. Although he did little work in this post, it shielded him from ideological attack. Much of this period was spent writing his opera Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk, which was first performed in 1934. It was initially immediately successful, on both popular and official levels. It was described as "the result of the general success of Socialist construction, of the correct policy of the Party", and as an opera that "could have been written only by a Soviet composer brought up in the best tradition of Soviet culture". Shostakovich married his first wife, Nina Varzar, in 1932. Difficulties led to a divorce in 1935, but the couple soon remarried when Nina became pregnant with their first child, Galina. === First denunciation === On 17 January 1936, Joseph Stalin paid a rare visit to the opera for a performance of a new work, Quiet Flows the Don, based on the novel by Mikhail Sholokhov, by the little-known composer Ivan Dzerzhinsky, who was called to Stalin's box at the end of the performance and told that his work had "considerable ideological-political value". On 26 January, Stalin revisited the opera, accompanied by Vyacheslav Molotov, Andrei Zhdanov and Anastas Mikoyan, to hear Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District. He and his entourage left without speaking to anyone. Shostakovich had been forewarned by a friend that he should postpone a planned concert tour in Arkhangelsk in order to be present at that particular performance. Eyewitness accounts testify that Shostakovich was "white as a sheet" when he went to take his bow after the third act. The next day, Shostakovich left for Arkhangelsk, where he heard on 28 January that Pravda had published an editorial titled "Muddle Instead of Music", complaining that the opera was a "deliberately dissonant, muddled stream of sounds ...[that] quacks, hoots, pants and gasps." Shostakovich continued his performance tour as scheduled, with no disruptions. From Arkhangelsk, he instructed Isaac Glikman to subscribe to a clipping service. The editorial was the signal for a nationwide campaign, during which even Soviet music critics who had praised the opera were forced to recant in print, saying they "failed to detect the shortcomings of Lady Macbeth as pointed out by Pravda". There was resistance from those who admired Shostakovich, including Sollertinsky, who turned up at a composers' meeting in Leningrad called to denounce the opera and praised it instead. Two other speakers supported him. When Shostakovich returned to Leningrad, he had a telephone call from the commander of the Leningrad Military District, who had been asked by Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky to make sure that he was all right. When the writer Isaac Babel was under arrest four years later, he told his interrogators that "it was common ground for us to proclaim the genius of the slighted Shostakovich." On 6 February, Shostakovich was again attacked in Pravda, this time for his light comic ballet The Limpid Stream, which was denounced because "it jangles and expresses nothing" and did not give an accurate picture of peasant life on a collective farm. Fearful that he was about to be arrested, Shostakovich secured an appointment with the Chairman of the USSR State Committee on Culture, Platon Kerzhentsev, who reported to Stalin and Molotov that he had instructed the composer to "reject formalist errors and in his art attain something that could be understood by the broad masses", and that Shostakovich had admitted being in the wrong and had asked for a meeting with Stalin, which was not granted. The Pravda campaign against Shostakovich caused his commissions and concert appearances, and performances of his music, to decline markedly. His monthly earnings dropped from an average of as much as 12,000 rubles to as little as 2,000. 1936 marked the beginning of the Great Terror, in which many of Shostakovich's friends and relatives were imprisoned or killed. These included Tukhachevsky, executed 12 June 1937; his brother-in-law Vsevolod Frederiks, who was eventually released but died before he returned home; his close friend Nikolai Zhilyayev, a musicologist who had taught Tukhachevsky, was executed; his mother-in-law, the astronomer , who was sent to a camp in Karaganda and later released; his friend the Marxist writer Galina Serebryakova, who spent 20 years in the gulag; his uncle Maxim Kostrykin (died); and his colleagues Boris Kornilov (executed) and Adrian Piotrovsky (executed). Shostakovich's daughter Galina was born during this period in 1936; his son Maxim was born two years later. Withdrawal of the Fourth Symphony The publication of the Pravda editorials coincided with the composition of Shostakovich's Fourth Symphony. The work continued a shift in his style, influenced by the music of Mahler, and gave him problems as he attempted to reform his style. Despite the Pravda articles, he continued to compose the symphony and planned a premiere at the end of 1936. Rehearsals began that December, but according to Isaac Glikman, who had attended the rehearsals with the composer, the manager of the Leningrad Philharmonic persuaded Shostakovich to withdraw the symphony. Shostakovich did not repudiate the work and retained its designation as his Fourth Symphony. (A reduction for two pianos was performed and published in 1946, and the work was finally premiered in 1961.) In the months between the withdrawal of the Fourth Symphony and the completion of the Fifth on 20 July 1937, the only concert work Shostakovich composed was the Four Romances on Texts by Pushkin. Fifth Symphony and return to favor The composer's response to his denunciation was the Fifth Symphony of 1937, which was musically more conservative than his recent works. Premiered on 21 November 1937 in Leningrad, it was a phenomenal success. The Fifth brought many to tears and welling emotions. Later, Shostakovich's purported memoir, Testimony, stated: "I'll never believe that a man who understood nothing could feel the Fifth Symphony. Of course they understood, they understood what was happening around them and they understood what the Fifth was about." The success put Shostakovich in good standing once again. Music critics and the authorities alike, including those who had earlier accused him of formalism, claimed that he had learned from his mistakes and become a true Soviet artist. In a newspaper article published under Shostakovich's name, the Fifth was characterized as "A Soviet artist's creative response to just criticism." The composer Dmitry Kabalevsky, who had been among those who disassociated themselves from Shostakovich when the Pravda article was published, praised the Fifth and congratulated Shostakovich for "not having given in to the seductive temptations of his previous 'erroneous' ways." It was also at this time that Shostakovich composed the first of his string quartets. In September 1937, he began to teach composition at the Leningrad Conservatory, which provided some financial security. === Second World War === In 1939, before Soviet forces attempted to invade Finland, the Party Secretary of Leningrad Andrei Zhdanov commissioned a celebratory piece from Shostakovich, the Suite on Finnish Themes, to be performed as the marching bands of the Red Army paraded through Helsinki. The Winter War was a bitter experience for the Red Army, the parade never happened, and Shostakovich never laid claim to the authorship of this work. It was not performed until 2001. After the outbreak of war between the Soviet Union and Germany in 1941, Shostakovich initially remained in Leningrad. He tried to enlist in the military but was turned away because of his poor eyesight. To compensate, he became a volunteer for the Leningrad Conservatory's firefighter brigade and delivered a radio broadcast to the Soviet people. The photograph for which he posed was published in newspapers throughout the country. Shostakovich's most famous wartime contribution was the Seventh Symphony. The composer wrote the first three movements in Leningrad while it was under siege; he completed the work in Kuybyshev (now Samara), where he and his family had been evacuated. According to a radio address he made on 17 September 1941, he continued work on the symphony in order to show his fellow citizens that everyone had a "soldier's duty" to ensure life went on. In another article written on 8 October, he wrote that the Seventh was a "symphony about our age, our people, our sacred war, and our victory." Shostakovich finished his Seventh Symphony on 27 December. The symphony was premiered by the Bolshoi Theatre Orchestra in Kuibyshev on 29 March and soon performed in London and the United States, where several conductors vied to conduct its first American performance. It was subsequently performed in Leningrad while the city was still under siege. The city's remaining orchestra only had 14 musicians left, which led conductor Karl Eliasberg to reinforce it by recruiting anyone who could play an instrument. The Shostakovich family moved to Moscow in spring 1943, by which time the Red Army was on the offensive. As a result, Soviet authorities and the international public were puzzled by the tragic tone of the Eighth Symphony, which in the Western press had briefly acquired the nickname "Stalingrad Symphony". The symphony was received tepidly in the Soviet Union and the West. Olin Downes expressed his disappointment in the piece, but Carlos Chávez, who had conducted the symphony's Mexican premiere, praised it highly. Shostakovich had expressed as early as 1943 his intention to cap his wartime trilogy of symphonies with a grandiose Ninth. On 16 January 1945, he announced to his students that he had begun work on its first movement the day before. In April, his friend Isaac Glikman heard an extensive portion of the first movement, noting that it was "majestic in scale, in pathos, in its breathtaking motion". Shortly thereafter, Shostakovich ceased work on this version of the Ninth, which remained lost until musicologist Olga Digonskaya rediscovered it in December 2003. Shostakovich began to compose his actual, unrelated Ninth Symphony in late July 1945; he completed it on 30 August. It was shorter and lighter in texture than its predecessors. Gavriil Popov wrote that it was "splendid in its joie de vivre, gaiety, brilliance, and pungency!" By 1946 it was the subject of official criticism. Israel Nestyev asked whether it was the right time for "a light and amusing interlude between Shostakovich's significant creations, a temporary rejection of great, serious problems for the sake of playful, filigree-trimmed trifles." The New York World-Telegram of 27 July 1946 was similarly dismissive: "The Russian composer should not have expressed his feelings about the defeat of Nazism in such a childish manner". Shostakovich continued to compose chamber music, notably his Second Piano Trio, dedicated to the memory of Sollertinsky, with a Jewish-inspired finale. In 1947, Shostakovich was made a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR. === Second denunciation === In 1948, Shostakovich, along with many other composers, was again denounced for formalism in the Zhdanov decree. Andrei Zhdanov, Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, accused the composers (including Sergei Prokofiev and Aram Khachaturian) of writing inappropriate and formalist music. This was part of an ongoing anti-formalism campaign intended to root out all Western compositional influence as well as any perceived "non-Russian" output. The conference resulted in the publication of the Central Committee's Decree "On V. Muradeli's opera The Great Friendship", which targeted all Soviet composers and demanded that they write only "proletarian" music, or music for the masses. The accused composers, including Shostakovich, were summoned to make public apologies in front of the committee. Most of Shostakovich's works were banned, and his family had privileges withdrawn. Yuri Lyubimov says that at this time "he waited for his arrest at night out on the landing by the lift, so that at least his family wouldn't be disturbed." The decree's consequences for composers were harsh. Shostakovich was among those dismissed from the Conservatory altogether. For him, the loss of money was perhaps the heaviest blow. Others still in the Conservatory experienced an atmosphere thick with suspicion. No one wanted his work to be understood as formalist, so many resorted to accusing their colleagues of writing or performing anti-proletarian music. During the next few years, Shostakovich composed three categories of work: film music to pay the rent, official works aimed at securing official rehabilitation, and serious works "for the desk drawer". The last included the Violin Concerto No. 1 and the song cycle From Jewish Folk Poetry. The cycle was written at a time when the postwar anti-Semitic campaign was already under way, with widespread arrests, including that of Dobrushin and Yiditsky, the compilers of the book from which Shostakovich took his texts. The restrictions on Shostakovich's music and living arrangements were eased in 1949, when Stalin decided that the Soviets needed to send artistic representatives to the Cultural and Scientific Congress for World Peace in New York City, and that Shostakovich should be among them. For Shostakovich, it was a humiliating experience, culminating in a New York press conference where he was expected to read a prepared speech. Nicolas Nabokov, who was present in the audience, witnessed Shostakovich starting to read "in a nervous and shaky voice" before he had to break off "and the speech was continued in English by a suave radio baritone". Fully aware that Shostakovich was not free to speak his mind, Nabokov publicly asked him whether he supported the then recent denunciation of Stravinsky's music in the Soviet Union. A great admirer of Stravinsky who had been influenced by his music, Shostakovich had no alternative but to answer in the affirmative. Nabokov did not hesitate to write that this demonstrated that Shostakovich was "not a free man, but an obedient tool of his government." Shostakovich never forgave Nabokov for this public humiliation. That same year, he composed the cantata Song of the Forests, which praised Stalin as the "great gardener". Stalin's death in 1953 was the biggest step toward Shostakovich's rehabilitation as a creative artist, which was marked by his Tenth Symphony. It features a number of musical quotations and codes (notably the DSCH and Elmira motifs, Elmira Nazirova being a pianist and composer who had studied under Shostakovich in the year before his dismissal from the Moscow Conservatory), the meaning of which is still debated, while the savage second movement, according to Testimony, is intended as a musical portrait of Stalin. The Tenth ranks alongside the Fifth and Seventh as one of Shostakovich's most popular works. 1953 also saw a stream of premieres of the "desk drawer" works. During the 1940s and 1950s, Shostakovich had close relationships with two of his pupils, Galina Ustvolskaya and Elmira Nazirova. In the background to all this remained Shostakovich's first, open marriage to Nina Varzar until her death in 1954. He taught Ustvolskaya from 1939 to 1941 and then from 1947 to 1948. The nature of their relationship is far from clear: Mstislav Rostropovich described it as "tender". Ustvolskaya rejected a proposal of marriage from him after Nina's death. Shostakovich's daughter, Galina, recalled her father consulting her and Maxim about the possibility of Ustvolskaya becoming their stepmother. Ustvolskaya's friend Viktor Suslin said that she had been "deeply disappointed by [Shostakovich's] conspicuous silence" when her music faced criticism after her graduation from the Leningrad Conservatory. The relationship with Nazirova seems to have been one-sided, expressed largely in his letters to her, and can be dated to around 1953 to 1956. He married his second wife, Komsomol activist Margarita Kainova, in 1956; the couple proved ill-matched, and divorced five years later. In 1954, Shostakovich wrote the Festive Overture, opus 96; it was used as the theme music for the 1980 Summer Olympics. (His "Theme from the film Pirogov, Opus 76a: Finale" was played as the cauldron was lit at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece.) In 1959, Shostakovich appeared on stage in Moscow at the end of a concert performance of his Fifth Symphony, congratulating Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra for their performance (part of a concert tour of the Soviet Union). Later that year, Bernstein and the Philharmonic recorded the symphony in Boston for Columbia Records. === Joining the Party === The year 1960 marked another turning point in Shostakovich's life: he joined the Communist Party. The government wanted to appoint him Chairman of the RSFSR Union of Composers, but to hold that position he was required to obtain Party membership. It was understood that Nikita Khrushchev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party from 1953 to 1964, was looking for support from the intelligentsia's leading ranks in an effort to create a better relationship with the Soviet Union's artists. This event has variously been interpreted as a show of commitment, a mark of cowardice, the result of political pressure, and his free decision. On the one hand, the apparat was less repressive than it had been before Stalin's death. On the other, his son recalled that the event reduced Shostakovich to tears, and that he later told his wife Irina that he had been blackmailed. Lev Lebedinsky has said that the composer was suicidal. In 1960, he was appointed Chairman of the RSFSR Union of Composers; from 1962 until his death, he also served as a delegate in the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. By joining the party, Shostakovich also committed himself to finally writing the homage to Lenin that he had promised before. His Twelfth Symphony, which portrays the Bolshevik Revolution and was completed in 1961, was dedicated to Lenin and called "The Year 1917". Shostakovich's musical response to these personal crises was the Eighth String Quartet, composed in only three days. He subtitled the piece "To the victims of fascism and war", ostensibly in memory of the Dresden fire bombing that took place in 1945. Yet like the Tenth Symphony, the quartet incorporates quotations from several of his past works and his musical monogram. Shostakovich confessed to his friend Isaac Glikman, "I started thinking that if some day I die, nobody is likely to write a work in memory of me, so I had better write one myself." Several of Shostakovich's colleagues, including Natalya Vovsi-Mikhoels and the cellist Valentin Berlinsky, were also aware of the Eighth Quartet's biographical intent. Peter J. Rabinowitz has also pointed to covert references to Richard Strauss's Metamorphosen in it. In 1962, Shostakovich married for the third time, to Irina Supinskaya. In a letter to Glikman, he wrote, "her only defect is that she is 27 years old. In all other respects she is splendid: clever, cheerful, straightforward and very likeable." According to Galina Vishnevskaya, who knew the Shostakoviches well, this marriage was a very happy one: "It was with her that Dmitri Dmitriyevich finally came to know domestic peace... Surely, she prolonged his life by several years." In November, he conducted publicly for the only time in his life, leading a couple of his own works in Gorky; otherwise he declined to conduct, citing nerves and ill health. That year saw Shostakovich again turn to the subject of anti-Semitism in his Thirteenth Symphony (subtitled Babi Yar). The symphony sets a number of poems by Yevgeny Yevtushenko, the first of which commemorates a massacre of Ukrainian Jews during the Second World War. Opinions are divided as to how great a risk this was: the poem had been published in Soviet media and was not banned, but it remained controversial. After the symphony's premiere, Yevtushenko was forced to add a stanza to his poem that said that Russians and Ukrainians had died alongside the Jews at Babi Yar. In 1965, Shostakovich raised his voice in defence of poet Joseph Brodsky, who was sentenced to five years of exile and hard labor. Shostakovich co-signed protests with Yevtushenko, fellow Soviet artists Kornei Chukovsky, Anna Akhmatova, Samuil Marshak, and the French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. After the protests, the sentence was commuted, and Brodsky returned to Leningrad. === Later life === In 1964, Shostakovich composed the music for the Russian film Hamlet, which was favorably reviewed by The New York Times: "But the lack of this aural stimulation—of Shakespeare's eloquent words—is recompensed in some measure by a splendid and stirring musical score by Dmitri Shostakovich. This has great dignity and depth, and at times an appropriate wildness or becoming levity". In later life, Shostakovich suffered from chronic ill health, but he resisted giving up cigarettes and vodka. He also suffered heart attacks in 1966,1970, === Death === Beginning in 1958, Shostakovich experienced a decline in his motor functions. He was diagnosed with a rare form of poliomyelitis, although according to his son, Maxim, he was informed that it was motor neurone disease. Nevertheless, Shostakovich insisted upon writing all his own correspondence and music, even when his right hand became virtually unusable. His last work was his Viola Sonata, which was first performed officially on 1 October 1975. Shostakovich, a smoker since his youth, was forced to give up the habit after having his first heart attack in 1966. He was diagnosed with lung cancer in 1973. His death is variously attributed to lung cancer or heart failure. === Legacy === Shostakovich left behind several recordings of his own piano works; other noted interpreters of his music include Mstislav Rostropovich, Tatiana Nikolayeva, Maria Yudina, David Oistrakh, and members of the Beethoven Quartet. Shostakovich's influence on later composers outside the former Soviet Union has been relatively slight. His influence can be seen in some Nordic composers, such as Lars-Erik Larsson. The Shostakovich Peninsula on Alexander Island, Antarctica, is named for him. == Music == === Overview === Shostakovich's works are broadly tonal but with elements of atonality and chromaticism. In some of his later works (e.g., the Twelfth Quartet), he made use of tone rows. His output is dominated by his cycles of symphonies and string quartets, each totaling 15. The symphonies are distributed fairly evenly throughout his career, while the quartets are concentrated towards the latter part. Among the most popular are the Fifth and Seventh Symphonies and the Eighth and Fifteenth Quartets. Other works include operas, concertos, chamber music, and a large quantity of theatre and film music. Shostakovich's music shows the influence of many of the composers he most admired: Bach in his fugues and passacaglias; Beethoven in the late quartets; Mahler in the symphonies; and Berg in his use of musical codes and quotations. Among Russian composers, he particularly admired Modest Mussorgsky, whose operas Boris Godunov and Khovanshchina he reorchestrated; Mussorgsky's influence is most prominent in the wintry scenes of Lady Macbeth and the Eleventh Symphony, as well as in satirical works such as "Rayok". Prokofiev's influence is most apparent in the earlier piano works, such as the first sonata and first concerto. The influence of Russian church and folk music is evident in his works for unaccompanied choir of the 1950s. Shostakovich's relationship with Stravinsky was profoundly ambivalent; as he wrote to Glikman, "Stravinsky the composer I worship. Stravinsky the thinker I despise." He was particularly enamoured of the Symphony of Psalms, presenting a copy of his own piano version of it to Stravinsky when the latter visited the USSR in 1962. (The meeting of the two composers was not very successful; observers commented on Shostakovich's extreme nervousness and Stravinsky's "cruelty" to him.) Many commentators have noted the disjunction between the experimental works before the 1936 denunciation and the more conservative ones that followed; the composer told Flora Litvinova, "without 'Party guidance' ... I would have displayed more brilliance, used more sarcasm, I could have revealed my ideas openly instead of having to resort to camouflage." Articles Shostakovich published in 1934 and 1935 cited Berg, Schoenberg, Krenek, Hindemith, "and especially Stravinsky" among his influences. Key works of the earlier period are the First Symphony, which combined the academicism of the conservatory with his progressive inclinations; The Nose ("The most uncompromisingly modernist of all his stage-works"); Lady Macbeth, which precipitated the denunciation; and the Fourth Symphony, described in Grove's Dictionary as "a colossal synthesis of Shostakovich's musical development to date". The Fourth was also the first piece in which Mahler's influence came to the fore, prefiguring the route Shostakovich took to secure his rehabilitation, while he himself admitted that the preceding two were his least successful. After 1936, Shostakovich's music became more conservative. During this time, he also composed more chamber music. While his chamber works were largely tonal, the late chamber works, which Grove's Dictionary calls a "world of purgatorial numbness", included tone rows, although he treated these thematically rather than serially. Vocal works are also a prominent feature of his late output. === Jewish themes === In the 1940s, Shostakovich began to show an interest in Jewish themes. He was intrigued by Jewish music's "ability to build a jolly melody on sad intonations". Examples of works that included Jewish themes are the Fourth String Quartet (1949), the First Violin Concerto (1948), and the Four Monologues on Pushkin Poems (1952), as well as the Piano Trio in E minor (1944). He was further inspired to write with Jewish themes when he examined Moisei Beregovski's 1944 thesis on Jewish folk music. In 1948, Shostakovich acquired a book of Jewish folk songs, from which he composed the song cycle From Jewish Folk Poetry. He initially wrote eight songs meant to represent the hardships of being Jewish in the Soviet Union. To disguise this, he added three more meant to demonstrate the great life Jews had under the Soviet regime. Despite his efforts to hide the real meaning in the work, the Union of Composers refused to approve his music in 1949 under the pressure of the anti-Semitism that gripped the country. From Jewish Folk Poetry could not be performed until after Stalin's death in March 1953, along with all the other works that were forbidden. === Self-quotations === Throughout his compositions, Shostakovich demonstrated a controlled use of musical quotation. This stylistic choice had been common among earlier composers, but Shostakovich developed it into a defining characteristic of his music. Rather than quoting other composers, Shostakovich preferred to quote himself. Musicologists such as Sofia Moshevich, Ian McDonald, and Stephen Harris have connected his works through their quotations. One example is the main theme of Katerina's aria, Seryozha, khoroshiy moy, from the fourth act of Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District. The aria's beauty comes as a breath of fresh air in the intense, overbearing tone of the scene, in which Katerina visits her lover Sergei in prison. The theme is made tragic when Sergei betrays her and finds a new lover upon blaming Katerina for his incarceration. More than 25 years later, Shostakovich quoted this theme in his Eighth String Quartet. In the midst of this quartet's oppressive and somber themes, the cello introduces the Seryozha theme "in the 'bright' key of F-sharp major" about three minutes into the fourth movement. This theme emerges once again in his Fourteenth String Quartet. As in the Eighth Quartet, the cello introduces the theme, which here serves as a dedication to the cellist of the Beethoven String Quartet, Sergei Shirinsky. === Posthumous publications === In 2004, the musicologist Olga Digonskaya discovered a trove of Shostakovich manuscripts at the Glinka State Central Museum of Musical Culture in Moscow. In a cardboard file were some "300 pages of musical sketches, pieces and scores" in Shostakovich's hand. A composer friend bribed Shostakovich's housemaid to regularly deliver the contents of Shostakovich's office waste bin to him, instead of taking it to the garbage. Some of those cast-offs eventually found their way into the Glinka. ... The Glinka archive "contained a huge number of pieces and compositions which were completely unknown or could be traced quite indirectly," Digonskaya said. Among these were Shostakovich's piano and vocal sketches for a prologue to an opera, Orango (1932). They were orchestrated by the British composer Gerard McBurney and premiered in December 2011 by the Los Angeles Philharmonic conducted by Esa-Pekka Salonen. === Reputation === According to McBurney, opinion is divided on whether Shostakovich's music is "of visionary power and originality, as some maintain, or, as others think, derivative, trashy, empty and second-hand". William Walton, his British contemporary, described him as "the greatest composer of the 20th century". Musicologist David Fanning concludes in Grove's Dictionary that "Amid the conflicting pressures of official requirements, the mass suffering of his fellow countrymen, and his personal ideals of humanitarian and public service, he succeeded in forging a musical language of colossal emotional power." Some modern composers have been critical. Pierre Boulez dismissed Shostakovich's music as "the second, or even third pressing of Mahler". The Romanian composer and Webern disciple Philip Gershkovich called Shostakovich "a hack in a trance". A related complaint is that Shostakovich's style is vulgar and strident: Stravinsky wrote of Lady Macbeth: "brutally hammering ... and monotonous". English composer and musicologist Robin Holloway described his music as "battleship-grey in melody and harmony, factory-functional in structure; in content all rhetoric and coercion". In the 1980s, the Finnish conductor and composer Esa-Pekka Salonen was critical of Shostakovich and refused to conduct his music. For instance, he said in 1987: Salonen has since performed and recorded several of Shostakovich's works, including leading the world premiere of Orango, but has dismissed the Fifth Symphony as "overrated", adding that he was "very suspicious of heroic things in general". Shostakovich borrows extensively from the material and styles both of earlier composers and of popular music; the vulgarity of "low" music is a notable influence on this "greatest of eclectics". McBurney traces this to the avant-garde artistic circles of the early Soviet period in which Shostakovich moved early in his career, and argues that these borrowings were a deliberate technique to allow him to create "patterns of contrast, repetition, exaggeration" that gave his music large-scale structure. == Personality == Shostakovich was in many ways an obsessive man: according to his daughter he was "obsessed with cleanliness". He synchronised the clocks in his apartment and regularly sent himself cards to test how well the postal service was working. Elizabeth Wilson's Shostakovich: A Life Remembered indexes 26 references to his nervousness. Mikhail Druskin remembers that even as a young man the composer was "fragile and nervously agile". Yuri Lyubimov comments, "The fact that he was more vulnerable and receptive than other people was no doubt an important feature of his genius." In later life, Krzysztof Meyer recalled, "his face was a bag of tics and grimaces." In Shostakovich's lighter moods, sport was one of his main recreations, although he preferred spectating or umpiring to participating (he was a qualified football referee). His favorite football club was Zenit Leningrad (now Zenit Saint Petersburg), which he would watch regularly. He also enjoyed card games, particularly patience. Shostakovich was fond of satirical writers such as Gogol, Chekhov and Mikhail Zoshchenko. Zoshchenko's influence in particular is evident in his letters, which include wry parodies of Soviet officialese. Zoshchenko noted the contradictions in the composer's character: "he is ... frail, fragile, withdrawn, an infinitely direct, pure child ... [but also] hard, acid, extremely intelligent, strong perhaps, despotic and not altogether good-natured (although cerebrally good-natured)." Shostakovich was diffident by nature: Flora Litvinova has said he was "completely incapable of saying 'No' to anybody." This meant he was easily persuaded to sign official statements, including a denunciation of Andrei Sakharov in 1973. His widow later told that his name was included without his permission. But he was willing to try to help constituents in his capacities as chairman of the Composers' Union and Deputy to the Supreme Soviet. Oleg Prokofiev said, "he tried to help so many people that ... less and less attention was paid to his pleas." When asked if he believed in God, Shostakovich said "No, and I am very sorry about it." == Orthodoxy and revisionism == Shostakovich's response to official criticism and whether he used music as a kind of covert dissidence is a matter of dispute. He outwardly conformed to government policies and positions, reading speeches and putting his name to articles expressing the government line. But it is evident he disliked many aspects of the regime, as confirmed by his family, his letters to Isaac Glikman, and the satirical cantata "Rayok", which ridiculed the "anti-formalist" campaign and was kept hidden until after his death. He was a close friend of Marshal of the Soviet Union Mikhail Tukhachevsky, who was executed in 1937 during the Great Purge. It is also uncertain to what extent Shostakovich expressed his opposition to the state in his music. The revisionist view was put forth by Solomon Volkov in the 1979 book Testimony, which claimed to be Shostakovich's memoirs dictated to Volkov. The book alleged that many of the composer's works contained coded anti-government messages, placing Shostakovich in a tradition of Russian artists outwitting censorship that goes back at least to Alexander Pushkin. He incorporated many quotations and motifs in his work, most notably his musical signature DSCH. His longtime musical collaborator Yevgeny Mravinsky said, "Shostakovich very often explained his intentions with very specific images and connotations." The revisionist perspective has subsequently been supported by his children, Maxim and Galina, although Maxim said in 1981 that Volkov's book was not his father's work. Volkov has further argued, both in Testimony and in Shostakovich and Stalin, that Shostakovich adopted the role of the yurodivy or holy fool in his relations with the government. Maxim Shostakovich has also commented on Testimony and Volkov more favorably since 1991, when the Soviet regime fell. To Allan B. Ho and Dmitry Feofanov, he confirmed that his father had told him about "meeting a young man from Leningrad who knows his music extremely well" and that "Volkov did meet with Shostakovich to work on his reminiscences". Maxim has repeatedly said he is "a supporter both of Testimony and of Volkov." Other prominent revisionists are Ian MacDonald, whose book The New Shostakovich put forward further revisionist interpretations of his music, and Elizabeth Wilson, whose Shostakovich: A Life Remembered provides testimony from many of the composer's acquaintances. Musicians and scholars including Laurel Fay and Richard Taruskin contested the authenticity and debate the significance of Testimony, alleging that Volkov compiled it from a combination of recycled articles, gossip, and possibly some information directly from the composer. Fay documents these allegations in her 2002 article "Volkov's Testimony reconsidered", showing that the only pages of the original Testimony manuscript that Shostakovich had signed and verified are word-for-word reproductions of earlier interviews he gave, none of which are controversial. Ho and Feofanov have countered that at least two of the signed pages contain controversial material: for instance, "on the first page of chapter 3, where [Shostakovich] notes that the plaque that reads 'In this house lived [[Vsevolod Meyerhold\|[Vsevolod] Meyerhold]]' should also say 'And in this house his wife was brutally murdered'." == Recorded legacy == In May 1958, during a visit to Paris, Shostakovich recorded his two piano concertos with André Cluytens, as well as some short piano works. These were issued on LP by EMI and later reissued on CD. Shostakovich recorded the two concertos in stereo in Moscow for Melodiya. Shostakovich also played the piano solos in recordings of the Cello Sonata, Op. 40 with cellist Daniil Shafran and also with Mstislav Rostropovich; the Violin Sonata, Op. 134, in a private recording made with violinist David Oistrakh; and the Piano Trio, Op. 67 with violinist David Oistrakh and cellist Miloš Sádlo. There is also a short newsreel of Shostakovich as soloist in a 1930s concert performance of the closing moments of his first piano concerto. A color film of Shostakovich supervising the Soviet revival of The Nose in 1974 was also made. == Awards == Soviet Union Hero of Socialist Labour (1966) Order of Lenin (1946, 1956, 1966) Order of the October Revolution (1971) Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1940) People's Artist of the RSFSR (1948) People's Artist of the USSR (1954) International Peace Prize (1954) Lenin Prize (1958 – for the Symphony No. 11 "The Year 1905") Stalin Prize (1941 – for Piano Quintet; 1942 – for the Symphony No. 7; 1946 – for Piano Trio No. 2; 1950 – for Song of the Forests and the score for the film The Fall of Berlin; 1952 – for Ten Poems on Texts by Revolutionary Poets) USSR State Prize (1968 – for the cantata The Execution of Stepan Razin for bass, chorus and orchestra) Glinka State Prize of the RSFSR (1974 – for the String Quartet No. 14 and choral cycle Loyalty) Shevchenko National Prize (1976, posthumous – for the opera Katerina Izmailova) Academic titles Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium (1960) Honorary Doctor of Arts, Northwestern University (1973) Other awards Léonie Sonning Music Prize (1973) Wihuri Sibelius Prize (1958) Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society (1966) In 1962, he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Scoring of a Musical Picture for Khovanshchina (1959).	[ "rubato", "passacaglia", "Los Angeles Philharmonic", "Yevgeny Yevtushenko", "Antisemitism in the Soviet Union", "Shostakovich Peninsula", "Nizhny Novgorod", "Serialism", "Marshal of the Soviet Union", "Vileyka", "Bolsheviks", "Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk (opera)", "Olin Downes", "Khovanshchina", "Irkutsk", "Jacques Offenbach", "Anti-Formalist Rayok", "Maria Yudina", "Arkhangelsk", "Lenin Prize", "The Noise of Time", "Johann Sebastian Bach", "Song of the Forests", "Great Purge", "Vyacheslav Molotov", "Alexander Island", "Symphony No. 2 (Shostakovich)", "The Nose (opera)", "Samuil Marshak", "Supreme Soviet of Russia", "Loyalty (Shostakovich)", "Anton Webern", "Jewish music", "Leningrad première of Shostakovich's Symphony No. 7", "Yevgeny Mravinsky", "incidental music", "Nikita Khrushchev", "Nikolai Malko", "The Execution of Stepan Razin", "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (opera)", "Barbican Centre", "Anton Bruckner", "tone row", "American premieres of Dmitri Shostakovich's Symphony No. 7", "Newspapers.com", "Kornei Chukovsky", "Union of Composers", "Shevchenko National Prize", "Symphony No. 13 (Shostakovich)", "string quartet", "Lev Arnshtam", "Symphony No. 8 (Shostakovich)", "piano trio", "Komsomol", "Metamorphosen", "Adrian Piotrovsky", "cantata", "Cambridge Companions to Music", "Antarctica", "Symphony of Psalms", "Boleslav Yavorsky", "Dmitri Mendeleev", "Isaac Babel", "Joseph Brodsky", "Orlando Figes", "Tempo (journal)", "Vsevolod Frederiks", "Associated Press", "Aubrey Williams", "Karaganda", "Moscow Central Clinical Hospital", "Aram Khachaturian", "Constitutional Democratic Party", "Boris Godunov (opera)", "Testimony (Volkov book)", "Nikolai Gogol", "Helsingin Sanomat", "Neoclassicism (music)", "yurodivy", "Piano Concerto No. 1 (Shostakovich)", "Naxos Records", "Anastas Mikoyan", "gulag", "Esa-Pekka Salonen", "DSCH motif", "musical cryptogram", "popular music", "The New York Times", "Valentin Berlinsky", "Pierre Boulez", "Yuri Lyubimov", "Andrei Zhdanov", "Symphony No. 4 (Shostakovich)", "Gustav Mahler", "Purgatory", "Siberia", "symphony", "Dmitry Karakozov", "Richard Wagner", "tonality", "Khovanshchina (film)", "sonata", "Red Army", "chamber music", "Russian Empire", "Chicago Tribune", "Suite on Finnish Themes", "United States Geological Survey", "2004 Summer Olympics", "Muddle Instead of Music", "Los Angeles Times", "Soviet Union", "From Jewish Folk Poetry", "David Fanning (musicologist)", "Narym", "Northwestern University", "Europe Central", "Robin Holloway", "Harcourt Brace Jovanovich", "Andrei Sakharov", "Ivan Dzerzhinsky", "Tatiana Nikolayeva", "Galina Vishnevskaya", "Saint Petersburg", "Saint Petersburg Conservatory", "The Daily Telegraph", "String Quartet No. 12 (Shostakovich)", "Festive Overture (Shostakovich)", "Symphony No. 15 (Shostakovich)", "Order of Lenin", "Bruno Walter", "Glinka State Prize of the RSFSR", "card game", "The Limpid Stream", "Beethoven Quartet", "Mikhail Tukhachevsky", "Isaac Glikman", "String Quartet No. 4 (Shostakovich)", "Alexander Glazunov", "referee (association football)", "Symphony No. 5 (Shostakovich)", "Sinyavsky–Daniel trial", "motor neurone disease", "Karl Eliasberg", "Bosley Crowther", "List of compositions by Dmitri Shostakovich", "Leonard Bernstein", "Galina Shostakovich", "People's Artist of the RSFSR", "Viola Sonata (Shostakovich)", "Nikolai Zhilyayev (musicologist)", "Leopold Stokowski", "Parameters (journal)", "Symphony No. 10 (Shostakovich)", "Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra", "The Guardian", "Johannes Brahms", "chromaticism", "Aldeburgh Festival", "Boris Kornilov", "Samara", "Rayok (Shostakovich)", "Mikhail Sholokhov", "Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians", "Workers' Youth Theatre", "New York World-Telegram", "Grigory Ginzburg", "Lars-Erik Larsson", "Solomon Volkov", "Hamlet (1964 film)", "Róża Etkin-Moszkowska", "Anna Akhmatova", "atonality", "rehabilitation (Soviet)", "Wihuri Sibelius Prize", "film score", "People's Artist of the USSR", "Historical revisionism", "Royal Philharmonic Society", "grotesque", "The Spectator", "Winter War", "Léonie Sonning Music Prize", "Media monitoring service", "Orango (Shostakovich)", "Igor Stravinsky", "Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium", "Ian MacDonald", "Galina Dmitrievna Shostakovich", "Carlos Chávez", "Violin Concerto No. 1 (Shostakovich)", "Boosey & Hawkes", "piano quintet", "Vissarion Shebalin", "Krzysztof Meyer", "Polish people", "New York Philharmonic", "FC Zenit Saint Petersburg", "Alban Berg", "Mikhail Zoshchenko", "Gavriil Popov (composer)", "Ivan Sollertinsky", "Modest Mussorgsky", "Daniil Shafran", "Lev Oborin", "Symphony No. 7 (Shostakovich)", "Siege of Leningrad", "24 Preludes (Shostakovich)", "Leningrad Conservatory", "Eastern Front (World War II)", "I International Chopin Piano Competition", "avant-garde", "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences", "Concerto", "January Uprising", "Shostakovich (1969–1981)", "proletariat", "Symphony No. 11 (Shostakovich)", "Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union", "Symphony No. 9 (Shostakovich)", "Gioachino Rossini", "The Fall of Berlin (film)", "vodka", "Oleg Prokofiev", "quartet", "Alexander Pushkin", "Richard Taruskin", "Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "Deutsche Grammophon", "Benjamin Britten", "String Quartet No. 8 (Shostakovich)", "The Nose (Gogol short story)", "counterpoint", "Melodiya", "William Walton", "Arnold Schoenberg", "officialese", "Galina Ustvolskaya", "Musical quotation", "Formalism (music)", "Symphony No. 12 (Shostakovich)", "Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR", "Galina Serebryakova", "Novodevichy Cemetery", "Pravda", "Symphony No. 1 (Beethoven)", "Star Tribune", "David Oistrakh", "String Quartet No. 15 (Shostakovich)", "Bombing of Dresden in World War II", "Philip Gershkovich", "Catholic Church", "Los Angeles Master Chorale", "Joseph Stalin", "Maximilian Steinberg", "Elizabeth Wilson (cellist)", "Columbia Records", "André Cluytens", "Piano Quintet (Shostakovich)", "poliomyelitis", "myocardial infarction", "Nikolay Sokolov (composer)", "Orango (opera)", "Nicolas Nabokov", "Hero of Socialist Labour", "Dmitry Kabalevsky", "Stanisław Szpinalski", "Julian Barnes", "Jean-Paul Sartre", "Maxim Shostakovich", "Miloš Sádlo", "String Quartet No. 14 (Shostakovich)", "EMI", "USSR State Prize", "Symphony No. 14 (Shostakovich)", "R. Murray Schafer", "Academy Award for Best Original Score", "World Peace Council prizes", "motif (music)", "String Quartet No. 1 (Shostakovich)", "musical quotation", "Zhdanov Doctrine", "William T. Vollmann", "Leningrad Philharmonic", "Piano Trio No. 2 (Shostakovich)", "Anton Chekhov", "Ernst Krenek", "Gerard McBurney", "Saint Petersburg State University", "Tonality", "Platon Kerzhentsev", "scherzo", "Patience (game)", "appendicitis", "Alexander Ossovsky", "24 Preludes and Fugues (Shostakovich)", "Hans Sikorski", "fugue", "Bolshevik Revolution", "Symphony No. 1 (Shostakovich)", "Belarus", "Apparatchik", "1980 Summer Olympics", "holy fool", "Hal Leonard Corporation", "Moshe Beregovski", "Alexander II of Russia", "Jeremy Eichler", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "Mstislav Rostropovich", "Sergei Prokofiev", "Babi Yar", "song cycle", "Pirogov (film)", "Order of the October Revolution", "Helikon Opera", "Order of the Red Banner of Labour", "Leonid Nikolayev (pianist)", "Reuters", "The Great Friendship", "Paul Hindemith", "Supreme Soviet of the USSR", "Lev Lebedinsky", "Battle of Stalingrad", "RSFSR Union of Composers" ]
8,521	Doom (1993 video game)	{{Infobox video game \| title = Doom \| image = Doom cover art.jpg \| alt = Doom cover art, featuring a man in armor standing on a ridge firing down into demons surrounding him, with the title DOOM above \| caption = Cover art by Don Ivan Punchatz featuring the Doomguy \| developer = id Software \| publisher = id Software \| designer = \| director = \| programmer = \| artist = \| composer = Bobby Prince{{efn\|name=Composer\|The music for the PlayStation and Sega Saturn ports of the game was composed by Aubrey Hodges, Some of these became bestsellers even many years after the initial release. The ports did not all have the same content, with some having fewer levels, such as the 32X port created by John Carmack, which was released with only two-thirds of the game's levels in order to meet the console's launch date, while the PlayStation port includes The Ultimate Doom and Doom II. The source code for Doom was released under a non-commercial license in 1997, and freely released under the GNU General Public License in 1999. Due to the release of its source code, Doom has been unofficially ported to numerous platforms. These ports include esoteric devices such as smart thermostats, pianos, and Doom itself, which led to variations of a long-running meme, "Can it run Doom?" and "It runs Doom". ==Reception== ===Sales=== Upon its release in December 1993, Doom became an "overnight phenomenon". It was an immediate financial success for id, making a profit within a day after release. Although the company estimated that only 1% of shareware downloaders bought the full game, this was enough to generate initial daily revenue of , selling in one day what Wolfenstein had sold in one month. By May 1994, Wilbur said that the game had sold over 65,000 copies, and estimated that the shareware version had been distributed over 1 million times. In 1995, Wilbur estimated the first-year sales as 140,000, while in 2002 Petersen said it had sold around 200,000 copies in its first year. By late 1995, Doom was estimated to be installed on more computers worldwide than Microsoft's new operating system, Windows 95. According to PC Data, by April 1998 Dooms shareware edition had yielded 1.36 million units sold and in revenue in the United States. This led PC Data to declare it the country's 4th-best-selling computer game since 1993. The Ultimate Doom sold over 780,000 units by September 1999, and all versions combined sold 3.5 million copies by the end of 1999. In addition to sales, an estimated six million people played the shareware version by 2002; other sources estimated in 2000 that 10–20 million people played Doom within 24 months of its launch. ===Reviews=== Doom was highly praised in contemporaneous reviews. In April 1994, a few months after release, PC Gamer UK named it the third-best computer game of all time, claiming "Doom has already done more to establish the PC's arcade clout than any other title in gaming history," and PC Gamer US named it the best computer game of all time that August. It won the Best Action Adventure award at Cybermania '94. GamesRadar UK named Doom Game of the Year in 1993 shortly after release, and Computer Gaming World and PC Gamer UK did the same the year after. Reviewers heavily praised the single-player gameplay: Electronic Entertainment called it "a skull-banging, palm-sweating, blood-pounding game", while The Age said it was "a technically superb and thrilling 3D adventure". White Wolfs reviewer found it addictive, missing sleep and appointments to continue playing. PC Zone called it the best arcade game ever, and it and Computer Gaming World praised the variety of monsters and weapons. Computer Gaming World concluded that it was "a virtuoso performance". Other reviewers, while also praising the gameplay, commented on the lack of complexity: Computer and Video Games found it captivating and praised the variety and complexity of the level design, but called the overall gameplay repetitive, while Dragon similarly praised the fast gameplay and level design, but said that overall it lacked depth. Edge praised the graphics and levels but criticized the straightforward shooting gameplay. The review concluded: "If only you could talk to these creatures, then perhaps you could try and make friends with them, form alliances... Now, that would be interesting." The review attracted mockery and "if only you could talk to these creatures" became a running joke in video game culture. The multiplayer gameplay was praised: Computer Gaming World called it "the most intense gaming experience available", and Dragon called it "the biggest adrenaline rush available on computers". PC Zone named it as the best multiplayer game available, in addition to the best arcade game. The 3D graphics and art style were praised by reviewers; Computer Gaming World called the graphics remarkable, while Edge said that it "made serious advances in what people will expect of 3D graphics in future", surpassing not only prior games but games that had yet to be released. Compute! and Electronic Games similarly called the graphics excellent and unlike any other game's. PC Zone, Dragon, Computer Gaming World, and Electronic Entertainment all praised the atmosphere and art direction, saying that the level design, lighting effects, and sound effects combined to create a "claustrophobic" and "nightmarish experience". Computer Gaming World also praised the music, as did The Mercury News, which called it as "ominous as the scenario". ===Other versions=== The Ultimate Doom received mixed reviews upon its release in 1995, as in the review from PC Zone, which gave it a score of 90/100 for new players but 20/100 for anyone who had the original game. The reviewer viewed it as solely a level pack due to the lack of new features and compared it negatively to the hundreds of free fan-made levels available on the internet. Joystick disliked the limited amount of additional content and recommended it only to major fans or those who had not played it. Fusion reviewed the edition positively, praising the difficulty of the new levels, as did GameSpot, which reviewed it from the perspective of introducing the game to new players. The first ports of Doom received comparable reviews to the original PC version. VideoGames, GamePro, and Computer and Video Games all gave the Jaguar version high scores, comparing it favorably with the PC version. GamePro and Computer and Video Games also rated the 32X version highly, though they noted that the graphics were worse and the game shorter than the PC or Jaguar versions. The 1995 ports received mixed reviews. The PlayStation version was rated highly by HobbyConsolas, GamePro, and Maximum, which praised the inclusion of Doom II and extra levels, and favorably compared it to other PlayStation shooter games. The SNES version, however, was noted for weaker graphics and unresponsive controls, though reviewers such as Computer and Video Games, GamePro, and Next Generation were split on awarding high or middling scores due to these faults. Later 1990s ports received worse reviews; the 3DO port was panned by GamePro and Maximum for having worse graphics, a smaller screen size, and less intelligent enemies than any previous version, and the Sega Saturn port also met with low reviews for poor graphics and low quality from Mean Machines and Sega Saturn Magazine. ==Legacy== Doom has been termed "inarguably the most important" first-person shooter, as well as the "father" of the genre. Although not the first in the genre, it was the game with the greatest impact. Dan Pinchbeck in Doom: Scarydarkfast (2013) noted the direct influence of Dooms design choices on those of first-person and third-person shooter games two decades later, as influenced by the games released in the intervening years. Doom, and to a lesser extent Wolfenstein 3D, has been characterized as "mark[ing] a turning point" in the perception of video games in popular culture, with Doom and first-person shooters in general becoming the predominant perception of video games in media. Historians such as Tristan Donovan in Replay: The History of Video Games (2010) have termed it as causing a "paradigm shift", prompting the rise in popularity of 3D games, first-person shooters, licensed technology between developers, and support for game modifications. It helped spark the rise of both online multiplayer games and player-driven content generation, and popularized the business model of online distribution. In their book Dungeons & Dreamers: A Story of how Computer Games Created a Global Community in 2014, Brad King and John Borland claimed that Doom was one of the first widespread instances of an "online collective virtual reality", and did more than any other game to create a modern world of "networked games and gamers". PC Gamer proclaimed Doom the most influential game of all time in 2004, and in 2023 said its development was one of the most well-documented in the history of video games. It has also been used in scholarly research since its release, including for machine learning, video game aesthetics and design, and the effects of video games on aggression, memory, and attention. In 2007 Doom was listed among the ten "game canon" video games selected for preservation by the Library of Congress, and in 2015 The Strong National Museum of Play inducted Doom to its World Video Game Hall of Fame as part of its initial set of games. Doom has continued to be included highly in lists of the best video games ever for nearly three decades since its release. In 1995, Next Generation said it was "the most talked about PC game ever". The PC version was ranked the 3rd best video game by Flux in 1995, and in 1996 was ranked fifth best and third most innovative by Computer Gaming World. In 2000, Doom was ranked as the second-best game ever by GameSpot. The following year, it was voted the number one game of all time in a poll among over 100 game developers and journalists conducted by GameSpy, and was ranked the sixth best game by Game Informer. GameTrailers ranked it the most "breakthrough PC game" in 2009 and Game Informer again ranked it the sixth-best game that same year. Doom has also been ranked among the best games of all time by GamesMaster, Hyper, The Independent, Entertainment Weekly, GamesTM, Jeuxvideo.com, Gamereactor, Time, Polygon, and The Times, among others, as recently as 2023. ===Clones=== The success of Doom led to dozens of new first-person shooter games. In 1998, PC Gamer declared it "probably the most imitated game of all time". These games were often referred to as "Doom clones", with "first-person shooter" only overtaking it as the name of the genre after a few years. As the "first-person shooter" genre label had not yet solidified at the time, Doom was described as a "first person perspective adventure" and "atmospheric 3-D action game". Doom clones ranged from close imitators to more innovative takes on the genre. Id Software licensed the Doom engine to several other companies, which resulted in several games similar to Doom, including Heretic (1994), Hexen: Beyond Heretic (1995), and Strife: Quest for the Sigil (1996). A Doom-based game called Chex Quest was released in 1996 by Ralston Foods as a promotion to increase cereal sales. Other games were inspired by Doom, if not rumored to be built by reverse engineering the game's engine, including LucasArts's Star Wars: Dark Forces (1995). Several other games termed Doom clones, such as PowerSlave (1996) and Duke Nukem 3D (1996), used the 1995 Build engine, a 2.5D engine inspired by Doom created by Ken Silverman with some consultation with John Carmack. ===Sequel and franchise=== After completing Doom, id Software began working on a sequel using the same engine, Doom II, which was released to retail on October 10, 1994, ten months after the first game. GT Interactive had approached id before the release of Doom with plans to release a retail version of Doom and Doom II. Id chose to create the sequel as a set of episodes rather than a new game, allowing John Carmack and the other programmers to begin work on id's next game, Quake. Doom II was the United States' highest-selling software product of 1994 and sold more than copies within a year. Doom II was followed by an expansion pack from id, Master Levels for Doom II (1995), consisting of 21 commissioned levels and over 3000 user-created levels for Doom and Doom II. Two sets of Doom II levels by different amateur map-making teams were released together by id as the standalone game Final Doom (1996). Doom and Doom II were both included, along with previous id games, in the id Anthology compilation (1996). The Doom franchise has continued since the 1990s in several iterations and forms. The video game series includes Doom 3 (2004), Doom (2016), and Doom Eternal (2020), along with other spin-off video games. It additionally includes multiple novels, a comic book, board games, and two films: Doom (2005) and Doom: Annihilation (2019). ===Controversies=== Doom was notorious for its high levels of graphic violence and satanic imagery, which generated controversy from a broad range of groups. Doom for the 32X was one of the first video games to be given a Mature 17+ rating from the Entertainment Software Rating Board due to its violent gore and nature, while Doom II was the first. In Germany, shortly after its publication, Doom was classified as "harmful to minors" by the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons and could not be sold to children or displayed where they could see it, which was only rescinded in 2011. Doom again sparked controversy in the United States when it was found that Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, who committed the Columbine High School massacre on April 20, 1999, were avid players. While planning for the massacre, Harris said in his journal that the killing would be "like playing Doom". A rumor spread afterward that Harris had designed a custom Doom level that looked like the high school, populated with representations of Harris's classmates and teachers, which he used to practice for the shooting. Although Harris did design several custom Doom levels, which later became known as the "Harris levels", none were based on the school. Doom was dubbed a "mass murder simulator" by critic and Killology Research Group founder David Grossman. In the earliest release versions, the level E1M4: Command Control contains a swastika-shaped structure, which was put in as a homage to Wolfenstein 3D. The swastika was removed in later versions, out of respect for a military veteran's request, according to Romero. ===Community=== Dooms popularity and innovations attracted a community that has persisted for decades since. The deathmatch mode was an important factor in its popularity. Doom was the first game to coin the term "deathmatch" and introduced multiplayer shooting battles to a wide audience. This led to a widespread community of players who had never experienced fast-paced multiplayer combat before. Another popular aspect of Doom was the versatility of its WAD files, enabling user-generated levels and other game modifications. John Carmack and Romero had strongly advocated for mod support, overriding other id employees who were concerned about commercial and legal implications. Although WAD files exposed the game data, id provided no instructions for how they worked. Still, players were able to modify leaked alpha versions of the game, allowing them to release level editors within weeks of the game's release. On January 26, 1994, university student Brendon Wyber led a group to create the first full level editor, the Doom Editor Utility, leading to the first custom level by Jeff Bird in March. It was followed by "countless" others, including many based on other franchises like Aliens and Star Wars total conversion mods, as well as DeHackEd, a patch editor first released in 1994 by Greg Lewis that allowed editing of the game engine. Soon after the first mods appeared, id CEO Wilbur posted legal terms to the company's website, allowing mod authors to charge money without any fees to id, while also absolving the company of responsibility or support. Doom mods were widely popular, earning favorable comparisons to the official level additions seen in The Ultimate Doom. Thousands of user-created levels were released in the first few years after the release; over 3000 such levels for Doom and Doom II were included in the official retail release Master Levels for Doom II (1995). WizardWorks released multiple collections of mods of Doom and Doom II under the name D!Zone. At least one mod creator, Tim Willits, was later hired at id Software. Mods have continued to be produced, with the community Cacowards awarding the best of each year. In 2016, Romero created two new Doom levels: E1M4b ("Phobos Mission Control") and E1M8b ("Tech Gone Bad"). In 2018, for the 25th anniversary of Doom, Romero announced Sigil, an unofficial fifth episode containing nine levels. It was released on May 22, 2019, for with a soundtrack by Buckethead, and then released again for free on May 31 with a soundtrack by James Paddock. A physical release was later produced. A sixth episode, Sigil II, was released on the game's 30th anniversary, December 10, 2023, again for for a digital copy with a soundtrack by Valient Thorr, as well as physical editions on floppy disk. In addition to WAD files, Doom includes a feature that allowed players to record and play back gameplay using files called demos, or game replays. Although the concept of speedrunning a video game existed before Doom, its release coincided with a wave of popularity for speedrunning, amplified by the online communities built on the nascent Internet. Demos were lightweight files that could be shared more easily than video files on internet bulletin board systems at the time. As a result, Doom is credited with creating the video game speedrunning community. The speedrunning community for Doom has continued for decades. As recently as 2019, community members have broken records originally set in 1998. Doom has been termed as having "one of the longest-running speedrunning communities" as well as being "the quintessential speedrunning game".	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World", "Gabe Newell", "Acorn Computers", "ambient music", "Imagine Publishing", "clone (computing)", "GameTrailers", "Tom Hall", "GameStop", "Heavy metal music", "Gamer Network", "ExtremeTech", "Adrian Carmack", "Complex Networks", "Nextmedia", "Xbox 360", "Microsoft", "Daikatana", "DWANGO", "fighting game", "game canon", "Sigil (mod)", "video game clone", "Aubrey Hodges", "Ziff Davis", "NeXTSTEP", "online multiplayer", "video game culture", "Time Inc.", "PC Gamer UK", "teleportation", "Gamasutra", "YouTube", "Ken Silverman", "The Guardian", "Mean Machines", "DOS", "stop motion", "G/O Media", "Columbine High School massacre", "techno", "GitHub", "Pantera", "Dungeons & Dragons", "TSR, Inc.", "John Romero", "Electronic Gaming Monthly", "3D Realms", "Hexen: Beyond Heretic", "Power-up", "Doomguy", "Risc PC", "user-generated content", "life (video games)", "Future plc", "level editor", "Edge (magazine)", "Game Developer (website)", "GamesRadar+", "assembly language", "Lucasfilm Games", "Trafford Publishing", "swastika", "Doom (novel series)", "KEX Engine", "The Times", "Compute!", "HobbyConsolas", "graphic violence", "Andrew Hulshult", "Replay: The History of Video Games", "Gregor Punchatz", "Doom engine", "Chex Quest", "reverse engineering", "Game Boy Advance", "The Verge", "PC Data", "GamesTM", "The Strong", "PC Gamer US", "Xbox Series X/S", "Phobos (moon)", "Doom (2016 video game)", "Wired (magazine)", "Steam (service)", "Fatal Fury", "NeXT", "The Age", "VideoGames", "Writers Club Press", "bulletin board system", "Valve Corporation", "Hyper (magazine)", "BFG 9000", "Dragon (magazine)", "Alice in Chains", "The Strong National Museum of Play", "Ars Technica", "Evil Dead II", "Official UK PlayStation Magazine", "C (programming language)", "chainsaw", "Unity (game engine)", "moons of Mars", "Virtual community", "MS-DOS", "The Color of Money", "Tim Willits", "Street Fighter II", "Bustle (magazine)", "2.5D", "Red Ventures", "Joystiq", "Aliens (film)", "Hachette Filipacchi Médias", "Game replay", "plasma rifle", "Time (magazine)", "Dave Taylor (game programmer)", "Final Doom", "Health (game terminology)", "Doom: The Dark Ages", "Classic Mac OS", "Doom (film)", "World Video Game Hall of Fame", "Kotaku", "Ascential", "Art of Fighting", "Flux (magazine)", "Retro Gamer", "Windows 95", "Duke Nukem 3D", "PlayStation 3", "First-person shooter", "binary space partitioning", "McFarland & Company", "GameSpot", "SNES", "Buckethead", "The Independent", "iOS", "Rock Paper Shotgun", "Final boss (video games)", "player character", "Entrepreneur Press", "design document", "GT Interactive", "Vox Media", "Sega Saturn Magazine", "ETC Press", "Inverse (website)", "Don Ivan Punchatz", "Xbox One", "Informa", "demon", "Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold", "video game modding", "NewBay Media", "Xbox (console)", "Doom 3", "internet", "Ralston Foods", "undead", "Frag (video gaming)", "White Wolf (magazine)", "VG247", "CNET", "Sybex", "Game Informer", "GameSpy", "CBS Interactive", "Eurogamer", "IGN", "3D graphics", "Doom 64", "Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons", "Ray tracing (graphics)", "WizardWorks", "University of Michigan Press", "List of Doom ports", "Library of Congress", "IEEE Transactions on Games", "speedrunning", "MCV (magazine)", "PC Gamer", "Doom modding", "Cooperative video game", "Arcade genre", "PowerSlave", "White Wolf Publishing", "Electronic Games", "Dotdash Meredith", "PlayStation (console)", "Axel Springer SE", "berserker", "Wolfenstein 3D", "Id Software", "Alien (franchise)", "Apogee Software", "Dave Grossman (author)", "Polygon (website)", "University of Wisconsin–Madison" ]
8,522	Denver	Denver ( ) is a consolidated city and county, the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Colorado. It is located in the Western United States, in the South Platte River Valley on the western edge of the High Plains east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. With a population of 715,522 as of the 2020 census, a 19.22% increase since 2010, The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the longitudinal reference for the Mountain Time Zone, passes directly through Denver Union Station. As the most populous metropolitan area in a radius, Denver is a major cultural hub with a variety of museums and cultural institutions, including the Denver Performing Arts Complex and Denver Art Museum. Denver also has sports teams in all five major professional leagues. While the 10-county Denver–Aurora–Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 2,963,821 and the 12-county Denver–Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had a population of 3,623,560 at the 2020 United States census, Denver functions as the principal city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor, an oblong urban region stretching across Colorado and Wyoming with a population of 5,055,344 at the 2020 U.S. census. ==History== The greater Denver area was inhabited by several Indigenous peoples such as Apaches, Utes, Cheyennes, Comanches, and Arapahoes. By the terms of the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie between the United States and various tribes including the Cheyenne and Arapaho, the United States unilaterally defined and recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho territory as ranging from the North Platte River in present-day Wyoming and Nebraska southward to the Arkansas River in present-day Colorado and Kansas. This definition specifically encompasses the land of modern Metropolitan Denver. But the discovery in November 1858 of gold in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado (then part of the western Kansas Territory) brought on a gold rush and a consequent flood of white immigration across Cheyenne and Arapaho lands. On November 22, 1858, General William Larimer and Captain Jonathan Cox, both land speculators from eastern Kansas Territory, placed cottonwood logs to stake a claim on the bluff overlooking the confluence of the South Platte River and Cherry Creek, across the creek from the existing mining settlement of Auraria, and on the site of the existing townsite of St. Charles. Larimer named the townsite Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver. Larimer hoped the town's name would help it be selected as the county seat of Arapahoe County, but unbeknownst to him, Governor Denver had already resigned from office. The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne and Arapaho. The site of these first towns is now occupied by Confluence Park near downtown Denver. Edward W. Wynkoop came to Colorado in 1859 and became one of the city's founders. Wynkoop Street in Denver is named after him. Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, with the intention of creating a major city that would cater to new immigrants. Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock, and goods trading. In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria. at Bent's New Fort at Big Timbers near what is now Lamar, Colorado. They ceded more than 90 percent of the lands designated for them by the Fort Laramie Treaty, including the area of modern Denver. Ten days later, on February 28, 1861, the Colorado Territory was created, Arapahoe County was formed on November 1, 1861, Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902. Although by the close of the 1860s Denver residents could look with pride at their success establishing a vibrant supply and service center, the decision to route the nation's first transcontinental railroad through Cheyenne City, rather than Denver, threatened the prosperity of the young town. The transcontinental railroad passed a daunting away, but citizens mobilized to build a railroad to connect Denver to it. Spearheaded by visionary leaders, including Territorial Governor John Evans, David Moffat, and Walter Cheesman, fundraising began. Within three days, $300,000 had been raised, and citizens were optimistic. Fundraising stalled before enough was raised, forcing these visionary leaders to take control of the debt-ridden railroad. Despite challenges, on June 24, 1870, citizens cheered as the Denver Pacific completed the link to the transcontinental railroad, ushering in a new age of prosperity for Denver. Finally linked to the rest of the nation by rail, Denver prospered as a service and supply center. The young city grew during these years, attracting millionaires with their mansions, as well as a mixture of crime and poverty of a rapidly growing city. Denver citizens were proud when the rich chose Denver and were thrilled when Horace Tabor, the Leadville mining millionaire, built a business block at 16th and Larimer, as well as the elegant Tabor Grand Opera House. Luxurious hotels, including the much-loved Brown Palace Hotel, soon followed, as well as splendid homes for millionaires, such as the Croke, Patterson, Campbell Mansion at 11th and Pennsylvania and the now-demolished Moffat Mansion at 8th and Grant. Intent on transforming Denver into one of the world's great cities, leaders wooed industry and attracted laborers to work in these factories. Soon, in addition to the elite and a large middle class, Denver had a growing population of immigrant German, Italian, and Chinese laborers, soon followed by African Americans from the Deep South and Hispanic workers. The influx of the new residents strained available housing. In addition, the Silver Crash of 1893 unsettled political, social, and economic balances. Competition among the different ethnic groups was often expressed as bigotry, and social tensions gave rise to the Red Scare. Americans were suspicious of immigrants, who were sometimes allied with socialist and labor union causes. After World War I, a revival of the Ku Klux Klan attracted white, native-born Americans who were anxious about the many changes in society. Unlike the earlier organization that was active in the rural South, KKK chapters developed in urban areas of the Midwest and West, including Denver, and into Idaho and Oregon. Corruption and crime also developed in Denver. Between 1880 and 1895, the city underwent a huge rise in corruption, as crime bosses, such as Soapy Smith, worked side by side with elected officials and the police to control elections, gambling, and bunco gangs. The city also suffered a depression in 1893 after the crash of silver prices. In 1887, the precursor to the international charity United Way was formed in Denver by local religious leaders, who raised funds and coordinated various charities to help Denver's poor. By 1890, Denver had grown to be the second-largest city west of Omaha, Nebraska. In 1900, whites represented 96.8% of Denver's population. The African American and Hispanic populations increased with migrations of the 20th century. Many African Americans first came as workers on the railroad, which had a terminus in Denver, and began to settle there. Between the 1880s and 1930s, Denver's floriculture industry developed and thrived. This period became known locally as the Carnation Gold Rush. A bill proposing a state constitutional amendment to allow home rule for Denver and other municipalities was introduced in the legislature in 1901 and passed. The measure called for a statewide referendum, which voters approved in 1902. On December 1 that year, Governor James Orman proclaimed the amendment part of the state's fundamental law. The City and County of Denver came into being on that date and was separated from Arapahoe and Adams counties. From 1953 to 1989, the Rocky Flats Plant, a DOE nuclear weapon facility that was about 15 miles from Denver, produced fissile plutonium "pits" for nuclear warheads. A major fire at the facility in 1957, as well as leakage from nuclear waste stored at the site between 1958 and 1968, resulted in the contamination of some parts of Denver, to varying degrees, with plutonium-239, a harmful radioactive substance with a half-life of 24,200 years. A 1981 study by the Jefferson County health director, Carl Johnson, linked the contamination to an increase in birth defects and cancer incidence in central Denver and nearer Rocky Flats. Later studies confirmed many of his findings. Plutonium contamination was still present outside the former plant site . It presents risks to building the envisioned Jefferson Parkway, which would complete Denver's automotive beltway. In 1970, Denver was selected to host the 1976 Winter Olympics to coincide with Colorado's centennial celebration, but in November 1972, Colorado voters struck down ballot initiatives allocating public funds to pay for the high costs of the games. They were moved to Innsbruck, Austria. The notoriety of being the only city ever to decline to host an Olympiad after being selected has made subsequent bids difficult. The movement against hosting the games was based largely on environmental issues and was led by State Representative Richard Lamm. He was subsequently elected to three terms (1975–87) as Colorado governor. Denver explored a potential bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics, but no bid was submitted. In 2010, Denver adopted a comprehensive update of its zoning code, which was developed to guide development as envisioned in adopted plans such as Blueprint Denver, Transit Oriented Development Strategic Plan, Greenprint Denver, and the Strategic Transportation Plan. Denver has hosted the Democratic National Convention twice, in 1908 and 2008. It promoted the city on the national, political, and socioeconomic stage. On August 10–15, 1993, Denver hosted the Catholic Church's 6th World Youth Day, which was attended by an estimated 500,000, making it the largest gathering in Colorado history. In 2015, a new commuter railway system commenced operations in the Denver metropolitan area with a network operation of 25 kV 60 Hz. Denver has been known historically as the Queen City of the Plains and the Queen City of the West, because of its important role in the agricultural industry of the High Plains region in eastern Colorado and along the foothills of the Colorado Front Range. ==Geography== Denver is in the center of the Front Range Urban Corridor, between the Rocky Mountains to the west and the High Plains to the east. Its topography consists of plains in the city center with hilly areas to the north, west, and south. It is the only state capital in the United States that is a consolidated city-county. At the 2020 United States census, the City and County of Denver had an area of , including of water. The system of neighborhood boundaries and names dates to 1970 when city planners divided the city into 73 groups of one to four census tracts, called "statistical neighborhoods," most of which are unchanged since then. Unlike some other cities, such as Chicago, Denver does not have official larger area designations. Colloquially, names such as Northside and Westside are still in use, but not well-known. Community planners have recently been using a set of 19 larger areas, all of which are groups of statistical neighborhoods, as part of the Area Planning process. Denver also has a number of colloquial neighborhood names and boundaries reflecting how people in an area, or others such as community groups and real estate developers, have defined areas. Well-known non-administrative neighborhoods include the historic and trendy LoDo (short for "Lower Downtown"), part of the city's Union Station neighborhood; Uptown, straddling North Capitol Hill and City Park West; Curtis Park and RiNo ("River North"), both part of the Five Points neighborhood; Alamo Placita, the northern part of the Speer neighborhood; Park Hill, a successful example of intentional racial integration; and Golden Triangle, in the Civic Center. One of Denver's newer neighborhoods was built on the site of Stapleton International Airport, named after former Denver mayor Benjamin F. Stapleton, a member of the Ku Klux Klan. In 2020, the neighborhood's community association voted to change the name from Stapleton to Central Park (see more in Politics section below). The Central Park neighborhood itself has 12 "neighborhoods" within its boundaries. ===Adjacent counties, municipalities and census-designated places=== ===Climate=== Denver features a continental semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSk, Trewartha: BSao) with generally low humidity and around 3,100 hours of sunshine per year, although humid microclimates can be found nearby depending on exact location. It has four distinct seasons and receives most of its precipitation from April through August. Due to its inland location on the High Plains, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, the region can be subject to sudden changes in weather. July is the warmest month, with an average high temperature of . Summers range from warm to hot with occasional, sometimes severe, afternoon thunderstorms and high temperatures reaching on 38 days annually, and occasionally . December, the coldest month of the year, has an average daily high temperature of . Winters consist of periods of snow and very low temperatures alternating with periods of milder weather due to the warming effect of Chinook winds. In winter, daytime highs occasionally exceed , but they also often fail to reach during periods of cold weather. Occasionally, daytime highs can even fail to rise above due to arctic air masses. On the coldest nights of the year, lows can fall to or below, with the city experiencing a low of on December 22, 2022, with a wind chill of . Snowfall is common throughout the late fall, winter and early spring, averaging for 1981–2010; The average window for measurable (≥) snow is October 17 through April 27; however, measurable snowfall has occurred as early as September 4 and as late as June 3. Extremes in temperature range from on January 9, 1875, up to as recently as June 28, 2018. Due to the city's high elevation and aridity, diurnal temperature variation is large throughout the year. Tornadoes are rare west of the I-25 corridor; one notable exception was an F3 tornado that struck south of downtown on June 15, 1988. On the other hand, the suburbs east of Denver and the city's east-northeastern extension (Denver International Airport) can see a few tornadoes, often weak landspout tornadoes, each spring and summer, especially during June, with the enhancement of the Denver Convergence Vorticity Zone (DCVZ). The DCVZ, also known as the Denver Cyclone, is a variable vortex of storm-forming air flow usually found north and east of downtown, and which often includes the airport. Heavy weather from the DCVZ can disrupt airport operations. In a study looking at hail events in areas with a population of at least 50,000, Denver was found to be ranked 10th most prone to hail storms in the continental United States. In fact, Denver has had three of the top 10 costliest hailstorms in U.S. history, on July 11, 1990; July 20, 2009; and May 8, 2017. Based on 30-year averages obtained from NOAA's National Climatic Data Center for the months of December, January and February, Weather Channel ranked Denver the 18th-coldest major U.S. city . Denver's official weather station is at Denver International Airport, roughly from downtown. A 2019 analysis showed the average temperature at Denver International Airport, , was significantly cooler than downtown, . Many of the suburbs also have warmer temperatures and there is controversy regarding the location of the official temperature readings. ==Demographics== {{US Census population \|align=left \|1860= 4749 \|1870= 4759 \|1880= 35629 \|1890= 106713 \|1900= 133859 \|1910= 213381 \|1920= 256491 \|1930= 287861 \|1940= 322412 \|1950= 415765 \|1960= 493887 \|1970= 514678 \|1980= 492686 \|1990= 467610 \|2000= 554636 \|2010= 600158 \|2020= 715522 \|estyear=2024 \|estimate=729019 \|estref= The Denver–Aurora–Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2013 population of 2,697,476 and ranked as the 21st most populous U.S. metropolitan statistical area, and the larger Denver–Aurora–Boulder Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2013 population of 3,277,309 and ranked as the 18th most populous U.S. metropolitan area. However, the average density throughout most Denver neighborhoods tends to be higher. Without the 80249 zip code (47.3 sq mi, 8,407 residents) near the airport, the average density increases to around 5,470 per square mile. Denver, Colorado, is at the top of the list of 2017 Best Places to Live, according to U.S. News & World Report, landing a place in the top two in terms of affordability and quality of lifestyle. Approximately 70.3% of the population (over five years old) spoke only English at home. An additional 23.5% of the population spoke Spanish at home. In terms of ancestry, 31.8% were Hispanic or Latino, 14.6% of the population were of German ancestry, 9.7% were of Irish ancestry, 8.9% were of English ancestry, and 4.0% were of Italian ancestry. There were 250,906 households, of which 23.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.7% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.1% were non-families. 39.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27, and the average family size was 3.14. Age distribution was 22.0% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 36.1% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. Overall there were 102.1 males for every 100 females. Due to a skewed sex ratio wherein single men outnumber single women, some protologists had nicknamed the city as Menver. The median household income was $45,438, and the median family income was $48,195. Males had a median income of $36,232 versus $33,768 for females. The per capita income for the city was $24,101. 19.1% of the population and 14.6% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 25.3% of those under the age of 18 and 13.7% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. Denver has one of the largest populations of Mexican-Americans in the entire United States. Approximately one third of the city is Hispanic, with the overwhelming majority of them being of Mexican descent. Many of them speak Spanish at home. English, German, Irish, Swedish, Italian, Polish, Chinese, Japanese, Greek, and Russian immigrants immigrated to Denver by the 1920s. ===Languages=== , 72.28% (386,815) of Denver residents aged five and older spoke only English at home, while 21.42% (114,635) spoke Spanish, 0.85% (4,550) Vietnamese, 0.57% (3,073) African languages, 0.53% (2,845) Russian, 0.50% (2,681) Chinese, 0.47% (2,527) French, and 0.46% (2,465) German. In total, 27.72% (148,335) of Denver's population aged five and older spoke a language other than English. ===Longevity=== According to a report in the Journal of the American Medical Association, residents of Denver had a 2014 life expectancy of 80.02 years. ==Economy== The Denver MSA had a gross metropolitan product of $311.9 billion in 2023, making it the 18th largest metro economy in the United States. Additionally, the 12-County Denver–Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had a GDP of $377.7 billion in 2023 while the broader Front Range had a GDP of $474.6 billion. Denver's economy is based partially on its geographic position and its connection to some of the country's major transportation systems. Because Denver is the largest city within , it has become a natural location for storage and distribution of goods and services to the Mountain States, Southwest states, as well as all western states. Another benefit for distribution is that Denver is nearly equidistant from large cities of the Midwest, such as Chicago and St. Louis and some large cities of the West Coast, such as Los Angeles and San Francisco. Over the years, the city has been home to other large corporations in the central United States, making Denver a key trade point for the country. Several well-known companies originated in or have relocated to Denver. William Ainsworth opened the Denver Instrument Company in 1895 to make analytical balances for gold assayers. Its factory is now in Arvada. Aimco is headquartered in Denver. Samsonite began in Denver in 1910 as Shwayder Trunk Manufacturing Company, but Samsonite closed its NE Denver factory in 2001, and moved its headquarters to Massachusetts after a change of ownership in 2006. Qwest Corporation, founded in Denver in 1911 as Mountain States Telephone & Telegraph Company, is now a part of Lumen Technologies (previously CenturyLink). On October 31, 1937, Continental Airlines, now United Airlines, moved its headquarters to Stapleton Airport in Denver, Colorado (before United Airlines later moved to its current home in Chicago). Robert F. Six arranged to have the headquarters moved to Denver from El Paso, Texas because Six believed that the airline should have its headquarters in a large city with a potential base of customers. Continental later moved to Houston from Denver, but merged with United Airlines in 2013. Throughout that time, the company held a large employee base in the Denver area, which is home to the United Airlines Flight Training Center in the Central Park neighborhood. MediaNews Group purchased the Denver Post in 1987; the company is based in Denver. The Gates Corporation, the world's largest producer of automotive belts and hoses, was established in S. Denver in 1919. Russell Stover Candies made its first chocolate candy in Denver in 1923, but moved to Kansas City in 1969. The original Frontier Airlines began operations at Denver's old Stapleton International Airport in 1950; Frontier was reincarnated at DIA in 1994. Scott's Liquid Gold, Inc., has been making furniture polish in Denver since 1954. Village Inn restaurants began as a single pancake house in Denver in 1958. Big O Tires, LLC, of Centennial opened its first franchise in 1962 in Denver. The Shane Company sold its first diamond jewelry in 1971 in Denver. In 1973 Re/Max made Denver its headquarters. Johns Manville Corp., a manufacturer of insulation and roofing products, relocated its headquarters to Denver from New York in 1972. CH2M Hill, an engineering and construction firm, relocated from Oregon to the Denver Technological Center in 1980. The Ball Corporation sold its glass business in Indiana in the 1990s and moved to suburban Broomfield; Ball has several operations in greater Denver. Molson Coors Brewing Company established its U.S. headquarters in Denver in 2005, but announced its departure in 2019. Its subsidiary and regional wholesale distributor, Coors Distributing Company, is in NW Denver. The Newmont Mining Corporation, the second-largest gold producer in North America and one of the largest in the world, is headquartered in Denver. MapQuest, an online site for maps, directions and business listings, is headquartered in Denver's LoDo district. Large Denver-area employers that have headquarters elsewhere include Lockheed Martin Corp., United Airlines, Kroger Co. and Xcel Energy, Inc. Geography also allows Denver to have a considerable government presence, with many federal agencies based or having offices in the Denver area. Along with federal agencies come many companies based on US defense and space projects, and more jobs are brought to the city by virtue of its being the capital of the state of Colorado. The Denver area is home to the former nuclear weapons plant Rocky Flats, the Denver Federal Center, Byron G. Rogers Federal Building and United States Courthouse, the Denver Mint, and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. In 2005, a $310.7 million expansion of the Colorado Convention Center was completed, doubling its size. The hope was the center's expansion would elevate the city to one of the top 10 cities in the nation for holding a convention. Denver's position near the mineral-rich Rocky Mountains encouraged mining and energy companies to spring up in the area. In the early days of the city, gold and silver booms and busts played a large role in the city's economic success. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the energy crisis in America and resulting high oil prices created an energy boom in Denver captured in the soap opera Dynasty. Denver was built up considerably during this time with the construction of many new downtown skyscrapers. When the price of oil dropped from $34 a barrel in 1981 to $9 a barrel in 1986, the Denver economy also dropped, leaving almost 15,000 oil industry workers in the area unemployed (including former mayor and governor John Hickenlooper, a former geologist), and the nation's highest office vacancy rate (30%). The industry has recovered and the region has 700 employed petroleum engineers. Advances in hydraulic fracturing have made the DJ Basin of Colorado into an accessible and lucrative oil play. Energy and mining are still important in Denver's economy today, with companies such as Ovintiv, Halliburton, Smith International, Rio Tinto Group, Newmont Mining, and Chevron Corporation, headquartered or having significant operations. Denver is in 149th place in terms of the cost of doing business in the United States. Denver's west-central geographic location in the Mountain Time Zone (UTC−7) also benefits the telecommunications industry by allowing communication with both North American coasts, South America, Europe, and Asia on the same business day. Denver's location on the 105th meridian at over in elevation also enables it to be the largest city in the U.S. to offer a "one-bounce" real-time satellite uplink to six continents in the same business day. Qwest Communications now part of CenturyLink, Dish Network Corporation, Starz, DIRECTV, and Comcast are a few of the many telecommunications companies with operations in the Denver area. These and other high-tech companies had a boom in Denver in the mid to late 1990s. After a rise in unemployment in the Great Recession, Denver's unemployment rate recovered and had one of the lowest unemployment rates in the nation at 2.6% in November 2016. As of December 2016, the unemployment rate for the Denver–Aurora–Broomfield MSA is 2.6%. The Downtown region has seen increased real estate investment with the construction of several new skyscrapers from 2010 onward and major development around Denver Union Station. Denver has also enjoyed success as a pioneer in the fast-casual restaurant industry, with many popular national chain restaurants founded and based in Denver. Quiznos and Smashburger were founded and headquartered in Denver. Qdoba Mexican Grill, Noodles & Company, and Good Times Burgers & Frozen Custard originated in Denver, but have moved their headquarters to the suburbs of Wheat Ridge, Broomfield, and Golden, respectively. Chipotle Mexican Grill was founded in Denver, but moved its headquarters to Newport Beach, California in 2018. In 2015, Denver ranked No. 1 on Forbes list of the Best Places for Business and Careers. In 2024, Denver based Ibotta's initial public offering (IPO) was the largest tech IPO in Colorado's history. ===Top employers=== As of the city's 2023 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, Denver's top employers are: ==Culture== Apollo Hall opened soon after the city's founding in 1859 and staged many plays for eager settlers. In the 1880s Horace Tabor built Denver's first opera house. After the start of the 20th century, city leaders embarked on a city beautification program that created many of the city's parks, parkways, museums, and the Municipal Auditorium, which was home to the 1908 Democratic National Convention and is now known as the Ellie Caulkins Opera House. Denver and the metropolitan areas around it continued to support culture. In July 1982, Denver hosted the World Theatre Festival at the Denver Center for Performing Arts, which comprised a program of 114 performances of 18 plays, by theatre companies from 13 countries, across 25 days. In 1988, voters in the Denver Metropolitan Area approved the Scientific and Cultural Facilities Tax (commonly known as SCFD), a 0.1% (1 cent per $10) sales tax that contributes money to various cultural and scientific facilities and organizations throughout the Metro area. The tax was renewed by voters in 1994 and 2004 and allowed the SCFD to operate until 2018. Ballot issue 4B in 2016 won approval 62.8 percent to 37.2 percent, by Denver metro area voters, to extend the SCFD sales tax until 2030. Denver is home to a wide array of museums. Many are nationally recognized, including a new wing for the Denver Art Museum by architect Daniel Libeskind, the nation's second-largest Performing Arts Center after Lincoln Center in New York City, and bustling neighborhoods such as LoDo, filled with art galleries, restaurants, bars and clubs. That is part of the reason Denver was, in 2006, recognized for the third year in a row as the best city for singles. Its neighborhoods also continue their influx of diverse people and businesses while the city's cultural institutions grow and prosper. The city acquired the estate of abstract expressionist painter Clyfford Still in 2004 and built a museum to exhibit his works near the Denver Art Museum. The Denver Museum of Nature and Science holds an aquamarine specimen valued at over $1 million, as well as specimens of the state mineral, rhodochrosite. Every September the Denver Mart, at 451 E. 58th Avenue, hosts a gem and mineral show. The state history museum, History Colorado Center, opened in April 2012. It features hands-on and interactive exhibits, artifacts and programs about Colorado history. It was named in 2013 by True West Magazine as one of the top-ten "must see" history museums in the country. History Colorado's Byers-Evans House Museum and the Molly Brown House are nearby. Denver has numerous art districts, including Denver's Art District on Santa Fe and the River North Art District (RiNo). While Denver may not be as recognized for historical musical prominence as some other American cities, it has an active pop, jazz, jam, folk, metal, and classical music scene, which has nurtured several artists and genres to regional, national, and even international attention. Of particular note is Denver's importance in the folk scene of the 1960s and 1970s. Well-known folk artists such as Bob Dylan, Judy Collins and John Denver lived in Denver at various points during this time and performed at local clubs. Three members of the widely popular group Earth, Wind, and Fire are also from Denver. More recent Denver-based artists include India Arie, Nathaniel Rateliff & the Night Sweats, The Lumineers, Air Dubai, The Fray, Flobots, Cephalic Carnage, Axe Murder Boyz, Deuce Mob, Havok, Bloodstrike, Primitive Man, and Five Iron Frenzy. Denver is also home to the Denver Record Collectors Expo, a biannual music collectors event. Because of its proximity to the mountains and generally sunny weather, Denver has gained a reputation as being a very active, outdoor-oriented city. Many Denver residents spend the weekends in the mountains; skiing in the winter and hiking, climbing, kayaking, and camping in the summer. Denver and surrounding cities are home to a large number of local and national breweries. Many of the region's restaurants have on-site breweries, and some larger brewers offer tours, including Coors and New Belgium Brewing Company. The city also welcomes visitors from around the world when it hosts the annual Great American Beer Festival each fall. Denver used to be a major trading center for beef and livestock when ranchers would drive (or later transport) cattle to the Denver Union Stockyards for sale. As a celebration of that history, for more than a century Denver has hosted the annual National Western Stock Show, attracting as many as 10,000 animals and 700,000 attendees. The show is held every January at the National Western Complex northeast of downtown. Denver has one of the country's largest populations of Mexican Americans and hosts four large Mexican-American celebrations: Cinco de Mayo (with over 500,000 attendees), in May; El Grito de la Independencia, in September; the annual Lowrider show, and the Dia De Los Muertos art shows/events in North Denver's Highland neighborhood, and the Lincoln Park neighborhood in the original section of West Denver. Denver is known for its dedication to New Mexican cuisine and the Chile. It is best known for its green and red chile sauce, Colorado burrito, Southwest (Denver) omelette, breakfast burrito, empanadas, chiles rellenos, and tamales. Denver is also known for other types of food such as Rocky Mountain oysters, rainbow trout, and the Denver sandwich. The Dragon Boat Festival in July, Moon Festival in September and Chinese New Year are annual events in Denver for the Chinese and Asian-American communities. Chinese hot pot (huo guo) and Korean BBQ restaurants have been growing in popularity. The Denver area has two Chinese newspapers, the Chinese American Post and the Colorado Chinese News. A Korean Newspaper, the "Colorado Times News" is also based in Denver. Denver has long been a place tolerant of the LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) community. Many gay bars can be found on Colfax Avenue and on South Broadway. Every June, Denver hosts the annual Denver PrideFest in Civic Center Park, the largest LGBTQ Pride festival in the Rocky Mountain region. Denver is the setting for The Bill Engvall Show, Tim Allen's Last Man Standing, and the 18th season of MTV's The Real World. It was also the setting for the prime time drama Dynasty from 1981 to 1989 (although the show was mostly filmed in Los Angeles). From 1998 to 2002 the city's Alameda East Veterinary Hospital was home to the Animal Planet series Emergency Vets, which spun off three documentary specials and the current Animal Planet series E-Vet Interns. The city is also the setting for the Disney Channel sitcom Good Luck Charlie. File:Denver Pavilions sign and escalators.jpg\|Denver Pavilions is a popular arts, entertainment, and shopping center on the 16th Street Mall in downtown Denver. File:Denver Performing Arts Complex.jpg\|Denver Performing Arts Complex File:Denver Art Museum.JPG\|Denver Art Museum File:Civiccenter1.JPG\|Civic Center Park, with museums and the central library in background ==Sports== Denver is home to a variety of sports teams and is one of 12 U.S. cities with teams from four major league sports (the Denver metro area is the smallest metropolitan area in the country to have a team in all four major sports leagues). Including MLS soccer, it is also one of 10 U.S. cities to have five major sports teams. The Denver Broncos of the National Football League have drawn crowds of over 70,000 since their origins in the early 1960s, and continue to draw fans today to their current home Empower Field at Mile High. The Broncos have sold out every home game (except for strike-replacement games) since 1970. The Broncos have advanced to eight Super Bowls and won back-to-back titles in 1997 and 1998, and won again in 2015. The Colorado Rockies were created as an expansion franchise in 1993 and Coors Field opened in 1995. The Rockies advanced to the playoffs that year but were eliminated in the first round. In 2007, they advanced to the playoffs as a wild-card entrant, won the NL Championship Series, and brought the World Series to Denver for the first time but were swept in four games by the Boston Red Sox. Denver has been home to two National Hockey League teams. The Colorado Rockies played from 1976 to 1982, but later moved to the New York metropolitan area to become the New Jersey Devils. The Colorado Avalanche joined in 1995, after relocating from Quebec City. While in Denver, they have won three Stanley Cups in 1996, 2001, and 2022. The Denver Nuggets joined the American Basketball Association in 1967 and the National Basketball Association in 1976. The Nuggets won their first NBA championship in 2023. The Avalanche and Nuggets have both played at Ball Arena (formerly known as Pepsi Center) since 1999. The Major League Soccer team Colorado Rapids play in Dick's Sporting Goods Park, an 18,000-seat soccer-specific stadium opened for the 2007 MLS season in the Denver suburb of Commerce City. The Rapids won the MLS Cup in 2010. Denver has several additional professional teams. In 2006, Denver established a Major League Lacrosse team, the Denver Outlaws. They play in Empower Field at Mile High. In 2006, the Denver Outlaws won the Western Conference Championship and then won their first championship in 2014 eight years later. They also won in 2016 and 2018 and would fold in 2020 with the MLL-PLL merger. The Colorado Mammoth of the National Lacrosse League play at Ball Arena. They won championships in 2006 and 2022. In 2018, the Denver Bandits were established as the first professional football team for women in Colorado and will be a part of the initial season for the Women's National Football Conference (WNFC) in 2019. Denver was awarded a National Women's Soccer League team in 2025. Denver submitted the winning bid to host the 1976 Winter Olympics but subsequently withdrew, giving it the distinction of being the first city to back out after having won its bid to host the Olympics. Denver also has 29 recreation centers providing places and programming for resident's recreation and relaxation. Many of Denver's parks were acquired from state lands in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This coincided with the City Beautiful movement, and Denver mayor Robert Speer (1904–12 and 1916–18) set out to expand and beautify the city's parks. Reinhard Schuetze was the city's first landscape architect, and he brought his German-educated landscaping genius to Washington Park, Cheesman Park, and City Park among others. Speer used Schuetze as well as other landscape architects such as Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. and Saco Rienk DeBoer to design not only parks such as Civic Center Park, but many city parkways and tree-lawns. Cheesman Park neighbor the Denver Botanic Gardens displays the beauty and versatility of micro-climates within the semi-arid Denver Basin. All of these parks were fed with South Platte River water diverted through the city ditch. In addition to the parks within Denver, the city acquired land for mountain parks starting in the 1911s. Over the years, Denver has acquired, built and maintained approximately of mountain parks, including Red Rocks Park, which is known for its scenery and musical history revolving around the unique Red Rocks Amphitheatre. Denver also owns the mountain on which the Winter Park Resort ski area operates in Grand County, west of Denver. City parks are important places for Denverites and visitors, inciting controversy with every change. Denver continues to grow its park system with the development of many new parks along the Platte River through the city, and with Central Park and Bluff Lake Nature Center in the Central Park neighborhood redevelopment. All of these parks are important gathering places for residents and allow what was once a dry plain to be lush, active, and green. Denver is also home to a large network of public community gardens, most of which are managed by Denver Urban Gardens, a non-profit organization. Since 1974, Denver and the surrounding jurisdictions have rehabilitated the urban South Platte River and its tributaries for recreational use by hikers and cyclists. The main stem of the South Platte River Greenway runs along the South Platte into Adams County in the north. The Greenway project is recognized as one of the best urban reclamation projects in the U.S., winning, for example, the Silver Medal Rudy Bruner Award for Urban Excellence in 2001. , Park Score by the Trust for Public Land, a national land conservation organization, reported Denver as having the 18th best park system among the 50 most populous U.S. cities. The report noted that 89% of Denverites live within a 10-minute walk of a park. File:The 1908 pavilion in Denver, Colorado's, Cheesman Park LCCN2015633572.tif\|Cheesman Park started as a cemetery. File:Carla Madison Recreation Center.JPG\|The Carla Madison Recreation Center, completed in 2017 File:Red Rocks Amphitheater.JPG\|Red Rocks is a Denver park and world-famous amphitheater in the foothills. File:Washington Park Denver.JPG\|Washington Park File:Dmp.JPG\|Genesee Park is the largest of the Denver Mountain Parks. ==Government== Denver is a consolidated city-county with a mayor elected on a nonpartisan ballot, a 13-member city council, and an auditor. The Denver City Council is elected from 11 districts with two at-large council members and is responsible for passing and changing all laws, resolutions, and ordinances, usually after a public hearing. The city council can also call for misconduct investigations of Denver's departmental officials. All elected officials have four-year terms, with a maximum of three terms. The current mayor is Mike Johnston. Denver has a strong mayor/weak city council government. The mayor can approve or veto any ordinances or resolutions approved by the council, makes sure all contracts with the city are kept and performed, signs all bonds and contracts, is responsible for the city budget, and can appoint people to various city departments, organizations, and commissions. The council can override the mayor's veto with a nine votes. The city budget must be approved and can be changed by a simple majority vote of the council. The auditor checks all expenditures and may refuse to allow specific ones, usually for financial reasons. The Denver Department of Safety oversees three branches: the Denver Police Department, Denver Fire Department, and Denver Sheriff Department. The Denver County Court is an integrated Colorado County Court and Municipal Court and is managed by Denver instead of the state. ===Politics=== While Denver elections are nonpartisan, Democrats have long dominated the city's politics; most citywide officials are known to be registered with the Democratic Party. The mayor's office has been occupied by a Democrat since the 1963 municipal election. All the city's seats in the state legislature are held by Democrats. In statewide elections, the city also tends to favor Democrats, though Republicans were occasionally competitive until the turn of the millennium. The last Republican to win Denver in a gubernatorial election was John A. Love in 1970 by a narrow majority. Bill Owens in 2002 remains the last Republican governor to receive at least 40% of Denver's vote. The last Republican Senator to carry Denver was William L. Armstrong during his 1984 landslide. The last statewide Republican officeholder to carry Denver was Secretary of State Victoria Buckley in 1994 by 1.2% margin; she was, at the time, the highest ranking African-American Republican woman in the United States. In federal elections, Denver is a Democratic stronghold. It has supported a Democrat for president in every election since 1984. Despite then-president Ronald Reagan's landslide that year both nationally and in Colorado, Democrat Walter Mondale won Denver by a margin of 2.32%, and since then the party has increased its margin in almost every election. At the federal level, Denver is the heart of , which includes all of Denver and parts of Arapahoe County. It is the most Democratic district in the Mountain West and has been in Democratic hands for all but two terms since 1933. It is currently represented by Democrat Diana DeGette. A portion of southeast Denver, roughly half of the Indian Creek neighborhood and a small part of the Virginia Village neighborhood, is in , represented by Democrat Jason Crow. Benjamin F. Stapleton was the mayor of Denver for two periods, from 1923 to 1931 and from 1935 to 1947. He was responsible for many civic improvements, notably during his second term, when he had access to funds and manpower from the New Deal. During this time, the park system was considerably expanded and the Civic Center completed. His signature project was the construction of Denver Municipal Airport, which began in 1929 amid heavy criticism. It was later renamed Stapleton International Airport in his honor. Today, the airport has been replaced by a neighborhood initially named Stapleton. In 2020, during the George Floyd protests, because of Stapleton's demonstrated racism and prominent membership in the Ku Klux Klan, neighborhood residents changed the name to Central Park. During the 1960s and 1970s, Denver was one of the centers of the Chicano Movement. The boxer-turned-activist Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales formed an organization called the Crusade for Justice, which battled police brutality, fought for bilingual education, and, most notably, hosted the First National Chicano Youth Liberation Conference in March 1969. In recent years, Denver has taken a stance on helping people who are or become homeless, particularly under the administrations of mayors John Hickenlooper and Wellington Webb. At a rate of 19 homeless per 10,000 residents in 2011 as compared to 50 or more per 10,000 residents for the four metro areas with the highest rate of homelessness, Denver's homeless population and rate of homeless are both considerably lower than many other major cities. But residents of the city streets suffer Denver winters – which, although mild and dry much of the time, can have brief periods of extremely cold temperatures and snow. In 2005, Denver became the first major U.S. city to vote to make the private possession of less than an ounce of marijuana legal for adults 21 and older. The city voted 53.5 percent in favor of the marijuana legalization measure, which, as then-mayor John Hickenlooper pointed out, was without effect, because the city cannot usurp state law, which at that time treated marijuana possession in much the same way as a speeding ticket, with fines of up to $100 and no jail time. In May 2019, Denver became the first U.S. city to decriminalize psilocybin mushrooms after an initiative passed with 50.6% of the vote. The measure prohibits Denver from using any resources to prosecute adults over 21 for personal use of psilocybin mushrooms, though such use remains illegal under state and federal law. Denver hosted the 2008 Democratic National Convention, which was the centennial of the city's first hosting of the landmark 1908 convention. It also hosted the G7 summit between June 20 and 22 in 1997 and the 2000 National Convention of the Green Party. In 1972, 1981, and 2008, Denver also hosted the Libertarian Party of the United States National Convention. The 1972 Convention was notable for nominating Tonie Nathan for vice president, the first woman, as well as the first Jew, to receive an electoral vote in a United States presidential election. On October 3, 2012, the University of Denver hosted the first of the three 2012 presidential debates. In July 2019, Mayor Hancock said that Denver will not assist U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement agents with immigration raids. ===Taxes=== The City and County of Denver levies an occupational privilege tax (OPT or head tax) on employers and employees. If any employee performs work in the city limits and is paid over $500 for that work in a single month, the employee and employer are both liable for the OPT regardless of where the main business office is located or headquartered. The employer is liable for $4 per employee per month and the employee is liable for $5.75 per month. It is the employer's responsibility to withhold, remit, and file the OPT returns. If an employer does not comply, the employer can be held liable for both portions of the OPT as well as penalties and interest. ==Education== Denver Public Schools (DPS) is the public school system in all of Denver. It educates approximately 92,000 students in 92 elementary schools, 44 K-8 schools, 34 middle schools, 18 high schools, and 19 charter schools. The first school of what is now DPS was a log cabin that opened in 1859, which later became East High School. East High School, along with the other three directional high schools (West, North, and South), made up the first four high schools in Denver. The district boundaries are coextensive with the city limits. The Cherry Creek School District serves some areas with Denver postal addresses that are outside the city limits. Denver's many colleges and universities range in age and study programs. Three major public schools constitute the Auraria Campus: the University of Colorado Denver, Metropolitan State University of Denver, and Community College of Denver. The private University of Denver was the first institution of higher learning in the city and was founded in 1864. Other prominent Denver higher education institutions include Johnson & Wales University, Catholic (Jesuit) Regis University, and the city has Roman Catholic and Jewish institutions, as well as a health sciences school. In addition to those schools within the city, there are a number of schools throughout the surrounding metro area. File:East High School in Denver, Colorado LCCN2015633554.tif\|Denver East High School File:CU Denver Student Wellness Center and Student Commons Building on the Downtown Denver Campus .jpg\|University of Colorado-Denver in downtown File:Ritchie Center sunrise 2006.jpg\|The Ritchie Center at University of Denver ==Media== The Denver metropolitan area is served by a variety of media outlets in print, radio, television, and the Internet. ===Television stations=== Denver is the 16th-largest market in the country for television, according to the 2009–2010 rankings from Nielsen Media Research. KWGN-TV, channel 2, a CW O&O station owned by Nexstar Media Group, who also owns Fox affiliate KDVR 31. KWGN is run by KDVR management and is Colorado's first TV station, on the air since July 1952. KCDO-TV, channel 3, an independent station owned by the E. W. Scripps Company, who also own KMGH-TV as part of a duopoly. KCNC-TV, channel 4, a CBS O&O station. KRMA-TV, channel 6, the flagship of Rocky Mountain PBS, a state network of five public TV stations throughout Colorado. KMGH-TV, channel 7, an ABC affiliate owned by the E. W. Scripps Company, previously owned by the McGraw-Hill company for 40 years prior to 2012. The station is part of a duopoly with KCDO-TV. KUSA-TV, channel 9, an NBC affiliate owned by Tegna, who also owns KTVD 20, a MyNetworkTV affiliate. KBDI-TV, channel 12, a secondary PBS member station. KDEN-TV, channel 25, a Telemundo O&O station. KPJR-TV, channel 38, a TBN O&O station. KCEC, channel 50, a Univision affiliate. KETD, channel 53, an Estrella TV O&O station. ===Radio stations=== Denver is also served by over 40 AM and FM radio stations, covering a wide variety of formats and styles. Denver–Boulder radio is the No. 19 market in the United States, according to the Spring 2011 Arbitron ranking (up from No. 20 in Fall 2009). For a list of Denver radio stations, see List of radio stations in Colorado. ===Print=== After continued rivalry between Denver's two main newspapers, The Denver Post and the Rocky Mountain News, the papers merged operations in 2001 under a joint operating agreement that formed the Denver Newspaper Agency. This arrangement lasted until February 2009 when the E. W. Scripps Company, the owner of the Rocky Mountain News, closed the paper. There are also several alternative or localized newspapers published in Denver, including the Westword, Law Week Colorado, Out Front Colorado, and the Intermountain Jewish News. Denver is home to multiple regional magazines such as 5280, which takes its name from the city's mile-high elevation (). The Colorado Times News is a Korean-language publication based in Denver. of paved, off-road, bike paths in Denver parks and along bodies of water, like Cherry Creek and the South Platte. This allows for a significant portion of Denver's population to be bicycle commuters and has led to Denver being known as a bicycle-friendly city. Some residents strongly oppose bike lanes, which has caused some plans to be watered down or nixed. The review process for one bike line on Broadway will last over a year before city council members will make a decision. In addition to the many bike paths, Denver launched B-Cycle – a citywide bicycle sharing program – in late April 2010. The B-Cycle network was the largest in the United States at the time of its launch, boasting 400 bicycles. The Denver Boot, a car-disabling device, was first used in Denver. ===Cycling=== The League of American Bicyclists rated Colorado as the sixth most bicycle-friendly state in the nation for 2024. This is due in large part to Front Range cities like Boulder, Fort Collins and Denver placing an emphasis on legislation, programs and infrastructure developments that promote cycling as a mode of transportation. Walk Score has rated Denver as the fourth most bicycle-friendly large city in the United States. B-Cycle – Denver's citywide bicycle sharing program – was the largest in the United States at the time of its launch in 2010, boasting 400 bicycles. The city announced plans to seek one or more new contractors to run a bike-share program starting mid-2020. === Electric rental scooters === In 2018, electric scooter services began to place scooters in Denver. Hundreds of unsanctioned LimeBike and Bird electric scooters appeared on Denver streets in May, causing an uproar. In June, the city ordered the companies to remove them and acted quickly to create an official program, including a requirement that scooters be left at RTD stops and out of the public right-of-way. Lime and Bird scooters then reappeared in late July, with limited compliance. Uber's Jump e-bikes arrived in late August, followed by Lyft's nationwide electric scooter launch in early September. Lyft says that it will, each night, take the scooters to the warehouse for safety checks, maintenance and charging. Additionally, Spin and Razor each were permitted to add 350 scooters. ===Walkability=== 2017 rankings by Walk Score placed Denver twenty-sixth among 108 U.S. cities with a population of 200,000 or greater. City leaders have acknowledged the concerns of walkability advocates that Denver has serious gaps in its sidewalk network. The 2019 "Denver Moves: Pedestrians" plan outlines a need for approximate $1.3 billion in sidewalk funding, plus $400 million for trails. In 2022, Denver voters passed Initiative 307, dubbed "Denver Deserves Sidewalks", to complete sidewalk construction and repair by shifting responsibility for sidewalk maintenance from property owners to the city and imposing a new fee on property owners based on the length of a property's sidewalk frontage, although the measure may be revised in the course of implementation. ===Modal characteristics=== In 2015, 9.6 percent of Denver households lacked a car, and in 2016, this was virtually unchanged (9.4 percent). The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Denver averaged 1.62 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8. ===Freeways and highways=== Denver is primarily served by the interstate freeways I-25 and I-70. The problematic intersection of the two interstates is referred to locally as "the mousetrap" because, when viewed from the air, the junction (and subsequent vehicles) resemble mice in a large trap. Interstate 25 runs north–south from New Mexico through Denver to Wyoming Interstate 225 traverses neighboring Aurora. I-225 was designed to link Aurora with I-25 in the southeastern corner of Denver, and I-70 to the north of Aurora, with construction starting May 1964 and ending May 21, 1976. Interstate 70 runs east–west from Utah to Maryland. It is also the primary corridor on which motorists access the mountains. Interstate 270 runs concurrently with US 36 from an interchange with Interstate 70 in northeast Denver to an interchange with Interstate 25 north of Denver. The freeway continues as US 36 from the interchange with Interstate 25. Interstate 76 begins from I-70 just west of the city in Arvada. It intersects I-25 north of the city and runs northeast to Nebraska where it ends at I-80. US 6 follows the alignment of 6th Avenue west of I-25, and connects downtown Denver to the west-central suburbs of Golden and Lakewood. It continues west through Utah and Nevada to Bishop, California. To the east, it continues as far as Provincetown, on Cape Cod in Massachusetts. US 285 ends its route through New Mexico and Texas at Interstate 25 in the University Hills neighborhood. US 85 also travels through Denver. This highway is often used as an alternate route to Castle Rock instead of taking Interstate 25. U.S. Route 87 runs north–south and through Denver. It is concurrent with I-25 the entire length in the state. US 36 connects Denver to Boulder and Rocky Mountain National Park near Estes Park. It runs east into Ohio, after crossing four other states. State Highway 93 starts in the western Metropolitan area in Golden, Colorado, and travels almost to meet with SH 119 in central Boulder. This highway is often used as an alternate route to Boulder instead of taking US 36. State Highway 470 (C-470, SH 470) is the southwestern portion of the Denver metro area's beltway. Originally planned as Interstate 470 in the 1960s, the beltway project was attacked on environmental impact grounds and the interstate beltway was never built. The portion of "Interstate 470" built as a state highway is the present-day SH 470, which is a freeway for its entire length. Denver also has a nearly complete beltway known as "the 470's". These are SH 470 (also known as C-470), a freeway in the southwest Metro area, and two toll highways, E-470 (from southeast to northeast) and Northwest Parkway (from terminus of E-470 to US 36). SH 470 was intended to be I-470 and built with federal highway funds, but the funding was redirected to complete conversion of downtown Denver's 16th Street to a pedestrian mall. As a result, construction was delayed until 1980 after state and local legislation was passed. I-470 was also once called "The Silver Stake Highway", from Gov. Lamm's declared intention to drive a silver stake through it and kill it. A highway expansion and transit project for the southern I-25 corridor, dubbed T-REX (Transportation Expansion Project), was completed on November 17, 2006. The project installed wider and additional highway lanes, and improved highway access and drainage. The project also includes a light rail line that traverses from downtown to the south end of the metro area at Lincoln Avenue. The project spanned almost along the highway with an additional line traveling parallel to part of I-225, stopping just short of Parker Road. Metro Denver highway conditions can be accessed on the Colorado Department of Transportation COtrip website. ===Mass transportation=== Mass transportation throughout the Denver metropolitan area is managed and coordinated by the Regional Transportation District (RTD). RTD operates more than 1,000 buses serving over 10,000 bus stops in 38 municipal jurisdictions in eight counties around the Denver and Boulder metropolitan areas. Additionally, RTD operates ten rail lines, the A, B, D, E, G, H, L, N, R, and W, with a total of of track, serving 77 stations, 35 of which are located within the City of Denver proper. The D, E, H, L, R, and W Lines are light rail while the A, B, G, and N Lines are commuter rail. FasTracks is a commuter rail, light rail, and bus expansion project approved by voters in 2004, which will serve neighboring suburbs and communities. The W Line, or West line, opened in April 2013 serving Golden/Federal Center. The commuter rail A Line from Denver Union Station to Denver International Airport opened in April 2016 with ridership exceeding RTD's early expectations. The light rail R Line through Aurora opened in February 2017. The G Line to the suburb of Arvada (originally planned to open in the Fall of 2016) opened on April 26, 2019. The N Line to Commerce City and Thornton opened on September 21, 2020. An express bus service, known as the Flatiron Flyer, serves to connect Boulder and Denver. The service, billed as bus rapid transit, has been accused of bus rapid transit creep for failing to meet the majority of BRT requirements, including level boarding and all-door entry. A commuter rail connection to Boulder and its suburb of Longmont, also part of the FasTracks ballot initiative and an extension of the B Line, is planned to be finished by RTD, but no construction funds have yet been identified prior to 2040. RTD is currently considering an interim commuter service which would run rush-hour trains from Longmont to Denver. The Colorado Department of Transportation runs Bustang, a bus system that offers weekday and weekend service connecting Denver with many locations across the state, including Grand Junction, Colorado Springs, Fort Collins, and Gunnison. Greyhound Lines, the intercity bus operator, has a major hub in Denver, with routes to New York City, Portland, Reno, Las Vegas, and their headquarters, Dallas. Subsidiary Autobuses Americanos provides service to El Paso. Allied bus operators Express Arrow, and Burlington Trailways provide service to Billings, Omaha, Indianapolis, and Alamosa. Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Denver, operating its California Zephyr daily in both directions between Chicago and Emeryville, California, across the bay from San Francisco. Amtrak Thruway service operated by private bus companies links the Denver station with Rocky Mountain points. In 2017 the Colorado legislature reinvigorated studies of passenger rail service along the Front Range, potentially connecting Denver to Fort Collins and Pueblo, or further to Amtrak connections in Cheyenne, Wyoming and Trinidad. Front Range Passenger Rail is a current proposal (as of 2023) to link the cities from Pueblo in the south, north to Fort Collins and possibly to Cheyenne, Wyoming. At Albuquerque, New Mexico, Denver Thruway connections are made daily with the Amtrak Southwest Chief. Additionally, the Ski Train operated on the former Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, which took passengers between Denver and the Winter Park Ski Resort, but it is no longer in service. The Ski Train made its final run to Winter Park on March 29, 2009. The service was revived on a trial basis in 2016 with a great amount of local fanfare. Further development of a mountain corridor rail option, though publicly popular, has been met with resistance from politicians, namely the director of Colorado Department of Transportation. The Ski Train did return to service under Amtrak with the name "Winter Park Express" in 2017 and greatly expanded service for the 2024-2025 ski season, doubling capacity and increasing service to run Thursday-Monday during the winter ski seasons. The Colorado Department of Transportation plans to eventually expand service to Steamboat Springs and Craig as part of the Mountain Rail project. Denver's early years as a major train hub of the west are still very visible today. Trains stop in Denver at historic Union Station, where travelers can access RTD's 16th Street Free MallRide or use light rail to tour the city. Union Station will also serve as the main juncture for rail travel in the metro area, at the completion of FasTracks. The city also plans to invest billions to bringing frequent public transit within one-fourth of a mile of most of its residents. ====Denver public transportation statistics==== The average amount of time people spend commuting on public transit in Denver and Boulder, Colorado—for example, to and from work, on a weekday—is 77 minutes; 31% of public transit riders ride for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 14 minutes, while 25% of riders wait for over 20 minutes, on average, every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is , while 31% travel over in a single direction. ===Airports=== Denver International Airport (IATA: DEN, ICAO: KDEN), commonly known as DIA, serves as the primary airport for the Front Range Urban Corridor surrounding Denver. DIA is east-northeast of the Colorado State Capitol and opened in 1995. DIA is the 3rd busiest airport in the world with 58.8 million passengers in 2021; it had the 5th highest number of passengers in the U.S., 61 million, in the pre-pandemic year 2019. It covers more than , making it the largest airport by land area in the United States and larger than the island of Manhattan. DIA serves as a major hub for United Airlines, is the headquarters and primary hub for Frontier Airlines, and is a major focus city and the fastest-growing market for Southwest Airlines. In 2017, Denver International Airport was rated by Skytrax as the 28th-best airport in the world, falling to second place in the United States behind Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport. Skytrax also named DIA as the second-best regional airport in North America for 2017, and the fourth-best regional airport in the world. Three general aviation airports serve the Denver area. Rocky Mountain Metropolitan Airport (KBJC) is north-northwest, Centennial Airport (KAPA) is south-southeast, and Colorado Air and Space Port (KCFO), formerly Front Range Airport, is east of the state capitol. Centennial Airport also offers limited commercial airline service, on two cargo airlines. In the past, Denver has been home to several other airports that are no longer operational. Stapleton International Airport was closed in 1995 when it was replaced by DIA. Lowry Air Force Base was a military flight training facility that ceased flight operations in 1966, with the base finally closing in 1994. Both Stapleton and Lowry have since been redeveloped into primarily residential neighborhoods. Buckley Space Force Base is the only military facility in the Denver area. ==Notable people== ==Twin towns – sister cities== Denver's relationship with Brest, France, began in 1948, making it the second-oldest sister city in the United States. In 1947, Amanda Knecht, a teacher at East High School, visited World War II–ravaged Brest. When she returned, she shared her experiences in the city with her students, and her class raised $32,000 to help rebuild the children's wing of Brest's hospital. The gift led to the development of the sister city program with Brest. There were serious efforts in the early 2000s, in both Denver and Sochi, Russian Federation, to establish sister-city ties, but the negotiations did not come to fruition. Since then, Denver has established relationships with additional sister cities: Brest, France (1948) Takayama, Japan (1960) Nairobi, Kenya (1975) Karmiel, Israel (1977) Cuernavaca, Mexico (1983) Potenza, Italy (1983) Chennai, India (1984) Kunming, China (1985) Axum, Ethiopia (1995) Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia (2001) Akureyri, Iceland (2012)	[ "Frontier Airlines (1950–1986)", "Ball Corporation", "Pepsi Center", "Colorado Air and Space Port", "Kunming", "Saco Rienk DeBoer", "DIRECTV", "Dallas", "Robert W. Speer", "Diana DeGette", "Interstate 76 (Colorado)", "U.S. Route 87", "James W. Denver", "European classical music", "Dakota Ridge, Colorado", "Bill Owens (Colorado politician)", "CH2M Hill", "Benjamin F. Stapleton", "Arvada, Colorado", "Midwestern United States", "Populus sect. 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Rogers Federal Building and United States Courthouse", "Winter Park, Colorado", "Speer, Denver", "Grand County, Colorado", "1970 Colorado gubernatorial election", "Trinidad, Colorado", "Treaty of Fort Wise", "Modern Language Association", "2020 United States census", "Cherry Creek School District", "Soapy Smith", "Dynasty (1981 TV series)", "Denver Botanic Gardens", "Russell Stover Candies", "Front Range Passenger Rail", "List of radio stations in Colorado", "Denver Metropolitan Area", "Weather Channel", "tamale", "mining town", "Denver NWSL team", "Auraria, Denver", "bus rapid transit", "general aviation", "Kansas", "Broomfield, Colorado", "Kroger", "Wyoming", "Montana City, Colorado", "Greyhound Lines", "Southwest Chief", "List of sovereign states", "Denver Center for Performing Arts", "New Jersey Devils", "Ohio", "Walter Mondale", "Aurora, Colorado", "Capital city", "2008 Democratic National Convention", "Washington Park, Denver", "Plat", "City Park, Denver", "New Deal", "U.S. Electoral College", "MediaNews Group", "high schools", "marijuana legalization", "MapQuest", "United States Postal Service", "Major League Lacrosse", "Area codes 303, 720, and 983", "Multiracial Americans", "The Real World (TV series)", "Texas", "White American", "KCEC (TV)", "William L. Armstrong", "Green Party of the United States", "Denver Depression of 1893", "Grito de Dolores", "KWGN-TV", "National Register of Historic Places listings in Denver", "Denver–Aurora combined statistical area", "Mount Blue Sky", "Jason Crow", "B Line (RTD)", "Richard Lamm", "KTVD", "Environment News Service", "Las Vegas", "Smashburger", "plutonium-239", "Lamar, Colorado", "List of counties in Colorado", "Bow Mar, Colorado", "bus rapid transit creep", "Colfax Avenue", "Journal of the American Medical Association", "Edward W. Wynkoop", "Chevron Corporation", "Out Front Colorado", "Newport Beach, California", "The Fray", "U.S. Census Bureau", "List of city nicknames in the United States", "Halliburton", "Bob Dylan", "Bureau of Economic Analysis", "Comanche", "South High School (Denver, Colorado)", "cannabis (drug)", "Democratic National Convention", "Denver sandwich", "Great Recession", "Smith International", "Ellie Caulkins Opera House", "Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans", "LoDo", "Dish Network Corporation", "Bent's New Fort", "Park Hill, Denver", "U.S. presidential election, 1972", "Rodolfo \"Corky\" Gonzales", "John Hickenlooper", "secondary school", "KETD", "Women's National Football Conference", "The Real World: Denver", "Nairobi", "Axum", "Village Inn", "El Paso", "Westword", "Centennial, Colorado", "Flatiron Flyer", "United Way of America", "Ronald Reagan", "Denver Public Schools", "list of costly or deadly hailstorms", "East High School (Denver)", "L Line (RTD)", "Quiznos", "Boston Red Sox", "National Football League", "NBC", "Good Luck Charlie", "List of U.S. states by date of statehood", "Lowrider", "ring road", "Trinity Broadcasting Network", "National Basketball Association", "Red Rocks Park", "Southwest Airlines", "Bluff Lake Nature Center", "McGraw-Hill", "Stapleton Airport", "Colorado Rockies", "Pueblo, Colorado", "Frontier Airlines", "CBS", "median household income", "rainbow trout", "Köppen climate classification", "RTD Bus & Rail", "Amtrak", "Motorized scooter", "National Lacrosse League", "Big O Tires", "Irish American", "street grid", "Rocky Mountain oysters", "Nielsen Media Research", "Chicano Youth Liberation Conference", "wholesale", "chiles rellenos", "landscape architect", "LGBTQ", "HCA Healthcare", "United States census", "fissile", "nuclear waste", "India Arie", "agriculture in the United States", "Colorado County Courts", "Interstate 80 (Nebraska)", "Ulaanbaatar", "Interstate 70 (Colorado)", "Cinco de Mayo", "Lowry Air Force Base", "H Line (RTD)", "Internet Archive", "Ski Train", "KUSA-TV", "Qdoba Mexican Grill", "List of mayors of Denver", "World Youth Day 1993", "Bustang", "Denver's Art District on Santa Fe", "Secretary of State of Colorado", "U.S. state", "The CW", "Lou Blonger", "Commerce City, Colorado", "Massachusetts", "1984 United States presidential election", "Denver Police Department", "Golden, Colorado", "Race and ethnicity in the United States census", "Cephalic Carnage", "List of primary statistical areas", "National Renewable Energy Laboratory", "John Denver", "Ultraviolet index", "Interstate 25 (Colorado)", "Colorado Rockies (NHL)", "Animal Planet", "Mike Johnston (Colorado politician)", "Colorado Springs", "Union Station, Denver", "Ute people", "Robert F. Six", "True West Magazine", "Newmont Mining Corporation", "Earth, Wind, and Fire", "Clyfford Still", "The Lumineers", "Lakeside, Colorado", "Lawrence, Kansas", "Forbes", "Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)", "creativecommons:by/4.0/", "continental United States", "Houston", "Denver Technological Center", "opera house", "Coors Field", "Steamboat Springs, Colorado", "Potenza", "Colorado Convention Center", "U.S. Highway 6 (Colorado)", "omelette", "Denver Mountain Parks", "G8", "Public transport", "Cuisine of the Southwestern United States", "Express Arrow", "KDEN-TV", "City Beautiful", "FasTracks", "Ku Klux Klan", "folk music", "Five Iron Frenzy", "Western Union", "sales tax", "Rocky Mountain PBS", "Federal Information Processing Standards", "Horace Tabor", "Maryland", "Qwest Communications", "Bloodstrike (band)", "Comcast", "Xcel Energy", "Chicago", "Chicano Movement", "Colorado Department of Transportation", "plutonium", "City Park West, Denver", "Colorado State Highway 470", "English American", "German American", "Tornado", "KDVR", "Mountain States", "Super Bowl", "Major League Baseball", "gold", "state highway", "List of United States urban areas", "List of capitals in the United States", "joint operating agreement", "Provincetown, Massachusetts", "United States Department of Commerce", "Walter Cheesman", "KCNC-TV", "Auraria Campus", "Time (magazine)", "Daniel Libeskind", "Takayama, Gifu", "pit (nuclear weapon)", "Wheat Ridge, Colorado", "List of name changes due to the George Floyd protests", "Alamo Placita, Denver", "Alaska Native", "Castle Rock, Colorado", "Colorado Mammoth", "Epodunk", "hail", "Edgewater, Colorado", "Jefferson County, Colorado", "Lincoln Park, Denver, Colorado", "Non-Hispanic Whites", "Utah", "Jesuit", "USA Today", "Syracuse University", "Re/Max", "Alameda East Veterinary Hospital", "Libertarian National Convention", "The Bronco Buster", "Denver City Council", "Holly Hills, Colorado", "African American", "Pikes Peak Gold Rush", "Chennai", "County seat", "radius", "League of American Bicyclists", "Estes Park, Colorado", "Golden Triangle, Denver", "Korean cuisine", "105th meridian west", "E. W. Scripps Company", "Decriminalization", "List of Colorado Governors", "soccer-specific stadium", "Qwest Corporation", "Ambio", "neighborhood", "Nebraska", "G (RTD)", "History of Denver", "KBDI-TV", "R Line (RTD)", "Englewood, Colorado", "psilocybin mushrooms", "Adams County, Colorado", "Good Times Burgers & Frozen Custard", "MyNetworkTV", "1984 United States presidential election in Colorado", "Brown Palace Hotel (Denver, Colorado)", "Boulder, Colorado", "Red Scare", "Front Range Urban Corridor", "Italian American", "Moon Festival", "jazz", "Denver Outlaws", "Pacific Islander American", "Burlington Trailways", "2002 Colorado gubernatorial election", "Big Timbers", "Fujita scale", "2010 United States census", "Flobots", "St. Louis", "Northglenn, Colorado", "Nexstar Media Group", "Gates Corporation", "Dragon Boat Festival", "Newmont Mining", "A Line (RTD)", "cancer", "Portland, Oregon", "Skytrax", "CenturyLink", "Tegna, Inc.", "Denver Sheriff Department", "University of Colorado Denver", "Alamosa, Colorado", "ADP (company)", "Autobuses Americanos", "USS Denver", "Disney Channel", "U.S. cities with teams from four major league sports", "Hispanic", "The Denver Post", "Colorado Front Range", "Manhattan", "empanadas", "Trust for Public Land", "MLL-PLL merger", "Coors Brewing Company", "Denver Pavilions", "New Mexico", "Gunnison, Colorado", "Glendale, Colorado", "Greenwood Village, Colorado", "U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement", "Old master print", "List of North American cities by population", "light rail", "North Platte River", "Denver Museum of Nature and Science", "Major League Soccer", "landspout", "Jews", "Lumen Technologies", "jam band", "sister city", "Denver Union Station", "Kansas Territory", "Aimco", "Rocky Mountain News", "Sochi", "National Climatic Data Center", "Dick's Sporting Goods Park", "Indianapolis", "List of Combined Statistical Areas", "Ovintiv", "list of United States cities by population", "Colorado Avalanche", "West Coast of the United States", "diurnal temperature variation", "Noodles & Company", "resolution (law)", "Mexicans", "occupational privilege tax", "Billings, Montana", "Fort Collins, Colorado", "Union Station (Denver)", "Centennial Airport", "16th Street Mall", "Molson Coors Brewing Company", "Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad", "Cuernavaca", "Downtown Denver", "Cape Cod", "Nevada", "2022 Winter Olympics", "freeway", "National Western Stock Show", "Primitive Man (band)", "Denver Art Museum", "Craig, Colorado", "Albuquerque, New Mexico", "Rocky Mountains", "Cheesman Park, Denver", "Ibotta", "N Line (RTD)", "Littleton, Colorado", "Highland, Denver", "Grand Junction, Colorado", "Non-Hispanic or Latino whites", "Lakewood, Colorado", "Rudy Bruner Award for Urban Excellence", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "Korean language", "United States Department of Agriculture", "World Theatre Festival (Denver)", "Wheel clamp", "Stanley Cup", "Asian Americans", "5280", "Trewartha climate classification", "Rocky Mountain National Park", "Stapleton International Airport", "Asian American", "Denver-Aurora-Boulder Combined Statistical Area", "Karmiel", "United States Census Bureau", "Denver Urban Gardens", "Empower Field at Mile High", "Omaha, Nebraska", "Western (genre)", "Frederick Law Olmsted Jr.", "nuclear warhead", "Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area", "Mountain View, Colorado", "1984 United States Senate election in Colorado", "consolidated city-county", "KRMA-TV", "Municipal corporation" ]
8,524	Deuterium	Deuterium (hydrogen-2, symbol H or D, also known as heavy hydrogen) is one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen; the other is protium, or hydrogen-1, H. The deuterium nucleus (deuteron) contains one proton and one neutron, whereas the far more common H has no neutrons. The name deuterium comes from Greek deuteros, meaning "second". American chemist Harold Urey discovered deuterium in 1931. Urey and others produced samples of heavy water in which the H had been highly concentrated. The discovery of deuterium won Urey a Nobel Prize in 1934. Nearly all deuterium found in nature was synthesized in the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago, forming the primordial ratio of H to H (≈26 deuterium nuclei per 10 hydrogen nuclei). Deuterium is subsequently produced by the slow stellar proton–proton chain, but rapidly destroyed by exothermic fusion reactions. The deuterium-deuterium reaction has the second-lowest energy threshold, and is the most astrophysically accessible, occurring in both stars and brown dwarfs. The gas giant planets display the primordial ratio of deuterium. Comets show an elevated ratio similar to Earth's oceans (156 deuterium nuclei per 10 hydrogen nuclei). This reinforces theories that much of Earth's ocean water is of cometary origin. The deuterium ratio of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, as measured by the Rosetta space probe, is about three times that of Earth water. This figure is the highest yet measured in a comet, thus deuterium ratios continue to be an active topic of research in both astronomy and climatology. Deuterium is used in most nuclear weapons, many fusion power experiments, and as the most effective neutron moderator, primarily in heavy water nuclear reactors. It is also used as an isotopic label, in biogeochemistry, NMR spectroscopy, and deuterated drugs. == Differences from common hydrogen (protium) == === Chemical symbol === Deuterium is often represented by the chemical symbol D. Since it is an isotope of hydrogen with mass number 2, it is also represented by H. IUPAC allows both D and H, though H is preferred. A distinct chemical symbol is used for convenience because of the isotope's common use in various scientific processes. Also, its large mass difference with protium (H) confers non-negligible chemical differences with H compounds. Deuterium has a mass of , about twice the mean hydrogen atomic weight of , or twice protium's mass of . The isotope weight ratios within other elements are largely insignificant in this regard. === Spectroscopy === In quantum mechanics, the energy levels of electrons in atoms depend on the reduced mass of the system of electron and nucleus. For a hydrogen atom, the role of reduced mass is most simply seen in the Bohr model of the atom, where the reduced mass appears in a simple calculation of the Rydberg constant and Rydberg equation, but the reduced mass also appears in the Schrödinger equation, and the Dirac equation for calculating atomic energy levels. The reduced mass of the system in these equations is close to the mass of a single electron, but differs from it by a small amount about equal to the ratio of mass of the electron to the nucleus. For H, this amount is about , or 1.000545, and for H it is even smaller: , or 1.0002725. The energies of electronic spectra lines for H and H therefore differ by the ratio of these two numbers, which is 1.000272. The wavelengths of all deuterium spectroscopic lines are shorter than the corresponding lines of light hydrogen, by 0.0272%. In astronomical observation, this corresponds to a blue Doppler shift of 0.0272% of the speed of light, or 81.6 km/s. The differences are much more pronounced in vibrational spectroscopy such as infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, and in rotational spectra such as microwave spectroscopy because the reduced mass of the deuterium is markedly higher than that of protium. In nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, deuterium has a very different NMR frequency (e.g. 61 MHz when protium is at 400 MHz) and is much less sensitive. Deuterated solvents are usually used in protium NMR to prevent the solvent from overlapping with the signal, though deuterium NMR on its own right is also possible. === Big Bang nucleosynthesis === Synthesis during the formation of the universe is the only significant way naturally occuring deuterium has been created; it is destroyed in stellar fusion. Deuterium is thought to have played an important role in setting the number and ratios of the elements that were formed in the Big Bang. Combining thermodynamics and the changes brought about by cosmic expansion, one can calculate the fraction of protons and neutrons based on the temperature at the point that the universe cooled enough to allow formation of nuclei. This calculation indicates seven protons for every neutron at the beginning of nucleogenesis, a ratio that would remain stable even after nucleogenesis was over. This fraction was in favor of protons initially, primarily because the lower mass of the proton favored their production. As the Universe expanded, it cooled. Free neutrons and protons are less stable than helium nuclei, and the protons and neutrons had a strong energetic reason to form helium-4. However, forming helium-4 requires the intermediate step of forming deuterium. Through much of the few minutes after the Big Bang during which nucleosynthesis could have occurred, the temperature was high enough that the mean energy per particle was greater than the binding energy of weakly bound deuterium; therefore, any deuterium that was formed was immediately destroyed. This situation is known as the deuterium bottleneck. The bottleneck delayed formation of any helium-4 until the Universe became cool enough to form deuterium (at about a temperature equivalent to 100 keV). At this point, there was a sudden burst of element formation (first deuterium, which immediately fused into helium). However, very soon thereafter, at twenty minutes after the Big Bang, the Universe became too cool for any further nuclear fusion or nucleosynthesis. At this point, the elemental abundances were nearly fixed, with the only change as some of the radioactive products of Big Bang nucleosynthesis (such as tritium) decay. The deuterium bottleneck in the formation of helium, together with the lack of stable ways for helium to combine with hydrogen or with itself (no stable nucleus has a mass number of 5 or 8) meant that an insignificant amount of carbon, or any elements heavier than carbon, formed in the Big Bang. These elements thus required formation in stars. At the same time, the failure of much nucleogenesis during the Big Bang ensured that there would be plenty of hydrogen in the later universe available to form long-lived stars, such as the Sun. === Abundance === Deuterium occurs in trace amounts naturally as deuterium gas (H or D), but most deuterium atoms in the Universe are bonded with H to form a gas called hydrogen deuteride (HD or HH). Similarly, natural water contains deuterated molecules, almost all as semiheavy water HDO with only one deuterium. The existence of deuterium on Earth, elsewhere in the Solar System (as confirmed by planetary probes), and in the spectra of stars, is also an important datum in cosmology. Gamma radiation from ordinary nuclear fusion dissociates deuterium into protons and neutrons, and there is no known natural process other than Big Bang nucleosynthesis that might have produced deuterium at anything close to its observed natural abundance. Deuterium is produced by the rare cluster decay, and occasional absorption of naturally occurring neutrons by light hydrogen, but these are trivial sources. There is thought to be little deuterium in the interior of the Sun and other stars, as at these temperatures the nuclear fusion reactions that consume deuterium happen much faster than the proton–proton reaction that creates deuterium. However, deuterium persists in the outer solar atmosphere at roughly the same concentration as in Jupiter, and this has probably been unchanged since the origin of the Solar System. The natural abundance of H seems to be a very similar fraction of hydrogen, wherever hydrogen is found, unless there are obvious processes at work that concentrate it. The existence of deuterium at a low but constant primordial fraction in all hydrogen is another one of the arguments in favor of the Big Bang over the Steady State theory of the Universe. The observed ratios of hydrogen to helium to deuterium in the universe are difficult to explain except with a Big Bang model. It is estimated that the abundances of deuterium have not evolved significantly since their production about 13.8 billion years ago. Measurements of Milky Way galactic deuterium from ultraviolet spectral analysis show a ratio of as much as 23 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms in undisturbed gas clouds, which is only 15% below the WMAP estimated primordial ratio of about 27 atoms per million from the Big Bang. This has been interpreted to mean that less deuterium has been destroyed in star formation in the Milky Way galaxy than expected, or perhaps deuterium has been replenished by a large in-fall of primordial hydrogen from outside the galaxy. In space a few hundred light years from the Sun, deuterium abundance is only 15 atoms per million, but this value is presumably influenced by differential adsorption of deuterium onto carbon dust grains in interstellar space. The abundance of deuterium in Jupiter's atmosphere has been directly measured by the Galileo space probe as 26 atoms per million hydrogen atoms. ISO-SWS observations find 22 atoms per million hydrogen atoms in Jupiter. and this abundance is thought to represent close to the primordial Solar System ratio. === Production === Deuterium is produced for industrial, scientific and military purposes, by starting with ordinary water—a small fraction of which is naturally occurring heavy water—and then separating out the heavy water by the Girdler sulfide process, distillation, or other methods. In theory, deuterium for heavy water could be created in a nuclear reactor, but separation from ordinary water is the cheapest bulk production process. The world's leading supplier of deuterium was Atomic Energy of Canada Limited until 1997, when the last heavy water plant was shut down. Canada uses heavy water as a neutron moderator for the operation of the CANDU reactor design. Another major producer of heavy water is India. All but one of India's atomic energy plants are pressurized heavy water plants, which use natural (i.e., not enriched) uranium. India has eight heavy water plants, of which seven are in operation. Six plants, of which five are in operation, are based on D–H exchange in ammonia gas. The other two plants extract deuterium from natural water in a process that uses hydrogen sulfide gas at high pressure. While India is self-sufficient in heavy water for its own use, India also exports reactor-grade heavy water. == Properties == === Data for molecular deuterium === Formula: or Density: 0.180 kg/m at STP (0 °C, 101325 Pa). Atomic weight: 2.0141017926 Da. Mean abundance in ocean water (from VSMOW) 155.76 ± 0.1 atoms of deuterium per million atoms of all isotopes of hydrogen (about 1 atom of in 6420); that is, about 0.015% of all atoms of hydrogen (any isotope) Data at about 18 K for H (triple point): Density: Liquid: 162.4 kg/m Gas: 0.452 kg/m Liquefied HO: 1105.2 kg/m at STP Viscosity: 12.6 μPa·s at 300 K (gas phase) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure c: Solid: 2950 J/(kg·K) Gas: 5200 J/(kg·K) === Physical properties === Compared to hydrogen in its natural composition on Earth, pure deuterium (H) has a higher melting point (18.72 K vs. 13.99 K), a higher boiling point (23.64 vs. 20.27 K), a higher critical temperature (38.3 vs. 32.94 K) and a higher critical pressure (1.6496 vs. 1.2858 MPa). The physical properties of deuterium compounds can exhibit significant kinetic isotope effects and other physical and chemical property differences from the protium analogs. HO, for example, is more viscous than normal . There are differences in bond energy and length for compounds of heavy hydrogen isotopes compared to protium, which are larger than the isotopic differences in any other element. Bonds involving deuterium and tritium are somewhat stronger than the corresponding bonds in protium, and these differences are enough to cause significant changes in biological reactions. Pharmaceutical firms are interested in the fact that H is harder to remove from carbon than H. Deuterium can replace H in water molecules to form heavy water (HO), which is about 10.6% denser than normal water (so that ice made from it sinks in normal water). Heavy water is slightly toxic in eukaryotic animals, with 25% substitution of the body water causing cell division problems and sterility, and 50% substitution causing death by cytotoxic syndrome (bone marrow failure and gastrointestinal lining failure). Prokaryotic organisms, however, can survive and grow in pure heavy water, though they develop slowly. Despite this toxicity, consumption of heavy water under normal circumstances does not pose a health threat to humans. It is estimated that a person might drink of heavy water without serious consequences. Small doses of heavy water (a few grams in humans, containing an amount of deuterium comparable to that normally present in the body) are routinely used as harmless metabolic tracers in humans and animals. === Quantum properties === The deuteron has spin +1 ("triplet state") and is thus a boson. The NMR frequency of deuterium is significantly different from normal hydrogen. Infrared spectroscopy also easily differentiates many deuterated compounds, due to the large difference in IR absorption frequency seen in the vibration of a chemical bond containing deuterium, versus light hydrogen. The two stable isotopes of hydrogen can also be distinguished by using mass spectrometry. The triplet deuteron nucleon is barely bound at , and none of the higher energy states are bound. The singlet deuteron is a virtual state, with a negative binding energy of . There is no such stable particle, but this virtual particle transiently exists during neutron–proton inelastic scattering, accounting for the unusually large neutron scattering cross-section of the proton. === Nuclear properties (deuteron) === ==== Deuteron mass and radius ==== The deuterium nucleus is called a deuteron. It has a mass of (just over ). The charge radius of a deuteron is Like the proton radius, measurements using muonic deuterium produce a smaller result: . ==== Spin and energy ==== Deuterium is one of only five stable nuclides with an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. (H, Li, B, N, Ta; the long-lived radionuclides K, V, La, Lu also occur naturally.) Most odd–odd nuclei are unstable to beta decay, because the decay products are even–even, and thus more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects. Deuterium, however, benefits from having its proton and neutron coupled to a spin-1 state, which gives a stronger nuclear attraction; the corresponding spin-1 state does not exist in the two-neutron or two-proton system, due to the Pauli exclusion principle which would require one or the other identical particle with the same spin to have some other different quantum number, such as orbital angular momentum. But orbital angular momentum of either particle gives a lower binding energy for the system, mainly due to increasing distance of the particles in the steep gradient of the nuclear force. In both cases, this causes the diproton and dineutron to be unstable. The proton and neutron in deuterium can be dissociated through neutral current interactions with neutrinos. The cross section for this interaction is comparatively large, and deuterium was successfully used as a neutrino target in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory experiment. Diatomic deuterium (H) has ortho and para nuclear spin isomers like diatomic hydrogen, but with differences in the number and population of spin states and rotational levels, which occur because the deuteron is a boson with nuclear spin equal to one. ====Isospin singlet state of the deuteron ==== Due to the similarity in mass and nuclear properties between the proton and neutron, they are sometimes considered as two symmetric types of the same object, a nucleon. While only the proton has electric charge, this is often negligible due to the weakness of the electromagnetic interaction relative to the strong nuclear interaction. The symmetry relating the proton and neutron is known as isospin and denoted I (or sometimes T). Isospin is an SU(2) symmetry, like ordinary spin, so is completely analogous to it. The proton and neutron, each of which have isospin-1/2, form an isospin doublet (analogous to a spin doublet), with a "down" state (↓) being a neutron and an "up" state (↑) being a proton. A pair of nucleons can either be in an antisymmetric state of isospin called singlet, or in a symmetric state called triplet. In terms of the "down" state and "up" state, the singlet is \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\Big( \|{\uparrow\downarrow}\rangle - \|{\downarrow\uparrow}\rangle\Big)., which can also be written :\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\Big( \|p n \rangle - \|n p \rangle\Big). This is a nucleus with one proton and one neutron, i.e. a deuterium nucleus. The triplet is \left( \begin{array}{ll} \|{\uparrow\uparrow}\rangle\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}( \|{\uparrow\downarrow}\rangle + \|{\downarrow\uparrow}\rangle )\\ \|{\downarrow\downarrow}\rangle \end{array} \right) and thus consists of three types of nuclei, which are supposed to be symmetric: a deuterium nucleus (actually a highly excited state of it), a nucleus with two protons, and a nucleus with two neutrons. These states are not stable. ==== Approximated wavefunction of the deuteron ==== The deuteron wavefunction must be antisymmetric if the isospin representation is used (since a proton and a neutron are not identical particles, the wavefunction need not be antisymmetric in general). Apart from their isospin, the two nucleons also have spin and spatial distributions of their wavefunction. The latter is symmetric if the deuteron is symmetric under parity (i.e. has an "even" or "positive" parity), and antisymmetric if the deuteron is antisymmetric under parity (i.e. has an "odd" or "negative" parity). The parity is fully determined by the total orbital angular momentum of the two nucleons: if it is even then the parity is even (positive), and if it is odd then the parity is odd (negative). The deuteron, being an isospin singlet, is antisymmetric under nucleons exchange due to isospin, and therefore must be symmetric under the double exchange of their spin and location. Therefore, it can be in either of the following two different states: Symmetric spin and symmetric under parity. In this case, the exchange of the two nucleons will multiply the deuterium wavefunction by (−1) from isospin exchange, (+1) from spin exchange and (+1) from parity (location exchange), for a total of (−1) as needed for antisymmetry. Antisymmetric spin and antisymmetric under parity. In this case, the exchange of the two nucleons will multiply the deuterium wavefunction by (−1) from isospin exchange, (−1) from spin exchange and (−1) from parity (location exchange), again for a total of (−1) as needed for antisymmetry. In the first case the deuteron is a spin triplet, so that its total spin s is 1. It also has an even parity and therefore even orbital angular momentum l. The lower its orbital angular momentum, the lower its energy. Therefore, the lowest possible energy state has , . In the second case the deuteron is a spin singlet, so that its total spin s is 0. It also has an odd parity and therefore odd orbital angular momentum l. Therefore, the lowest possible energy state has , . Since gives a stronger nuclear attraction, the deuterium ground state is in the , state. The same considerations lead to the possible states of an isospin triplet having , or , . Thus, the state of lowest energy has , , higher than that of the isospin singlet. The analysis just given is in fact only approximate, both because isospin is not an exact symmetry, and more importantly because the strong nuclear interaction between the two nucleons is related to angular momentum in spin–orbit interaction that mixes different s and l states. That is, s and l are not constant in time (they do not commute with the Hamiltonian), and over time a state such as , may become a state of , . Parity is still constant in time, so these do not mix with odd l states (such as , ). Therefore, the quantum state of the deuterium is a superposition (a linear combination) of the , state and the , state, even though the first component is much bigger. Since the total angular momentum j is also a good quantum number (it is a constant in time), both components must have the same j, and therefore . This is the total spin of the deuterium nucleus. To summarize, the deuterium nucleus is antisymmetric in terms of isospin, and has spin 1 and even (+1) parity. The relative angular momentum of its nucleons l is not well defined, and the deuteron is a superposition of mostly with some . ==== Magnetic and electric multipoles ==== In order to find theoretically the deuterium magnetic dipole moment μ, one uses the formula for a nuclear magnetic moment \mu = \frac{1}{j+1}\bigl\langle(l,s),j,m_j{=}j \,\bigr\|\, \vec{\mu}\cdot \vec{\jmath} \,\bigl\|\,(l,s),j,m_j{=}j\bigr\rangle with \vec{\mu} = g^{(l)}\vec{l} + g^{(s)}\vec{s} g and g are g-factors of the nucleons. Since the proton and neutron have different values for g and g, one must separate their contributions. Each gets half of the deuterium orbital angular momentum \vec{l} and spin \vec{s}. One arrives at \mu = \frac{1}{j+1} \Bigl\langle(l,s),j,m_j{=}j \,\Bigr\|\left(\frac{1}{2}\vec{l} {g^{(l)}}_p + \frac{1}{2}\vec{s} ({g^{(s)}}_p + {g^{(s)}}_n)\right)\cdot \vec{\jmath} \,\Bigl\|\, (l,s),j,m_j{=}j \Bigr\rangle where subscripts p and n stand for the proton and neutron, and . By using the same identities as here and using the value , one gets the following result, in units of the nuclear magneton μ \mu = \frac{1}{4(j+1)}\left[({g^{(s)}}_p + {g^{(s)}}_n)\big(j(j+1) - l(l+1) + s(s+1)\big) + \big(j(j+1) + l(l+1) - s(s+1)\big)\right] For the , state (), we obtain \mu = \frac{1}{2}({g^{(s)}}_p + {g^{(s)}}_n) = 0.879 For the , state (), we obtain \mu = -\frac{1}{4}({g^{(s)}}_p + {g^{(s)}}_n) + \frac{3}{4} = 0.310 The measured value of the deuterium magnetic dipole moment, is , which is 97.5% of the value obtained by simply adding moments of the proton and neutron. This suggests that the state of the deuterium is indeed to a good approximation , state, which occurs with both nucleons spinning in the same direction, but their magnetic moments subtracting because of the neutron's negative moment. But the slightly lower experimental number than that which results from simple addition of proton and (negative) neutron moments shows that deuterium is actually a linear combination of mostly , state with a slight admixture of , state. The electric dipole is zero as usual. The measured electric quadrupole of the deuterium is . While the order of magnitude is reasonable, since the deuteron radius is of order of 1 femtometer (see below) and its electric charge is e, the above model does not suffice for its computation. More specifically, the electric quadrupole does not get a contribution from the state (which is the dominant one) and does get a contribution from a term mixing the and the states, because the electric quadrupole operator does not commute with angular momentum. The latter contribution is dominant in the absence of a pure contribution, but cannot be calculated without knowing the exact spatial form of the nucleons wavefunction inside the deuterium. Higher magnetic and electric multipole moments cannot be calculated by the above model, for similar reasons. == Applications == === Nuclear reactors === Deuterium is used in heavy water moderated fission reactors, usually as liquid HO, to slow neutrons without the high neutron absorption of ordinary hydrogen. This is a common commercial use for larger amounts of deuterium. In research reactors, liquid H is used in cold sources to moderate neutrons to very low energies and wavelengths appropriate for scattering experiments. Experimentally, deuterium is the most common nuclide used in fusion reactor designs, especially in combination with tritium, because of the large reaction rate (or nuclear cross section) and high energy yield of the deuterium–tritium (DT) reaction. There is an even higher-yield H–He fusion reaction, though the breakeven point of H–He is higher than that of most other fusion reactions; together with the scarcity of He, this makes it implausible as a practical power source, at least until DT and deuterium–deuterium (DD) fusion have been performed on a commercial scale. Commercial nuclear fusion is not yet an accomplished technology. === NMR spectroscopy === Deuterium is most commonly used in hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (proton NMR) in the following way. NMR ordinarily requires compounds of interest to be analyzed as dissolved in solution. Because of deuterium's nuclear spin properties which differ from the light hydrogen usually present in organic molecules, NMR spectra of hydrogen/protium are highly differentiable from that of deuterium, and in practice deuterium is not "seen" by an NMR instrument tuned for H. Deuterated solvents (including heavy water, but also compounds like deuterated chloroform, CDCl or CHCl, are therefore routinely used in NMR spectroscopy, in order to allow only the light-hydrogen spectra of the compound of interest to be measured, without solvent-signal interference. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can also be used to obtain information about the deuteron's environment in isotopically labelled samples (deuterium NMR). For example, the configuration of hydrocarbon chains in lipid bilayers can be quantified using solid state deuterium NMR with deuterium-labelled lipid molecules. Deuterium NMR spectra are especially informative in the solid state because of its relatively small quadrupole moment in comparison with those of bigger quadrupolar nuclei such as chlorine-35, for example. === Mass spectrometry === Deuterated (i.e. where all or some hydrogen atoms are replaced with deuterium) compounds are often used as internal standards in mass spectrometry. Like other isotopically labeled species, such standards improve accuracy, while often at a much lower cost than other isotopically labeled standards. Deuterated molecules are usually prepared via hydrogen isotope exchange reactions. === Tracing === In chemistry, biochemistry and environmental sciences, deuterium is used as a non-radioactive, stable isotopic tracer, for example, in the doubly labeled water test. In chemical reactions and metabolic pathways, deuterium behaves somewhat similarly to ordinary hydrogen (with a few chemical differences, as noted). It can be distinguished from normal hydrogen most easily by its mass, using mass spectrometry or infrared spectrometry. Deuterium can be detected by femtosecond infrared spectroscopy, since the mass difference drastically affects the frequency of molecular vibrations; H–carbon bond vibrations are found in spectral regions free of other signals. Measurements of small variations in the natural abundances of deuterium, along with those of the stable heavy oxygen isotopes O and O, are of importance in hydrology, to trace the geographic origin of Earth's waters. The heavy isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen in rainwater (meteoric water) are enriched as a function of the environmental temperature of the region in which the precipitation falls (and thus enrichment is related to latitude). The relative enrichment of the heavy isotopes in rainwater (as referenced to mean ocean water), when plotted against temperature falls predictably along a line called the global meteoric water line (GMWL). This plot allows samples of precipitation-originated water to be identified along with general information about the climate in which it originated. Evaporative and other processes in bodies of water, and also ground water processes, also differentially alter the ratios of heavy hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in fresh and salt waters, in characteristic and often regionally distinctive ways. The ratio of concentration of H to H is usually indicated with a delta as δH and the geographic patterns of these values are plotted in maps termed as isoscapes. Stable isotopes are incorporated into plants and animals and an analysis of the ratios in a migrant bird or insect can help suggest a rough guide to their origins. === Contrast properties === Neutron scattering techniques particularly profit from availability of deuterated samples: The H and H cross sections are very distinct and different in sign, which allows contrast variation in such experiments. Further, a nuisance problem of normal hydrogen is its large incoherent neutron cross section, which is nil for H. The substitution of deuterium for normal hydrogen thus reduces scattering noise. Hydrogen is an important and major component in all materials of organic chemistry and life science, but it barely interacts with X-rays. As hydrogen atoms (including deuterium) interact strongly with neutrons; neutron scattering techniques, together with a modern deuteration facility, fills a niche in many studies of macromolecules in biology and many other areas. === Nuclear weapons === See below. Most stars, including the Sun, generate energy over most of their lives by fusing hydrogen into heavier elements; yet such fusion of light hydrogen (protium) has never been successful in the conditions attainable on Earth. Thus, all artificial fusion, including the hydrogen fusion in hydrogen bombs, requires heavy hydrogen (deuterium, tritium, or both). === Drugs === A deuterated drug is a small molecule medicinal product in which one or more of the hydrogen atoms in the drug molecule have been replaced by deuterium. Because of the kinetic isotope effect, deuterium-containing drugs may have significantly lower rates of metabolism, and hence a longer half-life. In 2017, deutetrabenazine became the first deuterated drug to receive FDA approval. === Reinforced essential nutrients === Deuterium can be used to reinforce specific oxidation-vulnerable C–H bonds within essential or conditionally essential nutrients, such as certain amino acids, or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), making them more resistant to oxidative damage. Deuterated polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, slow down the chain reaction of lipid peroxidation that damage living cells. Deuterated ethyl ester of linoleic acid (RT001), developed by Retrotope, is in a compassionate use trial in infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy and has successfully completed a Phase I/II trial in Friedreich's ataxia. === Slowing circadian oscillations === Deuterium has been shown to lengthen the period of oscillation of the circadian clock when dosed in rats, hamsters, and Gonyaulax dinoflagellates. In rats, chronic intake of 25% HO disrupts circadian rhythm by lengthening the circadian period of suprachiasmatic nucleus-dependent rhythms in the brain's hypothalamus. == History == === Suspicion of lighter element isotopes === The existence of nonradioactive isotopes of lighter elements had been suspected in studies of neon as early as 1913, and proven by mass spectrometry of light elements in 1920. At that time the neutron had not yet been discovered, and the prevailing theory was that isotopes of an element differ by the existence of additional protons in the nucleus accompanied by an equal number of nuclear electrons. In this theory, the deuterium nucleus with mass two and charge one would contain two protons and one nuclear electron. However, it was expected that the element hydrogen with a measured average atomic mass very close to , the known mass of the proton, always has a nucleus composed of a single proton (a known particle), and could not contain a second proton. Thus, hydrogen was thought to have no heavy isotopes. === Deuterium detected === It was first detected spectroscopically in late 1931 by Harold Urey, a chemist at Columbia University. Urey's collaborator, Ferdinand Brickwedde, distilled five liters of cryogenically produced liquid hydrogen to of liquid, using the low-temperature physics laboratory that had recently been established at the National Bureau of Standards (now National Institute of Standards and Technology) in Washington, DC. The technique had previously been used to isolate heavy isotopes of neon. The cryogenic boiloff technique concentrated the fraction of the mass-2 isotope of hydrogen to a degree that made its spectroscopic identification unambiguous. === Naming of the isotope and Nobel Prize === Urey created the names protium, deuterium, and tritium in an article published in 1934. The name is based in part on advice from Gilbert N. Lewis who had proposed the name "deutium". The name comes from Greek deuteros 'second', and the nucleus was to be called a "deuteron" or "deuton". Isotopes and new elements were traditionally given the name that their discoverer decided. Some British scientists, such as Ernest Rutherford, wanted to call the isotope "diplogen", from Greek diploos 'double', and the nucleus to be called "diplon". The amount inferred for normal abundance of deuterium was so small (only about 1 atom in 6400 hydrogen atoms in seawater [156 parts per million]) that it had not noticeably affected previous measurements of (average) hydrogen atomic mass. This explained why it hadn't been suspected before. Urey was able to concentrate water to show partial enrichment of deuterium. Lewis, Urey's graduate advisor at Berkeley, had prepared and characterized the first samples of pure heavy water in 1933. The discovery of deuterium, coming before the discovery of the neutron in 1932, was an experimental shock to theory; but when the neutron was reported, making deuterium's existence more explicable, Urey was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry only three years after the isotope's isolation. Lewis was deeply disappointed by the Nobel Committee's decision in 1934 and several high-ranking administrators at Berkeley believed this disappointment played a central role in his suicide a decade later. During World War II, Nazi Germany was known to be conducting experiments using heavy water as moderator for a nuclear reactor design. Such experiments were a source of concern because they might allow them to produce plutonium for an atomic bomb. Ultimately it led to the Allied operation called the "Norwegian heavy water sabotage", the purpose of which was to destroy the Vemork deuterium production/enrichment facility in Norway. At the time this was considered important to the potential progress of the war. After World War II ended, the Allies discovered that Germany was not putting as much serious effort into the program as had been previously thought. The Germans had completed only a small, partly built experimental reactor (which had been hidden away) and had been unable to sustain a chain reaction. By the end of the war, the Germans did not even have a fifth of the amount of heavy water needed to run the reactor, partially due to the Norwegian heavy water sabotage operation. However, even if the Germans had succeeded in getting a reactor operational (as the U.S. did with Chicago Pile-1 in late 1942), they would still have been at least several years away from the development of an atomic bomb. The engineering process, even with maximal effort and funding, required about two and a half years (from first critical reactor to bomb) in both the U.S. and U.S.S.R., for example. === In thermonuclear weapons === The 62-ton Ivy Mike device built by the United States and exploded on 1 November 1952, was the first fully successful hydrogen bomb (thermonuclear bomb). In this context, it was the first bomb in which most of the energy released came from nuclear reaction stages that followed the primary nuclear fission stage of the atomic bomb. The Ivy Mike bomb was a factory-like building, rather than a deliverable weapon. At its center, a very large cylindrical, insulated vacuum flask or cryostat, held cryogenic liquid deuterium in a volume of about 1000 liters (160 kilograms in mass, if this volume had been completely filled). Then, a conventional atomic bomb (the "primary") at one end of the bomb was used to create the conditions of extreme temperature and pressure that were needed to set off the thermonuclear reaction. Within a few years, so-called "dry" hydrogen bombs were developed that did not need cryogenic hydrogen. Released information suggests that all thermonuclear weapons built since then contain chemical compounds of deuterium and lithium in their secondary stages. The material that contains the deuterium is mostly lithium deuteride, with the lithium consisting of the isotope lithium-6. When the lithium-6 is bombarded with fast neutrons from the atomic bomb, tritium (hydrogen-3) is produced, and then the deuterium and the tritium quickly engage in thermonuclear fusion, releasing abundant energy, helium-4, and even more free neutrons. "Pure" fusion weapons such as the Tsar Bomba are believed to be obsolete. In most modern ("boosted") thermonuclear weapons, fusion directly provides only a small fraction of the total energy. Fission of a natural uranium-238 tamper by fast neutrons produced from D–T fusion accounts for a much larger (i.e. boosted) energy release than the fusion reaction itself. === Modern research === In August 2018, scientists announced the transformation of gaseous deuterium into a liquid metallic form. This may help researchers better understand gas giant planets, such as Jupiter, Saturn and some exoplanets, since such planets are thought to contain a lot of liquid metallic hydrogen, which may be responsible for their observed powerful magnetic fields. == Antideuterium == An antideuteron is the antimatter counterpart of the deuteron, consisting of an antiproton and an antineutron. The antideuteron was first produced in 1965 at the Proton Synchrotron at CERN and the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory. A complete atom, with a positron orbiting the nucleus, would be called antideuterium, but antideuterium has not yet been created. The proposed symbol for antideuterium is , that is, D with an overbar.	[ "δ2H", "67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko", "small molecule", "spin-1/2", "atomic bomb", "Metallic hydrogen", "protium", "Spin (physics)", "KAERI", "proton–proton chain", "isotopes of tantalum", "protons", "Pure and Applied Chemistry", "nuclear fusion reaction", "Free neutron", "quantum number", "environmental sciences", "Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water", "Infrared spectroscopy", "odd–odd nuclei", "Raman spectroscopy", "RT001", "UC Berkeley College of Chemistry", "Girdler sulfide process", "Semi-empirical mass formula", "cryostat", "Parity (physics)", "Hans von Halban", "Stable isotope ratio", "magnetic field", "lithium-6", "mass number", "commutativity", "National Institutes of Health", "Gas giant", "American Chemical Society", "Pauli exclusion principle", "isotopes of lanthanum", "103P/Hartley", "electric quadrupole", "uranium-238", "hydrogen atom", "antiproton", "Potassium-40", "neutral current", "Tellus A", "triplet state", "Isotopic labeling", "chemical symbol", "diproton", "metabolism", "pascal second", "hydrogen", "excited state", "Quantum superposition", "internal standard", "thermonuclear reaction", "Alternating Gradient Synchrotron", "magnetic dipole moment", "linoleic acid", "compassionate use trial", "Hydrogen atom", "electric dipole", "antimatter", "angular momentum operator", "Neutron scattering", "quantum state", "Jupiter", "chemistry", "International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry", "Magnesium chloride", "star", "Critical point (thermodynamics)", "Nazi Germany", "deuterium NMR", "Lawson criterion", "quadrupole", "Pressurized heavy-water reactor", "boson", "Deuterated drug", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "spin doublet", "total angular momentum", "hydrogen bomb", "Proton Synchrotron", "Washington and Lee University", "electric charge", "Kathrin Altwegg", "Antihydrogen", "infrared spectroscopy", "deutetrabenazine", "neutron", "unstable", "Astronomy & Astrophysics", "Sudbury Neutrino Observatory", "Steady State theory", "Chemical & Engineering News", "Spin triplet", "cluster decay", "cryogenics", "National Institute of Standards and Technology", "doubly labeled water test", "Dissociation (chemistry)", "Chicago Pile-1", "Atomic nucleus", "helium-4", "biochemistry", "Nuclear physics", "ground state", "thermonuclear weapon", "amino acids", "Tsar Bomba", "New Scientist", "research reactor", "nucleogenesis", "neutron scattering", "even-even nuclei", "heavy water", "global meteoric water line", "Atomic Energy of Canada Limited", "List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry", "triple point", "nuclide", "isotopes of vanadium", "g-factor (physics)", "Vemork", "Heavy water reactor", "European Organization for Nuclear Research", "biological half-life", "electromagnetic interaction", "isotopes of boron", "neutrino", "nuclear magnetic moment", "lithium deuteride", "neutron cross section", "accuracy", "Nuclear magnetic moment", "Deuterium NMR", "cryogenic", "wavefunction", "London South Bank University", "microwave spectroscopy", "nuclear magnetic resonance", "isotopes of lithium", "speed of light", "kinetic isotope effect", "Nobel Committee for Chemistry", "nuclear reactor", "Bohr model", "beta decay", "Schrödinger equation", "charge radius", "thermodynamics", "nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy", "energy", "Columbia University", "neutrons", "positron", "Solar System", "Friedreich's ataxia", "Ivy Mike", "nuclear fusion", "vacuum flask", "Galileo space probe", "lipid peroxidation", "Dominique Bockelée-Morvan", "proton NMR", "deuterium arc lamp", "chemical reaction", "Lew Kowarski", "radioactive", "physical cosmology", "nuclear reaction", "Johns Hopkins University", "helium", "binding energy", "nucleon", "hydrogen isotope exchange", "Big Bang nucleosynthesis", "metabolic pathway", "gas", "Gonyaulax", "boiling point", "Dirac equation", "atomic nucleus", "oxygen", "antineutron", "Wikt:δεύτερος", "Nuclear shell model", "nuclear fission", "Rosetta (spacecraft)", "Walter Russell", "gas giant", "stellar fusion", "mean", "keV", "Fusion energy gain factor", "essential nutrients", "fatty acid", "chemical compound", "Big Bang", "meteoric water", "The Register", "stars", "quantum spin", "brown dwarfs", "Singlet state", "chloroform", "liquid hydrogen", "Halley's Comet", "Gilbert N. Lewis", "Nuclear fusion", "SU(2)", "isotopic label", "melting point", "Allies of World War II", "reduced mass", "thermonuclear fusion", "plutonium", "polio vaccine", "exoplanet", "Brookhaven National Laboratory", "Comet Hale-Bopp", "muon", "Ferdinand Brickwedde", "Fusion power", "spin–orbit interaction", "tritium", "neutron moderator", "Physics Today", "mass spectrometry", "World War II", "atomic weight", "liter", "nuclear magneton", "multipole moment", "Isotopes of hydrogen", "Spin isomers of hydrogen", "infrared spectrometry", "proton–proton reaction", "WMAP", "hydrology", "Ernest Rutherford", "Prokaryotic", "viscous", "isotopes of nitrogen", "eukaryotic", "Discovery of the neutron", "suprachiasmatic nucleus", "Science (journal)", "Harold Urey", "hydrogen sulfide", "CANDU reactor", "Commutative property", "Charles Janet", "Time (magazine)", "Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)", "Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry", "femtometer", "proton", "quantum mechanics", "polyunsaturated fatty acid", "elementary charge", "Rydberg constant", "nuclear cross section", "infrared", "isotopes of lutetium", "IUPAC", "operator (quantum mechanics)", "Cross section (physics)", "NASA", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "Deuterium-deuterium fusion", "Nuclear weapon", "Kuiper belt", "Norwegian heavy water sabotage", "Thérèse Encrenaz", "strong nuclear interaction", "U.S.S.R.", "Tokamak", "Carnegie Institution for Science", "infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy", "CERN", "isospin", "The New York Times", "Proton", "Universe", "Milky Way", "dineutron", "femtosecond", "semiheavy water", "Distillation", "Dewar flask", "hydrogen deuteride", "Tritium", "Standard temperature and pressure", "Helium-3", "angular momentum" ]
8,525	Digital signal processing	Digital signal processing (DSP) is the use of digital processing, such as by computers or more specialized digital signal processors, to perform a wide variety of signal processing operations. The digital signals processed in this manner are a sequence of numbers that represent samples of a continuous variable in a domain such as time, space, or frequency. In digital electronics, a digital signal is represented as a pulse train, which is typically generated by the switching of a transistor. Digital signal processing and analog signal processing are subfields of signal processing. DSP applications include audio and speech processing, sonar, radar and other sensor array processing, spectral density estimation, statistical signal processing, digital image processing, data compression, video coding, audio coding, image compression, signal processing for telecommunications, control systems, biomedical engineering, and seismology, among others. DSP can involve linear or nonlinear operations. Nonlinear signal processing is closely related to nonlinear system identification and can be implemented in the time, frequency, and spatio-temporal domains. The application of digital computation to signal processing allows for many advantages over analog processing in many applications, such as error detection and correction in transmission as well as data compression. Digital signal processing is also fundamental to digital technology, such as digital telecommunication and wireless communications. DSP is applicable to both streaming data and static (stored) data. == Signal sampling == To digitally analyze and manipulate an analog signal, it must be digitized with an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Sampling is usually carried out in two stages, discretization and quantization. Discretization means that the signal is divided into equal intervals of time, and each interval is represented by a single measurement of amplitude. Quantization means each amplitude measurement is approximated by a value from a finite set. Rounding real numbers to integers is an example. The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem states that a signal can be exactly reconstructed from its samples if the sampling frequency is greater than twice the highest frequency component in the signal. In practice, the sampling frequency is often significantly higher than this. It is common to use an anti-aliasing filter to limit the signal bandwidth to comply with the sampling theorem, however careful selection of this filter is required because the reconstructed signal will be the filtered signal plus residual aliasing from imperfect stop band rejection instead of the original (unfiltered) signal. Theoretical DSP analyses and derivations are typically performed on discrete-time signal models with no amplitude inaccuracies (quantization error), created by the abstract process of sampling. Numerical methods require a quantized signal, such as those produced by an ADC. The processed result might be a frequency spectrum or a set of statistics. But often it is another quantized signal that is converted back to analog form by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). == Domains == DSP engineers usually study digital signals in one of the following domains: time domain (one-dimensional signals), spatial domain (multidimensional signals), frequency domain, and wavelet domains. They choose the domain in which to process a signal by making an informed assumption (or by trying different possibilities) as to which domain best represents the essential characteristics of the signal and the processing to be applied to it. A sequence of samples from a measuring device produces a temporal or spatial domain representation, whereas a discrete Fourier transform produces the frequency domain representation. === Time and space domains === Time domain refers to the analysis of signals with respect to time. Similarly, space domain refers to the analysis of signals with respect to position, e.g., pixel location for the case of image processing. The most common processing approach in the time or space domain is enhancement of the input signal through a method called filtering. Digital filtering generally consists of some linear transformation of a number of surrounding samples around the current sample of the input or output signal. The surrounding samples may be identified with respect to time or space. The output of a linear digital filter to any given input may be calculated by convolving the input signal with an impulse response. === Frequency domain === Signals are converted from time or space domain to the frequency domain usually through use of the Fourier transform. The Fourier transform converts the time or space information to a magnitude and phase component of each frequency. With some applications, how the phase varies with frequency can be a significant consideration. Where phase is unimportant, often the Fourier transform is converted to the power spectrum, which is the magnitude of each frequency component squared. The most common purpose for analysis of signals in the frequency domain is analysis of signal properties. The engineer can study the spectrum to determine which frequencies are present in the input signal and which are missing. Frequency domain analysis is also called spectrum- or spectral analysis. Filtering, particularly in non-realtime work can also be achieved in the frequency domain, applying the filter and then converting back to the time domain. This can be an efficient implementation and can give essentially any filter response including excellent approximations to brickwall filters. There are some commonly used frequency domain transformations. For example, the cepstrum converts a signal to the frequency domain through Fourier transform, takes the logarithm, then applies another Fourier transform. This emphasizes the harmonic structure of the original spectrum. ===Z-plane analysis=== Digital filters come in both infinite impulse response (IIR) and finite impulse response (FIR) types. Whereas FIR filters are always stable, IIR filters have feedback loops that may become unstable and oscillate. The Z-transform provides a tool for analyzing stability issues of digital IIR filters. It is analogous to the Laplace transform, which is used to design and analyze analog IIR filters. ===Autoregression analysis=== A signal is represented as linear combination of its previous samples. Coefficients of the combination are called autoregression coefficients. This method has higher frequency resolution and can process shorter signals compared to the Fourier transform. Prony's method can be used to estimate phases, amplitudes, initial phases and decays of the components of signal. non-linear (e.g., Wigner–Ville transform are used for representation of signal on the time-frequency plane. Non-linear and segmented Prony methods can provide higher resolution, but may produce undesirable artifacts. Time-frequency analysis is usually used for analysis of non-stationary signals. For example, methods of fundamental frequency estimation, such as RAPT and PEFAC are based on windowed spectral analysis. ===Wavelet=== In numerical analysis and functional analysis, a discrete wavelet transform is any wavelet transform for which the wavelets are discretely sampled. As with other wavelet transforms, a key advantage it has over Fourier transforms is temporal resolution: it captures both frequency and location information. The accuracy of the joint time-frequency resolution is limited by the uncertainty principle of time-frequency. ===Empirical mode decomposition=== Empirical mode decomposition is based on decomposition signal into intrinsic mode functions (IMFs). IMFs are quasi-harmonical oscillations that are extracted from the signal. == Implementation == DSP algorithms may be run on general-purpose computers and digital signal processors. DSP algorithms are also implemented on purpose-built hardware such as application-specific integrated circuit (ASICs). Additional technologies for digital signal processing include more powerful general-purpose microprocessors, graphics processing units, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), digital signal controllers (mostly for industrial applications such as motor control), and stream processors. For systems that do not have a real-time computing requirement and the signal data (either input or output) exists in data files, processing may be done economically with a general-purpose computer. This is essentially no different from any other data processing, except DSP mathematical techniques (such as the DCT and FFT) are used, and the sampled data is usually assumed to be uniformly sampled in time or space. An example of such an application is processing digital photographs with software such as Photoshop. When the application requirement is real-time, DSP is often implemented using specialized or dedicated processors or microprocessors, sometimes using multiple processors or multiple processing cores. These may process data using fixed-point arithmetic or floating point. For more demanding applications FPGAs may be used. For the most demanding applications or high-volume products, ASICs might be designed specifically for the application. Parallel implementations of DSP algorithms, utilizing multi-core CPU and many-core GPU architectures, are developed to improve the performances in terms of latency of these algorithms. is done by the computer's CPU rather than by DSP or outboard processing, which is done by additional third-party DSP chips located on extension cards or external hardware boxes or racks. Many digital audio workstations such as Logic Pro, Cubase, Digital Performer and Pro Tools LE use native processing. Others, such as Pro Tools HD, Universal Audio's UAD-1 and TC Electronic's Powercore use DSP processing. == Applications == General application areas for DSP include Audio signal processing Audio data compression e.g. MP3 Video data compression Computer graphics Digital image processing Photo manipulation Speech processing Speech recognition Data transmission Radar Sonar Financial signal processing Economic forecasting Seismology Biomedicine Weather forecasting Specific examples include speech coding and transmission in digital mobile phones, room correction of sound in hi-fi and sound reinforcement applications, analysis and control of industrial processes, medical imaging such as CAT scans and MRI, audio crossovers and equalization, digital synthesizers, and audio effects units. DSP has been used in hearing aid technology since 1996, which allows for automatic directional microphones, complex digital noise reduction, and improved adjustment of the frequency response. == Techniques == Bilinear transform Discrete Fourier transform Discrete-time Fourier transform Filter design Goertzel algorithm Least-squares spectral analysis LTI system theory Minimum phase s-plane Transfer function Z-transform == Related fields == Analog signal processing Automatic control Computer engineering Computer science Data compression Dataflow programming Discrete cosine transform Electrical engineering Fourier analysis Information theory Machine learning Real-time computing Stream processing Telecommunications Time series Wavelet	[ "Digital image processing", "infinite impulse response", "Sampling (signal processing)", "Telecommunications", "Goertzel algorithm", "sensor array", "spectral density estimation", "Electrical engineering", "digital signal controller", "data processing", "Speech processing", "audio coding", "control system", "Least-squares spectral analysis", "Springer Science & Business Media", "Uncertainty principle", "medical imaging", "application-specific integrated circuit", "cepstrum", "Short-time Fourier transform", "seismology", "field-programmable gate array", "FFT", "signal processing", "real numbers", "Computer science", "Real-time computing", "MRI", "Transfer function", "biomedical engineering", "Universal Audio (company)", "industrial process", "Minimum phase", "Academic Press", "autoregressive", "Laplace transform", "Tata McGraw-Hill Education", "wireless communications", "Seismology", "TC Electronic", "nonlinear system identification", "image compression", "finite impulse response", "Financial signal processing", "Dimitris Manolakis", "functional analysis", "Digital filter", "frequency domain", "analog-to-digital converter", "noise reduction", "equalization (audio)", "continuous variable", "wavelet", "Stream processing", "statistical signal processing", "Discrete Fourier transform", "Economic forecasting", "Audio data compression", "audio crossover", "Dataflow programming", "digital signal processor", "Time series", "convolution", "speech coding", "quantization error", "MP3", "Sonar", "discrete Fourier transform", "Discrete-time Fourier transform", "discrete-time signal", "digital telecommunication", "Automatic control", "Springer Science+Business Media", "James H. McClellan", "Time domain", "speech processing", "Computer graphics", "Computed axial tomography", "Photoshop", "Digital Performer", "algorithm", "Radar", "sound reinforcement", "hearing aid", "filter bank", "Computer engineering", "Filter design", "real-time computing", "digital processing", "Speech recognition", "digital signal", "intrinsic mode function", "brickwall filter", "Analog signal processing", "fundamental frequency", "pulse train", "Bilinear transform", "LTI system theory", "time domain", "frequency response", "effects unit", "Spacetime", "Weather forecasting", "Quantization (signal processing)", "Biomedicine", "Z-transform", "Frequency domain", "Wigner–Ville transform", "Logic Pro", "digital electronics", "Data compression", "graphics processing unit", "Fourier transform", "Machine learning", "Discrete cosine transform", "s-plane", "data compression", "radar", "error detection and correction", "numerical analysis", "video coding", "discrete wavelet transform", "Fourier analysis", "stop band", "Cubase", "Audio signal processing", "wavelet transform", "streaming data", "Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem", "telecommunications", "FPGA", "Information theory", "analog signal processing", "aliasing", "Wavelet", "sonar", "digital-to-analog converter", "digital photograph", "Pro Tools", "digital audio workstation", "hi-fi", "digital image processing", "impulse response", "Prony's method", "mobile phone", "stream processing", "microprocessor", "discretization", "ASIC", "Video data compression", "room correction", "anti-aliasing filter", "transistor", "digital synthesizer", "Ronald W. Schafer", "Photo manipulation", "Data transmission" ]
8,527	Discordianism	Discordianism is a belief system based around Eris, the Greek goddess of strife and discord, and variously defined as a religion, new religious movement, virtual religion, or act of social commentary; though prior to 2005, some sources categorized it as a parody religion. It was founded after the 1963 publication of its holy book, Principia Discordia, written by Greg Hill with Kerry Wendell Thornley, the two working under the pseudonyms Malaclypse the Younger and Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst. David Chidester considers Discordianism to be the first virtual religion and the first to take up the challenge of establishing its religious authenticity. When the Yahoo search engine categorized Discordianism as a parody religion, in May 2001 Discordians started an email campaign to get the religion reclassified. It is difficult to estimate the number of Discordians because they are not required to hold Discordianism as their only belief system. According to Arthur Versluis, Discordianism "both shaped and reflects the counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s". == Founding and structure == The foundational document of Discordianism is Principia Discordia, fourth edition (1970), written by Malaclypse the Younger, an alias of Gregory Hill. Principia Discordia often hints that Discordianism was founded as a dialectic antithesis to more popular religions based on order, although the rhetoric throughout the book describes chaos as a much more underlying impulse of the universe. This may have been done with the intention of merely "balancing out" the creative forces of order and disorder, but the focus is on the more disorderly aspects of the world — at times the forces of order are even vilified. Disharmony is particularly emphasized, along with its relation to harmony. ===Organizations=== ====Discordian Society==== The most general group, presumably including all Discordians (and potentially others), is the Discordian Society, whose definition is "The Discordian Society has no definition". Its members include many adherents of Neopaganism and Thelema. ====POEE==== The sect of Discordianism founded by Malaclypse the Younger and Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst is known as the Paratheo-Anametamystikhood of Eris Esoteric (POEE), a non-prophet irreligious disorganisation. Principia Discordia contains some details about the structure of POEE. In particular: === Episkopos === Episkoposes are the overseers of sects of Discordianism which they have created. They speak to Eris through the use of their pineal gland. It is said in Principia Discordia that Eris says different things to each listener. She may even say radically different things to each Episkopos, but all of what she says is equally her word (even if it contradicts another iteration of her word). === Popes === According to Principia Discordia, "every single man, woman, and child on this Earth" is a pope. Included in Principia Discordia is an official Pope card that may be reproduced and distributed freely to anyone and everyone. ===Saints=== There are also five classes of saints within Discordianism, who are those who best act as exemplars and are closer to perfection. Only the first of these classes "Saint Second Class" contains real human beings (deceased and alive), with higher classes reserved for fictional beings who, by virtue of being fictional, are better able to reach the Discordian view of perfection. An example of a second-class saint is Emperor Norton, a citizen in 19th-century San Francisco, who despite suffering delusions was beloved by much of the city. He is honoured as a saint within Discordianism for living his life according to truth as he saw it and a disregard for reality as others would perceive it. ===Other=== Since the first edition, various approaches to a Discordian organization chart – called in the work is "disorganization" and later "disorganizational matrix" – have differed from volume to volume, but have included especially the House of the Apostles of Eris, which is inclusive of the founders as the Apostles, of the Golden Apple Corps and Holders of the Sacred Chao, of the priesthood and saints, of the episkoposes, and even of "heretical" or "protestant" internal opponents of some of these, but not inclusive of the popes, legionnaires, disciples, and various other parties. A variety of other notional organizations were renamed and shuffled around and often enough replaced, as part of POEE (which did not appear in the first edition). But the House of the Apostles of Eris continued to be credited as the sanctioning body of the later editions, and remained the top division of the POEE "Eristocracy". Another recurrent organizational name is the Legion of Dynamic Discord, inclusive of legionnaires, disciples, and evangelists. LODD was also introduced in the first edition and survived throughout later versions (as an element of POEE's House of the Rising Podge for the Disciples), as well as in works less centrally associated with Discordianism, such The Zenarchist's Cookbook which integrates some elements of Thornley's Zenarchy material and is dedicated (in an obfuscatory introduction) to the LODD. == Mythology == ===Eris and Aneris and their brother Spirituality=== In Discordian mythology, Aneris is described as the sister of Eris a.k.a. Discordia. Whereas Eris/Discordia is the goddess of disorder and being, Aneris/Harmonia is the goddess of order and non-being. "DOGMA III – HISTORY 32, 'COSMOGONY in Principia Discordia, states: The sterile Aneris becomes jealous of Eris (who was born pregnant), and starts making existent things non-existent. This explains why life begins, and later ends in death: However, the Void decrees that Aneris may not absorb her brother Spirituality, that he can only be absorbed back into the Void itself. Cusack points out that this is "distilled into a teaching about the ultimate fate of humans: 'so it shall be that non-existence shall take us back from existence and that nameless spirituality shall return to the Void, like a tired child home from a very wild circus.'" ===Hand of Eris=== The "five-fingered hand of Eris" (shown at right) is one of several symbols used in Discordianism. It was adapted as an astronomical/astrological symbol for the dwarf planet Eris. Initially, the planetary symbol, designed by Discordian Denis Moskowitz, was rotated 90 degrees and had a cross-bar added so that it resembled two lunate epsilons (Є) back-to-back (), with epsilon being the Greek initial of Eris. The cross-bar was later dropped, but the vertical orientation retained. The Hand of Eris has appeared in a public-outreach publication by NASA, though planetary symbols play only a minor role in modern astronomy. The symbol was accepted by Unicode in 2016 as (⯰). ===Original Snub=== The "Original Snub" is the Discordian name for the events leading up to the judgement of Paris, although more focus is put on the actions of Eris. Zeus believes that Eris is a troublemaker, so he does not invite her to Peleus and Thetis's wedding. Having been snubbed, Eris creates a golden apple with the word (, 'for the prettiest') inscribed in it. This, the Apple of Discord, is a notable symbol in Discordianism for its inclusion in the Sacred Chao, and is traditionally described as being made of gold. ===Curse of Greyface=== One of the most important parts of Discordianism, the Curse of Greyface features prominently on several pages of the Principia Discordia. According to Principia Discordia, Greyface was a man who lived in the year 1166 BC and taught that life is serious and play is sin. The curse is the psychological and spiritual imbalance that results from these beliefs, both individually and within groups, nations, and civilizations. In addition to the generic advice of cultivating the natural love of chaos and playing with Her, the Principia Discordia provides "The Turkey Curse Revealed by the Apostle Dr. Van Van Mojo" to counteract the Curse of Greyface. The Turkey Curse is designed to counteract destructive order. It derives its name from the fact that the incantation resembles the sounds of a turkey. == Theology == ===Three core principles=== The Principia Discordia holds three core principles: the Aneristic and Eristic principles representing order and disorder, and the notion that both are mere illusions. === The Pentabarf === The Pentabarf are five rules of Discordianism, described by David G. Robertson as "the Discordian take on the Ten Commandments". As venerators of Eris, Discordian views vary from one person to the next as neither order or disorder, nor chaos are requisites of falling into the Discordian category. The fifth rule is representative of that. === Sri Syadasti === The third "apostle of Eris & who they be's" name, commonly called just Sri Syadasti, is Sanskrit, and means: All affirmations are true in some sense, false in some sense, meaningless in some sense, true and false in some sense, true and meaningless in some sense, false and meaningless in some sense, and true and false and meaningless in some sense. === The Sacred Chao === A unique symbol created in Discordianism, the Sacred Chao is said to have been devised by the Apostle Hung Mung in ancient China. It is a modified version of the Yin-Yang, a common symbol in Taoism. The Sacred Chao is not the Yin-Yang of the Taoists. On one side of the Sacred Chao is a pentagon and on the other depicts the golden Apple of Discord. The Sacred Chao symbolizes absolutely everything anyone would need to ever know about anything, and more. It even symbolizes everything not worth knowing, depicted by the internal empty space surrounding. Discordians pronounce "chao" as "cow", thus making the terms "Sacred Chao", "Holy Chao", and "Wholly Chao", into puns and inside jokes. === Operation Mindfuck === Operation Mindfuck is an important practice in the Discordian religion, in which "all national calamities, assassinations, or conspiracies" are publicly attributed to the Bavarian Illuminati, an 18th-century secret society, in an attempt to "sow the culture with paranoia". The concept was developed by Kerry Thornley and Robert Anton Wilson in 1968 and given its name by Wilson and Robert Shea in The Illuminatus! Trilogy. Operation Mindfuck uses many of the recurring themes of Discordianism, including "hidden knowledge, secret societies, chaos magic, ancient cults, mysterious rituals and conspiracy theories". Stuart Rathbone described it as "a deliberate campaign of revolutionary disinformation" and notes that "many of these topics have had a lasting impact on anarchism, the pseudo-sciences and even mainstream culture." ==Writings== Discordian works include a number of books, including Principia Discordia, drafted in 1963 and first published in 1965 (which includes portions of The Honest Book of Truth); and The Illuminatus! Trilogy, which had its first volume published in 1975. ===Principia Discordia editions=== The first edition was printed using Jim Garrison's Xerox printer in 1963. The second edition was published under the title Principia Discordia or How The West Was Lost in a limited edition of five copies (and released into the public domain) in 1965. In 1978, a copy of the work from Kerry Thornley, under the title The Principia Discordia or How the West Was Lost, was placed in the HSCA JFK collections as document 010857. Adam Gorightly said he had been given Greg Hill's copy of the first edition. This appeared in its entirety in Historia Discordia, a book on Discordian history released in spring of 2014. === Related works === The Discordian movement encompasses a diverse array of works, both real and fictitious, that explore themes of chaos, satire, and alternative spirituality. These include Zen Without Zen Masters by Camden Benares, which presents koans and stories of a Discordian nature, and Zenarchy by Kerry Thornley, which proposes a non-combative approach to anarchy infused with Zen philosophy. Natural Law, or Don't Put a Rubber on Your Willy by Robert Anton Wilson delves into themes of personal freedom and self-awareness, expanding upon Wilson's essay originally published in 1985. In addition, there are compilations such as Apocrypha Discordia and Historia Discordia, which gather diverse materials from the Discordian tradition, including writings by both original and contemporary Discordians. Several works also explore the lives of key figures within Discordianism, such as The Prankster and the Conspiracy by Adam Gorightly, which focuses on Kerry Thornley's interactions with countercultural figures like Lee Harvey Oswald. Chasing Eris by Brenton Clutterbuck provides an in-depth examination of Discordianism's impact on various aspects of culture and society, offering interviews and insights into the movement's global reach and influence. ==Religious studies== Academic interest in Discordianism has grown over the years, with scholars examining its role in the broader context of new religious movements (NRMs) and its reflection of the social and cultural upheavals of the 20th century. The religion’s ability to blur the lines between parody and serious belief has made it a unique subject of study in the field of religious studies and has contributed to ongoing discussions about the nature of religion in the modern world. The first academic study of Discordianism was David Chidester's 2005 book Authentic Fakes, who wrote that "If it were possible to trace a genealogy of virtual religions on the Internet, it would probably begin with Discordianism." According to J. Christian Greer, this study was published just at the time Discordianism had transformed itself from a parody religion to a new religious movement. The entry for Discordianism in Rabinovitch and Lewis's Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism (2002) defines Discordianism as "somewhere between parody, social commentary, and religion". However, David G. Robertson writes that "Although Hill and Thornley started Discordianism as a joke, then, they came in time to believe, if not entirely trust, in Eris." Robertson discusses Discordian theology in the 2012 book Handbook of New Religions and Cultural Production, writing that despite Discordian claims that its "catmas" are soft, optional beliefs: Robertson writes in the 2016 book Fiction, Invention and Hyper-reality that: ==Influence== Discordianism has exerted a notable influence on several facets of counterculture, particularly during the 1960s and 1970s. One of the religion's key contributions lies in its challenge to established norms through the use of humor, satire, and paradox. This approach mirrored the broader countercultural movements that sought to upend conventional thinking and embrace new forms of expression. Discordianism’s foundational text, the Principia Discordia, became a cornerstone for other works that blend satire with serious philosophical inquiry. A prime example is Robert Anton Wilson and Robert Shea’s The Illuminatus! Trilogy (1975), which played a significant role in spreading Discordian ideas. The trilogy’s mix of conspiracy theory, satire, and occultism deeply resonated with the countercultural mindset and has been credited with influencing later works in both literature and popular culture. Moreover, Discordianism has impacted the development of NRMs by promoting a model of religious practice that is decentralized, playful, and often ironic. This model has informed other NRMs that prioritize personal spiritual experiences over rigid dogma. In particular, Discordianism's embrace of paradox and chaos has inspired movements that reject traditional religious hierarchies in favor of more fluid and adaptable structures. ===In popular culture=== The Discordian phrase "Hail Eris! All Hail Discordia!" can be heard in the background on many rock albums.	[ "dialectic", "chaos magic", "incantation", "Robert Shea", "United States House Select Committee on Assassinations", "Religion and the Internet", "Yin-Yang", "Natural Law, or Don't Put a Rubber on Your Willy", "Marvel Whiteside Parsons", "belief system", "counterculture of the 1960s", "National Aeronautics and Space Administration", "Virtual religion", "New Falcon Publications", "Neopaganism", "Kerry Wendell Thornley", "Harmonia (mythology)", "antithesis", "Universal priesthood", "religion", "pseudo-science", "rhetoric", "Zenarchy", "social commentary", "New religious movement", "Eris (dwarf planet)", "wikt:discord", "secret societies", "parody religion", "The Illuminatus! Trilogy", "United States", "Illuminatus!", "New York (magazine)", "civilizations", "Lee Harvey Oswald", "Illuminati", "Religious satire", "Discordian calendar", "Apple of Discord", "Kerry Thornley", "Zeus", "judgement of Paris", "Thetis", "pineal gland", "Sacred Chao", "Peleus", "Jim Garrison", "Taoism", "Harmonia", "The Void (philosophy)", "The Sacred Chao", "Grounding (metaphysics)", "Chaos magic", "Acapulco Gold", "Distinction (philosophy)", "Eris (mythology)", "Concordia (mythology)", "wikt:⯰", "virtual religion", "organization chart", "Thelema", "Holy cow (expression)", "Symbol of Chaos", "English language", "Malaclypse the Younger", "Cosmic Trigger I: Final Secret of the Illuminati", "University of Tennessee at Martin", "Turkey (bird)", "conspiracy theories", "new religious movement", "The All", "Emperor Norton", "goddess", "public domain", "23 enigma", "Church of the SubGenius", "Principia Discordia", "Robert Anton Wilson", "anarchism", "Earth", "pope", "SNAFU Principle", "WP:ABOUTSELF", "Trivialism" ]
8,528	Disjunction introduction	Disjunction introduction or addition (also called or introduction) is a rule of inference of propositional logic and almost every other deduction system. The rule makes it possible to introduce disjunctions to logical proofs. It is the inference that if P is true, then P or Q must be true. An example in English: Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is a man or pigs are flying in formation over the English Channel. The rule can be expressed as: \frac{P}{\therefore P \lor Q} where the rule is that whenever instances of "P" appear on lines of a proof, "P \lor Q" can be placed on a subsequent line. More generally it's also a simple valid argument form, this means that if the premise is true, then the conclusion is also true as any rule of inference should be, and an immediate inference, as it has a single proposition in its premises. Disjunction introduction is not a rule in some paraconsistent logics because in combination with other rules of logic, it leads to explosion (i.e. everything becomes provable) and paraconsistent logic tries to avoid explosion and to be able to reason with contradictions. One of the solutions is to introduce disjunction with over rules. See . == Formal notation == The disjunction introduction rule may be written in sequent notation: P \vdash (P \lor Q) where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that P \lor Q is a syntactic consequence of P in some logical system; and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic: P \to (P \lor Q) where P and Q are propositions expressed in some formal system.	[ "Propositional calculus", "tautology (logic)", "rule of inference", "logical form", "formal system", "inference", "logical disjunction", "Principle of explosion", "immediate inference", "metalogic", "Rule of inference", "sequent", "paraconsistent logic", "logical consequence", "deduction system", "theorem", "propositional calculus", "Validity (logic)", "English language", "formal proof" ]
8,529	Disjunction elimination	In propositional logic, disjunction elimination (sometimes named proof by cases, case analysis, or or elimination) is the valid argument form and rule of inference that allows one to eliminate a disjunctive statement from a logical proof. It is the inference that if a statement P implies a statement Q and a statement R also implies Q, then if either P or R is true, then Q has to be true. The reasoning is simple: since at least one of the statements P and R is true, and since either of them would be sufficient to entail Q, Q is certainly true. An example in English: If I'm inside, I have my wallet on me. If I'm outside, I have my wallet on me. It is true that either I'm inside or I'm outside. Therefore, I have my wallet on me. It is the rule can be stated as: \frac{P \to Q, R \to Q, P \lor R}{\therefore Q} where the rule is that whenever instances of "P \to Q", and "R \to Q" and "P \lor R" appear on lines of a proof, "Q" can be placed on a subsequent line. == Formal notation == The disjunction elimination rule may be written in sequent notation: (P \to Q), (R \to Q), (P \lor R) \vdash Q where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that Q is a syntactic consequence of P \to Q, and R \to Q and P \lor R in some logical system; and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic: (((P \to Q) \land (R \to Q)) \land (P \lor R)) \to Q where P, Q, and R are propositions expressed in some formal system.	[ "Propositional calculus", "tautology (logic)", "rule of inference", "propositional logic", "Disjunction", "formal system", "inference", "logical disjunction", "Disjunct normal form", "metalogic", "Rule of inference", "sequent", "logical consequence", "Proof by exhaustion", "argument form", "Validity (logic)", "English language", "Argument in the alternative", "formal proof" ]
8,530	Dead Sea	The Dead Sea (, or ; ), also known by other names, is a landlocked salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east, the Israeli-occupied West Bank to the west and Israel to the southwest. making its shores the lowest land-based elevation on Earth. It is deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. With a salinity of 342 g/kg, or 34.2% (in 2011), it is one of the world's saltiest bodies of water, 9.6 times as salty as the ocean—and has a density of 1.24 kg/litre, which makes swimming similar to floating. This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals cannot flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea's main, northern basin is long and wide at its widest point. have been made to reduce its recession. ==Names== The English name "Dead Sea" is a calque of the Arabic name, itself a calque of earlier Greek and Latin names, in reference to the scarcity of aquatic life caused by the lake's extreme salinity. Historical English names include the , and modern Hebrew name for the lake is the (, ). Other Hebrew names for the lake also mentioned in the Bible are the (, ) and the (, ). In the Talmud it's called '' or 'Sea of Sodom'. The Arabic name is (), or usually without the article al-, so just etc. It is also known in Arabic as the (, , , or ) from the nephew of Abraham whose wife was said to have turned into a pillar of salt during the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. Less often, it has been known in Arabic as the Sea of Zo'ar from a formerly important city along its shores. Because of the large volume of ancient trade in the lake's naturally occurring free-floating bitumen, its usual names in ancient Greek and Roman geography were some form of ( or , or ; ) or Sea (, ). It was also known as the 'Dead Sea' (Greek , , Latin (). ==Geography== The Dead Sea is a salt lake is bordered by Jordan to the east and Palestine's Israeli-occupied West Bank and Israel to the west. It is an endorheic lake, meaning there are no outlet streams. The Dead Sea lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, a geographic feature formed by the Dead Sea Transform (DST). This left lateral-moving transform fault lies along the tectonic plate boundary between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate. It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in Turkey and the northern end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of Sinai. Water feeds into the Dead Sea from various sources, many small or intermittent, including: Jordan River, international border from the north Wadi Wala, Jordan side The Wadi Mujib valley, 420 m below the sea level in the southern part of the Jordan valley, is a biosphere reserve, with an area of . Rainfall is scarcely per year in the northern part of the Dead Sea and barely in the southern part. The Dead Sea zone's aridity is due to the rainshadow effect of the Judaean Mountains. The highlands east of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself. To the west of the Dead Sea, the Judaean mountains rise less steeply and are much lower than the mountains to the east. Along the southwestern side of the lake is a tall halite mineral formation called Mount Sodom. ==Geology== ===Formation theories=== There are two contending hypotheses about the origin of the low elevation of the Dead Sea. The older hypothesis is that the Dead Sea lies in a true rift zone, an extension of the Red Sea Rift, or even of the Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa. A more recent hypothesis is that the Dead Sea basin is a consequence of a "step-over" discontinuity along the Dead Sea Transform, creating an extension of the crust with consequent subsidence. ===Sedom Lagoon=== During the late Pliocene-early Pleistocene, what is now the valley of the Jordan River, Dead Sea, and the northern Wadi Arabah was repeatedly inundated by waters from the Mediterranean Sea. The waters formed in a narrow, crooked bay that is called by geologists the Sedom Lagoon, which was connected to the sea through what is now the Jezreel Valley. The floods of the valley came and went depending on long-scale changes in the tectonic and climatic conditions. ===Salt deposits=== The Sedom Lagoon deposited evaporites mainly consisting of rock salt, which eventually reached a thickness of on the old basin floor in the area of today's Mount Sedom. ===Lake formation=== According to Kafri, during the late Neogene, i.e. in the Pliocene (ended c. 2.5 million years ago), the eustatic sea level was at 50–100 metres above the current sea level, thus flooding the northern valleys connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the Jordan Rift Valley, which led to the creation of a crooked-shaped lagoon. This high eustatic sea level situation subsequently came to an end, and the ocean could no longer flood the area. Thus, the long lagoon became a landlocked lake, which – due to the high evaporation rate – retreated toward the lower, southern part of the rift valley. Its level fluctuated dramatically, rising to its highest level around 26,000 years ago, indicating a very wet climate in the Near East. Around 10,000 years ago, the lake's level dropped dramatically, probably even lower than today. During the last several thousand years, the lake has fluctuated approximately , with some significant drops and rises. Current theories as to the cause of this dramatic drop in levels rule out volcanic activity; therefore, it may have been a seismic event. ===Salt mounts formation=== In prehistoric times, great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Amora. The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the Lisan Peninsula and Mount Sodom (on the southwest side of the lake). Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed, forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the bucket. When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces, the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sodom stayed in place as high cliffs (see salt dome). ==Climate== The Dead Sea has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh), with year-round sunny skies and dry air. It has less than mean annual rainfall and a summer average temperature between . Winter average temperatures range between . The region has weaker ultraviolet radiation, particularly the UVB (erythrogenic rays). Given the higher atmospheric pressure, the air has a slightly higher oxygen content (3.3% in summer to 4.8% in winter) as compared to oxygen concentration at sea level. Barometric pressures at the Dead Sea were measured between 1061 and 1065 hPa and clinically compared with health effects at higher altitude. (This barometric measure is about 5% higher than sea level standard atmospheric pressure of 1013.25 hPa, which is the global ocean mean or ATM.) The Dead Sea affects temperatures nearby because of the moderating effect a large body of water has on climate. During the winter, sea temperatures tend to be higher than land temperatures, and vice versa during the summer months. This is the result of the water's mass and specific heat capacity. On average, there are 192 days above annually. ==Chemistry== With 34.2% salinity (in 2011), it is one of the world's saltiest bodies of water, though Lake Vanda in Antarctica (35%), Lake Assal in Djibouti (34.8%), Lagoon Garabogazköl in the Caspian Sea (up to 35%) and some hypersaline ponds and lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica (such as Don Juan Pond (44%)) have reported higher salinities. In the 19th century and the early 20th century, the surface layers of the Dead Sea were less salty than today, which resulted in an average density in the range of 1.15–1.17 g/cm3 instead of the present value of around 1.25 g/cm3. A sample tested by Bernays in the 19th century had a salinity of 19%. By the year 1926, the salinity had increased (although it was also suspected that the salinity varies seasonally and depends on the distance from the mouth of the Jordan). Until the winter of 1978–79, when a major mixing event took place, Since the water near the bottom is saturated with NaCl, that salt precipitates out of solution onto the sea floor. Beginning in the 1960s, water inflow to the Dead Sea from the Jordan River was reduced as a result of large-scale irrigation and generally low rainfall. By 1975, the upper water layer was saltier than the lower layer. Nevertheless, the upper layer remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense. When the upper layer cooled so its density was greater than the lower layer, the waters mixed (1978–79). For the first time in centuries, the lake was a homogeneous body of water. Since then, stratification has begun to redevelop. The mineral content of the Dead Sea is very different from that of ocean water. The exact composition of the Dead Sea water varies mainly with season, depth and temperature. In the early 1980s, the concentration of ionic species (in g/kg) of Dead Sea surface water was Cl− (181.4), Br− (4.2), SO42− (0.4), HCO3− (0.2), Ca2+ (14.1), Na+ (32.5), K+ (6.2) and Mg2+ (35.2). The total salinity was 276 g/kg. These results show that the composition of the salt, as anhydrous chlorides on a weight percentage basis, was calcium chloride (CaCl2) 14.4%, potassium chloride (KCl) 4.4%, magnesium chloride (MgCl2) 50.8% and sodium chloride (NaCl) 30.4%. In comparison, the salt in the water of most oceans and seas is approximately 85% sodium chloride. The concentration of sulfate ions (SO42−) is very low, and the concentration of bromide ions (Br−) is the highest of all waters on Earth. The salt concentration of the Dead Sea fluctuates around 31.5%. This is unusually high and results in a nominal density of 1.24 kg/L. Anyone can easily float in the Dead Sea because of natural buoyancy. In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States. An unusual feature of the Dead Sea is its discharge of asphalt. From deep seeps, the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles and blocks of the black substance. Asphalt-coated figurines and bitumen-coated Neolithic skulls from archaeological sites have been found. Egyptian mummification processes used asphalt imported from the Dead Sea region. ==Putative therapies== The Dead Sea area has become a location for health research and potential treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the water, the low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere, the reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation, and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each may have specific health effects. For example, persons experiencing reduced respiratory function from diseases such as cystic fibrosis seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure. The region's climate and low elevation have made it a popular center for assessment of putative therapies: Climatotherapy: Treatment which exploits local climatic features such as temperature, humidity, sunshine, barometric pressure and special atmospheric constituents Heliotherapy: Treatment that exploits the biological effects of the sun's radiation Thalassotherapy: Treatment that exploits bathing in Dead Sea water There is evidence that the unique attenuation and spectrum of UV rays near the Dead Sea contribute to effective photoclimatherapy for psoriasis, in part because the reduced exposure to solar radiation allows for longer periods of sunbathing. Rhinosinusitis patients receiving Dead Sea saline nasal irrigation exhibited improved symptom relief compared to standard hypertonic saline spray in one study. Dead Sea mud pack therapy has been suggested to temporarily relieve pain in patients with osteoarthritis of the knees. According to researchers of the Ben Gurion University of the Negev, treatment with mineral-rich mud compresses can be used to augment conventional medical therapy. ==Life forms== The sea is called "dead" because its high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms, such as fish and aquatic plants, from living in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present. In times of flood, the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35% to 30% or lower. It temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters. In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red. Researchers from Hebrew University of Jerusalem found it to be teeming with an alga called Dunaliella. Dunaliella in turn nourished carotenoid-containing (red-pigmented) halobacteria, whose presence caused the color change. Since 1980, the basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers. In 2011 a group of scientists from Be'er Sheva, Israel and Germany discovered fissures in the floor of the Dead Sea by scuba diving and observing the surface. These fissures allow fresh and brackish water to enter. They sampled biofilms surrounding the fissures and discovered numerous species of bacteria and archaea. ==Human settlement== There are several small communities near the Dead Sea. These include Ein Gedi, Neve Zohar and the Israeli settlements in the Megilot Regional Council: Kalya, Mitzpe Shalem and Avnat. There is a nature preserve at Ein Gedi, and several Dead Sea hotels are located on the southwest end at Ein Bokek near Neve Zohar. Highway 90 runs north–south on the Israeli side for a total distance of from Metula on the Lebanese border in the north to its southern terminus at the Egyptian border near the Red Sea port of Eilat. Potash City is a small community on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, and others including Suweima. Highway 65 runs north–south on the Jordanian side from near Jordan's northern tip down past the Dead Sea to the port of Aqaba. ==Human history== ===Biblical period=== Dwelling in caves near the Dead Sea is recorded in the Hebrew Bible as having taken place before the Israelites came to Canaan, and extensively at the time of King David. Just northwest of the Dead Sea is Jericho. Somewhere, perhaps on the southeastern shore, would be the cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis which were said to have been destroyed in the time of Abraham: Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 18) and the three other "Cities of the Plain", Admah, Zeboim and Zoar (Deuteronomy 29:23). Zoar escaped destruction when Abraham's nephew Lot escaped to Zoar from Sodom (Genesis 19:21–22). Before the destruction, the Dead Sea was a valley full of natural tar pits, which was called the vale of Siddim. King David was said to have hidden from Saul at Ein Gedi nearby. In Ezekiel 47:8–9 there is a specific prophecy that the sea will "be healed and made fresh", becoming a normal lake capable of supporting marine life. A similar prophecy is stated in Zechariah 14:8, which says that "living waters will go out from Jerusalem, half of them to the eastern sea [likely the Dead Sea] and half to the western sea [the Mediterranean]." ===Greek and Roman period=== Greek and Jewish writers report that the Nabateans had monopolistic control over the Dead Sea. Archaeological evidence shows multiple anchorages existing on both sides of the sea, including in Ein Gedi, Khirbet Mazin (where the ruins of a Hasmonean-era dry dock are located), Numeira and near Masada. King Herod the Great built or rebuilt several fortresses and palaces on the western bank of the Dead Sea. The most famous was Masada, where in 70 CE a small group of Jewish zealots fled after the fall of the destruction of the Second Temple. The zealots survived until 73 CE, when a siege by the X Legion ended in the deaths by suicide of its 960 inhabitants. Another historically important fortress was Machaerus (מכוור), on the eastern bank, where, according to Josephus, John the Baptist was imprisoned by Herod Antipas and died. Also in Roman times, some Essenes settled on the Dead Sea's western shore; Pliny the Elder identifies their location with the words, "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast ... [above] the town of Engeda" (Natural History, Bk 5.73); and it is therefore a hugely popular but contested hypothesis today, that same Essenes are identical with the settlers at Qumran and that "the Dead Sea Scrolls" discovered during the 20th century in the nearby caves had been their own library. Josephus identified the Dead Sea in geographic proximity to the ancient Biblical city of Sodom. However, he referred to the lake by its Greek name, Asphaltites. Various sects of Jews settled in caves overlooking the Dead Sea. The best known of these are the Essenes of Qumran, who left an extensive library known as the Dead Sea Scrolls. The town of Ein Gedi, mentioned many times in the Mishna, produced persimmon for the temple's fragrance and for export, using a secret recipe. "Sodomite salt" was an essential mineral for the temple's holy incense, but was said to be dangerous for home use and could cause blindness. The Roman camps surrounding Masada were built by Jewish slaves receiving water from the towns around the lake. These towns had drinking water from the Ein Feshcha springs and other sweetwater springs in the vicinity. ===Byzantine period=== The sixth-century mosaic known as the Madaba Map indicates that trade across the Dead Sea was very prevalent during the Byzantine period. Connected with the Judean wilderness to its northwest and west, the Dead Sea was a place of escape and refuge. The remoteness of the region attracted Greek Orthodox monks since the Byzantine era. Their monasteries, such as Saint George in Wadi Kelt and Mar Saba in the Judaean Desert, are places of pilgrimage. ===Medieval period=== From the seventh century onwards, the Dead Sea area entered a period of decline and its population decreased. The cultivation of sugarcane near the northern and southern shores of the lake began to develop during the Crusader period and reached its peak under the Mamluks. The full text of W. F. Lynch's 1849 book Narrative of the United States' Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea is available online. Charles Leonard Irby and James Mangles travelled along the shores of the Dead Sea already in 1817–18, but didn't navigate on its waters. Explorers and scientists arrived in the area to analyze the minerals and research the unique climate. After the find of the "Moabite Stone" in 1868 on the plateau east of the Dead Sea, Moses Wilhelm Shapira and his partner Salim al-Khouri forged and sold a whole range of presumed "Moabite" antiquities, and in 1883 Shapira presented what is now known as the "Shapira Strips", a supposedly ancient scroll written on leather strips which he claimed had been found near the Dead Sea. The strips were declared to be forgeries and Shapira took his own life in disgrace. The 1922 census of Palestine lists 100 people (68 Muslims and 32 Christians) with "Dead Sea & Jordan" as their main locality. The 1931 census shows a sharp increase with 535 people (264 Muslims, 230 Jews, 21 Christians, 17 Druze, and three with no religion) listing "Dead Sea" as their main village/town. The 1938 nor 1945 village statistics does not give a number for the general Dead Sea area. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, hundreds of Jewish religious documents dated between 150 BCE and 70 CE were found in caves near the ancient settlement of Qumran, about inland from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea (presently in the West Bank). They became known and famous as the Dead Sea Scrolls. The world's lowest roads, Highway 90, run along the Israeli and West Bank shores of the Dead Sea, along with Highway 65 on the Jordanian side, at below sea level. ==Tourism and leisure== ===British Mandate period=== A golf course named for Sodom and Gomorrah was built by the British at Kalia on the northern shore. ===Israel=== The first major Israeli hotels were built in nearby Arad, and since the 1960s at the Ein Bokek resort complex. Israel has 15 hotels along the Dead Sea shore, generating total revenues of $291 million in 2012. Most Israeli hotels and resorts on the Dead Sea are on a stretch of the southern shore. On 22 November 2015, the Dead Sea panorama road was included along with 40 archaeological locations in Jordan, to become live on Google Street View. ===Palestine (West Bank)=== The portion of Dead Sea coast which Palestinians could possibly eventually manage is about long. The World Bank estimates that such Dead Sea tourism industry could generate $290 million of revenues per year and 2,900 jobs. and produced potash by solar evaporation of the brine. Employing Arabs and Jews, it was an island of peace in turbulent times. In 1934 a second plant was built on the southwest shore, in the Mount Sodom area, south of the 'Lashon' region of the Dead Sea. Palestine Potash Company supplied half of Britain's potash during World War II. Both plants were destroyed by the Jordanians in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. ===Israel=== The Dead Sea Works was founded in 1952 as a state-owned enterprise based on the remnants of the Palestine Potash Company. In 1995, the company was privatized and it is now owned by Israel Chemicals. From the Dead Sea brine, Israel produces (2001) 1.77 million tons potash, 206,000 tons elemental bromine, 44,900 tons caustic soda, 25,000 tons magnesium metal, and sodium chloride. Israeli companies generate around US$3 billion annually from the sale of Dead Sea minerals (primarily potash and bromine), and from other products that are derived from Dead Sea Minerals. ===Jordan=== On the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, Arab Potash (APC), formed in 1956, produces 2.0 million tons of potash annually, as well as sodium chloride and bromine. The plant is located at Safi, South Aghwar Department, in the Karak Governorate. Jordanian Dead Sea mineral industries generate about $1.2 billion in sales (equivalent to 4 percent of Jordan's GDP). ===West Bank=== The Palestinian Dead Sea Coast is about long. The Palestinian economy is unable to benefit from Dead Sea chemicals due to restricted access, permit issues and the uncertainties of the investment climate. The southern end is fed by a canal maintained by the Dead Sea Works, a company that converts the sea's raw materials. From a water surface of below sea level in 1970 it fell below sea level in 2006, reaching a drop rate of per year. By 2025 it reached a height of below sea level, a drop of more than per year. As the water level decreases, the characteristics of the Sea and surrounding region may substantially change. , the surface of the Sea has shrunk by about 33 percent since the 1960s, which is partly attributed to the much-reduced flow of the Jordan River since the construction of the National Water Carrier project, and the amount of water from the rains reaching the Dead Sea has diminished even further since flash floods started pouring into the sinkholes left by its shrinkage. The EcoPeace Middle East, a joint Israeli-Palestinian-Jordanian environmental group, has estimated that the annual flow into the Dead Sea from the Jordan is less than of water, compared with former flows of between and . ====Sinkholes and their impact==== The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by a groundwater level drop, causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater. This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of large sinkholes along the western shore—incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers, rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes. Ein Gedi, on the western coast, has been subject to a large number of sinkholes appearing in the area, attributed to the decline in the water level of the Dead Sea. As a result of the sinkholes, most beach resorts along the west shore of the northern basin had to be shut down, with just three remaining near the basin's northwest tip (see List of beaches in Palestine: Dead Sea). ===Link to the Red Sea=== In May 2009 at the World Economic Forum, Jordan introduced plans for a "Jordan National Red Sea Development Project" (JRSP). This is a plan to convey seawater from the Red Sea near Aqaba to the Dead Sea. Water would be desalinated along the route to provide fresh water to Jordan, with the brine discharge sent to the Dead Sea for replenishment. Israel has expressed its support and will likely benefit from some of the water delivery to its Negev region. At a regional conference in July 2009, officials expressed concern about the declining water levels. Some suggested industrial activities around the Dead Sea might need to be reduced. Others advised environmental measures to restore conditions such as increasing the volume of flow from the Jordan River to replenish the Dead Sea. Currently, only sewage and effluent from fish ponds run in the river's channel. Experts also stressed the need for strict conservation efforts. They said agriculture should not be expanded, sustainable support capabilities should be incorporated into the area and pollution sources should be reduced. In October 2009, the Jordanians accelerated plans to extract around of water per year from the Red Sea, desalinate it for use as fresh water and send the waste water to the Dead Sea by tunnel, despite concerns about inadequate time to assess the potential environmental impact. According to Jordan's minister for water, General Maysoun Zu'bi, this project could be considered as the first phase of the Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance. In December 2013, Israel, Jordan and the Palestinian Authority signed an agreement for laying a water pipeline to link the Red Sea with the Dead Sea. The pipeline would be long and is estimated to take up to five years to complete. In January 2015 it was reported that the level of water was dropping by a year. On 27 November 2016, the Jordanian government shortlisted five consortia to implement the project. Jordan's ministry of Water and Irrigation said that the $100 million first phase of the project would begin construction in the first quarter of 2018, and would be completed by 2021.	[ "pan evaporation", "Wadi Wala", "Drainage basin", "Hebrew Bible", "salt dome", "Mount Sodom", "Earth's atmosphere", "monasteries", "Nabateans", "Aristotle", "Wadi Mujib", "respiration (physiology)", "Hasmonean", "alga", "seaside resort", "Karak Governorate", "Arabian Plate", "Lowest elevations", "monopolistic", "Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation", "Ein Gedi", "Mediterranean Sea", "Ein Bokek", "Lot (Bible)", "wikt:λίμνη", "Lake Baikal", "wikt:ים המלח", "McMurdo Dry Valleys", "Israel Chemicals", "tar pit", "Bitumen", "hypertonic", "Sinai Peninsula", "oxygen", "sodium chloride", "Geological Survey of Israel", "groundwater", "plate tectonics", "ocean", "Antarctica", "Shrine of the Book", "World Bank", "sea floor", "Village Statistics, 1945", "Tafilah Governorate", "Neogene", "wikt:νεκρά", "magnesium chloride", "sea level", "fertiliser", "Potash City", "eustatic sea level", "Dead Sea Transform", "Dead Sea Scrolls", "John the Baptist", "Don Juan Pond", "Jezreel Valley", "List of beaches in 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"Climatotherapy", "Saint George", "Bible", "kyr", "mummification", "monk", "Judaean Mountains", "health resort", "calcium chloride", "zealots", "Khirbet Mazin", "Hebrew University of Jerusalem", "bitumen", "Sefaria", "Sea of Galilee", "pollen", "Australian Broadcasting Corporation", "Garabogazköl", "List of bodies of water by salinity", "wikt:θάλασσα", "flash flood", "1922 census of Palestine", "Moshe Novomeysky", "Israel Museum", "voy:Dead Sea (Israel and the West Bank)", "wikt:mare", "The Guardian", "Mediterranean basin", "Mar Saba", "Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae", "archaeological", "temperature", "Google Street View in Jordan", "Heliotherapy", "Buoyancy", "magnesium", "eastern Africa", "Mishna", "STS-28", "Aral Sea", "rainshadow", "Jordan Valley Authority", "Palestine", "Dunaliella", "Wadi Hassa", "golf course", "hot desert climate", "Highway 90 (Israel–Palestine)", "Numeira", "Red Sea Rift", "Near East", "Saul", "Pliny the Elder", "Köppen climate classification", "Canaan", "Sodom and Gomorrah", "calque", "Aqaba", "Christopher Costigan", "Lake Vanda", "Hebrew literature", "Kalya", "Wadi", "1931 census of Palestine", "Israelites", "prehistoric times", "Hypersaline", "Djibouti", "health effect", "Saturated solution", "ancient Greek geographers", "Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance", "Book of Genesis", "Jordan", "disease", "EcoPeace Middle East", "Greek Orthodox", "Masada", "Oxford University Press", "pilgrimage", "marine biology", "Byzantine", "Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology", "Moabite Stone", "wikt:البحر الميت", "sulfate", "Egypt", "ABC News (Australia)", "Geological Society of America", "Zoara", "Salt evaporation pond", "Benjamin Elazari Volcani", "Wadi Zarqa Ma'in", "caustic soda", "Chorazin", "above sea level", "Pleistocene", "seeps", "Mount Sedom", "s:Narrative Of The United States Expedition To The River Jordan And The Dead Sea", "potash", "tectonic", "Mediterranean–Dead Sea Canal", "archaea", "Machaerus", "potassium chloride", "Great Rift Valley", "Neolithic", "ultraviolet radiation", "Arabah", "List of drying lakes", "Utah", "research", "Arava Stream", "Druze", "Israeli settlement", "Concessions in Mandatory Palestine", "Abraham", "Man and the Biosphere Programme", "Eilat", "allergen", "Climate variability and change", "barometric pressure", "pigment", "Ein Feshcha", "health", "Seawater", "Lake Lisan", "Talmud", "Jerusalem", "ultraviolet", "persimmon", "tributary", "Lebanon", "Mitzpe Shalem", "cystic fibrosis", "Avnat", "Great Salt Lake", "ancient trade routes", "Thalassotherapy", "biofilm", "bromine", "Before Present", "Caspian Sea", "salinity", "Pliocene", "Herod the Great", "Highway 65 (Jordan)", "Lot's Wife", "Admah", "Space Shuttle Columbia", "rock salt", "James Mangles (Royal Navy officer)", "ancient Roman geographers", "Turkey", "King Hussein Bin Talal Convention Center", "sea", "Ben Gurion University of the Negev", "attenuation", "Biblical Hebrew", "University of Haifa", "sinkhole", "David", "Nahal Og", "endorheic basin", "East Anatolian Fault", "Antiquities of the Jews", "hypersaline lake", "Lake Assal (Djibouti)", "carotenoid", "Qumran", "Mövenpick Hotels & Resorts", "William Francis Lynch", "ton", "Zvi Ben-Avraham", "wikt:lacus", "atmospheric pressure", "Palestinian Authority", "STS-102", "Arab Potash", "World War II", "transform fault", "English language", "Arabic", "Dead Sea Works", "Nahal Tur", "Latin", "Wadi Darga", "Quaternary Science Reviews", "Metula", "Roman legion", "water", "Ancient Greek language", "sun", "Ancient Egypt", "Herod Antipas", "halite", "National Water Carrier", "buoyancy", "quicksand", "salt lake", "Jordan River", "John MacGregor (sportsman)", "Wadi al-Hasa", "West Bank", "humidity" ]
8,531	Dragon	A dragon is a magical legendary creature that appears in the folklore of multiple cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but dragons in Western cultures since the High Middle Ages have often been depicted as winged, horned, and capable of breathing fire. Dragons in eastern cultures are usually depicted as wingless, four-legged, serpentine creatures with above-average intelligence. Commonalities between dragons' traits are often a hybridization of reptilian, mammalian, and avian features. ==Etymology== The word dragon entered the English language in the early 13th century from Old French , which, in turn, comes from Latin (genitive ), meaning "huge serpent, dragon", from , (genitive , ) "serpent". The Greek and Latin term referred to any great serpent, not necessarily mythological. The Greek word is most likely derived from the Greek verb () meaning "I see", the aorist form of which is (). or unusually bright or "sharp" eyes, or because a snake's eyes appear to be always open; each eye actually sees through a big transparent scale in its eyelids, which are permanently shut. The Greek word probably derives from an Indo-European base meaning "to see"; the Sanskrit root () also means "to see". ==Overview== Draconic creatures appear in virtually all cultures around the globe, and the earliest attested reports of draconic creatures resemble giant snakes. Draconic creatures are first described in the mythologies of the ancient Near East and appear in ancient Mesopotamian art and literature. Stories about storm gods slaying giant serpents occur throughout nearly all Near Eastern and Indo-European mythologies. Famous prototypical draconic creatures include the mušḫuššu of ancient Mesopotamia; Apep in Egyptian mythology; Vṛtra in the Rigveda; the Leviathan in the Hebrew Bible; Grand'Goule in the Poitou region in France; Python, Ladon, wyvern and the Lernaean Hydra in Greek mythology; Kulshedra in Albanian mythology; Unhcegila in Lakota mythology; Quetzalcoatl in Aztec culture; Jörmungandr, Níðhöggr, and Fafnir in Norse mythology; the dragon from Beowulf; and aži and az in ancient Persian mythology, closely related to another mythological figure, called Aži Dahaka or Zahhak. Nonetheless, scholars dispute where the idea of a dragon originates from, and a wide variety of hypotheses have been proposed. In his book An Instinct for Dragons (2000), anthropologist David E. Jones suggests a hypothesis that humans, like monkeys, have inherited instinctive reactions to snakes, large cats, and birds of prey. He cites a study which found that approximately 39 people in a hundred are afraid of snakes and notes that fear of snakes is especially prominent in children, even in areas where snakes are rare. The earliest attested dragons all resemble snakes or have snakelike attributes. Jones therefore concludes that dragons appear in nearly all cultures because humans have an innate fear of snakes and other animals that were major predators of humans' primate ancestors. Dragons are usually said to reside in "dark caves, deep pools, wild mountain reaches, sea bottoms, haunted forests", all places which would have been fraught with danger for early human ancestors. In her book The First Fossil Hunters: Dinosaurs, Mammoths, and Myth in Greek and Roman Times (2000), Adrienne Mayor argues that some stories of dragons may have been inspired by ancient discoveries of fossils belonging to dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals. She argues that the dragon lore of northern India may have been inspired by "observations of oversized, extraordinary bones in the fossilbeds of the Siwalik Hills below the Himalayas" and that ancient Greek artistic depictions of the Monster of Troy may have been influenced by fossils of Samotherium, an extinct species of giraffe whose fossils are common in the Mediterranean region. In China, a region where fossils of large prehistoric animals are common, these remains are frequently identified as "dragon bones" and are commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine. Mayor, however, is careful to point out that not all stories of dragons and giants are inspired by fossils and notes that Scandinavia has many stories of dragons and sea monsters, but has long "been considered barren of large fossils." In one of her later books, she states that, "Many dragon images around the world were based on folk knowledge or exaggerations of living reptiles, such as Komodo dragons, Gila monsters, iguanas, alligators, or, in California, alligator lizards, though this still fails to account for the Scandinavian legends, as no such animals (historical or otherwise) have ever been found in this region." Robert Blust in The Origin of Dragons (2000) argues that, like many other creations of traditional cultures, dragons are largely explicable as products of a convergence of rational pre-scientific speculation about the world of real events. In this case, the event is the natural mechanism governing rainfall and drought, with particular attention paid to the phenomenon of the rainbow. ==Egypt== In Egyptian mythology, Apep or Apophis is a giant serpentine creature who resides in the Duat, the Egyptian underworld. The Bremner-Rhind papyrus, written around 310 BC, preserves an account of a much older Egyptian tradition that the setting of the sun is caused by Ra descending to the Duat to battle Apep. In some accounts, Apep is as long as the height of eight men with a head made of flint. Thunderstorms and earthquakes were thought to be caused by Apep's roar and solar eclipses were thought to be the result of Apep attacking Ra during the daytime. In some myths, Apep is slain by the god Set. Nehebkau is another giant serpent who guards the Duat and aided Ra in his battle against Apep. Nehebkau was so massive in some stories that the entire earth was believed to rest atop his coils. Denwen is a giant serpent mentioned in the Pyramid Texts whose body was made of fire and who ignited a conflagration that nearly destroyed all the gods of the Egyptian pantheon. He was ultimately defeated by the Pharaoh, a victory which affirmed the Pharaoh's divine right to rule. The ouroboros was a well-known Egyptian symbol of a serpent swallowing its own tail. The precursor to the ouroboros was the "Many-Faced", a serpent with five heads, who, according to the Amduat, the oldest surviving Book of the Afterlife, was said to coil around the corpse of the sun god Ra protectively. The earliest surviving depiction of a "true" ouroboros comes from the gilded shrines in the tomb of Tutankhamun. In the early centuries AD, the ouroboros was adopted as a symbol by Gnostic Christians and chapter 136 of the Pistis Sophia, an early Gnostic text, describes "a great dragon whose tail is in its mouth". In medieval alchemy, the ouroboros became a typical western dragon with wings, legs, and a tail. A famous image of the dragon gnawing on its tail from the eleventh-century Codex Marcianus was copied in numerous works on alchemy. ==West Asia== ===Mesopotamia=== Ancient people across the Near East believed in creatures similar to what modern people call "dragons". These ancient people were unaware of the existence of dinosaurs or similar creatures in the distant past. References to dragons of both benevolent and malevolent characters occur throughout ancient Mesopotamian literature. In Sumerian poetry, great kings are often compared to the ušumgal, a gigantic, serpentine monster. A draconic creature with the foreparts of a lion and the hind-legs, tail, and wings of a bird appears in Mesopotamian artwork from the Akkadian Period ( 2334 – 2154 BC) until the Neo-Babylonian Period (626 BC–539 BC). The dragon is usually shown with its mouth open. It may have been known as the (ūmu) nā’iru, which means "roaring weather beast", and may have been associated with the god Ishkur (Hadad). A slightly different lion-dragon with two horns and the tail of a scorpion appears in art from the Neo-Assyrian Period (911 BC–609 BC). A relief probably commissioned by Sennacherib shows the gods Ashur, Sin, and Adad standing on its back. Another draconic creature with horns, the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird appears in Mesopotamian art from the Akkadian Period until the Hellenistic Period (323 BC–31 BC). This creature, known in Akkadian as the mušḫuššu, meaning "furious serpent", was used as a symbol for particular deities and also as a general protective emblem. It seems to have originally been the attendant of the Underworld god Ninazu, but later became the attendant to the Hurrian storm-god Tishpak, as well as, later, Ninazu's son Ningishzida, the Babylonian national god Marduk, the scribal god Nabu, and the Assyrian national god Ashur. Scholars disagree regarding the appearance of Tiamat, the Babylonian goddess personifying primeval chaos, slain by Marduk in the Babylonian creation epic Enûma Eliš. She was traditionally regarded by scholars as having had the form of a giant serpent, but several scholars have pointed out that this shape "cannot be imputed to Tiamat with certainty" and she seems to have at least sometimes been regarded as anthropomorphic. Nonetheless, in some texts, she seems to be described with horns, a tail, and a hide that no weapon can penetrate, all features which suggest she was conceived as some form of dragoness. ===Levant=== In the mythologies of the Ugarit region, specifically the Baal Cycle from the Ugaritic texts, the sea-dragon Lōtanu is described as "the twisting serpent / the powerful one with seven heads." In KTU 1.5 I 2–3, Lōtanu is slain by the storm-god Baal, but, in KTU 1.3 III 41–42, he is instead slain by the virgin warrior goddess Anat. In the Hebrew Bible, in the Book of Psalms, Psalm 74, Psalm 74:13–14, the sea-dragon Leviathan, is slain by Yahweh, god of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, as part of the creation of the world. Isaiah describes Leviathan as a (), which is translated as "sea monster", "serpent", or "dragon". In Isaiah 27:1, Yahweh's destruction of Leviathan is foretold as part of his impending overhaul of the universal order: Job 41:1–34 contains a detailed description of Leviathan, who is described as being so powerful that only Yahweh can overcome it. Job 41:19–21 states that Leviathan exhales fire and smoke, making its identification as a mythical dragon clearly apparent. In some parts of the Old Testament, Leviathan is historicized as a symbol for the nations that stand against Yahweh. Rahab, a synonym for "Leviathan", is used in several Biblical passages in reference to Egypt. Isaiah 30:7 declares: "For Egypt's help is worthless and empty, therefore I have called her 'the silenced Rahab'." Similarly, Psalm 87:3 reads: "I reckon Rahab and Babylon as those that know me..." In Ezekiel 29:3–5 and Ezekiel 32:2–8, the pharaoh of Egypt is described as a "dragon" (tannîn). In the deuterocanonical story of Bel and the Dragon from the Book of Daniel, the prophet Daniel sees a dragon being worshipped by the Babylonians. Daniel makes "cakes of pitch, fat, and hair"; the dragon eats them and bursts open. ===Iran=== Azhi Dahaka (Avestan Great Snake) is a dragon or demonic figure in the texts and mythology of Zoroastrian Persia, where he is one of the subordinates of Angra Mainyu. Alternate names include Azi Dahak, Dahaka, and Dahak. Aži (nominative ažiš) is the Avestan word for "serpent" or "dragon. The Avestan term Aži Dahāka and the Middle Persian azdahāg are the sources of the Middle Persian Manichaean demon of greed "Az", Old Armenian mythological figure Azhdahak, Modern Persian 'aždehâ/aždahâ', Tajik Persian 'azhdahâ', Urdu 'azhdahā' (اژدها). The name also migrated to Eastern Europe, assumed the form "azhdaja" and the meaning "dragon", "dragoness" or "water snake" in the Balkanic and Slavic languages. Despite the negative aspect of Aži Dahāka in mythology, dragons have been used on some banners of war throughout the history of Iranian peoples. The Azhdarchid group of pterosaurs are named from a Persian word for "dragon" that ultimately comes from Aži Dahāka. In Persian Sufi literature, Rumi writes in his Masnavi that the dragon symbolizes the sensual soul (nafs), greed and lust, that need to be mortified in a spiritual battle. In Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the Iranian hero Rostam must slay an 80-meter-long dragon (which renders itself invisible to human sight) with the aid of his legendary horse, Rakhsh. As Rostam is sleeping, the dragon approaches; Rakhsh attempts to wake Rostam, but fails to alert him to the danger until Rostam sees the dragon. Rakhsh bites the dragon, while Rostam decapitates it. This is the third trial of Rostam's Seven Labors. Rostam is also credited with the slaughter of other dragons in the Shahnameh and in other Iranian oral traditions, notably in the myth of Babr-e-Bayan. In this tale, Rostam is still an adolescent and kills a dragon in the "Orient" (either India or China, depending on the source) by forcing it to swallow either ox hides filled with quicklime and stones or poisoned blades. The dragon swallows these foreign objects and its stomach bursts, after which Rostam flays the dragon and fashions a coat from its hide called the babr-e bayān. In some variants of the story, Rostam then remains unconscious for two days and nights, but is guarded by his steed Rakhsh. On reviving, he washes himself in a spring. In the Mandean tradition of the story, Rostam hides in a box, is swallowed by the dragon, and kills it from inside its belly. The king of China then gives Rostam his daughter in marriage as a reward. ==East Asia== ===China=== The word "dragon" has come to be applied to the legendary creature in Chinese mythology, loong (traditional 龍, simplified 龙, Japanese simplified 竜, Pinyin lóng), which is associated with good fortune, and many East Asian deities and demigods have dragons as their personal mounts or companions. Dragons were also identified with the Emperor of China, who, during later Chinese imperial history, was the only one permitted to have dragons on his house, clothing, or personal articles. Archaeologist Zhōu Chong-Fa believes that the Chinese word for dragon is an onomatopoeia of the sound of thunder or lùhng in Cantonese. The Chinese dragon () is the highest-ranking creature in the Chinese animal hierarchy. Its origins are vague, but its "ancestors can be found on Neolithic pottery as well as Bronze Age ritual vessels." A number of popular stories deal with the rearing of dragons. The Zuo zhuan, which was probably written during the Warring States period, describes a man named Dongfu, a descendant of Yangshu'an, who loved dragons and, because he could understand a dragon's will, he was able to tame them and raise them well. He served Emperor Shun, who gave him the family name Huanlong, meaning "dragon-raiser". In another story, Kong Jia, the fourteenth emperor of the Xia dynasty, was given a male and a female dragon as a reward for his obedience to the god of heaven, but could not train them, so he hired a dragon-trainer named Liulei, who had learned how to train dragons from Huanlong. One day, the female dragon died unexpectedly, so Liulei secretly chopped her up, cooked her meat, and served it to the king, who loved it so much that he demanded Liulei to serve him the same meal again. Since Liulei had no means of procuring more dragon meat, he fled the palace. One of the most famous dragon stories is about the Lord Ye Gao, who loved dragons obsessively, even though he had never seen one. He decorated his whole house with dragon motifs and, seeing this display of admiration, a real dragon came and visited Ye Gao, but the lord was so terrified at the sight of the creature that he ran away. In Chinese legend, the culture hero Fu Hsi is said to have been crossing the Lo River, when he saw the lung ma, a Chinese horse-dragon with seven dots on its face, six on its back, eight on its left flank, and nine on its right flank. He was so moved by this apparition that, when he arrived home, he drew a picture of it, including the dots. He later used these dots as letters and invented Chinese writing, which he used to write his book I Ching. In another Chinese legend, the physician Ma Shih Huang is said to have healed a sick dragon. Another legend reports that a man once came to the healer Lo Chên-jen, telling him that he was a dragon and that he needed to be healed. After Lo Chên-jen healed the man, a dragon appeared to him and carried him to heaven. In the Shanhaijing, a classic mythography probably compiled mostly during the Han dynasty, various deities and demigods are associated with dragons. One of the most famous Chinese dragons is Ying Long ("responding dragon"), who helped the Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor, defeat the tyrant Chiyou. The dragon Zhulong ("torch dragon") is a god "who composed the universe with his body." In the Shanhaijing, many mythic heroes are said to have been conceived after their mothers copulated with divine dragons, including Huangdi, Shennong, Emperor Yao, and Emperor Shun. The god Zhurong and the emperor Qi are both described as being carried by two dragons, as are Huangdi, Zhuanxu, Yuqiang, and Roshou in various other texts. According to the Huainanzi, an evil black dragon once caused a destructive deluge, which was ended by the mother goddess Nüwa by slaying the dragon. A large number of ethnic myths about dragons are told throughout China. The Houhanshu, compiled in the fifth century BC by Fan Ye, reports a story belonging to the Ailaoyi people, which holds that a woman named Shayi who lived in the region around Mount Lao became pregnant with ten sons after being touched by a tree trunk floating in the water while fishing. She gave birth to the sons and the tree trunk turned into a dragon, who asked to see his sons. The woman showed them to him, but all of them ran away except for the youngest, who the dragon licked on the back and named Jiu Long, meaning "sitting back". The sons later elected him king and the descendants of the ten sons became the Ailaoyi people, who tattooed dragons on their backs in honor of their ancestor. The Miao people of southwest China have a story that a divine dragon created the first humans by breathing on monkeys that came to play in his cave. The Han people have many stories about Short-Tailed Old Li, a black dragon who was born to a poor family in Shandong. When his mother saw him for the first time, she fainted and, when his father came home from the field and saw him, he hit him with a spade and cut off part of his tail. Li burst through the ceiling and flew away to the Black Dragon River in northeast China, where he became the god of that river. On the anniversary of his mother's death on the Chinese lunar calendar, Old Li returns home, causing it to rain. He is still worshipped as a rain god. In China, a dragon is thought to have power over rain. Dragons and their associations with rain are the source of the Chinese customs of dragon dancing and dragon boat racing. Dragons are closely associated with rain and drought is thought to be caused by a dragon's laziness. Prayers invoking dragons to bring rain are common in Chinese texts. The Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals, attributed to the Han dynasty scholar Dong Zhongshu, prescribes making clay figurines of dragons during a time of drought and having young men and boys pace and dance among the figurines in order to encourage the dragons to bring rain. Texts from the Qing dynasty advise hurling the bone of a tiger or dirty objects into the pool where the dragon lives; since dragons cannot stand tigers or dirt, the dragon of the pool will cause heavy rain to drive the object out. Rainmaking rituals invoking dragons are still very common in many Chinese villages, where each village has its own god said to bring rain and many of these gods are dragons. The Chinese dragon kings are thought of as the inspiration for the Hindu myth of the naga. According to these stories, every body of water is ruled by a dragon king, each with a different power, rank, and ability, so people began establishing temples across the countryside dedicated to these figures. Many traditional Chinese customs revolve around dragons. During various holidays, including the Spring Festival and Lantern Festival, villagers will construct an approximately sixteen-foot-long dragon from grass, cloth, bamboo strips, and paper, which they will parade through the city as part of a dragon dance. The original purpose of this ritual was to bring good weather and a strong harvest, but now it is done mostly only for entertainment. During the Duanwu festival, several villages, or even a whole province, will hold a dragon boat race, in which people race across a body of water in boats carved to look like dragons, while a large audience watches on the banks. The custom is traditionally said to have originated after the poet Qu Yuan committed suicide by drowning himself in the Miluo River and people raced out in boats hoping to save him. But most historians agree that the custom actually originated much earlier as a ritual to avert ill fortune. Starting during the Han dynasty and continuing until the Qing dynasty, the Chinese emperor gradually became closely identified with dragons, and emperors themselves claimed to be the incarnations of a divine dragon. Eventually, dragons were only allowed to appear on clothing, houses, and articles of everyday use belonging to the emperor and any commoner who possessed everyday items bearing the image of the dragon was ordered to be executed. After the last Chinese emperor was overthrown in 1911, this situation changed and now many ordinary Chinese people identify themselves as descendants of dragons. The impression of dragons in a large number of Asian countries has been influenced by Chinese culture, such as Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and so on. Chinese tradition has always used the dragon totem as the national emblem, and the "Yellow Dragon flag" of the Qing dynasty has influenced the impression that China is a dragon in many European countries. ===Korea=== The Korean dragon is in many ways similar in appearance to other East Asian dragons such as the Chinese and Japanese dragons. It differs from the Chinese dragon in that it developed a longer beard. Very occasionally, a dragon may be depicted as carrying an orb known as the Yeouiju (여의주), the Korean name for the mythical Cintamani, in its claws or its mouth. It was said that whoever could wield the Yeouiju was blessed with the abilities of omnipotence and creation at will, and that only four-toed dragons (who had thumbs with which to hold the orbs) were both wise and powerful enough to wield these orbs, as opposed to the lesser, three-toed dragons. As with China, the number nine is significant and auspicious in Korea, and dragons were said to have 81 (9×9) scales on their backs, representing yang essence. Dragons in Korean mythology are primarily benevolent beings related to water and agriculture, often considered bringers of rain and clouds. Hence, many Korean dragons are said to have resided in rivers, lakes, oceans, or even deep mountain ponds. And human journeys to undersea realms, and especially the undersea palace of the Dragon King (용왕), are common in Korean folklore. In Korean myths, some kings who founded kingdoms were described as descendants of dragons because the dragon was a symbol of the monarch. Lady Aryeong, who was the first queen of Silla, is said to have been born from a cockatrice, while the grandmother of Taejo of Goryeo, founder of Goryeo, was reportedly the daughter of the dragon king of the West Sea. And King Munmu of Silla who, on his deathbed, wished to become a dragon of the East Sea in order to protect the kingdom. Dragon patterns were used exclusively by the royal family. The royal robe was also called the dragon robe (용포). In the Joseon dynasty, the royal insignia, featuring embroidered dragons, were attached to the robe's shoulders, the chest, and back. The King wore five-taloned dragon insignia while the Crown Prince wore four-taloned dragon insignia. Korean folk mythology states that most dragons were originally Imugis (이무기), or lesser dragons, which were said to resemble gigantic serpents. There are a few different versions of Korean folklore that describe both what imugis are and how they aspire to become full-fledged dragons. Koreans thought that an Imugi could become a true dragon, yong or mireu, if it caught a Yeouiju which had fallen from heaven. Another explanation states they are hornless creatures resembling dragons who have been cursed and thus were unable to become dragons. By other accounts, an Imugi is a proto-dragon which must survive one thousand years in order to become a fully-fledged dragon. In either case, they are said to be large, benevolent, python-like creatures that live in water or caves, and their sighting is associated with good luck. ===Japan=== Japanese dragon myths amalgamate native legends with imported stories about dragons from China. Like some other dragons, most Japanese dragons are water deities associated with rainfall and bodies of water, and are typically depicted as large, wingless, serpentine creatures with clawed feet. Gould writes (1896:248), the Japanese dragon is "invariably figured as possessing three claws". A story about the samurai Minamoto no Mitsunaka tells that, while he was hunting in his own territory of Settsu, he dreamt under a tree and had a dream in which a beautiful woman appeared to him and begged him to save her land from a giant serpent which was defiling it. Mitsunaka agreed to help and the maiden gave him a magnificent horse. When he woke up, the seahorse was standing before him. He rode it to the Sumiyoshi temple, where he prayed for eight days. Then he confronted the serpent and slew it with an arrow. It was believed that dragons could be appeased or exorcised with metal. Nitta Yoshisada is said to have hurled a famous sword into the sea at Sagami to appease the dragon-god of the sea and Ki no Tsurayuki threw a metal mirror into the sea at Sumiyoshi for the same purpose. Japanese Buddhism has also adapted dragons by subjecting them to Buddhist law; the Japanese Buddhist deities Benten and Kwannon are often shown sitting or standing on the back of a dragon. Several Japanese sennin ("immortals") have taken dragons as their mounts. Bômô is said to have hurled his staff into a puddle of water, causing a dragon to come forth and let him ride it to heaven. The rakan Handaka is said to have been able to conjure a dragon out of a bowl, which he is often shown playing with on kagamibuta. The shachihoko is a creature with the head of a dragon, a bushy tail, fishlike scales, and sometimes with fire emerging from its armpits. The fun has the head of a dragon, feathered wings, and the tail and claws of a bird. A white dragon was believed to reside in a pool in Yamashiro Province and, every fifty years, it would turn into a bird called the Ogonchô, which had a call like the "howling of a wild dog". This event was believed to herald terrible famine. In the Japanese village of Okumura, near Edo, during times of drought, the villagers would make a dragon effigy out of straw, magnolia leaves, and bamboo and parade it through the village to attract rainfall. ===Vietnam=== The Vietnamese dragon () was a mythical creature that was often used as a deity symbol and was associated with royalty. Similar to other cultures, dragons in Vietnamese culture represent yang and godly beings associated with creation and life. In the creation myth of the Vietnamese people, they are descended from the dragon lord Lạc Long Quân and the fairy Âu Cơ, who bore 100 eggs. When they separated, Lạc Long Quân brought 50 children to the sea while Âu Cơ brought the rest up the mountains. To this day, Vietnamese people often describe themselves as "Children of the dragon, grandchildren of the fairy" (Con rồng cháu tiên). ==South Asia== ===India=== In the Rigveda, the oldest of the four Vedas, Indra, the Vedic god of storms, battles Vṛtra, a giant serpent who represents drought. Indra kills Vṛtra using his vajra (thunderbolt) and clears the path for rain, which is described in the form of cattle: "You won the cows, hero, you won the Soma,/You freed the seven streams to flow" (Rigveda 1.32.12). In another Rigvedic legend, the three-headed serpent Viśvarūpa, the son of Tvaṣṭṛ, guards a wealth of cows and horses. Indra delivers Viśvarūpa to a god named Trita Āptya, who fights and kills him and sets his cattle free. Indra cuts off Viśvarūpa's heads and drives the cattle home for Trita. This same story is alluded to in the Younger Avesta, in which the hero Thraētaona, the son of Āthbya, slays the three-headed dragon Aži Dahāka and takes his two beautiful wives as spoils. Thraētaona's name (meaning "third grandson of the waters") indicates that Aži Dahāka, like Vṛtra, was seen as a blocker of waters and cause of drought. ===Bhutan=== The Druk (), also known as 'Thunder Dragon', is one of the national symbols of Bhutan. In the Dzongkha language, Bhutan is known as Druk Yul "Land of Druk", and Bhutanese leaders are called Druk Gyalpo, "Thunder Dragon Kings". The druk was adopted as an emblem by the Drukpa Lineage, which originated in Tibet and later spread to Bhutan. ==Europe== ===Proto-Indo-European=== The tale of a hero slaying a giant serpent occurs in almost all Indo-European mythology. In most stories, the hero is some kind of thunder-god. In nearly every iteration of the story, the serpent is either multi-headed or "multiple" in some other way. Furthermore, in nearly every story, the serpent is always somehow associated with water. Bruce Lincoln has proposed that a Proto-Indo-European dragon-slaying myth can be reconstructed as follows: First, the sky gods give cattle to a man named Tritos ("the third"), who is so named because he is the third man on earth, but a three-headed serpent named steals them. Tritos pursues the serpent and is accompanied by Hanér, whose name means "man". Together, the two heroes slay the serpent and rescue the cattle. ===Ancient Greece=== The ancient Greek word usually translated as "dragon" (δράκων drákōn, genitive δράκοντοϛ drákontos) could also mean "snake", but it usually refers to a kind of giant serpent that either possesses supernatural characteristics or is otherwise controlled by some supernatural power. The first mention of a "dragon" in ancient Greek literature occurs in the Iliad, in which Agamemnon is described as having a blue dragon motif on his sword belt and an emblem of a three-headed dragon on his breast plate. In lines 820–880 of the Theogony, a Greek poem written in the seventh century BC by the Boeotian poet Hesiod, the Greek god Zeus battles the monster Typhon, who has one hundred serpent heads that breathe fire and make many frightening animal noises. Zeus scorches all of Typhon's heads with his lightning bolts and then hurls Typhon into Tartarus. In other Greek sources, Typhon is often depicted as a winged, fire-breathing serpent-like dragon. In the Homeric Hymn to Apollo, the god Apollo uses his poisoned arrows to slay the serpent Python, who has been causing death and pestilence in the area around Delphi. Apollo then sets up his shrine there. The Roman poet Virgil in his poem Culex, lines 163–201 Appendix Vergiliana: Culex, describing a shepherd having a fight with a big constricting snake, calls it "serpens" and also "draco", showing that in his time the two words were probably interchangeable. Hesiod also mentions that the hero Heracles slew the Lernaean Hydra, a multiple-headed serpent which dwelt in the swamps of Lerna. The name "Hydra" means "water snake" in Greek. According to the Bibliotheka of Pseudo-Apollodorus, the slaying of the Hydra was the second of the Twelve Labors of Heracles. Accounts disagree on which weapon Heracles used to slay the Hydra, but, by the end of the sixth century BC, it was agreed that the clubbed or severed heads needed to be cauterized to prevent them from growing back. Heracles was aided in this task by his nephew Iolaus. During the battle, a giant crab crawled out of the marsh and pinched Heracles's foot, but he crushed it under his heel. Hera placed the crab in the sky as the constellation Cancer. One of the Hydra's heads was immortal, so Heracles buried it under a heavy rock after cutting it off. For his Eleventh Labor, Heracles must procure a golden apple from the tree in the Garden of the Hesperides, which is guarded by an enormous serpent that never sleeps, which Pseudo-Apollodorus calls "Ladon". In earlier depictions, Ladon is often shown with many heads. In Pseudo-Apollodorus's account, Ladon is immortal, but Sophocles and Euripides both describe Heracles as killing him, although neither of them specifies how. Some suggest that the golden apple was not claimed through battle with Ladon at all but through Heracles charming the Hesperides. The mythographer Herodorus is the first to state that Heracles slew him using his famous club. Apollonius of Rhodes, in his epic poem, the Argonautica, describes Ladon as having been shot full of poisoned arrows dipped in the blood of the Hydra. In Pindar's Fourth Pythian Ode, Aeëtes of Colchis tells the hero Jason that the Golden Fleece he is seeking is in a copse guarded by a dragon, "which surpassed in breadth and length a fifty-oared ship". Jason slays the dragon and makes off with the Golden Fleece together with his co-conspirator, Aeëtes's daughter, Medea. The earliest artistic representation of this story is an Attic red-figure kylix dated to 480–470 BC, showing a bedraggled Jason being disgorged from the dragon's open mouth as the Golden Fleece hangs in a tree behind him and Athena, the goddess of wisdom, stands watching. A fragment from Pherecydes of Athens states that Jason killed the dragon, but fragments from the Naupactica and from Herodorus state that he merely stole the Fleece and escaped. In Euripides's Medea, Medea boasts that she killed the Colchian dragon herself. In the final scene of the play, Medea also flies away on a chariot pulled by two dragons. In the most famous retelling of the story from Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica, Medea drugs the dragon to sleep, allowing Jason to steal the Fleece. Greek vase paintings show her feeding the dragon the sleeping drug in a liquid form from a phialē, or shallow cup. In the founding myth of Thebes, Cadmus, a Phoenician prince, was instructed by Apollo to follow a heifer and found a city wherever it laid down. Cadmus and his men followed the heifer and, when it laid down, Cadmus ordered his men to find a spring so he could sacrifice the heifer to Athena. His men found a spring, but it was guarded by a dragon, which had been placed there by the god Ares, and the dragon killed them. Cadmus killed the dragon in revenge, either by smashing its head with a rock or using his sword. Following the advice of Athena, Cadmus tore out the dragon's teeth and planted them in the earth. An army of giant warriors (known as spartoi, which means "sown men") grew from the teeth like plants. Cadmus hurled stones into their midst, causing them to kill each other until only five were left. To make restitution for having killed Ares's dragon, Cadmus was forced to serve Ares as a slave for eight years. At the end of this period, Cadmus married Harmonia, the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite. Cadmus and Harmonia moved to Illyria, where they ruled as king and queen, before eventually being transformed into dragons themselves. In the fifth century BC, the Greek historian Herodotus reported in Book IV of his Histories that western Libya was inhabited by monstrous serpents and, in Book III, he states that Arabia was home to many small, winged serpents, which came in a variety of colors and enjoyed the trees that produced frankincense. Herodotus remarks that the serpent's wings were like those of bats and that, unlike vipers, which are found in every land, winged serpents are only found in Arabia. The second-century BC Greek astronomer Hipparchus ( 190 BC – 120 BC) listed the constellation Draco ("the dragon") as one of forty-six constellations. Hipparchus described the constellation as containing fifteen stars, but the later astronomer Ptolemy ( 100 – 170 AD) increased this number to thirty-one in his Almagest. In the New Testament, Revelation 12:3, written by John of Patmos, describes a vision of a Great Red Dragon with seven heads, ten horns, seven crowns, and a massive tail, an image which is clearly inspired by the vision of the four beasts from the sea in the Book of Daniel and the Leviathan described in various Old Testament passages. The Great Red Dragon knocks "a third of the sun ... a third of the moon, and a third of the stars" out of the sky and pursues the Woman of the Apocalypse. Revelation 12:7–9 declares: "And war broke out in Heaven. Michael and his angels fought against Dragon. Dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in Heaven. Dragon the Great was thrown down, that ancient serpent who is called Devil and Satan, the one deceiving the whole inhabited World – he was thrown down to earth and his angels were thrown down with him." Then a voice booms down from Heaven heralding the defeat of "the Accuser" (ho Kantegor). In , Flavius Philostratus discussed dragons (δράκων, drákōn) in India in The Life of Apollonius of Tyana (II,17 and III,6–8). The Loeb Classical Library translation (by F.C. Conybeare) mentions (III,7) that, "In most respects the tusks resemble the largest swine's, but they are slighter in build and twisted, and have a point as unabraded as sharks' teeth." According to a collection of books by Claudius Aelianus called On Animals, Ethiopia was inhabited by a species of dragon that hunted elephants and could grow to a length of 180 feet (55 m) with a lifespan rivaling that of the most enduring of animals. In the 4th century, Basil of Caesarea, on chapter IX of his Address to Young Men on Greek Literature, mentions mythological dragons as guarding treasures and riches. ===Germanic=== In the Old Norse poem Grímnismál in the Poetic Edda, the dragon Níðhöggr is described as gnawing on the roots of Yggdrasil, the world tree. In Norse mythology, Jörmungandr is a giant serpent that encircles the entire realm of Miðgarð in the sea around it. According to the Gylfaginning from the Prose Edda, written by the thirteenth-century Icelandic mythographer Snorri Sturluson, Thor, the Norse god of thunder, once went out on a boat with the giant Hymnir to the outer sea and fished for Jörmungandr using an ox-head as bait. Thor caught the serpent and, after pulling its head out of the water, smashed it with his hammer, Mjölnir. Snorri states that the blow was not fatal: "and men say that he struck its head off on the sea bed. But I think the truth to tell you is that the Miðgarð Serpent still lives and lies in the surrounding sea." Towards the end of the Old English epic poem Beowulf, a slave steals a cup from the hoard of a sleeping dragon, causing the dragon to wake up and go on a rampage of destruction across the countryside. The eponymous hero of the poem insists on confronting the dragon alone, even though he is of advanced age, but Wiglaf, the youngest of the twelve warriors Beowulf has brought with him, insists on accompanying his king into the battle. Beowulf's sword shatters during the fight and he is mortally wounded, but Wiglaf comes to his rescue and helps him slay the dragon. Beowulf dies and tells Wiglaf that the dragon's treasure must be buried rather than shared with the cowardly warriors who did not come to the aid of their king. In the Old Norse Völsunga saga, the hero Sigurd catches the dragon Fafnir by digging a pit between the cave where he lives and the spring where he drinks his water and kills him by stabbing him in the underside. At the advice of Odin, Sigurd drains Fafnir's blood and drinks it, which gives him the ability to understand the language of the birds, who he hears talking about how his mentor Regin is plotting to betray him so that he can keep all of Fafnir's treasure for himself. The motif of a hero trying to sneak past a sleeping dragon and steal some of its treasure is common throughout many Old Norse sagas. The fourteenth-century Flóres saga konungs ok sona hans describes a hero who is actively concerned not to wake a sleeping dragon while sneaking past it. In the Yngvars saga víðförla, the protagonist attempts to steal treasure from several sleeping dragons, but accidentally wakes them up. ===Post-classical=== The modern, western image of a dragon developed in western Europe during the Middle Ages through the combination of the snakelike dragons of classical Graeco-Roman literature, references to Near Eastern dragons preserved in the Bible, and western European folk traditions. The period between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries represents the height of European interest in dragons as living creatures. The twelfth-century Welsh monk, Geoffrey of Monmouth, recounts a famous legend in his Historia Regum Britanniae in which the child prophet Merlin witnesses the Romano-Celtic warlord Vortigern attempt to build a tower on Snowdon to keep safe from the Anglo-Saxons, but the tower keeps being swallowed into the ground. Merlin informs Vortigern that, underneath the foundation he has built, is a pool with two dragons sleeping in it. Vortigern orders for the pool to be drained, exposing a red dragon and a white dragon, who immediately begin fighting. Merlin delivers a prophecy that the white dragon will triumph over the red, symbolizing England's conquest of Wales, but declares that the red dragon will eventually return and defeat the white one. This story remained popular throughout the fifteenth century. Dragons are generally depicted as living in rivers or having an underground lair or cave. They are envisioned as greedy and gluttonous, with voracious appetites. They are often identified with Satan, due to the references to Satan as a "dragon" in the Book of Revelation. The thirteenth-century Golden Legend, written in Latin, records the story of Saint Margaret of Antioch, a virgin martyr who, after being tortured for her faith in the Diocletianic Persecution and thrown back into her cell, is said to have been confronted by a monstrous dragon, but she made the sign of the cross and the dragon vanished. In some versions of the story, she is actually swallowed by the dragon alive and, after making the sign of the cross in the dragon's stomach, emerges unharmed. The legend of Saint George and the Dragon may be referenced as early as the sixth century AD, but the earliest artistic representations of it come from the eleventh century and the first full account of it comes from an eleventh-century Georgian text. The most famous version of the story from the Golden Legend holds that a dragon kept pillaging the sheep of the town of Silene in Libya. After it ate a young shepherd, the people were forced to placate it by leaving two sheep as sacrificial offerings every morning beside the lake where the dragon lived. Eventually, the dragon ate all of the sheep and the people were forced to start offering it their own children. One day, the king's own daughter came up in the lottery and, despite the king's pleas for her life, she was dressed as a bride and chained to a rock beside the lake to be eaten. Then, Saint George arrived and saw the princess. When the dragon arrived to eat her, he stabbed it with his lance and subdued it by making the sign of the cross and tying the princess's girdle around its neck. Saint George and the princess led the now-docile dragon into the town and George promised to kill it if the townspeople would convert to Christianity. All the townspeople converted and Saint George killed the dragon with his sword. In some versions, Saint George marries the princess, but, in others, he continues wandering. Dragons are well known in myths and legends of Spain, in no small part because St. George (Catalan Sant Jordi) is the patron saint of Catalonia. Like most mythical reptiles, the Catalan dragon (Catalan drac) is an enormous serpent-like creature with four legs and a pair of wings, or rarely, a two-legged creature with a pair of wings, called a wyvern. As in many other parts of the world, the dragon's face may be like that of some other animal, such as a lion or a bull. As is common elsewhere, Catalan dragons are fire-breathers, and the dragon-fire is all-consuming. Catalan dragons also can emit a fetid odor, which can rot away anything it touches. Gargoyles are carved stone figures sometimes resembling dragons that originally served as waterspouts on buildings. Precursors to the medieval gargoyle can be found on ancient Greek and Egyptian temples, but, over the course of the Middle Ages, many fantastic stories were invented to explain them. One medieval French legend holds that, in ancient times, a fearsome dragon known as La Gargouille had been causing floods and sinking ships on the river Seine, so the people of the town of Rouen would offer the dragon a human sacrifice once each year to appease its hunger. Then, around 600 AD, a priest named Romanus promised that, if the people would build a church, he would rid them of the dragon. Romanus slew the dragon and its severed head was mounted on the walls of the city as the first gargoyle. Dragons are prominent in medieval heraldry. Uther Pendragon was famously said to have had two gold dragons crowned with red standing back-to-back on his royal coat of arms. Originally, heraldic dragons could have any number of legs, but, by the late Middle Ages, due to the widespread proliferation of bestiaries, heraldry began to distinguish between a "dragon" (which could only have exactly four legs) and a "wyvern" (which could only have exactly two). In myths, wyverns are associated with viciousness, envy, and pestilence, but, in heraldry, they are used as symbols for overthrowing the tyranny of Satan and his demonic forces. Late medieval heraldry also distinguished a draconic creature known as a "cockatrice". A cockatrice is supposedly born when a serpent hatches an egg that has been laid on a dunghill by a rooster and it is so venomous that its breath and its gaze are both lethal to any living creature, except for a weasel, which is the cockatrice's mortal enemy. A basilisk is a serpent with the head of a dragon at the end of its tail that is born when a toad hatches an egg that has been laid in a midden by a nine-year-old cockatrice. Like the cockatrice, its glare is said to be deadly. ===Post-classical Eastern=== In Albanian mythology and folklore, stihi, ljubi, bolla, bollar, errshaja, and kulshedra are mythological figures described as serpentine dragons. It is believed that bolla, a water and chthonic demonic serpent, undergoes metamorphosis passing through four distinct phases if it lives many years without being seen by a human. The bollar and errshaja are the intermediate stages, while the kulshedra is the ultimate phase, described as a huge multi-headed fire-spitting female serpent which causes drought, storms, flooding, earthquakes, and other natural disasters against mankind. She is usually fought and defeated by a drangue, a semi-human winged divine hero and protector of humans. Heavy thunderstorms are thought to be the result of their battles. In Slavic mythology, the words "zmey", "zmiy", or "zmaj" are used to describe dragons. These words are masculine forms of the Slavic word for "snake", which are normally feminine (like Russian zmeya). In Romania, there is a similar figure, derived from the Slavic dragon and named zmeu. Exclusively in Polish and Belarusian folklore, as well as in the other Slavic folklores, a dragon is also called (variously) смок, цмок, or smok. In South Slavic folklores, the same thing is also called lamya (ламя, ламjа, lamja). Although quite similar to other European dragons, Slavic dragons have their peculiarities. In Russian and Ukrainian folklore, Zmey Gorynych is a dragon with three heads, each one bearing twin goatlike horns. He is said to have breathed fire and smelled of sulfur. It was believed that eclipses were caused by Gorynych temporarily swallowing the sun. According to one legend, Gorynych's uncle was the evil sorcerer Nemal Chelovek, who abducted the daughter of the tsar and imprisoned her in his castle in the Ural Mountains. Many knights tried to free her, but all of them were killed by Gorynych's fire. Then a palace guard in Moscow named Ivan Tsarevich overheard two crows talking about the princess. He went to the tsar, who gave him a magic sword, and snuck into the castle. When Chelovek attacked Ivan in the form of a giant, the sword flew from Ivan's hand unbidden and killed him. Then the sword cut off all three of Gorynych's heads at once. Ivan brought the princess back to the tsar, who declared Ivan a nobleman and allowed him to marry the princess. A popular Polish folk tale is the legend of the Wawel Dragon, which is first recorded in the Chronica Polonorum of Wincenty Kadłubek, written between 1190 and 1208. According to Kadłubek, the dragon appeared during the reign of King Krakus and demanded to be fed a fixed number of cattle every week. If the villagers failed to provide enough cattle, the dragon would eat the same number of villagers as the number of cattle they had failed to provide. Krakus ordered his sons to slay the dragon. Since they could not slay it by hand, they tricked the dragon into eating calfskins filled with burning sulfur. Once the dragon was dead, the younger brother attacked and murdered his older brother and returned home to claim all the glory for himself, telling his father that his brother had died fighting the dragon. The younger brother became king after his father died, but his secret was eventually revealed and he was banished. In the fifteenth century, Jan Długosz rewrote the story so that King Krakus himself was the one who slew the dragon. Another version of the story told by Marcin Bielski instead has the clever shoemaker Skuba come up with the idea for slaying the dragon. Bielski's version is now the most popular. ==Modern depictions== Dragons and dragon motifs are featured in many works of modern literature, particularly within the fantasy genre. As early as the eighteenth century, critical thinkers such as Denis Diderot were already asserting that too much literature had been published on dragons: "There are already in books all too many fabulous stories of dragons". In Lewis Carroll's classic children's novel Through the Looking-Glass (1871), one of the inset poems describes the Jabberwock, a kind of dragon. Carroll's illustrator John Tenniel, a famous political cartoonist, humorously showed the Jabberwock with the waistcoat, buck teeth, and myopic eyes of a Victorian university lecturer, such as Carroll himself. In works of comedic children's fantasy, dragons often fulfill the role of a magic fairy tale helper. In such works, rather than being frightening as they are traditionally portrayed, dragons are instead represented as harmless, benevolent, and inferior to humans. They are sometimes shown living in contact with humans, or in isolated communities of only dragons. Though popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, "such comic and idyllic stories" began to grow increasingly rare after the 1960s, due to demand for more serious children's literature. One of the most iconic modern dragons is Smaug from J. R. R. Tolkien's classic novel, The Hobbit. Dragons also appear in the best-selling Harry Potter series of children's novels by J. K. Rowling. Other prominent works depicting dragons include Anne McCaffrey's Dragonriders of Pern, Ursula K. Le Guin's Earthsea Cycle, George R. R. Martin's series A Song of Ice and Fire, and Christopher Paolini's The Inheritance Cycle. Sandra Martina Schwab writes, "With a few exceptions, including McCaffrey's Pern novels and the 2002 film Reign of Fire, dragons seem to fit more into the medievalized setting of fantasy literature than into the more technological world of science fiction. Indeed, they have been called the emblem of fantasy. The hero's fight against the dragon emphasizes and celebrates his masculinity, whereas revisionist fantasies of dragons and dragon-slaying often undermine traditional gender roles. In children's literature (such as Cressida Cowell's How to Train Your Dragon series) the friendly dragon may become a powerful ally in battling the child's fears." The popular role-playing game system Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) makes heavy use of dragons. File:Jabberwocky.jpg\|John Tenniel's illustration of the Jabberwock for Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass, showing the dragon as a myopic professor File:Gringotts Dragon (42428011465).jpg\|Fire-breathing statue of the Ukrainian Ironbelly from Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 at Universal Studios Florida File:DnD Dragon.png\|Representation of a dragon as it appears in the role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons	[ "stihi", "John of Patmos", "ancient Greek temple", "weather god", "Ptolemy", "cockatrice", "Mjölnir", "aorist", "Hebrew Bible", "Sophocles", "Pindar", "drangue", "kylix", "Herodorus", "Pistis Sophia", "Moscow", "Peluda", "wikt:δέρκομαι", "Aztecs", "sennin", "Sufism", "Grammatical number", "Azhdarchid", "Hadad", "Babylon", "wyvern", "The Last Dragon (2004 film)", "flint", "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2", "Anne McCaffrey", "Tiamat", "Han Chinese", "Lạc Long Quân", "Kong Jia", "ouroboros", "Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)", "Pre-Islamic Arabia", "Revival Lê dynasty", "Luo River (Henan)", "Shahnameh", "Bat (heraldry)", "Written Chinese", "Ugarit", "Indo-European", "Zhurong", "Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts", "Drukpa Lineage", "Dragon boat", "Illyria", "Phoenicia", "Apollonius of Rhodes", "I Ching", "Egyptian temple", "Rigveda 1.32", "Minamoto no Mitsunaka", "Gylfaginning", "Appendix Vergiliana", "zmeu", "Yggdrasil", "Guivre", "Fu Hsi", "Magic (supernatural)", "fantasy", "Ancient Mesopotamian religion", "Hesperides", "wikt:δράκων", "Zahhak", "Chinese mythology", "Chronica seu originale regum et principum Poloniae", "Athena", "Address to Young Men on Greek Literature", "water deities", "Azhdaha", "Argonautica", "Longma", "exorcism", "Catalonia", "Buddhist law", "Samotherium", "samurai", "Book of Daniel", "Krakus", "wikt:serpent", "Arrow poison", "Woman of the Apocalypse", "Philostratus", "Griffin", "the dragon (Beowulf)", "girdle", "Gargoyle", "KV62", "Vortigern", "Ivan Tsarevich", "Sebastian Münster", "Euripides", "wikt:draco", "Children's literature", "shachihoko", "Tvastar", "Classic of Mountains and Seas", "An Instinct for Dragons", "Edo (Tokyo)", "Vedas", "Folklore of Russia", "Harry Potter", "alligator", "Chinese New Year", "Boeotia", "Greenwood Publishing Group", "Soma (drink)", "Pharaoh", "Nine-Dragon Wall", "Shandong", "Agamemnon", "Gnosticism", "Gary Westfahl", "Azhdahak (mythology)", "Snake", "Medea (play)", "Romanus of Rouen", "Ra", "Loeb Classical Library", "waistcoat", "Druk Gyalpo", "Albanian folk beliefs", "Anglo-Saxons", "Claudius Aelianus", "iguana", "Balaur", "Prose Edda", "Aphrodite", "Colchis", "Tartarus", "Baal", "Spain", "Snorri Sturluson", "Ancient Libya", "Saint George and the Dragon", "Mesopotamia", "J. 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8,533	Depeche Mode	Depeche Mode are an English electronic band formed in Basildon, Essex in 1980. Q included the band in its list of the "50 Bands That Changed the World!" Depeche Mode also rank No. 98 on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of All Time." In 2016, Billboard named Depeche Mode the 10th Greatest of All Time Top Dance Club Artists. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2020. ==History== ===Formation (1977–1980)=== Depeche Mode's origins date to 1977, when schoolmates Vince Clarke and Andy Fletcher formed a band called No Romance in China with Clarke on vocals and guitar and Fletcher on bass. Fletcher would later recall, "Why am I in the band? It was accidental right from the beginning. I was actually forced to be in the band. I played the guitar and I had a bass; it was a question of them roping me in." In 1979, Clarke played guitar in an Ultravox-influenced band, the Plan, with friends Robert Marlow and Paul Langwith. In 1978–1979, Martin Gore played guitar in an acoustic duo, Norman and the Worms, with school friend Phil Burdett on vocals. In 1980, Clarke and Fletcher formed a band called Composition of Sound, with Clarke on vocals/guitar and Fletcher on bass; the pair were soon joined by Gore as a third instrumentalist. Dave Gahan joined the ensemble later in 1980 after Clarke heard him perform at a local Scout hut jam session, singing a rendition of David Bowie's "Heroes". With the advent of affordable synthesisers and the increasing popularity of electronic music, the group began pursuing a synth-pop direction. The first live concert of Composition of Sound as a four-piece was on 14 June 1980 at Nicholas School, Basildon, England, UK. There is a plaque commemorating the gig at the James Hornsby School in Basildon, where Gore and Fletcher were pupils. Gahan's and Gore's favourite artists included Siouxsie and the Banshees, Sparks, Cabaret Voltaire, Talking Heads and Iggy Pop. Gahan's onstage persona was influenced by Dave Vanian, frontman of The Damned. Gahan has also later credited David Bowie, James Brown, Elvis Presley and Prince as influences on his performance style. Composition of Sound would become embarrassed about their band name and started thinking of changing it. There were several potential variants, including the name "Musical Moments" that was suggested by Vince Clarke as both a band name and the name of their first album. Starting at their concert on 24 September 1980 at Bridge House, the band changed their name to Depeche Mode, chosen by Dave Gahan. When explaining the choice for the new name, which was taken from a mistranslation of the name of French fashion magazine Dépêche Mode, Gore said, "It means 'hurried fashion' or 'fashion dispatch'. I like the sound of that." However, the more accurate translation of the magazine's name (and therefore the band's name) is "Fashion News" or "Fashion Update".{{efn\|Dépêche meaning "dispatch" or "news report" from Old French despesche/despeche, and mode meaning "fashion". According to Gahan, prior to securing their record contract, they were receiving offers from all the major labels. Phonogram offered them "money you could never have imagined and all sorts of crazy things like clothes allowances". the band was approached by Daniel Miller, an electronic producer and founder of Mute Records, who was interested in their recording a single for his burgeoning label. The result of this verbal contract was their first single, "Dreaming of Me", recorded in December 1980 and released in February 1981. It reached number 57 in the UK charts. Encouraged by this, the band recorded their second single, "New Life", which climbed to number 11 in the UK charts and got them an appearance on Top of the Pops. The band went to London by train, carrying their synthesisers all the way to the BBC studios. The band's next single was "Just Can't Get Enough". The synth-pop single became the band's first UK top ten hit. The video is the only one to feature Vince Clarke. Depeche Mode's debut album, Speak & Spell, was released in October 1981 and peaked at number ten on the UK album charts. while Rolling Stone was more critical, calling the album "PG-rated fluff". Clarke began to voice his discomfort at the direction the band was taking, saying "there was never enough time to do anything. Not with all the interviews and photo sessions". Clarke also said he was sick of touring, which Gahan said years later was "bullshit to be quite honest". The song went on to become a UK Top 3 hit for Yazoo. Gore, who had written "Tora! Tora! Tora!" and the instrumental "Big Muff" for Speak & Spell, became the band's main composer and lyricist. ===A Broken Frame and Wilder joining (1981–1982)=== In late 1981, the band placed an anonymous ad in Melody Maker looking for another musician: "Name band, synthesise, must be under twenty-one." By sampling the noises of everyday objects, the band created an eclectic, industrial-influenced sound, with similarities to groups such as the Art of Noise and Einstürzende Neubauten (the latter becoming Mute labelmates in 1983). "Everything Counts" rose to number six in the UK, also reaching the top 30 in Ireland, South Africa, Switzerland, Sweden and West Germany. The song became a hit, reaching No. 2 in Ireland and Poland, No. 4 in the UK and Switzerland, and No. 1 in West Germany – the first time a DM single topped a country's singles chart – where it was used as the theme to West German TV's coverage of the 1984 Olympics. Beyond this European success, the song also reached No. 13 on the US charts in mid-1985, the first appearance of a DM single on the Billboard Hot 100, and was a Top 20 hit in Canada. "People Are People" became an anthem for the LGBT community, regularly played at gay establishments and gay pride festivals in the late 1980s. Sire, the band's North American record label, released a compilation of the same name which included tracks from A Broken Frame and Construction Time Again as well as several B-sides. On the American tour, the band was, according to Gore, "shocked by the way the fans were turning up in droves at the concerts". In contrast to the political and environmental subjects addressed on the previous album, the songs on Some Great Reward were mostly concerned with more personal themes such as sexual politics ("Master and Servant"), adulterous relationships ("Lie to Me"), and arbitrary divine justice ("Blasphemous Rumours"). Also included was the first Martin Gore ballad, "Somebody"—such songs would become a feature of all following albums. "Somebody" was released as a double A-side with "Blasphemous Rumours", and was the first single with Gore on lead vocal. Some Great Reward became the first Depeche Mode album to enter the US album charts, and made the Top 10 in several European countries. The World We Live In and Live in Hamburg was the band's first video release, almost an entire concert from their 1984 Some Great Reward Tour. ===Black Celebration (1985–1986)=== In July 1985, the band played their first-ever concerts behind the Iron Curtain, in Budapest and Warsaw. In October 1985, Mute released a compilation, The Singles 81→85 (Catching Up with Depeche Mode in the US), which included the two new non-album hit singles "Shake the Disease" and "It's Called a Heart", with the US version also including their B-sides ("Fly on the Windscreen", the B-side of "It's Called a Heart", would also be included on the next studio album Black Celebration). In the United States, the band's music appealed primarily to an alternative audience who were disenchanted with the predominance of "soft rock and 'disco hell'" on the radio. This view of the band was in sharp contrast to how the band was perceived in Europe, despite the increasingly dark and serious tone in their songs. In Germany, France, and other European countries, Depeche Mode were considered teen idols and regularly featured in European teen magazines, becoming one of the most famous synth-pop bands in the mid-'80s. Depeche Mode's musical style shifted slightly again in 1986 with the release of their fifteenth single, "Stripped", and its accompanying album Black Celebration. Retaining their often imaginative sampling and beginning to move away from the "industrial pop" sound that had characterised their previous two LPs, the band introduced an ominous, highly atmospheric and textured sound. Gore's lyrics also took on a darker tone and became more pessimistic. The music video for "A Question of Time" was the first to be directed by Anton Corbijn, beginning a working relationship that continues to the present. Corbijn has directed 22 of the band's videos. He has also filmed some of their live performances and designed stage sets, as well as most covers for albums and singles starting from Violator. ===Music for the Masses (1987–1989)=== For 1987's Music for the Masses, the band's sound and working methods continued to develop. It was the first time they worked with a producer not related to Mute Records. Dave Bascombe was called to assist with the recording sessions; although, according to Alan Wilder, Bascombe's role ended up being more that of engineer. In making the album, the band largely eschewed sampling in favour of synthesiser experimentation. While chart performance of the singles "Strangelove", "Never Let Me Down Again" and "Behind the Wheel" proved to be disappointing in the UK, they performed well in countries such as Canada, Brazil, West Germany, South Africa, Sweden and Switzerland, often reaching the top 10. Record Mirror described Music for the Masses as "the most accomplished and sexy Mode album to date". The album also reached No. 35 on the US Billboard 200 chart. The Music for the Masses Tour began 22 October 1987. On 7 March 1988, with no previous announcement that they would be the headlining act, Depeche Mode played in the Werner-Seelenbinder-Halle, East Berlin, becoming one of the few Western groups to perform in East Germany. They also performed concerts in Budapest and Prague in 1988. The world tour ended on 18 June 1988 with a concert at the Pasadena Rose Bowl. Paid attendance of 60,453 was the highest in eight years for the venue. Its massive success marked a breakthrough for the band in the United States.. The event was documented in 101, a concert film by D. A. Pennebaker and its accompanying soundtrack album. The film is notable for its portrayal of fan interaction. Alan Wilder came up with the title, noting that it was the 101st and final performance of the tour. On 7 September 1988, Depeche Mode performed "Strangelove" at the 1988 MTV Video Music Awards at the Universal Amphitheatre in Los Angeles. ===Violator (1989–1990)=== In mid-1989, the band began recording in Milan with producer Flood and engineer François Kevorkian. The initial result of this session was the single "Personal Jesus". Prior to its release, a marketing campaign was launched with advertisements placed in the personals columns of UK regional newspapers with the words "Your own personal Jesus." Later, the ads included a phone number one could dial to hear the song. The resulting furore helped propel the single to number 13 on the UK charts, becoming one of their biggest sellers to date. In the United States, it was their first gold single and their first Top 40 hit since "People Are People", eventually becoming the biggest-selling 12-inch single in Warner Records' history up to that point. Released in February 1990, "Enjoy the Silence" reached number six in the UK (the first Top 10 hit in that country since "Master And Servant"). A few months later it reached number eight in the US and earned the band a second gold record, and it won Best British Single at the 1991 Brit Awards. To promote their new album, Violator, the band held an in-store autograph signing at Wherehouse Entertainment in Los Angeles. The event attracted approximately 20,000 fans and turned into a near riot. Some attendees were injured while being pressed against the store's glass by the crowd. As an apology to those injured, the band released a limited edition cassette tape to fans in Los Angeles, distributed through radio station KROQ (the sponsor of the Wherehouse event). Violator was the first Depeche Mode album to enter the Top 10 of the Billboard 200, reaching Number 7 and staying 74 weeks in the chart. It was certified triple platinum in America. Two more singles from the album—"Policy of Truth" and "World in My Eyes"—were hits in the UK, with the former also charting in the US. The World Violation Tour saw the band play several stadium shows in the US. 42,000 tickets were sold within four hours for a show at Giants Stadium, and 48,000 tickets were sold within half-an-hour of going on sale for a show at Dodger Stadium. An estimated 1.2 million fans saw this tour worldwide. {{Quote box \| quote = "There's so many sounds that are created from the voice that you wouldn't know were taken from the voice, like rhythm sounds. The number of times I've been sitting in the studio and said, 'I wish I could get a bass that would just go [mimics wet, thick hip-hop bass-drum sound].' Then I think, 'Why can't I just go [repeats noise] into a mic and sample it?' It's obvious; you spend all day trying to get a synthesiser to try and create this sound but you can just go [repeats noise] and you've got it. Then you can send it through some other device after that, and you've got something that sounds absolutely nothing like a voice, but the source was a voice. ... It is a very interesting process." \| source = Alan Wilder on the genesis of some of the sounds on Songs of Faith and Devotion, stated to Pulse! magazine – May 1993. Live strings, uilleann pipes and female gospel vocals were other new additions to the band's sound. The album debuted at number one in both the UK and the US, only the sixth British act to achieve such a distinction to date. The first single from the album was the grunge-influenced "I Feel You". The gospel influences are most noticeable on the album's third single, "Condemnation". Interviews given by the band during this period tended to be conducted separately, unlike earlier albums, where the band was interviewed as a group. The band's second live album, Songs of Faith and Devotion Live, was released in December 1993. The tour continued into 1994 with the Exotic Tour, which began in February 1994 in South Africa, and ended in April in Mexico. The final leg of the tour, consisting of more North American dates, followed shortly thereafter and ran until July. As a whole, the Devotional Tour is to date the longest and most geographically diverse Depeche Mode tour, spanning fourteen months and 159 individual performances. Q magazine described the 1993 Devotional Tour as "The Most Debauched Rock 'n' Roll Tour Ever". According to The Independent, the "smack-blasted" Gahan "required cortisone shots just to perform, borderline alcoholic Gore suffered two stress-induced seizures, and Andrew Fletcher's deepening depression resulted, in the summer of 1994, in a full nervous breakdown." After the band played at the McNichols Sports Arena in Denver, Colorado, local police arrested Gore and fined him $50 for disturbing the peace when he held a loud party in his hotel room. Fletcher declined to participate in the second half of the Exotic Tour due to mental instability; he was replaced on stage by Daryl Bamonte, who had worked with the band as a personal assistant since the beginning of their career in 1980. In June 1995, Alan Wilder announced that he was leaving Depeche Mode, explaining: He continued to work on his personal project Recoil, releasing a fourth album (Unsound Methods) in 1997. ===Ultra (1996–1998)=== Despite Gahan's increasingly severe personal problems, Gore tried repeatedly during 1995 and 1996 to get the band recording again. However, Gahan would rarely turn up to scheduled sessions, and when he did, it would take weeks to get any vocals recorded; one six-week session at Electric Lady in New York produced just one usable vocal (for "Sister of Night"), and even that was pieced together from multiple takes. Gore was forced to contemplate breaking the band up and considered releasing the songs he had written as a solo album. In mid-1996, after his near-fatal overdose in which his heart stopped beating for two minutes, Gahan entered a court-ordered drug rehabilitation program to battle his addiction to cocaine and heroin. With Gahan out of rehab in 1996, Depeche Mode held recording sessions with producer Tim Simenon. Preceded by two singles, "Barrel of a Gun" and "It's No Good", the album Ultra was released in April 1997. The album debuted at No. 1 in the UK as well as Germany, and No. 5 in the US. The band did not tour in support of the album, with Fletcher quoted as saying: "We're not fit enough. Dave's only eight months into his sobriety, and our bodies are telling us to spend time with our families." As part of the promotion for the release of the album, they did perform two short concerts in London and Los Angeles, promoted as "Ultra Parties". Ultra spawned two further singles, "Home" and "Useless". A second singles compilation, The Singles 86>98, was released in 1998, preceded by the new single "Only When I Lose Myself". In April 1998, Depeche Mode held a press conference at the Hyatt Hotel in Cologne to announce the Singles Tour. The tour was the first to feature two backing musicians in place of Wilder—Austrian drummer Christian Eigner and British keyboardist Peter Gordeno. ===Exciter (1999–2004)=== In 2001, Depeche Mode released Exciter, produced by Mark Bell (of techno group LFO). Bell introduced a minimalist, digital sound to much of the album, influenced by IDM and glitch. "Dream On", "I Feel Loved", "Freelove" and "Goodnight Lovers" were released as singles in 2001 and 2002. Critical response to the album was mixed, with reasonably positive reviews from some magazines (NME, Rolling Stone and LA Weekly), while others (including Q magazine, PopMatters and Pitchfork) derided it as sounding underproduced, dull and lacking in luster. In March 2001, Depeche Mode held a press conference at the Valentino Hotel in Hamburg to announce the Exciter Tour. The tour featured 84 performances for over 1.5 million fans in 24 countries. The concerts held in Paris at the Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy were filmed and later released in May 2002 as a live DVD entitled One Night in Paris. In October 2002 the band won the first-ever Q magazine "Innovation Award". In 2003, Gahan released his first solo album, Paper Monsters, and toured to promote the record. Also released in 2003 was Gore's second solo album Counterfeit². Fletcher founded his own record label, Toast Hawaii, specialising in promoting electronic music. A new remix compilation album, Remixes 81–04, was released in 2004, featuring new and unreleased promo mixes of the band's singles from 1981 to 2004. A new version of "Enjoy the Silence", remixed by Mike Shinoda of Linkin Park, "Enjoy the Silence 04", was released as a single and reached No. 7 on the UK charts. ===Playing the Angel (2005–2007)=== In October 2005, the band released their 11th studio album Playing the Angel. Produced by Ben Hillier, the album peaked at No. 1 in 18 countries and featured the hit single "Precious". This is the first Depeche Mode album to feature lyrics written by Gahan and, consequently, the first album since 1984's Some Great Reward featuring songs not written by Gore. "Suffer Well" was the first ever post-Clarke Depeche Mode single not to be written by Gore (lyrics by Gahan, music by Philpott/Eigner). The final single from the album was "John the Revelator", an up-tempo electronic track with a running religious theme, accompanied by "Lilian", a lush track that was a hit in many clubs all over the world. To promote Playing the Angel, the band launched Touring the Angel, a concert tour of Europe and North America that began in November 2005 and ran for nine months. During the last two legs of the tour Depeche Mode headlined a number of festivals including the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival and the O2 Wireless Festival. In total, the band played to more than 2.8 million people across 31 countries and the tour was one of the highest grossing and critically acclaimed tours of 2005/2006. Two shows at Milan's Fila Forum were filmed and edited into a concert film, released on DVD as Touring the Angel: Live in Milan. A "best-of" compilation was released in November 2006, entitled The Best of Depeche Mode Volume 1 featuring a new single "Martyr", an outtake from the Playing the Angel sessions. Later that month Depeche Mode received the MTV Europe Music Award in the Best Group category. In December 2006, iTunes released The Complete Depeche Mode as its fourth ever digital box-set. In August 2007, during promotion for Gahan's second solo album, Hourglass, it was announced that Depeche Mode were heading back in studio in early 2008 to work on a new album. ===Sounds of the Universe (2008–2011)=== In May 2008, the band returned to the studio with producer Ben Hillier to work on some songs that Martin Gore had demoed at his home studio in Santa Barbara, California. Later that year it was announced that Depeche Mode were splitting from their long-term US label, Warner Music, and signing with EMI Music worldwide. The album was created in four sessions, two in New York and two in Santa Barbara. A total of 22 songs were recorded, with the standard album being 13 songs in length while many of the others were released in subsequent deluxe editions. In 2009, Depeche Mode allowed their likeness to be used in Valve's Left 4 Dead 2. On 15 January 2009, the official Depeche Mode website announced that the band's twelfth studio album would be called Sounds of the Universe. The album was released on 14 April 2009, also made available through an iTunes Pass, where the buyer received individual tracks in the weeks leading up to the official release date. Fletcher said the idea for their iTunes Pass was a combination of the band's and iTunes': "I think the digital and record companies are starting to get their act together. They were very lazy in the first 10 years when downloads came in. Now they're collaborating more and coming up with interesting ideas for fans to buy products." The album went to number one in 21 countries. Critical response was generally positive and it was nominated for a Grammy in the Best Alternative Album category. "Wrong" was the first single from the album, released digitally in February 2009. Subsequent singles were "Peace" and the double A-side "Fragile Tension / Hole to Feed". In addition, "Perfect" was released as a promotional-only (non-commercial) single in the United States. On 23 April 2009, Depeche Mode performed for the television program Jimmy Kimmel Live! at the famed corner of Hollywood Boulevard and Vine Street, drawing more than 12,000 fans, which was the largest audience the program had seen since its 2003 premiere, with a performance by Coldplay. In May 2009, the band embarked on a concert tour in support of the album, called Tour of the Universe; it had been announced at a press conference in October 2008 at the Olympiastadion in Berlin. There was a warm up show in Luxembourg and it officially started on 10 May 2009 in Tel Aviv. The first leg of the tour was disrupted when Dave Gahan was struck down with gastroenteritis. During treatment, doctors found and removed a low-grade tumour from the singer's bladder. Gahan's illness caused 16 concerts to be cancelled, but several of the shows were rescheduled for 2010. The band headlined the Lollapalooza festival during the North American leg of the tour. The tour also took the band back to South America for the first time since 1994's Exotic Tour. During the final European leg, the band played a show at London's Royal Albert Hall in aid of the Teenage Cancer Trust, where former member Alan Wilder joined Martin Gore on stage for a performance of "Somebody". In total the band played to more than 2.7 million people across 32 countries and the tour was one of the most profitable in America in 2009. The concerts held at Palau Sant Jordi, Barcelona, Spain were filmed and later released on DVD and Blu-ray release entitled Tour of the Universe: Barcelona 20/21.11.09. In March 2010, Depeche Mode won the award for "Best International Group – Rock / Pop" at the Echo Awards in Germany. On 6 June 2011, as the final commitment to their contract with EMI, the band released a remix compilation album, entitled Remixes 2: 81–11 that features remixes by former members Vince Clarke and Alan Wilder. Other remixers involved with the project were Nick Rhodes of Duran Duran, Röyksopp, Karlsson & Winnberg of Miike Snow, Eric Prydz, Clark and more. A new remix of "Personal Jesus" by Stargate, entitled "Personal Jesus 2011", was released as a single on 30 May 2011, in support of the compilation. Depeche Mode contributed their cover of the U2 song "So Cruel" to the tribute album AHK-toong BAY-bi Covered honouring the 20th anniversary of Achtung Baby, a 1991 album by U2. The compilation CD was released with the December 2011 issue of Q. ===Delta Machine (2012–2014)=== In October 2012 during a press conference in Paris, Dave Gahan, Martin Gore and Andy Fletcher announced plans for a new album and a 2013 worldwide tour starting from Tel Aviv and continuing in Europe and North America. Martin Gore revealed that Flood mixed the album, marking the producer's first studio collaboration with the band since 1993's Songs of Faith and Devotion. In December 2012, the band officially announced signing a worldwide deal with Columbia Records and releasing a new album in March 2013. On 24 January 2013, it was confirmed that the album was titled Delta Machine. "Heaven", the debut single from Delta Machine was released commercially on Friday 1 February 2013 (although not in the UK). The release date in the UK was pushed back to 18 March 2013 (17 March 2013 on iTunes). The physical release still bore the Mute Records logo, even though the band have now severed ties with their long-standing label. Fletcher mentioned in an interview this was due to their "devotion" to the label and with the band's insistence.Delta Machine spawned two further singles, "Soothe My Soul" on 6 May and "Should Be Higher" on 11 October. Though neither performed well in the UK charts they did perform moderately in other European charts. In March, the band announced North American dates to their Delta Machine Tour, starting 22 August from Detroit and ending 8 October in Phoenix. In June, other European dates were confirmed for early 2014. The final gig of the tour took place in Moscow, Russia on 7 March 2014, at Olimpiski venue. That month, Depeche Mode won the award for "Best International Group – Rock / Pop" at the Echo Awards in Germany. Also, they were nominated at the category "Album des Jahres (national oder international)" for Delta Machine but lost against Helene Fischer's Farbenspiel. On 8 October 2014, the band announced Live in Berlin, the new video and audio release filmed and recorded at the O2 World in Berlin, Germany in November 2013 during the Delta Machine Tour. It was released on 17 November 2014 worldwide. ===Spirit (2015–2021)=== In a 2015 Rolling Stone interview celebrating the 25th anniversary of Violator, Gore stated that Johnny Cash's cover of "Personal Jesus" is his favorite cover version of a Depeche Mode song. On 25 January 2016, Gore announced a projected return to the recording studio in April, with both Gore and Gahan having already written and demoed new songs. In September, the official Depeche Mode Facebook page hinted at a new release, later confirmed by the band to be a music video compilation, Video Singles Collection, scheduled for release in November by Sony. In October 2016, the band announced that their fourteenth album titled Spirit. It was produced by James Ford, and was released on 17 March 2017. "Where's the Revolution", the lead single from Spirit, was released 3 February 2017, along with its lyric video. The official video was published a week later, on 9 February. The Global Spirit Tour officially kicked off on 5 May 2017 with a performance in Stockholm, Sweden, at the Friends Arena. The first leg of the tour covered European countries only, ending with a final stadium show in Cluj-Napoca, Romania, at the Cluj Arena. The second leg of the tour covered North America and returned to Europe. The North America leg of the tour kicked off in Salt Lake City, Utah, on 23 August, at the USANA Amphitheatre. Depeche Mode broke a record when the band became the first to play four nights at the Hollywood Bowl. The band remained in North America until 15 November when they left for Dublin to resume the European leg. The band ended the tour in Europe with two sold-out shows on 23 and 25 July 2018 in Berlin, Germany, at the Waldbühne. In September 2019, the band announced that Spirits in the Forest, a documentary that was partially filmed during these shows by long-time collaborator Anton Corbijn, would be released in theatres for one night only, 21 November 2019. It was released on CD, DVD and Blu-ray under the title LiVE SPiRiTS on 26 June 2020. On 7 November 2020, the band were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Prior to Fletcher's death, Gahan said: "There's a ton of stuff that we've done with Depeche Mode that I'm really proud of. I think that's come with time and age. Martin put out a record last year which I really liked. I actually bought a copy because it wouldn't feel right otherwise. I know he's been pottering away in his studio as well, so I guess at some point next year we'll get together. Hopefully at least to just have a chat about what we both feel like we could move forward with." On 15 August 2022, the social media accounts for Depeche Mode posted a photo of Gahan and Gore in a recording studio, with them tweeting, "finding stability in what we know and love, and focusing on what gives life meaning and purpose", which magazines like NME suggested was a hint at work on a new studio album. On 4 October 2022, Depeche Mode announced their fifteenth studio album Memento Mori and a tour to support the album which started on 23 March 2023. The first single, "Ghosts Again", released on 9 February 2023, was co-written by Richard Butler of the Psychedelic Furs. It received relative success in the UK, charting at No. 14. "Ghosts Again" had widespread success in the US, charting in the top 10 of 3 Billboard charts. Reaching number 2 on the Adult Alternative Songs chart, Gahan said it "captures this perfect balance of melancholy and joy", while Gore said it has "such an upbeat feel to it" and how rare it is for the band to record a song that "I just don't get sick of listening to." The band stated that work on the album began during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Gahan and Gore said they would send each other ideas for songs, for example Gahan said, "I played guitar and sort of sang on my iPhone", while Gore "sent it back with his angelic voice." ==Musical style and influences== Gore recalled, "My dream was to combine the emotion of Neil Young or John Lennon transmitted by Kraftwerk's synthesisers. Soul music played by electronic instruments." Gore also cited synth-pop group Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark (OMD), who provided support on the Music for the Masses Tour; Clarke stated that Depeche Mode would never have happened without OMD. Fletcher mentioned influences including the late 1970s punk rock scene, the post-punk bands Siouxsie and the Banshees and the Cure, and electronic group the Human League. Band members have also cited David Bowie, the Clash, Roxy Music and Brian Eno, Elvis Presley, the Velvet Underground, Fad Gadget, Suicide, and the blues. Depeche Mode were considered a teen pop group during their early period in the UK, and interviewed in teen pop magazines such as Smash Hits. Following the departure of Clarke, their music began to take on a darker tone, establishing a darker sound in the band's music, as Gore assumed lead songwriting duties. Gore has stated he feels lyrical themes which tackle issues related to solitude and loneliness are a better representation of reality, whereas he finds "happy songs" fake and unrealistic. At the same time, he asserts that the group's music contains "an element of hope". Depeche Mode's music has been variously described as synth-pop, electronic rock, new wave, dark wave, dance-rock, post-punk, alternative rock, The band have also experimented with other genres throughout their career, including avant-garde, electronica, pop, soul, techno, industrial rock and heavy metal. ==Legacy== Depeche Mode have released a total of 15 studio albums, 10 compilation albums, six live albums, eight box sets, 13 video albums, 71 music videos, and 54 singles. They have sold over 100 million records and played live to more than 35 million fans worldwide. The band has had 50 songs in the UK singles chart, and one US and two UK number-one albums. In addition, all of their studio albums have reached the UK Top 10 and their albums have spent over 210 weeks on the UK Charts. Along with the Red Hot Chili Peppers and U2, Depeche Mode are one of three acts that have charted at least once on the Billboard Alternative Airplay chart in every decade since its debut in 1988. In 2006, American music critic Sasha Frere-Jones stated that "the last serious English influence was Depeche Mode, who seem more and more significant as time passes." Depeche Mode's releases have been nominated for five Grammy Awards: Devotional for Best Long Form Music Video; "I Feel Loved" and "Suffer Well", both for Best Dance Recording; Sounds of the Universe for Best Alternative Album; and "Wrong" for Best Short Form Music Video. In addition, Depeche Mode have been honoured with a Brit Award for "Enjoy the Silence" in the Best British Single category, the first-ever Q Innovation Award, and an Ivor Novello Award for Martin Gore in the category of International Achievement. Depeche Mode were called "the most popular electronic band the world has ever known" by Q, "one of the greatest British pop groups of all time" by The Sunday Telegraph, and "the quintessential eighties techno-pop band" by Rolling Stone and AllMusic. and Q included them on their list of "50 bands that changed the world". Muse's Matt Bellamy said, "They had their own thing, their own style, own sound. I respect them very much." During Depeche Mode's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Coldplay's Chris Martin remarked, "sonically, they were and are about throwing away all the rulebooks." Arcade Fire's Win Butler added, "I feel like their music still sounds like it could come out 20 years from now. Depeche were able to take that spirit and spread it, which is really kind of a sacred responsibility." On December 13, 2023, Los Angeles city council member Monica Rodriguez, officially declared December 13th as "Depeche Mode Day" in the city of Los Angeles. Dave Gahan and Martin Gore were present as they were honored in a public ceremony held at Los Angeles City Hall. ===Influence=== Many major artists have cited the band as an influence, including: Arcade Fire, the Killers, Nine Inch Nails, the Smashing Pumpkins, Coldplay, No Doubt, A Perfect Circle, Marilyn Manson, the Crystal Method, Fear Factory, La Roux, Gotye, Amanda Palmer, Rammstein, a-ha, Tegan and Sara (on Sainthood) and Paul van Dyk. Depeche Mode contemporaries Pet Shop Boys, Tears for Fears and Gary Numan have also cited the band as an influence. Colombian singer Shakira described "Enjoy the Silence" as the song that first sparked her passion for pop music. The dark themes and moods of Depeche Mode's lyrics and music have been enjoyed by several heavy metal artists, and the band influenced acts such as Marilyn Manson and Deftones. Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails also cited Depeche Mode, in particular their 1986 album Black Celebration, as a major influence on his beginnings. ==Philanthropy== Early in their career, Depeche Mode was dismissive of benefit concerts such as Live Aid. Gore himself stated, "If these bands really care so much, they should just donate the money and let that be it. Why can't they do it without all the surrounding hype?". Since 2010, the band has applied their celebrity and cultural longevity to help promote and raise funds for several notable charity endeavours. They lent their support to high-profile charities such as MusiCares, Cancer Research UK and the Teenage Cancer Trust. The band has also supported the Small Steps Project, a humanitarian organization based in the UK, aiming to assist economically disadvantaged children into education. They have partnered with Swiss watchmaker Hublot to support Charity: Water, aimed at the provision of clean drinking water in developing countries. Such collaboration led to the release of two different limited edition watches, the Hublot Big Bang Depeche Mode in 2017 and The Singles Limited Edition series based from the Big Bang model in 2018. The proceeds helped raise $1.7 million for Charity: Water. In 2014, the partnership hosted a gala and fundraiser at the TsUM building in Moscow, raising $1.4 million for the charity. ==Band members== ===Current members=== Dave Gahan– lead vocals (1980–present) Martin Gore– guitars, keyboards, backing and lead vocals (1980–present) ====Touring musicians==== Christian Eigner– drums, keyboards (1997–present) Peter Gordeno– keyboards, bass guitar, piano, backing vocals (1998–present) ===Former members=== Andy Fletcher– keyboards, bass guitar, occasional backing vocals (1980–2022; his death) Vince Clarke– keyboards, lead and backing vocals, guitars (1980–1981) Alan Wilder– keyboards, piano, drums, backing vocals (1982–1995; touring member in 1982; guest in 2010) ====Former touring musicians==== Hildia Campbell– backing vocals (1993–1994) Samantha Smith– backing vocals (1993–1994) Daryl Bamonte– keyboards, samplers (1994) Dave Clayton– keyboards, programming (1996–1997) Janet Cooke– backing vocals (1998) Jordan Bailey– backing vocals (1998, 2001) Georgia Lewis– backing vocals (2001) === Timeline === ====Touring members timeline==== ==Discography== Studio albums Speak & Spell (1981) A Broken Frame (1982) Construction Time Again (1983) Some Great Reward (1984) Black Celebration (1986) Music for the Masses (1987) Violator (1990) Songs of Faith and Devotion (1993) Ultra (1997) Exciter (2001) Playing the Angel (2005) Sounds of the Universe (2009) Delta Machine (2013) Spirit (2017) Memento Mori (2023) ==Awards and nominations== ==Tours== 1980 Tour (1980) 1981 Tour (1981) Speak & Spell Tour (1981) See You Tour (1982) Broken Frame Tour (1982–1983) Construction Time Again Tour (1983–1984) Some Great Reward Tour (1984–1985) Black Celebration Tour (1986) Music for the Masses Tour (1987–1988) World Violation Tour (1990) Devotional Tour (1993) Exotic Tour/Summer Tour '94 (1994) The Singles Tour 86>98 (1998) Exciter Tour (2001) Touring the Angel (2005–2006) Tour of the Universe (2009–2010) The Delta Machine Tour (2013–2014) Global Spirit Tour (2017–2018) Memento Mori World Tour (2023–2024)	[ "The World We Live In and Live in Hamburg", "MTV", "Roxy Music", "BBC Radio 6 Music", "Billboard 200", "Grammy Awards", "Left 4 Dead 2", "Marta Salogni", "Sainthood (album)", "Madrid", "Glitch (music)", "the Crystal Method", "ChartAttack", "pop rock", "Stripped (song)", "Berlin Trilogy", "Clark (musician)", "2006 MTV Europe Music Awards", "Accor Arena", "Billboard (magazine)", "The Quietus", "James Hornsby School", "gay pride", "Werner-Seelenbinder-Halle", "Red Hot Chili Peppers", "André Deutsch", "Devotional Tour", "Rammstein", "D. A. Pennebaker", "Home (Depeche Mode song)", "Unsound Methods", "Electric Lady Studios", "Macmillan Publishers", "Playing the Angel", "Black Celebration Tour", "jam session", "Schwarzkopf & Schwarzkopf", "Sounds of the Universe", "Memento Mori (Depeche Mode album)", "Jimmy Kimmel Live!", "Ghosts Again", "Only When I Lose Myself", "John the Revelator / Lilian", "Time Out (magazine)", "Cabaret Voltaire (band)", "Vince Clarke", "Warner Records", "Alison Moyet", "aortic dissection", "Rough Guides", "RIAA", "industrial rock", "Sampling (music)", "Touring the Angel", "Kraftwerk", "Sasha Frere-Jones", "No Doubt", "A Perfect Circle", "Policy of Truth", "fast fashion", "Strangelove (song)", "World Violation Tour", "Gary Numan", "Just Can't Get Enough (Depeche Mode song)", "Entertainment Weekly", "Details (magazine)", "Win Butler", "Colorado", "David Bowie", "Jim Kerr", "People Are People (album)", "Gospel music", "indie rock", "Fragile Tension / Hole to Feed", "Lollapalooza", "Precious (Depeche Mode song)", "Achtung Baby", "Muse (band)", "Soundgarden", "electronic music", "The Face (magazine)", "Dream On (Depeche Mode song)", "electronica", "The Washington Post", "Dreaming of Me", "Bundesverband Musikindustrie", "Delta Machine", "Oregon", "Canning Town", "Depeche Mode discography", "Reed Elsevier", "Uber Arena", "Nick Rhodes", "Denver", "E-mu Emulator", "Mojo (magazine)", "Black Celebration", "Hansa Tonstudio", "new wave music", "Simple Minds", "Ultimate Guitar", "Live in Berlin (Depeche Mode album and video)", "Dave Vanian", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Condemnation (song)", "Mike Shinoda", "Enjoy the Silence 04", "Coachella", "USA Weekend", "Where's the Revolution", "Sounds (magazine)", "Nirvana (band)", "Blu-ray", "Songs of Faith and Devotion Live", "Palau Sant Jordi", "Olympiastadion (Berlin)", "Shake the Disease", "Hollywood Boulevard", "Gotye", "CBC News", "The Singles 86–98", "Peter Gordeno (musician)", "Grammy Award for Best Music Video", "Remixes 81–04", "Martin Gore", "Synth-pop", "PopMatters", "Ultravox", "Los Angeles", "Suicide (band)", "the Velvet Underground", "Blasphemous Rumours / Somebody", "Einstürzende Neubauten", "iTunes", "Soothe My Soul", "Tel Aviv", "Cancer Research UK", "Enjoy the Silence", "A Broken Frame", "TsUM (Moscow)", "CNN", "Simon & Schuster", "Wrong (Depeche Mode song)", "Heavy metal music", "Memento Mori World Tour", "Pollstar", "1984 Summer Olympics", "Cologne", "grunge", "Paul van Dyk", "Milan", "Basildon", "Personal Jesus 2011", "Remixes 2: 81–11", "Intelligent dance music", "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame", "Detroit", "Elvis Presley", "LA Weekly", "List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance Club Songs chart", "McNichols Sports Arena", "Alan Wilder", "String instrument", "Forum di Milano", "Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung", "Ultra (Depeche Mode album)", "Essex", "YouTube", "Opening act", "Mark Bell (British musician)", "Useless (song)", "Sony", "Reprise Records", "Gareth Jones (music producer)", "The Guardian", "Get the Balance Right!", "François Kevorkian", "I Feel You", "techno", "Tour of the Universe: Barcelona 20/21.11.09", "Facebook", "Recoil (band)", "Scout hall", "Billboard Hot 100", "Peace (Depeche Mode song)", "Barron's (newspaper)", "Stereogum", "East Germany", "Miike Snow", "electronic rock", "Vine Street", "LFO (British band)", "Sampler (musical instrument)", "Fad Gadget", "a-ha", "Spirit (Depeche Mode album)", "Nine Inch Nails", "heavy metal music", "the Psychedelic Furs", "Amazon (company)", "uilleann pipes", "Official Charts Company", "Los Angeles City Hall", "Metacritic", "Some Great Reward", "Avant-garde music", "David Atlanta", "Pop music", "Melody Maker", "La Roux", "alternative rock", "AHK-toong BAY-bi Covered", "Synclavier", "Phoenix, Arizona", "Should Be Higher", "The Times", "Alternative rock", "Omnibus Press", "VH1", "Freelove", "Consequence of Sound", "Capitol Records", "Speak & Spell (album)", "Rolling Stone", "Hourglass (Dave Gahan album)", "dark wave", "Andy Fletcher (musician)", "Everything Counts", "Iggy Pop", "1988 MTV Video Music Awards", "New wave music", "Rose Bowl (stadium)", "Spirits in the Forest", "Virgin Records", "musicOMH", "One Night in Paris", "Toronto Star", "Music for the Masses", "Leave in Silence", "BBC", "People Are People", "post-punk", "Motion picture content rating system", "Monica Rodriguez", "The Arizona Republic", "Until the End of the World", "Sparks (band)", "Les Inrockuptibles", "Chvrches", "punk rock", "AllMusic", "Charity: Water", "Only You (Yazoo song)", "A-side and B-side", "Erasure (duo)", "Valve Corporation", "New Life (song)", "The Best of Depeche Mode Volume 1", "Alice in Chains", "I Feel Loved", "Metric (band)", "World in My Eyes", "Trent Reznor", "Anton Corbijn", "Prentice Hall", "Devotional (video)", "drug rehabilitation", "Slicing Up Eyeballs", "gastroenteritis", "Duran Duran", "Stargate (record producers)", "Personal advertisement", "Johnny Cash", "Ben Hillier", "Brit Awards", "Exotic Tour/Summer Tour '94", "Counterfeit 2", "The New Yorker", "Detroit techno", "Touring the Angel: Live in Milan", "Record Mirror", "The Damned (band)", "Songs of Faith and Devotion", "Marilyn Manson", "Behind the Wheel", "MusiCares", "Hollywood Bowl", "Stylus Magazine", "Dodger Stadium", "Hamburg", "the Clash", "Music Sales Group", "Industrial music", "Contactmusic.com", "James Ford (musician)", "Bon Jovi", "Teenage Cancer Trust", "Iron Curtain", "Amanda Palmer", "Pitchfork (website)", "Some Bizzare Album", "Answers.com", "Jane's Addiction", "Echo (music award)", "Grammy Award for Best Dance/Electronic Recording", "Yazoo (band)", "Pasadena, California", "Old French", "Winnipeg Free Press", "Demo (music)", "Phonogram Inc.", "Prince (musician)", "Giants Stadium", "The Meaning of Love", "Richard Butler (singer)", "Hublot", "the Killers", "Live Aid", "Barcelona", "Marilyn Manson (band)", "Smash Hits", "Engadget", "NME", "Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album", "the Cure", "Fear Factory", "Master and Servant", "Coldplay", "Luxembourg", "dance-rock", "Remix album", "Barrel of a Gun", "BBC News Online", "Berliner Zeitung", "101 (album)", "It's Called a Heart", "South Philly Review", "Catching Up with Depeche Mode", "Paper Monsters", "Top of the Pops", "Frankfurter Rundschau", "The Singles 81→85", "Warsaw", "Heaven (Depeche Mode song)", "Q (magazine)", "Hollywood and Vine", "Tour of the Universe (tour)", "Columbia Records", "Suffer Well", "Mute Records", "Budapest", "KROQ-FM", "Martyr (song)", "The Independent", "Neil Young", "Brian Eno", "Construction Time Again", "Daryl Bamonte", "Tears for Fears", "Keyboard (magazine)", "The Sunday Telegraph", "Universal Amphitheatre", "Sire Records", "Portland, Oregon", "Röyksopp", "Arcade Fire", "Shakira", "Robert Marlow", "EMI", "\"Heroes\" (David Bowie song)", "U2", "Violator (album)", "Soul music", "Release Magazine", "The Delta Machine Tour", "See You (Depeche Mode song)", "Gigwise", "synthesiser", "Bremen", "UK singles chart", "Tegan and Sara", "Deftones", "Spin (magazine)", "the Human League", "Eric Prydz", "Until the End of the World (soundtrack)", "the Smashing Pumpkins", "Variety (magazine)", "Talking Heads", "James Brown", "Art of Noise", "Vanity Fair (magazine)", "Recording Industry Association of America", "MTV News", "Tim Simenon", "Helene Fischer", "Chris Martin", "blues", "A Question of Time", "Rock's Backpages", "record producer", "Royal Albert Hall", "Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark", "Goodnight Lovers", "Exciter (Depeche Mode album)", "Matt Bellamy", "Personal Jesus", "Alternative Airplay", "Santa Barbara, California", "Never Let Me Down Again", "Dave Gahan", "John Lennon", "List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. alternative rock chart", "Flood (music producer)", "Siouxsie and the Banshees", "John Foxx", "KUTV", "Linkin Park", "Global Spirit Tour", "synth-pop", "Wireless Festival", "Echo Music Prize", "Sound on Sound", "Pet Shop Boys", "So Cruel", "compilation album", "Grammy Award for Best Music Film", "It's No Good", "Ghost Archive", "Business Wire" ]
8,536	Differential cryptanalysis	Differential cryptanalysis is a general form of cryptanalysis applicable primarily to block ciphers, but also to stream ciphers and cryptographic hash functions. In the broadest sense, it is the study of how differences in information input can affect the resultant difference at the output. In the case of a block cipher, it refers to a set of techniques for tracing differences through the network of transformation, discovering where the cipher exhibits non-random behavior, and exploiting such properties to recover the secret key (cryptography key). ==History== The discovery of differential cryptanalysis is generally attributed to Eli Biham and Adi Shamir in the late 1980s, who published a number of attacks against various block ciphers and hash functions, including a theoretical weakness in the Data Encryption Standard (DES). It was noted by Biham and Shamir that DES was surprisingly resistant to differential cryptanalysis, but small modifications to the algorithm would make it much more susceptible. In 1994, a member of the original IBM DES team, Don Coppersmith, published a paper stating that differential cryptanalysis was known to IBM as early as 1974, and that defending against differential cryptanalysis had been a design goal. According to author Steven Levy, IBM had discovered differential cryptanalysis on its own, and the NSA was apparently well aware of the technique. IBM kept some secrets, as Coppersmith explains: "After discussions with NSA, it was decided that disclosure of the design considerations would reveal the technique of differential cryptanalysis, a powerful technique that could be used against many ciphers. This in turn would weaken the competitive advantage the United States enjoyed over other countries in the field of cryptography." While DES was designed with resistance to differential cryptanalysis in mind, other contemporary ciphers proved to be vulnerable. An early target for the attack was the FEAL block cipher. The original proposed version with four rounds (FEAL-4) can be broken using only eight chosen plaintexts, and even a 31-round version of FEAL is susceptible to the attack. In contrast, the scheme can successfully cryptanalyze DES with an effort on the order of 247 chosen plaintexts. ==Attack mechanics== Differential cryptanalysis is usually a chosen plaintext attack, meaning that the attacker must be able to obtain ciphertexts for some set of plaintexts of their choosing. There are, however, extensions that would allow a known plaintext or even a ciphertext-only attack. The basic method uses pairs of plaintexts related by a constant difference. Difference can be defined in several ways, but the eXclusive OR (XOR) operation is usual. The attacker then computes the differences of the corresponding ciphertexts, hoping to detect statistical patterns in their distribution. The resulting pair of differences is called a differential. Their statistical properties depend upon the nature of the S-boxes used for encryption, so the attacker analyses differentials (\Delta_x, \Delta_y) where \Delta_y = S(x \oplus \Delta_x) \oplus S(x) (and ⊕ denotes exclusive or) for each such S-box S. In the basic attack, one particular ciphertext difference is expected to be especially frequent. In this way, the cipher can be distinguished from random. More sophisticated variations allow the key to be recovered faster than an exhaustive search. In the most basic form of key recovery through differential cryptanalysis, an attacker requests the ciphertexts for a large number of plaintext pairs, then assumes that the differential holds for at least r − 1 rounds, where r is the total number of rounds. The attacker then deduces which round keys (for the final round) are possible, assuming the difference between the blocks before the final round is fixed. When round keys are short, this can be achieved by simply exhaustively decrypting the ciphertext pairs one round with each possible round key. When one round key has been deemed a potential round key considerably more often than any other key, it is assumed to be the correct round key. For any particular cipher, the input difference must be carefully selected for the attack to be successful. An analysis of the algorithm's internals is undertaken; the standard method is to trace a path of highly probable differences through the various stages of encryption, termed a differential characteristic. Since differential cryptanalysis became public knowledge, it has become a basic concern of cipher designers. New designs are expected to be accompanied by evidence that the algorithm is resistant to this attack and many including the Advanced Encryption Standard, have been proven secure against the attack. ==Attack in detail== The attack relies primarily on the fact that a given input/output difference pattern only occurs for certain values of inputs. Usually the attack is applied in essence to the non-linear components as if they were a solid component (usually they are in fact look-up tables or S-boxes). Observing the desired output difference (between two chosen or known plaintext inputs) suggests possible key values. For example, if a differential of 1 => 1 (implying a difference in the least significant bit (LSB) of the input leads to an output difference in the LSB) occurs with probability of 4/256 (possible with the non-linear function in the AES cipher for instance) then for only 4 values (or 2 pairs) of inputs is that differential possible. Suppose we have a non-linear function where the key is XOR'ed before evaluation and the values that allow the differential are {2,3} and {4,5}. If the attacker sends in the values of {6, 7} and observes the correct output difference it means the key is either 6 ⊕ K = 2, or 6 ⊕ K = 4, meaning the key K is either 2 or 4. In essence, to protect a cipher from the attack, for an n-bit non-linear function one would ideally seek as close to 2−(n − 1) as possible to achieve differential uniformity. When this happens, the differential attack requires as much work to determine the key as simply brute forcing the key. The AES non-linear function has a maximum differential probability of 4/256 (most entries however are either 0 or 2). Meaning that in theory one could determine the key with half as much work as brute force, however, the high branch of AES prevents any high probability trails from existing over multiple rounds. In fact, the AES cipher would be just as immune to differential and linear attacks with a much weaker non-linear function. The incredibly high branch (active S-box count) of 25 over 4R means that over 8 rounds, no attack involves fewer than 50 non-linear transforms, meaning that the probability of success does not exceed Pr[attack] ≤ Pr[best attack on S-box]50. For example, with the current S-box AES emits no fixed differential with a probability higher than (4/256)50 or 2−300 which is far lower than the required threshold of 2−128 for a 128-bit block cipher. This would have allowed room for a more efficient S-box, even if it is 16-uniform the probability of attack would have still been 2−200. There exist no bijections for even sized inputs/outputs with 2-uniformity. They exist in odd fields (such as GF(27)) using either cubing or inversion (there are other exponents that can be used as well). For instance, S(x) = x3 in any odd binary field is immune to differential and linear cryptanalysis. This is in part why the MISTY designs use 7- and 9-bit functions in the 16-bit non-linear function. What these functions gain in immunity to differential and linear attacks, they lose to algebraic attacks. That is, they are possible to describe and solve via a SAT solver. This is in part why AES (for instance) has an affine mapping after the inversion. ==Specialized types== Higher-order differential cryptanalysis Truncated differential cryptanalysis Impossible differential cryptanalysis Boomerang attack	[ "Subtraction", "affine mapping", "Linear cryptanalysis", "Data Encryption Standard", "FEAL", "randomness", "Encryption", "Brute force attack", "Exclusive or", "Chosen-plaintext attack", "Eli Biham", "Higher-order differential cryptanalysis", "cipher", "Differential (mathematics)", "cryptanalysis", "plaintext", "Impossible differential cryptanalysis", "Steven Levy", "non-randomness", "Advanced Encryption Standard", "Block cipher", "Mathematical proof", "Differential equations of addition", "Integral cryptanalysis", "AES cipher", "known plaintext attack", "Don Coppersmith", "Boomerang attack", "Adi Shamir", "Truncated differential cryptanalysis", "MISTY", "sci.crypt", "NSA", "Boolean satisfiability problem", "S-box", "ciphertext-only attack", "chosen plaintext attack", "block cipher", "Cryptography", "Penguin Books", "least significant bit" ]
8,537	Document type definition	A document type definition (DTD) is a specification file that contains a set of markup declarations that define a document type for an SGML-family markup language (GML, SGML, XML, HTML). The DTD specification file can be used to validate documents. A DTD defines the valid building blocks of an XML document. It defines the document structure with a list of validated elements and attributes. A DTD can be declared inline inside an XML document, or as an external reference. A namespace-aware version of DTDs is being developed as Part 9 of ISO DSDL. DTDs persist in applications that need special publishing characters, such as the XML and HTML Character Entity References, which derive from larger sets defined as part of the ISO SGML standard effort. XML uses a subset of SGML DTD. , newer XML namespace-aware schema languages (such as W3C XML Schema and ISO RELAX NG) have largely superseded DTDs as a better way to validate XML structure. == Associating DTDs with documents == A DTD is associated with an XML or SGML document by means of a document type declaration (DOCTYPE). The DOCTYPE appears in the syntactic fragment doctypedecl near the start of an XML document. The declaration establishes that the document is an instance of the type defined by the referenced DTD. DOCTYPEs make two sorts of declarations: an optional external subset an optional internal subset. The declarations in the internal subset form part of the DOCTYPE in the document itself. The declarations in the external subset are located in a separate text file. The external subset may be referenced via a public identifier and/or a system identifier. Programs for reading documents may not be required to read the external subset. Any valid SGML or XML document that references an external subset in its DTD, or whose body contains references to parsed external entities declared in its DTD (including those declared within its internal subset), may only be partially parsed but cannot be fully validated by validating SGML or XML parsers in their standalone mode (this means that these validating parsers do not attempt to retrieve these external entities, and their replacement text is not accessible). However, such documents are still fully parsable in the non-standalone mode of validating parsers, which signals an error if it can not locate these external entities with their specified public identifier (FPI) or system identifier (a URI), or are inaccessible. (Notations declared in the DTD are also referencing external entities, but these unparsed entities are not needed for the validation of documents in the standalone mode of these parsers: the validation of all external entities referenced by notations is left to the application using the SGML or XML parser). Non-validating parsers may eventually attempt to locate these external entities in the non-standalone mode (by partially interpreting the DTD only to resolve their declared parsable entities), but do not validate the content model of these documents. === Examples === The following example of a DOCTYPE contains both public and system identifiers: <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> All HTML 4.01 documents conform to one of three SGML DTDs. The public identifiers of these DTDs are constant and are as follows: -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Frameset//EN The system identifiers of these DTDs, if present in the DOCTYPE, are URI references. A system identifier usually points to a specific set of declarations in a resolvable location. SGML allows mapping public identifiers to system identifiers in catalogs that are optionally available to the URI resolvers used by document parsing software. This DOCTYPE can only appear after the optional XML declaration, and before the document body, if the document syntax conforms to XML. This includes XHTML documents: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> ... An additional internal subset can also be provided after the external subset: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd" [ ]> ... Alternatively, only the internal subset may be provided: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> <!DOCTYPE html [ ]> ... Finally, the document type definition may include no subset at all; in that case, it just specifies that the document has a single top-level element (this is an implicit requirement for all valid XML and HTML documents, but not for document fragments or for all SGML documents, whose top-level elements may be different from the implied root element), and it indicates the type name of the root element: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> <!DOCTYPE html> ... == Markup declarations == DTDs describe the structure of a class of documents via element and attribute-list declarations. Element declarations name the allowable set of elements within the document, and specify whether and how declared elements and runs of character data may be contained within each element. Attribute-list declarations name the allowable set of attributes for each declared element, including the type of each attribute value, if not an explicit set of valid values. DTD markup declarations declare which element types, attribute lists, entities, and notations are allowed in the structure of the corresponding class of XML documents. === Element type declarations === An element type declaration defines an element and its possible content. A valid XML document contains only elements that are defined in the DTD. Various keywords and characters specify an element's content: EMPTY for specifying that the defined element allows no content, i.e., it cannot have any children elements, not even text elements (if there are whitespaces, they are ignored); ANY for specifying that the defined element allows any content, without restriction, i.e., that it may have any number (including none) and type of children elements (including text elements); or an expression, specifying the only elements allowed as direct children in the content of the defined element; this content can be either: a mixed content, which means that the content may include at least one text element and zero or more named elements, but their order and number of occurrences cannot be restricted; this can be: ( #PCDATA ): historically meaning parsed character data, this means that only one text element is allowed in the content (no quantifier is allowed); ( #PCDATA \| element name \| ... ): a limited choice (in an exclusive list between parentheses and separated by "\|" pipe characters and terminated by the required "" quantifier) of two or more child elements (including only text elements or the specified named elements) may be used in any order and number of occurrences in the content. an element content, which means that there must be no text elements in the children elements of the content (all whitespaces encoded between child elements are then ignored, just like comments). Such element content is specified as content particle in a variant of Backus–Naur form without terminal symbols and element names as non-terminal symbols. Element content consists of: a content particle can be either the name of an element declared in the DTD, or a sequence list or choice list. It may be followed by an optional quantifier. a sequence list means an ordered list (specified between parentheses and separated by a "," comma character) of one or more content particles: all the content particles must appear successively as direct children in the content of the defined element, at the specified position and relative order; a choice list means a mutually exclusive list (specified between parentheses and separated by a "\|" pipe character) of two or more content particles: only one of these content particles may appear in the content of the defined element at the same position. A quantifier is a single character that immediately follows the specified item it applies to, to restrict the number of successive occurrences of these items at the specified position in the content of the element; it may be either: + for specifying that there must be one or more occurrences of the item — the effective content of each occurrence may be different; * for specifying that any number (zero or more) of occurrences is allowed — the item is optional and the effective content of each occurrence may be different; ? for specifying that there must not be more than one occurrence — the item is optional; If there is no quantifier, the specified item must occur exactly one time at the specified position in the content of the element. For example: <!ELEMENT html (head, body)> <!ELEMENT p (#PCDATA \| p \| ul \| dl \| table \| h1\|h2\|h3)> Element type declarations are ignored by non-validating SGML and XML parsers (in which cases, any elements are accepted in any order, and in any number of occurrences in the parsed document), but these declarations are still checked for form and validity. === Attribute list declarations === An attribute list specifies for a given element type the list of all possible attribute associated with that type. For each possible attribute, it contains: the declared name of the attribute, its data type (or an enumeration of its possible values), and its default value. For example: <!ATTLIST img src CDATA #REQUIRED id ID #IMPLIED sort CDATA #FIXED "true" print (yes \| no) "yes" > Here are some attribute types supported by both SGML and XML: CDATA: this type means characters data and indicates that the effective value of the attribute can be any textual value, unless the attribute is specified as fixed (the comments in the DTD may further document values that are effectively accepted, but the DTD syntax does not allow such precise specification); ID: the effective value of the attribute must be a valid identifier, and it is used to define and anchor to the current element the target of references using this defined identifier (including as document fragment identifiers that may be specified at end of an URI after a "#" sign); it is an error if distinct elements in the same document are defining the same identifier; the uniqueness constraint also implies that the identifier itself carries no other semantics and that identifiers must be treated as opaque in applications; XML also predefines the standard pseudo-attribute "xml:id" with this type, without needing any declaration in the DTD, so the uniqueness constraint also applies to these defined identifiers when they are specified anywhere in a XML document. IDREF or IDREFS: the effective value of the attribute can only be a valid identifier (or a space-separated list of such identifiers) and must be referencing the unique element defined in the document with an attribute declared with the type ID in the DTD (or the unique element defined in an XML document with a pseudo-attribute "xml:id") and whose effective value is the same identifier; NMTOKEN or NMTOKENS: the effective value of the attribute can only be a valid name token (or a spaced-separated list of such name tokens), but it is not restricted to a unique identifier within the document; this name may carry supplementary and application-dependent semantics and may require additional naming constraints, but this is out of scope of the DTD; ENTITY or ENTITIES: the effective value of the attribute can only be the name of an unparsed external entity (or a space-separated list of such names), which must also be declared in the document type declaration; this type is not supported in HTML parsers, but is valid in SGML and XML 1.0 or 1.1 (including XHTML and SVG); (value1\|...): the effective value of the attribute can only be one of the enumerated list (specified between parentheses and separated by a "\|" pipe character) of textual values, where each value in the enumeration is possibly specified between 'single' or "double" quotation marks if it's not a simple name token; NOTATION (notation1\|...): the effective value of the attribute can only be any one of the enumerated list (specified between parentheses and separated by a "\|" pipe character) of notation names, where each notation name in the enumeration must also be declared in the document type declaration; this type is not supported in HTML parsers, but is valid in SGML and XML 1.0 or 1.1 (including XHTML and SVG). A default value can define whether an attribute must occur (#REQUIRED) or not (#IMPLIED), or whether it has a fixed value (#FIXED), or which value should be used as a default value ("…") in case the given attribute is left out in an XML tag. Attribute list declarations are ignored by non-validating SGML and XML parsers (in which cases any attribute is accepted within all elements of the parsed document), but these declarations are still checked for well-formedness and validity. === Entity declarations === An entity is similar to a macro. The entity declaration assigns it a value that is retained throughout the document. A common use is to have a name more recognizable than a numeric character reference for an unfamiliar character. Entities help to improve legibility of an XML text. In general, there are two types: internal and external. Internal (parsed) entities are associating a name with any arbitrary textual content defined in their declaration (which may be in the internal subset or in the external subset of the DTD declared in the document). When a named entity reference is then encountered in the rest of the document (including in the rest of the DTD), and if this entity name has effectively been defined as a parsed entity, the reference itself is replaced immediately by the textual content defined in the parsed entity, and the parsing continues within this replacement text. Predefined named character entities are similar to internal entities: 5 of them however are treated specially in all SGML, HTML and XML parsers. These entities are a bit different from normal parsed entities, because when a named character entity reference is encountered in the document, the reference is also replaced immediately by the character content defined in the entity, but the parsing continues after the replacement text, which is immediately inserted literally in the currently parsed token (if such character is permitted in the textual value of that token). This allows some characters that are needed for the core syntax of HTML or XML themselves to be escaped from their special syntactic role (notably "&" which is reserved for beginning entity references, "<" or ">" which delimit the markup tags, and "double" or 'single' quotation marks, which delimit the values of attributes and entity definitions). Predefined character entities also include numeric character references that are handled the same way and can also be used to escape the characters they represent, or to bypass limitations in the character repertoire supported by the document encoding. In basic profiles for SGML or in HTML documents, the declaration of internal entities is not possible (because external DTD subsets are not retrieved, and internal DTD subsets are not supported in these basic profiles). Instead, HTML standards predefine a large set of several hundred named character entities, which can still be handled as standard parsed entities defined in the DTD used by the parser. External entities refer to external storage objects. They are just declared by a unique name in the document, and defined with a public identifier (an FPI) and/or a system identifier (interpreted as an URI) specifying where the source of their content. They exist in fact in two variants: parsed external entities (most often defined with a SYSTEM identifier indicating the URI of their content) that are not associated in their definition to a named annotation, in which case validating XML or SGML parsers retrieve their contents and parse them as if they were declared as internal entities (the external entity containing their effective replacement text); unparsed external entities that are defined and associated with an annotation name, in which case they are treated as opaque references and signaled as such to the application using the SGML or XML parser: their interpretation, retrieval and parsing is left to the application, according to the types of annotations it supports (see the next section about annotations and for examples of unparsed external entities). External entities are not supported in basic profiles for SGML or in HTML documents, but are valid in full implementations of SGML and in XML 1.0 or 1.1 (including XHTML and SVG, even if they are not strictly needed in those document types). An example of internal entity declarations (here in an internal DTD subset of an SGML document) is: <!DOCTYPE sgml [ <!ELEMENT sgml ANY> <!ENTITY % std "standard SGML"> <!ENTITY % signature " — &author;."> <!ENTITY % question "Why couldn’t I publish my books directly in %std;?"> <!ENTITY % author "William Shakespeare"> ]> &question;&signature; Internal entities may be defined in any order, as long as they are not referenced and parsed in the DTD or in the body of the document, in their order of parsing: it is valid to include a reference to a still undefined entity within the content of a parsed entity, but it is invalid to include anywhere else any named entity reference before this entity has been fully defined, including all other internal entities referenced in its defined content (this also prevents circular or recursive definitions of internal entities). This document is parsed as if it was: <!DOCTYPE sgml [ <!ELEMENT sgml ANY> <!ENTITY % std "standard SGML"> <!ENTITY % signature " — &author;."> <!ENTITY % question "Why couldn’t I publish my books directly in standard SGML?"> <!ENTITY % author "William Shakespeare"> ]> Why couldn’t I publish my books directly in standard SGML? — William Shakespeare. Reference to the "author" internal entity is not substituted in the replacement text of the "signature" internal entity. Instead, it is replaced only when the "signature" entity reference is parsed within the content of the "sgml" element, but only by validating parsers (non-validating parsers do not substitute entity references occurring within contents of element or within attribute values, in the body of the document. This is possible because the replacement text specified in the internal entity definitions permits a distinction between parameter entity references (that are introduced by the "%" character and whose replacement applies to the parsed DTD contents) and general entity references (that are introduced by the "&" character and whose replacement is delayed until they are effectively parsed and validated). The "%" character for introducing parameter entity references in the DTD loses its special role outside the DTD and it becomes a literal character. However, the references to predefined character entities are substituted wherever they occur, without needing a validating parser (they are only introduced by the "&" character). === Notation declarations === Notations are used in SGML or XML. They provide a complete reference to unparsed external entities whose interpretation is left to the application (which interprets them directly or retrieves the external entity themselves), by assigning them a simple name, which is usable in the body of the document. For example, notations may be used to reference non-XML data in an XML 1.1 document. For example, to annotate SVG images to associate them with a specific renderer: <!NOTATION type-image-svg SYSTEM "image/svg"> This declares the TEXT of external images with this type, and associates it with a notation name "type-image-svg". However, notation names usually follow a naming convention that is specific to the application generating or using the notation: notations are interpreted as additional meta-data whose effective content is an external entity and either a PUBLIC FPI, registered in the catalogs used by XML or SGML parsers, or a SYSTEM URI, whose interpretation is application dependent (here a MIME type, interpreted as a relative URI, but it could be an absolute URI to a specific renderer, or a URN indicating an OS-specific object identifier such as a UUID). The declared notation name must be unique within all the document type declaration, i.e. in the external subset as well as the internal subset, at least for conformance with XML. Notations can be associated to unparsed external entities included in the body of the SGML or XML document. The PUBLIC or SYSTEM parameter of these external entities specifies the FPI and/or the URI where the unparsed data of the external entity is located, and the additional NDATA parameter of these defined entities specifies the additional notation (i.e., effectively the MIME type here). For example: <!DOCTYPE sgml [ <!ELEMENT sgml (img)> <!ELEMENT img EMPTY> <!ATTLIST img data ENTITY #IMPLIED> <!ENTITY example1SVG SYSTEM "example1.svg" NDATA example1SVG-rdf> <!NOTATION example1SVG-rdf SYSTEM "example1.svg.rdf"> ]> Within the body of the SGML document, these referenced external entities (whose name is specified between "&" and ";") are not replaced like usual named entities (defined with a CDATA value), but are left as distinct unparsed tokens that may be used either as the value of an element attribute (like above) or within the element contents, provided that either the DTD allows such external entities in the declared content type of elements or in the declared type of attributes (here the ENTITY type for the data attribute), or the SGML parser is not validating the content. Notations may also be associated directly to elements as additional meta-data, without associating them to another external entity, by giving their names as possible values of some additional attributes (also declared in the DTD within the <!ATTLIST ...> declaration of the element). For example: <!DOCTYPE sgml [ <!ELEMENT sgml (img)> <!ATTLIST sgml type NOTATION ( type-vendor-specific ) #IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT img ANY> <!ATTLIST img title CDATA #IMPLIED data ENTITY #IMPLIED type NOTATION ( type-image-svg \| type-image-gif ) #IMPLIED> <!NOTATION type-image-svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN" "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd"> <!NOTATION type-image-gif PUBLIC "image/gif"> <!NOTATION type-vendor-specific PUBLIC "application/VND.specific+sgml"> <!ENTITY example1SVGTitle "Title of example1.svg"> <!ENTITY example1SVG SYSTEM "example1.svg"> <!ENTITY example1GIFTitle "Title of example1.gif"> <!ENTITY example1GIF SYSTEM "example1.gif" NDATA type-image-gif> ]> &example1SVG; The example above shows a notation named "type-image-svg" that references the standard public FPI and the system identifier (the standard URI) of an SVG 1.1 document, instead of specifying just a system identifier as in the first example (which was a relative URI interpreted locally as a MIME type). This annotation is referenced directly within the unparsed "type" attribute of the "img" element, but its content is not retrieved. It also declares another notation for a vendor-specific application, to annotate the "sgml" root element in the document. In both cases, the declared notation named is used directly in a declared "type" attribute, whose content is specified in the DTD with the "NOTATION" attribute type (this "type" attribute is declared for the "sgml" element, as well as for the "img" element). However, the "title" attribute of the "img" element specifies the internal entity "example1SVGTitle" whose declaration that does not define an annotation, so it is parsed by validating parsers and the entity replacement text is "Title of example1.svg". The content of the "img" element references another external entity "example1SVG" whose declaration also does not define a notation, so it is also parsed by validating parsers and the entity replacement text is located by its defined SYSTEM identifier "example1.svg" (also interpreted as a relative URI). The effective content for the "img" element be the content of this second external resource. The difference with the GIF image, is that the SVG image is parsed within the SGML document, according to the declarations in the DTD, where the GIF image is just referenced as an opaque external object (which is not parsable with SGML) via its "data" attribute (whose value type is an opaque ENTITY). Only one notation name may be specified in the value of ENTITY attributes (there is no support in SGML, XML 1.0 or XML 1.1 for multiple notation names in the same declared external ENTITY, so separate attributes are needed). However multiple external entities may be referenced (in a space-separated list of names) in attributes declared with type ENTITIES, and where each named external entity is also declared with its own notation). Notations are also completely opaque for XML and SGML parsers, so they are not differentiated by the type of the external entity that they may reference (for these parsers they just have a unique name associated to a public identifier (an FPI) and/or a system identifier (a URI)). Some applications (but not XML or SGML parsers themselves) also allow referencing notations indirectly by naming them in the "URN:name" value of a standard CDATA attribute, everywhere a URI can be specified. However this behaviour is application-specific, and requires that the application maintains a catalog of known URNs to resolve them into the notations that have been parsed in a standard SGML or XML parser. This use allows notations to be defined only in a DTD stored as an external entity and referenced only as the external subset of documents, and allows these documents to remain compatible with validating XML or SGML parsers that have no direct support for notations. Notations are not used in HTML, or in basic profiles for XHTML and SVG, because: All external entities used by these standard document types are referenced by simple attributes, declared with the CDATA type in their standard DTD (such as the "href" attribute of an anchor "a" element, or the "src" attribute of an image "img" element, whose values are interpreted as a URI, without needing any catalog of public identifiers, i.e., known FPI) All external entities for additional meta-data are referenced by either: Additional attributes (such as type, which indicates the MIME type of the external entity, or the charset attribute, which indicates its encoding) Additional elements (such as link or meta in HTML and XHTML) within their own attributes Standard pseudo-attributes in XML and XHTML (such as xml:lang, or xmlns and xmlns: for namespace declarations). Even in validating SGML or XML 1.0 or XML 1.1 parsers, the external entities referenced by an FPI and/or URI in declared notations are not retrieved automatically by the parsers themselves. Instead, these parsers just provide to the application the parsed FPI and/or URI associated to the notations found in the parsed SGML or XML document, and with a facility for a dictionary containing all notation names declared in the DTD; these validating parsers also check the uniqueness of notation name declarations, and report a validation error if some notation names are used anywhere in the DTD or in the document body but not declared: If the application can not use any notation (or if their FPI and/or URI are unknown or not supported in their local catalog), these notations may be either ignored silently by the application or the application could signal an error. Otherwise, the applications decide themselves how to interpret them, then if the external entities must be retrieved and then parsed separately. Applications may then signal an error, if such interpretation, retrieval or separate parsing fails. Unrecognized notations that may cause an application to signal an error should not block interpretation of the validated document using them. == XML DTDs and schema validation == The XML DTD syntax is one of several XML schema languages. However, many of the schema languages do not fully replace the XML DTD. Notably, the XML DTD allows defining entities and notations that have no direct equivalents in DTD-less XML (because internal entities and parsable external entities are not part of XML schema languages, and because other unparsed external entities and notations have no simple equivalent mappings in most XML schema languages). Most XML schema languages are only replacements for element declarations and attribute list declarations, in such a way that it becomes possible to parse XML documents with non-validating XML parsers (if the only purpose of the external DTD subset was to define the schema). In addition, documents for these XML schema languages must be parsed separately, so validating the schema of XML documents in pure standalone mode is not really possible with these languages: the document type declaration remains necessary for at least identifying (with a XML Catalog) the schema used in the parsed XML document and that is validated in another language. A common misconception holds that a non-validating XML parser does not have to read document type declarations, when in fact, the document type declarations must still be scanned for correct syntax as well as validity of declarations, and the parser must still parse all entity declarations in the internal subset, and substitute the replacement texts of internal entities occurring anywhere in the document type declaration or in the document body. A non-validating parser may, however, elect not to read parsable external entities (including the external subset), and does not have to honor the content model restrictions defined in element declarations and in attribute list declarations. If the XML document depends on parsable external entities (including the specified external subset, or parsable external entities declared in the internal subset), it should assert standalone="no" in its XML declaration. The validating DTD may be identified by using XML Catalogs to retrieve its specified external subset. In the example below, the XML document is declared with standalone="no" because it has an external subset in its document type declaration: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?> <!DOCTYPE people_list SYSTEM "example.dtd"> If the XML document type declaration includes any SYSTEM identifier for the external subset, it can not be safely processed as standalone: the URI should be retrieved, otherwise there may be unknown named character entities whose definition may be needed to correctly parse the effective XML syntax in the internal subset or in the document body (the XML syntax parsing is normally performed after the substitution of all named entities, excluding the five entities that are predefined in XML and that are implicitly substituted after parsing the XML document into lexical tokens). If it just includes any PUBLIC identifier, it may be processed as standalone, if the XML processor knows this PUBLIC identifier in its local catalog from where it can retrieve an associated DTD entity. == XML DTD schema example == An example of a very simple external XML DTD to describe the schema of a list of persons might consist of: <!ELEMENT people_list (person)> <!ELEMENT person (name, birthdate?, gender?, socialsecuritynumber?)> <!ELEMENT name (#PCDATA)> <!ELEMENT birthdate (#PCDATA)> <!ELEMENT gender (#PCDATA)> <!ELEMENT socialsecuritynumber (#PCDATA)> Taking this line by line: people_list is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains any number of person elements. The denotes there can be 0 or more person elements within the people_list element. person is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains one element named name, followed by one named birthdate (optional), then gender (also optional) and socialsecuritynumber (also optional). The ? indicates that an element is optional. The reference to the name element name has no ?, so a person element must contain a name element. name is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains "parsed character data" (#PCDATA). birthdate is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains parsed character data. gender is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains parsed character data. socialsecuritynumber is a valid element name, and an instance of such an element contains parsed character data. An example of an XML file that uses and conforms to this DTD follows. The DTD is referenced here as an external subset, via the SYSTEM specifier and a URI. It assumes that we can identify the DTD with the relative URI reference "example.dtd"; the "people_list" after "!DOCTYPE" tells us that the root tags, or the first element defined in the DTD, is called "people_list": <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?> <!DOCTYPE people_list SYSTEM "example.dtd"> Fred Bloggs 2008-11-27 Male One can render this in an XML-enabled browser (such as Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox) by pasting and saving the DTD component above to a text file named example.dtd and the XML file to a differently-named text file, and opening the XML file with the browser. The files should both be saved in the same directory. However, many browsers do not check that an XML document confirms to the rules in the DTD; they are only required to check that the DTD is syntactically correct. For security reasons, they may also choose not to read the external DTD. The same DTD can also be embedded directly in the XML document itself as an internal subset, by encasing it within [square brackets] in the document type declaration, in which case the document no longer depends on external entities and can be processed in standalone mode: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="yes"?> <!DOCTYPE people_list [ <!ELEMENT people_list (person*)> <!ELEMENT person (name, birthdate?, gender?, socialsecuritynumber?)> <!ELEMENT name (#PCDATA)> <!ELEMENT birthdate (#PCDATA)> <!ELEMENT gender (#PCDATA)> <!ELEMENT socialsecuritynumber (#PCDATA)> ]> Fred Bloggs 2008-11-27 Male == Alternatives == Alternatives to DTDs (for specifying schemas) are available: XML Schema, also referred to as XML Schema Definition (XSD), has achieved Recommendation status within the W3C, and is popular for "data oriented" (that is, transactional non-publishing) XML use because of its stronger typing and easier round-tripping to Java declarations. Most of the publishing world has found that the added complexity of XSD would not bring them any particular benefits, so DTDs are still far more popular there. An XML Schema Definition is itself an XML document while a DTD is not. RELAX NG, which is also a part of DSDL, is an ISO international standard. It is more expressive than XSD, while providing a simpler syntax, but commercial software support has been slow in coming. == Security == An XML DTD can be used to create a denial of service (DoS) attack by defining nested entities that expand exponentially, or by sending the XML parser to an external resource that never returns. For this reason, .NET Framework provides a property that allows prohibiting or skipping DTD parsing, and recent versions of Microsoft Office applications (Microsoft Office 2010 and higher) refuse to open XML files that contain DTD declarations.	[ "fragment identifier", "XHTML", "XML namespace", "Internet Explorer", "Uniform Resource Identifier", "Formal Public Identifier", "public identifier", "IBM Generalized Markup Language", "macro (computer science)", "XML Catalog", "Mozilla Firefox", "URI", "DSDL", "system identifier", "parsing", "Journal Article Tag Suite", "HTML", "web browser", "List of XML and HTML character entity references", "SGML", "XML Schema Language Comparison", "XML declaration", "XML", "markup language", "data type", "RELAX NG", "Backus–Naur form", "XML Schema (W3C)", "XML schema", "document type declaration", "Semantic Web", "Media Hype" ]
8,539	Devil	A devil is the mythical personification of evil as it is conceived in various cultures and religious traditions. It is seen as the objectification of a hostile and destructive force. Jeffrey Burton Russell states that the different conceptions of the devil can be summed up as 1) a principle of evil independent from God, 2) an aspect of God, 3) a created being turning evil (a fallen angel) or 4) a symbol of human evil. Each tradition, culture, and religion with a devil in its mythos offers a different lens on manifestations of evil. The history of these perspectives intertwines with theology, mythology, psychiatry, art, and literature, developing independently within each of the traditions. It occurs historically in many contexts and cultures, and is given many different names—Satan (Judaism), Lucifer (Christianity), Beelzebub (Judeo-Christian), Mephistopheles (German), Iblis (Islam)—and attributes: it is portrayed as blue, black, or red; it is portrayed as having horns on its head, and without horns, and so on. == Etymology == The Modern English word devil derives from the Middle English devel, from the Old English dēofol, that in turn represents an early Germanic borrowing of the Latin diabolus. This in turn was borrowed from the Greek diábolos, "slanderer", from diabállein, "to slander" from διά diá, "across, through" and βάλλειν bállein, "to hurl", probably akin to the Sanskrit gurate, "he lifts up". == Definitions == In his book The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Jeffrey Burton Russell discusses various meanings and difficulties that are encountered when using the term devil. He does not claim to define the word in a general sense, but he describes the limited use that he intends for the word in his book—limited in order to "minimize this difficulty" and "for the sake of clarity". In this book Russell uses the word devil as "the personification of evil found in a variety of cultures", as opposed to the word Satan, which he reserves specifically for the figure in the Abrahamic religions. In the Introduction to his book Satan: A Biography, Henry Ansgar Kelly discusses various considerations and meanings that he has encountered in using terms such as devil and Satan, etc. While not offering a general definition, he describes that in his book "whenever diabolos is used as the proper name of Satan", he signals it by using "small caps". The Oxford English Dictionary has a variety of definitions for the meaning of "devil", supported by a range of citations: "Devil" may refer to Satan, the supreme spirit of evil, or one of Satan's emissaries or demons that populate Hell, or to one of the spirits that possess a demoniac person; "devil" may refer to one of the "malignant deities" feared and worshiped by "heathen people", a demon, a malignant being of superhuman powers; figuratively "devil" may be applied to a wicked person, or playfully to a rogue or rascal, or in empathy often accompanied by the word "poor" to a person—"poor devil". == Baháʼí Faith == In the Baháʼí Faith, a malevolent, superhuman entity such as a devil or satan is not believed to exist. However, these terms do appear in the Baháʼí writings, where they are used as metaphors for the lower nature of man. Human beings are seen to have free will, and are thus able to turn towards God and develop spiritual qualities or turn away from God and become immersed in their self-centered desires. Individuals who follow the temptations of the self and do not develop spiritual virtues are often described in the Baháʼí writings with the word satanic. == Christianity == In Christianity, the devil or Satan is a fallen angel who is the primary opponent of God. Some Christians also considered the Roman and Greek deities to be devils. and shall be condemned, together with the fallen angels who follow him, to eternal fire at the Last Judgment. Detail of a 16th-century painting by Jacob de Backer in the National Museum in Warsaw.]] ==== Old Testament ==== The Devil is identified with several figures in the Bible including the serpent in the Garden of Eden, Lucifer, Satan, the tempter of the Gospels, Leviathan, and the dragon in the Book of Revelation. Some parts of the Bible, which do not refer to an evil spirit or Satan at the time of the composition of the texts, are interpreted as references to the Devil in Christian tradition. Genesis 3 mentions the serpent in the Garden of Eden, which tempts Adam and Eve into eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thus causing their expulsion from the Garden. The Babylonian myth of a rising star, as the embodiment of a heavenly being who is thrown down for his attempt to ascend into the higher planes of the gods, is also found in the Bible and interpreted as a fallen angel (Isaiah 14:12–15). Ezekiel's cherub in Eden is thought to be a description of the major characteristic of the Devil, that he was created good, as a high ranking angel and lived in Eden, later turning evil on his own accord: The Hebrew term () was originally a common noun meaning "accuser" or "adversary" and derived from a verb meaning primarily "to obstruct, oppose". Satan is conceptualized as a heavenly being hostile to humans and a personification of evil 18 times in Job 1–2 and Zechariah 3. In the Book of Job, Job is a righteous man favored by God. Job 1:6–8 describes the "sons of God" () presenting themselves before God. Satan thinks Job only loves God because he has been blessed, so he requests that God tests the sincerity of Job's love for God through suffering, expecting Job to abandon his faith. God consents; Satan destroys Job's family, health, servants and flocks, yet Job refuses to condemn God. ==== New Testament ==== The Devil figures much more prominently in the New Testament and in Christian theology than in the Old Testament. The Devil is a unique entity throughout the New Testament, neither identical to the demons nor the fallen angels, the tempter and perhaps rules over the kingdoms of earth. In the temptation of Christ (Matthew 4:8–9 and Luke 4:6–7), the devil offers all kingdoms of the earth to Jesus, implying they belong to him. Since Jesus does not dispute this offer, it may indicate that the authors of those gospels believed this to be true. This event is described in all three synoptic gospels, (Matthew 4:1–11, Mark 1:12–13 and Luke 4:1–13). Some Church Fathers, such as Irenaeus, reject that the Devil holds such power, arguing that, since the devil was a liar since the beginning, he also lied here and that all kingdoms belong to God, referring to Proverbs 21. Adversaries of Jesus are suggested to be under the influence of the Devil. speaks about the Pharisees as the "offspring of the devil". John 13:2 states that the devil entered Judas Iscariot before Judas' betrayal (Luke 22:3). In all three synoptic gospels (Matthew 9:22–29, Mark 3:22–30 and Luke 11:14–20), Jesus himself is also accused of serving the Devil. Jesus' adversaries claim that he receives the power to cast out demons from Beelzebub, the Devil. In response, Jesus says that a house divided against itself will fall, and that there would be no reason for the devil to allow one to defeat the devil's works with his own power. According to the First Epistle of Peter, "Like a roaring lion your adversary the devil prowls around, looking for someone to devour" (1 Peter 5:8). The authors of the Second Epistle of Peter and the Epistle of Jude believe that God prepares judgment for the devil and his fellow fallen angels, who are bound in darkness until the Divine retribution. In the Epistle to the Romans, the inspirer of sin is also implied to be the author of death. In the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, Paul the Apostle warns that Satan is often disguised as an angel of light. Many scholars explain the Devil's fall from God's grace in Neoplatonic fashion. According to Origen, God created rational creatures first then the material world. The rational creatures are divided into angels and humans, both endowed with free will, and the material world is a result of their evil choices. Therefore, the Devil is considered most remote from the presence of God, and those who adhere to the Devil's will follow the Devil's removal from God's presence. Similar, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite considers evil as a deficiency having no real ontological existence. Thus the Devil is conceptualized as the entity most remote from God. Dante Alighieri's Inferno follows a similar portrayal of the Devil by placing him at the bottom of hell where he becomes the center of the material and sinful world to which all sinfulness is drawn. From the beginning of the early modern period (around the 1400s), Christians started to imagine the Devil as an increasingly powerful entity, actively leading people into falsehood. For Martin Luther the Devil was not a deficit of good, but a real, personal and powerful entity, with a presumptuous will against God, his word and his creation. Luther lists several hosts of greater and lesser devils. Greater devils would incite to greater sins, like unbelief and heresy, while lesser devils to minor sins like greed and fornication. Among these devils also appears Asmodeus known from the Book of Tobit. These anthropomorphic devils are used as stylistic devices for his audience, although Luther regards them as different manifestations of one spirit (i.e. the Devil). Others rejected that the Devil has any independent reality on his own. David Joris was the first of the Anabaptists to suggest the Devil was only an allegory (); this view found a small but persistent following in the Netherlands. The Devil as a fallen angel symbolized Adam's fall from God's grace and Satan represented a power within man. == Gnostic religions == Gnostic and Gnostic-influenced religions postulate the idea that the material world is inherently evil. The One true God is remote, beyond the material universe; therefore, this universe must be governed by an inferior imposter deity. This deity was identified with the deity of the Old Testament by some sects, such as the Sethians and the Marcions. Tertullian accuses Marcion of Sinope, that he John Arendzen (1909) in the Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) mentions that Eusebius accused Apelles, the 2nd-century AD Gnostic, of considering the Inspirer of Old Testament prophecies to be not a god, but an evil angel. These writings commonly refer to the Creator of the material world as "a demiurgus" === Catharism === In the 12th century in Europe the Cathars, who were rooted in Gnosticism, dealt with the problem of evil, and developed ideas of dualism and demonology. The Cathars were seen as a serious potential challenge to the Catholic church of the time. The Cathars split into two camps. The first is absolute dualism, which held that evil was completely separate from the good God, and that God and the devil each had power. The second camp is mitigated dualism, which considers Lucifer to be a son of God and a brother to Christ. To explain this, they used the parable of the prodigal son, with Christ as the good son, and Lucifer as the son that strayed into evilness. The Catholic Church responded to dualism in AD 1215 in the Fourth Lateran Council, saying that God created everything from nothing, and the devil was good when he was created, but he made himself bad by his own free will. In the Gospel of the Secret Supper, Lucifer, just as in prior Gnostic systems, appears as a demiurge, who created the material world. == Islam == In Islam, the principle of evil is expressed by two terms referring to the same entity: Shaitan (meaning astray, distant or devil) and Iblis. Iblis is the proper name of the devil representing the characteristics of evil. Iblis is mentioned in the Quranic narrative about the creation of humanity. When God created Adam, he ordered the angels to prostrate themselves before him. Out of pride, Iblis refused and claimed to be superior to Adam. Therefore, pride but also envy became a sign of "unbelief" in Islam. knowing the righteous would resist Iblis' attempts to misguide them. In Islam, both good and evil are ultimately created by God. But since God's will is good, the evil in the world must be part of God's plan. Actually, God allowed the devil to seduce humanity. Evil and suffering are regarded as a test or a chance to prove confidence in God. Muslims hold that the pre-Islamic jinn, tutelary deities, became subject under Islam to the judgment of God, and that those who did not submit to the law of God are devils. Although Iblis is often compared to the devil in Christian theology, Islam rejects the idea that Satan is an opponent of God and the implied struggle between God and the devil. Iblis might either be regarded as the most monotheistic or the greatest sinner, but remains only a creature of God. Iblis did not become an unbeliever due to his disobedience, but because of attributing injustice to God; that is, by asserting that the command to prostrate himself before Adam was inappropriate. There is no reference to angelic revolt in the Quran and no mention of Iblis trying to take God's throne, and Iblis's sin could be forgiven at any time by God. According to the Quran, Iblis's disobedience was due to his disdain for humanity, a narrative already occurring in early New Testament apocrypha. As in Christianity, Iblis was once a pious creature of God but later cast out of Heaven due to his pride. However, to maintain God's absolute sovereignty, Islam matches the line taken by Irenaeus instead of the later Christian consensus that the devil did not rebel against God but against humanity. he plays a less significant role as the personification of evil than in Christianity. Iblis is merely a tempter, notable for inciting humans into sin by whispering into humans minds (waswās), akin to the Jewish idea of the devil as yetzer hara. On the other hand, Shaitan refers unilaterally to forces of evil, including the devil Iblis who causes mischief. Shaitan is also linked to humans' psychological nature, appearing in dreams, causing anger, or interrupting the mental preparation for prayer. In Muslim culture, devils are believed to be hermaphrodite creatures created from hell-fire, with one male and one female thigh, and able to procreate without a mate. It is generally believed that devils can harm the souls of humans through their whisperings. While whisperings tempt humans to sin, the devils might enter the hearth (qalb) of an individual. If the devils take over the soul of a person, this would render them aggressive or insane. In extreme cases, the alterings of the soul are believed to have effect on the body, matching its spiritual qualities. === In Sufism and mysticism === In contrast to Occidental philosophy, the Sufi idea of seeing "Many as One" and considering the creation in its essence as the Absolute, leads to the idea of the dissolution of any dualism between the ego substance and the "external" substantial objects. The rebellion against God, mentioned in the Quran, takes place on the level of the psyche that must be trained and disciplined for its union with the spirit that is pure. Since psyche drives the body, flesh is not the obstacle to humans but rather an unawareness that allows the impulsive forces to cause rebellion against God on the level of the psyche. Yet it is not a dualism between body, psyche and spirit, since the spirit embraces both psyche and corporeal aspects of humanity. Since the world is held to be the mirror in which God's attributes are reflected, participation in worldly affairs is not necessarily seen as opposed to God. Thus, it is the I that is regarded as evil, and both Iblis and Pharao are present as symbols for uttering "I" in ones own behavior. Therefore, it is recommended to use the term I as little as possible. It is only God who has the right to say "I", since it is only God who is self-subsistent. Uttering "I" is therefore a way to compare oneself to God, regarded as shirk. === Islamist movements === Many Salafi strands emphasize a dualistic worldview between believers and unbelievers, The unbelievers are considered to be under the domain of the Devil and are the enemies of the faithful. The former are credited with tempting the latter to sin and away from God's path. The Devil will ultimately be defeated by the power of God, but remains until then a serious threat for the believer. The notion of a substantial reality of evil (or a form of dualism between God and the Devil) has no precedence in the Quran or earlier Muslim traditions. Neither in the writings of ibn Sina, Ghazali, nor ibn Taimiyya, has evil any positive existence, but is described as the absence of good. Accordingly, infidelity among humans, civilizations, and empires are not described evil or devilish in Classical Islamic sources. This is in stark contrast to Islamists, such as Osama bin Laden, who justifies his violence against the infidels by contrary assertions. While in classical hadiths, devils (shayāṭīn) and jinn are responsible for ritual impurity, many Salafis substitute local demons by an omnipresent threat through the Devil himself. Only through remembrance of God and ritual purity, the devil can be kept away. As such, the Devil becomes an increasingly powerful entity who is believed to interfer with both personal and political life. For example, many Salafis blame the Devil for Western emancipation. == Judaism == Yahweh, the god in pre-exilic Judaism, created both good and evil, as stated in Isaiah 45:7: "I form the light, and create darkness: I make peace, and create evil: I the Lord do all these things." The devil does not exist in Jewish scriptures. However, the influence of Zoroastrianism during the Achaemenid Empire introduced evil as a separate principle into the Jewish belief system, which gradually externalized the opposition until the Hebrew term satan developed into a specific type of supernatural entity, changing the monistic view of Judaism into a dualistic one. Later, Rabbinic Judaism rejected the Enochian books (written during the Second Temple period under Persian influence), which depicted the devil as an independent force of evil besides God. After the apocalyptic period, references to Satan in the Tanakh are thought to be allegorical. == Mandaeism == In Mandaean mythology, Ruha fell apart from the World of Light and became the queen of the World of Darkness, also referred to as Sheol. She is considered evil and a liar, sorcerer and seductress.She gives birth to Ur, also referred to as Leviathan. He is portrayed as a large, ferocious dragon or snake and is considered the king of the World of Darkness. Prominent infernal beings found in the World of Darkness include lilith, nalai (vampire), niuli (hobgoblin), latabi (devil), gadalta (ghost), satani (Satan) and various other demons and evil spirits. At the end, the devil and his followers will be sealed forever and the kingdom of light and the kingdom of darkness will continue to co-exist eternally, never to commingle again. Hegemonius (4th century CE) accuses that the Persian prophet Mani, founder of the Manichaean sect in the 3rd century CE, identified Jehovah as "the devil god which created the world" and said that "he who spoke with Moses, the Jews, and the priests … is the [Prince] of Darkness, … not the god of truth." == Tengrism == Among the Tengristic myths of central Asia, Erlik refers to a devil-like figure as the ruler of Tamag (Hell), who was also the first human. According to one narrative, Erlik and God swam together over the primordial waters. When God was about to create the Earth, he sent Erlik to dive into the waters and collect some mud. Erlik hid some inside his mouth to later create his own world. But when God commanded the Earth to expand, Erlik got troubled by the mud in his mouth. God aided Erlik to spit it out. The mud carried by Erlik gave place to the unpleasant areas of the world. Because of his sin, he was assigned to evil. In another variant, the creator-god is identified with Ulgen. Again, Erlik appears to be the first human. He desired to create a human just as Ulgen did, thereupon Ulgen reacted by punishing Erlik, casting him into the Underworld where he becomes its ruler. According to Tengrism, there is no death, meaning that, when life comes to an end, it is merely a transition into the invisible world. As the ruler of Hell, Erlik enslaves the souls, who are damned to Hell. Further, he lurks on the souls of those humans living on Earth by causing death, disease and illnesses. At the time of birth, Erlik sends a Kormos to seize the soul of the newborn, following him for the rest of his life in an attempt to seize his soul by hampering, misguiding, and injuring him. When Erlik succeeds in destroying a human's body, the Kormos sent by Erlik will try take him down into the Underworld. However a good soul will be brought to Paradise by a Yayutshi sent by Ulgen. Some shamans also made sacrifices to Erlik, for gaining a higher rank in the Underworld, if they should be damned to Hell. == Yazidism == According to Yazidism there is no entity that represents evil in opposition to God; such dualism is rejected by Yazidis, and evil is regarded as nonexistent. Yazidis adhere to strict monism and are prohibited from uttering the word "devil" and from speaking of anything related to Hell. == Zoroastrianism == Zoroastrianism probably introduced the first idea of the devil; a principle of evil independently existing apart from God. In Zoroastrianism, good and evil derive from two ultimately opposed forces. The force of good is called Ahura Mazda and the "destructive spirit" in the Avestan language is called Angra Mainyu. The Middle Persian equivalent is Ahriman. They are in eternal struggle and neither is all-powerful, especially Angra Mainyu is limited to space and time: in the end of time, he will be finally defeated. While Ahura Mazda creates what is good, Angra Mainyu is responsible for every evil and suffering in the world, such as toads and scorpions. However, if the devil is the opposite of God, the devil would consist of Nothingness, which does not exist. Evil or immoral behaviour in humans, such as anger, hate, envy, and all things for which the devil is blamed for could be explained without the proposal of a devil. The devil must have known his sin would lead to doom, thus the devil was not knowing, or the devil did not know his sin will lead to doom, thus the devil would not have been a rational being. Spinoza concluded a strict determinism in which moral agency as a free choice, cannot exist. In Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone, Immanuel Kant uses the devil as the personification of maximum moral reprehensibility. Deviating from the common Christian idea, Kant does not locate the morally reprehensible in sensual urges. Since evil has to be intelligible, only when the sensual is consciously placed above the moral obligation can something be regarded as morally evil. Thus, to be evil, the devil must be able to comprehend morality but consciously reject it, and, as a spiritual being (Geistwesen), having no relation to any form of sensual pleasure. It is necessarily required for the devil to be a spiritual being because if the devil were also a sensual being, it would be possible that the devil does evil to satisfy lower sensual desires, and does not act from the mind alone. The devil acts against morals, not to satisfy sensual lust, but solely for the sake of evil. As such, the devil is unselfish, for he does not benefit from his evil deeds. However, Kant denies that a human being could ever be completely devilish, since a human does not act evil for the sake of evil itself, but for is perceived as good, such as a law or self-love. Kant argues that despite that there are devilish vices (ingratitude, envy, and malicious joy), i.e., vices that do not bring any personal advantage, however, the person cannot act for the sake of evil itself and thus, not be considered a devil. In his Lecture on Moral Philosophy (1774/75) Kant gives an example of a tulip seller who was in possession of a rare tulip, but when he learned that another seller had the same tulip, he bought it from him and then destroyed it instead of keeping it for himself. If he had acted according to his sensual urges, the seller would have kept the tulip for himself to make a profit, but not have destroyed it. Nevertheless, the destruction of the tulip cannot be completely absolved from sensual impulses, since a sensual joy or relief still accompanies the destruction of the tulip and therefore cannot be thought of solely as a violation of morality. Kant further argues that a (spiritual) devil would be a self-contradiction. If the devil would be defined by doing evil, the devil had no free choice in the first place. But if the devil had no free-choice, the devil could not have been held accountable for his actions, since he had no free will but was only following his nature. ==Titles== Honorifics or styles of address used to indicate devil-figures. Ash-Shaytan "Satan", the attributive Arabic term referring to the devil Angra Mainyu, Ahriman: "malign spirit", "unholy spirit" Dark lord Der Leibhaftige [Teufel] (German): "[the devil] in the flesh, corporeal" Diabolus, Diabolos (Greek: Διάβολος) The Evil One The Father of Lies (John 8:44), in contrast to Jesus ("I am the truth"). Iblis, name of the devil in Islam The Lord of the Underworld / Lord of Hell / Lord of this world Lucifer / the Morning Star (Greek and Roman): the bringer of light, illuminator; the planet Venus, often portrayed as Satan's name in Christianity Kölski (Iceland) Mephistopheles Old Scratch, the Stranger, Old Nick: a colloquialism for the devil, as indicated by the name of the character in the short story "The Devil and Tom Walker" Prince of darkness, the devil in Manichaeism Ruprecht (German form of Robert), a common name for the Devil in Germany (see Knecht Ruprecht (Knight Robert)) Satan / the Adversary, Accuser, Prosecutor; in Christianity, the devil (The ancient/old/crooked/coiling) Serpent Voland (fictional character in The Master and Margarita) ==Contemporary belief== Opinion polls show that belief in the devil in Western countries is more common in the United States ... where it is more common among the religious, regular church goers, political conservatives, and the older and less well educated, ... but has declined in recent decades.	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8,540	Diesel engine	The diesel engine, named after the German engineer Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of diesel fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to mechanical compression; thus, the diesel engine is called a compression-ignition engine (CI engine). This contrasts with engines using spark plug-ignition of the air-fuel mixture, such as a petrol engine (gasoline engine) or a gas engine (using a gaseous fuel like natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas). ==Introduction== Diesel engines work by compressing only air, or air combined with residual combustion gases from the exhaust (known as exhaust gas recirculation, "EGR"). Air is inducted into the chamber during the intake stroke, and compressed during the compression stroke. This increases air temperature inside the cylinder so that atomised diesel fuel injected into the combustion chamber ignites. The torque a diesel engine produces is controlled by manipulating the air-fuel ratio (λ); instead of throttling the intake air, the diesel engine relies on altering the amount of fuel that is injected, and thus the air-fuel ratio is usually high. The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency (see engine efficiency) of any practical internal or external combustion engine due to its very high expansion ratio and inherent lean burn, which enables heat dissipation by excess air. A small efficiency loss is also avoided compared with non-direct-injection gasoline engines, as unburned fuel is not present during valve overlap, and therefore no fuel goes directly from the intake/injection to the exhaust. Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can reach effective efficiencies of up to 55%. According to Konrad Reif (2012), the EU average for diesel cars at the time accounted for half of newly registered cars. Though aviation has traditionally avoided using diesel engines, aircraft diesel engines have become increasingly available in the 21st century. Since the late 1990s, for various reasons—including diesel's inherent advantages over gasoline engines, but also for recent issues peculiar to aviation—development and production of diesel engines for aircraft has surged, with over 5,000 such engines delivered worldwide between 2002 and 2018, particularly for light airplanes and unmanned aerial vehicles. ==History== ===Diesel's idea=== thumb\|right\|Diesel's second prototype. It is a modification of the first experimental engine. On 17 February 1894, this engine ran under its own power for the first time. After several years of working on his ideas, Diesel published them in 1893 in the essay [[Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor. France (No. 243,531) and Belgium (No. 113,139) in December 1894, and in Germany (No. 86,633) in 1895 and the United States (No. 608,845) in 1898. ====1960s==== thumb\|[[Mercedes-Benz OM352 engine\|Mercedes-Benz OM 352, one of the first direct injected Mercedes-Benz diesel engines. It was introduced in 1963, but mass production only started in summer 1964. 1978: Daimler-Benz produces the first passenger car diesel engine with a turbocharger (Mercedes-Benz OM617 engine). 1985: December, road testing of a common rail injection system for lorries using a modified 6VD 12,5/12 GRF-E engine in an IFA W50 takes place. ====1990s==== 1992: 1 July, the Euro 1 emission standard comes into effect. and the lack of intake air restrictions (i.e. throttle valves). Theoretically, the highest possible efficiency for a diesel engine is 75%. === Emissions === Diesel engines are combustion engines and, therefore, emit combustion products in their exhaust gas. Due to incomplete combustion, Road vehicle diesel engines have no sulfur dioxide emissions, because motor vehicle diesel fuel has been sulfur-free since 2003. Helmut Tschöke argues that particulate matter emitted from motor vehicles has negative impacts on human health. The particulate matter in diesel exhaust emissions is sometimes classified as a carcinogen or "probable carcinogen" and is known to increase the risk of heart and respiratory diseases. === Electrical system === In principle, a diesel engine does not require any sort of electrical system. However, most modern diesel engines are equipped with an electrical fuel pump, and an electronic engine control unit. However, there is no high-voltage electrical ignition system present in a diesel engine. This eliminates a source of radio frequency emissions (which can interfere with navigation and communication equipment), which is why only diesel-powered vehicles are allowed in some parts of the American National Radio Quiet Zone. The power output of medium-speed diesel engines can be as high as 21,870 kW, The cost effectiveness (and proportion of added weight) of these technologies has less of an impact on larger, more expensive engines, while engines intended for shipping or stationary use can be run at a single speed for long periods. ==Fuel injection== The fuel is injected at high pressure into either the combustion chamber, "swirl chamber" or "pre-chamber," Unit injectors are operated by a cam and the quantity of fuel injected is controlled either mechanically (by a rack or lever) or electronically. Due to increased performance requirements, unit injectors have been largely replaced by common rail injection systems. ===Engine runaway (uncontrollable overspeeding)=== See diesel engine runaway. ==Applications== The characteristics of diesel have different advantages for different applications. ===Passenger cars=== Diesel engines have long been popular in bigger cars and have been used in smaller cars such as superminis in Europe since the 1980s. They were popular in larger cars earlier, as the weight and cost penalties were less noticeable. Smooth operation as well as high low-end torque are deemed important for passenger cars and small commercial vehicles. The introduction of electronically controlled fuel injection significantly improved the smooth torque generation, and starting in the early 1990s, car manufacturers began offering their high-end luxury vehicles with diesel engines. Passenger car diesel engines usually have between three and twelve cylinders, and a displacement ranging from 0.8 to 6.0 litres. Modern powerplants are usually turbocharged and have direct injection. or in several Junkers aircraft, which had Jumo 205 engines installed. and in the first successful demonstration of ground-to-air radiophone communications (voice radio having been previously unintelligible in aircraft equipped with spark-ignition engines, due to electromagnetic interference). However, noxious exhaust fumes, cold-start and vibration problems, engine structural failures, the death of its developer, and the industrial economic contraction of the Great Depression, combined to kill the program. However, with the 1970s energy crisis and environmental movement, and resulting pressures for greater fuel economy, reduced carbon and lead in the atmosphere, and other issues, there was a resurgence of interest in diesel engines for aircraft. High-compression piston aircraft engines that run on aviation gasoline ("avgas") generally require the addition of toxic Tetraethyl lead to avgas, to avoid engine pre-ignition and detonation; but diesel engines do not require leaded fuel. Also, biodiesel can, theoretically, provide a net reduction in atmospheric carbon compared to avgas. For these reasons, the general aviation community has begun to fear the possible banning or discontinuance of leaded avgas. Additionally, avgas is a specialty fuel in very low (and declining) demand, compared to other fuels, and its makers are susceptible to costly aviation-crash lawsuits, reducing refiners' interest in producing it. Outside the United States, avgas has already become increasingly difficult to find at airports (and generally), than less-expensive, diesel-compatible fuels like Jet-A and other jet fuels. First successful application of the Theilerts to production aircraft was in the Diamond DA42 Twin Star light twin, which exhibited exceptional fuel efficiency surpassing anything in its class, and its single-seat predecessor, the Diamond DA40 Diamond Star. The United States' Federal Aviation Administration has reported that "by 2007, various jet-fueled piston aircraft had logged well over 600,000 hours of service". By late 2022, Continental was reporting that its "Jet-A" fueled engines had exceeded "2,000... in operation today," with over "9 million hours," and were being "specified by major OEMs" for Cessna, Piper, Diamond, Mooney, Tecnam, Glasair and Robin aircraft. ===Non-road diesel engines=== Non-road diesel engines are commonly used for construction equipment and agricultural machinery. Fuel efficiency, reliability and ease of maintenance are very important for such engines, whilst high power output and quiet operation are negligible. Therefore, mechanically controlled fuel injection and air-cooling are still very common. The common power outputs of non-road diesel engines vary a lot, with the smallest units starting at 3 kW, and the most powerful engines being heavy duty lorry engines. ==Low heat rejection engines== A special class of prototype internal combustion piston engines has been developed over several decades with the goal of improving efficiency by reducing heat loss. These engines are variously called adiabatic engines; due to better approximation of adiabatic expansion; low heat rejection engines, or high temperature engines. They are generally piston engines with combustion chamber parts lined with ceramic thermal barrier coatings. Some make use of pistons and other parts made of titanium which has a low thermal conductivity and density. Some designs are able to eliminate the use of a cooling system and associated parasitic losses altogether. Developing lubricants able to withstand the higher temperatures involved has been a major barrier to commercialization. ==Future developments== In mid-2010s literature, main development goals for future diesel engines are described as improvements of exhaust emissions, reduction of fuel consumption, and increase of lifespan (2014). It is said that the diesel engine, especially the diesel engine for commercial vehicles, will remain the most important vehicle powerplant until the mid-2030s. Editors assume that the complexity of the diesel engine will increase further (2014). Some editors expect a future convergency of diesel and Otto engines' operating principles due to Otto engine development steps made towards homogeneous charge compression ignition (2017).	[ "Indicator diagram", "Great Depression", "Diesel automobile racing", "Fairbanks-Morse", "four-stroke", "Munich", "Citroën Rosalie", "Winterthur–Romanshorn railway", "lipid", "Aspirator (pump)", "vapor pressure", "United States Navy", "Clessie Cummins", "piston engine", "tractor", "Air–fuel ratio", "engine efficiency", "Transmashholding", "Theorie und Konstruktion eines rationellen Wärmemotors zum Ersatz der Dampfmaschine und der heute bekannten Verbrennungsmotoren", "Exhaust gas", "engine control unit", "Direct fuel injection", "compression ratio", "Daimler-Benz DB 602", "air pollution", "Mitsubishi Motors", "Serpentine belt", "Diesel generator", "thermal efficiency", "EMD 645", "Stroke ratio", "liquefied petroleum gas", "combined cycle power plant", "lung cancer", "History of the internal combustion engine", "Car and Driver", "Brake-specific fuel consumption", "flammability", "MAN SE", "submarine", "Electromagnetic interference", "sulfur dioxide", "vegetable oil", "AvtoVAZ", "hydrocarbons", "Thielert", "German Empire", "Power-to-weight ratio", "unmanned aerial vehicles", "Tecnam Aircraft", "Diamond Aircraft", "Volvo Penta", "octane rating", "diesel locomotive", "internal combustion engine", "governor (device)", "ligroin", "diesel fuel", "Diethyl ether", "gas oil", "synthetic fuel", "Automotive industry", "Continental Aerospace Technologies", "London", "Piper Cherokee", "BHEL", "Bryansk Machine-Building Plant", "electromagnetic interference", "falsification of history", "fuel injection", "Diesel cycle", "Mercedes-Benz OM 138", "Mercedes-Benz OM 312", "Shaanxi Diesel Engine Heavy Industry", "Heterogeneous", "common rail", "Mitsubishi 4N1 engine", "Carnot cycle", "Hugo Güldner", "fuel efficiency", "Siemens", "swirl chamber injection", "Glasair", "Diesel–electric transmission", "Dieselisation", "Mechanics", "George B. Brayton", "injection pump", "Otto cycle", "GAZ", "combustion chamber", "bus", "Caterpillar Energy Solutions", "construction equipment", "Partially premixed combustion", "Subaru", "Zvezda M503", "Lubricant", "Biodiesel", "Energy transformation", "automobile", "throttle", "Volkswagen", "truck", "V engine", "environmental movement", "MAPNA", "Spain", "locomotives", "piezoelectricity", "radial engine", "GE Transportation", "Junkers (Aircraft)", "Adolphus Busch", "Steam locomotive", "BMW E36", "premixed flame", "Diamond DA42 Twin Star", "Compression release engine brake", "spark plug", "lorry", "Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C", "Series 71", "Two-stroke diesel engine", "Audi R10 TDI", "internal combustion", "general aviation", "Non-road engine", "watercraft", "unit injector", "Reactivity controlled compression ignition", "New London Ship and Engine Company", "NATO F 54", "Piper Aircraft", "Sulzer (manufacturer)", "Fuel injection", "Diesel exhaust", "Diamond DA40 Diamond Star", "Augsburg", "undersquare", "gasohol", "camshaft", "General Electric", "petroleum distillate", "Switzerland", "EN 590", "Wartsila", "DieselHouse", "viscosity", "LNG", "Engine knocking", "turbocharger", "locomotive", "Mercedes-Benz OM642 engine", "emissions testing", "exhaust gas recirculation", "Diesel locomotive", "pressure–volume diagram", "natural gas", "Southeast Asia", "Clean Air Act (United States)", "BMW N57", "toroid", "indirect injection", "Krupp", "AO Zvezda", "Starter (engine)", "Volkswagen Golf Mk1", "aircraft", "nitrogen oxides", "external combustion", "1970s energy crisis", "EMD 567", "off-road vehicle", "expansion ratio", "Friedrich Sass", "gasoline", "Myanmar", "Euro 1", "English Channel", "Prosper L'Orange", "air-fuel ratio", "France", "Common rail", "Otto engine", "Hot-bulb engine", "Konstantin Chelpan", "Der Spiegel", "horizontally opposed", "gas engine", "Kingisepp Machinery Plant", "Roll-on/roll-off", "Mercedes-Benz OM617 engine", "Brayton engine", "List of Volkswagen Group diesel engines", "bladder cancer", "carburetor", "Spark-ignition engine", "crankshaft", "creosote", "diesel multiple units", "Smart City Coupé", "Doosan Heavy Industries & Construction", "steam engine", "agricultural machinery", "VTL 9140-001", "yacht", "pump", "carcinogen", "Kharkiv model V-2", "adiabatic", "General Motors", "Jacobs Vehicle Systems", "electronic control unit", "4 VD 14,5/12-1 SRW", "Moritz Schröter", "United States", "DESA company", "air-blast injection", "Diffusion flame", "Forced induction", "AD-System", "M-System", "mass moment of inertia", "Avions Pierre Robin", "Bergen Engines", "naphtha", "Rudolf Diesel", "Opel Vectra", "Aigrette-class submarine", "U.S. News", "freight train", "Budd Company", "Power (physics)", "Electro-Motive Diesel", "Cam (mechanism)", "Glow plug (diesel engine)", "BMW", "Robert Bosch GmbH", "U.S. Department of Commerce", "variable valve timing", "diesel engine runaway", "carbon monoxide", "Henan Diesel Engine Industry Company", "Federal Aviation Administration", "Cylinder (engine)", "Voronezh Mechanical Plant", "Fiat Croma", "Gas compressor", "kerosene", "24 Hours Nürburgring", "Aircraft diesel engine", "Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor", "West Germany", "National Radio Quiet Zone", "List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens", "lower heating value", "electric locomotive", "flame-start system", "Mitsubishi Heavy Industries", "Daimler-Benz", "jet fuel", "ethanol", "Tetraethyl lead", "Kolomna Locomotive Works", "cetane number", "Pioneer Zephyr", "T-34", "Imanuel Lauster", "supermini", "Volvo", "Yaroslavl Motor Plant", "fire piston", "BMEP", "ISO 8217", "Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz", "Piezoelectric", "fuel oil", "Compression (physics)", "2006 24 Hours of Le Mans", "Four-stroke engine", "injector", "biodiesel", "Samrat (ship)", "Mooney Aircraft", "diesel–electric locomotive", "petroleum", "Light aircraft", "IFA W50", "trunk piston", "MTU Friedrichshafen", "The Independent", "selective catalytic reduction", "Fuel gas", "turbulence", "Avweb", "Detroit Diesel", "solenoid", "two-stroke engine", "Needle valve", "Steyr Motors GmbH", "Mercedes-Benz 260 D", "ship", "Germany", "Belgium", "James McKechnie (engineer)", "indirect fuel injection", "Iran Khodro Diesel", "Isotta Fraschini", "Autoweek", "Volkswagen emissions scandal", "Deutsche Reichsbahn", "Ural Diesel Engine Plant", "New York Times", "avgas", "electrical generator", "Kerosene", "compression ignition", "Stoichiometry", "European Union", "turbocharged direct injection", "Sinara Transport Machines", "Fatty acid methyl ester", "EMD 710", "MAN Diesel", "pre-ignition", "scavenge blower", "exhaust gas", "Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association", "heavy equipment", "Cetane number", "Junkers Jumo 205", "Cessna Aircraft", "NOx adsorber", "fuel tank", "Volga Motor Plant Mamynykh", "Peugeot 403", "homogeneous charge compression ignition", "A Century of Progress", "Straight engine", "petrol engine", "Flying (magazine)", "MS Selandia", "transesterification", "Top Dead Center", "Carl von Linde", "Octane rating", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "EN 14214", "BMW M57", "World War II", "Internal combustion engine", "Volkswagen Group", "Particulates", "Schnuerle porting", "coal dust", "Audi 100", "accelerator pedal", "fire making", "Indirect injection", "Motor 250/400", "Technical University of Munich", "Combustion", "LZ 129 Hindenburg", "intercooler", "Bunker C", "petrol", "FlightGLobal", "Rolls-Royce Power Systems", "Groove (engineering)", "United States Environmental Protection Agency", "Packard DR-980", "manifold injection", "Cummins", "Type Certificate", "Packard Motor Company", "direct fuel injection", "Vandal (tanker)", "DIN 51601" ]
8,541	Dark Star	Dark Star or Darkstar may refer to: == Astronomy == Dark star (Newtonian mechanics), a star that has a gravitational pull strong enough to trap light under Newtonian gravity Dark star (dark matter), a star heated by annihilation of dark matter particles within it Dark-energy star, an object composed of dark energy that outwardly resembles a black hole == Media and entertainment == === Film === The Dark Star (1919 film), a lost 1919 silent film The Dark Star (1955 film), a 1955 West German drama film Dark Star (film), a 1974 science fiction comedy film directed by John Carpenter Dark Star, a 1978 film distributed by David Grant Dark Star: H. R. Giger's World, a 2014 Swiss documentary "Darkstar", a fictional military aircraft in the 2022 film Top Gun: Maverick === Television === Darkstar (Ben 10), or Michael Morningstar, a character in the Ben 10 franchise === Literature === ==== Comics ==== Darkstar (Marvel Comics), a Marvel Comics superhero Darkstars, a DC Comics superhero team Darkstar Comics, a fictional comic book company in the TV series Spaced Dark Star, an issue of the comics series The Transformers ==== Books ==== The Dark Star, a 1917 novel by Robert W. Chambers Dark Star, a 1929 novel by Lorna Moon The Dark Star, a 1939 novel by Margaret Mackie Morrison, writing as March Cost Dark Star, a 1969 novel by Norma K. Hemming, writing as Nerina Hilliard Dark Star, a novelization of the 1974 film, by Alan Dean Foster Dark Star, a 1985 biography about John Gilbert written by his daughter Leatrice Joy-Gilbert Dark Star, a 1989 novel by Marcia Muller Dark Star: The Roy Orbison Story, a 1990 book by Ellis Amburn Dark Star, a 1991 Night Soldiers novel by Alan Furst Dark Star, a 2008 Stony Man novel by Nick Pollotta, writing as Don Pendleton Darkstar, a 2011 novella by Christopher R. Howard Dark Star, a 2020 book by Jane Holland, an omnibus of the Stella Penhaligon series === Music === ==== Performers ==== Dark Star (band), an English psychedelic rock band, 1998–2001 Darkstar (band), an English electronic duo, formed 2007 Dark Star Orchestra, a Grateful Dead tribute band Darkstar, a progressive metal band co-founded by Dan Rock of Psychotic Waltz ==== Albums ==== Dark Star (soundtrack), by John Carpenter, 1980 Dark Star, by Deine Lakaien, 1991 Dark Star, by The Supernaturals, 1993 Dark Star: The Music of the Grateful Dead, by the David Murray Octet, 1996 Dark Star (album), by the Grateful Dead and featuring their song "Dark Star", 2012 Dark Star, by Jaymes Young, 2013 ==== Songs ==== "Dark Star" (song), by the Grateful Dead "Dark Star", by Beck from The Information "Dark Star", by Cinema Bizarre from ToyZ "Dark Star", by Crosby, Stills & Nash from CSN "Dark Star", by Delerium from Faces, Forms & Illusions "Dark Star", by Hypnogaja from Truth Decay "Dark Star", by I Am Kloot from Natural History "Dark Star", by Mike Oldfield from Tubular Bells II "Dark Star", by Poliça from Give You the Ghost "Dark Star", by Tarja Turunen from What Lies Beneath "Dark Star", by Jaymes Young from his album of the same name === Video games === DarkStar One, a 2006 video game Darkstar: The Interactive Movie, a 2010 video game Dark Star (No More Heroes), a video game character Dark Star, a malevolent artifact in the video game Mario & Luigi: Bowser's Inside Story Dark Star (1984 video game), a 3D space shoot 'em up for the ZX Spectrum Darkstar, a special weapon in the Sci-Fi MMOFPS PlanetSide 2 == Technology == Lockheed Martin RQ-3 DarkStar, an unmanned aerial vehicle Project Darkstar, a framework for creating massively multiplayer online games Tesla Roadster (2008), codenamed DarkStar, an electric sports car == Other uses == Dark Star Brewery, West Sussex, England Dark Star (cave), a cave system in Uzbekistan Dark Star (horse), an American Thoroughbred racehorse	[ "Star (disambiguation)", "Darkstar (Ben 10)", "Black Sun (disambiguation)", "Dark Star (soundtrack)", "Spaced", "Faces, Forms & Illusions", "Dark Star Orchestra", "Top Gun: Maverick", "Darkstar (Marvel Comics)", "Norma K. Hemming", "The Dark Star (1919 film)", "Dark Star (1984 video game)", "Dark Star (No More Heroes)", "Dark Star (film)", "Mario & Luigi: Bowser's Inside Story", "The Dark Star (1955 film)", "CSN (album)", "Tubular Bells II", "Dark Star (cave)", "What Lies Beneath (Tarja album)", "David Grant (producer)", "Dark-energy star", "Marcia Muller", "Nick Pollotta", "Darkstar: The Interactive Movie", "Margaret Mackie Morrison", "Christopher R. Howard", "ToyZ", "Alan Dean Foster", "DarkStar One", "Dark (disambiguation)", "John Gilbert (actor)", "Alan Furst", "Stony Man", "Jane Holland", "Deine Lakaien", "Truth Decay (Hypnogaja)", "Darkstars", "The Transformers (Marvel Comics)", "Dark Star (album)", "Psychotic Waltz", "Dark star (Newtonian mechanics)", "Jaymes Young", "Give You the Ghost", "Dark Star (band)", "PlanetSide 2", "Dark Star (horse)", "The Information (Beck album)", "Dark Star (song)", "Dark Star Brewery", "Project Darkstar", "Black Star (disambiguation)", "Lockheed Martin RQ-3 DarkStar", "Ellis Amburn", "Dark Star: H. R. Giger's World", "Darkstar (band)", "Robert W. Chambers", "Natural History (I Am Kloot album)", "Lorna Moon", "Tesla Roadster (2008)", "Dark Sun (disambiguation)", "Dark Star: The Music of the Grateful Dead", "Dark star (dark matter)", "The Supernaturals" ]
8,544	Drawing	Drawing is a visual art that uses an instrument to mark paper or another two-dimensional surface. The instruments used to make a drawing are pencils, crayons, pens with inks, brushes with paints, or combinations of these, and in more modern times, computer styluses with graphics tablets or gamepads in VR drawing software. A drawing instrument releases a small amount of material onto a surface, leaving a visible mark. The most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials, such as cardboard, vellum, wood, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, have been used. Temporary drawings may be made on a blackboard or whiteboard. Drawing has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating ideas. The wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities. In addition to its more artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercial illustration, animation, architecture, engineering, and technical drawing. A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as a finished work, is sometimes called a sketch. An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, draftsman, or draughtsman. ==Overview== Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression within the visual arts. It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, where the accurate representation of the visual world is expressed upon a plane surface. Traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour, while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting. In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks. Dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings. Drawing may be done with a liquid medium, applied with brushes or pens. Using a brush for drawing is very widespread and here it is more the process of using lines and hatching, that characterises something as a drawing. Similar supports likewise can serve both: painting generally involves the application of liquid paint onto prepared canvas or panels, but sometimes an underdrawing is drawn first on that same support. Drawing is often exploratory, with considerable emphasis on observation, problem-solving and composition. Drawing is also regularly used in preparation for a painting, further obfuscating their distinction. Drawings created for these purposes are called sketches. There are several categories of drawing, including figure drawing, cartooning, doodling, and freehand. There are also many drawing methods, such as line drawing, stippling, shading, the surrealist method of entopic graphomania (in which dots are made at the sites of impurities in a blank sheet of paper, and lines are then made between the dots), and tracing (drawing on a translucent paper, such as tracing paper, around the outline of preexisting shapes that show through the paper). A quick, unrefined drawing may be called a sketch. In fields outside art, technical drawings or plans of buildings, machinery, circuitry and other things are often called "drawings" even when they have been transferred to another medium by printing. ==History== === In communication === Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression, with evidence for its existence preceding that of written communication. It is believed that drawing was used as a specialised form of communication before the invention of the written language, demonstrated by the production of cave and rock paintings around 30,000 years ago (Art of the Upper Paleolithic). These drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts. The sketches and paintings produced by Neolithic times were eventually stylised and simplified in to symbol systems (proto-writing) and eventually into early writing systems. === In manuscripts === Before the widespread availability of paper in Europe, monks in European monasteries used drawings, either as underdrawings for illuminated manuscripts on vellum or parchment, or as the final image. Drawing has also been used extensively in the field of science, as a method of discovery, understanding and explanation. === In science === Drawing diagrams of observations is an important part of scientific study. In 1609, astronomer Galileo Galilei explained the changing phases of Venus and also the sunspots through his observational telescopic drawings. Initially, artists used and reused wooden tablets for the production of their drawings. Following the widespread availability of paper in the 14th century, the use of drawing in the arts increased. At this point, drawing was commonly used as a tool for thought and investigation, acting as a study medium whilst artists were preparing for their final pieces of work. The Renaissance brought about a great sophistication in drawing techniques, enabling artists to represent things more realistically than before, and revealing an interest in geometry and philosophy. The invention of the first widely available form of photography led to a shift in the hierarchy of the arts. Photography offered an alternative to drawing as a method for accurately representing visual phenomena, and traditional drawing practice was given less emphasis as an essential skill for artists, particularly so in Western society. ==Notable artists and draftsmen== Drawing became significant as an art form around the late 15th century, with artists and master engravers such as Albrecht Dürer and Martin Schongauer (–1491), the first Northern engraver known by name. Schongauer came from Alsace, and was born into a family of goldsmiths. Albrecht Dürer, a master of the next generation, was also the son of a goldsmith. Old Master Drawings often reflect the history of the country in which they were produced, and the fundamental characteristics of a nation at that time. In 17th-century Holland, a Protestant country, there were almost no religious artworks, and, with no King or court, most art was bought privately. Drawings of landscapes or genre scenes were often viewed not as sketches but as highly finished works of art. Italian drawings, however, show the influence of Catholicism and the Church, which played a major role in artistic patronage. The same is often true of French drawings, although in the 17th century the disciplines of French Classicism meant drawings were less Baroque than the more free Italian counterparts, which conveyed a greater sense of movement. In the 20th century Modernism encouraged "imaginative originality" and some artists' approach to drawing became less literal, more abstract. World-renowned artists such as Pablo Picasso, Andy Warhol and Jean-Michel Basquiat helped challenge the status quo, with drawing being very much at the centre of their practice, and often re-interpreting traditional technique. Basquiat's drawings were produced in many different mediums, most commonly ink, pencil, felt-tip or marker, and oil-stick, and he drew on any surface that came to hand, such as doors, clothing, refrigerators, walls and baseball helmets. The centuries have produced a canon of notable artists and draftsmen, each with their own distinct language of drawing, including: 14th, 15th and 16th: Leonardo da Vinci • Albrecht Dürer • Hans Holbein the Younger • Michelangelo • Pisanello • Raphael 17th: Claude • Jacques de Gheyn II • Guercino • Nicolas Poussin • Rembrandt • Peter Paul Rubens • Pieter Saenredam 18th: François Boucher • Jean-Honoré Fragonard • Giovanni Battista Tiepolo • Antoine Watteau 19th: Aubrey Beardsley • Paul Cézanne • Jacques-Louis David • Honoré Daumier • Edgar Degas • Théodore Géricault • Francisco Goya • Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres • Pierre-Paul Prud'hon • Odilon Redon • John Ruskin • Georges Seurat • Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec • Vincent van Gogh 20th: Max Beckmann • Jean Dubuffet • M. C. Escher • Arshile Gorky • George Grosz • Paul Klee • Oskar Kokoschka • Käthe Kollwitz • Alfred Kubin • André Masson • Alphonse Mucha • Jules Pascin • Pablo Picasso • Egon Schiele • Jean-Michel Basquiat • Andy Warhol ==Materials== The medium is the means by which ink, pigment, or color are delivered onto the drawing surface. Most drawing media either are dry (e.g. graphite, charcoal, pastels, Conté, silverpoint), or use a fluid solvent or carrier (marker, pen and ink). Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencils, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded) invisible ink. Metalpoint drawing usually employs either silver or lead. More rarely used are gold, platinum, copper, brass, bronze, and tinpoint. Paper comes in a variety of different sizes and qualities, ranging from newspaper grade up to high quality and relatively expensive paper sold as individual sheets. Papers vary in texture, hue, acidity, and strength when wet. Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail, but a more "toothy" paper holds the drawing material better. Thus a coarser material is useful for producing deeper contrast. Newsprint and typing paper may be useful for practice and rough sketches. Tracing paper is used to experiment over a half-finished drawing, and to transfer a design from one sheet to another. Cartridge paper is the basic type of drawing paper sold in pads. Bristol board and even heavier acid-free boards, frequently with smooth finishes, are used for drawing fine detail and do not distort when wet media (ink, washes) are applied. Vellum is extremely smooth and suitable for very fine detail. Coldpressed watercolor paper may be favored for ink drawing due to its texture. Acid-free, archival quality paper keeps its color and texture far longer than wood pulp based paper such as newsprint, which turns yellow and becomes brittle much sooner. The basic tools are a drawing board or table, pencil sharpener and eraser, and for ink drawing, blotting paper. Other tools used are circle compass, ruler, and set square. Fixative is used to prevent pencil and crayon marks from smudging. Drafting tape is used to secure paper to drawing surface, and also to mask an area to keep it free of accidental marks, such as sprayed or spattered materials and washes. An easel or slanted table is used to keep the drawing surface in a suitable position, which is generally more horizontal than the position used in painting. ==Technique== Almost all draftsmen use their hands and fingers to apply the media, with the exception of some disabled individuals who draw with their mouth or feet. Prior to working on an image, the artist typically explores how various media work. They may try different drawing implements on practice sheets to determine value and texture, and how to apply the implement to produce various effects. The artist's choice of drawing strokes affects the appearance of the image. Pen and ink drawings often use hatching – groups of parallel lines. Cross-hatching uses hatching in two or more different directions to create a darker tone. Broken hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, form lighter tones – and controlling the density of the breaks achieves a gradation of tone. Stippling uses dots to produce tone, texture and shade. Different textures can be achieved depending on the method used to build tone. Drawings in dry media often use similar techniques, though pencils and drawing sticks can achieve continuous variations in tone. Typically a drawing is filled in based on which hand the artist favors. A right-handed artist draws from left to right to avoid smearing the image. Erasers can remove unwanted lines, lighten tones, and clean up stray marks. In a sketch or outline drawing, lines drawn often follow the contour of the subject, creating depth by looking like shadows cast from a light in the artist's position. Sometimes the artist leaves a section of the image untouched while filling in the remainder. The shape of the area to preserve can be painted with masking fluid or cut out of a frisket and applied to the drawing surface, protecting the surface from stray marks until the mask is removed. Another method to preserve a section of the image is to apply a spray-on fixative to the surface. This holds loose material more firmly to the sheet and prevents it from smearing. However the fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can harm the respiratory system, so it should be employed in a well-ventilated area such as outdoors. Another technique is subtractive drawing in which the drawing surface is covered with graphite or charcoal and then erased to make the image. ==Tone== Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light, shadows and highlights can result in a very realistic rendition of the image. Blending uses an implement to soften or spread the original drawing strokes. Blending is most easily done with a medium that does not immediately fix itself, such as graphite, chalk, or charcoal, although freshly applied ink can be smudged, wet or dry, for some effects. For shading and blending, the artist can use a blending stump, tissue, a kneaded eraser, a fingertip, or any combination of them. A piece of chamois is useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone. Continuous tone can be achieved with graphite on a smooth surface without blending, but the technique is laborious, involving small circular or oval strokes with a somewhat blunt point. Shading techniques that also introduce texture to the drawing include hatching and stippling. A number of other methods produce texture. In addition to the choice of paper, drawing material and technique affect texture. Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is drawn next to a contrasting texture; a coarse texture is more obvious when placed next to a smoothly blended area. A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones close together. A light edge next to a dark background stands out to the eye, and almost appears to float above the surface. The direction and quality of light play a crucial role in shading, influencing the depth and dimension of a drawing. Understanding how light interacts with different surfaces helps artists create a sense of realism, whether rendering smooth, reflective materials or rough, matte textures. Observing real-world lighting conditions and practicing from life can enhance an artist’s ability to depict convincing shadows and highlights. Additionally, advanced shading techniques, such as cross-hatching and scumbling, allow for greater control over tonal transitions and surface detail. Cross-hatching involves layering intersecting lines to build depth and tone, while scumbling uses circular or scribbled strokes to create soft, organic shading. These methods, when combined with careful blending and texture application, provide artists with a versatile toolkit for achieving a range of effects, from soft gradients to bold, high-contrast compositions. ==Form and proportion== Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of the subject. Tools such as a compass can be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. A ruler can be used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions. When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of primitive volumes. Almost any form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic volumes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the primitive volumes are removed and replaced by the final likeness. Drawing the underlying construction is a fundamental skill for representational art, and is taught in many books and schools. Its correct application resolves most uncertainties about smaller details, and makes the final image look consistent. A more refined art of figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait. ==Perspective== Linear perspective is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions shrink with distance. Each set of parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table, follows lines that eventually converge at a vanishing point. Typically this convergence point is somewhere along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface. When multiple structures are aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms of the structures typically converge at a vanishing point. When both the fronts and sides of a building are drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side converge at a second point along the horizon (which may be off the drawing paper.) This is a two-point perspective. Converging the vertical lines to a third point above or below the horizon then produces a three-point perspective. Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above. Objects of similar size should appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer. Thus the back wheel of a cart appears slightly smaller than the front wheel. Depth can be portrayed through the use of texture. As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth can also be portrayed by reducing the contrast in more distant objects, and by making their colors less saturated. This reproduces the effect of atmospheric haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground. ==Composition== The composition of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of artistic merit. The artist plans element placement in the art to communicate ideas and feelings with the viewer. The composition can determine the focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that is aesthetically appealing and stimulating. The illumination of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features. When drawing an object or figure, the skilled artist pays attention to both the area within the silhouette and what lies outside. The exterior is termed the negative space, and can be as important in the representation as the figure. Objects placed in the background of the figure should appear properly placed wherever they can be viewed. A study is a draft drawing that is made in preparation for a planned final image. Studies can be used to determine the appearances of specific parts of the completed image, or for experimenting with the best approach for accomplishing the end goal. However a well-crafted study can be a piece of art in its own right, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study. ==Process== Individuals display differences in their ability to produce visually accurate drawings, when a visually accurate drawing is "recognized as a particular object at a particular time and in a particular space, rendered with little addition of visual detail that can not be seen in the object represented or with little deletion of visual detail." Investigative studies have aimed to explain the reasons why some individuals draw better than others. One study posited four key abilities in the drawing process: motor skills required for mark-making, the drawer's own perception of their drawing, perception of objects being drawn, and the ability to make good representational decisions. It has been suggested that motor control plays a role in drawing ability, though its effects are not significant. This evidence acted as the basis of Betty Edwards' how-to-draw book, Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain. Edwards aimed to teach her readers how to draw, based on the development of the reader's perceptual abilities. Furthermore, the influential artist and art critic John Ruskin emphasised the importance of perception in the drawing process in his book The Elements of Drawing. He stated, "For I am nearly convinced, that once we see keenly enough, there is very little difficult in drawing what we see." Visual memory This has also been shown to influence one's ability to create visually accurate drawings. Short-term memory plays an important part in drawing as one's gaze shifts between the object they are drawing and the drawing itself. Decision-making Some studies comparing artists to non-artists have found that artists spend more time thinking strategically while drawing. In particular, artists spend more time on 'metacognitive' activities such as considering different hypothetical plans for how they might progress with a drawing.	[ "monochrome painting", "whiteboard", "ruler", "Decision-making", "Pieter Saenredam", "monks", "Alphonse Mucha", "List of artistic mediums", "Technical drawing", "crayon", "Egon Schiele", "paint", "vellum", "illustration", "drafter", "Tortillon", "Arshile Gorky", "Munich", "William-Adolphe Bouguereau", "Jacques de Gheyn II", "wikt:freehand", "Max Beckmann", "Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain", "graphics tablet", "Line art", "Digital illustration", "tracing paper", "Chamois leather", "Drafting tape", "Nicolas Poussin", "illumination (image)", "Lumber", "technical drawing", "Paul Cézanne", "Erasers", "Alba Madonna", "pen and ink", "Contour drawing", "Hans Holbein the Younger", "Vincent van Gogh", "kneaded eraser", "stipple", "Masking (in art)", "ink", "Short-term memory", "cave painting", "negative space", "Aubrey Beardsley", "Engineering drawing", "Jean-Michel Basquiat", "paper", "Pierre-Paul Prud'hon", "pen", "cartooning", "National Central Library (Florence)", "graphite", "M. C. Escher", "circle compass", "worm's-eye view", "Plumbago drawing", "brush", "Guercino", "Traditional animation", "Antoine Watteau", "Sketch (drawing)", "Andy Warhol", "Visual arts", "Théodore Géricault", "Odilon Redon", "Landscape painting", "Negro (lead pencil)", "Architectural drawing", "plastic", "tincture (heraldry)", "Three-point lighting", "François Boucher", "grisaille", "stippling", "gamepad", "Tracing paper", "Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec", "Subtractive drawing", "Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn", "Jacques-Louis David", "Alfred Kubin", "Texture (visual arts)", "Modernism", "two-dimensional", "André Masson", "Peter Paul Rubens", "Art of the Upper Paleolithic", "Sunspot drawing", "photography", "Martin Schongauer", "Giovanni Battista Tiepolo", "straightedge", "artist", "Jean-Honoré Fragonard", "drawing board", "Image", "Paperboard", "Study (drawing)", "chiaroscuro", "Renaissance", "Academy figure", "blotting paper", "wood", "Cartridge paper", "Edgar Degas", "pastels", "invisible ink", "trois crayons", "National Museum, Warsaw", "Intellect Books", "silverpoint", "eraser", "set square", "Compass (drafting)", "Claude Lorrain", "canvas", "doodling", "George Grosz", "Bristol board", "artistic merit", "Pisanello", "Illustration", "John Ruskin", "hatching", "Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres", "Georges Seurat", "Michelangelo", "Painting", "Gallerie dell'Accademia", "Vitruvian Man", "Betty Edwards", "pastel", "Galileo Galilei", "Visual memory", "Chiaroscuro", "hatching system", "Composition (visual arts)", "painting", "Artistic tone", "Oskar Kokoschka", "Jean Dubuffet", "Stylus (computing)", "shading", "Raphael", "Jules Pascin", "Figure drawing", "pencil", "sketch (drawing)", "pencil sharpener", "Motor control", "Perception", "Käthe Kollwitz", "Marker pen", "Albrecht Dürer", "proto-writing", "Graphic design", "wood pulp", "Paul Klee", "Geometric drawing", "leather", "Facial tissue", "charcoal", "underdrawing", "Leonardo da Vinci", "frisket", "Virtual reality", "Bronze Age writing", "Surrealist techniques", "Diagram", "Fixative (drawing)", "Francisco Goya", "Pablo Picasso", "cross-hatching", "scumbling", "Conté", "Honoré Daumier", "newsprint", "figure drawing", "illuminated manuscript", "subtractive drawing", "blackboard", "Alfred Wegener" ]
8,545	Dedham, Massachusetts	Dedham ( ) is a town in, and the county seat of, Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. Located on Boston's southwestern border, the population was 25,364 at the 2020 census. First settled by English colonists in 1635 and incorporated in 1636, Dedham established the first public school in America in 1643. Dedham is home to the Fairbanks House, the oldest surviving timber-frame house in the United States. On January 1, 1643, by unanimous vote, Dedham authorized the first taxpayer-funded public school, "the seed of American education." The first man-made canal in North America, Mother Brook, was created in Dedham in 1639. The town took an active part in the American Revolution and was home to the Dedham Liberty Pole in the late 18th century. When a split occurred at the First Church and Parish in Dedham, the resulting lawsuit became known as The Dedham Case, an important landmark in the separation of church and state. In 1921, the historic Sacco and Vanzetti trial was held in the Norfolk County Courthouse. Dedham is sometimes called the "mother of towns" because 14 present-day communities were included within its original broad borders. Dedham is governed by a representative town meeting, a select board which appoints the town manager, and various other boards and committees. The town is served by the MBTA commuter rail and bus service. The Dedham Public Schools operates seven schools, and a number of private schools also operate within the town. ==History== ===17th century=== Settled in 1635 by people from Roxbury and Watertown, Dedham was incorporated in 1636. It became the county seat of Norfolk County when the county was formed from parts of Suffolk County on March 26, 1793. When the Town was originally incorporated, the residents wanted to name it "Contentment." The Massachusetts General Court overruled them and named the town after Dedham, Essex in England, where some of the original inhabitants were born. The boundaries of the town at the time stretched to the Rhode Island border. At the first public meeting on August 15, 1636, eighteen men signed the town covenant. They swore that they would "in the fear and reverence of our Almighty God, mutually and severally promise amongst ourselves and each to profess and practice one truth according to that most perfect rule, the foundation whereof is ever lasting love." They also agreed that "we shall by all means labor to keep off from us all such as are contrary minded, and receive only such unto us as may be probably of one heart with us, [and such] as that we either know or may well and truly be informed to walk in a peaceable conversation with all meekness of spirit, [this] for the edification of each other in the knowledge and faith of the Lord Jesus…" The covenant also stipulated that if differences were to arise between townsmen, they would seek arbitration for resolution and each would pay his fair share for the common good. Dedham is home to the Fairbanks House, the oldest surviving timber-frame house in the United States, scientifically dated to 1637. On January 1, 1643, by unanimous vote, Dedham authorized the first taxpayer-funded public school, "the seed of American education." is now a peninsula at 91 Common Street. Highland Street, near Lowder Street, runs up Earwicker's Hill. Ashcroft is the neighborhood between Cedar Street and Sprague Street. It includes Paul Park and the Capen School. The undeveloped strip of land between Beech Street and Turner Street is known as Ogden's Woods. Fairbanks is the neighborhood between East Street and Wigwam Pond. ==Climate== Dedham has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Dfb under the Köppen climate classification system), with high humidity and precipitation year-round. ==Demographics== As of the census Town Meeting is to consist of no less than 270 members, but not more than necessary to achieve an equal number coming from each precinct. There are currently seven districts, but could be as few as six or as many as nine, with lines drawn by the Select Board and the Registrars of Voters every ten years. Votes are by voice unless members call for a standing or roll call vote, either of which can be called for by the Moderator. All Town officers are required to attend Town Meeting and multiple member bodies must send at least one representative who have all the privileges of a Member except the right to vote. If 5% of Town voters petition the Select Board within 14 days of Town Meeting, any action taken may be submitted to voters. The final result is to be determined by majority vote, but Town Meeting can not be overruled unless 20% of registered voters participate. Town Meeting sets its own rules and keeps a journal of proceedings. The Town Meeting may establish various ad-hoc and standing committees on which any Town Meeting Member or voter may serve. Before each Spring Annual Town Meeting, the Public Service Recognition Award is given to recognize citizens who have performed outstanding acts of service to the community. The Board of Library Trustees has five members, each of whom serves three-year terms, and has care of the Town's public library at the Endicott Branch and Main Branch. The Board develops policies to dictate how the library functions and operates. The Board is responsible for the library's buildings, including library hours and building use outside of regular operating hours. The Board also reviews the Director's budget request, makes recommendations, and officially adopts the operating budget. The current chair is Tom Turner, with Brian Keaney serving as Vice Chair. Crystal Power serves as Clerk. Annette Raphel and Rita Chapdelaine also serve as members. The five elected members of the Planning Board make studies and prepare plans concerning the resources, possibilities, and needs of the town. It also prepares the Master Plan. Currently the board is chaired by Michael A. Podolski, Esq., with Jessica Porter serving as Vice Chair. James E. O'Brien IV serves as Clerk. John Bethoney and James F. McGrail, Esq. are also members. Andrew Pepoli serves as an unelected Associate. There are five elected members of the Parks & Recreation Commission. Section 3-10 of the Town Charter states that the goal of the commission is to promote physical education, play, recreation, sport and other programs for people of all ages. The commission is currently chaired by Lisa Farnham, with Jon Briggs serving as Vice Chair. Lisa Moran, Chuck Dello Iacono, and Ryan O'Toole are also members. There are five elected Commissioners of Trust Funds who manage and control all funds left, given, bequeathed, or devised to the town, and distribute the income in accordance with the terms of the respective trusts. The commission's Chair is Emily Reynolds, with Nicole P Munchbach serving as Vice Chair and Salvatore A Spada as Clerk. Robert Desmond and Dan Jon Oneil Jr. are also members. There are five members of the Housing Authority Board. Four are elected by the Town and one is appointed by the Commonwealth Commissioner of Community Affairs. As members of the Board, they have all of the powers and duties which are given to housing authorities under the constitution and laws of the Commonwealth. The current chair is Donna M. Brown Rego and Margaret Matthews serves as the Assistant Chair & State Appointee. Skye Kessler serves as Treasurer, John B. Kane as Assistant Treasurer, and John Wagner as a member. == Politics == Dedham has shown a consistent trend of support for the Democratic Party in recent presential elections. From 1996 to 2024, Dedham's voting patterns have leaned heavily Democratic, with the party consistently winning the majority of votes. In the 2024 presidential election, Democrat Kamala Harris secured 63.27% of the vote, making a slight decrease from the 67.81% that Democrat Joe Biden received in 2020. In the 1980 election, the Republican Ronald Reagan notably received 46.81% of the vote, marking a significant challenge to the Democrats during that period. Prior to that, Dedham displayed a more competitive political landscape, with Republicans achieving over 50% of the vote in several elections, such as 1956 (61.84%) and 1948 (63.17%). The mid-20th century was characterized by a stronger Republican presence, with the party frequently outperforming Democrats in the early decades of the century. Dedham's modern political identity aligns with broader statewide trends in Massachusetts, where Democratic candidates typically secure a commanding share of the vote. Despite shifts in national political dynamics, Dedham's electoral results indicate a stable commitment to Democratic candidates, reflecting its position within a predominantly Democratic region. Third-party candidates have historically gained minimal support, though certain elections, such as 1992 and 1980, saw relatively higher percentages of third-party votes, reaching up to 22.38% and 15.91%, respectively. {\| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="font-size:95%;" \|+ U.S. Senate election results \|- style="background:lightgrey;" ! Year ! Republican ! Democratic ! Twelve Visions ! Libertarian ! Constitution ! Timesizing Not Downsizing ! Conservative ! Natural Law ! LaRouche Was Right ! Socialist Workers ! U.S. Labor Party ! Prohibition ! Independent ! Write-in votes \|- \| style="text-align:center;" \|2020 ==Education== === Public education === The Dedham Public Schools operates seven schools and is known for the first implementation of a tax supported, free public school system, now used nationally. Dedham High School Dedham Middle School Avery Elementary School Oakdale Elementary School Greenlodge Elementary School Riverdale Elementary School Dr. Thomas J. Curren Early Childhood Education Center === Private education === In addition, there are several private schools in the town, including: Noble and Greenough School, a private, co-educational day and boarding school for students in grades 7–12 Dedham Country Day School, a private, co-educational, day school for students in pre-kindergarten to eighth grade Ursuline Academy, an independent college preparatory day school for young women in grades 7–12. The Rashi School, a Reform Jewish elementary and middle school. Little Sprouts Early Education and Childcare, a preschool and kindergarten. Regina Caeli Academy, based at St. Mary's Church. === Former schools === Ames School, a former public elementary school named after distinguished Dedham resident Fisher Ames. Charles J. Capen School, operated from 1931 to 1981. St. Mary of the Assumption School, a former Catholic elementary school that operated as a part of St. Mary of the Assumption Parish until 1975. The Quincy School, a former public elementary school that operated until 1982. The Dexter School, a former public elementary school now operating as a private preschool and kindergarten, Little Sprouts Early Education and Childcare, Dedham location. === Higher education === Queen of Apostles Seminary, a former Catholic minor seminary run by the Society of African Missions, closed in the late 1960s Northeastern University Dedham Campus, a satellite campus located in the Queen of Apostles Seminary's former building ==Places of worship== {\| class="wikitable" !Place of worship !Denomination ! Size ! Founded \|- \|First Church and Parish in Dedham \|Unitarian Universalist \| \| 1638 (Split in 1818) \|- \|Allin Congregational Church \|United Church of Christ \| \| 1638 (Split in 1818) \|- \|St. Paul's Episcopal Church \|The Episcopal Church \| \| 1758 \|- \|Fellowship Bible Church \|Nondenominational \| \| 1843 \|- \|St. Mary of the Assumption Church \|Roman Catholic \| 2,329 families Endicott Estate Fairbanks House MIT Endicott House Norfolk County Correctional Center, situated in the median of Route 128. Old Norfolk County Jail Cemeteries Baby Cemetery Brookdale Cemetery Fairview Cemetery Old Village Cemetery Boston United Hand in Hand Cemetery is located on Lower East Street straddling the West Roxbury line. Dating back to 1875, the original plot was full by 1896 but subsequently expanded a number of times. There are graves as recent as 1980 in the West Roxbury portion; the Dedham portion is still active. Chestnut Hill's Congregation Mishka Tefila currently owns the property. Samuel Dexter, U.S. Representative, Secretary of War, Secretary of the Treasury, administered oath of office to Chief Justice John Marshall Tommy Vietor, National Security Council spokesperson, podcast host of Pod Save America	[ "Allin Congregational Church", "Norfolk County Courthouse", "Write-in candidate", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Christy Mihos", "satellite campus", "Mary Miles Minter", "Supreme Allied Commander", "Joe Biden", "Connie Hines", "Disestablishmentarianism", "Civitarese-Cushman House", "1992 United States presidential election", "Jill Stein", "Mitt Romney", "United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, 2004", "town manager", "Roman Catholic", "Royal O. Storrs", "United States Senate election in Massachusetts, 2008", "Representative town meeting", "Ames Schoolhouse", "The Dedham Case", "United States Ambassador to Argentina", "United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, 1992", "United States Senate election in Massachusetts, 1994", "Baptists", "Endicott Johnson Corporation", "Dedham Historical Society and Museum", "Harvard University", "United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, 2012", "A Separate Peace", "John J. Droney", "redistricting", "liberty pole", "United States Senate election in Massachusetts, 1984", "2006 Massachusetts gubernatorial election", "Dedham Liberty Pole", "United States Senate election in Massachusetts, 2006", "Norfolk County, Massachusetts", "Noble and Greenough School", "LeBaron B. Colt", "This Old House", "Democratic Party (United States)", "William B. 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Stuart", "Knights of Columbus", "firehouse", "Constitution Party (United States)", "Franklin/Foxboro Line", "Carla Howell", "Jonathan Fairbanks", "American Revolution", "John William McCormack", "U.S. state", "369 Washington Street", "Church of the Good Shepherd (Dedham, Massachusetts)", "Massachusetts", "Weaver W. Adams", "United States Senate election in Massachusetts, 1976", "United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, 2000", "MBTA bus", "Massachusetts's 8th congressional district", "Alien and Sedition Acts", "The Society in Dedham for Apprehending Horse Thieves", "Waldo Colburn", "Dedham District Court", "Kathryn Bigelow", "Pete Hamilton", "United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, 1984", "Canton, Massachusetts", "African American (U.S. Census)", "United Church of Christ", "Kerry Healey", "Anne of Green Gables (1919 film)", "Dartmouth College", "Maryanne Lewis", "Dedham High School", "Area code 781", "United States Senate special election in Massachusetts, 2010", "St. Mary's Church (Dedham, Massachusetts)", "2024 United States presidential election", "Jim Rappaport", "Endicott Estate", "David Brown (Massachusetts protester)", "Wisconsin State Assembly", "Massachusetts Republican Party", "Peter H. Reynolds", "United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, 2014", "Asian (U.S. Census)", "Hispanics in the United States", "Salem, Massachusetts", "Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States", "John Adams", "precipitation", "Ralph Wheelock", "Town Meeting", "Chief Justice of the United States", "Pod Save America", "Alec Baldwin", "I Care a Lot", "United States Atlantic Command", "1956 United States presidential election", "United States Senate election in Massachusetts, 2014", "United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, 2002", "Assemblies of God", "Sarah Parsons", "Thomas Jefferson", "Stephen F. Lynch", "Socialist Workers Party (United States)", "Norfolk County Correctional Center", "Conservatism in the United States", "Bill Weld", "Deval Patrick", "United States Senate election in Massachusetts, 1988", "Temple Grandin", "MBTA", "Dedham Fire Department", "United Independent Party", "Catholic Church", "United States Ambassador to Montenegro", "representative town meeting", "United States House of Representatives", "State and Main", "Dedham Village Historic District", "Shiva Ayyadurai", "2014 Massachusetts gubernatorial election", "Moderator (town official)", "1948 United States presidential election", "Warren Cummings Smith", "St. Paul's Church (Dedham, Massachusetts)", "United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, 1986", "Boston Massachusetts", "James W. Nicholson", "The Record (Bergen County)", "Federal Information Processing Standard", "New England town", "Stamp Act 1765", "Nathaniel Ames", "Dedham Covenant", "United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, 2008", "Edward Brooke", "United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, 1994", "Elizabeth Warren", "Fairview Cemetery (Boston, Massachusetts)", "NATO", "George F. Williams", "United States Senate election in Massachusetts, 2012", "Andover, Massachusetts", "Mother Brook", "George Derby", "The Friends of Eddie Coyle", "Independent politician", "United States Senate election in Massachusetts, 1982", "History of St. Mary's Church (Dedham, Massachusetts)", "United States Senate election in Massachusetts, 2000", "Medal of Honor", "United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, 2006", "Samuel Chase", "Alan Shore", "Scott Brown (politician)", "2018 Massachusetts gubernatorial election", "George McGovern 1972 presidential campaign", "Fisher Ames", "United States Senate election in Massachusetts, 1970", "John Marshall", "Great and General Court", "Tommy Vietor", "Thomas Sherwin", "Boston Beaneaters", "Massachusetts's 9th congressional district", "United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, 1998", "List of counties in Massachusetts", "2010 Massachusetts gubernatorial election", "Mason Sears", "Congressional district", "Paul McMurtry", "United States Senate election in Massachusetts, 1978", "Reuben Guild", "President's Committee on Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Crime", "Samuel Foster Haven", "Geoff Diehl", "Ray Shamie", "William S. Damrell", "Peter Boyle", "Charles A. Finn", "Dedham Public Schools", "Town Manager", "select board", "South Station", "Dedham Public Library", "2006 Winter Olympics", "Charles River", "2014 Winter Olympics", "Little Women", "Natural Law Party", "Richard Trethewey", "Prohibition Party", "National Register of Historic Places", "Joe Malone (politician)", "Gabriel E. Gomez", "oath of office", "John Allen (puritan)", "Paul Kelly (actor)", "United States Census Bureau", "John Kerry", "Ed Markey", "United States Ambassador to Greece", "United States House of Representatives elections in Massachusetts, 2018", "Jacques d'Amboise (dancer)", "humidity" ]
8,546	Death Factory	Death factory is a colloquial name for extermination camps. Death Factory may also refer to: Death Factory (2002 film) Death Factory (2014 film), aka The Butchers	[ "Death factory", "Death Factory (2014 film)", "Extermination camp", "Death on a Factory Farm", "Death Factory (2002 film)" ]
8,547	Book of Deuteronomy	Deuteronomy (; ) is the fifth book of the Torah (in Judaism), where it is called () which makes it the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament. Chapters 1–30 of the book consist of three sermons or speeches delivered to the Israelites by Moses on the Plains of Moab, shortly before they enter the Promised Land. The first sermon recounts the forty years of wilderness wanderings which had led to that moment and ends with an exhortation to observe the law. The second sermon reminds the Israelites of the need to follow Yahweh and the laws (or teachings) he has given them, on which their possession of the land depends. The third sermon offers the comfort that, even should the nation of Israel prove unfaithful and so lose the land, with repentance all can be restored. The final four chapters (31–34) contain the Song of Moses, the Blessing of Moses, and the narratives recounting the passing of the mantle of leadership from Moses to Joshua and, finally, the death of Moses on Mount Nebo. One of its most significant verses is Deuteronomy 6:4, the Shema Yisrael, which has been described as the definitive statement of Jewish identity for theistic Jews: "Hear, O Israel: the Tetragrammaton\| our God, the is one." Verses 6:4–5 were also quoted by Jesus in Mark 12:28–34 as the Great Commandment. Traditionally, it was believed that God dictated the Torah to Moses, but most modern scholars date Deuteronomy to the 7th-5th centuries BCE. ==Structure== Patrick D. Miller in his commentary on Deuteronomy suggests that different views of the structure of the book will lead to different views on what it is about. The structure is often described as a series of three speeches or sermons (chapters 1:1–4:43, 4:44–29:1, 29:2–30:20) followed by a number of short appendices or some kind of epilogue (31:1–34:12), consist of commission of Joshua, the song of Moses and the death of Moses. Other scholars have compared the structure of Deuteronomy with Hittite treaties or other ancient Near Eastern treaty texts. But it is clear that Deuteronomy is not in itself simply the text of a treaty, as Deuteronomy is more than simply applying the secular model of treaty to Israel's relationship with God. The Ten Commandments (Decalogue) in chapter 5 serve as a blueprint for the rest of the book, as chapters 12–26 are the exposition of the Decalogue, thus the expanded Decalogue.)'' Chapters 1–4: The journey through the wilderness from Horeb (Sinai) to Kadesh and then to Moab is recalled. Chapters 4–11: After a second introduction at 4:44–49 the events at Mount Horeb are recalled, with the giving of the Ten Commandments. Heads of families are urged to instruct those under their care in the law, warnings are made against serving gods other than Yahweh, the land promised to Israel is praised, and the people are urged to obedience. Chapters 12–26, the Deuteronomic Code: Laws governing Israel's worship (chapters 12–16a), the appointment and regulation of community and religious leaders (16b–18), social regulation (19–25), and confession of identity and loyalty (26). Chapters 27–28: Blessings and curses for those who keep and break the law. Chapters 29–30: Concluding discourse on the covenant in the land of Moab, including all the laws in the Deuteronomic Code (chapters 12–26) after those given at Horeb; Israel is again exhorted to obedience. Chapters 31–34: Joshua is installed as Moses's successor, Moses delivers the law to the Levites (a priestly caste), and ascends Mount Nebo or Pisgah, where he dies and is buried by God. The narrative of these events is interrupted by two poems, the Song of Moses and the Blessing of Moses. The final verses, Deuteronomy 34:10–12, "never again did there arise in Israel a prophet like Moses," make a claim for the authoritative Deuteronomistic view of theology and its insistence that the worship of Yahweh as the sole deity of Israel was the only permissible religion, having been sealed by the greatest of prophets. ===Deuteronomic Code=== Deuteronomy 12–26, the Deuteronomic Code, is the oldest part of the book and the core around which the rest developed. It is a series of mitzvot (commands) to the Israelites regarding how they should conduct themselves in the Promised Land. ==Composition== ===Composition history=== Mosaic authorship of the Torah, the belief that the five books of the Torah – including the Book of Deuteronomy – were dictated by God to Moses on Mount Sinai, is an ancient Jewish tradition that was codified by Maimonides (1135–1204 AD) as the 8th of the 13 Jewish principles of faith. Virtually all modern secular scholars, and most Christian and Jewish scholars, reject the Mosaic authorship of the Book of Deuteronomy and date the book much later, between the 7th and 5th centuries BC. Its authors were probably the Levite caste, collectively referred to as the Deuteronomist, whose economic needs and social status the book reflects. The historical background to the book's composition is currently viewed in the following general terms: In the late 8th century BC both Judah and Israel were vassals of Assyria. Israel rebelled and was destroyed circa 722 BC. Refugees fleeing from Israel to Judah brought with them a number of traditions that were new to Judah. One of these was that the god Yahweh, already known and worshiped in Judah, was not merely the most important of the gods, but the only god who should be served. This outlook influenced the Judahite landowning ruling class, which became extremely powerful in court circles after placing the eight-year-old Josiah on the throne following the murder of his father, Amon of Judah. By the eighteenth year of Josiah's reign, Assyrian power was in rapid decline, and a pro-independence movement was gathering strength in the Kingdom of Judah. One manifestation of this movement was a state theology of loyalty to Yahweh as the sole god of the Kingdom of Judah. According to 2 Kings 22:1–23:30, at this time Hilkiah (the High Priest and father of the prophet Jeremiah) discovered the "book of the law" – which many scholars believe to be the Deuteronomic Code (the set of laws at chapters 12–26 which form the original core of the Book of Deuteronomy) – in the temple. Josiah subsequently launched a full-scale reform of worship based on this "book of the law", which takes the form of a covenant between Judah and Yahweh to replace the decades-old vassal treaty between King Esarhaddon of Assyria and King Manasseh of Judah. The next stage took place during the Babylonian captivity. The destruction of the Kingdom of Judah by Babylon in 586 BC and the end of kingship was the occasion of much reflection and theological speculation among the Deuteronomistic elite, now in exile in the city of Babylon. The disaster was supposedly Yahweh's punishment of their failure to follow the law, and so they created a history of Israel (the books of Joshua through Kings) to illustrate this. At the end of the Exile, when the Persians agreed that the Jews could return and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem, chapters 1–4 and 29–30 were added and Deuteronomy was made the introductory book to this history, so that a story about a people about to enter the Promised Land became a story about a people about to return to the land. The legal sections of chapters 19–25 were expanded to meet new situations that had arisen, and chapters 31–34 were added as a new conclusion. Chapters 12–26, containing the Deuteronomic Code, are the earliest section. Since the idea was first put forward by W. M. L. de Wette in 1805, most scholars have accepted that this portion of the book was composed in Jerusalem in the 7th century BC in the context of religious reforms advanced by King Hezekiah (reigned c. 716–687 BC), although some have argued for other dates, such as during the reign of his successor Manasseh (687–643 BC) or even much later, such as during the exilic or postexilic periods (597–332 BC). The second prologue (Ch. 5–11) was the next section to be composed, and then the first prologue (Ch. 1–4); the chapters following 26 are similarly layered. ===Israel–Judah division=== The prophet Isaiah, active in Jerusalem about a century before Josiah, makes no mention of the Exodus, covenants with God, or disobedience to God's laws. In contrast, Isaiah's contemporary Hosea, active in the northern kingdom of Israel, makes frequent references to the Exodus, the wilderness wanderings, a covenant, the danger of foreign gods and the need to worship Yahweh alone. This discrepancy has led scholars to conclude that these traditions behind Deuteronomy have a northern origin. Whether the Deuteronomic Code was written in Josiah's time (late 7th century BC) or earlier is subject to debate, but many of the individual laws are older than the collection itself. The two poems at chapters 32–33 – the Song of Moses and the Blessing of Moses were probably originally independent. ===Position in the Hebrew Bible=== Deuteronomy occupies a puzzling position in the Bible, linking the story of the Israelites' wanderings in the wilderness to the story of their history in Canaan without quite belonging totally to either. The wilderness story could end quite easily with Numbers, and the story of Joshua's conquests could exist without it, at least at the level of the plot. But in both cases there would be a thematic (theological) element missing. Scholars have given various answers to the problem. The Deuteronomistic history theory is currently the most popular. Deuteronomy was originally just the law code and covenant, written to cement the religious reforms of Josiah, and later expanded to stand as the introduction to the full history. But there is an older theory, which sees Deuteronomy as belonging to Numbers, and Joshua as a sort of supplement to it. This idea still has supporters, but the mainstream understanding is that Deuteronomy, after becoming the introduction to the history, was later detached from it and included with Genesis–Exodus–Leviticus–Numbers because it already had Moses as its central character. According to this hypothesis, the death of Moses was originally the ending of Numbers, and was simply moved from there to the end of Deuteronomy. Its many themes can be organised around the three poles of Israel, Yahweh, and the covenant which binds them together. ===Israel=== The themes of Deuteronomy in relation to Israel are election, faithfulness, obedience, and Yahweh's promise of blessings, all expressed through the covenant: "obedience is not primarily a duty imposed by one party on another, but an expression of covenantal relationship." Yahweh has elected Israel as his special property (Deuteronomy 7:6 and elsewhere), and Moses stresses to the Israelites the need for obedience to God and covenant, and the consequences of unfaithfulness and disobedience. Yet the first several chapters of Deuteronomy are a long retelling of Israel's past disobedience – but also God's gracious care, leading to a long call to Israel to choose life over death and blessing over curse (chapters 7–11). ===Yahweh=== Deuteronomy's concept of God changed over time. The earliest 7th century layer is monolatrous; not denying the reality of other gods but enforcing only the worship of Yahweh in Jerusalem. In the later, Exilic layers from the mid-6th century, especially chapter 4, this becomes monotheism, the idea that only one god exists. God is simultaneously present in the Temple and in heaven – an important and innovative concept called "name theology." After the review of Israel's history in chapters 1 to 4, there is a restatement of the Ten Commandments in chapter 5. This arrangement of material highlights God's sovereign relationship with Israel prior to the giving of establishment of the Law. ===Covenant=== The core of Deuteronomy is the covenant that binds Yahweh and Israel by oaths of fidelity and obedience. God will give Israel blessings of the land, fertility, and prosperity so long as Israel is faithful to God's teaching; disobedience will lead to curses and punishment. But, according to the Deuteronomists, Israel's prime sin is lack of faith, apostasy: contrary to the first and fundamental commandment ("Thou shalt have no other gods before me") the people have entered into relations with other gods. Dillard and Longman in their Introduction to the Old Testament stress the living nature of the covenant between Yahweh and Israel as a nation: The people of Israel are addressed by Moses as a unity, and their allegiance to the covenant is not one of obeisance, but comes out of a pre-existing relationship between God and Israel, established with Abraham and attested to by the Exodus event, so that the laws of Deuteronomy set the nation of Israel apart, signaling the unique status of the Jewish nation. The land is God's gift to Israel, and many of the laws, festivals and instructions in Deuteronomy are given in the light of Israel's occupation of the land. Dillard and Longman note that "In 131 of the 167 times the verb "give" occurs in the book, the subject of the action is Yahweh." Deuteronomy makes the Torah the ultimate authority for Israel, one to which even the king is subject. == Judaism's weekly Torah portions in the Book of Deuteronomy == Devarim, on Deuteronomy 1–3: Chiefs, scouts, Edom, Ammonites, Sihon, Og, land for two and a half tribes Va'etchanan, on Deuteronomy 3–7: Cities of refuge, Ten Commandments, Shema, exhortation, conquest instructions Eikev, on Deuteronomy 7–11: Obedience, taking the land, golden calf, Aaron's death, Levites' duties Re'eh, on Deuteronomy 11–16: Centralized worship, diet, tithes, sabbatical year, pilgrim festivals Shofetim, on Deuteronomy 16–21: Basic societal structure for the Israelites Ki Teitzei, on Deuteronomy 21–25: Miscellaneous laws on civil and domestic life Ki Tavo, on Deuteronomy 26–29: First fruits, tithes, blessings and curses, exhortation Nitzavim, on Deuteronomy 29–30: covenant, violation, choose blessing and curse Vayelech, on Deuteronomy 31: Encouragement, reading and writing the law Haazinu, on Deuteronomy 32: Punishment, punishment restrained, parting words V'Zot HaBerachah, on Deuteronomy 33–34: Farewell blessing and death of Moses ==Influence on Judaism and Christianity== ===Judaism=== Deuteronomy 6:4–5: "Hear, O Israel (shema Yisra'el), the is our God, the is one!" has become the basic credo of Judaism, the Shema Yisrael, and its twice-daily recitation is a mitzvah (religious commandment). It continues, "Thou shalt love the thy God with all thy heart and all thy soul and all thy might"; it has therefore also become identified with the central Jewish concept of the love of God, and the rewards that come as a result. ===Christianity=== In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus cited Deuteronomy 6:5 as a Great Commandment. The earliest Christian authors interpreted Deuteronomy's prophecy of the restoration of Israel as having been fulfilled (or superseded) in Jesus Christ and the establishment of the Christian Church (Luke 1–2, Acts 2–5), and Jesus was interpreted to be the "one (i.e., prophet) like me" predicted by Moses in Deuteronomy 18:15 (Acts 3:22–23). While the exact position of Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still debated, a common view is that in place of mitzvah set out in Deuteronomy, Paul the Apostle, drawing on Deuteronomy 30:11–14, claimed that the keeping of the Mosaic covenant was superseded by faith in Jesus and the gospel (the New Covenant).	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8,550	Down	Down most often refers to: Down, the relative direction opposed to up Down (gridiron football), in North American/gridiron football, a period when one play takes place Down feather, a soft bird feather used in bedding and clothing Downland, a type of hill Down may also refer to: ==Places== County Down, Northern Ireland, UK County Down (Parliament of Ireland constituency), abolished 1800 Down (Northern Ireland Parliament constituencies) Down (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency), 1921–1929 Down (UK Parliament constituency), 1801–1885 and 1922–1950 Down (civil parish) Down county football team, Gaelic football Down, County Westmeath, Ireland Downe, Greater London, England, formerly called "Down" ==People== Down (surname) John Langdon Down (1828–1896), British physician best known for his description of Down syndrome Down AKA Kilo (born 1985), American rapper ==Film and television== Down (film), a 2001 English remake of the film "Down" (Breaking Bad), an episode of the second season of Breaking Bad "Down" (Into the Dark), an episode of the first season of Into the Dark ==Literature== Down (comics), a comic book published by Top Cow Productions Down (novel), a 1997 Bernice Summerfield novel by Lawrence Miles ==Music== Down (band), an American heavy metal supergroup Down (The Jesus Lizard album), 1994 Down (Sentenced album), 1996 ===Songs=== "Down" (311 song), 1996 "Down" (Blink-182 song), 2003 "Down" (Fifth Harmony song), 2017 "Down" (Jay Sean song), 2009 "Down" (Jessi song), 2018 "Down" (The Kooks song), 2014 "Down" (Marian Hill song), 2016 "Down" (Motograter song), 2003 "Down" (R.K.M & Ken-Y song), 2006 "Down" (Stone Temple Pilots song), 1999 "Down", by Blackbear from Anonymous, 2019 "Down", by Breaking Benjamin from Ember "Down", by Brymo from Merchants, Dealers & Slaves "Down", by Chris Brown from Exclusive "Down", by Dave Gahan from Hourglass "Down", by Davido from "Down", by Earshot from Two "Down", by Five for Fighting from Bookmarks "Down", by Gravity Kills from Gravity Kills "Down", by Harry Nilsson from Nilsson Schmilsson "Down", by Headswim from Flood "Down", by Hot Chip from Freakout/Release "Down", by Juelz Santana from From Me to U "Down", by Kutless from Kutless "Down", by Lindisfarne from Nicely Out of Tune "Down", by Mat Kearney from Young Love "Down", by Miles Davis from Birdland 1951 "Down", by Modern Day Zero "Down", by Pearl Jam from Lost Dogs "Down", by Pitchshifter from PSI "Down", by the Prom Kings from The Prom Kings "Down", by Seether from Holding Onto Strings Better Left to Fray "Down", by Widespread Panic from Don't Tell the Band "Down", by Yelawolf from Shady XV ==Other uses== Down (game theory), a standard position in mathematical game theory Rail directions, where down and up have locally significant meanings DOWN (app), social networking and online dating app	[ "Exclusive (album)", "Shady XV", "Downland", "John Langdon Down", "Down (comics)", "Down (novel)", "Anonymous (Blackbear album)", "Down (Stone Temple Pilots song)", "Two (Earshot album)", "Down (Motograter song)", "Down (Breaking Bad)", "From Me to U", "Down (civil parish)", "Down (band)", "Downstairs (disambiguation)", "Don't Tell the Band", "Downtown (disambiguation)", "Bookmarks (album)", "Down feather", "Down (Jay Sean song)", "The Prom Kings", "Nicely Out of Tune", "Down (R.K.M & Ken-Y song)", "County Down (Parliament of Ireland constituency)", "Down, County Westmeath", "Downhill (disambiguation)", "Young Love (Mat Kearney album)", "Freakout/Release", "PSI (album)", "Gravity Kills (album)", "Down quark", "Down (Fifth Harmony song)", "DN (disambiguation)", "Down (311 song)", "Down (Marian Hill song)", "Hourglass (Dave Gahan album)", "Down (Northern Ireland Parliament constituencies)", "Down GAA", "County Down", "Omo Baba Olowo", "Downe (disambiguation)", "Down (game theory)", "relative direction", "Down Down", "Down (Blink-182 song)", "Down payment", "Down (Jessi song)", "Modern Day Zero", "Holding Onto Strings Better Left to Fray", "Down (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency)", "Flood (Headswim album)", "Lost Dogs (album)", "DOWN (app)", "Down Down Down (disambiguation)", "Ember (album)", "Down (Into the Dark)", "Merchants, Dealers & Slaves", "Down (gridiron football)", "Down (The Jesus Lizard album)", "Downe", "Nilsson Schmilsson", "Down (UK Parliament constituency)", "Down (film)", "Birdland 1951", "Rail directions", "Down (surname)", "Down (Sentenced album)", "Down AKA Kilo", "Down syndrome", "Down (The Kooks song)", "Kutless (album)", "Down county football team", "Downs (disambiguation)" ]
8,551	David	David (; , "beloved one") was a king of ancient Israel and Judah and the third king of the United Monarchy, according to the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament. The Tel Dan stele, an Aramaic-inscribed stone erected by a king of Aram-Damascus in the late 9th/early 8th centuries BCE to commemorate a victory over two enemy kings, contains the phrase (), which is translated as "House of David" by most scholars. The Mesha Stele, erected by King Mesha of Moab in the 9th century BCE, may also refer to the "House of David", although this is disputed. According to Jewish works such as the Seder Olam Rabbah, Seder Olam Zutta, and Sefer ha-Qabbalah (all written over a thousand years later), David ascended the throne as the king of Judah in 885 BCE. Apart from this, all that is known of David comes from biblical literature, the historicity of which has been extensively challenged, and there is little detail about David that is concrete and undisputed. Debates persist over several controversial issues: the exact timeframe of David's reign and the geographical boundaries of his kingdom; whether the story serves as a political defense of David's dynasty against accusations of tyranny, murder and regicide; the homoerotic relationship between David and Jonathan; whether the text is a Homer-like heroic tale adopting elements from its Ancient Near East parallels; and whether elements of the text date as late as the Hasmonean period. In the biblical narrative of the Books of Samuel, David is described as a young shepherd and harpist whose heart is devoted to Yahweh, the one true God. He gains fame and becomes a hero by killing Goliath. He becomes a favorite of Saul, the first king of Israel, but is forced to go into hiding when Saul suspects David of plotting to take his throne. After Saul and his son Jonathan are killed in battle, David is anointed king by the tribe of Judah and eventually all the tribes of Israel. He conquers Jerusalem, makes it the capital of a united Israel, and brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city. He commits adultery with Bathsheba and arranges the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite. David's son Absalom later tries to overthrow him, but David returns to Jerusalem after Absalom's death to continue his reign. David desires to build a temple to Yahweh, but is denied because of the bloodshed of his reign. He dies at age 70 and chooses Solomon, his son with Bathsheba, as his successor instead of his eldest son Adonijah. David is honored as an ideal king and the forefather of the future Hebrew Messiah in Jewish prophetic literature, and many psalms are attributed to him. David is also richly represented in post-biblical Jewish written and oral tradition and referenced in the New Testament. Early Christians interpreted the life of Jesus of Nazareth in light of references to the Hebrew Messiah and to David; Jesus is described as being directly descended from David in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke. In the Quran and hadith, David is described as an Israelite king as well as a prophet of Allah. The biblical David has inspired many interpretations in art and literature over the centuries. ==Biblical account== ===Family=== The First Book of Samuel and the First Book of Chronicles both identify David as the son of Jesse, the Bethlehemite, the youngest of eight sons. He also had at least two sisters: Zeruiah, whose sons all went on to serve in David's army, and Abigail, whose son Amasa served in Absalom's army, Absalom being one of David's younger sons. While the Bible does not name his mother, the Talmud identifies her as Nitzevet, a daughter of a man named Adael, and the Book of Ruth claims him as the great-grandson of Ruth, the Moabite, by Boaz. David is described as cementing his relations with various political and national groups through marriage. According to 1 Samuel 17:25, King Saul said that he would make whoever killed Goliath a very wealthy man, give his daughter to him and declare his father's family exempt from taxes in Israel. Saul offered David his oldest daughter, Merab, a marriage David respectfully declined. Saul then gave Merab in marriage to Adriel the Meholathite. Having been told that his younger daughter Michal was in love with David, Saul gave her in marriage to David upon David's payment in Philistine foreskins (ancient Jewish historian Josephus lists the dowry as 100 Philistine heads). Saul became jealous of David and tried to have him killed. David escaped. Then Saul sent Michal to Galim to marry Palti, son of Laish. David then took wives in Hebron, according to 2 Samuel 3; they were Ahinoam the Yizre'elite; Abigail, the widow of Nabal the Carmelite; Maacah, the daughter of Talmay, king of Geshur; Haggith; Abital; and Eglah. Later, David wanted Michal back and Abner, Ish-bosheth's army commander, delivered her to him, causing Palti great grief. The Book of Chronicles lists his sons with his various wives and concubines. In Hebron, David had six sons: Amnon, by Ahinoam; Daniel, by Abigail; Absalom, by Maachah; Adonijah, by Haggith; Shephatiah, by Abital; and Ithream, by Eglah. By Bathsheba, his sons were Shammua, Shobab, Nathan, and Solomon. David's sons born in Jerusalem of his other wives included Ibhar, Elishua, Eliphelet, Nogah, Nepheg, Japhia, Elishama and Eliada. Jerimoth, who is not mentioned in any of the genealogies, is mentioned as another of his sons in 2 Chronicles 11:18. His daughter Tamar, by Maachah, is raped by her half-brother Amnon. David fails to bring Amnon to justice for his violation of Tamar, because he is his firstborn and he loves him, and so Absalom (her full brother) kills Amnon to avenge Tamar. Despite the great sins they had committed, David showed grief at his sons' deaths, weeping twice for Amnon (2 Samuel 13:31–26) and seven times for Absalom. ===Narrative=== God is angered when Saul, Israel's king, unlawfully offers a sacrifice and later disobeys a divine command both to kill all of the Amalekites and to destroy their confiscated property. Consequently, God sends the prophet Samuel to anoint a shepherd, David, the youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem, to be king instead. After God sends an evil spirit to torment Saul, his servants recommend that he send for a man skilled in playing the lyre. A servant proposes David, whom the servant describes as "skillful in playing, a man of valor, a warrior, prudent in speech, and a man of good presence; and the Lord is with him." David enters Saul's service as one of the royal armour-bearers and plays the lyre to soothe the king. War comes between Israel and the Philistines, and the giant Goliath challenges the Israelites to send out a champion to face him in single combat. David, sent by his father to bring provisions to his brothers serving in Saul's army, declares that he can defeat Goliath. Refusing the king's offer of the royal armour, he kills Goliath with his sling. Saul inquires the name of the young hero's father. Saul sets David over his army. All Israel loves David, but his popularity causes Saul to fear him ("What else can he wish but the kingdom?"). Saul plots his death, but Saul's son Jonathan, who loves David, warns him of his father's schemes and David flees. He goes first to Nob, where he is fed by the priest Ahimelech and given Goliath's sword, and then to Gath, the Philistine city of Goliath, intending to seek refuge with King Achish there. Achish's servants or officials question his loyalty, and David sees that he is in danger there. He goes next to the cave of Adullam, where his family joins him. From there he goes to seek refuge with the king of Moab, but the prophet Gad advises him to leave and he goes to the Forest of Hereth, and then to Keilah, where he is involved in a further battle with the Philistines. Saul plans to besiege Keilah so that he can capture David, so David leaves the city in order to protect its inhabitants. From there he takes refuge in the mountainous Wilderness of Ziph. Jonathan meets with David again and confirms his loyalty to David as the future king. After the people of Ziph notify Saul that David is taking refuge in their territory, Saul seeks confirmation and plans to capture David in the Wilderness of Maon, but his attention is diverted by a renewed Philistine invasion and David is able to secure some respite at Ein Gedi. Returning from battle with the Philistines, Saul heads to Ein Gedi in pursuit of David. Needing privacy "to attend to his needs", Saul enters the cave where, as it happens, David and his supporters are hiding. David realises he has an opportunity to kill Saul, but instead, he secretly cuts off a piece of Saul's robe. When Saul leaves the cave, David comes out to pay homage to the king, and to demonstrate using the piece of robe that he holds no malice towards him. The two are thus reconciled and Saul recognises David as his successor. A similar passage occurs in 1 Samuel 26, when David is able to infiltrate Saul's camp on the hill of Hachilah and remove his spear and a jug of water from his side while he and his guards lie asleep. In this account, David is advised by Abishai that this is his opportunity to kill Saul, but David declines, saying he will not "stretch out [his] hand against the Lord's anointed". In the morning, David once again demonstrates to Saul that, despite ample opportunity, he did not deign to harm him. Saul, despite having already reconciled with David, confesses that he has been wrong to pursue David, and blesses him. In 1 Samuel 27:1–4, David begins to doubt Saul's sincerity, and reasons that the king will eventually make another attempt on his life. David appeals to king Achish of Gath to grant him and his family sanctuary. Achish agrees, and upon hearing that David has fled to Philistia, Saul ceases to pursue him, though no such pursuit seemed to be in progress at the time. Achish permits David to reside in Ziklag, close to the border between Philistia and Judah. To further ingratiate himself to Achish and the Philistines, David and his men raid the Geshurites, the Girzites, and the Amalekites, but lead the royal court to believe they are attacking the Israelites, the Jerahmeelites, and the Kenites. While Achish comes to believe that David had become a loyal vassal, the princes (or lords) of Gath remain unconvinced, and at their request, Achish instructs David to remain behind to guard the camp when the Philistines march against Saul. David returns to Ziklag and saves his wives and the citizens from an Amalekite raid. Jonathan and Saul are killed in battle with the Philistines, and after hearing of their deaths, David travels to Hebron, where he is anointed king over Judah. In the north, Saul's son Ish-Bosheth is anointed king of Israel, and war ensues until Ish-Bosheth is murdered. With the death of Saul's son, the elders of Israel come to Hebron and David is anointed king over all of Israel. He conquers Jerusalem, previously a Jebusite stronghold, and makes it his capital. He brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city, intending to build a temple for God, but the prophet Nathan forbids it, prophesying that the temple would be built by one of David's sons. Nathan also prophesies that God has made a covenant with the house of David stating, "your throne shall be established forever". David wins additional victories over the Philistines, Moabites, Edomites, Amalekites, Ammonites and king Hadadezer of Aram-Zobah, after which they become tributaries. His fame increases as a result, earning the praise of figures like King Toi of Hamath, Hadadezer's rival. During a siege of the Ammonite capital of Rabbah, David remains in Jerusalem. He spies a woman, Bathsheba, bathing and summons her; she becomes pregnant. The text in the Bible does not explicitly state whether Bathsheba consented to sex with David. David calls her husband, Uriah the Hittite, back from the battle to rest, hoping that he will go home to have sex with his wife and the child will be presumed to be his. Uriah does not visit his wife, however, so David conspires to have him killed in the heat of battle. David then marries the widowed Bathsheba. In response, Nathan, after trapping the king in his guilt with a parable that actually described his sin in analogy, prophesies the punishment that will fall upon him, stating "the sword shall never depart from your house." When David acknowledges that he has sinned, Nathan advises him that his sin is forgiven and he will not die, but the child will. In fulfillment of Nathan's words, the child born of the union between David and Bathsheba dies, and another of David's sons, Absalom, fueled by vengeance and lust for power, rebels. Thanks to Hushai, a friend of David who was ordered to infiltrate Absalom's court to successfully sabotage his plans, Absalom's forces are routed at the battle of the Wood of Ephraim, and he is caught by his long hair in the branches of a tree where, contrary to David's order, he is killed by Joab, the commander of David's army. David laments the death of his favourite son: "O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son!" until Joab persuades him to recover from "the extravagance of his grief" and to fulfill his duty to his people. David returns to Gilgal and is escorted across the River Jordan and back to Jerusalem by the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. When David is old and bedridden, Adonijah, his eldest surviving son and natural heir, declares himself king. Bathsheba and Nathan go to David and obtain his agreement to crown Bathsheba's son Solomon as king, according to David's earlier promise, and the revolt of Adonijah is put down. David dies at the age of 70 after reigning for 40 years, and on his deathbed counsels Solomon to walk in the ways of God and to take revenge on his enemies. ===Psalms=== The Book of Samuel calls David a skillful harp (lyre) player and "the sweet psalmist of Israel." Yet, while almost half of the Psalms are headed "A Psalm of David" (also translated as "to David" or "for David") and tradition identifies several with specific events in David's life (e.g., Psalms 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63 and 142), the headings are late additions and no psalm can be attributed to David with certainty. Psalm 34 is attributed to David on the occasion of his escape from Abimelech (or King Achish) by pretending to be insane. According to the parallel narrative in 1 Samuel 21, instead of killing the man who had exacted so many casualties from him, Abimelech allows David to leave, exclaiming, "Am I so short of madmen that you have to bring this fellow here to carry on like this in front of me? Must this man come into my house?" ==Interpretation in Abrahamic tradition== ===Rabbinic Judaism=== David is an important figure in Rabbinic Judaism, with many legends about him. According to one tradition, David was raised as the son of his father Jesse and spent his early years herding his father's sheep in the wilderness while his brothers were in school. David's adultery with Bathsheba is interpreted as an opportunity to demonstrate the power of repentance, and the Talmud says it was not adultery at all, citing a Jewish practice of divorce on the eve of battle. Furthermore, according to Talmudic sources, Uriah's death was not murder, because Uriah had committed a capital offense by refusing to obey a direct command from the King. However, in tractate Sanhedrin, David expressed remorse over his transgressions and sought forgiveness. God ultimately forgave David and Bathsheba but would not remove their sins from Scripture. In Jewish legend, David's sin with Bathsheba is the punishment for David's excessive self-consciousness. He had besought God to lead him into temptation so that he might give proof of his constancy like Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who successfully passed the test and whose names later were united with God's, while David failed through the temptation of a woman. Also, according to the Talmud Yerushalmi, David was born and died on the Jewish holiday of Shavuot (Feast of Weeks). His piety was said to be so great that his prayers could bring down things from Heaven. ===Christianity=== The Messiah concept is fundamental in Christianity. Originally an earthly king ruling by divine appointment ("the anointed one", as the title Messiah had it), in the last two centuries BCE the "son of David" became the apocalyptic and heavenly one who would deliver Israel and usher in a new kingdom. This was the background to the concept of Messiahship in early Christianity, which interpreted the career of Jesus "by means of the titles and functions assigned to David in the mysticism of the Zion cult, in which he served as priest-king and in which he was the mediator between God and man". The early Church believed that "the life of David foreshadowed the life of Christ; Bethlehem is the birthplace of both; the shepherd life of David points out Christ, the Good Shepherd; the five stones chosen to slay Goliath are typical of the five wounds; the betrayal by his trusted counsellor, Ahitophel, and the passage over the Cedron remind us of Christ's Sacred Passion. Many of the Davidic Psalms, as we learn from the New Testament, are clearly typical of the future Messiah." In the Middle Ages, "Charlemagne thought of himself, and was viewed by his court scholars, as a 'new David'. [This was] not in itself a new idea, but [one whose] content and significance were greatly enlarged by him". Western Rite churches (Lutheran, Roman Catholic) celebrate David's feast day on 29 December or 6 October, Eastern-rite on 19 December. The Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches celebrate the feast day of the "Holy Righteous Prophet and King David" on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers (two Sundays before the Great Feast of the Nativity of the Lord) and on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (Sunday before the Nativity), when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus. He is also commemorated on the Sunday after the Nativity, together with Joseph and James, the Brother of the Lord and on 26 December (Synaxis of the Mother of God). ====Middle Ages==== In European Christian culture of the Middle Ages, David was made a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes encapsulating all the ideal qualities of chivalry. His life was thus proposed as a valuable subject for study by those aspiring to chivalric status. This aspect of David in the Nine Worthies was popularised first through literature, and thereafter adopted as a frequent subject for painters and sculptors. David was considered a model ruler and a symbol of divinely ordained monarchy throughout medieval Western Europe and Eastern Christendom. He was perceived as the biblical predecessor to Christian Roman and Byzantine emperors and the name "New David" was used as an honorific reference to these rulers. The Georgian Bagratids and the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia claimed direct biological descent from him. Likewise, kings of the Frankish Carolingian dynasty frequently connected themselves to David; Charlemagne himself occasionally used "David" his pseudonym. God also instructed David in the art of fashioning chain mail out of iron (Q21:80); this knowledge gave David a major advantage over his bronze and cast iron-armed opponents, not to mention the cultural and economic impact. Together with Solomon, David gave judgment in a case of damage to the fields (Q21:78) and David judged the matter between two disputants in his prayer chamber (Q38:21–23). Since there is no mention in the Quran of the wrong David did to Uriah nor any reference to Bathsheba, Muslims reject this narrative. Muslim tradition and the hadith stress David's zeal in daily prayer as well as in fasting. Quran commentators, historians and compilers of the numerous Stories of the Prophets elaborate upon David's concise quranic narratives and specifically mention David's gift in singing his Psalms, his beautiful recitation, and his vocal talents. His voice is described as having a captivating power, weaving its influence not only over man but over all beasts and nature, who would unite with him to praise God. ==Historicity== ===Literary analysis=== Biblical literature and archaeological finds are the only sources that attest to David's life. Some scholars have concluded that this was likely compiled from contemporary records of the 11th and 10th centuries BCE, but that there is no clear historical basis for determining the exact date of compilation. Other scholars believe that the Books of Samuel were substantially composed during the time of Josiah, king of Judah, at the end of the 7th century BCE, extended during the Babylonian captivity and substantially complete by about 550 BCE. Old Testament scholar A. Graeme Auld contends that further editing was done even after then—the silver quarter-shekel Saul's servant offers to Samuel in "almost certainly fixes the date of the story in the Persian or Hellenistic period" because a quarter-shekel was known to exist in Hasmonean times. The authors and editors of Samuel drew on many earlier sources, including, for their history of David, the "history of David's rise" and the "succession narrative". The Books of Chronicles, which tells the story from a different point of view, was probably composed in the period 350–300 BCE, and uses Samuel and Kings as its source. Biblical evidence indicates that David's Judah was something less than a full-fledged monarchy: it often calls him (; ) rather than (); David sets up none of the complex bureaucracy that a kingdom needs. His army is made up of volunteers and his followers are largely relations or from his home region of Hebron. Beyond this, the full range of possible interpretations is available. A number of scholars consider the David story to be a heroic tale similar to the legend of King Arthur or the epics of Homer, while others find such comparisons questionable. One theme paralleled with other Near Eastern literature is the homoerotic nature of the relationship between David and Jonathan. The instance in the Book of Jashar, excerpted in 2 Samuel 1:26, where David "proclaims that Jonathan's love was sweeter to him than the love of a woman", has been compared to Achilles' comparison of Patroclus to a girl and Gilgamesh's love for Enkidu "as a woman". Others hold that the David story is a political apology—an answer to contemporary charges against him, of his involvement in murders and regicide. The authors and editors of Samuel and Chronicles aimed not to record history but to promote David's reign as inevitable and desirable, and for this reason there is little about David that is concrete and undisputed. Other scholars argue that, notwithstanding the apologetic tenor of the story, the authors of Samuel were also critical of David in several respects, suggesting that the text presents a complex portrait of him rather than a purely propagandistic one. Some other studies of David have been written: Baruch Halpern has pictured him as a brutal tyrant, a murderer, and a lifelong vassal of Achish, the Philistine king of Gath; Steven McKenzie argues that David came from a wealthy family, and was an "ambitious and ruthless" tyrant who murdered his opponents, including his sons. ===Archaeological findings=== The Tel Dan stele, discovered in 1993, is an inscribed stone erected by Hazael, a king of Damascus in the late 9th/early 8th centuries BCE. It commemorates the king's victory over two enemy kings, and contains the phrase , , which most scholars translate as "House of David". Other scholars have challenged this reading, but this is likely a reference to a dynasty of the Kingdom of Judah which traced its ancestry to a founder named David. Two epigraphers, André Lemaire and Émile Puech, hypothesised in 1994 that the Mesha Stele from Moab, dating from the 9th century, also contain the words "House of David" at the end of Line 31, although this was considered as less certain than the mention in the Tel Dan inscription. In May 2019, Israel Finkelstein, Nadav Na'aman, and Thomas Römer concluded from the new images that the ruler's name contained three consonants and started with a bet, which excludes the reading "House of David" and, in conjunction with the monarch's city of residence "Horonaim" in Moab, makes it likely that the one mentioned is King Balak, a name also known from the Hebrew Bible. Replying to Langlois, Na'aman argued that the "House of David" reading is unacceptable because the resulting sentence structure is extremely rare in West Semitic royal inscriptions. Besides the two steles, Bible scholar and Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen suggests that David's name also appears in a relief of the pharaoh Shoshenq I, who is usually identified with Shishak in the Bible. The relief claims that Shoshenq raided places in Palestine in 925 BCE, and Kitchen interprets one place as "Heights of David", which was in southern Judah and the Negev where the Bible says David took refuge from Saul. The relief is damaged and interpretation is uncertain. This echoed the 1995 conclusion of Amélie Kuhrt, who noted that "there are no royal inscriptions from the time of the united monarchy (indeed very little written material altogether), and not a single contemporary reference to either David or Solomon," while noting, "against this must be set the evidence for substantial development and growth at several sites, which is plausibly related to the tenth century." In 2007, Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman stated that the archaeological evidence shows that Judah was sparsely inhabited and Jerusalem no more than a small village. The evidence suggested that David ruled only as a chieftain over an area which cannot be described as a state or as a kingdom, but more as a chiefdom, much smaller and always overshadowed by the older and more powerful kingdom of Israel to the north. They posited that Israel and Judah were not monotheistic at the time and that later 7th-century redactors sought to portray a past golden age of a united, monotheistic monarchy in order to serve contemporary needs. They noted a lack of archeological evidence for David's military campaigns and a relative underdevelopment of Jerusalem, the capital of Judah, compared to a more developed and urbanized Samaria, capital of Israel during the 9th century BCE. In 2010, Amihai Mazar wrote that the United Monarchy of the 10th century BCE can be described as a "state in development". He compared David to Labaya, a Caananite warlord living during the time of Pharaoh Akhenaten. While Mazar believes that David reigned over Israel during the 11th century BCE, he argues that much of the Biblical text is of "literary-legendary nature". According to William G. Dever, the reigns of Saul, David and Solomon are reasonably well attested, but "most archeologists today would argue that the United Monarchy was not much more than a kind of hill-country chiefdom". Avraham Faust and Zev Farber argue that David managed to establish a mini-empire through multiple conquests which are archaeologically attested in destruction layers of many urban centers dating to his time. Lester L. Grabbe wrote in 2017: "The main question is what kind of settlement Jerusalem was in Iron IIA: was it a minor settlement, perhaps a large village or possibly a citadel but not a city, or was it the capital of a flourishing—or at least an emerging—state? Assessments differ considerably". Isaac Kalimi wrote in 2018, "No contemporaneous extra-biblical source offers any account of the political situation in Israel and Judah during the tenth century BCE, and as we have seen, the archaeological remains themselves cannot provide any unambiguous evidence of events." Mazar proposed that these two structures may have been architecturally linked as one unit and that they date to the time of King David. Mazar supports this dating with a number of artifacts, including pottery, two Phoenician-style ivory inlays, a black-and-red jug, and a radiocarbon-dated bone, estimated to be from the 10th century. Dever, Amihai Mazar, Avraham Faust, and Nadav Na'aman have argued in favour of the 10th-century BCE dating and responded to challenges to it. In 2010, Eilat Mazar announced the discovery of part of the ancient city walls around the City of David, which she believes date to the 10th century BCE. According to Mazar, this would prove that an organized state did exist in the 10th century. Scholars such as Israel Finkelstein, Lily Singer-Avitz, Ze'ev Herzog and David Ussishkin do not accept these conclusions. Finkelstein does not accept the dating of these structures to the 10th century BCE, based in part on the fact that later structures on the site penetrated deep into underlying layers, that the entire area had been excavated in the early 20th century and then backfilled, that pottery from later periods was found below earlier strata, and that consequently the finds collected by E. Mazar cannot necessarily be considered as retrieved in situ. Aren Maeir said in 2010 that he has seen no evidence that these structures are from the 10th century BCE and that proof of the existence of a strong, centralized kingdom at that time remains "tenuous." Excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa by archaeologists Yosef Garfinkel and Saar Ganor found an urbanized settlement radiocarbon dated to the 10th century, which supports the existence of an urbanised kingdom. The Israel Antiquities Authority stated: "The excavations at Khirbat Qeiyafa clearly reveal an urban society that existed in Judah already in the late eleventh century BCE. It can no longer be argued that the Kingdom of Judah developed only in the late eighth century BCE or at some other later date." But other scholars have criticized the techniques and interpretations to reach some conclusions related to Khirbet Qeiyafa, such as Israel Finkelstein and Alexander Fantalkin of Tel Aviv University, who have instead proposed that the city is to be identified as part of a northern Israelite polity. In 2018, Avraham Faust and Yair Sapir stated that a Canaanite site at Tel Eton, about 30 miles from Jerusalem, was taken over by a Judahite community by peaceful assimilation and transformed from a village into a central town at some point in the late 11th or early 10th century BCE. This transformation used some ashlar blocks in construction, which they argued supports the United Monarchy theory. ==Art and culture== ===Literature=== Literary works about David include: 1517 The Davidiad is a Neo-Latin epic poem by the Croatian national poet, Roman Catholic priest, and Renaissance humanist Marko Marulić (whose name is sometimes Latinized as "Marcus Marulus"). In addition to the small portions that attempt to recall the epics of Homer, The Davidiad is heavily modeled upon Virgil's Aeneid. This is so much the case that Marulić's contemporaries called him the "Christian Virgil from Split." The philologist Miroslav Marcovich also detects, "the influence of Ovid, Lucan, and Statius" in the work. 1681–82 Dryden's long poem Absalom and Achitophel is an allegory that uses the story of the rebellion of Absalom against King David as the basis for his satire of the contemporary political situation, including events such as the Monmouth Rebellion (1685), the Popish Plot (1678) and the Exclusion Crisis. 1893 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle may have used the story of David and Bathsheba as a foundation for the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Crooked Man. Holmes mentions "the small affair of Uriah and Bathsheba" at the end of the story. 1928 Elmer Davis's novel Giant Killer retells and embellishes the biblical story of David, casting David as primarily a poet who managed always to find others to do the "dirty work" of heroism and kingship. In the novel, Elhanan in fact killed Goliath but David claimed the credit; and Joab, David's cousin and general, took it upon himself to make many of the difficult decisions of war and statecraft when David vacillated or wrote poetry instead. 1936 William Faulkner's Absalom, Absalom! refers to the story of Absalom, David's son; his rebellion against his father and his death at the hands of David's general, Joab. In addition it parallels Absalom's vengeance for the rape of his sister Tamar by his half-brother, Amnon. 1946 Gladys Schmitt's novel David the King was a richly embellished biography of David's entire life. The book took a risk, especially for its time, in portraying David's relationship with Jonathan as overtly homoerotic, but was ultimately panned by critics as a bland rendition of the title character. 1966 Juan Bosch, a Dominican political leader and writer, wrote David: Biography of a King, as a realistic portrayal of David's life and political career. 1970 Dan Jacobson's The Rape of Tamar is an imagined account, by one of David's courtiers Yonadab, of the rape of Tamar by Amnon. 1972 Stefan Heym wrote The King David Report in which the historian Ethan compiles upon King Solomon's orders "a true and authoritative report on the life of David, Son of Jesse"—the East German writer's wry depiction of a court historian writing an "authorized" history, many incidents clearly intended as satirical references to the writer's own time. 1974 In Thomas Burnett Swann's biblical fantasy novel How are the Mighty Fallen, David and Jonathan are explicitly stated to be lovers. Moreover, Jonathan is a member of a winged semi-human race (possibly nephilim), one of several such races coexisting with humanity but often persecuted by it. 1980 Malachi Martin's factional novel King of Kings: A Novel of the Life of David relates the life of David, Adonai's champion in his battle with the Philistine deity Dagon. 1984 Joseph Heller wrote a novel based on David called God Knows, published by Simon & Schuster. Told from the perspective of an aging David, the humanity—rather than the heroism—of various biblical characters is emphasized. The portrayal of David as a man of flaws such as greed, lust, selfishness, and his alienation from God, the falling apart of his family is a distinctly 20th-century interpretation of the events told in the Bible. 1993 Madeleine L'Engle's novel Certain Women explores family, the Christian faith, and the nature of God through the story of King David's family and an analogous modern family's saga. 1995 Allan Massie wrote King David, a novel about David's career that portrays the king's relationship to Jonathan as sexual. 2015 Geraldine Brooks wrote a novel about David, The Secret Chord, told from the point of view of the prophet Nathan. 2020 Michael Arditti wrote The Anointed, a novel about David told by three of his wives, Michal, Abigail and Bathsheba. ===Paintings=== 1599 Caravaggio David and Goliath Caravaggio David with the Head of Goliath 1616 Peter Paul Rubens David Slaying Goliath ===Sculptures=== 1440? Donatello, David 1473–1475 Verrocchio, David 1501–1504 Michelangelo, David 1623–1624 Gian Lorenzo Bernini, David ===Film=== David has been depicted several times in films; these are some of the best-known: 1951 David and Bathsheba, directed by Henry King, with Gregory Peck in the role of David. 1959 Solomon and Sheba, directed by King Vidor, with Finlay Currie in the role of an aged King David. 1961 A Story of David, directed by Bob McNaught, with Jeff Chandler in the role of David. 1985 King David, directed by Bruce Beresford, with Richard Gere in the role of David. 1996 Dave and the Giant Pickle ===Television=== 1976 The Story of David, a made-for-TV film with Timothy Bottoms and Keith Michell as King David at different ages. 1997 David, a TV-film with Nathaniel Parker as King David and Leonard Nimoy as the Prophet Samuel. 1997 Solomon, a sequel to David, with Max von Sydow playing an older King David. 2009 Kings, a re-imagining loosely based on the biblical story, with David played by Christopher Egan. King David is the focus of the second episode of History Channel's Battles BC documentary, which detailed all of his military exploits in the bible. 2012 Rei Davi, a Brazilian miniseries with Leonardo Brício as David. 2013 The Bible, a miniseries with Langley Kirkwood in the role of David. 2016 Of Kings and Prophets in which David is played by Olly Rix. ===Music=== The traditional birthday song Las Mañanitas mentions King David as the original singer in its lyrics. 1622 Thomas Tomkins's choral anthem "When David Heard", about David's response to the death of his son Absalom, is published in the anthology Songs of 1622. 1738 George Frideric Handel's oratorio Saul features David as one of its main characters. 1921 Arthur Honegger's oratorio Le Roi David with a libretto by René Morax, instantly became a staple of the choral repertoire. 1954 Darius Milhaud's opera David premieres in Jerusalem in celebration of the 3,000th anniversary of the establishment of that city by David. 1964 Bob Dylan alludes to David in the last line of his song "When The Ship Comes In" ("And like Goliath, they'll be conquered"). 1965 Leonard Bernstein described the second movement of his Chichester Psalms, which features a setting of Psalm 23, sung by a boy soloist accompanied by a harp, as a "musical evocation of King David, the shepherd-psalmist". 1983 Bob Dylan refers to David in his song "Jokerman" ("Michelangelo indeed could've carved out your features"). 1984 Leonard Cohen's song "Hallelujah" has references to David ("there was a secret chord that David played and it pleased the Lord", "The baffled king composing Hallelujah") and Bathsheba ("you saw her bathing on the roof") in its opening verses. 1990 The song "One of the Broken" by Paddy McAloon, performed by Prefab Sprout on the album Jordan: The Comeback, has a reference to David ("I remember King David, with his harp and his beautiful, beautiful songs, I answered his prayers, and showed him a place where his music belongs"). 1991 "Mad About You", a song on Sting's album The Soul Cages, explores David's obsession with Bathsheba from David's perspective. 2000 The song "Gimme a Stone" appears on the Little Feat album Chinese Work Songs chronicles the duel with Goliath and contains a lament to Absalom as a bridge. ===Musical theater=== 1997 King David, sometimes described as a modern oratorio, with a book and lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Alan Menken. ===Radio=== 1962 Twilight of a Hero, an Australian radio play that sold to the BBC ===Playing cards=== For a considerable period, starting in the 15th century and continuing until the 19th, French playing card manufacturers assigned to each of the court cards names taken from history or mythology. 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Kyle McCarter, Jr.", "Adam", "Psalm 23", "Inn of the Good Samaritan", "Great Feast", "2 Samuel 1", "Avraham Faust", "Arabic language", "King of spades", "Psalm 51", "Moab", "fasting", "Taylor & Francis", "Galleria Palatina", "Q38:20", "Paris Psalter", "Abital", "1 Samuel", "Patroclus", "Ammon", "Tel Aviv University", "radiocarbon dated", "Jonathan (1 Samuel)", "David (Michelangelo)", "Middle Ages", "Chinese Work Songs", "Jacob L. Wright", "Saul", "Amun-Re", "Babylonian captivity", "Q26", "Eastern Catholic Churches", "Wood of Ephraim", "Psalm 63", "David's Mighty Warriors", "Karnak", "Canaan", "Achilles", "Enkidu", "Western Europe", "Davidiad", "Ze'ev Herzog", "Stories of the Prophets", "Absalom and Achitophel", "Thomas Burnett Swann", "Rei Davi", "Coat of arms of Ireland", "prophet", "Eilat Mazar", "Israelites", "George Frideric Handel", "Squeeze paper", "King Vidor", "Ruth the Moabite", "Absalom", "ancient city walls around the City of David", "Madeleine L'Engle", "Eastern Orthodoxy", "Gian Lorenzo Bernini", "William G. Dever", "Psalm 54", "Miroslav Marcovich", "Kingdom of Georgia", "The Story of David", "Divine right of kings", "Passion (Christianity)", "Exclusion Crisis", "Abishai (biblical figure)", "Kingdom of Judah", "Ish-Bosheth", "Monheim Town Hall", "Q21:78", "Mosaic law", "deuteronomistic history", "Arthur Honegger", "Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)", "Adonijah", "Langley Kirkwood", "King Arthur", "Marriage of state", "Lutheran", "Galleria Borghese", "Eastern Europe", "Peter Paul Rubens", "David (Verrocchio)", "Gilgamesh", "Neo-Latin", "Roman Catholic priest", "anno mundi", "epic poem", "Jokerman (song)", "Psalm 7", "Quran", "genealogy of Jesus", "oratorio", "Josephine Pollard", "Stefan Heym", "Aren Maeir", "Gospel of Luke", "River Jordan", "Joseph Heller", "Juan Bosch (politician)", "Messiah in Judaism", "Nathan (Prophet)", "Saul (Handel)", "Wilderness of Ziph", "tribe of Judah", "Seder Olam Zutta", "Veja (magazine)", "playing card", "empire", "Tel Dan stele", "Samuel", "Latin liturgical rites", "God", "Prophets and messengers in Islam", "Jesse (biblical figure)", "Ibhar", "Statius", "Psalm 57", "epigrapher", "Latinisation of names", "Yahweh", "Caravaggio", "Romanesque architecture", "Harp", "Franks", "Psalm 34", "Chileab", "Saint Joseph", "Book of Chronicles", "Gaza synagogue", "Sons of David", "Editora Abril", "Monmouth Rebellion", "United Monarchy", "Islam", "nagid", "Homer", "Talmud", "Jerusalem", "2 Samuel", "Chichester Psalms", "vassal", "Gospel of Matthew", "Abimelech", "Tamar (daughter of David)", "Psalm 18", "Amalek", "Lester L. Grabbe", "Q4:163", "Finlay Currie", "The Good Shepherd (Christianity)", "Nob (Bible)", "Gregory Peck", "The Bible (TV series)", "Olly Rix", "anthem", "homoerotic", "Maacah", "Books of Samuel", "kinnor", "Daniel (son of David)", "The Catholic Encyclopedia", "King David (musical)", "King David (film)", "David's Tomb", "Hallelujah (Leonard Cohen song)", "Nadav Na'aman", "Sefer ha-Qabbalah", "The Times of Israel", "New Testament", "Tim Rice", "Q21:79", "tradition", "Ancient Near East", "Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)", "When The Ship Comes In", "Las Mañanitas", "Shishak", "Philistine", "Kings (U.S. TV series)", "History Channel", "Darius Milhaud", "Saar Ganor", "Book of Samuel", "Michal", "Orpheus", "Israel Finkelstein", "Holy Wounds", "Jerahmeelite", "shekel", "Ethan (biblical figure)", "Shavuot", "philologist", "René Morax", "Alan Menken", "Roman Catholicism", "Nathaniel Parker", "Old Testament", "Tamar (2 Samuel)", "Solomon and Sheba", "Book of Jashar", "Shephatiah", "Davidic line", "Uriah the Hittite", "Josiah", "Bethlehem", "Émile Puech", "Absalom, Absalom!", "Achish", "David (Bernini)", "Ma'ale Adumim", "Christopher Egan", "Michelangelo", "Bagrationi", "Maachah", "David Ussishkin", "Q34:10", "Eglah", "Prefab Sprout", "Verrocchio", "bronze", "nephilim", "Sherlock Holmes", "Jewish history", "Kings of Israel and Judah", "Hazael", "midrashim", "Psalm 60", "David and Goliath (Caravaggio)", "Merab", "Aram-Damascus", "Aram-Zobah", "Rembrandt", "Gad (prophet)", "Khirbet Qeiyafa", "Popish Plot", "David (Milhaud)", "Psalms" ]
8,556	Diablo II	Diablo II is a 2000 action role-playing game developed by Blizzard North and published by Blizzard Entertainment for Microsoft Windows, Classic Mac OS, and OS X. The game, with its dark fantasy and horror themes, was conceptualized and designed by David Brevik and Erich Schaefer, who, with Max Schaefer, acted as project leads on the game. The producers were Matthew Householder and Bill Roper. The game was developed over a three-year period, with a crunch time of a year and a half. Set shortly after the events of Diablo, the player controls a new hero, attempting to stop the destruction unleashed by Diablo's return. The game's four acts feature a variety of locations and settings to explore and battle in, as well as an increased cast of characters to play as and interact with. Building on the success of its predecessor, Diablo (1997), and improving the gameplay, both in terms of updated character progression and a better-developed story, Diablo II was one of the most popular games of 2000 and has been cited as one of the greatest games of all time. Major factors that contributed to the game's success include its continuation of popular fantasy themes from the previous game and its access to Blizzard's free online play service, Battle.net. An expansion to the game, Diablo II: Lord of Destruction, was released in 2001. Diablo III, the sequel to Diablo II, was released on May 15, 2012. Diablo II: Resurrected, a remastered version of Diablo II which also includes the Lord of Destruction expansion, was released on September 23, 2021. ==Gameplay== Diablo IIs storyline progresses through four chapters or "acts". Each act follows a predetermined path, but the wilderness and dungeons between key areas are randomly generated. The player progresses through the story by completing a series of quests within each act, while there are also optional side dungeons for extra monsters and experience. In contrast to the first Diablo, whose levels consisted of descending deeper and deeper into a Gothic-themed dungeon and Hell, Diablo IIs environments are much more varied. Act I is similar to the original Diablo; the Rogue Encampment is a simple palisade fort, with plains and boreal forests making up the wilderness area, and the Monastery resembles the typical medieval fortress. Act II mimics Ancient Egypt's desert and tombs; Lut Gholein resembles a Middle Eastern city and palace during the Crusades. Act III is supposedly based on the Central American jungles; Kurast is inspired by the lost Mayan civilization. Act IV takes place in Hell and is the shortest, with just three quests compared to the other Acts that have six. The Lord of Destruction expansion adds the fifth chapter Act V which continues the story where Act IV left off. Act V's style is mainly mountainous as the player ascends Mount Arreat, with alpine plateaus and icy tunnels and caverns. Occasional portals can take the player to dungeons in Hell (seen in Act IV) for extra monsters and experience. After reaching the summit of Arreat, the player gains access to the Worldstone Keep. In addition to the acts, there are three sequential difficulty levels: Normal, Nightmare, and Hell; completing the game (four Acts in the original or five Acts in the expansion) on a difficulty setting will open up the next level. On higher difficulties, monsters are more varied, stronger, and may be resistant or immune to an element or physical damage; experience is penalized on dying, and the player's resistances are handicapped. However, better items are rewarded to players as they go through higher difficulties. A character retains all abilities and items between difficulties and may return to a lower difficulty at any time, albeit it is not possible to replay the quests that are already completed. Players can create a hardcore character. In normal mode, the player can resurrect their character if killed and resume playing, while a hardcore character has only one life. If killed, the character is permanently dead and unplayable. In addition, all items and equipment on that character will be lost unless another friendly character has the "loot" icon checked. Standard and hardcore characters play on separate online channels; as such a hardcore player can never appear in the same game session as a standard player. ===Item system=== Diablo II uses a system of randomly generated equipment similar to the original Diablo, but more complicated. Weapons and armor are divided into several quality levels: normal, magical, set, rare, and unique. Normal quality items are base items with a fixed set of basic properties, such as attribute requirements, maximum durability, armor rating (on armor), block chance (on shields), damage, and attack speed (on weapons). Magical quality items have blue names and one or two randomly selected bonuses, such as bonuses attributes, skills, or damage, indicated by a prefix or suffix. Rare quality items have randomly generated yellow names and 2 to 6 random properties. Unique items have fixed names in gold text, and instead of randomized properties, they have a set of 3 to 8 preselected properties. Green-named set items have fixed names and preselected properties like unique items, and belong to specifically named sets of 2 to 6 items. Additional properties known as set bonuses are activated by equipping multiple or all items from the same set. These are themed on individuals, like Civerb's cudgel, shield, and amulet, each of which provides individual bonuses which are enhanced if two or more of the items are used to equip a character. It is unusual to encounter more than one item from a set in a single playthrough of the game, so collectors need to play the game many times to accumulate all items from a set or purchase them online from other players who possess them but do not need them. Additionally, items can possess sockets, which can be used to upgrade items by adding gems for various bonuses. Diablo II includes an item crafting system. An item called the Horadric Cube is used to combine two or more items to create a new item. For example, three identical lower-quality gems can be combined to create a single higher-quality gem, and three small rejuvenation potions can be combined to create a single, more powerful rejuvenation potion. ===Character classes=== Diablo II allows the player to choose between five different character classes: Amazon, Necromancer, Barbarian, Sorceress, and Paladin. Each character has different strengths, weaknesses, and sets of skills to choose from, as well as varying beginning attributes. The maximum level that any character can obtain is level 99. The Amazon hails from the islands of the Twin Seas, near the border of the Great Ocean. The Amazon is akin to the Rogue of Diablo: both primarily use bows and both make equal use of strength and magic but the Amazon can also use javelins and spears. As such, her clan is a rival to the Sisters of the Sightless Eye (also known as Rogues). Many of her defensive skills are passive in nature, especially Dodge, Avoid, and Evade. The Amazon is voiced by Jessica Straus. The Necromancer is a versatile death-themed spell caster. Necromancers are the priests of the Cult of Rathma from the Eastern jungles. His Summoning skills allow him to raise skeletons, create golems and resurrect dead monsters to fight alongside him. The Necromancer possesses powerful poison spells, which rapidly drain life from afflicted monsters. He also has "Bone" skills, which directly damage enemies while bypassing most resistances. His Curses also afflict the enemy with debilitating status ailments, sowing confusion and chaos in their ranks. The Necromancer is voiced by Michael McConnohie. The Barbarian is voiced by David Thomas. The Sorceress is voiced by Liana Young. The Paladin is voiced by Larry B. Scott. Typically, players choose a hireling that provides something missing from their character class; for instance, the melee-focused Paladin may choose an Iron Wolf for ranged magical support. In Heroes of the Storm (2015), playable characters Cassia and Xul represent the Amazon and the Necromancer classes, respectively. ===Multiplayer=== Diablo II can be played multiplayer on a local area network (LAN) or the Blizzard's Battle.net online service. Unlike the original Diablo, Diablo II was made specifically with online gaming in mind. Several spells (such as auras or war cries) multiply their effectiveness if they are cast within a party, and although dungeons still exist, they were largely replaced by open spaces. Battle.net is divided into "Open" and "Closed" realms. Single-player characters may be played on open realms; only Battle.net characters that are stored on Blizzard's servers may be played on closed realms as a measure against cheating, where they must be played at least once every 90 days to avoid expiration. Open games are subject to many abuses as the characters are stored on the players' own hard drives. Many cheats that were used on closed realms do not exist or work any longer. Hacks, bots, and programs which allow the player to run multiple instances of the game at the same time are not allowed by Blizzard. They are rarely used anymore. Blizzard cracked down on spambots which advertise sites selling Diablo II's virtual items for real-world currency. As the game can be played cooperatively (Players vs. Environment, PvE), groups of players with specific sets of complementary skills can finish some of the game's climactic battles in a matter of seconds, providing strong incentives for party-oriented character builds. Up to eight players can be in one game; they can either unite as a single party, play as individuals, or form multiple opposing parties. Experience gained, monsters' hit points and damage, and the number of items dropped are all increased as more players join a game, though not in a strictly proportional manner. Players are allowed to duel each other with all damage being reduced in player vs player (PvP). The bounty for a successful kill in PvP is a portion of the gold and the "ear" of the defeated player (with the previous owner's name and level at the time of the kill). The Ladder System is reset at various intervals by Blizzard to allow for all players to start fresh with new characters on an equal footing. Ladder seasons have lasted from as short as six months to over a year. When a ladder season ends, all ladder characters are transferred to the non-ladder population. Certain rare items are available only within ladder games, although they can be traded for and exchanged on non-ladder after the season has ended. The game has been patched extensively; the precise number of patches is impossible to determine as Battle.net has the capability of making minor server-side patches to address urgent bugs. , the game is in version 1.14d. Through the patch history, several exploits and bugs such as item duplication have been addressed, as well as major revamps to the game's balance (such as the ability to redo skills and attributes). Not all patches have affected Diablo II directly, as several were designed to address aspects of the expansion to the game and had minimal effects on Diablo II. ==Plot== Diablo II takes place after the end of the previous game, Diablo, in the world of Sanctuary. In Diablo, an unnamed warrior defeated Diablo and attempted to contain the Lord of Terror's essence within his own body. Since then, the hero has become corrupted by the demon's spirit, causing demons to enter the world around him and wreak havoc. A band of adventurers who pass through the Rogue Encampment hear these stories of destruction and attempt to find out the cause of the evil, starting with this corrupted "Dark Wanderer." As the story develops, the truth behind this corruption is revealed: the soulstones were originally intended to imprison the Prime Evils after they were banished to the mortal realm by the Lesser Evils. With the corruption of Diablo's soulstone, the demon is able to control the Dark Wanderer and is attempting to free his two brothers, Mephisto and Baal. Baal, united with the mage Tal-Rasha, is imprisoned in a tomb near Lut Gholein. Mephisto is imprisoned in the eastern temple city of Kurast. As the story progresses, cut scenes show the Dark Wanderer's journey as a drifter named Marius follows him. Marius, now in an asylum, narrates the events to a hooded visitor, whom he initially believes to be the Archangel Tyrael. The player realizes that the Dark Wanderer's mission is to reunite with the other prime evils, Baal and Mephisto. The story is divided up into four acts: Act I – The adventurers rescue Deckard Cain, who is imprisoned in Tristram, and then begin following the Dark Wanderer. The Dark Wanderer has one of the lesser evils, Andariel, corrupt the Sisters of the Sightless Eye (Rogues) and take over their Monastery. The adventurers overcome Andariel and then follow the Wanderer east. Act II – While the adventurers search the eastern desert for Tal-Rasha's tomb, the Dark Wanderer gets there first. Marius is tricked into removing Baal's soulstone from Tal-Rasha and Tyrael charges Marius with taking the soulstone to Hell to destroy it. Act III – The Dark Wanderer and Baal look for Mephisto in the Temple of Kurast. Still imprisoned in the dungeon below the temple, Mephisto was able to corrupt the High Council of Zakarum and take over the region. While the adventurers fight their way to the temple, Mephisto is rejoined by his brothers; the three open a portal to Hell, the Dark Wanderer sheds his human form, becomes the demon Diablo, and goes through the portal. The adventurers arrive later, defeat Mephisto, who was left guarding the entrance, and take his soulstone. Act IV – The adventurers slay Diablo in Hell and destroy the soulstones of Mephisto and Diablo on the Hellforge, preventing their return. In the epilogue, Marius indicates he was too weak to enter Hell, and that he fears the stone's effects on him. He gives the soulstone to his visitor. The visitor reveals himself to actually be Baal, the last surviving Prime Evil now in possession of his own soulstone. He then kills Marius and sets the asylum on fire. The story continues with Act V, in the expansion Diablo II: Lord of Destruction where Baal attempts to corrupt the mythical Worldstone on Mount Arreat. Upon returning to the Pandemonium Fortress after defeating Diablo, Tyrael opens a portal to send the adventurers to Arreat. ==Development== Diablo II was announced by Blizzard in 1997, with a planned launch in the first quarter of 1998. According to designer and project lead Erich Schaefer, "Diablo II never had an official, complete design document... for the most part we just started making up new stuff." Lead developer David Brevik wanted to fix all of the outstanding issues from the first Diablo, including improved multiplayer, more distinction between the character classes, and building the game more horizontally across a large virtual space of land rather than the vertical, multilevel dungeon of Diablo. The game was slated to have two years of development work, but it took Blizzard North over three years to finish. Part of this delay was attributed to Brevik's focus on gameplay from Ultima Online, and trying to improve on features from that game for Diablo. Brevik also brought in concepts from games like Civilization and Master of Orion, which led to the creation of the character skill tree. The team was given creative freedom to come up with further ideas, often spending time playing video games for inspiration, but this haphazard development path led to the game's delay. After missing a key deadline in 1998, Blizzard North entered crunch during 1999 to assure the game would release by 2000. Diablo II, despite having less than one percent of the original code from Diablo and having much of its content and internal coding done from scratch, was seen by the testers as "more of the same." The game was meant to be released simultaneously both in North America and internationally. This allowed the marketing and PR department for Blizzard North to focus their efforts in building up excitement in players worldwide for the first week of sales, contributing to the game's success. Over 70 people worked on the game. A second expansion beyond Lord of Destruction had been in the design stages of development at Blizzard, according to David Brevik, but never reached the production stage. In addition to adding new classes, areas, monsters, and items, the expansion would have brought in more elements of a massively multiplayer online (MMO) game featuring elements like guild halls, what Brevik considered an "ARPG+MMO". Brevik said the expansion was shelved when most of the Blizzard North staff left the company around June 2003. ===Music=== The score was composed by Matt Uelmen and integrates creepy ambience with melodic pieces. The style of the score is ambient industrial and experimental. It was recorded in Redwood City, Oakland, and San Mateo, California, from April 1997 to March 2000. Some tracks were created by reusing the tracks from the original game, while others by rearranging tracks that were out-takes. Other scores are combinations of parts that were created more than a year after the first game's release. A single track usually integrates recorded samples from sound libraries, live recorded instrument interpretation samples specially meant for the game (guitar, flute, oriental percussion), and electronic instruments also, making the tracks difficult for later live interpretations. While the player visits the town, the game recreates the peaceful atmosphere from the first Diablo game, so for that the theme from Act I called "Rogue" comes back with the same chords of the original piece, reproducing only a part of the original Diablo town theme. For Act II Mustafa Waiz, a percussionist, and Scott Petersen, the game's sound designer, worked on the drum samples. Waiz played on the dumbek, djembe, and finger cymbals which gave Matt Uelmen a base upon which to build tracks around. The town theme from Act II, "Toru", makes strong statement of departure from the world of Act I while also maintaining a thematic connection to what had come before. It is the first time in the series to be used some radically different elements than the guitars and choral sounds that dominate both the original Diablo and the opening quarter of Diablo II. The foundation of the "Toru" piece is found in exciting dynamics of a Chinese wind gong. The instrument radically changes color from a steady mysterious drone to a harsh, fearsome noise, which gives exotic feeling and at the same time the pacing of the second town. In all sequences of Act II with deserts and valleys, Arabic percussion sounds dominate. The composer was impressed by two of the Spectrasonics music libraries, Symphony of Voices and Heart of Asia. He used samples from Heart of Asia in the Harem piece from Act II. The "Crypt" track uses a sample from Symphony of Voices; the choral phrase Miserere. Voice samples from Heart of Asia, Heart of Africa, and Symphony of Voices by Spectrasonics. The "Harem" track samples from Heart of Asia the Sanskrit Female 1 samples. ==Release== The game was released in Collector's Edition format, containing bonus collector's material, a copy of the Diablo Dungeons & Dragons pen-and-paper campaign setting, and promotional movies for other Blizzard games. In 2000, the Diablo II: Exclusive Gift Set similarly contained exclusive collector's material and promotional videos, as well as a copy of the official strategy guide. The 2000 released Diablo Gift Pack contained copies of Diablo and Diablo II, but no expansions. The 2001 Diablo: Battle Chest version contained copies of Diablo II, Diablo II: Lord of Destruction, the official strategy guide, and the original Diablo. Recently however , the Battle Chest edition no longer contains the original Diablo. Diablo II was released in Japan through Capcom. === Support and legacy === Until 2016, Blizzard provided limited support for Diablo II, including occasional patches. Although the original CD retail release worked on Windows 95/98/Me/NT4SP5, the current version downloadable from Battle.net requires at least Windows 2000/XP. Around 2008, the announcement of Diablo III renewed the interest in its predecessor and brought more attention to the many mods available for the game. In 2015, an unofficial port for the ARM architecture-based Pandora handheld became available by static recompilation and reverse engineering of the original x86 version. On March 11, 2016, Blizzard released the 1.14a Patch, which added support for Windows 7 and newer, a macOS installer and support for OS X 10.10 and 10.11. Diablo II is not supported on macOS 10.15, due to Apple completely dropping compatibility with 32-bit binaries in this version. === Diablo II: Resurrected === A remaster of the original and expansion, entitled Diablo II: Resurrected, was released in 2021 for Windows, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X and Series S, and Nintendo Switch. The remaster includes updated graphics, smoother gameplay and re-rendering of the game's cutscenes, and supports cross-progression between the different platforms. The remastered version supports online features for players within the same console family, but not local co-op. Cross-platform play was not available upon release, although there is a possibility of it being included in a future update. The game also features quality-of-life improvements that Blizzard can implement by taking advantage of modern computers and consoles, including support for controllers on all systems, easier means of item identification, and shared stashes of items between all of a player's characters. But the designers also forego elements such as quest markers that are common in modern games, preserving as much of the original experience as possible, and making the re-master almost completely unchanged from the original Diablo II. ==Reception== ===Critical reviews=== Diablo II has a positive reception. The PC version of the game achieves an overall score of 88/100 on Metacritic and 89% at GameRankings. GameSpy awarded the game an 86 out of 100, and GameSpot awarded the game an 8.5 out of 10. Greg Vederman reviewed the PC version of the game for Next Generation, rating it five stars out of five, and stated that "Diablo II is a must-have PC title. That's all there is to it." ===Awards=== Diablo II earned GameSpots 2000 runner-up Reader's Choice Award for role-playing game of the year. Diablo II was awarded with "PC Role-Playing Game of the Year", "PC Game of the Year", and "Game of the Year" from the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences during the 4th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards. In August 2016, Diablo II placed 21st on Time's The 50 Best Video Games of All Time list. It was placed at No. 8 on Game Informers "Top 100 RPGs Of All Time" list. ===Sales=== On its debut day, Diablo II sold 184,000 units. The game's global sales reached 1 million copies after two weeks, and 2 million after one and a half months. It was awarded a spot in the Guinness Book of World Records 2000 edition for being the fastest selling computer game ever, with more than 1 million units sold in the first two weeks of availability. Its sales during 2000 alone reached 2.75 million globally; 33% of these copies were sold outside the United States, with South Korea making up the largest international market. Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos, World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade, World of Warcraft: Wrath of the Lich King, World of Warcraft: Cataclysm and Diablo III have since surpassed Diablo IIs record to become fastest-selling computer games ever at their times of release, according to Blizzard. In the United States, PC Data tracked 308,923 sales for Diablo II during the June 25–July 1 period, including sales of its Collector's Edition. This drew revenues of $17.2 million. Domestic sales reached 790,285 units ($41.05 million) by the end of October 2000, according to PC Data. Another $4.47 million were earned in the region by that date via sales of the Collector's Edition. Diablo II finished 2000 with 970,131 sales in the United States, for a gross of $48.2 million. Diablo IIs success continued in 2001: from February to the first week of November, it totaled sales of 306,422 units in the United States. It was ultimately the country's eighth best-selling computer title of 2001, with sales of 517,037 units and revenues of $19.3 million. Its lifetime domestic sales climbed to 1.7 million units, for $67.1 million in revenue, by August 2006. At this time, this led Edge to declare it the United States' second-largest computer game hit released since January 2000. It received a "Gold" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 200,000 copies in the United Kingdom. Diablo II became a major hit in the German market and debuted at #1 on Media Control's computer game sales chart for June 2000. Speaking with Havas Interactive's public relations director, PC Players Udo Hoffman noted that the representative "had to make an effort on the phone to avoid singing and jubilating" over the game's commercial performance. The Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) presented Diablo II with a "Gold" award after three weeks of availability, indicating sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland. It maintained first place for July and rose to "Platinum" status (200,000 sales) by the end of the month. The game proceeded to place in Media Control's top 10 through October, peaking at #2 in August, By the end of 2000, roughly 350,000 units had been sold in the German market. That April, the VUD presented the game with a "Double-Platinum" certification, for 400,000 sales. This made it one of the region's best-selling computer games ever at that time. As of June 29, 2001, Diablo II has sold 4 million copies worldwide. Copies of Diablo: Battle Chest continue to be sold in retail stores, appearing on the NPD Group's top 10 PC games sales list as recently as 2010. Even more remarkably, the Diablo: Battle Chest was the 19th best-selling PC game of 2008 – a full eight years after the game's initial release – and 11 million users still played Diablo II and StarCraft over Battle.net in 2010.	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Award for Role-Playing Game of the Year", "Diablo II: Resurrected", "Columbine High School massacre", "World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade", "The Philadelphia Inquirer", "personal computer", "Future US", "Berkshire Hathaway", "Destructoid", "German language", "action role-playing game", "PC Gamer", "crunch (video games)", "StarCraft (video game)", "static recompilation", "Computer and Video Games", "permadeath", "Mark Kern", "hack and slash", "Pandora (console)", "Time (magazine)", "Heroes of the Storm", "Stieg Hedlund", "Spectrasonics", "Mayan civilization", "Master of Orion", "4th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards", "Blizzard North", "cheating in online games", "dual wield", "mercenary", "ambient industrial", "Diablo (video game)", "massively multiplayer online", "Classic Mac OS", "Metacritic", "Edge (magazine)", "Game Developer (website)", "ARM architecture", "Gothic architecture", "New York University", "Business Wire", "greatest games of all time", "Experimental music", "D.I.C.E. Award for Game of the Year" ]
8,560	Design	A design is the concept of or proposal for an object, process, or system. The word design refers to something that is or has been intentionally created by a thinking agent, and is sometimes used to refer to the inherent nature of something – its design. The verb to design expresses the process of developing a design. In some cases, the direct construction of an object without an explicit prior plan may also be considered to be a design (such as in arts and crafts). A design is expected to have a purpose within a specific context, typically aiming to satisfy certain goals and constraints while taking into account aesthetic, functional and experiential considerations. Traditional examples of designs include architectural and engineering drawings, circuit diagrams, sewing patterns, and less tangible artefacts such as business process models. ==Designing== People who produce designs are called designers. The term 'designer' usually refers to someone who works professionally in one of the various design areas. Within the professions, the word 'designer' is generally qualified by the area of practice (for example: a fashion designer, a product designer, a web designer, or an interior designer), but it can also designate other practitioners such as architects and engineers (see below: Types of designing). A designer's sequence of activities to produce a design is called a design process, with some employing designated processes such as design thinking and design methods. The process of creating a design can be brief (a quick sketch) or lengthy and complicated, involving considerable research, negotiation, reflection, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design. Designing is also a widespread activity outside of the professions of those formally recognized as designers. In his influential book The Sciences of the Artificial, the interdisciplinary scientist Herbert A. Simon proposed that, "Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones." According to the design researcher Nigel Cross, "Everyone can – and does – design," and "Design ability is something that everyone has, to some extent, because it is embedded in our brains as a natural cognitive function." ==History of design== The study of design history is complicated by varying interpretations of what constitutes 'designing'. Many design historians, such as John Heskett, look to the Industrial Revolution and the development of mass production. Others subscribe to conceptions of design that include pre-industrial objects and artefacts, beginning their narratives of design in prehistoric times. Early influential design historians include German-British art historian Nikolaus Pevsner and Swiss historian and architecture critic Sigfried Giedion. ==Design education== In Western Europe, institutions for design education date back to the nineteenth century. The Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry was founded in 1818, followed by the United Kingdom's Government School of Design (1837), and Konstfack in Sweden (1844). The Rhode Island School of Design was founded in the United States in 1877. The German art and design school Bauhaus, founded in 1919, greatly influenced modern design education. Design education covers the teaching of theory, knowledge, and values in the design of products, services, and environments, with a focus on the development of both particular and general skills for designing. Traditionally, its primary orientation has been to prepare students for professional design practice, based on project work and studio, or atelier, teaching methods. There are also broader forms of higher education in design studies and design thinking. Design is also a part of general education, for example within the curriculum topic, Design and Technology. The development of design in general education in the 1970s created a need to identify fundamental aspects of 'designerly' ways of knowing, thinking, and acting, which resulted in establishing design as a distinct discipline of study. ==Design process== Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, produce designs. Design researchers Dorst and Dijkhuis acknowledged that "there are many ways of describing design processes," and compare and contrast two dominant but different views of the design process: as a rational problem-solving process and as a process of reflection-in-action. They suggested that these two paradigms "represent two fundamentally different ways of looking at the world positivism and constructionism." The paradigms may reflect differing views of how designing should be done and how it actually is done, and both have a variety of names. The problem-solving view has been called "the rational model," an American scientist, and two German engineering design theorists, Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz. It posits that: Designers attempt to optimize a design candidate for known constraints and objectives. The design process is plan-driven. The design process is understood in terms of a discrete sequence of stages. The rational model is based on a rationalist philosophy According to the rationalist philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner. Typical stages consistent with the rational model include the following: Pre-production design Design brief – initial statement of intended outcome. Analysis – analysis of design goals. Research – investigating similar designs in the field or related topics. Specification – specifying requirements of a design for a product (product design specification) or service. Problem solving – conceptualizing and documenting designs. Presentation – presenting designs. Design during production. Development – continuation and improvement of a design. Product testing – in situ testing of a design. Post-production design feedback for future designs. Implementation – introducing the design into the environment. Evaluation and conclusion – summary of process and results, including constructive criticism and suggestions for future improvements. Redesign – any or all stages in the design process repeated (with corrections made) at any time before, during, or after production. Each stage has many associated best practices. ====Criticism of the rational model==== The rational model has been widely criticized on two primary grounds: Designers do not work this way – extensive empirical evidence has demonstrated that designers do not act as the rational model suggests. ===Action-centric model=== The action-centric perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to the rational model. At least two views of design activity are consistent with the action-centric perspective. Both involve these three basic activities: In the reflection-in-action paradigm, designers alternate between "framing", "making moves", and "evaluating moves". "Framing" refers to conceptualizing the problem, i.e., defining goals and objectives. A "move" is a tentative design decision. The evaluation process may lead to further moves in the design. which may start with the thinking of an idea, then expressing it by the use of visual or verbal means of communication (design tools), the sharing and perceiving of the expressed idea, and finally starting a new cycle with the critical rethinking of the perceived idea. Anderson points out that this concept emphasizes the importance of the means of expression, which at the same time are means of perception of any design ideas. == Philosophies == Philosophy of design is the study of definitions, assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. There are also many informal 'philosophies' for guiding design such as personal values or preferred approaches. ===Approaches to design=== Some of these values and approaches include: Critical design uses designed artefacts as an embodied critique or commentary on existing values, morals, and practices in a culture. Critical design can make aspects of the future physically present to provoke a reaction. Ecological design is a design approach that prioritizes the consideration of the environmental impacts of a product or service, over its whole lifecycle. Ecodesign research focuses primarily on barriers to implementation, ecodesign tools and methods, and the intersection of ecodesign with other research disciplines. Participatory design (originally co-operative design, now often co-design) is the practice of collective creativity to design, attempting to actively involve all stakeholders (e.g. employees, partners, customers, citizens, end-users) in the design process to help ensure the result meets their needs and is usable. Recent research suggests that designers create more innovative concepts and ideas when working within a co-design environment with others than they do when creating ideas on their own. Scientific design refers to industrialised design based on scientific knowledge. Science can be used to study the effects and need for a potential or existing product in general and to design products that are based on scientific knowledge. For instance, a scientific design of face masks for COVID-19 mitigation may be based on investigations of filtration performance, mitigation performance, thermal comfort, biodegradability and flow resistance. Service design is a term that is used for designing or organizing the experience around a product and the service associated with a product's use. The purpose of service design methodologies is to establish the most effective practices for designing services, according to both the needs of users and the competencies and capabilities of service providers. Sociotechnical system design, a philosophy and tools for participative designing of work arrangements and supporting processes – for organizational purpose, quality, safety, economics, and customer requirements in core work processes, the quality of peoples experience at work, and the needs of society. Transgenerational design, the practice of making products and environments compatible with those physical and sensory impairments associated with human aging and which limit major activities of daily living. User-centered design, which focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end-user of the designed artefact. One aspect of user-centered design is ergonomics. == Relationship with the arts == The boundaries between art and design are blurry, largely due to a range of applications both for the term 'art' and the term 'design'. Applied arts can include industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, and the decorative arts which traditionally includes craft objects. In graphic arts (2D image making that ranges from photography to illustration), the distinction is often made between fine art and commercial art, based on the context within which the work is produced and how it is traded. == Types of designing ==	[ "Herbert A. Simon", "Engineering design process", "product design", "Systems design", "wikt:conceptualize", "Sound design", "Nigel Cross", "atelier", "Ecological design", "Automotive design", "Framing (social sciences)", "graphic art", "Improvisation", "Costume design", "Product development", "User interface design", "Goal", "Transgenerational design", "Academic discipline", "Design research", "Design prototyping", "goal", "Sociotechnical system", "logical consequence", "Process design", "Visual design elements and principles (disambiguation)", "Scenic design", "Web design", "waterfall model", "Modular design", "best practices", "Motion graphic design", "Industrial design", "John Heskett", "Bauhaus", "Industrial Revolution", "Conceptual model", "design thinking", "Analysis", "Product design", "engineering drawing", "Interaction design", "User experience design", "Service design", "Design brief", "Software design", "Experience design", "Game design", "paradigm", "Urban design", "graphic design", "constructive criticism", "Property designer", "system", "Specification", "biodegradability", "Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry", "Pier Giacomo Castiglioni", "Critical design", "Spatial design", "document", "Organizational architecture", "Optimization (mathematics)", "Design education", "circuit diagram", "Agile software development", "commercial art", "Global Design Database", "Cognition", "constraint optimization", "design methods", "interior design", "Floral design", "Research", "Presentation", "Radiogram (device)", "Evidence-based design", "engineering design", "User-centered design", "Lighting designer", "Rationalism", "Problem solving", "positivism", "Royal College of Art", "architectural drawing", "Design thinking", "Information architecture", "Philosophy of design", "art history", "Social design", "Strategic design", "Vexillography", "Nikolaus Pevsner", "Participatory design", "web design", "decorative arts", "Reflective practice", "business process", "Design museums", "product design specification", "designer", "fine art", "Empiricism", "Information design", "Design theory", "systems development life cycle", "Synthetic biology", "aesthetics", "Type design", "Cartographic design", "Constructionism (learning theory)", "Applied arts", "Implementation", "Communication design", "Outline of design", "creativity", "Rhode Island School of Design", "Evaluation", "Design and Technology", "Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic", "Configuration design", "Fashion design", "Graphic design", "Systems architecture", "Konstfack", "List of design awards", "Universal design", "Landscape architecture", "Design methods", "Achille Castiglioni", "ergonomics", "Systems modeling", "Dieter Rams", "Instructional design", "Design management", "in situ", "design cycle", "Product testing", "industrial design", "design studies", "Sensemaking (information science)", "Interior design", "Sigfried Giedion", "emotion", "Design-based learning", "Pattern (sewing)", "Design science", "Zaha Hadid", "fashion design", "Architecture", "Production designer" ]
8,561	Denormalization	Denormalization is a strategy used on a previously-normalized database to increase performance. In computing, denormalization is the process of trying to improve the read performance of a database, at the expense of losing some write performance, by adding redundant copies of data or by grouping data. It is often motivated by performance or scalability in relational database software needing to carry out very large numbers of read operations. Denormalization differs from the unnormalized form in that denormalization benefits can only be fully realized on a data model that is otherwise normalized. == Implementation == A normalized design will often "store" different but related pieces of information in separate logical tables (called relations). If these relations are stored physically as separate disk files, completing a database query that draws information from several relations (a join operation) can be slow. If many relations are joined, it may be prohibitively slow. There are two strategies for dealing with this by denormalization: "DBMS support": The database management system stores redundant copies in the background, which are kept consistent by the DBMS software "DBA implementation": The database administrator (or designer) design around the problem by denormalizing the logical data design === DBMS support === With this approach, database administrators can keep the logical design normalized, but allow the database management system (DBMS) to store additional redundant information on disk to optimize query response. In this case it is the DBMS software's responsibility to ensure that any redundant copies are kept consistent. This method is often implemented in SQL as indexed views (Microsoft SQL Server) or materialized views (Oracle, PostgreSQL). A view may, among other factors, represent information in a format convenient for querying, and the index ensures that queries against the view are optimized physically. === DBA implementation === With this approach, a database administrator or designer has to denormalize the logical data design. With care this can achieve a similar improvement in query response, but at a cost — it is now the database designer's responsibility to ensure that the denormalized database does not become inconsistent. This is done by creating rules in the database called constraints, that specify how the redundant copies of information must be kept synchronized, which may easily make the de-normalization procedure pointless. It is the increase in logical complexity of the database design and the added complexity of the additional constraints that make this approach hazardous. Moreover, constraints introduce a trade-off, speeding up reads (SELECT in SQL) while slowing down writes (INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE). This means a denormalized database under heavy write load may offer worse performance than its functionally equivalent normalized counterpart. == Denormalization versus not normalized data == A denormalized data model is not the same as a data model that has not been normalized, and denormalization should only take place after a satisfactory level of normalization has taken place and that any required constraints and/or rules have been created to deal with the inherent anomalies in the design. For example, all the relations are in third normal form and any relations with join dependencies and multi-valued dependencies are handled appropriately. Examples of denormalization techniques include: "Storing" the count of the "many" elements in a one-to-many relationship as an attribute of the "one" relation Adding attributes to a relation from another relation with which it will be joined Star schemas, which are also known as fact-dimension models and have been extended to snowflake schemas Prebuilt summarization or OLAP cubes With the continued dramatic increase in all three of storage, processing power and bandwidth, on all levels, denormalization in databases has moved from being an unusual or extension technique, to the commonplace, or even the norm. For example, one specific downside of denormalization was, simply, that it "uses more storage" (that is to say, literally more columns in a database). With the exception of truly enormous systems, increased storage requirements is considered a relatively small problem in the 2020s.	[ "snowflake schema", "SQL", "Join dependency", "Information retrieval", "Join (SQL)", "Oracle Database", "relational model", "database management system", "DBMS", "Redundancy (information theory)", "Constraint satisfaction", "One-to-many (data model)", "Multivalued dependency", "Star schema", "computing", "trade-off", "Complexity of constraint satisfaction", "database", "Cache (computing)", "PostgreSQL", "Database normalization", "OLAP cube", "Scalability", "Microsoft SQL Server", "materialized view", "third normal form", "unnormalized form", "Computer performance", "scalability" ]
8,562	Differential topology	In mathematics, differential topology is the field dealing with the topological properties and smooth properties of smooth manifolds. In this sense differential topology is distinct from the closely related field of differential geometry, which concerns the geometric properties of smooth manifolds, including notions of size, distance, and rigid shape. By comparison differential topology is concerned with coarser properties, such as the number of holes in a manifold, its homotopy type, or the structure of its diffeomorphism group. Because many of these coarser properties may be captured algebraically, differential topology has strong links to algebraic topology. The central goal of the field of differential topology is the classification of all smooth manifolds up to diffeomorphism. Since dimension is an invariant of smooth manifolds up to diffeomorphism type, this classification is often studied by classifying the (connected) manifolds in each dimension separately: In dimension 1, the only smooth manifolds up to diffeomorphism are the circle, the real number line, and allowing a boundary, the half-closed interval [0,1) and fully closed interval [0,1]. In dimension 2, every closed surface is classified up to diffeomorphism by its genus, the number of holes (or equivalently its Euler characteristic), and whether or not it is orientable. This is the famous classification of closed surfaces. Already in dimension two the classification of non-compact surfaces becomes difficult, due to the existence of exotic spaces such as Jacob's ladder. In dimension 3, William Thurston's geometrization conjecture, proven by Grigori Perelman, gives a partial classification of compact three-manifolds. Included in this theorem is the Poincaré conjecture, which states that any closed, simply connected three-manifold is homeomorphic (and in fact diffeomorphic) to the 3-sphere. Beginning in dimension 4, the classification becomes much more difficult for two reasons. Firstly, every finitely presented group appears as the fundamental group of some 4-manifold, and since the fundamental group is a diffeomorphism invariant, this makes the classification of 4-manifolds at least as difficult as the classification of finitely presented groups. By the word problem for groups, which is equivalent to the halting problem, it is impossible to classify such groups, so a full topological classification is impossible. Secondly, beginning in dimension four it is possible to have smooth manifolds that are homeomorphic, but with distinct, non-diffeomorphic smooth structures. This is true even for the Euclidean space \mathbb{R}^4, which admits many exotic \mathbb{R}^4 structures. This means that the study of differential topology in dimensions 4 and higher must use tools genuinely outside the realm of the regular continuous topology of topological manifolds. One of the central open problems in differential topology is the four-dimensional smooth Poincaré conjecture, which asks if every smooth 4-manifold that is homeomorphic to the 4-sphere, is also diffeomorphic to it. That is, does the 4-sphere admit only one smooth structure? This conjecture is true in dimensions 1, 2, and 3, by the above classification results, but is known to be false in dimension 7 due to the Milnor spheres. Important tools in studying the differential topology of smooth manifolds include the construction of smooth topological invariants of such manifolds, such as de Rham cohomology or the intersection form, as well as smoothable topological constructions, such as smooth surgery theory or the construction of cobordisms. Morse theory is an important tool which studies smooth manifolds by considering the critical points of differentiable functions on the manifold, demonstrating how the smooth structure of the manifold enters into the set of tools available. Oftentimes more geometric or analytical techniques may be used, by equipping a smooth manifold with a Riemannian metric or by studying a differential equation on it. Care must be taken to ensure that the resulting information is insensitive to this choice of extra structure, and so genuinely reflects only the topological properties of the underlying smooth manifold. For example, the Hodge theorem provides a geometric and analytical interpretation of the de Rham cohomology, and gauge theory was used by Simon Donaldson to prove facts about the intersection form of simply connected 4-manifolds. In some cases techniques from contemporary physics may appear, such as topological quantum field theory, which can be used to compute topological invariants of smooth spaces. Famous theorems in differential topology include the Whitney embedding theorem, the hairy ball theorem, the Hopf theorem, the Poincaré–Hopf theorem, Donaldson's theorem, and the Poincaré conjecture. == Description == Differential topology considers the properties and structures that require only a smooth structure on a manifold to be defined. Smooth manifolds are 'softer' than manifolds with extra geometric structures, which can act as obstructions to certain types of equivalences and deformations that exist in differential topology. For instance, volume and Riemannian curvature are invariants that can distinguish different geometric structures on the same smooth manifold—that is, one can smoothly "flatten out" certain manifolds, but it might require distorting the space and affecting the curvature or volume. On the other hand, smooth manifolds are more rigid than the topological manifolds. John Milnor discovered that some spheres have more than one smooth structure—see Exotic sphere and Donaldson's theorem. Michel Kervaire exhibited topological manifolds with no smooth structure at all. Some constructions of smooth manifold theory, such as the existence of tangent bundles, can be done in the topological setting with much more work, and others cannot. One of the main topics in differential topology is the study of special kinds of smooth mappings between manifolds, namely immersions and submersions, and the intersections of submanifolds via transversality. More generally one is interested in properties and invariants of smooth manifolds that are carried over by diffeomorphisms, another special kind of smooth mapping. Morse theory is another branch of differential topology, in which topological information about a manifold is deduced from changes in the rank of the Jacobian of a function. For a list of differential topology topics, see the following reference: List of differential geometry topics. == Differential topology versus differential geometry == Differential topology and differential geometry are first characterized by their similarity. They both study primarily the properties of differentiable manifolds, sometimes with a variety of structures imposed on them. One major difference lies in the nature of the problems that each subject tries to address. In one view, differential topology distinguishes itself from differential geometry by studying primarily those problems that are inherently global. Consider the example of a coffee cup and a donut. From the point of view of differential topology, the donut and the coffee cup are the same (in a sense). This is an inherently global view, though, because there is no way for the differential topologist to tell whether the two objects are the same (in this sense) by looking at just a tiny (local) piece of either of them. They must have access to each entire (global) object. From the point of view of differential geometry, the coffee cup and the donut are different because it is impossible to rotate the coffee cup in such a way that its configuration matches that of the donut. This is also a global way of thinking about the problem. But an important distinction is that the geometer does not need the entire object to decide this. By looking, for instance, at just a tiny piece of the handle, they can decide that the coffee cup is different from the donut because the handle is thinner (or more curved) than any piece of the donut. To put it succinctly, differential topology studies structures on manifolds that, in a sense, have no interesting local structure. Differential geometry studies structures on manifolds that do have an interesting local (or sometimes even infinitesimal) structure. More mathematically, for example, the problem of constructing a diffeomorphism between two manifolds of the same dimension is inherently global since locally two such manifolds are always diffeomorphic. Likewise, the problem of computing a quantity on a manifold that is invariant under differentiable mappings is inherently global, since any local invariant will be trivial in the sense that it is already exhibited in the topology of \R^n. Moreover, differential topology does not restrict itself necessarily to the study of diffeomorphism. For example, symplectic topology—a subbranch of differential topology—studies global properties of symplectic manifolds. Differential geometry concerns itself with problems—which may be local or global—that always have some non-trivial local properties. Thus differential geometry may study differentiable manifolds equipped with a connection, a metric (which may be Riemannian, pseudo-Riemannian, or Finsler), a special sort of distribution (such as a CR structure), and so on. This distinction between differential geometry and differential topology is blurred, however, in questions specifically pertaining to local diffeomorphism invariants such as the tangent space at a point. Differential topology also deals with questions like these, which specifically pertain to the properties of differentiable mappings on \R^n (for example the tangent bundle, jet bundles, the Whitney extension theorem, and so forth). The distinction is concise in abstract terms: Differential topology is the study of the (infinitesimal, local, and global) properties of structures on manifolds that have only trivial local moduli. Differential geometry is such a study of structures on manifolds that have one or more non-trivial local moduli.	[ "rank (differential topology)", "halting problem", "physics", "William Thurston", "immersion (mathematics)", "abstract algebra", "diffeomorphism group", "geometrization conjecture", "American Mathematical Monthly", "3-sphere", "Raoul Bott", "gauge theory (mathematics)", "differential geometry", "4-manifold", "jet (mathematics)", "torus", "smooth manifold", "Michel Kervaire", "orientable", "CR structure", "diffeomorphism", "interval (mathematics)", "symplectic topology", "Whitney embedding theorem", "Simon Donaldson", "Donaldson's theorem", "John Milnor", "List of publications in mathematics", "Commentarii Mathematici Helvetici", "Riemannian curvature", "Euler characteristic", "Whitney extension theorem", "genus (topology)", "topology", "classification theorem", "cobordism", "compact space", "Metric (mathematics)", "exotic R4", "Grigori Perelman", "Frobenius integration theorem", "isometry", "Hodge theory", "finitely presented group", "Poincaré conjecture", "tangent space", "intersection form (4-manifold)", "de Rham cohomology", "exotic sphere", "tangent bundle", "Morse theory", "symplectic manifold", "surgery theory", "Deformation theory", "differential equation", "connected (topology)", "Surface (topology)", "smooth structure", "submersion (mathematics)", "topological quantum field theory", "Poincaré–Hopf theorem", "topological invariant", "transversality (mathematics)", "Invariant (mathematics)", "Jacobian matrix and determinant", "homeomorphic", "diffeomorphisms", "fundamental group", "hairy ball theorem", "topological manifold", "critical point (mathematics)", "closed surface", "algebraic topology", "boundary (topology)", "Glossary of differential geometry and topology", "Hopf theorem", "Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime", "Milnor sphere", "circle", "real number line", "Exotic sphere", "homotopy type", "Moduli space", "4-sphere", "simply connected", "generalized Poincaré conjecture", "connection (mathematics)", "word problem for groups", "geometry", "pseudo-Riemannian metric", "differentiable function", "Finsler metric", "List of differential geometry topics", "Jacob's ladder surface", "Riemannian metric", "mathematics" ]
8,564	Diffeomorphism	In mathematics, a diffeomorphism is an isomorphism of differentiable manifolds. It is an invertible function that maps one differentiable manifold to another such that both the function and its inverse are continuously differentiable. == Definition == Given two differentiable manifolds M and N, a differentiable map f \colon M \rightarrow N is a diffeomorphism if it is a bijection and its inverse f^{-1} \colon N \rightarrow M is differentiable as well. If these functions are r times continuously differentiable, f is called a C^r-diffeomorphism. Two manifolds M and N are diffeomorphic (usually denoted M \simeq N) if there is a diffeomorphism f from M to N. Two C^r-differentiable manifolds are C^r-diffeomorphic if there is an r times continuously differentiable bijective map between them whose inverse is also r times continuously differentiable. == Diffeomorphisms of subsets of manifolds == Given a subset X of a manifold M and a subset Y of a manifold N, a function f:X\to Y is said to be smooth if for all p in X there is a neighborhood U\subset M of p and a smooth function g:U\to N such that the restrictions agree: g_{\|U \cap X} = f_{\|U \cap X} (note that g is an extension of f). The function f is said to be a diffeomorphism if it is bijective, smooth and its inverse is smooth. == Local description == Testing whether a differentiable map is a diffeomorphism can be made locally under some mild restrictions. This is the Hadamard-Caccioppoli theorem: If U, V are connected open subsets of \R^n such that V is simply connected, a differentiable map f:U\to V is a diffeomorphism if it is proper and if the differential Df_x:\R^n\to\R^n is bijective (and hence a linear isomorphism) at each point x in U. Some remarks: It is essential for V to be simply connected for the function f to be globally invertible (under the sole condition that its derivative be a bijective map at each point). For example, consider the "realification" of the complex square function \begin{cases} f : \R^2 \setminus \{(0,0)\} \to \R^2 \setminus \{(0,0)\} \\ (x,y)\mapsto(x^2-y^2,2xy). \end{cases} Then f is surjective and it satisfies \det Df_x = 4(x^2+y^2) \neq 0. Thus, though Df_x is bijective at each point, f is not invertible because it fails to be injective (e.g. f(1,0)=(1,0)=f(-1,0)). Since the differential at a point (for a differentiable function) Df_x : T_xU \to T_{f(x)}V is a linear map, it has a well-defined inverse if and only if Df_x is a bijection. The matrix representation of Df_x is the n\times n matrix of first-order partial derivatives whose entry in the i-th row and j-th column is \partial f_i / \partial x_j. This so-called Jacobian matrix is often used for explicit computations. Diffeomorphisms are necessarily between manifolds of the same dimension. Imagine f going from dimension n to dimension k. If n then Df_x could never be surjective, and if n>k then Df_x could never be injective. In both cases, therefore, Df_x fails to be a bijection. If Df_x is a bijection at x then f is said to be a local diffeomorphism (since, by continuity, Df_y will also be bijective for all y sufficiently close to x). Given a smooth map from dimension n to dimension k, if Df (or, locally, Df_x) is surjective, f is said to be a submersion (or, locally, a "local submersion"); and if Df (or, locally, Df_x) is injective, f is said to be an immersion (or, locally, a "local immersion"). A differentiable bijection is not necessarily a diffeomorphism. f(x)=x^3, for example, is not a diffeomorphism from \R to itself because its derivative vanishes at 0 (and hence its inverse is not differentiable at 0). This is an example of a homeomorphism that is not a diffeomorphism. When f is a map between differentiable manifolds, a diffeomorphic f is a stronger condition than a homeomorphic f. For a diffeomorphism, f and its inverse need to be differentiable; for a homeomorphism, f and its inverse need only be continuous. Every diffeomorphism is a homeomorphism, but not every homeomorphism is a diffeomorphism. f:M\to N is a diffeomorphism if, in coordinate charts, it satisfies the definition above. More precisely: Pick any cover of M by compatible coordinate charts and do the same for N. Let \phi and \psi be charts on, respectively, M and N, with U and V as, respectively, the images of \phi and \psi. The map \psi f\phi^{-1}:U\to V is then a diffeomorphism as in the definition above, whenever f(\phi^{-1}(U))\subseteq\psi^{-1}(V). == Examples == Since any manifold can be locally parametrised, we can consider some explicit maps from \R^2 into \R^2. Let f(x,y) = \left (x^2 + y^3, x^2 - y^3 \right ). We can calculate the Jacobian matrix: J_f = \begin{pmatrix} 2x & 3y^2 \\ 2x & -3y^2 \end{pmatrix} . The Jacobian matrix has zero determinant if and only if xy=0. We see that f could only be a diffeomorphism away from the x-axis and the y-axis. However, f is not bijective since f(x,y)=f(-x,y), and thus it cannot be a diffeomorphism. Let g(x,y) = \left (a_0 + a_{1,0}x + a_{0,1}y + \cdots, \ b_0 + b_{1,0}x + b_{0,1}y + \cdots \right ) where the a_{i,j} and b_{i,j} are arbitrary real numbers, and the omitted terms are of degree at least two in x and y. We can calculate the Jacobian matrix at 0: J_g(0,0) = \begin{pmatrix} a_{1,0} & a_{0,1} \\ b_{1,0} & b_{0,1} \end{pmatrix}. We see that g is a local diffeomorphism at 0 if, and only if, a_{1,0}b_{0,1} - a_{0,1}b_{1,0} \neq 0, i.e. the linear terms in the components of g are linearly independent as polynomials. Let h(x,y) = \left (\sin(x^2 + y^2), \cos(x^2 + y^2) \right ). We can calculate the Jacobian matrix: J_h = \begin{pmatrix} 2x\cos(x^2 + y^2) & 2y\cos(x^2 + y^2) \\ -2x\sin(x^2+y^2) & -2y\sin(x^2 + y^2) \end{pmatrix} . The Jacobian matrix has zero determinant everywhere! In fact we see that the image of h is the unit circle. ===Surface deformations=== In mechanics, a stress-induced transformation is called a deformation and may be described by a diffeomorphism. A diffeomorphism f:U\to V between two surfaces U and V has a Jacobian matrix Df that is an invertible matrix. In fact, it is required that for p in U, there is a neighborhood of p in which the Jacobian Df stays non-singular. Suppose that in a chart of the surface, f(x,y) = (u,v). The total differential of u is du = \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} dx + \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} dy, and similarly for v. Then the image (du, dv) = (dx, dy) Df is a linear transformation, fixing the origin, and expressible as the action of a complex number of a particular type. When (dx, dy) is also interpreted as that type of complex number, the action is of complex multiplication in the appropriate complex number plane. As such, there is a type of angle (Euclidean, hyperbolic, or slope) that is preserved in such a multiplication. Due to Df being invertible, the type of complex number is uniform over the surface. Consequently, a surface deformation or diffeomorphism of surfaces has the conformal property of preserving (the appropriate type of) angles. == Diffeomorphism group == Let M be a differentiable manifold that is second-countable and Hausdorff. The diffeomorphism group of M is the group of all C^r diffeomorphisms of M to itself, denoted by \text{Diff}^r(M) or, when r is understood, \text{Diff}(M). This is a "large" group, in the sense that—provided M is not zero-dimensional—it is not locally compact. ===Topology=== The diffeomorphism group has two natural topologies: weak and strong . When the manifold is compact, these two topologies agree. The weak topology is always metrizable. When the manifold is not compact, the strong topology captures the behavior of functions "at infinity" and is not metrizable. It is, however, still Baire. Fixing a Riemannian metric on M, the weak topology is the topology induced by the family of metrics d_K(f,g) = \sup\nolimits_{x\in K} d(f(x),g(x)) + \sum\nolimits_{1\le p\le r} \sup\nolimits_{x\in K} \left \\|D^pf(x) - D^pg(x) \right \\| as K varies over compact subsets of M. Indeed, since M is \sigma-compact, there is a sequence of compact subsets K_n whose union is M. Then: d(f,g) = \sum\nolimits_n 2^{-n}\frac{d_{K_n}(f,g)}{1+d_{K_n}(f,g)}. The diffeomorphism group equipped with its weak topology is locally homeomorphic to the space of C^r vector fields . Over a compact subset of M, this follows by fixing a Riemannian metric on M and using the exponential map for that metric. If r is finite and the manifold is compact, the space of vector fields is a Banach space. Moreover, the transition maps from one chart of this atlas to another are smooth, making the diffeomorphism group into a Banach manifold with smooth right translations; left translations and inversion are only continuous. If r=\infty, the space of vector fields is a Fréchet space. Moreover, the transition maps are smooth, making the diffeomorphism group into a Fréchet manifold and even into a regular Fréchet Lie group. If the manifold is \sigma-compact and not compact the full diffeomorphism group is not locally contractible for any of the two topologies. One has to restrict the group by controlling the deviation from the identity near infinity to obtain a diffeomorphism group which is a manifold; see . ===Lie algebra=== The Lie algebra of the diffeomorphism group of M consists of all vector fields on M equipped with the Lie bracket of vector fields. Somewhat formally, this is seen by making a small change to the coordinate x at each point in space: x^{\mu} \mapsto x^{\mu} + \varepsilon h^{\mu}(x) so the infinitesimal generators are the vector fields L_{h} = h^{\mu}(x)\frac{\partial}{\partial x^\mu}. ===Examples=== When M=G is a Lie group, there is a natural inclusion of G in its own diffeomorphism group via left-translation. Let \text{Diff}(G) denote the diffeomorphism group of G, then there is a splitting \text{Diff}(G)\simeq G\times\text{Diff}(G,e), where \text{Diff}(G,e) is the subgroup of \text{Diff}(G) that fixes the identity element of the group. The diffeomorphism group of Euclidean space \R^n consists of two components, consisting of the orientation-preserving and orientation-reversing diffeomorphisms. In fact, the general linear group is a deformation retract of the subgroup \text{Diff}(\R^n,0) of diffeomorphisms fixing the origin under the map f(x)\to f(tx)/t, t\in(0,1]. In particular, the general linear group is also a deformation retract of the full diffeomorphism group. For a finite set of points, the diffeomorphism group is simply the symmetric group. Similarly, if M is any manifold there is a group extension 0\to\text{Diff}_0(M)\to\text{Diff}(M)\to\Sigma(\pi_0(M)). Here \text{Diff}_0(M) is the subgroup of \text{Diff}(M) that preserves all the components of M, and \Sigma(\pi_0(M)) is the permutation group of the set \pi_0(M) (the components of M). Moreover, the image of the map \text{Diff}(M)\to\Sigma(\pi_0(M)) is the bijections of \pi_0(M) that preserve diffeomorphism classes. ===Transitivity=== For a connected manifold M, the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on M. More generally, the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on the configuration space C_k M. If M is at least two-dimensional, the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on the configuration space F_k M and the action on M is multiply transitive . ===Extensions of diffeomorphisms=== In 1926, Tibor Radó asked whether the harmonic extension of any homeomorphism or diffeomorphism of the unit circle to the unit disc yields a diffeomorphism on the open disc. An elegant proof was provided shortly afterwards by Hellmuth Kneser. In 1945, Gustave Choquet, apparently unaware of this result, produced a completely different proof. The (orientation-preserving) diffeomorphism group of the circle is pathwise connected. This can be seen by noting that any such diffeomorphism can be lifted to a diffeomorphism f of the reals satisfying [f(x+1)=f(x)+1]; this space is convex and hence path-connected. A smooth, eventually constant path to the identity gives a second more elementary way of extending a diffeomorphism from the circle to the open unit disc (a special case of the Alexander trick). Moreover, the diffeomorphism group of the circle has the homotopy-type of the orthogonal group O(2). The corresponding extension problem for diffeomorphisms of higher-dimensional spheres S^{n-1} was much studied in the 1950s and 1960s, with notable contributions from René Thom, John Milnor and Stephen Smale. An obstruction to such extensions is given by the finite abelian group \Gamma_n, the "group of twisted spheres", defined as the quotient of the abelian component group of the diffeomorphism group by the subgroup of classes extending to diffeomorphisms of the ball B^n. ===Connectedness=== For manifolds, the diffeomorphism group is usually not connected. Its component group is called the mapping class group. In dimension 2 (i.e. surfaces), the mapping class group is a finitely presented group generated by Dehn twists; this has been proved by Max Dehn, W. B. R. Lickorish, and Allen Hatcher). Max Dehn and Jakob Nielsen showed that it can be identified with the outer automorphism group of the fundamental group of the surface. William Thurston refined this analysis by classifying elements of the mapping class group into three types: those equivalent to a periodic diffeomorphism; those equivalent to a diffeomorphism leaving a simple closed curve invariant; and those equivalent to pseudo-Anosov diffeomorphisms. In the case of the torus S^1\times S^1=\R^2/\Z^2, the mapping class group is simply the modular group \text{SL}(2,\Z) and the classification becomes classical in terms of elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic matrices. Thurston accomplished his classification by observing that the mapping class group acted naturally on a compactification of Teichmüller space; as this enlarged space was homeomorphic to a closed ball, the Brouwer fixed-point theorem became applicable. Smale conjectured that if M is an oriented smooth closed manifold, the identity component of the group of orientation-preserving diffeomorphisms is simple. This had first been proved for a product of circles by Michel Herman; it was proved in full generality by Thurston. ===Homotopy types=== The diffeomorphism group of S^2 has the homotopy-type of the subgroup O(3). This was proven by Steve Smale. The diffeomorphism group of the torus has the homotopy-type of its linear automorphisms: S^1\times S^1\times\text{GL}(2,\Z). The diffeomorphism groups of orientable surfaces of genus g>1 have the homotopy-type of their mapping class groups (i.e. the components are contractible). The homotopy-type of the diffeomorphism groups of 3-manifolds are fairly well understood via the work of Ivanov, Hatcher, Gabai and Rubinstein, although there are a few outstanding open cases (primarily 3-manifolds with finite fundamental groups). The homotopy-type of diffeomorphism groups of n-manifolds for n>3 are poorly understood. For example, it is an open problem whether or not \text{Diff}(S^4) has more than two components. Via Milnor, Kahn and Antonelli, however, it is known that provided n>6, \text{Diff}(S^n) does not have the homotopy-type of a finite CW-complex. == Homeomorphism and diffeomorphism == Since every diffeomorphism is a homeomorphism, given a pair of manifolds which are diffeomorphic to each other they are in particular homeomorphic to each other. The converse is not true in general. While it is easy to find homeomorphisms that are not diffeomorphisms, it is more difficult to find a pair of homeomorphic manifolds that are not diffeomorphic. In dimensions 1, 2 and 3, any pair of homeomorphic smooth manifolds are diffeomorphic. In dimension 4 or greater, examples of homeomorphic but not diffeomorphic pairs exist. The first such example was constructed by John Milnor in dimension 7. He constructed a smooth 7-dimensional manifold (called now Milnor's sphere) that is homeomorphic to the standard 7-sphere but not diffeomorphic to it. There are, in fact, 28 oriented diffeomorphism classes of manifolds homeomorphic to the 7-sphere (each of them is the total space of a fiber bundle over the 4-sphere with the 3-sphere as the fiber). More unusual phenomena occur for 4-manifolds. In the early 1980s, a combination of results due to Simon Donaldson and Michael Freedman led to the discovery of exotic \R^4: there are uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic open subsets of \R^4 each of which is homeomorphic to \R^4, and also there are uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic differentiable manifolds homeomorphic to \R^4 that do not embed smoothly in \R^4.	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8,567	Dune Messiah	Dune Messiah is a 1969 science fiction novel by American writer Frank Herbert, the second in his Dune series of six novels. A sequel to Dune (1965), it was originally serialized in Galaxy magazine in 1969, and then published by Putnam the same year. Dune Messiah and its own sequel Children of Dune (1976) were collectively adapted by the Sci-Fi Channel in 2003 into a miniseries entitled Frank Herbert's Children of Dune. A feature film adaptation of the novel is in early development from filmmaker Denis Villeneuve to serve as a sequel to his films Dune (2021) and Dune: Part Two (2024). ==Plot== Paul "Muad'Dib" Atreides has ruled as Emperor for 12 years. By accepting the role of messiah to the Fremen, he has unleashed a jihad which has conquered most of the known universe, but is powerless to stop the lethal excesses of the religious juggernaut he has created. Although 61 billion people have perished, Paul's prescient visions indicate this is far from the worst possible outcome for humanity. Motivated by this knowledge, Paul hopes to set humanity on a course that will not inevitably lead to stagnation and destruction, while at the same time acting as ruler of the empire and focal point of the Fremen religion. The Bene Gesserit, Spacing Guild, and Tleilaxu conspire to dethrone Paul, with the Guild Navigator Edric using his prescience to shield their meetings with the Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Mohiam and Tleilaxu Face Dancer Scytale, from Paul's visions. Mohiam enlists Princess Irulan, daughter of the deposed Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV, who is wed to Paul for political purposes. Paul has refused to father a child with Irulan, but he and his Fremen concubine Chani have also failed to produce an heir, causing tension within his monarchy. Desperate both to secure her place in the Atreides dynasty and to preserve the bloodline for the Bene Gesserit breeding program, Irulan has secretly been giving contraceptives to Chani. Paul is aware of this fact, but has foreseen that the birth of his heir will bring Chani's death, and does not want to lose her. Edric gifts Paul a ghola named Hayt, a reanimated being of Tleilaxu-make in the image of the deceased Duncan Idaho, Paul's childhood teacher and friend. The conspirators hope the presence of the ghola will weaken Paul's ability to rule by both disconcerting him and appealing to his emotional vulnerability. Furthermore, Paul's acceptance of the gift weakens his support among the Fremen, who see the Tleilaxu and their tools as unclean. Chani, taking matters into her own hands, switches to a traditional Fremen fertility diet, preventing Irulan from tampering with her food, and soon becomes pregnant. However, Chani's extended consumption of Irulan's contraceptive has weakened her, endangering the pregnancy. Paul learns of a Fremen conspiracy against him, but sees the strands of a Tleilaxu plot. As Paul's soldiers target the conspirators, an atomic weapon sourced from the Tleilaxu called a stone burner destroys the area. Many soldiers are maimed or killed, but crucially, Paul is blinded by the attack. By tradition, all blind Fremen exile themselves in the desert, but Paul shocks the Fremen by proving he can still see despite his condition. His oracular powers have become so developed that he can foresee everything, so by moving through his life in lockstep with his visions, he can see even the slightest details of the world around him. Posing as a dwarf servant to Paul, the Tleilaxu agent Bijaz implants a command in Hayt, compelling him to kill Paul if triggered. During childbirth, Chani's weakened body succumbs to the pain and she dies. Paul's reaction to her death triggers the command in Hayt to kill Paul, however, Hayt's ghola body resists, and the trauma forces Duncan's full consciousness to be recovered, simultaneously making him independent of Tleilaxu control. Before her death, Chani gives birth to twins who, like Paul, have full access to both their male and female ancestral memories. The son is a total surprise for Paul, who had only foreseen the birth of their daughter. Scytale offers to revive Chani as a ghola, revealing the full purpose behind Hayt's presence and the restoration of his memories. Paul refuses, considering the possibility that the Tleilaxu might program a Chani ghola in some diabolical way. Scytale threatens the infants with a knife, demanding all of Paul's CHOAM holdings in return for his children's lives. By successfully escaping the oracular trap and setting the universe on a new path, Paul has been rendered completely blind, yet he is able to kill Scytale with a dagger to the eye due to a psychic vision from his son's perspective. Now prophetically and physically blind, Paul chooses to embrace the Fremen tradition and walks alone into the desert, winning the fealty of the Fremen for his children, who will inherit his empire. Paul leaves his sister Alia, herself worshipped by the Fremen and now romantically involved with Duncan, as regent for the twins, whom he has named Leto and Ghanima. Alia orders Stilgar to execute Edric, Mohiam, and others involved in the plot against her brother, going against his wish that none of them should be harmed. Alia spares Irulan, who in grief for Paul has renounced her loyalty to the Bene Gesserit and vowed to dedicate her life as a teacher to Paul's children. Duncan notes the irony that Chani's death and Paul's nullification have enabled them to triumph against their enemies: the Spacing Guild and the Bene Tleilaxu have been discredited, Irulan's defection from the Bene Gesserit removes the sisterhood's last lever against the Atreides, and Paul has escaped deification by walking into the desert as a man, while guaranteeing Fremen support for the Atreides line. ==Publication history== Parts of Dune Messiah (and its sequel Children of Dune) were written prior to the completion of Dune itself. The novel appeared initially as a five part serial in Galaxy Science Fiction magazine published from June (cover dated July) to October (cover dated November) 1969 with illustrations by Jack Gaughan. A Putnam hardback edition also appeared in October 1969. The American and British editions contain different prologues which summarized the events of Dune. Dune Messiah and Children of Dune were published in a single volume by the Science Fiction Book Club in 2002, and in 1979 by Gollancz with Dune as The Great Dune Trilogy. ==Analysis== Herbert likened the initial trilogy of novels (Dune, Dune Messiah, and Children of Dune) to a fugue, and while Dune was a heroic melody, Dune Messiah was its inversion. Paul rises to power in Dune by seizing control of the single critical resource in the universe, melange. His enemies are dead or overthrown, and he is set to take the reins of power and bring a hard but enlightened peace to the universe. Herbert chose in the books that followed to undermine Paul's triumph with a string of failures and philosophical paradoxes. ==Critical reception== Galaxy Science Fiction called Dune Messiah "Brilliant ... It was all that Dune was, and maybe a little more." Spider Robinson enjoyed the book "even as [he] was driving a truck through the holes in its logic, because it had the same majestic rolling grandeur of the previous book." Challenging Destiny called the novel "The perfect companion piece to Dune ... Fascinating." Dune Messiah and its sequel Children of Dune (1976) were collectively adapted by the Sci-Fi Channel in 2003 into a miniseries entitled Frank Herbert's Children of Dune. The first installment of the three part, six-hour miniseries covers the bulk of the plot of Dune Messiah. The second and third installments adapt Children of Dune. Prior to the release of his 2021 theatrical adaptation Dune, director Denis Villeneuve confirmed at the 2021 Venice Film Festival that a film based on Dune Messiah was planned, and it would serve as the third film in a trilogy. After Dune: Part Two (covering the second half of the first novel) was officially greenlit in October 2021, Villeneuve reiterated his hope to continue the series with a third film focusing on Dune Messiah. Screenwriter Jon Spaihts confirmed in March 2022 that Villeneuve still planned on a third film, and TV series spin-offs to continue the Dune saga. Villeneuve began writing a script for a Dune Messiah film in 2023. In February 2024, Villeneuve said the script was "almost finished" but also wanted to take time to ensure his satisfaction, citing Hollywood's tendency of focusing on release dates over a film's overall quality. Composer Hans Zimmer had already begun working on the film's score to assist Villeneuve in creating the film. In April 2024, following the critical and commercial success of Dune: Part Two, Legendary Pictures confirmed that Dune Messiah was in development with Villeneuve returning as director. Filming is expected to begin in July/August 2025 with a scheduled release in 2026.	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8,569	Duke Nukem 3D	Duke Nukem 3D is a 1996 first-person shooter game developed by 3D Realms and published by FormGen for MS-DOS. It is a sequel to the platform games Duke Nukem and Duke Nukem II, published by 3D Realms. Duke Nukem 3D features the adventures of the titular Duke Nukem, voiced by Jon St. John, who fights against an alien invasion on Earth. Along with Wolfenstein 3D and Doom, Duke Nukem 3D is considered to be responsible for popularizing first-person shooters, and was released to major critical acclaim. Reviewers praised the interactivity of the environments, gameplay, level design, and unique risqué humor, a mix of pop-culture satire and lampooning of over-the-top Hollywood action heroes. However, it also incited controversy due to its violence, erotic elements, and portrayal of women. The shareware version of the game was originally released on January 29, 1996, while the full version of the game was released on April 19, 1996. The Plutonium PAK, an expansion pack which updated the game to version 1.4 and added a fourth eleven-level episode, was released on October 21, 1996. The Atomic Edition, a standalone version of the game that included the content from the Plutonium PAK and updated the game to version 1.5, was released on December 11, 1996. An official fifth episode was released on October 11, 2016, with 20th Anniversary World Tour published by Gearbox Software. A direct sequel titled Duke Nukem Forever was released in 2011, after fifteen years in development hell. == Gameplay == As a first-person shooter whose gameplay is similar to Doom, the gameplay of Duke Nukem 3D involves moving through levels presented from the protagonist's point of view, shooting enemies on the way. The environments in Duke Nukem 3D are highly destructible and interactive; most props can be destroyed by the player. Full Metal Jacket, and released on June 6, 1997, in Minneapolis, being shipped by MacSoft. As of 2020, it includes Duke It Out In D.C., Duke Caribbean: Life's a Beach, Duke: Nuclear Winter, Duke Nukem's Penthouse Paradise, Duke!ZONE and Duke!ZONE II. Since 2022, it also includes Duke - It's Zero Hour. As of 2024, ZOOM Platform is the only digital store where the Atomic Edition is available. === Expansion packs === Nuke It: This is an expansion pack developed by Micro Star in 1996, consisting of 300 custom made levels. Although it was made with the Build Editor, Micro Star was charged by FormGen and 3D Realms of copyright infringement for unauthorized sales of the pack. Ultimately Micro Star lost their case. Duke It Out In D.C.: This is an authorized add-on developed by Sunstorm Interactive and published by WizardWorks; it was released in March 1997. President Bill Clinton is captured by alien forces, and Duke must save him. This expansion pack featured 10 new levels that were based on real-world locations, such as: the White House, the FBI headquarters, the Smithsonian museum, the Washington Monument, and other areas in Washington, D.C. The add-on was also included as part of an official compilation called Duke Nukem: Kill-A-Ton Collection through business deals with 3D Realms. Charlie Wiederhold created levels for this add-on. Duke Caribbean: Life's a Beach: This is an authorized add-on developed by Sunstorm Interactive and published by WizardWorks; it was released in January 1998. Duke is relaxing on a tropical island when he discovers that the aliens are having their own "vacation". This add-on includes a sunny Caribbean theme with 12 new levels that take place on beaches and vacation hotels. The add-on also reskins Duke's weapons with a summer theme, such as water guns. Charlie Wiederhold created several levels for this add-on. Wiederhold was later hired by 3D Realms to work on the sequel Duke Nukem Forever. Duke: Nuclear Winter: This is an authorized add-on developed by Simply Silly Software and published by WizardWorks; it was released in January 1998. It contains all three original episodes, plus an exclusive fourth episode, Plug 'n' Pray, which includes six new levels and a secret level. The secret level was also included in the PC version of Duke Nukem 3D. The new episode features several new enemies, including three new types of Pig Cops, and a new final boss, the CyberKeef. This version also features remixed music, some rearranged from the PC version, and some original, in streaming XA-Audio made by Mark Knight. Duke Nukem 64 is a port released on November 14, 1997, for the Nintendo 64 and features a split screen 4-player mode. It was developed by Eurocom. In-game music was removed due to limited storage capacity, many items were renamed to avoid drug and sex references, and new lines of dialogue were recorded specifically for this version to remove profanity. Several levels were altered to include areas from the Atomic Edition, such as a Duke Burger outlet in the second level which was not in the original PC version. Levels are played sequentially instead of as separate episodes. Other changes include the addition of Rumble Pak support, Duke Nukem 3D (Mega Drive/Genesis) was released in 1998 by Tec Toy. The visuals were drastically simplified, being closer to early shooters like Wolfenstein 3D. It consisted solely of Lunar Apocalypse, the second from the original game's three episodes, which was heavily modified to suit the game engine. This version was initially released in South America only. == Sales == Duke Nukem 3D was a commercial hit, selling about 3.5 million copies. reported 1.25 million units sold of Duke Nukem 3D by December 2002. == Source ports == Following the release of the Doom source code in 1997, players wanted a similar source code release from 3D Realms. The last major game to make use of the Duke Nukem 3D source code was TNT Team's World War II GI in 1999. Its programmer, Matthew Saettler, obtained permission from 3D Realms to expand the gameplay enhancements done on WWII GI to Duke Nukem 3D. EDuke was a semi-official branch of Duke Nukem 3D that was released as a patch as Duke Nukem 3D v2.0 for Atomic Edition users on July 28, 2000. It included a demo mod made by several beta testers. \| EGM = 7.5/10 (SAT)8.0/10 (N64) \| Fam = 21/40 (PS1)4.8/10 (PS1) \| IGN = 8/10 (N64)7/10 (PS1) \| N64 = 86% (N64) \| NGen = (PC, MAC) \| rev3 = Computer Game Review \| rev3Score = 94/100 }} All versions of the game have earned a positive aggregate score on GameRankings and Metacritic. The original release on MS-DOS holds an aggregate score of 89% on GameRankings and a score of 89/100 on Metacritic. The Saturn version also received generally positive reviews, with critics particularly praising the use of real-world settings for the levels However, some complained at the limitations of this version's multiplayer. Dan Hsu of Electronic Gaming Monthly said it was unfortunate that it supports only two players instead of four, GamePro opined that the censoring of sexual content from the port stripped the game of all uniqueness, but the vast majority of critics held that the censorship, though unfortunate, was not extensive enough to eliminate or even reduce Duke's distinctive personality. Both also complained that the control configuration only provides three presets, with no option for custom configuration. The editors of PC Game ranked it as the 12th top game of all time in 2001 citing the game's humor and pop-culture references, and as the 15th best games of all time in 2005. GamePro included it among the most important video games of all time. In 2009, IGN's Cam Shea ranked it as the ninth top 10 Xbox Live Arcade game, stating that it was as fun as it was in its initial release, and praised the ability to rewind to any point before the player died. === Controversy === Duke Nukem 3D was attacked by some critics, who alleged that it promoted pornography and murder. In response to the criticism encountered, censored versions of the game were released in certain countries in order to avoid it being banned altogether. A similar censored version was carried at Wal-Mart retail stores in the United States. In Australia, the game was originally refused classification on release. 3D Realms repackaged the game with the parental lock feature permanently enabled, although a patch available on the 3D Realms website allowed the user to revert the game back into its uncensored U.S. version. The OFLC then attempted to have the game pulled from the shelves, but it was discovered that the distributor had notified them of this fact and the rating could not be surrendered; six months later, the game was reclassified and released uncensored with an MA15+ rating. In Germany, the BPjM placed the game on their "List B" ("List of Media Harmful to Young People") of videos games, thus prohibiting its advertisement in the public. However, it was not fully confiscated, meaning that an adult could still request to see the game and buy it. In 1999, Duke Nukem 3D was banned in Brazil, along with Doom and several other first-person shooters, after a rampage in and around a movie theater was supposedly inspired by the first level in the game. Despite such concerns from critics, legislators, and publishers, Scott Miller later recounted that 3D Realms saw very little negative feedback to the game's controversial elements from actual gamers or their parents. He pointed out that Duke Nukem 3D was appropriately rated "M" and had no real nudity, and speculated that that was enough to make it inoffensive to the general public.	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FormGen Inc.", "Computer Game Review", "pornography", "Mark Knight (musician)", "shader model", "Steam (service)", "air duct", "Sega Saturn Magazine", "Mega Drive/Genesis", "TecToy", "Moon", "Wired (magazine)", "Android (operating system)", "chain gun", "Duke Nukem Forever", "strippers", "pipe bomb", "outer space", "Next Generation (magazine)", "GameTrailers", "intellectual property", "Jeffrey D. Erb", "ZDNet", "Amsterdam", "censored", "jet pack", "mod (video gaming)", "Xbox One", "T-800", "split screen (computer graphics)", "Xbox 360", "White House", "AmigaOS 4", "Balls of Steel (video game)", "Writers Club Press", "medkit", "PlayStation 4", "Doom 64", "Xbox (console)", "fire hydrant", "MIDI", "CNET Gamecenter", "cross-buy", "Washington Monument", "Microsoft Game Studios", "Ziff Davis", "cutscene", "GameRankings", "VG247", "MobyGames", "Penthouse Magazine", "Nintendo 64 Game Pak", "normal mapping", "Development of Duke Nukem Forever", "Chocolate Doom", "They Live", "Japanese cuisine", "Spotlight Awards", "Rumble Pak", "King Records (Japan)", "development hell", "Full Metal Jacket", "Evil Dead II", "Emap International Limited", "Stuff (magazine)", "GOG.com", "FBI", "CBS Interactive", "mutant (fictional)", "GamePro", "Night vision", "Needle (band)", "Eurogamer", "Pulp Fiction", "IGN", "MS-DOS", "Shadow Warrior (1997 video game)", "multiplayer", "IDG", "Indiana Jones (character)", "Berkman Klein Center", "WizardWorks", "water fountain", "Ken Silverman", "Richard Gray (game designer)", "Peer Schneider", "Shacknews", "Monolith (Space Odyssey)", "Doom (1993 video game)", "Tec Toy", "aqua-lung", "DOS", "London", "code review", "strip club", "Smithsonian", "space station", "64-bit", "OpenGL", "BeOS", "FreeBSD", "Exxon Valdez", "GamingOnLinux", "Windows", "PlayStation Vita", "Sega NetLink", "LAPD", "Facebook", "alien invasion", "Aliens (film)", "Neonatal intensive care unit", "Game.com", "platform game", "PC Gamer", "Quake (video game)", "Eternal Champions: Challenge from the Dark Side", "U.S. Gold", "Sega", "Nerve Software", "Electronic Gaming Monthly", "extraterrestrial life in culture", "Santa Claus", "Alaska", "Build (game engine)", "MorphOS", "Chris Kline", "PlayStation (console)", "3D Realms", "iPod Touch", "Build engine", "South America", "Bill Clinton", "Hexen: Beyond Heretic", "Leicester Mercury", "PlayStation Link Cable", "hologram", "Doomguy", "Giza pyramid complex", "North Pole", "source code", "FormGen", "Wolfenstein 3D", "Todd Replogle", "free software", "Scott Miller (entrepreneur)", "Dirty Harry", "DOSBox", "thrash metal", "pistol", "Classic Mac OS", "Daily Mirror", "boss (video gaming)", "Lobotomy Software", "GameFly", "Steroid", "Metacritic", "Area 51", "Paris", "frame rate", "The Shawshank Redemption", "Aardvark Software", "Lee Jackson (composer)", "AmigaOS", "Office of Film and Literature Classification (Australia)", "Solaris (operating system)", "Rome", "rocket-propelled grenade launcher" ]
8,574	Tao Te Ching	The Tao Te Ching () or Laozi is a Chinese classic text and foundational work of Taoism traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship and date of composition and compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion dates to the late 4th century BC. Terminology originating within the text has been reinterpreted and elaborated upon by Legalist thinkers, Confucianists, and particularly Chinese Buddhists, which had been introduced to China significantly after the initial solidification of Taoist thought. The text is well known in the West, and is one of the most translated texts in world literature. == Title == In English, the title is commonly rendered Tao Te Ching, following the Wade–Giles romanisation, or as Daodejing, following pinyin. It can be translated as The Classic of the Way and its Power, The Book of the Tao and Its Virtue, The Book of the Way and of Virtue, The Tao and its Characteristics, Other titles for the work include the honorific Sutra of the Way and Its Power () and the descriptive Five Thousand Character Classic (). == Textual history == === Principal versions === Among the many transmitted editions of the Tao Te Ching text, the three primary ones are named after early commentaries. The "Yan Zun Version", which is only extant for the Te Ching, derives from a commentary attributed to Han dynasty scholar Yan Zun (, ). The "Heshang Gong" version is named after the legendary Heshang Gong ('legendary sage'), who supposedly lived during the reign of Emperor Wen of Han (180–157 BC). This commentary has a preface written by Ge Xuan (164–244 AD), granduncle of Ge Hong, and scholarship dates this version to . The origins of the "Wang Bi" version have greater verification than either of the above. Wang Bi (226–249 AD) was a Three Kingdoms-period philosopher and commentator on the Tao Te Ching and I Ching. === Archaeologically recovered manuscripts === Tao Te Ching scholarship has advanced from archaeological discoveries of manuscripts, some of which are older than any of the received texts. Beginning in the 1920s and 1930s, Marc Aurel Stein and others found thousands of scrolls in the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang. They included more than 50 partial and complete manuscripts. Another partial manuscript has the Xiang'er commentary, which had previously been lost. In 1973, archaeologists discovered copies of early Chinese books, known as the Mawangdui Silk Texts, in a tomb dated to 168 BC. In 1993, the oldest known version of the text, written on bamboo slips, was found in a tomb near the town of Guodian () in Jingmen, Hubei, and dated prior to 300 BC. ===Chronological theories=== Although debated more in early scholarship, early modern scholars like Feng Youlan and Herrlee G. Creel still considered the work a compilation, and most modern scholarship holds the text to be a compilation, as typical for long-form early Chinese texts. Linguistic studies of the Tao Te Chings vocabulary and rime scheme point to a date of composition after the Classic of Poetry (or Book of Songs), but before the Zhuangzi, and would generally be taken as preceding the Zhuangzi. This is the traditional "before Zhuangzi’ theory". Although the Book of Songs is a diverse work, they do not appear to bare any especial resemblance. Based on Sima Qian, the text would traditionally be taken as preceding Shen Buhai. Creel proposed that Shen Buhai may have preceded it as well, but Shen Buhai does bare a "striking" resemblance to Laozi. Although not enough to eliminate a late dating, the discovery of the early Mawangdui silk texts and Guodian Chu Slips again made a dating before the third-century more probable. Essentially the dating of A.C. Graham, the Stanford Encyclopedia supposes compilation of the current text as dating back to , drawing on a wide range of versions further dating back a century or two. Benjamin I. Schwartz still considered the Tao te Ching remarkably unified by the time of the Mawangdui, even if these versions swap the two halves of the text. Termed the "After Zhuangzi" theory, representative of Ch'ien Mu and Graham, a lack of early references contributes to Graham's late dating. While the Zhuangzi is the first reference for the Tao te Ching, it's Inner Chapters do not demonstrate familiar with it. Thus, an early stratum representative of the Zhuangzi's core Inner Chapters may have preceded it. Listed in the Outer Zhuangzi's history before Laozi and Zhuangzi, Shen Dao also shares content with the Inner Zhuangzi. Less technically complex than Shen Buhai, Shen Dao's current may even precede him, as espoused by Ban Gu. However, Shen Dao can also be directly compared with the Tao te Ching. Sinologist Chad Hansen does not consider the Outer Zhuangzi entirely accurate chronologically, but still recalls it as part of a theoretical framework for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Daoism, positioning Shen Dao as "Pre-Laozi Daoist Theory". Discussing concepts of names and realities in its opening, Feng Youlan proposed the school of names as preceding the Tao Te Ching. But while some may have, it does not demonstrate school of names influence the way the Zhuangzi does. The Tao te Ching is not as paradoxical, it tries to demonstrate that the way or dao is not constant. Although differing, Mohism and Confucianism also discuss concepts of names and realities. === Authorship === The Tao Te Ching was traditionally ascribed to Laozi, whose historical existence has been a matter of scholarly debate. His name, which means "Old Master", has only fuelled controversy on this issue. Legends claim variously that Laozi was "born old" and that he lived for 996 years, with twelve previous incarnations starting around the time of the Three Sovereigns before the thirteenth as Laozi. Some scholars have expressed doubts over Laozi's historicity. The first biographical reference to Laozi is in the Records of the Grand Historian, by Chinese historian Sima Qian (), which combines three stories. In the first, Laozi was a contemporary of Confucius (551–479 BC). His surname was Li (), and his personal name was Er () or Dan (). He was an official in the imperial archives, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the West; at the request of the keeper of the Han-ku Pass, Yinxi, Laozi composed the Tao Te Ching. In the second story, Laozi, also a contemporary of Confucius, was Lao Laizi (), who wrote a book in 15 parts. Third, Laozi was the grand historian and astrologer Lao Dan (), who lived during the reign of Duke Xian of Qin (). == Contents == === Themes === === Internal structure === The Tao Te Ching is a text of around 5,162 to 5,450 Chinese characters in 81 brief chapters or sections (). There is some evidence that the chapter divisions were later additions—for commentary, or as aids to rote memorisation—and that the original text was more fluidly organised. It has two parts, the Tao Ching (; chapters 1–37) and the Te Ching (; chapters 38–81), which may have been edited together into the received text, possibly reversed from an original Te Tao Ching. The written style is laconic, and has few grammatical particles. While the ideas are singular, the style is poetic, combining two major strategies: short, declarative statements, and intentional contradictions, encouraging varied, contradictory interpretations. The first of these strategies creates memorable phrases, while the second forces the reader to reconcile supposed contradictions. The Chinese characters in the earliest versions were written in seal script, while later versions were written in clerical script and regular script styles. == Translation == The Tao Te Ching has been translated into Western languages over 250 times, mostly to English, German, and French. According to Holmes Welch, "It is a famous puzzle which everyone would like to feel he had solved." The first English translation of the Tao Te Ching was produced in 1868 by the Scottish Protestant missionary John Chalmers, entitled The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality of the "Old Philosopher" Lau-tsze. It was heavily indebted to Julien's French translation and dedicated to James Legge, Russell Kirkland goes further to argue that these versions are based on Western Orientalist fantasies and represent the colonial appropriation of Chinese culture. Other Taoism scholars, such as Michael LaFargue and Jonathan Herman, argue that while they do not pretend to scholarship, they meet a real spiritual need in the West. These Westernized versions aim to make the wisdom of the Tao Te Ching more accessible to modern English-speaking readers by, typically, employing more familiar cultural and temporal references. === Challenges in translation === The Tao Te Ching is written in Classical Chinese, which generally poses a number of challenges for interpreters and translators. As Holmes Welch notes, the written language "has no active or passive, no singular or plural, no case, no person, no tense, no mood." Moreover, the received text lacks many grammatical particles which are preserved in the older Mawangdui and Beida texts, which permit the text to be more precise. Lastly, many passages of the Tao Te Ching are deliberately ambiguous. Since there is very little punctuation in Classical Chinese, determining the precise boundaries between words and sentences is not always trivial. Deciding where these phrasal boundaries are must be done by the interpreter. linked with silk threads—that it is impossible to understand some passages without some transposition of characters. === Notable translations === last=Laozi \|title=Le Livre de la Voie et de la Vertu \|year=1842 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ll5TAAAAcAAJ \|place=Paris \|publisher=Imprimerie Royale \|language=fr \|ref= last=Laozi \|title=The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality of the "Old Philosopher" Lau-tsze \|year=1868 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxFBAAAAYAAJ \|place=London \|publisher=Trübner \|isbn=978-0-524-07788-7 \|ref= last=Laozi \|title=The Tao Teh King \|volume=XXXIX:V \|year=1891 \|editor-last=Müller \|editor-first=Max \|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/23974 \|series=Sacred Books of the East – Sacred Books of China \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|ref=. last=Laozi \|title=The Sayings of Lao Tzu \|year=1905 \|editor-last=Giles \|editor-first=Lionel \|display-editors=1 \|series=The Wisdom of the East \|place=New York \|publisher=E. P. Dutton \|ref= last=Laozi \|title=The Canon of Reason and Virtue: Lao-tze's Tao Teh King \|year=1913 \|editor-last=Suzuki \|editor-first=Daisetsu Teitaro \|display-editors=1 \|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/tao/crv/ \|place=La Salle \|publisher=Open Court \|ref=. last=Laozi \|title=Les Pères du Système Taoiste \|year=1913 \|series=Taoïsme, Vol. II \|publisher=Hien Hien \|language=fr \|ref= last=Wilhelm \|first=Richard \|title=Tao Te King: das Buch vom Sinn und Leben \|year=1923 \|place=Jena \|publisher=Diederichs \|language=de \|author-link=Richard Wilhelm (sinologist) last=Duyvendak \|first=J.J.L. \|title=Tao Te Ching: The Book of the Way and Its Virtue \|year=1954 \|publisher=John Murray \|author-link=J.J.L. Duyvendak last=Waley \|first=Arthur \|title=The Way and Its Power \|year=1958 \|orig-date=1934 \|place=New York \|publisher=Grove Press \|author-link=Arthur Waley last=Chan \|first=Wing-tsit \|title=The Way of Lao Tzu: Tao-te ching \|year=1963 \|place=Indianapolis \|publisher=Bobbs-Merrill \|author-link=Wing-tsit Chan Houang, François and Leyris, Pierre (1979), La Voie et sa vertu: Tao-tê-king (in French), Paris: Éditions du Seuil last=Laozi \|title=Tao Te Ching: A New English Version \|year=1988 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esUrAbMWAa4C \|place=New York \|publisher=Harper Collins \|isbn=978-0-06-180739-8 \|display-authors=0 \|translator-last=Mitchell \|translator-first=Stephen \|translator-link=Stephen Mitchell (translator). last=Henricks \|first=Robert G. \|title=Lao-tzu: Te-tao ching. A New Translation Based on the Recently Discovered Ma-wang-tui Texts \|year=1989 \|place=New York \|publisher=Ballantine Books \|isbn=0-345-34790-0 last=Laozi \|title=Tao Te Ching \|year=1989 \|place=Hong Kong \|publisher=Chinese University Press \|isbn=9789622014671 \|display-authors=0 \|translator-last=Lau \|translator-first=D. C. \|translator-link=D. C. Lau \|ref= last=Laozi \|title=Tao Te Ching: The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way \|year=1990 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uE7thB_vwQQC \|place=New York \|publisher=Bantam \|isbn=978-0-307-43463-0 \|ref=. last=Laozi \|title=Tao-Te-Ching \|year=1991 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aMLE056g6MsC \|place=York Beach \|publisher=Samuel Weiser \|isbn=978-1-60925-441-4 \|ref= Addiss, Stephen and Lombardo, Stanley (1991) Tao Te Ching, Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company. Ursula K. Le Guin last=Laozi \|title=Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching: A Book about the Way and the Power of Way \|year=1998 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hzw6kER9etoC \|publisher=Shambhala Press \|isbn=978-1611807240 \|display-authors=0 \|translator-link=Ursula K. Le Guin. David Hinton, title= Tao Te Ching \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd8REAAAQBAJ \|publisher=Counterpoint Press \|year=2001 \|ISBN=978-1582431826. Chad Hansen, Laozi: Tao Te Ching on The Art of Harmony, Duncan Baird Publications, 2009 Red Pine, title=Lao-tzu's Taoteching \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GM-wv1S2D6cC \|publisher=Copper Canyon Press \|year=2009 \|ISBN=978-1556592904 Sinedino, Giorgio (2015), Dao De Jing (in Portuguese), São Paulo: Editora Unesp	[ "Mawangdui silk texts", "Mawangdui Silk Texts", "Zhuangzi (book)", "Project Gutenberg", "Benjamin I. Schwartz", "University of Chicago Press", "Harvard University Press", "Classic of Poetry", "Old Chinese", "Huahujing", "s:fr:Les pères du système taoiste", "Ursula K. Le Guin", "zh:老莱子", "Straw dog", "Classical Chinese", "Shen Dao", "Stanislas Julien", "John Ching Hsiung Wu", "John Chalmers (missionary)", "Four Books and Five Classics", "dao", "Red Pine (author)", "Wade–Giles", "Pierre Leyris", "Tao", "Ban Gu", "Duke Xian of Qin (424–362 BC)", "school of names", "Bogar", "naming taboo", "Wing-tsit Chan", "Confucius", "Jingmen", "Sutra", "Oxford University Press", "Jane English", "Xiang'er", "Wang Bi", "Qingjing Jing", "Palgrave Macmillan", "Ch'ien Mu", "bamboo strips", "Chinese Buddhist", "Three Kingdoms", "Sacred Books of the East", "Religion in China", "Mohism", "A.C. Graham", "Legalism (Chinese philosophy)", "I Ching", "Yinxi", "Laozi", "Lin Yutang", "Chinese Text Project", "s:fr:Les pères du système taoïste/Préface", "Reconstructions of Old Chinese", "Mogao Caves", "Ge Xuan", "Chinese particles", "punctuation", "Taoism", "syllable rime", "Emperor Jing of Han", "Han dynasty", "James Legge", "Huangdi Yinfujing", "seal script", "Ecclesiastes", "Shen Buhai", "bamboo slips", "Chinese philosophy", "clerical script", "Dunhuang", "Xishengjing", "Feng Youlan", "Chinese classic text", "pinyin", "Daodejing", "Orientalism", "Stanford Encyclopedia", "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "David Hinton", "Beacon Press", "Emperor Wen of Han", "Viking Press", "De (Chinese)", "Sima Qian", "Sanhuangjing", "Chinese characters", "Heshang Gong", "Records of the Grand Historian", "Sinologist", "grammatical particle", "Guodian Chu Slips", "Herrlee G. Creel", "D. C. Lau", "s:The Sayings of Lao Tzu/Introduction", "Taiping Jing", "Mawangdui", "Marc Aurel Stein", "Taylor & Francis", "Huainanzi", "regular script", "Confucianists", "Ge Hong", "Gia-Fu Feng", "Standard Chinese" ]
8,577	Detroit Lions	The Detroit Lions are a professional American football team based in Detroit. The Lions compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the National Football Conference (NFC) North division. The team plays their home games at Ford Field in Downtown Detroit. The franchise was founded in Portsmouth, Ohio, as the Portsmouth Spartans in 1928 and joined the NFL on July 12, 1930. Amid financial struggles, the franchise was relocated to Detroit in 1934 and renamed the Lions in reference to the city's Major League Baseball (MLB) franchise, the Detroit Tigers. The Lions won four NFL Championship Games between 1935 and 1957. Following the 1957 championship, the franchise did not win a playoff game until the 1991 season and did not win another until the 2023 season. They are the only franchise operational for the entirety of the Super Bowl era to not appear in the Super Bowl. ==History== ==Logos and uniforms== Aside from a brief change to scarlet and black from 1948 to 1950 instituted by then head coach Bo McMillin, which was influenced by his years as coach at Indiana, the Lions' uniforms have basically remained the same since they moved to Detroit in 1934–silver helmets, silver pants, and either blue or white jerseys. Glenn Presnell, the then last surviving member of the 1934 Lions, recalled that after the Portsmouth Spartans relocated to Detroit, team owner George A. Richards asked him and his wife to pick the Lions' colors from combinations that included red and white, orange and black, and blue and silver. The Presnells liked blue and silver the best, so Richards selected it. The blue used by the Lions is officially known as "Honolulu blue", which is inspired by the color of the waves off the coast of Hawaii. There have been minor changes to the uniform design throughout the years, such as changing the silver stripe patterns on the jersey sleeves, and changing the colors of the jersey numbers. "TV numbers", which are auxiliary uniform numbers to help TV broadcasters identify players from the line of scrimmage, were added to the jersey sleeves in 1956. In 1999, the "TV numbers" on the sleeves were moved to the shoulders. In 1994, every NFL team wore throwback jerseys, and the Lions' were similar to the jerseys worn during their 1935 championship season. The helmets and pants were solid silver, the jerseys Honolulu blue with silver numbers and the jersey did not have "TV numbers" on the sleeves. The team wore solid blue socks and black cleats. The helmets also did not have logos, as helmets were simple leather back then. In 2003, the team added black trim to their logo and jerseys. The facemasks on the helmet changed from blue to black with the introduction of the new color. In 2005, the team introduced an alternate black jersey. For 2008, the team dropped the black jersey in favor of a throwback uniform to commemorate the franchise's 75th anniversary. The throwback uniform became the team's permanent alternate jersey in 2009, replacing the former black alternate. The Lions officially unveiled a new logo and uniforms on April 20, 2009. The logo was given a flowing mane and fangs, while the typeface featured a modern font. On February 1, 2017, the Lions announced a new typeface, logo, and the complete removal of the color black from the team identity. While the previous logo was retained, the border was changed from black to silver. The Lions also added the initials "WCF" to the left sleeve as a permanent tribute to William Clay Ford, who owned the team from 1963 until his death in 2014. The sleeve addition replaced the black "WCF" patch on the left breast that was added after Ford's death. On September 20, 2021, the Lions wore white pants with their road white uniforms against the Green Bay Packers. The white pants, which lacked striping, were previously worn during the "scarlet and black" era in the 1948 and 1949 seasons. On April 12, 2023, the Lions announced they would celebrate their 90th season in franchise history during the 2023 season with a commemorative logo and jersey patch. The inspiration for the patch is an homage to their logo from 1961 to 1969, which is also honored in the WCF memorial logo and the 60th commemorative season logo. On June 21, 2023, the Lions unveiled an alternate blue helmet. The helmet, which features the 1960s logo, was paired with the grey uniform. This was the first time the Lions wore a blue helmet since 1955. On April 18, 2024, the Lions unveiled a new jersey set. The home jersey, referred to as "One Pride", features a redefined Honolulu blue with white block numbers trimmed in silver and sleeves striped in silver with white accents. The home jersey is paired with silver pants with Honolulu blue stripes with white accents or solid Honolulu blue pants. The road white jersey, referred to as "the 313", features Honolulu blue block numbers, stripes trimmed in silver, and a Honolulu blue "Detroit" wordmark on the front. The road jersey is paired with solid Honolulu blue or solid white pants. The primary silver helmet with a Honolulu blue face mask and Honolulu blue stripes with white accents is worn with the home and road jerseys. The black alternate jersey, referred to as "Motor City Muscle", features Honolulu blue numbers and stripes trimmed in silver along with a "Lions" wordmark on the front. It is worn with the alternate Honolulu blue helmet featuring black stripes with silver accents and the leaping lion logo in black with silver accents. The black jersey is paired with solid black or solid Honolulu blue pants. The throwback jersey was retained and updated with the refreshed Honolulu blue. The throwback jersey is paired with a silver helmet that is worn with a silver or a Honolulu blue face mask. The William Clay Ford (WCF) memorial decal has been placed on the back of the primary and alternate helmets. Throughout the 2024 season, the silver pants were only worn once (a Week 2 defeat against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers), and the throwbacks were not worn at all. Instead, they mainly wore either the all-blue or all-white uniforms, with the Lions winning all of their regular season games in either combination. The throwback uniforms were initially scheduled to wear in Week 18 against the Minnesota Vikings, but the Lions decided to wear their all-black alternate uniforms instead. Detroit went 2–1 in the all-black uniforms. ==Thanksgiving Day tradition== In 1934, then team owner George A. Richards, who also was the owner of a major radio affiliate of the NBC Blue Network, WJR in Detroit, the forerunner to today's ABC, negotiated an agreement with NBC to carry his Thanksgiving game live across all of the network's stations. Excluding the years of 1939–1944, due to World War II, the Lions have played on Thanksgiving ever since. ==Players of note== ===Current roster=== ===Retired numbers=== Note: 1 Stafford and Muhlbach were active at the time of the selection. The current head coach of the Lions is Dan Campbell, who was hired on January 20, 2021. ===Offensive coordinators=== ===Defensive coordinators=== ===Special teams coordinators=== ==Rivalries== ===Divisional=== ====Chicago Bears==== The Lions and Chicago Bears first met in 1930 when the Lions were known as the Portsmouth Spartans. The Bears and Lions have been division rivals since 1933. As of the 2024 season, the Bears lead the series 105–80–5. ====Green Bay Packers==== The Lions and Green Bay Packers first met in 1929 when the Lions were known as the Portsmouth Spartans. The Lions and Packers have been division rivals since 1933. As of the 2024 season, the Packers lead the series 106–78–7. ====Minnesota Vikings==== The Lions and Minnesota Vikings have played twice annually since the Vikings entered the NFL in 1961, excluding 1982 due to the strike that occurred that season. As of the 2024 season, the Vikings lead the all-time series 80–45–2. ===Former=== ====Tampa Bay Buccaneers==== The Lions and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers were also division opponents in the NFC Central from 1977 to 2001. As of the 2024 season, the Lions lead the all-time series 33–30. ===Historic=== ====Cleveland Browns==== The Lions also share a rivalry with the Cleveland Browns, which began in the 1950s when the Browns and Lions played each other in four NFL Championship Games. The Lions won three of those championships, while the Browns won one. This was one of the NFL's best rivalries in the 1950s. Since the AFL–NFL merger of 1970, the teams have met much less frequently due to the Browns' move to the American Football Conference (AFC). From 2002 to 2014, the two teams played an annual preseason game known as the "Great Lakes Classic". As of the 2024 season, the Lions lead the all-time series 19–6, with three of those wins coming in postseason play. ====Los Angeles Rams==== The Lions have played the Rams more than any other non-divisional team with 89 total matchups over the years dating back to 1937. In the 2023–24 playoffs, the Rams and Lions met for their first postseason matchup since 1952. The Lions won 24–23 in Matthew Stafford's first game back in Detroit since being traded to the Rams. As of the 2024 season, the Rams lead the all-time series 45–43–1. ==Radio and television== ===Radio=== The Lions' flagship radio station is WXYT-FM. Dan Miller does play-by-play, Lomas Brown does color commentary, and T. J. Lang is the sideline reporter. In 2015, the team announced that they were moving from WXYT-FM to WJR for the 2016 NFL season, ending a 20-year relationship with CBS Radio. The decision to part with WXYT was reportedly instigated by a demand by the team for the station to fire on-air personality Mike Valenti, who has had a history of making critical comments about the Lions during his drivetime show, as a condition of any future renewal. A CBS Radio spokesperson stated that their refusal was meant to maintain the station's integrity. The Lions' flagship station returned to WXYT-FM starting with the 2021 season. ===TV=== ====Preseason==== In 2015, WJBK took over from WXYZ-TV as the flagship station for Lions preseason games. In 2024, the announcers were Jason Ross Jr. with play-by-play, Golden Tate with color commentary, and Dannie Rogers with sideline reports. Games are produced by FanDuel Sports Network Detroit. ====Regular season==== Regular season games are broadcast regionally on Fox, except when the Lions play an AFC team in Detroit, in which case the game airs regionally on CBS; however, since 2014, with the institution of the NFL's "cross flex" broadcast rules, any Lions game slated to air on Fox can be moved to CBS. The Thanksgiving Day game in Detroit is always televised nationally, alternating between Fox in odd years and CBS in even years. ====Blackouts==== The Lions' winless performance in 2008 and 2–14 season in 2009, coupled with the effects of the Great Recession in Michigan, led to several local broadcast blackouts, as local fans did not purchase enough tickets by the 72-hour blackout deadline. The first blackout in the then seven-year history of Ford Field was on October 26, 2008, against the Washington Redskins. The previous 50 regular season home games had been sellouts. The second home game of the 2009 season in which the Lions broke the losing streak, also against the Redskins, was blacked out locally, as well as the comeback victory over the Cleveland Browns. The Lions had only one blackout in 2010, yet another Redskins game, which the Lions won 37–25. However, in 2015, the NFL suspended its blackout policies, meaning that all Lions games will be shown on local TV, regardless of tickets sold. Games were also often blacked out at the Lions' previous home, the 80,000-seat Pontiac Silverdome, despite winning seasons and the success and popularity of star players such as Barry Sanders. ==Lions cheerleaders== On June 13, 2016, the Lions announced the addition of cheerleaders to the organization. The team also announced that Rebecca Girard-Smoker, formerly the director of the Detroit Pistons dance team, would be the coach of the cheerleading squad. It marked the first time in over 40 years the team had an official cheerleading squad. The cheerleading squad is a part of the entertainment during football games, and active at community events.	[ "Indianapolis Colts", "Bill McPeak", "The Detroit News", "Great Recession in the United States", "Tackle (American football)", "play-by-play", "WJBK", "NBC Sports", "Halfback (American football)", "Jack Christiansen", "Doak Walker", "Maurice Carthon", "Robert Porcher", "Herman Moore", "List of NFL champions (1920–69)", "Billy Sims", "1983–84 NFL playoffs", "Bob Schnelker", "1995–96 NFL playoffs", "1935 Detroit Lions season", "Los Angeles Rams", "2008 Washington Redskins season", "NFL on Thanksgiving Day", "1957 NFL Championship Game", "Tom Moore (American football coach, born 1938)", "George A. Richards", "Kurt Schottenheimer", "Ted Tollner", "Chicago Bears", "NFC North", "Defensive tackle", "New York Giants", "Don Muhlbach", "Fox Sports", "Bobby Layne", "Vince Tobin", "CBS Radio", "2024–25 NFL playoffs", "Scott Linehan", "CBS Sports", "2011–12 NFL playoffs", "Wide receiver", "Harley Sewell", "Ben Johnson (American football coach)", "Mike Valenti", "Paul Pasqualoni", "CBS Detroit", "Center (gridiron football)", "Mike Lucci", "Los Angeles Times", "Jim Bob Cooter", "2014–15 NFL playoffs", "Defensive end", "Ed Hughes", "Woody Widenhofer", "William Clay Ford Sr.", "Ox Emerson", "Blue Network", "1953 Detroit Lions season", "Dick Jauron", "The Tennessean", "Darrell Bevell", "1988 Detroit Lions season", "1930 Detroit Lions season", "1996 Detroit Lions season", "National Football League on United States television", "Fritz Shurmur", "1970–71 NFL playoffs", "Sherman Lewis", "Jacksonville Jaguars", "Detroit, Michigan", "Cory Undlin", "Pride of Detroit", "Glenn Presnell", "Al Baker", "Toledo Blade", "Golden Tate", "WJR", "Roger Brown (defensive tackle)", "Fred L. Mandel Jr.", "Professional Football Researchers Association", "2021 Detroit Lions season", "Rod Wood", "1957 Detroit Lions season", "1952 Detroit Lions season", "Downtown Detroit", "1935 NFL Championship Game", "Flagship (radio)", "Joe Schmidt (American football)", "Doug English", "Bo McMillin", "Tiger Stadium (Detroit)", "1991–92 NFL playoffs", "Anthony Lynn", "WXYZ-TV", "Joe Barry", "Buster Ramsey", "2023–24 NFL playoffs", "Martha Firestone Ford", "Chuck Hughes", "Lou Creekmur", "Nick Pietrosante", "Kelvin Sheppard", "American Football Conference", "1993 Detroit Lions season", "National Football Conference", "1999–2000 NFL playoffs", "1954 Detroit Lions season", "Ed Flanagan (American football)", "1930 Portsmouth Spartans season", "Kyle Vanden Bosch", "2016–17 NFL playoffs", "1993–94 NFL playoffs", "1994–95 NFL playoffs", "American football", "Pat Swilling", "Wayne Walker (linebacker)", "1997–98 NFL playoffs", "1954 NFL Championship Game", "American Broadcasting Company", "Calvin Johnson", "Wayne Fontes", "Forbes", "Mike Martz", "Cleveland Browns", "Running back", "Relocation of professional sports teams", "NFL on Fox", "Dan Campbell", "NFC Central", "Fullback (gridiron football)", "University of Detroit Stadium", "Matthew Stafford", "Green Bay Packers", "Detroit", "Don Doll", "The Grand Rapids Press", "Mel Gray (return specialist)", "Detroit Football Company", "Universal Stadium", "Portsmouth Spartans", "Pontiac Silverdome", "Sports Illustrated", "Eddie Murray (American football)", "Ed Beard", "Bennie Blades", "Newspapers.com", "2024 Detroit Lions season", "Donnie Henderson", "T. J. Lang", "Allen Park, Michigan", "Gunther Cunningham", "The Morning Journal", "Charlie Sanders", "Maxie Baughan", "1932 NFL Playoff Game", "List of NFL champions (1920–1969)", "Dutch Clark", "Defensive back", "Pro Football Talk", "ESPN", "Tight end", "1952 NFL Championship Game", "New Orleans Saints", "John Morton (American football)", "Don Shula", "Placekicker", "WIVB-TV", "Ted Marchibroda", "Long snapper", "Joe Lombardi", "WXYT-FM", "Bob Baker (American football)", "Jason Hanson", "1953 NFL Championship Game", "2024 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season", "Offensive guard", "John Bonamego", "Pro Football Reference", "Gary Moeller", "Guard (American football)", "Hal Griffen", "World War II", "Jim Arnold (American football)", "2024 Minnesota Vikings season", "Jim David (American football)", "Portsmouth, Ohio", "Detroit Tigers", "Punter (football)", "Super Bowl", "Associated Press", "MLive", "Kevin Glover", "Ford Field", "Kansas City Chiefs", "Major League Baseball", "Dave Fipp", "NBC Sunday Night Football", "The Oakland Press", "Dick LeBeau", "Indiana University (Bloomington)", "Corey Smith (American football)", "Sylvester Croom", "Tampa Bay Buccaneers", "Detroit Free Press", "Hank Bullough", "2021 Green Bay Packers season", "Barry Sanders", "Cory Schlesinger", "Jim Eddy", "John Gordy", "Dan Henning", "Herb Paterra", "Lomas Brown", "2023 Detroit Lions season", "Yale Lary", "History of the National Football League championship", "Chris Spielman", "AFL–NFL merger", "Night Train Lane", "Aaron Glenn", "Minnesota Vikings", "Gail Cogdill", "Alex Karras", "Quarterback", "National Football League Players Association", "1991 Detroit Lions season", "Bill Nelsen", "Cornerback", "Alex Wojciechowicz", "NFL on CBS", "1983 Detroit Lions season", "Eventbrite", "USA Today", "NFL on NBC Radio", "Ken Shipp", "The New York Times", "Brad Holmes", "Linebacker", "Dick Stanfel", "National Football League", "Pro Football Hall of Fame", "NBC", "Jim Colletto", "1982–83 NFL playoffs", "Larry Peccatiello", "Lem Barney", "Dan Miller (sportscaster)", "2016 NFL season", "Sheila Ford Hamp", "Brayden Coombs", "FanDuel Sports Network Detroit", "Return specialist", "Teryl Austin" ]
8,578	Dyne	The dyne (symbol: dyn; ) is a derived unit of force specified in the centimetre–gram–second (CGS) system of units, a predecessor of the modern SI. == History == The name dyne was first proposed as a CGS unit of force in 1873 by a Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. ==Definition== The dyne is defined as "the force required to accelerate a mass of one gram at a rate of one centimetre per second squared". An equivalent definition of the dyne is "that force which, acting for one second, will produce a change of velocity of one centimetre per second in a mass of one gram". One dyne is equal to 10 micronewtons, 10−5 N or to 10 nsn (nanosthenes) in the old metre–tonne–second system of units. 1 dyn = 1 g⋅cm/s2 = 10−5 kg⋅m/s2 = 10−5 N 1 N = 1 kg⋅m/s2 = 105 g⋅cm/s2 = 105 dyn ==Use== The dyne per centimetre is a unit traditionally used to measure surface tension. For example, the surface tension of distilled water is 71.99 dyn/cm at 25 °C (77 °F). (In SI units this is or .)	[ "second", "British Association for the Advancement of Science", "sthene", "force (physics)", "metre–tonne–second system of units", "mass", "gram", "centimetre–gram–second system of units", "Centimetre–gram–second system of units", "centimetre", "International System of Units", "units of measurement", "newton (unit)", "force", "SI units", "surface tension", "CGS units", "Erg", "British Gravitational System" ]
8,579	Detroit Tigers	The Detroit Tigers are an American professional baseball team based in Detroit. The Tigers compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) Central Division. One of the AL's eight charter franchises, the club was founded in Detroit as a member of the minor league Western League in 1894 and is the only Western League team still in its original city. They are also the oldest continuous one name, one city franchise in the AL. Ty Cobb, who played his first season with Detroit in 1905, later became the first Tiger to be inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1936. Since their establishment as a major league franchise in 1901, the Tigers have won four World Series championships (, , , and ), 11 AL pennants (1907, 1908, 1909, 1934, 1935, 1940, 1945, 1968, , , ), and four AL Central division championships (2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014). They also won division titles in 1972, 1984, and 1987 as a member of the AL East. Since 2000, the Tigers have played their home games at Comerica Park in Downtown Detroit. The Tigers constructed Bennett Park at the corner of Michigan Avenue and Trumbull Avenue in Corktown just west of Downtown Detroit and began playing there in 1896. In 1912, the team moved into Navin Field, which was built on the same location. It was expanded in 1938 and renamed Briggs Stadium. It was renamed Tiger Stadium in 1961 and the Tigers played there until 1999. From 1901 to 2024, the Tigers' overall win–loss record is (). The franchise's best winning percentage was in 1934, while its worst was in 2003. ==History== ===Western League beginnings (1894–1900) === The franchise was founded as a member of the reorganized Western League in 1894. They originally played at Boulevard Park, sometimes called League Park. It was located on East Lafayette, then called Champlain Street, between Helen and East Grand Boulevard, near Belle Isle. In 1895, owner George Vanderbeck decided to build Bennett Park at the corner of Michigan and Trumbull Avenues, which would remain the team's base of operations for the next 104 seasons. The first game at The Corner was an exhibition on April 13, 1896. The team, now occasionally called the "Tigers," beat a local semi-pro team, known as the Athletics, by a score of 30–3. When the Western League renamed itself the American League for 1900, it was still a minor league, but the next year, it broke from the National Agreement and declared itself a major league, openly competing with the National League for players and for fans in four contested cities. For a while, there were rumors of the team relocating to Pittsburgh. However, these rumors were put to rest when the two leagues made peace in 1903 when they signed a new National Agreement. ===First Major League season (1901)=== The Tigers were established as a charter member of the now major league American League in 1901. They played their first game as a major league team at home against the Milwaukee Brewers on April 25, 1901, with an estimated 10,000 fans at Bennett Park. After entering the ninth inning behind 13–4, the team staged a dramatic comeback to win 14–13. That initial season they were the first major league team to have a mascot—a red tiger on a dark background—on their ballcap. It was replaced by the letter "D" in 1903, and their iconic Olde English-style letterform appeared the following year. ===The Cobb era (1905–1926)=== ====1905==== In 1905, the team acquired 18-year-old Ty Cobb, a fearless player who came to be regarded as one of the greatest players of all time. The addition of Cobb to an already talented team that included Sam Crawford, Hughie Jennings, Bill Donovan and George Mullin quickly yielded results. ====1907 American League Champions==== Behind the hitting of outfielders Ty Cobb (.350) and Sam Crawford (.323), and the pitching of Bill Donovan and Ed Killian (25 wins each), the Tigers went 92–58 to win the AL pennant in 1907 by 1.5 games over the Philadelphia Athletics. They moved on to their first World Series appearance against the Chicago Cubs. Game 1 ended in a rare 3–3 tie, called due to darkness after 12 innings. Cobb hit .324, while Sam Crawford hit .311 with 7 home runs, which was enough to lead the league in the "dead ball" era. The Cubs, however, would defeat the Tigers again in the 1908 World Series, this time in five games. This would be the Cubs' last World Championship until 2016. ====1909 American League Champions==== In 1909, Detroit posted a 98–54 season, winning the AL pennant by 3.5 games over the Athletics. Ty Cobb won the batting triple crown in 1909, hitting .377 with 9 home runs (all inside-the-park) and 107 RBIs. He also led the league with 76 stolen bases. Mullin's 11–0 start in 1909 was a Tigers record for 104 years, finally being broken by Max Scherzer's 13–0 start in 2013. It was hoped that a new opponent in the 1909 Series, the Pittsburgh Pirates, would yield different results. The Tigers performed better in the Fall Classic, taking Pittsburgh to seven games, but they were blown out 8–0 in the decisive game at Bennett Park. ====1910–1914==== The Tigers dropped to third place in the American League in 1910 with an 86–68 record. They posted 89 wins in 1911 to finish second, but were still well behind a powerhouse Philadelphia Athletics team that won 101 games. The team sunk to a dismal sixth place in both the 1912 and 1913 seasons. A bright spot in 1912 was George Mullin pitching the franchise's first no-hitter in a 7–0 win over the St. Louis Browns on July 4, his 32nd birthday. Cobb went into the stands in a May 15, 1912, game to attack a fan that was abusing him, and was suspended. Three days later, the Tigers protested the suspension by fielding a team of replacement players against the Philadelphia Athletics. They lost 24–2. During this five-season stretch, Cobb posted batting averages of .383, .420, .409, .390 and .368, winning the batting title every year. ====1915==== In 1915, the Tigers won a then-club record 100 games, but narrowly lost the AL pennant to the Boston Red Sox, who won 101 games. The 1915 Tigers were led by an outfield consisting of Ty Cobb, Sam Crawford, and Bobby Veach that finished #1, #2, and #3 in RBIs and total bases. Cobb also set a stolen base record with 96 steals in 1915 that stood until 1962, when it was broken by Maury Wills. Baseball historian Bill James has ranked the 1915 Tigers outfield as the greatest in the history of baseball. ====1916–1920==== The Tigers dropped to third place in 1916 with an 87–67 record, and would remain mired in the middle of the AL standings the rest of the decade, never winning more than 80 games. In the late teens and into the 1920s, Cobb continued to be the marquee player, though he was pushed by budding star outfielder Harry Heilmann, who went on to hit .342 for his career. Hughie Jennings left the Tigers after the 1920 season, having accumulated 1,131 wins as a manager. This stood as a Tiger record until 1992, when it was broken by Sparky Anderson. Cobb himself took over managerial duties in 1921, but during his six years at the helm, the Tigers topped out at 86 wins and never won a pennant. ====1921==== In 1921, the Tigers amassed 1,724 hits and a team batting average of .316, the highest team hit total and batting average in AL history. That year, outfielders Harry Heilmann and Ty Cobb finished #1 and #2 in the American League batting race with batting averages of .394 and .389, respectively. The downfall of the 1921 Tigers, however, was the absence of good pitching. The team ERA was 4.40. Without pitching to support the offense, the 1921 Tigers finished in sixth place in the American League at 71–82, 27 games behind the New York Yankees. On August 19, 1921, Cobb collected his 3,000th career hit off Elmer Myers of the Boston Red Sox. Aged 34 at the time, he is still the youngest player to reach that milestone, also reaching it in the fewest at-bats (8,093). ====1922–1926==== The Tigers continued to field good teams during Ty Cobb's tenure as player-manager, finishing as high as second in 1923, but lack of quality pitching kept them from winning a pennant. Harry Heilmann hit .403 in 1923, becoming the last AL player to top .400 until Ted Williams hit .406 in 1941. In 1925, Heilmann collected six hits in a season-ending doubleheader to win the batting title, finishing at .393 to Tris Speaker's .389. Cobb announced his retirement in November 1926 after 22 seasons with the Tigers, though he would return to play two more seasons with the Philadelphia Athletics. In 1927, Harry Heilmann flirted with a .400 batting average all year, eventually finishing at .398 and winning his fourth AL batting title. Following the 1933 season, the Tigers added perhaps the final piece of the puzzle, acquiring catcher Mickey Cochrane from the Philadelphia Athletics to serve as player-manager. Schoolboy Rowe led a strong pitching staff, winning 16 straight decisions at one point of the season and finishing with a 24–8 record. The Tigers would fall in the 1934 World Series in seven games to the "Gashouse Gang" St. Louis Cardinals. After winning a tight battle in Game 5 with a 3–1 decision over Dizzy Dean, Detroit took a 3–2 series lead, but would lose the next two games at Navin Field (Tiger Stadium). The final game was marred by an ugly incident. After spiking Tigers third baseman Marv Owen in the sixth inning, Cardinals left fielder Joe Medwick had to be removed from the game for his own safety by Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis after being pelted with debris from angry fans in the large temporary bleacher section in left field. Although they did not challenge the 1934 team's 101 wins, their 93–58 record was good enough to give them the AL pennant by three games over the New York Yankees. Greenberg was named AL MVP after hitting .328 and leading the league in home runs (36), extra-base hits (98) and RBIs (168). Incredibly, Greenberg's RBI total was 48 higher than the next closest player (Lou Gehrig, with 120). The Tigers finally won their first World Series, defeating the Chicago Cubs, 4–2. Game 6 concluded with Goslin's dramatic walk-off RBI single, scoring Cochrane for a 4–3 victory. ====1936–1939==== Despite being forecast to win the American League pennant again in 1936, the Tigers fell to a distant second place behind the New York Yankees both that season and in 1937. The team fell further down the standings with an 84–70 record in 1938 and an 81–73 record in 1939. Hank Greenberg nevertheless provided some excitement for Tigers fans in 1938 by challenging the single-season home run record held by Babe Ruth (60). He went into the season's final weekend against the Cleveland Indians with 58 home runs, tied with Jimmie Foxx for the most by a right-handed batter at the time, but he failed to homer. During the final week of the 1938 season, the Tigers presciently held out doubts about a pennant in 1939, but figured that 1940 would be their year. ====1940 American League Champions==== In a tight three-team race, the 90–64 Tigers won the 1940 AL pennant by one game over the Cleveland Indians and two games over the New York Yankees. Prior to the season, first baseman Hank Greenberg was persuaded to move to left field to make room for Rudy York, whom the Tigers had deemed no longer suitable to be their catcher. The move proved successful. York hit .316 with 33 home runs and 134 RBIs. Greenberg batted .340 and slammed 41 home runs while driving in 150. Greenberg won his second AL MVP award, becoming the first major leaguer to win the award at two different positions. The Tigers lost the 1940 World Series to the Cincinnati Reds in seven games. Despite a heroic effort by Bobo Newsom, the Tigers came up short in the deciding game, losing 2–1. They finished no higher than fifth place in 1941–1943, but did manage a second-place finish in 1944, largely on the strength of pitchers Hal Newhouser and Dizzy Trout, who won 29 and 27 games, respectively. Newhouser, who was 29–9 with a 2.22 ERA, won the first of his two consecutive AL MVP awards this season. The Tigers were in first place as late as September 18, but would finish one game behind the St. Louis Browns for the AL pennant. ====1945 World Series Champions==== With the end of World War II and the timely return of Hank Greenberg and others from the military, the Tigers won the AL pennant by just 1.5 games over the Washington Senators with an 88–65 record. Virgil Trucks returned from the U.S. Navy in time to pitch innings of 1-run ball in the pennant-clinching game, with starter Hal Newhouser pitching the final innings in relief. Newhouser won the pitching triple crown, leading the AL in wins (25), ERA (1.81) and strikeouts (212). He became the first pitcher in the history of the AL, and still the only pitcher as of 2024, to win the MVP Award in two consecutive seasons. With Newhouser, Trucks and Dizzy Trout on the mound and Greenberg leading the offense, Detroit responded in a World Series Game 7 for the first time, staking Newhouser to a 5–0 lead before he threw a pitch en route to a 9–3 victory over the Cubs. Because many stars had not yet returned from the military, some baseball scholars have deemed the 1945 World Series to be among the worst-played contests in World Series history. For example, prior to the World Series, Chicago sportswriter Warren Brown was asked who he liked, and he answered, "I don't think either one of them can win." ===A long drought (1946–1967)=== ====1946–1950==== Following their World Series win in 1945, the Tigers continued to have winning records for the remainder of the decade, finishing second in the AL three times, but never winning the pennant. Hal Newhouser had another outstanding season in 1946, again leading the league in wins (26) and ERA (1.94) while striking out a career-high 275 batters. He nearly won his third straight AL MVP award, finishing second to Ted Williams, who had led the Boston Red Sox to 104 wins (12 games ahead of the second-place Tigers). Also in 1946, the Tigers acquired George Kell, a third baseman who would become a 10-time all-star and Hall of Famer. He batted over .300 in eight straight seasons (1946–53), and finished with a career .306 average. The 1950 season was particularly frustrating, as the Tigers posted a 95–59 record for a .617 winning percentage, the fourth-best in team history at the time. However, they finished that season three games behind a strong New York Yankees team that went on to sweep the Philadelphia Phillies in the World Series. ====1951–1960==== Over the next 10 years, the Tigers sank to the middle and lower ranks of the American League. The team had only three winning records over this span and never finished higher than fourth place. The last place 1952 team went 50–104 (.325), which was the worst season in Tigers history until the 2003 team lost 119 games. Despite the dismal season, starter Virgil Trucks threw two no-hitters in 1952, becoming only the third pitcher in major league history to accomplish this feat. 1952 also saw Tiger first baseman Walt Dropo get a hit in 12 consecutive plate appearances over a three-game stretch from July 14 to 15, tying a major league record set by Johnny Kling in 1902. Team owner Walter Briggs Sr. died in 1952. His son Walter Briggs Jr. inherited the team, but he was forced to sell it in 1956 to broadcast media owners John Fetzer and Fred Knorr. Notwithstanding Detroit's fall in the standings, the decade saw the debut of outfielder Al Kaline in 1953. One of the few major league players who never played a day in the minor leagues, he would hit over .300 nine times in his career. He also made 15 All-Star teams, won 10 Gold Gloves, and featured one of the league's best arms in right field. In 1955, the 20-year-old Kaline hit .340 to become the youngest-ever batting champion in major league history. 1958 saw the Tigers become the second to last team to integrate their roster when Dominican player Ozzie Virgil Sr. joined the team. Only the Boston Red Sox trailed the Tigers in integrating their roster. ====1961==== As the American League expanded from 8 to 10 teams, Detroit began its slow ascent back to success with an outstanding 1961 campaign. The Tigers led the majors in runs scored and won 101 games, a whopping 30-game improvement over the 71–83 1960 team, but still finished eight games behind the Yankees. This marked one of the few times in major league history that a team failed to reach the postseason despite winning 100 or more games, though it had happened once before to the Tigers in 1915. Cash never hit over .286 before or after the 1961 season, and would later say of the accomplishment: "It was a freak. Even at the time, I realized that." Cash's plate heroics, which also included 41 home runs and 132 RBI, might have earned him MVP honors were it not for New York's Roger Maris bashing a then record 61 homers the same season. The 1961 club featured two non-white starters, Bill Bruton and Jake Wood, and later in the 1960s, black players such as Willie Horton, Earl Wilson, and Gates Brown would contribute to Detroit's rise in the standings. ====1962–1966==== As a strong nucleus developed, Detroit repeatedly posted winning records throughout the 1960s. In 1963, pitchers Mickey Lolich and Denny McLain entered the rotation. Outfielders Willie Horton (1963), Mickey Stanley (1964) and Jim Northrup (1964) would also come aboard around this time. The team managed a third-place finish during a bizarre 1966 season, in which manager Chuck Dressen and acting manager Bob Swift were both forced to resign their posts because of health problems. Thereafter, Frank Skaff took over the managerial reins until the end of the season. Both Dressen and Swift died during the year; Dressen died of a heart attack in August, while Swift died of lung cancer in October. ====1967==== In 1967, the Tigers were involved in one of the closest pennant races in history. Because of rainouts, the Tigers were forced to play back-to-back doubleheaders against the California Angels over the final two days of the season. They needed to sweep the doubleheader on the last day of the season to force a one-game playoff with the Boston Red Sox. Starter Earl Wilson, acquired the previous season from the Red Sox, led the Tigers (and the major leagues) with 22 wins and would form a strong 1–2–3 combination with Denny McLain and Mickey Lolich over the next few years. ===1968–1972=== ====Glory in '68: 1968 World Series Champions==== The Tigers finally returned to the World Series in 1968. The team grabbed first place from the Baltimore Orioles on May 10 and would not relinquish the position, clinching the pennant on September 17 and finishing with a 103–59 record. In a year that was marked by dominant pitching, starter Denny McLain went 31–6 (with a 1.96 ERA), the first time a pitcher had won 30 or more games in a season since Dizzy Dean accomplished the feat in 1934; no pitcher has accomplished it since. McLain won the AL MVP and Cy Young Award for his efforts. =====1968 World Series===== In the 1968 World Series, the Tigers met the defending World Series champion St. Louis Cardinals, led by starter Bob Gibson, who had posted a modern-era record 1.12 ERA during the regular season, and speedy outfielder Lou Brock. This was the first time the Tigers and Cardinals had met in the World Series since 1934. The series was predicated with a bold decision by manager Mayo Smith to play center fielder Mickey Stanley at shortstop, replacing the slick fielding but weak hitting of Ray Oyler. Stanley had never played shortstop before, but was a Gold Glover in the outfield and an excellent athlete. However, due in no small part to pitcher Mickey Lolich's victories in Games 2 and 5, the Tigers climbed back into the World Series. Many fans believe the turning point came in the fifth inning of Game 5, with the Tigers down three games to one, and trailing in the game, 3–2. Left fielder Willie Horton made a perfect throw to home plate to nail Lou Brock, who tried to score from second base standing up, as catcher Bill Freehan blocked the plate with his foot. The Tigers came back with three runs in the seventh to win that game, 5–3, and stay alive. That year, Detroit failed to defend its title, despite Denny McLain having another outstanding season with a 24–9 campaign, earning him his second straight Cy Young Award (co-winner with Baltimore's Mike Cuellar). The Tigers' 90 wins placed them a distant second in the division to a very strong Baltimore Orioles team, which had won 109 games. The Tigers suffered a disappointing 1970 season, finishing fourth in the AL East with a 79–83 record. Following the season, Mayo Smith was let go and was replaced by Billy Martin. In a playing career that was primarily spent with the New York Yankees, Martin played his final games with the Minnesota Twins and stayed in that organization after his retirement. Also during the offseason, Denny McLain, who had been suspended three times and had a 3–5 record, was part of an eight-player deal with the Washington Senators in what would turn out to be a heist for Detroit. The Tigers acquired pitcher Joe Coleman, shortstop Eddie Brinkman and third baseman Aurelio Rodríguez. The season was highlighted by Mickey Lolich's 308 strikeouts, which led the AL and is still the single-season record in franchise history. Coleman paid immediate dividends for Detroit, winning 20 games, ====1972 AL East Champions==== Joe Coleman, Eddie Brinkman and Aurelio Rodríguez all played critical roles in 1972, when the Tigers captured their first AL East division title. Oddities of the schedule due to an early season strike allowed the 86–70 Tigers to win the division by just game. Brinkman was named Tiger of the Year by the Detroit Baseball Writers, despite a .203 batting average, as he committed just 7 errors in 728 chances (.990 fielding percentage). He also had a streak of 72 games and 331 chances without an error during the season, both AL records for a shortstop. Mickey Lolich was his steady self for the Tigers, winning 22 games with a sparkling 2.50 ERA, while Coleman won 19 and had a 2.80 ERA. Fryman was also the winning pitcher in the division-clinching game against the Boston Red Sox, a 3–1 victory on October 3. =====1972 ALCS===== In the 1972 American League Championship Series, Detroit faced the American League West division champion Oakland Athletics, who had become steadily competitive ever since the 1969 realignment. In Game 1 of the ALCS in Oakland, Mickey Lolich, the hero of '68, took the hill and allowed just one run over nine innings. The Athletics' ace, Catfish Hunter, matched Lolich, surrendering only a solo home run to Norm Cash, and the game went into extra innings. Game 4 was another pitchers' duel between Hunter and Lolich, resulting again in a 1–1 tie at the end of nine innings. Oakland scored two runs in the top of the 10th and put the Tigers down to their last three outs. Joe Coleman posted another 23 wins, but the other Tiger starters had subpar seasons. Willie Horton hit .316, but injuries limited him to just 111 games. Third base coach Joe Schultz served as interim manager for the remainder of the season. Hiller's saves total would stand as a Tiger record until 2000, when it was broken by Todd Jones' 42 saves (Jones' record would later be broken by José Valverde's 49 saves in 2011). After the season, the Tigers hired Ralph Houk to be their new manager. Houk served in that capacity for five full seasons, through the end of the 1978 season. The roster of players who played under Houk were mostly aging veterans from the 1960s, whose performance had slipped from their peak years. The Tigers did not have a winning season from 1974 to 1977, and their 57 wins in the 1975 season was the team's lowest since 1952. Perhaps the biggest signal of decline for the Tigers was the retirement of Kaline following the 1974 season, after he notched his 3,000th career hit. Kaline finished with 3,007 hits and was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 1980. ====1976: The Year of The Bird==== Tiger fans were provided a glimmer of hope when 21-year-old rookie Mark Fidrych made his debut in 1976. Fidrych, known as "The Bird", was a colorful character known for talking to the baseball and other eccentricities. Fidrych entered the All-Star break at 9–2 with a 1.78 ERA, and was the starting pitcher for the American League in the All-Star Game played that year in Philadelphia to celebrate the American Bicentennial. ====1977–1978==== Injuries to his knee, and later his arm, drastically limited Fidrych's appearances in 1977–78. ===The "Bless You Boys" era (1979–1987)=== Houk's immediate successor as Tigers manager in 1979 was Les Moss, but Moss would only last until June of that year. From June 14, 1979, until the end of the 1995 season, the team was managed by George "Sparky" Anderson, one of baseball's winningest managers and winner of two World Series rings as manager of the Cincinnati Reds during their peak as The Big Red Machine. When Anderson joined the Tigers in 1979 and assessed the team's young talent, he boldly predicted that it would be a pennant winner within five years. Acerbic Detroit TV sports anchor Al Ackerman initiated the phrase "Bless You Boys". Originally used as a sarcastic remark, Ackerman's phrase would take on a new meaning in 1984. ====The Roar of '84: 1984 World Series Champions==== As in 1968, the Tigers' next World Series season would be preceded by a disappointing second-place finish, as the 1983 Tigers won 92 games to finish six games behind the Baltimore Orioles in the AL East. The first major news of the 1984 season actually came in late 1983, when broadcasting magnate John Fetzer, who had owned the Tigers since 1957, sold the team to Domino's Pizza founder and CEO Tom Monaghan for $53 million. The 1984 team got off to a 9–0 start highlighted by Jack Morris tossing a nationally televised no-hitter against Chicago in the fourth game of the season. They stayed hot for most of the year, posting a 35–5 record over their first forty games and cruising to a franchise-record 104 victories. The Tigers led the division from opening day until the end of the regular season and finished a staggering 15 games ahead of the second-place Toronto Blue Jays. =====1984 ALCS===== The Tigers faced the Kansas City Royals in the American League Championship Series. In Game 1, Alan Trammell, Lance Parrish and Larry Herndon went deep to crush the Royals 8–1 at Royals Stadium (now Kauffman Stadium). In Game 2, the Tigers scored twice in the 11th inning when Johnny Grubb doubled off Royals closer Dan Quisenberry en route to a 5–3 victory. The Tigers completed the sweep at Tiger Stadium in Game 3. Marty Castillo's third-inning RBI fielder's choice would be all the help Detroit would need. Milt Wilcox outdueled Charlie Leibrandt, and after Hernandez got Darryl Motley to pop out to preserve the 1–0 win, the Tigers were returning to the World Series. =====1984 World Series===== In the NLCS, the San Diego Padres rallied from losing the first two games to overcome the Chicago Cubs and prevent a fifth Cubs-Tigers series. The Tigers would open the 1984 World Series on the road in San Diego. In Game 1, Larry Herndon hit a two-run home run that gave the Tigers a 3–2 lead. Jack Morris pitched a complete game with 2 runs on 8 hits, and Detroit drew first blood. The Padres evened the series the next night despite pitcher Ed Whitson being chased after pitching of an inning and giving up three runs on five Tiger hits. Tigers starter Dan Petry exited the game after innings when Kurt Bevacqua's three-run homer gave San Diego a 5–3 lead they would not relinquish. The Padres never recovered, losing 5–2. In Game 5, Kirk Gibson's two-run shot in the first inning would be the beginning of another early end for the Padres' starter Mark Thurmond. Although the Padres would pull back even at 3–3, chasing Petry in the fourth inning in the process, the Tigers retook the lead on a Rusty Kuntz sacrifice fly (actually a pop-out to retreating second baseman Alan Wiggins that the speedy Gibson was able to score on), and then went up 5–3 on a solo homer by Parrish. As Anderson had suspected, Gossage threw a 1–0 fastball on the inside corner, and Gibson was ready. He launched the pitch into Tiger Stadium's right field upper deck for a three-run homer, giving the Tigers a four-run lead and effectively clinching the game and the series. Aurelio López pitched innings of relief and retired all seven batters he faced, earning the win. Despite allowing a rare run in the top of the 8th inning, Willie Hernández got the save as Tony Gwynn flew out to Larry Herndon to end the game, sending Detroit into a wild victory celebration. With the win, Anderson became the first manager to win the World Series in both leagues. ====1987 AL East Champions==== After a pair of third-place finishes in 1985 and 1986, the 1987 Tigers faced lowered expectations – which seemed to be confirmed by an 11–19 start to the season. However, the team hit its stride thereafter and gradually gained ground on its AL East rivals. Despite the Tigers' great season, they entered September neck-and-neck with the Toronto Blue Jays. The two teams would square off in seven hard-fought games during the final two weeks of the season. All seven games were decided by one run, and in the first six of the seven games, the winning run was scored in the final inning of play. At Exhibition Stadium, the Tigers dropped three in a row to the Blue Jays before winning a dramatic extra-inning showdown. In what would prove to be their last postseason appearance until 2006, the Tigers were upset in the 1987 American League Championship Series by the 85–77 Minnesota Twins (who in turn won the World Series that year) 4–1. The Twins clinched the series in Game 5 at Tiger Stadium, 9–5. ===A new approach (1988–1995)=== Despite their 1987 division title victory, the Tigers proved unable to build on their success. The team lost Kirk Gibson to free agency in the offseason, but still spent much of 1988 in first place in the AL East. A late season slump left the team in second place at 88–74, one game behind the Boston Red Sox. In 1989, the team collapsed to a 59–103 record, worst in the majors. The franchise then attempted to rebuild using a power-hitting approach, with sluggers Cecil Fielder, Rob Deer and Mickey Tettleton joining Trammell and Whitaker in the lineup (fitting for the team with the most 200+ home run seasons in baseball history). In 1990, Fielder led the American League with 51 home runs (becoming the first player to hit 50 since George Foster in 1977, and the first AL player since Roger Maris and Mickey Mantle in 1961), and finished second in the voting for AL MVP. He hit 44 home runs and collected 132 RBI in 1991, again finishing second in the AL MVP balloting. Behind the hitting of Fielder and others, the Tigers improved by 20 wins in 1990 (79–83), and posted a winning record in 1991 (84–78). However, the team lacked quality pitching, despite Bill Gullickson's 20 wins in 1991, and its core of key players began to age, setting the franchise up for decline. Their minor league system was largely barren of talent as well, producing only a few everyday players during the 1990s. Adding insult to injury, the Tigers and radio station WJR announced in December 1990 that they were not renewing the contract of long-time Hall of Fame play-by play announcer Ernie Harwell, and that the 1991 season would be Harwell's last with the team. The announcement was met with resounding protests from fans, both in Michigan and around the baseball world. 1992 saw the Tigers win only 75 games, with Fielder being one of the few bright spots as he won the AL RBI title for a third straight season (124). In August 1992, the franchise was sold to Mike Ilitch, the President and CEO of Little Caesars Pizza who also owned the Detroit Red Wings. One of Ilitch's first moves as the new owner was to rehire Ernie Harwell. Late in the season, Sparky Anderson won his 1,132nd game as a Tiger manager, passing Hughie Jennings for the most all-time wins in franchise history. On October 2, 1995, manager Sparky Anderson chose to not only end his career with the Tigers, but retire from baseball altogether. ===Randy Smith era (1996–2002)=== From 1994 to 2005, the Tigers did not post a winning record, the longest sub-.500 stretch in franchise history. In 1996, the Tigers lost a then-team record 109 games, under new general manager Randy Smith. The only team in the majors to have a longer stretch without a winning season during this time were the Pittsburgh Pirates, who did not have a winning record in the years spanning 1993 to 2012. The Tigers' best record over this span was 79–83, recorded in 1997 and 2000. In 2000, the team left Tiger Stadium in favor of Comerica Park. Soon after it opened, Comerica Park drew criticism for its deep dimensions, which made it difficult to hit home runs; the distance to left-center field (395 ft), in particular, was seen as unfair to hitters. This led to the nickname "Comerica National Park." The team made a successful bid to bring in slugger Juan González from the Texas Rangers for the inaugural season at Comerica Park. After four consecutive seasons of no fewer than 39 home runs, González only hit 22 homers in 2000. He cited Comerica Park's dimensions as a major reason why he turned down a multiyear contract extension. In 2003, the franchise largely quieted the criticism by moving in the left-center fence to , taking the flagpole in that area out of play, a feature carried over from Tiger Stadium. In 2005, the team moved the bullpens to the vacant area beyond the left field fence and filled the previous location with seats. In late 2001, Dave Dombrowski, former general manager of the 1997 World Series champion Florida Marlins, was hired as team president. In 2002, the Tigers started the season 0–6, prompting Dombrowski to fire the unpopular Smith, as well as manager Phil Garner. Dombrowski then took over as general manager and named bench coach Luis Pujols to finish the season as interim manager. The team finished 55–106. After the season was over, Pujols was let go. ===Most losses in franchise history (2003)=== Dave Dombrowski hired popular former shortstop Alan Trammell to manage the team in 2003. With fellow 1984 teammates Kirk Gibson and Lance Parrish on the coaching staff, the rebuilding process began. They avoided tying the 1962 Mets' then modern MLB record of 120 losses only by winning five of their last six games of the season, including three out of four against the Minnesota Twins, who had already clinched the AL Central and were resting their stars. Mike Maroth went 9–21, becoming the first pitcher to lose 20 games since Brian Kingman lost 20 for the Oakland Athletics in 1980. Maroth, Jeremy Bonderman (6–19), and Nate Cornejo (6–17) were the top three pitchers in losses in the entire major leagues, the first time in history that this had occurred. The Tigers finished 43–119, the worst record in franchise history. which was later surpassed by the 2024 Chicago White Sox. While the 2003 Tigers rank as the fourth worst team in major league history based on total losses, Under Dave Dombrowski, the franchise demonstrated a willingness to sign marquee free agents. In 2004, the team signed or traded for several talented but high-risk veterans, such as Fernando Viña, Rondell White, Iván Rodríguez, Ugueth Urbina, and Carlos Guillén, and the gamble paid off. The 2004 Tigers finished 72–90, a 29-game improvement over the previous season. This was the largest improvement in the AL since the Baltimore Orioles had a 33-game improvement from 1988 to 1989. On June 8, 2005, the Tigers traded pitcher Ugueth Urbina and infielder Ramón Martínez to the Philadelphia Phillies for Plácido Polanco. The Tigers stayed on the fringes of contention for the AL wild card for the first four months of the season, but then faded badly, finishing 71–91. The collapse was perceived as being due both to injuries and to a lack of player unity; Rodríguez in particular was disgruntled, taking a leave of absence during the season to deal with a difficult divorce. Trammell, though popular with the fans, took part of the blame for the poor clubhouse atmosphere and lack of continued improvement, and he was fired at the end of the season. In the Home Run Derby, Rodríguez finished second, losing to the Phillies' Bobby Abreu. In October 2005, Jim Leyland, who managed Dombrowski's 1997 World Series champion Florida Marlins, replaced Trammell as manager; two months later, in response to Troy Percival's arm problems, closer Todd Jones, who had spent five seasons in Detroit (1997–2001), signed a two-year deal to return to the Tigers. Veteran left-hander Kenny Rogers also joined the Tigers from the Texas Rangers in late 2005. On September 24, the Tigers beat the Kansas City Royals 11–4 to clinch their first playoff berth since 1987. A division title seemed inevitable. All that was required was one win in the final five games of the season, which included three games against the Royals, whom the Tigers had manhandled much of the season. However, the Tigers lost all five games to finish 95–67, and the division title went to the 96–66 Minnesota Twins. The Tigers instead settled for the AL wild card. The playoffs saw the Tigers beat the heavily favored New York Yankees 3–1 in the ALDS and sweep the Oakland Athletics in the 2006 ALCS, thanks to a walk-off home run in Game 4 by right fielder Magglio Ordóñez. They advanced to the World Series, where they lost to the underdog St. Louis Cardinals in five games. ===Falling short (2007–2010)=== ====2007==== During the offseason, the Tigers traded for outfielder Gary Sheffield, who had been a part of the 1997 World Series champion Florida Marlins managed by Jim Leyland. In addition to acquisitions, Dombrowski developed a productive farm system. Justin Verlander and Joel Zumaya, the most notable rookie contributors to the 2006 team, were followed by Andrew Miller, who was drafted in 2006 and called up early in the 2007 campaign, and minor leaguer Cameron Maybin, an athletic five-tool outfielder ranked #6 in Baseball America's 2007 Top 100 Prospects. On June 12, Verlander threw the Tigers' first no-hitter since 1984 (Jack Morris) and the first in Comerica Park history, in a 4–0 win over the Milwaukee Brewers. The Tigers had the best record in baseball in late July, but lost a few players to injuries and started to play poorly in the second half. The Tigers were officially eliminated from playoff competition on September 26, 2007, when the New York Yankees clinched a wild card berth. The Tigers, at 88–74, finished second in the AL Central. Magglio Ordóñez captured the AL batting title in 2007 with a .363 average, becoming the first Tiger to win it since Norm Cash did so in 1961. ====2008==== Going into the 2008 season, the franchise traded for prominent talent in Édgar Rentería (from the Atlanta Braves) and Miguel Cabrera and Dontrelle Willis (from the Florida Marlins). However, the Tigers, who now boasted the second-highest team payroll in the majors at over $138 million, began the regular season by losing seven straight games. The Tigers climbed back, and at the midway point of the season, they were 42–40. In the end, the team finished miserably, slumping to a 74–88 record. Justin Verlander finished with his worst season as a pro, as he went 11–17 with a 4.84 ERA. The Tigers also lost closer Todd Jones to retirement on September 25, 2008. Despite the disappointing season, the team set an attendance record in 2008, drawing 3,202,654 customers to Comerica Park. ====2009==== Going into the 2009 season, the Tigers acquired starter Edwin Jackson from the 2008 AL Champion Tampa Bay Rays, and called up rookie and former #1 draft pick Rick Porcello. Jackson was outstanding in the first half, making his first All-Star team, while Porcello was solid most of the year, posting a 14–9 record with a 3.96 ERA and displaying grit and maturity beyond his 20 years of age. Justin Verlander bounced back from an off 2008 to win 19 games. He posted a 3.45 ERA and led the AL in strikeouts (269) to finish third in the AL Cy Young balloting. Fernando Rodney assumed the closer role in spring training, replacing the retired Todd Jones. Rodney responded with 37 saves in 38 tries, while Bobby Seay, Fu-Te Ni, Brandon Lyon, and Ryan Perry shored up the middle relief that plagued the team in 2007 and 2008. Despite the improvements, the Tigers once again found themselves struggling to hold a lead in the AL Central. The team entered September with a 7-game lead in the division, but wound up tied with the Minnesota Twins at 86 wins by the final day of the regular season. The season ended on October 6 with a 6–5 loss in 12 innings to the Twins in the tie-breaker game, leaving the Tigers with an 86–77 record. The Tigers spent 146 days of the 2009 season in first place, but became the first team in Major League history to lose a three-game lead with four games left to play. ====2010==== Entering 2010, the Tigers parted ways with Curtis Granderson and Edwin Jackson as part of a three-way trade with the New York Yankees and Arizona Diamondbacks; in return they picked up outfield prospect Austin Jackson and pitchers Phil Coke, Max Scherzer and Daniel Schlereth. Jackson made the Tigers opening day roster, and was American League Rookie of the Month for April. 2010 also saw the debut of Brennan Boesch, who was named the AL Rookie of the Month for May and June. At the All-Star break, the Tigers were a half-game out of first place in the AL Central, behind the Chicago White Sox. However, a slow start after the break and injuries to three key players sent the Tigers into yet another second half tailspin. The Tigers finished the season in third place with an 81–81 record, 13 games back of the division-winning Minnesota Twins. While playing outstanding baseball at home, the Tigers were just 29–52 on the road. Among the season highlights were Miguel Cabrera hitting .328 with 38 home runs and an AL-best 126 RBI, earning the AL Silver Slugger Award at first base and finishing second in the AL MVP race (earning 5 of 28 first-place votes). Jackson (.293 average, 103 runs, 181 hits, 27 stolen bases) finished second in the AL Rookie of the Year voting. Justin Verlander enjoyed another strong season (18–9 record, 3.37 ERA, 219 strikeouts). A tearful Joyce later said, "I just cost that kid a perfect game. I thought he beat the throw. I was convinced he beat the throw, until I saw the replay." Despite nationwide support for overturning the call, which included supportive statements from the Governor of Michigan and the White House, commissioner Bud Selig let the call stand. However, he said he would look into expanding instant replay in the future. ===Division winners (2011–2014)=== ====2011: First AL Central Championship==== The Tigers returned much of their roster from 2010, while adding relief pitcher Joaquín Benoit, catcher/DH Victor Martinez, and starting pitcher Brad Penny. On May 7, Verlander took a perfect game against the Toronto Blue Jays into the 8th inning. After a walk to J. P. Arencibia, Verlander coaxed a double-play grounder and went on to the 9th inning to complete his second career no-hitter by facing the minimum 27 batters. It was the seventh no-hitter in Tigers history. On August 27, Verlander defeated the Minnesota Twins, 6–4, to become the first Tiger since Bill Gullickson in 1991 to win 20 games in a season. Verlander also became the first major league pitcher since Curt Schilling in 2002 to reach 20 wins before the end of August. In May, the Tigers were as many as eight games back of the first place Cleveland Indians. However, they would start to play better. The Tigers sent five players to the 2011 All-Star Game. Catcher Alex Avila was voted in as a starter, while Justin Verlander, José Valverde and Miguel Cabrera were added as reserves. Shortstop Jhonny Peralta was later added to the All-Star team when the Yankees' Derek Jeter was unable to play due to injury. As a three-way battle for the division title developed between the Tigers, Indians, and Chicago White Sox, the Tigers put together an 18–10 record in August to begin to pull away. Starter Doug Fister, who was acquired at the trade deadline, provided an immediate spark, going 8–1 over the final two months of the season with a sparkling 1.79 ERA. After a loss on September 1, the Tigers reeled off a 12-game winning streak to put any thoughts of another late-season collapse to rest. The streak consisted of four consecutive three-game sweeps over their AL Central Division rivals. It was the Tigers' longest winning streak since the 1934 team won 14 straight. On September 16, the Tigers clinched the AL Central Division title with a 3–1 win over the Oakland Athletics. It was their first AL Central title since joining the division in 1998, and first division title of any kind since 1987. In a much closer vote six days later, Verlander also won AL MVP, becoming the first pitcher to do so since Dennis Eckersley in 1992. Valverde was the AL saves leader with 49 (in 49 save opportunities), winning the 2011 MLB Delivery Man of the Year Award. The Tigers beat the New York Yankees by a score of 3–2 in Game 5 of the ALDS, winning the series 3–2. They advanced to the ALCS, but they lost to the defending AL Champion Texas Rangers, 4–2. ====2012: American League Champions==== In 2012, the Tigers looked to defend their 2011 AL Central Division title, with the hopes of earning a second consecutive playoff appearance. On January 24, the Tigers signed free agent All-Star first baseman Prince Fielder to a 9-year, $214 million contract. The move came shortly after the Tigers learned that Víctor Martínez had torn his anterior cruciate ligament during offseason training in Lakeland, Florida, and would likely miss the entire 2012 season. Miguel Cabrera moved back to his original position of third base, leading to the eventual release of veteran Brandon Inge on April 26. On July 23, the Tigers acquired veteran second baseman Omar Infante, who played for Detroit in 2003–07, and starting pitcher Aníbal Sánchez from the Miami Marlins in exchange for starting pitcher Jacob Turner and two other minor leaguers. At the midway point of the 2012 season, the Tigers were three games under .500 (39–42). The team played much better in the second half and, after a fierce battle down the stretch with the Chicago White Sox, the Tigers clinched the AL Central division title on October 1 with a 6–3 win against the Kansas City Royals. Coupled with the Tigers' division title in 2011, it marked the first back-to-back divisional titles in team history, and first back-to-back postseason appearances since 1934–35. The Tigers concluded the season with an 88–74 record. On the final day of the season, Cabrera earned the Triple Crown in batting, leading the AL in batting average (.330), home runs (44), and runs batted in (139). No player had accomplished this feat since Carl Yastrzemski in 1967. On the mound, starters Justin Verlander and Max Scherzer finished first and second among the American League strikeout leaders, with 239 and 231, respectively. Verlander (17–8, 2.64 ERA) finished second in the Cy Young Award balloting to David Price of the Tampa Bay Rays. In the American League Division Series, the Tigers defeated the Oakland Athletics, 3–2, earning their second straight trip to the American League Championship Series. The Tigers completed a four-game sweep of the New York Yankees in the ALCS to win their 11th AL pennant and earn a trip to the World Series. In the World Series, the Tigers were swept by the San Francisco Giants. On November 15, 2012, Cabrera was named AL MVP. ====2013: American League title defense==== The Tigers entered the 2013 season looking to defend their 2012 AL pennant. Key acquisitions in the offseason included signing free agent outfielder Torii Hunter to a two-year, $26 million contract, while also signing their 2012 trade deadline acquisition, pitcher Aníbal Sánchez, to a five-year, $80 million deal. The Tigers also signed free agent catcher Brayan Peña to a one-year contract. Moreover, ace starter Justin Verlander signed a $180 million contract extension. The Tigers placed six players on the 2013 American League All-Star team: Miguel Cabrera, Prince Fielder, Jhonny Peralta, Torii Hunter, Max Scherzer and Justin Verlander. On September 25, the Tigers clinched their third consecutive AL Central Division title. Tigers pitchers struck out 1,428 batters during the regular season, breaking the record of 1,404 held by the 2003 Chicago Cubs. Cabrera (.348 average, 44 HR, 139 RBI) was voted the AL MVP for the second straight season, while Scherzer (21–3, 2.90 ERA, 240 strikeouts) won the AL Cy Young Award. The Tigers played the Oakland Athletics for the second straight year in the ALDS, and defeated the A's, 3–2. The Tigers set a record by striking out 57 Oakland batters in the ALDS. With his Game 5 gem, Verlander ran his postseason scoreless streak against Oakland to 30 innings. The Tigers advanced to their third straight ALCS, where they played the Boston Red Sox for the first ever time in the postseason. The Tigers would be defeated in six games. ====2014: Changes at the top==== Jim Leyland stepped down from his managerial position after eight years with Detroit, and the Tigers hired Brad Ausmus as Leyland's successor. On November 20, 2013, the Tigers traded Prince Fielder to the Texas Rangers for three time All-Star second baseman Ian Kinsler plus cash considerations with regard to Fielder's remaining contract amount. The Tigers later traded starting pitcher Doug Fister to the Washington Nationals for infielder Steve Lombardozzi Jr. and pitchers Ian Krol and Robbie Ray. In an effort to improve a bullpen that often struggled in 2013, the Tigers signed veteran closer Joe Nathan to a two-year, $20 million contract, with a club option for 2016, and later signed Joba Chamberlain to a one-year, $2.5 million deal. On May 2, 2014, a month into the season, with the bullpen having a combined 5.37 ERA, which was 29th out of 30 in MLB, the Tigers signed free agent reliever Joel Hanrahan to a one-year contract. However, he never came off the disabled list to pitch for the team. The team further bolstered the bullpen near the MLB trading deadline, dealing pitchers Corey Knebel and Jake Thompson to the Texas Rangers in exchange for former All-Star closer Joakim Soria on July 23. On July 31, with just hours left before the end of the non-waiver trade deadline, the Tigers traded pitcher Drew Smyly and shortstop Willy Adames to the Tampa Bay Rays, and Austin Jackson to the Seattle Mariners in a three-team deal to acquire pitcher David Price from the Rays. With the acquisition of Price, the Tigers became the first team in major league history with three consecutive Cy Young Award winners in its starting rotation. On September 28, the last day of the regular season, Price pitched a 3–0 gem against the Minnesota Twins, and the Tigers clinched their fourth consecutive AL Central Division title. The 90–72 Tigers finished one game ahead of the Kansas City Royals. The Tigers faced the Baltimore Orioles in the 2014 American League Division Series, where they were swept, 3–0. J. D. Martinez became the first player in franchise history to hit home runs in his first two career postseason games. Both were part of back-to-back homers, with Víctor Martínez and Nick Castellanos in Games 1 and 2, respectively. ===2015: Mid-season Reboot=== Brad Ausmus continued to manage the Tigers for a second season. Free agents Max Scherzer and Torii Hunter left for other teams at the end of the year, while Rick Porcello, Eugenio Suárez, Robbie Ray, and prospect Devon Travis were all lost through trades. On the receiving end, the Tigers traded for slugger Yoenis Céspedes, relief pitcher Alex Wilson, speedy outfielder Anthony Gose and starting pitchers Alfredo Simón and Shane Greene. After winning the first six games of the year in record-breaking fashion, the season slowly went downhill for the Tigers. Inconsistent pitching, division rivals outperforming expectations, and injuries to multiple players, including Joe Nathan, who only appeared in one game, Victor Martínez, and career first stints on the disabled list for Justin Verlander and Miguel Cabrera, sent the team below the .500 mark as the trade deadline came and the decision was made to "reboot" the team. Within a two-day span in late July, the Tigers traded David Price, Joakim Soria and Cespedes, receiving six well regarded prospects in return, including Daniel Norris and Michael Fulmer. On August 4, longtime general manager Dave Dombrowski was released by the team, with assistant GM Al Avila being promoted to general manager and president of baseball operations. Despite difficulties, the Tigers still ended up sending four players to the 2015 MLB All-Star Game: Miguel Cabrera received his 10th career All-Star selection and the starting nod, but could not play due to injury; David Price received his 5th career selection as well as the credit for the win for the American League; and J.D. Martinez and Jose Iglesias both received their first career All-Star selections. The Tigers ended the season in last place in the AL Central Division with a record of 74–87. The pitching staff was one of the worst in MLB, ending 27th in ERA, 28th in FIP, and 27th in WHIP. However, the team also ended with a team batting average of .270, the best in MLB, while Miguel Cabrera finished with the highest player batting average in the AL and MLB (.338), earning his fourth batting title in five years. ===2016=== Brad Ausmus and the Tigers entered the 2016 season with new pitching coach Rich Dubee and 9 out of 25 members of the 2015 roster being replaced through trades and free agency. Prominent additions included two highly sought free agents, starting pitcher Jordan Zimmermann and outfielder Justin Upton, as well as players acquired through trades: outfielder Cameron Maybin, and the veteran closer Francisco Rodriguez, who led a totally revamped bullpen. The Tigers lost two 2016 draft picks due to free agent compensation but, because of their bottom-ten finish in 2015, they kept their first round pick. Key veteran losses include catcher Alex Avila and outfielder Rajai Davis, who both signed free agent deals with other teams in the division. The Tigers finished the season with a record of 86–75, eight games behind the first place Cleveland Indians. Detroit was the final team to fall out of contention for a wild card spot, losing Saturday and Sunday games to the Atlanta Braves, while the two teams they were chasing, Baltimore and Toronto, got needed wins. Pitcher Michael Fulmer, acquired from the New York Mets organization in 2015, won the 2016 AL Rookie of the Year Award. ===Rebuilding (2017–2023)=== ====2017==== Mike Ilitch, the Tigers owner since 1992, died at the age of 87 on February 10, 2017. The team remains in an Ilitch family trust, under the leadership of Mike's son, Christopher Ilitch. Like the Detroit Red Wings, the Tigers honored their owner in multiple ways, the most prominent being a "Mr. I" uniform patch. After a disappointing record through the All-Star break, the Tigers began committing to a rebuild, trading J. D. Martinez, Alex Avila and Justin Wilson in July, plus Justin Upton and Justin Verlander in August. On September 22, the Tigers announced that the team would not extend manager Brad Ausmus' contract past the 2017 season, ending his four-year tenure as manager. Under the management of Ausmus, the Tigers had a record of 314–332 (.486 winning percentage) and won one AL Central division title in 2014. The Tigers went 6–24 in September, ending the season in a tie for the worst record in MLB with the San Francisco Giants. However, due to a tiebreaker, the Tigers were awarded the number one overall pick in the 2018 MLB Draft. ====2018==== On October 20, 2017, the Tigers announced that Ron Gardenhire and the team had reached a three-year agreement for the former Minnesota Twins skipper to succeed Brad Ausmus as the team's manager. While rebuilding with young players, the team also lost slugger Miguel Cabrera and expected ace pitcher Michael Fulmer to extensive stints on the disabled list. This led the team to the same 64–98 record as the previous year, the fifth worst record in MLB, but still good for third place in a very weak AL Central division. ====2019==== Significant changes to the 2019 season opening roster include the departure of José Iglesias, and the one-year signings of the middle infield tandem of Jordy Mercer and Josh Harrison, both formerly of the Pittsburgh Pirates. On March 19, it was announced that Michael Fulmer would undergo Tommy John surgery and miss the 2019 season. The Tigers finished the season with a 47–114 record, the worst in all of Major League Baseball, and their second worst season in franchise history after their 43–119 record in 2003. The 2019 Tigers tied the 1939 St. Louis Browns for the most home losses (59) during a season in the modern era. ====2020==== On April 6, Al Kaline died at the age of 85. Kaline had been affiliated with the team for 67 years, most recently as an executive. The Tigers wore a No. 6 patch to honor him. In the shortened 60-game season due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Tigers remained in playoff contention heading into September. On September 19, manager Ron Gardenhire announced his retirement from baseball effective immediately, citing health concerns. Bench coach Lloyd McClendon was named interim manager for the remainder of the season. The Tigers ultimately faded down the stretch, finishing with a 23–35 record. ====2021==== On October 30, 2020, the Tigers hired A. J. Hinch as manager. On May 18, 2021, Spencer Turnbull pitched the eighth no-hitter in Tigers history against the Seattle Mariners. Turnbull became the first Tigers player to throw a no-hitter since Justin Verlander on May 7, 2011. The Tigers finished the season with a 77–85 record. This outperformed preseason predictions for the team, most of which said the Tigers would finish last. ====2022==== On August 10, 2022, the Tigers fired Al Avila as general manager. On September 19, 2022, the Tigers hired Scott Harris as president of baseball operations. The Tigers finished the season with a 66–96 record and had one of the worst offense in the league. On October 25, 2022, the Tigers hired Rob Metzler as vice president and assistant general manager. ====2023==== On September 21, 2023, the Tigers hired Jeff Greenberg as general manager. The Tigers finished the season with a 78–84 record, and in second place in the division. This was the final season for long-time Tigers slugger Miguel Cabrera, who announced he would retire from playing. Following his retirement, he joined the Tigers' front office as a special assistant to Scott Harris. ===Return to the playoffs (2024)=== ====2024==== 2024 was expected to be another quiet year for the Tigers. That appeared to be the case for much of the season as the team was 55–63 on August 10. The Tigers then went 31–11 to clinch a playoff berth for the first time since 2014 on September 27. They finished the season with a 86–76 record. In the American League Wild Card Series, the Tigers swept the Houston Astros 2–0, securing their first postseason series win since 2013. In the American League Division Series, the Tigers were defeated by the Cleveland Guardians in five games. ===Best seasons in Detroit Tigers history=== \|} ===Worst seasons in Detroit Tigers history=== \|} ===Payroll=== \|} ==Nickname== The team was referred to as the Wolverines and Creams in their inaugural season in 1894 before they became the Tigers. There are various legends about how they got their nickname. One involves the striped socks they wore. George Stallings, the team's manager, took credit for the name. However, the earliest known use of it appeared in the Detroit Free Press on April 16, 1895, a year prior to Stallings joining the team. Despite playing one another for over 2,200 games, both teams have yet to meet in the postseason. ===Divisional=== The Tigers also maintain divisional rivalries with the Cleveland Guardians, the Kansas City Royals, and the Minnesota Twins. The rivalry with Cleveland came to a head when the Tigers played at Progressive Field on August 7, 2013, with the teams first and second in the AL Central standings. Many Tigers fans who made the short trip to Cleveland started several "Let's go Tigers!" chants while the game was tied in the 9th inning. Cleveland fans countered with a "Detroit's bankrupt!" chant, in reference to the city's 2013 bankruptcy. Footage of the chants from SportsTime Ohio circulated online, with many baseball fans on social media criticizing Cleveland fans for the chant due to the circumstances of Detroit's financial situation. The Tigers ended up defeating Cleveland 6–5 in 14 innings. The teams met in the postseason for the first time in the 2024 American League Division Series, where the Guardians won the series 3–2. Additionally, the Tigers have had some rivalries with NL teams that they have faced repeatedly in the World Series, such as the Chicago Cubs (four times) and St. Louis Cardinals (three times). In interleague play, the Pittsburgh Pirates are the Tigers' "natural rival." ==Fanbase== There are numerous Tigers fans along the Lake Erie region throughout the state of Michigan, northwestern Ohio, southwestern Ontario, as well as a small fan base in and around the Erie, Pennsylvania area, due in part to Detroit's proximity to these regions as well as the presence of the Tigers' Double-A affiliate Erie SeaWolves in northwestern Pennsylvania. The Tigers have their Triple-A affiliate Toledo Mud Hens in Toledo, Ohio in addition to their Double-A affiliate in Erie. The cities of Windsor and Sarnia, Ontario, have large fan bases of loyal Tigers fans. \|- style=;" \| Year \|\| Total attendance \|\| Game average \|\| League rank \|- \| 2000 \| 2,438,617 \| 30,106 \| 7th \|- \| 2001 \| 1,921,305 \| 23,720 \| 9th \|- \| 2002 \| 1,503,623 \| 18,795 \| 12th \|- \| 2003 \| 1,368,245 \| 16,892 \| 13th \|- \| 2004 \| 1,917,004 \| 23,667 \| 9th \|- \| 2005 \| 2,024,431 \| 24,993 \| 10th \|- \| 2006 \| 2,595,937 \| 32,049 \| 5th \|- \| 2007 \| 3,047,133 \| 32,719 \| 3rd \|- \| 2008 \| 3,202,645 \| 39,539 \| 3rd \|- \| 2009 \| 2,567,165 \| 31,693 \| 4th \|- \| 2010 \| 2,461,237 \| 30,386 \| 6th \|- \| 2011 \| 2,642,045 \| 32,618 \| 6th \|- \| 2012 \| 3,028,033 \| 37,383 \| 5th \|- \| 2013 \| 3,083,397 \| 38,067 \| 3rd \|- \| 2014 \| 2,917,209 \| 36,015 \| 4th \|- \| 2015 \| 2,726,048 \| 33,655 \| 5th \|- \| 2016 \| 2,493,859 \| 31,173 \| 7th \|- \| 2017 \| 2,321,599 \| 28,662 \| 7th \|- \| 2018 \| 1,856,970 \| 22,926 \| 10th \|- \| 2019 \| 1,501,430 \| 18,536 \| 12th \|- \| 2020 \| N/A (COVID-19 pandemic) \| N/A \| N/A \|- \| 2021 \| 1,102,623 \| 13,612 \| 11th \|- \| 2022 \| 1,575,544 \| 19,214 \| 10th \|- \| 2023 \| 1,612,876 \| 19,912 \| 12th \|- \| 2024 \| 1,858,295 \| 22,942 \| 11th \|} ==Rally cry== During the 1968 season, the team was cheered on by the phrase, "Go Get 'Em, Tigers", which was made popular by a song of the same name written and recorded by Artie Fields. "Sock it to 'em, Tigers!" was also a popular phrase during this time. During the 1984 World Series championship run, the team was cheered on to the cry, "Bless You Boys," a phrase coined by sportscaster Al Ackerman. In 2005, the team began using the phrase "Who's Your Tiger?" as its slogan. During the 2006 season, a rally cry caught on in the Tigers' dugout. In a June game against the New York Yankees, Tigers pitcher Nate Robertson was featured in an in-game interview with FSN Detroit. During the interview, Robertson began to stuff Big League Chew bubble gum into his mouth. The Tigers would spark a rally, in which they came back to tie the game. As a result, the phrase "Gum Time" became popular. Additionally, the chant of a local man, the late James Van Horn, who patrolled the streets around Comerica Park yelling out "Eat 'Em Up Tigers! Eat 'Em Up!", was very popular. In 2009, the team used the phrase "Always a Tiger" as its slogan. In 2011, the slogan was switched back to "Who's Your Tiger?" ==Uniforms and logos== The Tigers have worn essentially the same home uniform since 1934 — solid white jersey with navy blue piping down the front and an Old English "D" on the left chest, white pants, navy blue hat with a white letter D in the blackletter or textur/textualis typeface associated with Middle and Early Modern English and popularly referred to as "Old English" even though it was not used for that language. On the Tigers' road uniforms, the D on their hats is orange and a script "Detroit" appears across the jersey. The script "Detroit" design was first used as part of their road jersey in 1930, and would remain so until 1959, when they changed it to a block lettering style. The Tigers used to have different versions of the Old English D on the cap and jersey. In 2018, the Tigers changed the classic curved logo on their home uniforms to match that of the sharp-cornered hat logo; additionally, the logo on the cap was enlarged. In 2019, the Tigers reverted to the smaller logo on the cap, but kept the cap sharp-cornered 'D' on the home jerseys. In 2023, the Tigers entered into a uniform sponsorship deal with Meijer, the state's major supercenter chain based in Grand Rapids and a longtime team sponsor. The uniform patch's logo (attached to the sleeve of the player's dominant hand) is rendered solely in navy blue on white for the home uniform, and white text on a black background for the road jersey with an orange outline. Unique characteristics of the Tigers uniforms: The Tigers are the only team in Major League Baseball to have a color on their road uniforms that is not on their home uniforms (orange). The Tigers first added orange to their road uniform in 1903, but it was not until 1972 that the Tigers made orange an accent color on their road uniforms full-time. The Tigers also wore the "orange D" navy caps at home during the late 1940s through the 1950s. The Tigers' uniforms have more belt loops than those of any other team, as their uniform pants do not feature the wide "tunnel" loops that appear on most baseball pants. Alternate jerseys: In 1995, the Tigers introduced a solid navy blue alternate jersey, which featured the team's primary logo at the time, a tiger stepping through the D, on the chest. It was worn for one home game. The Tigers wear the throwback jerseys of the Detroit Stars for their annual Negro Leagues Tribute Game in order to pay tribute to the Negro leagues players and their contributions to the game of baseball. The Tigers wear a white and navy blue home jersey with "Tigres" across the chest for their annual "¡Fiesta Tigres!" game to recognize and honor the contributions of Hispanic and Latino players and coaches to the game of baseball. Like all of MLB, the Tigers wore a highly stylized and brightly colored jersey for Players Weekend. In the inaugural games from August 25–27, 2017, their away jerseys were grey with bright orange with "Tigers" on the chest, the orange cap had a tiger instead of the Old English "D" on it. Players were also encouraged to use nicknames on the back of their jerseys. In the 2018 season, the Tigers wore a blue jersey with orange sleeves that said "Tigers" on the chest, with an orange cap that had a tiger on it. In 2024, the Tigers unveiled their first City Connect jersey, which is a nod to Detroit's automobile industry. The primarily navy blue jersey with electric blue tire tread patterns has the "Motor City" nickname emblazoned in front along with racing stripes on the sleeves and pants. The sleeve patch features the diamond highway shield for the Michigan State Trunkline Highway System and alludes to Comerica Park's location on Woodward Avenue, otherwise known as M-1, with the team's "D" logo replacing the "block M"; when shown in a different light, it shows Detroit's 313 area code, with the 3's rendered in a reflective text. Along the jock tag is the illustration of a tiger's eyes below the team name. The cap is navy blue with "Detroit" emblazoned in front, and the right side features a faux vehicle identification number tag, "190135456884", referencing the Tigers' first American League season of 1901 and its four World Series championships mentioned by the year in two digits. ==Baseball Hall of Famers== ===Michigan Sports Hall of Fame=== ===Retired numbers and honorees=== This is how the retired numbers and honored names are displayed on the outfield walls at Comerica Park: In left field: In right field: George Kell was also a play-by-play announcer for the Tigers from 1959 to 1963 and again from 1965 to 1996. Jackie Robinson's No. 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball in 1997. National Avenue, which runs behind the third-base stands at the Tigers' previous home Tiger Stadium, was renamed Cochrane Street for Mickey Cochrane. Cherry Street, which runs behind the left-field stands at Tiger Stadium, was renamed Kaline Drive for Al Kaline. The Tigers retired Jim Leyland's No. 10 on August 3, 2024. ===Team captains=== Bill Coughlin 1907–1908 Germany Schaefer 1907–1909 George Moriarty 1911–1916 Brad Ausmus 1999 Doug Brocail 1999 ==Broadcasters== ===Radio=== The Tigers' current flagship radio station is WXYT-FM (97.1 FM). Dan Dickerson does play-by-play with Bobby Scales, Dan Petry, and Andy Dirks rotating on color commentary. On games where Dickerson is assigned to work on television, Greg Gania, the radio voice of the Erie SeaWolves, the Tigers' Double-A affiliate, serves as an alternate. Games are syndicated throughout Michigan, Toledo and Archbold, Ohio. The Tigers renewed in 2008, over a bid from a rival regional sports channel by Dish Network and AT&T's U-verse. During the 2016 season, the Tigers averaged a 7.56 rating and 138,000 viewers on primetime TV broadcasts. Through 25 games in 2017, their games have averaged a 5.57 rating, which was fifth in the major league. ===Former=== ==Franchise records== ==Facilities== The team maintains a training center in the Dominican Republic.	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8,580	Diocletian	Diocletian ( ; ; ; 242/245 – 311/312), nicknamed Jovius, was Roman emperor from 284 until his abdication in 305. He was born Diocles to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia. Diocles rose through the ranks of the military early in his career, eventually becoming a cavalry commander for the army of Emperor Carus. After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on a campaign in Persia, Diocles was proclaimed emperor by the troops, taking the name "Diocletianus". The title was also claimed by Carus's surviving son, Carinus, but Diocletian defeated him in the Battle of the Margus. Diocletian's reign stabilized the empire and ended the Crisis of the Third Century. He initiated the process of the Roman Empire split and appointed fellow officer Maximian as Augustus, co-emperor, in 286. Diocletian reigned in the Eastern Empire, and Maximian reigned in the Western Empire. Diocletian delegated further on 1 March 293, appointing Galerius and Constantius as junior colleagues (each with the title Caesar), under himself and Maximian respectively. Under the Tetrarchy, or "rule of four", each tetrarch would rule over a quarter-division of the empire. Diocletian secured the empire's borders and purged it of all threats to his power. He defeated the Sarmatians and Carpi during several campaigns between 285 and 299, the Alamanni in 288, and usurpers in Egypt between 297 and 298. Galerius, aided by Diocletian, campaigned successfully against Persia, the empire's traditional enemy, and in 299, he sacked their capital, Ctesiphon. Diocletian led the subsequent negotiations and achieved a lasting and favorable peace. Diocletian separated and enlarged the empire's civil and military services and reorganized the empire's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the empire. He established new administrative centers in Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Sirmium, and Trevorum, closer to the empire's frontiers than the traditional capital at Rome. Building on third-century trends towards absolutism, he styled himself an autocrat, elevating himself above the empire's masses with imposing forms of court ceremonies and architecture. Bureaucratic and military growth, constant campaigning, and construction projects increased the state's expenditures and necessitated a comprehensive tax reform. From at least 297 on, imperial taxation was standardized, made more equitable, and levied at generally higher rates. Not all of Diocletian's plans were successful: the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), his attempt to curb inflation via price controls, was counterproductive and quickly ignored. Although effective while he ruled, Diocletian's tetrarchic system collapsed after his abdication under the competing dynastic claims of Maxentius and Constantine, sons of Maximian and Constantius respectively. The Diocletianic Persecution (303–312), the empire's last, largest, and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity, failed to eliminate Christianity in the empire. After 324, Christianity became the empire's preferred religion under Constantine. Despite these failures and challenges, Diocletian's reforms fundamentally changed the structure of the Roman imperial government and helped stabilize the empire economically and militarily, enabling the empire to remain essentially intact for another 150 years despite being near the brink of collapse in Diocletian's youth. Weakened by illness, Diocletian left the imperial office on 1 May 305, becoming the first Roman emperor to abdicate the position voluntarily. He lived out his retirement in his palace on the Dalmatian coast, tending to his vegetable gardens. His palace eventually became the core of the modern-day city of Split in Croatia. ==Early life== Diocletian was born in Dalmatia, probably at or near the town of Salona (modern Solin, Croatia), to which he retired later in life. His original name was Diocles (in full, Gaius Valerius Diocles), possibly derived from Dioclea, the name of both his mother and her supposed place of birth. Diocletian's official birthday was 22 December, and his year of birth has been estimated at between 242 and 245 based on a statement that he was aged 68 at death (the year is not certain either). His parents were of low status; Eutropius records "that he is said by most writers to have been the son of a scribe, but by some to have been a freedman of a senator called Anulinus." The first forty years of his life are mostly obscure. Diocletian was considered an Illyricianus (Illyrian) who had been schooled and promoted by Aurelian. The 12th-century Byzantine chronicler Joannes Zonaras states that he was Dux Moesiae, a commander of forces on the lower Danube. The often-unreliable Historia Augusta states that he served in Gaul, but this is not corroborated by other sources and is ignored by modern historians. The first time Diocletian's whereabouts are accurately established was in 282 when the Emperor Carus made him commander of the Protectores domestici, the elite cavalry force directly attached to the Imperial household. This post earned him the honor of a consulship in 283. ===Death of Numerian=== Carus's death, amid a successful war with Persia and in mysterious circumstances – he was believed to have been struck by lightning or killed by Persian soldiers – left his sons Numerian and Carinus as the new Augusti. Carinus quickly made his way to Rome from his post in Gaul and arrived there by January 284, becoming the legitimate Emperor in the West. Numerian lingered in the East. The Roman withdrawal from Persia was orderly and unopposed. The Sassanid king Bahram II could not field an army against them as he was still struggling to establish his authority. By March 284, Numerian had only reached Emesa (Homs) in Syria; by November, only Asia Minor. In Emesa he was apparently still alive and in good health: he issued the only extant rescript in his name there, but after he left the city, his staff, including the prefect Aper (Numerian's father-in-law and the dominant influence in his entourage), reported that he suffered from an inflammation of the eyes. He traveled in a closed coach from then on. When the army reached Bithynia, some of the soldiers smelled an odor emanating from the coach. They opened its curtains and found Numerian dead. Both Eutropius and Aurelius Victor describe Numerian's death as an assassination. Aper officially broke the news in Nicomedia (İzmit) in November. Numerian's generals and tribunes called a council for the succession, and chose Diocles as Emperor, in spite of Aper's attempts to garner support. On 20 November 284, the army of the east gathered on a hill outside Nicomedia. The army unanimously saluted Diocles as their new Augustus, and he accepted the purple imperial vestments. He raised his sword to the light of the sun and swore an oath disclaiming responsibility for Numerian's death. He asserted that Aper had killed Numerian and concealed it. In full view of the army, Diocles drew his sword and killed Aper. Soon after Aper's death, Diocles changed his name to the more Latinate "Diocletianus" – in full, Gaius Valerius Diocletianus. but some modern historians state that Diocletian avoided the city, to demonstrate that the city and its Senate were no longer politically relevant to the affairs of the empire. Diocletian dated his reign from his elevation by the army, not his ratification by the Senate, following the practice established by Carus, who had declared the Senate's ratification a useless formality. Diocletian offered proof of his deference towards the Senate by retaining Aristobulus as ordinary consul and colleague for 285 (one of the few instances during the Late Empire in which an emperor admitted a privatus as his colleague) and by creating senior senators Vettius Aquilinus and Junius Maximus ordinary consuls for the following year – for Maximus, it was his second consulship. If Diocletian did enter Rome shortly after his accession, he did not stay long; he is attested back in the Balkans by 2 November 285, on campaign against the Sarmatians. Diocletian replaced the prefect of Rome with his consular colleague Bassus. Most officials who had served under Carinus retained their offices under Diocletian. In an act of clementia denoted by the epitomator of Aurelius Victor as unusual, Diocletian did not kill or depose Carinus's traitorous praetorian prefect and consul Aristobulus, but confirmed him in both roles. He later gave him the proconsulate of Africa and the post of urban prefect for 295. The other figures who retained their offices might have also betrayed Carinus. ===Maximian made Caesar=== [, Diocletian's co-ruler in the Western Roman Empire]] The assassinations of Aurelian and Probus demonstrated that sole rulership was dangerous to the stability of the empire. Conflict boiled in every province, from Gaul to Syria, Egypt to the lower Danube. It was too much for one person to control, and Diocletian needed a lieutenant. According to Eutropius, Diocletian raised his fellow-officer Maximian to the office of Caesar, making him his heir and effective co-ruler. The concept of dual rulership was not new to the Roman Empire. Augustus, the first emperor, had nominally shared power with his colleagues, and a formal office of co-emperor (co-Augustus) had existed from Marcus Aurelius onward. Most recently, Carus and his sons had ruled together, albeit unsuccessfully. Dividing the empire in two halves was not new either. An informal division was first tested by Marcus Aurelius and his brother Lucius Verus, who spent most of his reign campaigning in Persia, although he returned West shortly before his death. A more formal division occurred in the joint rule of Valerian/Gallienus and Carus/Carinus. Diocletian would go on to establish new imperial capitals in both West and East; both halves would become independing of each other in the following decades, with only brief moments of unity. Theodosius I, the last sole emperor, only ruled alone for a few months before his death in 395 and the permanent split of the empire. Diocletian was in a less comfortable position than most of his predecessors, as he had a daughter, Valeria, but no sons. His co-ruler had to be from outside his family, raising the question of trust. Some historians state that Diocletian adopted Maximian as his filius Augusti, his "Augustan son", upon his appointment to the throne, following the precedent of some previous Emperors. This argument has not been universally accepted. Diocletian and Maximian added each other's nomina (their family name, "Valerius" and "Aurelius", respectively) to their own, thus creating an artificial family link and becoming part of the "Aurelius Valerius" family. In the Balkans during the autumn of 285, he encountered a tribe of Sarmatians who demanded assistance. The Sarmatians requested that Diocletian either help them recover their lost lands or grant them pasturage rights within the empire. Diocletian refused and fought a battle with them, but was unable to secure a complete victory. The nomadic pressures of the European Plain remained and could not be solved by a single war; soon the Sarmatians would have to be fought again. Diocletian wintered in Nicomedia. There may have been a revolt in the eastern provinces at this time, as he brought settlers from Asia to populate emptied farmlands in Thrace. He visited Syria Palaestina the following spring, His stay in the East saw diplomatic success in the conflict with Persia: in 287, Bahram II granted him precious gifts, declared open friendship with the Empire, and invited Diocletian to visit him. Roman sources insist that the act was entirely voluntary. Around the same time, perhaps in 287, Persia relinquished claims on Armenia and recognized Roman authority over territory to the west and south of the Tigris. The western portion of Armenia was incorporated into the empire and made a province. Tiridates III, the Arsacid claimant to the Armenian throne and a Roman client, had been disinherited and forced to take refuge in the empire after the Persian conquest of 252–53. In 287, he returned to lay claim to the eastern half of his ancestral domain and encountered no opposition. Diocletian was hailed as the "founder of eternal peace". The events might have represented a formal end to Carus's eastern campaign, which probably ended without an acknowledged peace. At the conclusion of discussions with the Persians, Diocletian re-organized the Mesopotamian frontier and fortified the city of Circesium (Buseire, Syria) on the Euphrates. ===Maximian made Augustus=== Maximian's campaigns were not proceeding as smoothly. The Bagaudae had been easily suppressed, but Carausius, the man he had put in charge of operations against Saxon and Frankish pirates on the Saxon Shore, had, according to literary sources, begun keeping the goods seized from the pirates for himself. Maximian issued a death warrant for his larcenous subordinate. Carausius fled the Continent, proclaimed himself emperor, and agitated Britain and northwestern Gaul into open revolt against Maximian and Diocletian. Far more probable, according to the archaeological evidence, is that Carausius had held some important military post in Britain, already had a firm basis of power in Britain and Northern Gaul, and profited from the lack of legitimacy of the central government. Carausius strove to have his legitimacy as a junior emperor acknowledged by Diocletian: in his coinage, he extolled the "concord" between him and the central power. One bronze piece from 290 read PAX AVGGG, "the Peace of the three Augusti"; on the other side, it showed Carausius together with Diocletian and Maximian, with the caption CARAVSIVS ET FRATRES SVI, "Carausius & his brothers". Diocletian could not allow a breakaway regional usurper following in Postumus's footprints to enter, of his own accord, the imperial college. Spurred by the crisis, on 1 April 286, Maximian took up the title of Augustus (emperor). Unusually, Diocletian could not have been present to witness it. It has even been suggested that Maximian usurped the title and was only later recognized by Diocletian in hopes of avoiding civil war. This suggestion is unpopular, as it is clear that Diocletian meant for Maximian to act with a certain amount of independence. It may be posited that Diocletian felt the need to bind Maximian closer to him, by making him his empowered associate, to avoid the possibility of him striking some sort of deal with Carausius. Maximian realized that he could not immediately suppress the rogue commander, so in 287 he campaigned against tribes beyond the Rhine instead. As Carausius was allied to the Franks, Maximian's campaigns could be seen as an effort to deny him a basis of support on the mainland. The following spring, as Maximian prepared a fleet for an expedition against Carausius, Diocletian returned from the East to meet Maximian. The two emperors agreed on a joint campaign against the Alamanni. Diocletian invaded Germania through Raetia while Maximian progressed from Mainz. Each burned crops and food supplies as he went, destroying the Germans' means of sustenance. The two men added territory to the empire and allowed Maximian to continue preparations against Carausius without further disturbance. On his return to the East, Diocletian managed what was probably another rapid campaign against the resurgent Sarmatians. No details survive, but surviving inscriptions indicate that Diocletian took the title Sarmaticus Maximus after 289. In the East, Diocletian engaged in diplomacy with desert tribes in the regions between Rome and Persia. He might have been attempting to persuade them to ally themselves with Rome, thus reviving the old, Rome-friendly, Palmyrene sphere of influence, or to reduce the frequency of their incursions. No details survive for these events. Some of the princes of these states were Persian client kings, a disturbing fact for the Romans in light of increasing tensions with the Sassanids. In the West, Maximian lost the fleet built in 288 and 289, probably in the early spring of 290. The panegyrist who refers to the loss suggests that its cause was a storm, but this might have been an attempt to conceal an embarrassing military defeat. Diocletian broke off his tour of the Eastern provinces soon thereafter. He returned with haste to the West, reaching Emesa by 10 May 290, and Sirmium on the Danube by 1 July 290. Diocletian met Maximian in Milan either in late December 290 or January 291. The meeting was undertaken with a sense of solemn pageantry. The emperors spent most of their time in public appearances. It has been surmised that the ceremonies were arranged to demonstrate Diocletian's continuing support for his faltering colleague. A deputation from the Roman Senate met with the emperors, renewing its infrequent contact with the Imperial office. The choice of Milan over Rome further snubbed the capital's pride. But then it was already a long-established practice that Rome itself was only a ceremonial capital, as the actual seat of the Imperial administration was determined by the needs of defense. Long before Diocletian, Gallienus (r. 253–68) had chosen Milan for his headquarters. If the panegyric detailing the ceremony implied that the true center of the empire was not Rome, but where the emperor sat ("...the capital of the empire appeared to be there, where the two emperors met"), it simply echoed what had already been stated by the historian Herodian in the early third century: "Rome is where the emperor is". During the meeting, decisions on matters of politics and war were probably made in secret. The Augusti would not meet again until 303. ==Tetrarchy== ===Foundation of the Tetrarchy=== Some time after his return, and before 293, Diocletian transferred command of the war against Carausius from Maximian to Flavius Constantius, who concluded it successfully in 296. Constantius was a former governor of Dalmatia and a man of military experience stretching back to Aurelian's campaigns against Zenobia (272–73). He was Maximian's praetorian prefect in Gaul, and the husband to Maximian's daughter, Theodora. On 1 March 293 at Milan, Maximian gave Constantius the office of Caesar. The same day, in either Philippopolis (Plovdiv, Bulgaria) or Sirmium, Diocletian did the same for Galerius Maximianus, husband to Diocletian's daughter Valeria, and perhaps Diocletian's praetorian prefect. Constantius was assigned Gaul and Britain. Galerius was initially assigned Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and responsibility for the eastern borderlands. This arrangement is called the Tetrarchy, from a Greek term meaning "rulership by four". The Tetrarchs were more or less sovereign in their own lands, and they travelled with their own imperial courts, administrators, secretaries, and armies. They were joined by blood and marriage; Diocletian and Maximian now styled themselves as brothers, and formally adopted Galerius and Constantius as sons. These relationships implied a line of succession. Galerius and Constantius would become Augusti after the departure of Diocletian and Maximian. Maximian's son Maxentius and Constantius's son Constantine would then become caesares. In preparation for their future roles, Constantine and Maxentius were taken to Diocletian's court in Nicomedia. ===Conflict in the Balkans and Egypt=== Diocletian spent the spring of 293 travelling with Galerius from Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) to Byzantium (Istanbul, Turkey). Diocletian then returned to Sirmium, where he remained for the following winter and spring. He campaigned successfully against the Sarmatians in 294, probably in the autumn. The Sarmatians' defeat kept them from the Danube provinces for a long time. Meanwhile, Diocletian built forts north of the Danube, part of a new defensive line called the Ripa Sarmatica, at Aquincum (Budapest, Hungary), Bononia (Vidin, Bulgaria), Ulcisia Vetera, Castra Florentium, Intercisa (Dunaújváros, Hungary), and Onagrinum (Begeč, Serbia). In 295 and 296 Diocletian campaigned in the region again, and won a victory over the Carpi in the summer of 296. Later during both 299 and 302, as Diocletian was residing in the East, it was Galerius's turn to campaign victoriously on the Danube. By the end of his reign, Diocletian had secured the entire length of the Danube, provided it with forts, bridgeheads, highways, and walled towns, and sent fifteen or more legions to patrol the region; an inscription at Sexaginta Prista on the Lower Danube extolled restored tranquility to the region. The defense came at a heavy cost but was a significant achievement in an area difficult to defend. Galerius, meanwhile, was engaged during 291–293 in disputes in Upper Egypt, where he suppressed a regional uprising. He returned to Syria in 295 to fight the revanchist Persian empire. Diocletian's attempts to bring the Egyptian tax system in line with Imperial standards stirred discontent, and a revolt swept the region after Galerius's departure. The usurper Domitius Domitianus declared himself Augustus in July or August 297. Much of Egypt, including Alexandria, recognized his rule. Diocletian moved into Egypt to suppress him, first putting down rebels in the Thebaid in the autumn of 297, then moving on to besiege Alexandria. Domitianus died in December 297, by which time Diocletian had secured control of the Egyptian countryside. Alexandria, whose defense was organized under Domitianus's former corrector Aurelius Achilleus, held out probably until March 298. Later in 298, the triumphal column now known as Pompey's Pillar was erected in Alexandria to honor Diocletian. Bureaucratic affairs were completed during Diocletian's stay: a census took place, and Alexandria, in punishment for its rebellion, lost the ability to mint independently. Diocletian's reforms in the region, combined with those of Septimius Severus, brought Egyptian administrative practices much closer to Roman standards. Diocletian travelled south along the Nile the following summer, where he visited Oxyrhynchus and Elephantine. In Nubia, he made peace with the Nobatae and Blemmyes tribes. Under the terms of the peace treaty Rome's borders moved north to Philae and the two tribes received an annual gold stipend. Diocletian left Africa quickly after the treaty, moving from Upper Egypt in September 298 to Syria in February 299. He met with Galerius in Mesopotamia. ===War with Persia=== ====Invasion, counterinvasion==== In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came to power in Persia. In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts between the empires, and Diocletian responded with an exchange of ambassadors. Within Persia, Narseh was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike kings Ardashir I (r. 226–241) and Shapur I (r. 241–272), who had defeated and imprisoned Emperor Valerian (r. 253–260) following his failed invasion of the Sasanian Empire. Narseh declared war on Rome in 295 or 296. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, where he seized the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287. He moved south into Roman Mesopotamia in 297, where he inflicted a severe defeat on Galerius in the region between Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) and Callinicum (Raqqa, Syria), suggested by the historian Fergus Millar to have been somewhere on the Balikh River. Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle, but he quickly divested himself of all responsibility. In a public ceremony at Antioch, the official version of events was clear: Galerius was responsible for the defeat; Diocletian was not. Diocletian publicly humiliated Galerius, forcing him to walk for a mile at the head of the Imperial caravan, still clad in the purple robes of the Emperor. Galerius was reinforced, probably in the spring of 298, by a new contingent collected from the empire's Danubian holdings. Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia, leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia. It is unclear if Diocletian was present to assist the campaign; he might have returned to Egypt or Syria. Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius's force, putting himself at a disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. In two battles, Galerius won major victories over Narseh. During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife. Galerius continued down the Tigris, and took the Persian capital Ctesiphon before returning to Roman territory along the Euphrates. ====Peace negotiations==== Narseh sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wives and children in the course of the war, but Galerius dismissed him. Serious peace negotiations began in the spring of 299. The magister memoriae (secretary) of Diocletian and Galerius, Sicorius Probus, was sent to Narseh to present terms. The conditions of the resulting Peace of Nisibis were heavy: Armenia returned to Roman domination, with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene (Sophene), Arzanene (Aghdznik), Corduene (Carduene), and Zabdicene (near modern Hakkâri, Turkey). These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus range; the Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the Tur Abdin plateau. A stretch of land containing the later strategic strongholds of Amida (Diyarbakır, Turkey) and Bezabde came under firm Roman military occupation. With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region. Many cities east of the Tigris came under Roman control, including Tigranokert, Saird, Martyropolis, Balalesa, Moxos, Daudia, and Arzan – though under what status is unclear. At the conclusion of the peace, Tiridates regained both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim. Rome secured a wide zone of cultural influence, which led to a wide diffusion of Syriac Christianity from a center at Nisibis in later decades, and the eventual Christianization of Armenia. To strengthen the defence of the east Diocletian had a fortified road constructed at the southern border, where the empire bordered the Arabs, in the year 300. This road would remain in use for centuries but proved ineffective in defending the border as conventional armies could not operate in the region. ==Religious persecutions== ===Early persecutions=== At the conclusion of the Peace of Nisibis, Diocletian and Galerius returned to Antioch. At some time in 299, the emperors took part in a ceremony of sacrifice and divination in an attempt to predict the future. The haruspices were unable to read the entrails of the sacrificed animals and blamed Christians in the Imperial household. The emperors ordered all members of the court to perform a sacrifice to purify the palace. The emperors sent letters to the military command, demanding the entire army perform the required sacrifices or face discharge. Diocletian was conservative in matters of religion, faithful to the traditional Roman pantheon and understanding of demands for religious purification, but Eusebius, Lactantius and Constantine state that it was Galerius, not Diocletian, who was the prime supporter of the purge. Galerius, even more devoted and passionate than Diocletian, saw political advantage in the persecution. He was willing to break with a government policy of inaction on the issue. Antioch was Diocletian's primary residence from 299 to 302, while Galerius swapped places with his Augustus on the Middle and Lower Danube. Diocletian visited Egypt once, over the winter of 301–2, and issued a grain dole in Alexandria. Following some public disputes with Manicheans, Diocletian ordered that the leading followers of Mani be burnt alive along with their scriptures. In a 31 March 302 rescript from Alexandria, he declared that low-status Manicheans must be executed by the blade, and high-status Manicheans must be sent to work in the quarries of Proconnesus (Marmara Island, Turkey) or the mines of Phaeno in southern Palestine. All Manichean property was to be seized and deposited in the imperial treasury. Diocletian found much to be offended by in Manichean religion: its novelty, its alien origins, its perceived corruption of Roman morals, and its inherent opposition to long-standing religious traditions. His reasons for opposing Manichaeanism were also applied to his next target, Christianity. ===Great Persecution=== Diocletian returned to Antioch in the autumn of 302. He ordered that the deacon Romanus of Caesarea have his tongue removed for defying the order of the courts and interrupting official sacrifices. Romanus was then sent to prison, where he was executed on 17 November 303. Diocletian left the city for Nicomedia in the winter, accompanied by Galerius. According to Lactantius, Diocletian and Galerius argued over imperial policy towards Christians while wintering at Nicomedia in 302. Diocletian believed that forbidding Christians from the bureaucracy and military would be sufficient to appease the gods, but Galerius pushed for extermination. The two men sought the advice of the oracle of Apollo at Didyma. The oracle responded that the impious on Earth hindered Apollo's ability to provide advice. Rhetorically Eusebius records the Oracle as saying "The just on Earth..." These impious, Diocletian was informed by members of the court, could only refer to the Christians of the empire. At the behest of his court, Diocletian acceded to demands for universal persecution. On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered that the newly built church at Nicomedia be razed. He demanded that its scriptures be burned, and seized its precious stores for the treasury. The next day, Diocletian's first "Edict against the Christians" was published. The edict ordered the destruction of Christian scriptures and places of worship across the empire, and prohibited Christians from assembling for worship. Before the end of February, a fire destroyed part of the Imperial palace. Galerius convinced Diocletian that the culprits were Christians, conspirators who had plotted with the eunuchs of the palace. An investigation was commissioned, but no responsible party was found. Executions followed anyway, and the palace eunuchs Dorotheus and Gorgonius were executed. One individual, Peter Cubicularius, was stripped, raised high, and scourged. Salt and vinegar were poured in his wounds, and he was slowly boiled over an open flame. The executions continued until at least 24 April 303, when six individuals, including the bishop Anthimus, were decapitated. A second fire occurred sixteen days after the first. Galerius left the city for Rome, declaring Nicomedia unsafe. Diocletian would soon follow. Although further persecutory edicts followed, compelling the arrest of the Christian clergy and universal acts of sacrifice, they were ultimately unsuccessful; most Christians escaped punishment, and pagans too were generally unsympathetic to the persecution. The martyrs' sufferings strengthened the resolve of their fellow Christians. Constantius and Maximian did not apply the later edicts, and left the Christians of the West unharmed. Galerius rescinded the edict in 311, announcing that the persecution had failed to bring Christians back to traditional religion. The temporary apostasy of some Christians, and the surrendering of scriptures, during the persecution played a major role in the subsequent Donatist controversy. Within twenty-five years of the persecution's inauguration, the Christian emperor Constantine would rule the empire alone. He would reverse the consequences of the edicts, and return all confiscated property to Christians. Under Constantine's rule, Christianity would become the empire's preferred religion. Diocletian was demonized by his Christian successors: Lactantius intimated that Diocletian's ascendancy heralded the apocalypse. ==Later life== ===Illness and abdication=== Diocletian entered the city of Rome in the early winter of 303. On 20 November, he celebrated, with Maximian, the twentieth anniversary of his reign (), the tenth anniversary of the Tetrarchy (decennalia), and a triumph for the war with Persia. Diocletian soon grew impatient with the city, as the Romans acted towards him with what Edward Gibbon, following Lactantius, calls "licentious familiarity". The Roman people did not give enough deference to his supreme authority; they expected him to act the part of an aristocratic ruler, not a monarchic one. On 20 December 303, Diocletian cut short his stay in Rome and left for the north. He did not even perform the ceremonies investing him with his ninth consulate; he did them in Ravenna on 1 January 304 instead. There are suggestions in the Panegyrici Latini and Lactantius's account that Diocletian arranged plans for his and Maximian's future retirement of power in Rome. Maximian, according to these accounts, swore to uphold Diocletian's plan in a ceremony in the Temple of Jupiter. From Ravenna, Diocletian left for the Danube. There, possibly in Galerius's company, he took part in a campaign against the Carpi. He contracted a minor illness while on campaign, but his condition quickly worsened and he chose to travel in a litter. In the late summer, he left for Nicomedia. On 20 November 304, he appeared in public to dedicate the opening of the circus beside his palace. He collapsed soon after the ceremonies. Over the winter of 304–05 he kept within his palace at all times. Rumors spread through the city that Diocletian's death was being kept secret until Galerius could assume power. On 13 December, it was falsely announced that Diocletian had killed himself. The city was sent into mourning from which it recovered after public declarations that Diocletian was still alive. When Diocletian reappeared in public on 1 March 305, he was emaciated and barely recognizable. Galerius arrived in the city later in March. According to Lactantius, he came armed with plans to reconstitute the Tetrarchy, force Diocletian to step down, and fill the Imperial office with men compliant to his will. Through coercion and threats, he eventually convinced Diocletian to comply with his plan. Lactantius also claims that he had done the same to Maximian at Sirmium. Scholars doubt Lactantius' account, since he had a strong bias against Galerius and probably attempted to villainize him. On 1 May 305, Diocletian called an assembly of his generals, traditional companion troops, and representatives from distant legions. They met at the same hill, out of Nicomedia, where Diocletian had been proclaimed emperor. In front of a statue of Jupiter, his patron deity, Diocletian addressed the crowd. With tears in his eyes, he told them of his weakness, his need for rest, and his will to resign. He declared that he needed to pass the duty of empire on to someone stronger. He thus became the first (and arguably only) Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate his title. Most in the crowd believed that Constantine and Maxentius, the only adult sons of reigning emperors, who had long been preparing to succeed their fathers, would be granted the title of Caesar. Constantine had travelled through Palestine at the right hand of Diocletian, and was present at the palace in Nicomedia in 303 and 305. It is likely that Maxentius received the same treatment. In Lactantius's account, when Diocletian announced that he was to resign, the entire crowd turned to face Constantine. It was not to be: Severus II and Maximinus II were declared caesars. Maximinus appeared and took Diocletian's robes. On the same day, Severus received his robes from Maximian in Milan. Constantius succeeded Maximian as Augustus of the West, but Constantine and Maxentius were entirely ignored in the transition of power. This did not bode well for the future security of the tetrarchic system. === Retirement and death === Diocletian retired to his homeland, Dalmatia. He moved into the expansive Diocletian's Palace, a heavily fortified compound located by the small town of Spalatum on the shores of the Adriatic Sea, and near the large provincial administrative center of Salona. The palace is preserved in great part to this day and forms the historic core of Split, modern-day Croatia, where it was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979. Maximian retired to villas in Campania or Lucania. Their homes were distant from political life, but Diocletian and Maximian were close enough to remain in regular contact with each other. Galerius assumed the consular fasces in 308 with Diocletian as his colleague. In the autumn of 308, Galerius again conferred with Diocletian at Carnuntum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria). Diocletian and Maximian were both present on 11 November 308, to see Galerius appoint Licinius to be Augustus in place of Severus, who had died at the hands of Maxentius. He ordered Maximian, who had attempted to return to power after his retirement, to step down permanently. At Carnuntum people begged Diocletian to return to the throne, to resolve the conflicts that had arisen through Constantine's rise to power and Maxentius's usurpation. Diocletian's reply: "If you could show the cabbage that I planted with my own hands to your emperor, he definitely wouldn't dare suggest that I replace the peace and happiness of this place with the storms of a never-satisfied greed." Diocletian lived for four more years, spending his days in his palace gardens. He saw his tetrarchic system fail, torn apart by the civil wars of his successors. He heard of Maximian's third claim to the throne, his forced suicide, and his damnatio memoriae. In his own palace, statues and portraits of his former companion emperor were torn down and destroyed. After an illness, Diocletian died on 3 December 311 (or 312), with some proposing that he took his own life in despair.]] Diocletian saw his work as that of a restorer, a figure of authority whose duty it was to return the empire to peace, to recreate stability and justice where barbarian hordes had destroyed it. He arrogated, regimented and centralized political authority on a massive scale. In his policies, he enforced an Imperial system of values on diverse and often unreceptive provincial audiences. In the Imperial propaganda from the period, recent history was perverted and minimized in the service of the theme of the tetrarchs as "restorers". Aurelian's achievements were ignored, the revolt of Carausius was backdated to the reign of Gallienus, and it was implied that the tetrarchs engineered Aurelian's defeat of the Palmyrenes; the period between Gallienus and Diocletian was effectively erased. The history of the empire before the tetrarchy was portrayed as a time of civil war, savage despotism, and imperial collapse. In those inscriptions that bear their names, Diocletian, the "founder of eternal peace", and his companions are referred to as "restorers of the whole world", men who succeeded in "defeating the nations of the barbarians, and confirming the tranquility of their world". The theme of restoration was conjoined to an emphasis on the uniqueness and accomplishments of the tetrarchs themselves. The cities where emperors lived frequently in this period – Milan, Trier, Arles, Sirmium, Serdica, Thessaloniki, Nicomedia and Antioch – were treated as alternate imperial seats, to the exclusion of Rome and its senatorial elite. A new style of ceremony was developed, emphasizing the distinction of the emperor from all other persons. The quasi-republican ideals of Augustus's primus inter pares were abandoned for all but the tetrarchs themselves. Diocletian took to wearing a gold crown and jewels, and forbade the use of purple cloth to all but the emperors. His subjects were required to prostrate themselves in his presence (adoratio); the most fortunate were allowed the privilege of kissing the hem of his robe (proskynesis, προσκύνησις). Circuses and basilicas were designed to keep the face of the emperor perpetually in view, and always in a seat of authority. The emperor became a figure of transcendent authority, a man beyond the grip of the masses. His every appearance was stage-managed. This style of presentation was not new – many of its elements were first seen in the reigns of Aurelian and Severus – but it was only under the tetrarchs that it was refined into an explicit system. ===Administrative=== In keeping with his move from an ideology of republicanism to one of autocracy, Diocletian's council of advisers, his , differed from those of earlier emperors. He destroyed the Augustan illusion of imperial government as a cooperative affair among emperor, army, and senate. In its place he established an effectively autocratic structure, a shift later epitomized in the institution's name: it would be called a , not a council. Diocletian regulated his court by distinguishing separate departments () for different tasks. From this structure came the offices of different , like the ("Master of Offices"), and associated secretariats. These were men suited to dealing with petitions, requests, correspondence, legal affairs, and foreign embassies. Within his court Diocletian maintained a permanent body of legal advisers, men with significant influence on his re-ordering of juridical affairs. There were also two finance ministers, dealing with the separate bodies of the public treasury and the private domains of the emperor, and the praetorian prefect, the most significant person of the whole. Diocletian's reduction of the Praetorian Guards to the level of a simple city garrison for Rome lessened the military powers of the prefect – although a prefect like Asclepiodotus was still a trained general – but the office retained much civil authority. The prefect kept a staff of hundreds and managed affairs in all segments of government: in taxation, administration, jurisprudence, and minor military commands, the praetorian prefect was often second only to the emperor himself. Altogether, Diocletian greatly increased the number of bureaucrats at the government's command; Lactantius claimed that there were now more men using tax money than there were paying it. The historian Warren Treadgold estimates that under Diocletian the number of men in the civil service doubled from 15,000 to 30,000. The classicist Roger S. Bagnall estimates that there was one bureaucrat for every 5–10,000 people in Egypt based on 400 or 800 bureaucrats for 4 million inhabitants. Jones estimated 30,000 bureaucrats, which he remarks is "not an extravagant number" given the size of the empire. He breaks down the bureaucracy as less than 12,000 provincial officials, and roughly 6,000 diocesan officials. For the military, he estimates a modest 300 officials per , and 40 per , for a total of about 5,000 military officials. For the praetorian prefect and urban prefect, he estimates approximately 5,000 clerks. He comments that the expense the empire paid for these was not high, as many lower-level clerks were not paid, and the wage of higher officials was generally modest. To avoid the possibility of local usurpations, to facilitate a more efficient collection of taxes and supplies, and to ease the enforcement of the law, Diocletian doubled the number of provinces from fifty to almost one hundred. The provinces were grouped into twelve dioceses, each governed by an appointed official called a , or "deputy of the praetorian prefects". Some of the provincial divisions required revision, and were modified either soon after 293 or early in the fourth century. Rome herself (including her environs, as defined by a -radius perimeter around the city itself) was not under the authority of the praetorian prefect, as she was to be administered by a city prefect of senatorial rank – the sole prestigious post with actual power reserved exclusively for senators, except for some governors in Italy with the titles of corrector and the proconsuls of Asia and Africa. The dissemination of imperial law to the provinces was facilitated by Diocletian's reform of the Empire's provincial structure, which meant that there were now more governors () ruling over smaller regions and smaller populations. Diocletian's reforms shifted the governors' main function to that of the presiding official in the lower courts: whereas in the early Empire military and judicial functions were the function of the governor, and procurators had supervised taxation, under the new system and governors were responsible for justice and taxation, and a new class of ("dukes"), acting independently of the civil service, had military command. These dukes sometimes administered two or three of the new provinces created by Diocletian, and had forces ranging from two thousand to more than twenty thousand men. In addition to their roles as judges and tax collectors, governors were expected to maintain the postal service () and ensure that town councils fulfilled their duties. This curtailment of governors' powers as the Emperors' representatives may have lessened the political dangers of an all-too-powerful class of Imperial delegates, but it also severely limited governors' ability to oppose local landed elites, especially those of senatorial status, which, although with reduced opportunities for office holding, retained wealth, social prestige, and personal connections, particularly in relatively peaceful regions without a great military presence. On one occasion, Diocletian had to exhort a proconsul of Africa not to fear the consequences of treading on the toes of the local magnates of senatorial rank. If a governor of senatorial rank himself felt these pressures, the difficulties faced by a mere praeses were likely greater. This led to a strained relationship between the central power and local elites: sometime during 303, attempted military sedition in Seleucia Pieria and Antioch prompted Diocletian to extract bloody retribution on both cities by putting to death a number of their council members for failing in their duties of keeping order in their jurisdiction. ===Legal=== As with most emperors, much of Diocletian's daily routine rotated around legal affairs – responding to appeals and petitions, and delivering decisions on disputed matters. Rescripts, authoritative interpretations issued by the emperor in response to demands from disputants in both public and private cases, were a common duty of second- and third-century emperors. In the "nomadic" imperial courts of the later Empire, one can track the progress of the imperial retinue through the locations from whence particular rescripts were issued – the presence of the Emperor was what allowed the system to function. Whenever the imperial court would settle in one of the capitals, there was a glut in petitions, as in late 294 in Nicomedia, where Diocletian kept winter quarters. Admittedly, Diocletian's praetorian prefects – Afranius Hannibalianus, Julius Asclepiodotus, and Aurelius Hermogenianus – aided in regulating the flow and presentation of such paperwork, but the deep legalism of Roman culture kept the workload heavy. Emperors in the forty years preceding Diocletian's reign had not managed these duties so effectively, and their output in attested rescripts is low. Diocletian, by contrast, was prodigious in his affairs: there are around 1,200 rescripts in his name still surviving, and these probably represent only a small portion of the total issue. The sharp increase in the number of edicts and rescripts produced under Diocletian's rule has been read as evidence of an ongoing effort to realign the whole Empire on terms dictated by the imperial center. Under the governance of the jurists Gregorius, Aurelius Arcadius Charisius, and Hermogenianus, the imperial government began issuing official books of precedent, collecting and listing all the rescripts that had been issued since the reign of Hadrian (r. 117–138). The Codex Gregorianus includes rescripts up to 292, which the Codex Hermogenianus updated with a comprehensive collection of rescripts issued by Diocletian in 293 and 294. Although the very act of codification was a radical innovation, given the precedent-based design of the Roman legal system, the jurists were generally conservative, and constantly looked to past Roman practice and theory for guidance. They were probably given more free rein over their codes than the later compilers of the Codex Theodosianus (438) and Codex Justinianus (529) would have. Gregorius and Hermogenianus's codices lack the rigid structuring of later codes, and were not published in the name of the emperor, but in the names of their compilers. Their official character was clear in that both collections were acknowledged by courts as authoritative records of imperial legislation up to the date of their publication and regularly updated. After Diocletian's reform of the provinces, governors were called iudex, or judge. The governor became responsible for his decisions first to his immediate superiors, as well as to the more distant office of the emperor. It was most likely at this time that judicial records became verbatim accounts of what was said in trial, making it easier to determine bias or improper conduct on the part of the governor. With these records and the Empire's universal right of appeal, Imperial authorities probably had a great deal of power to enforce behavior standards for their judges. In spite of Diocletian's attempts at reform, the provincial restructuring was far from clear, especially when citizens appealed the decisions of their governors. Proconsuls, for example, were often both judges of first instance and appeal, and the governors of some provinces took appellant cases from their neighbors. It soon became impossible to avoid taking some cases to the emperor for arbitration and judgment. Diocletian's reign marks the end of the classical period of Roman law. Where Diocletian's system of rescripts shows adherence to classical tradition, Constantine's law is full of Greek and eastern influences. Partly in response to economic pressures and in order to protect the vital functions of the state, Diocletian restricted social and professional mobility. Peasants became tied to the land in a way that presaged later systems of land tenure and workers such as bakers, armorers, public entertainers and workers in the mint had their occupations made hereditary. Soldiers' children were also forcibly enrolled, something that followed spontaneous tendencies among the rank-and-file, but also expressed increasing difficulties in recruitment. ===Military=== It is archaeologically difficult to distinguish Diocletian's fortifications from those of his successors and predecessors. The Devil's Dykes, for example—the Danubian earthworks traditionally attributed to Diocletian—cannot even be securely dated to a particular century. The most that can be said about built structures under Diocletian's reign is that he rebuilt and strengthened forts at the Upper Rhine frontier (where he followed the works built under Probus along the Lake Constance-Basel and the Rhine–Iller–Danube line), on the Danube (where a new line of forts on the far side of the river, the Ripa Sarmatica, was added to older, rehabilitated fortresses), in Egypt and on the frontier with Persia. Beyond that, much discussion is speculative and reliant on the broad generalizations of written sources. Diocletian and the tetrarchs had no consistent plan for frontier advancement, and records of raids and forts built across the frontier are likely to indicate only temporary claims. The Strata Diocletiana, built after the Persian Wars, which ran from the Euphrates North of Palmyra and South towards northeast Arabia in the general vicinity of Bostra, is the classic Diocletianic frontier system, consisting of an outer road followed by tightly spaced forts – defensible hard-points manned by small garrisons – followed by further fortifications in the rear. His precision has polarized modern historians. Some believe that Lydus found these figures in official documents and that they are therefore broadly accurate; others believe that he fabricated them.\|group="Note"}} Diocletian's expansion of the army and civil service meant that the empire's tax burden grew. Since military upkeep took the largest portion of the imperial budget, any reforms here would be especially costly. The proportion of the adult male population, excluding slaves, serving in the army increased from roughly 1 in 25 to 1 in 15, an increase judged excessive by some modern commentators. Official troop allowances were kept to low levels, and the mass of troops often resorted to extortion or the taking of civilian jobs. Arrears became the norm for most troops. Many were even given payment in kind in place of their salaries. Were he unable to pay for his enlarged army, there would likely be civil conflict, potentially open revolt. Diocletian was led to devise a new system of taxation. ===Economic=== ====Taxation==== In the early empire (30 BC – AD 235) the Roman government paid for what it needed in gold and silver. The coinage was stable. Requisition, forced purchase, was used to supply armies on the march. During the third-century crisis (235–285), the government resorted to requisition rather than payment in debased coinage, since it could never be sure of the value of money. Requisition was nothing more or less than seizure. Diocletian made requisition into tax. He introduced an extensive new tax system based on heads (capita) and land (iugera) – with one iugerum equal to approximately 0.65 acres – and tied to a new, regular census of the empire's population and wealth. Census officials traveled throughout the empire, assessed the value of labor and land for each landowner, and joined the landowners' totals together to make citywide totals of capita and iuga. The iugum was not a consistent measure of land, but varied according to the type of land and crop, and the amount of labor necessary for sustenance. The caput was not consistent either: women, for instance, were often valued at half a caput, and sometimes at other values. Cities provided animals, money, and manpower in proportion to its capita, and grain in proportion to its iuga. Most taxes were due each year on 1 September, and levied from individual landowners by decuriones (decurions). These decurions, analogous to city councilors, were responsible for paying from their own pocket what they failed to collect. Diocletian's reforms also increased the number of financial officials in the provinces: more rationales and magistri privatae are attested under Diocletian's reign than before. These officials represented the interests of the fisc, which collected taxes in gold, and the Imperial properties. Fluctuations in the value of the currency made collection of taxes in kind the norm, although these could be converted into coin. Rates shifted to take inflation into account. In 296, Diocletian issued an edict reforming census procedures. This edict introduced a general five-year census for the whole empire, replacing prior censuses that had operated at different speeds throughout the empire. The new censuses would keep up with changes in the values of capita and iuga. Italy, which had long been exempt from taxes, was included in the tax system from 290/291 as a diocesis. The city of Rome remained exempt; the "regions" (i.e., provinces) South of Rome (generally called "suburbicarian", as opposed to the Northern, "annonaria" region) seem to have been relatively less taxed, in what probably was a sop offered to the great senatorial families and their landed properties. Diocletian's edicts emphasized the common liability of all taxpayers. Public records of all taxes were made public. The position of decurion, member of the city council, had been an honor sought by wealthy aristocrats and the middle classes who displayed their wealth by paying for city amenities and public works. Decurions were made liable for any shortfall in the amount of tax collected. Many tried to find ways to escape the obligation. By 300, civilians across the empire complained that there were more tax collectors than there were people to pay taxes. ====Currency and inflation==== Aurelian's attempt to reform the currency had failed; the denarius was dead. Diocletian restored the three-metal coinage and issued better quality pieces. The new system consisted of five coins: the aureus/solidus, a gold coin weighing, like its predecessors, one-sixtieth of a pound; the argenteus, a coin weighing one ninety-sixth of a pound and containing ninety-five percent pure silver; the follis, sometimes referred to as the laureatus A, which is a copper coin with added silver struck at the rate of thirty-two to the pound; the radiatus, a small copper coin struck at the rate of 108 to the pound, with no added silver; and a coin known today as the laureatus B, a smaller copper coin struck at the rate of 192 to the pound. Since the nominal values of these new issues were lower than their intrinsic worth as metals, the state was minting these coins at a loss. This practice could be sustained only by requisitioning precious metals from private citizens in exchange for state-minted coin (of a far lower value than the price of the precious metals requisitioned). By 301, the system was in trouble, strained by a new bout of inflation. Diocletian, therefore, issued his Edict on Coinage, an act re-tariffing all debts so that the nummus, the most common coin in circulation, would be worth half as much. In the edict, preserved in an inscription from the city of Aphrodisias in Caria (near Geyre, Turkey), it was declared that all debts contracted before 1 September 301 must be repaid at the old standards, while all debts contracted after that date would be repaid at the new standards. It appears that the edict was made in an attempt to preserve the current price of gold and to keep the Empire's coinage on silver, Rome's traditional metal currency. This edict risked giving further momentum to inflationary trends, as had happened after Aurelian's currency reforms. The government's response was to issue a price freeze. The Edict on Maximum Prices (Edictum De Pretiis Rerum Venalium) was issued two to three months after the coinage edict, somewhere between 20 November and 10 December 301. The best-preserved Latin inscription surviving from the Greek East, the edict survives in many versions, on materials as varied as wood, papyrus, and stone. In the edict, Diocletian declared that the current pricing crisis resulted from the unchecked greed of merchants, and had resulted in turmoil for the mass of common citizens. The language of the edict calls on the people's memory of their benevolent leaders, and exhorts them to enforce the provisions of the edict, thereby restoring perfection to the world. The edict goes on to list in detail over one thousand goods and accompanying retail prices not to be exceeded. Penalties are laid out for various pricing transgressions. In the most basic terms, the edict was ignorant of the law of supply and demand: it ignored the fact that prices might vary from region to region according to product availability, and it ignored the impact of transportation costs in the retail price of goods. In the judgment of the historian David Potter, the edict was "an act of economic lunacy". The fact that the edict began with a long rhetorical preamble betrays at the same time a moralizing stance as well as a weak grasp of economics – perhaps simply the wishful thinking that criminalizing a practice was enough to stop it. There is no consensus about how effectively the edict was enforced. Supposedly, inflation, speculation, and monetary instability continued, and a black market arose to trade in goods forced out of official markets. The edict's penalties were applied unevenly across the empire (some scholars believe they were applied only in Diocletian's domains), widely resisted, and eventually dropped, perhaps within a year of the edict's issue. Lactantius has written of the perverse accompaniments to the edict; of goods withdrawn from the market, of brawls over minute variations in price, of the deaths that came when its provisions were enforced. His account may be true, but it seems to modern historians exaggerated and hyperbolic, and the impact of the law is recorded in no other ancient source. == Legacy == The historian A.H.M. Jones observed that "It is perhaps Diocletian's greatest achievement that he reigned twenty-one years and then abdicated voluntarily, and spent the remaining years of his life in peaceful retirement." Diocletian was one of the few emperors of the third and fourth centuries to die naturally, and the first in the history of the empire to retire voluntarily. Once he retired, his tetrarchic system collapsed. Without the guiding hand of Diocletian, the empire fell into civil wars. Stability emerged after the defeat of Licinius by Constantine in 324. Under the Christian Constantine, Diocletian was maligned. Constantine's rule demonstrated the benefits of Diocletian's achievements and the autocratic principle he represented: the borders remained secure, in spite of Constantine's large expenditure of forces during his civil wars; the bureaucratic transformation of the Roman government was completed; and Constantine took Diocletian's court ceremonies and made them even more extravagant. Constantine ignored those aspects of Diocletian's reign that did not suit him. Diocletian's policy of preserving a stable silver coinage was abandoned, and the gold solidus became the empire's primary currency instead. Diocletian's persecution of Christians was repudiated and changed to a policy of toleration and then favoritism. Christianity eventually became the official religion in 380. Most importantly, Diocletian's tax system and administrative reforms lasted, with some modifications, until the advent of the Muslims in the 630s. The combination of state autocracy and state religion was instilled in much of Europe, particularly in the lands which adopted Orthodox Christianity. The Era of Martyrs (Latin: anno martyrum or AM), also known as the Diocletian era (Latin: anno Diocletiani), is a method of numbering years used by the Church of Alexandria beginning in the 4th century anno Domini and by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria from the 5th century to the present. In this system of counting, the beginning of Diocletian's reign in 284 was used as the epoch, making Diocletian's first year in power into the Year 1 of that calendar. Western Christians were aware of this count but did not use it; Dionysius Exiguus replaced the anno Diocletiani era with his anno Domini era because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. Dukljan, a major villain in Serbian mythology who is presented as the adversary of God, is considered to be a mythological reflection of the historical Diocletian. The Talmud includes several semi-legendary accounts of Diocletian. One of them recounts that Diocletian was originally a swineherd, and that in this part of his life, he was teased and abused by young Jews. When he became the Emperor he called up the leaders of the Jews, who were fearful, saying "We have teased Diocletian the Swineherd but we respect Diocletian the Emperor" – to which Diocletian responded, "You must show respect even to the smallest and lowest of the Romans, because you can never know which one of us will rise to greatness."	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Bagnall", "Codex Gregorianus", "Serdica", "Carinus", "Tur Abdin", "Battle of the Margus", "Croatia", "Viminacium", "Edict on Maximum Prices", "denarius", "Colonus (person)", "Augustus (title)", "Roman Britain", "Aurelian", "Classical Philology (journal)", "Jupiter (mythology)", "Greek East and Latin West", "Vidin", "Shapur I", "Valerian (emperor)", "Isaac I Komnenos", "Britannia Secunda", "Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)", "Cambridge University Press", "Aurelius Victor", "Roman province", "Mediolanum", "Gaius Junius Tiberianus", "Aphrodisias", "price controls", "Walter de Gruyter", "Bezabde", "Lactantius", "Aghdznik", "The Journal of Roman Studies", "Peace of Nisibis (299)", "Constantine I", "Egypt (Roman province)", "Serbian mythology", "Corrector", "Hercules", "Saxons", "Berliner griechische Urkunden", "Roman Egypt", "Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire", "Gaius Annius Anullinus", "Franks", "Alamanni", "Gallienus", "Hadrian", "Solin, Croatia", "Tetrarchy", "Julian of Pannonia", "Diyarbakır", "damnatio memoriae", "radius", "Decurion (administrative)", "Carpi (people)", "Tigranocerta", "European Plain", "Panegyrici Latini", "Song dynasty", "Syriac Christianity", "Talmud", "martyr", "tributary", "Anicius Faustus", "Bulgaria", "sphere of influence", "Anthimus of Nicomedia", "Litter (vehicle)", "primus inter pares", "Salona", "Budapest", "Piracy", "Bitlis", "Michael I Rangabe", "Journal of Theological Studies", "Licinius", "precedent", "Civic Crown", "Greece", "Rabbi Meir", "A.H.M. 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8,582	Deism	Deism ( or ; derived from the Latin term deus, meaning "god") is the philosophical position and rationalistic theology that generally rejects revelation as a source of divine knowledge and asserts that empirical reason and observation of the natural world are exclusively logical, reliable, and sufficient to determine the existence of a Supreme Being as the creator of the universe. More simply stated, Deism is the belief in the existence of God—often, but not necessarily, an impersonal and incomprehensible God who does not intervene in the universe after creating it, solely based on rational thought without any reliance on revealed religions or religious authority.{{refn\| various Western philosophers and theologians formulated a critical rejection of the several religious texts belonging to the many organized religions, and began to appeal only to truths that they felt could be established by reason as the exclusive source of divine knowledge. Such philosophers and theologians were called "Deists", and the philosophical/theological position they advocated is called "Deism".{{refn\| Some of its tenets continued as part of other intellectual and spiritual movements, like Unitarianism, However, Deism did not develop as a religio-philosophical movement until after the Scientific Revolution, which began in the mid-16th century in early modern Europe. === Divinity schools in Islamic theology === In the history of Islam, one of the earliest systematic schools of Islamic theology to develop was the Muʿtazila in the mid-8th century CE. Muʿtazilite theologians emphasized the use of reason and rational thought, positing that the injunctions of God are accessible through rational thought and inquiry, and affirmed that the Quran was created (makhlūq) rather than co-eternal with God, an affirmation that would develop into one of the most contentious questions in the history of Islamic theology. Ashʿarītes still taught the use of reason in understanding the Quran, but denied the possibility to deduce moral truths by reasoning. according to its founder, the 10th-century Muslim scholar and theologian Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī, human reason is supposed to acknowledge the existence of a creator deity (bāriʾ) solely based on rational thought and independently from divine revelation. === Origins of Deism === The terms deism and theism are both derived from words meaning "god": the Latin term deus and the Ancient Greek term theós (θεός), respectively. but Deism was generally unknown in the Kingdom of France until the 1690s when Pierre Bayle published his famous Dictionnaire Historique et Critique, which contained an article on Viret. In English, the words deist and theist were originally synonymous, but by the 17th century the terms started to diverge in meaning. The term deist with its current meaning first appears in English in Robert Burton's The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621). === Herbert of Cherbury and early English Deism === The first major statement of Deism in English is Lord Herbert of Cherbury's book De Veritate (1624). Lord Herbert, like his contemporary Descartes, searched for the foundations of knowledge. The first two-thirds of his book De Veritate (On Truth, as It Is Distinguished from Revelation, the Probable, the Possible, and the False) are devoted to an exposition of Herbert's theory of knowledge. Herbert distinguished truths from experience and distinguished reasoning about experience from innate and revealed truths. Innate truths are imprinted on our minds, as evidenced by their universal acceptance. Herbert referred to universally accepted truths as notitiae communes—Common Notions. Herbert believed there were five Common Notions that unify all religious beliefs. There is one Supreme God. God ought to be worshipped. Virtue and piety are the main parts of divine worship. We ought to be remorseful for our sins and repent. Divine goodness dispenses rewards and punishments, both in this life and after it. Herbert himself had relatively few followers, and it was not until the 1680s that Herbert found a true successor in Charles Blount (1654 – 1693). ===The peak of Deism (1696–1801)=== The appearance of John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) marks an important turning-point and new phase in the history of English Deism. Lord Herbert's epistemology was based on the idea of "common notions" (or innate ideas). Locke's Essay was an attack on the foundation of innate ideas. After Locke, deists could no longer appeal to innate ideas as Herbert had done. Instead, deists were forced to turn to arguments based on experience and nature. Under the influence of Newton, they turned to the argument from design as the principal argument for the existence of God. Peter Gay identifies John Toland's Christianity Not Mysterious (1696), and the "vehement response" it provoked, as the beginning of post-Lockian Deism. Among the notable figures, Gay describes Toland and Matthew Tindal as the best known; however, Gay considered them to be talented publicists rather than philosophers or scholars. He regards Conyers Middleton and Anthony Collins as contributing more to the substance of debate, in contrast with fringe writers such as Thomas Chubb and Thomas Woolston. Other English Deists prominent during the period include William Wollaston, Charles Blount, Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, Especially noteworthy is Matthew Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation (1730), which became, very soon after its publication, the focal center of the Deist controversy. Because almost every argument, quotation, and issue raised for decades can be found here, the work is often termed "the Deist's Bible". Following Locke's successful attack on innate ideas, Tindal's "Bible" redefined the foundation of Deist epistemology as knowledge based on experience or human reason. This effectively widened the gap between traditional Christians and what he called "Christian Deists", since this new foundation required that "revealed" truth be validated through human reason. == Enlightenment Deism == === Aspects of Deism in Enlightenment philosophy === Enlightenment Deism consisted of two philosophical assertions: (1) reason, along with features of the natural world, is a valid source of religious knowledge, and (2) revelation is not a valid source of religious knowledge. Different Deist philosophers expanded on these two assertions to create what Leslie Stephen later termed the "constructive" and "critical" aspects of Deism. "Constructive" assertions—assertions that deist writers felt were justified by appeals to reason and features of the natural world (or perhaps were intuitively obvious or common notions)—included: God exists and created the universe. God gave humans the ability to reason. "Critical" assertions—assertions that followed from the denial of revelation as a valid source of religious knowledge—were much more numerous, and included: Rejection of all books (including the Quran and the Bible) that claimed to contain divine revelation. Rejection of the incomprehensible notion of the Trinity and other religious "mysteries". Rejection of reports of miracles, prophecies, etc. ==== The origins of religion ==== A central premise of Deism was that the religions of their day were corruptions of an original religion that was pure, natural, simple, and rational. Humanity lost this original religion when it was subsequently corrupted by priests who manipulated it for personal gain and for the class interests of the priesthood, and encrusted it with superstitions and "mysteries"—irrational theological doctrines. Deists referred to this manipulation of religious doctrine as "priestcraft", a derogatory term. For deists, this corruption of natural religion was designed to keep laypeople baffled by "mysteries" and dependent on the priesthood for information about the requirements for salvation. This gave the priesthood a great deal of power, which the Deists believed the priesthood worked to maintain and increase. Deists saw it as their mission to strip away "priestcraft" and "mysteries". Tindal, perhaps the most prominent deist writer, claimed that this was the proper, original role of the Christian Church. One implication of this premise was that current-day primitive societies, or societies that existed in the distant past, should have religious beliefs less infused with superstitions and closer to those of natural theology. This position became less and less plausible as thinkers such as David Hume began studying the natural history of religion and suggested that the origin of religion was not in reason but in emotions, such as the fear of the unknown. ====Immortality of the soul==== Different Deists had different beliefs about the immortality of the soul, about the existence of Hell and damnation to punish the wicked, and the existence of Heaven to reward the virtuous. Anthony Collins, Bolingbroke, Thomas Chubb, and Peter Annet were materialists and either denied or doubted the immortality of the soul. Benjamin Franklin believed in reincarnation or resurrection. Lord Herbert of Cherbury and William Wollaston held that souls exist, survive death, and in the afterlife are rewarded or punished by God for their behavior in life. Thomas Paine believed in the "probability" of the immortality of the soul. ====Miracles and divine providence==== The most natural position for Deists was to reject all forms of supernaturalism, including the miracle stories in the Bible. The problem was that the rejection of miracles also seemed to entail the rejection of divine providence (that is, God taking a hand in human affairs), something that many Deists were inclined to accept. Those who believed in a watch-maker God rejected the possibility of miracles and divine providence. They believed that God, after establishing natural laws and setting the cosmos in motion, stepped away. He did not need to keep tinkering with his creation, and the suggestion that he did was insulting. Others, however, firmly believed in divine providence, and so, were reluctantly forced to accept at least the possibility of miracles. God was, after all, all-powerful and could do whatever he wanted including temporarily suspending his own natural laws. ====Freedom and necessity==== Enlightenment philosophers under the influence of Newtonian science tended to view the universe as a vast machine, created and set in motion by a creator being, that continues to operate according to natural law without any divine intervention. This view naturally led to what was then called "necessitarianism" (the modern term is "determinism"): the view that everything in the universe—including human behavior—is completely, causally determined by antecedent circumstances and natural law. (See, for example, La Mettrie's L'Homme machine.) As a consequence, debates about freedom versus "necessity" were a regular feature of Enlightenment religious and philosophical discussions. Reflecting the intellectual climate of the time, there were differences among Deists about freedom and determinism. Some, such as Anthony Collins, were actually necessitarians. ===David Hume=== Views differ on whether David Hume was a Deist, an atheist, or something else. Like the Deists, Hume rejected revelation, and his famous essay On Miracles provided a powerful argument against belief in miracles. On the other hand, he did not believe that an appeal to Reason could provide any justification for religion. In the essay Natural History of Religion (1757), he contended that polytheism, not monotheism, was "the first and most ancient religion of mankind" and that the psychological basis of religion is not reason, but fear of the unknown. In Waring's words: ===Deism in the United States=== The Thirteen Colonies of North America – which became the United States of America after the American Revolution in 1776 – were part of the British Empire, and Americans, as British subjects, were influenced by and participated in the intellectual life of the Kingdom of Great Britain. English Deism was an important influence on the thinking of Thomas Jefferson and the principles of religious freedom asserted in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Other Founding Fathers who were influenced to various degrees by Deism were Ethan Allen, Benjamin Franklin, Cornelius Harnett, Gouverneur Morris, Hugh Williamson, James Madison, and possibly Alexander Hamilton. In the United States, there is a great deal of controversy over whether the Founding Fathers were Christians, Deists, or something in between. Particularly heated is the debate over the beliefs of Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and George Washington. In his Autobiography, Franklin wrote that as a young man "Some books against Deism fell into my hands; they were said to be the substance of sermons preached at Boyle's lectures. It happened that they wrought an effect on me quite contrary to what was intended by them; for the arguments of the Deists, which were quoted to be refuted, appeared to me much stronger than the refutations; in short, I soon became a thorough Deist." Like some other Deists, Franklin believed that, "The Deity sometimes interferes by his particular Providence, and sets aside the Events which would otherwise have been produc'd in the Course of Nature, or by the Free Agency of Man," and at the Constitutional Convention stated that "the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth—that God governs in the affairs of men." Thomas Jefferson is perhaps the Founding Father who most clearly exhibits Deistic tendencies, although he generally referred to himself as a Unitarian rather than a Deist. His excerpts of the canonical gospels (now commonly known as the Jefferson Bible) strip all supernatural and dogmatic references from the narrative on Jesus' life. Like Franklin, Jefferson believed in God's continuing activity in human affairs. Thomas Paine is especially noteworthy both for his contributions to the cause of the American Revolution and for his writings in defense of Deism, alongside the criticism of Abrahamic religions. In The Age of Reason (1793–1794) and other writings, he advocated Deism, promoted reason and freethought, and argued against institutionalized religions in general and the Christian doctrine in particular. The last contributor to American Deism was Elihu Palmer (1764–1806), who wrote the "Bible of American Deism", Principles of Nature, in 1801. Palmer is noteworthy for attempting to bring some organization to Deism by founding the "Deistical Society of New York" and other Deistic societies from Maine to Georgia. ===Deism in France and continental Europe=== France had its own tradition of religious skepticism and natural theology in the works of Montaigne, Pierre Bayle, and Montesquieu. The most famous of the French Deists was Voltaire, who was exposed to Newtonian science and English Deism during his two-year period of exile in England (1726–1728). When he returned to France, he brought both back with him, and exposed the French reading public (i.e., the aristocracy) to them, in a number of books. French Deists also included Maximilien Robespierre and Rousseau. During the French Revolution (1789–1799), the Deistic Cult of the Supreme Being—a direct expression of Robespierre's theological views—was established briefly (just under three months) as the new state religion of France, replacing the deposed Catholic Church and the rival atheistic Cult of Reason. There were over five hundred French Revolutionaries who were deists. These deists do not fit the stereotype of deists because they believed in miracles and often prayed to God. In fact, over seventy of them thought that God miraculously helped the French Revolution win victories over their enemies. Furthermore, over a hundred French Revolutionary deists also wrote prayers and hymns to God. Citizen Devillere was one of the many French Revolutionary deists who believed God did miracles. Devillere said, "God, who conducts our destiny, deigned to concern himself with our dangers. He commanded the spirit of victory to direct the hand of the faithful French, and in a few hours the aristocrats received the attack which we prepared, the wicked ones were destroyed and liberty was avenged." Deism in Germany is not well documented. We know from correspondence with Voltaire that Frederick the Great was a Deist. Immanuel Kant's identification with Deism is controversial. ===Decline of Enlightenment Deism=== Peter Gay describes Enlightenment Deism as entering slow decline as a recognizable movement in the 1730s. A number of reasons have been suggested for this decline, including: The increasing influence of naturalism and materialism. The writings of David Hume and Immanuel Kant raising questions about the ability of reason to address metaphysical questions. The violence of the French Revolution. Christian revivalist movements, such as Pietism and Methodism (which emphasized a personal relationship with God), along with the rise of anti-rationalist and counter-Enlightenment philosophies such as that of Johann Georg Hamann. One of the major activities of the Deists, biblical criticism, evolved into its own highly technical discipline. Deist rejection of revealed religion evolved into, and contributed to, 19th-century liberal British theology and the rise of Unitarianism. Some deists see design in nature and purpose in the universe and in their lives. Others see God and the universe in a co-creative process. Some deists view God in classical terms as observing humanity but not directly intervening in our lives, while others see God as a subtle and persuasive spirit who created the world, and then stepped back to observe. ===Recent philosophical discussions of Deism=== In the 1960s, theologian Charles Hartshorne scrupulously examined and rejected both deism and pandeism (as well as pantheism) in favor of a conception of God whose characteristics included "absolute perfection in some respects, relative perfection in all others" or "AR," writing that this theory "is able consistently to embrace all that is positive in either deism or pandeism," concluding that "panentheistic doctrine contains all of deism and pandeism except their arbitrary negations." Charles Taylor, in his 2007 book A Secular Age, showed the historical role of Deism, leading to what he calls an "exclusive humanism". This humanism invokes a moral order whose ontic commitment is wholly intra-human with no reference to transcendence. One of the special achievements of such deism-based humanism is that it discloses new, anthropocentric moral sources by which human beings are motivated and empowered to accomplish acts of mutual benefit. This is the province of a buffered, disengaged self, which is the locus of dignity, freedom, and discipline, and is endowed with a sense of human capability. According to Taylor, by the early 19th century this Deism-mediated exclusive humanism developed as an alternative to Christian faith in a personal God and an order of miracles and mystery. Some critics of Deism have accused adherents of facilitating the rise of nihilism. === Deism in Nazi Germany === In Nazi Germany, Gottgläubig (literally: "believing in God") was a Nazi religious term for a form of non-denominationalism practised by those German citizens who had officially left Christian churches but professed faith in some higher power or divine creator. The 1943 Philosophical Dictionary defined Gottgläubig as: "official designation for those who profess a specific kind of piety and morality, without being bound to a church denomination, whilst however also rejecting irreligion and godlessness." The Gottgläubigkeit is considered a form of deism, and was "predominantly based on creationist and deistic views". In the 1920 National Socialist Programme of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), Adolf Hitler first mentioned the phrase "Positive Christianity". The Nazi Party did not wish to tie itself to a particular Christian denomination, but with Christianity in general, and sought freedom of religion for all denominations "so long as they do not endanger its existence or oppose the moral senses of the Germanic race" (point 24). When Hitler and the NSDAP got into power in 1933, they sought to assert state control over the churches, on the one hand through the Reichskonkordat with the Roman Catholic Church, and the forced merger of the German Evangelical Church Confederation into the Protestant Reich Church on the other. This policy seems to have gone relatively well until late 1936, when a "gradual worsening of relations" between the Nazi Party and the churches saw the rise of Kirchenaustritt ("leaving the Church"). and after the annexation of the mostly Catholic Federal State of Austria and mostly Catholic German-occupied Czechoslovakia into German-occupied Europe, indicates that 54% of the population considered itself Protestant, 41% considered itself Catholic, 3.5% self-identified as Gottgläubig, and 1.5% as "atheist".]] An early April 2018 report of the Turkish Ministry of Education, titled The Youth is Sliding towards Deism, observed that an increasing number of pupils in İmam Hatip schools was repudiating Islam in favour of Deism (irreligious belief in a creator God). The report's publication generated large-scale controversy in the Turkish press and society at large, as well as amongst conservative Islamic sects, Muslim clerics, and Islamist parties in Turkey.{{refn\| === Deism in the United States === Though Deism subsided in the United States post-Enlightenment, it never died out entirely. Thomas Edison, for example, was heavily influenced by Thomas Paine's The Age of Reason. Edison defended Paine's "scientific deism", saying, "He has been called an atheist, but atheist he was not. Paine believed in a supreme intelligence, as representing the idea which other men often express by the name of deity." but according to its founder, Helena Blavatsky, he was not a very active member. In an October 2, 1910, interview in the New York Times Magazine, Edison stated: Edison was labeled an atheist for those remarks, and although he did not allow himself to be drawn into the controversy publicly, he clarified himself in a private letter: {{blockquote\|You have misunderstood the whole article, because you jumped to the conclusion that it denies the existence of God. There is no such denial, what you call God I call Nature, the Supreme intelligence that rules matter. All the article states is that it is doubtful in my opinion if our intelligence or soul or whatever one may call it lives hereafter as an entity or disperses back again from whence it came, scattered amongst the cells of which we are made. The 2001 American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) report estimated that between 1990 and 2001 the number of self-identifying Deists grew from 6,000 to 49,000, representing about 0.02% of the U.S. population at the time. The 2008 ARIS survey found, based on their stated beliefs rather than their religious identification, that 70% of Americans believe in a personal God: roughly 12% are atheists or agnostics, and 12% believe in "a deist or paganistic concept of the Divine as a higher power" rather than a personal God. The term "ceremonial deism" was coined in 1962 and has been used since 1984 by the Supreme Court of the United States to assess exemptions from the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, thought to be expressions of cultural tradition and not earnest invocations of a deity. It has been noted that the term does not describe any school of thought within Deism itself.	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"Wipf and Stock", "Isaac Oliver", "London", "Atatürk's Reforms", "Colorado", "John Toland", "Calvinism", "Nazi Party", "National Socialist Programme", "Springer Verlag", "Jewish Encyclopedia", "James Madison", "Hudson Institute", "The Age of Reason", "British Empire", "materialism", "revelation", "University of Virginia Press", "existence of God", "German occupation of Czechoslovakia", "Great Architect of the Universe", "Cyprus", "İmam Hatip school", "Skeptical Inquirer", "Peter Gay", "Thomas Paine", "Protestant Reich Church", "Johann Georg Hamann", "ontic", "Penn State University Press", "Center for the Study of Language and Information", "Robert Burton (scholar)", "Roman Catholic Church", "Princeton University Press", "Anschluss", "Stanford University", "divine providence", "University of North Carolina Press", "University of South Carolina Press", "Greenwood Publishing Group", "First Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Spirituality", "Ethan Allen", "innate ideas", "polydeism", "Maturidism", "Conservatism in Turkey", "Ancient Greek philosophy", "Ancient Greece", "Methodism", "Cornelius Harnett", "early modern Europe", "Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury", "New Haven", "Western philosophy", "New York City", "Gouverneur Morris", "non-denominationalism", "Abu Mansur al-Maturidi", "Mass media in Turkey", "Bar-Ilan University", "Isaac Newton", "Unitarian Universalism", "French Revolution", "Nontheism", "Newtonianism", "North Carolina", "Empirical evidence", "Unitarianism", "Tel Aviv", "Maximilien Robespierre", "Agnosticism", "Deism in England and France in the 18th century", "god", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Quezon City", "Eugene, Oregon", "New York Times Magazine", "Rowman & Littlefield", "Helena Blavatsky", "Boston", "organized religion", "Non-physical entity", "Positive Christianity", "Colorado Springs, Colorado", "Organized religion", "ABC-Clio", "philosophical", "Theistic rationalism", "President of Turkey", "pantheism", "Abrahamic religions", "David Hume", "necessitarianism", "Alexander Hamilton", "National Humanities Center", "The Guardian", "argument from design", "latitudinarian", "Charles Blount (deist)", "Nicolas de Largillière", "Secularism in Turkey", "Christian deism", "Cult of Reason", "Sydney Ahlstrom", "Swiss Reformation", "American Enlightenment", "nihilism", "Infinitism", "Epistemology", "Schools of Islamic theology", "Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs", "Ahval News", "Criticism of Christianity", "personal God", "Panentheism", "Charlottesville, Virginia", "Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory", "Nicodemite", "irreligion", "Georgetown University", "Abu Hanifa an-Nu'man", "rationalistic", "polytheism", "New Haven, Connecticut", "Henry St. John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke", "Colonial history of the United States", "Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "Religious affiliations of presidents of the United States", "Pietism", "biblical criticism", "Four Dissertations", "John Leland (Presbyterian)", "Leslie Stephen", "Nazi Germany", "Brill Publishers", "Constitution of the United States", "Founding Fathers of the United States", "Columbia University Press", "Creator deity", "Life of Jesus in the New Testament", "Reichskonkordat", "Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury", "Charles Taylor (philosopher)", "American Revolution", "Samuel Clarke", "reason", "Pierre Bayle", "William Wollaston", "Samuel Johnson", "Oxford University Press", "Merriam-Webster", "Hugh Williamson", "The William and Mary Quarterly", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau", "Anthony Collins (philosopher)", "fear", "Early Islamic philosophy", "modern society", "World Union of Deists", "Ancient history", "Psychology of religion", "Ietsism", "Edinburgh", "Christian denomination", "American Society of Church History", "Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari", "The Anatomy of Melancholy", "Sayed Hassan Akhlaq", "Age of Enlightenment", "Criticism of religion", "Begin–Sadat Center for Strategic Studies", "Scientific Revolution", "Michael Burleigh", "Cambridge University Press", "Braga", "Martha Nussbaum", "determinism", "natural theology", "List of deists", "Transcendentalism", "Matthew Tindal", "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "Cairn.info", "Charles Hartshorne", "Pierre Viret", "Dictionnaire Historique et Critique", "God", "Thomas Jefferson", "Lord Herbert of Cherbury", "creator deity", "freethought", "Atheism", "Nature", "freedom of religion", "Natural theology", "canonical gospels", "theology", "Quranic createdness", "atheism", "Cult of the Supreme Being", "Princeton, New Jersey", "German Evangelical Church Confederation", "University Park, Pennsylvania", "Watchmaker analogy", "Conspiracy theories in Turkey", "La Mettrie", "anthropocentrism", "Thomas Woolston", "Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture", "BBC News", "Antitrinitarianism", "Frederick the Great", "Immanuel Kant", "Yale University Press", "Moralistic therapeutic deism", "Kopelman Foundation", "Mikhail Epstein", "Westernization", "Paul Russell (philosopher)", "Germanic race", "Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints", "Ateneo de Manila University", "A Secular Age", "history of Islam", "Demographics of the United States", "Jesus of Nazareth", "Ministry of National Education (Turkey)", "Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment", "Lanham, Maryland", "Mu'tazilism", "Philosophical theism", "Socinianism", "Thomas Morgan (deist)", "Chichester, West Sussex", "Voltaire", "Chapel Hill, North Carolina", "Islamism", "Society for the Scientific Study of Religion", "Liberalism and progressivism within Islam", "Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies", "Turkey", "Middle East Report", "Wilhelm Frick", "Routledge", "Freethought", "Middle East Research and Information Project", "Deus otiosus", "Thomas Chubb", "German-occupied Europe", "Research Triangle Park", "Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution", "Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke", "Christianity Not Mysterious", "Dordrecht", "Oxford", "Principles of Nature", "epistemology", "De Veritate", "Ephraim Chambers", "Wiley-Blackwell", "The Secular Web", "Al-Monitor", "Liberal Christianity", "Springfield, Massachusetts", "Santa Barbara, California", "United States of America", "Latin", "Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "Montesquieu", "Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.", "Turkish people", "Michel de Montaigne", "Benjamin Franklin", "Deistic evolution", "Ancient Greek language", "deus", "Tacoma, Washington", "Free will", "deus otiosus", "Paris", "Elihu Palmer", "founding father", "John Locke", "Richard J. Evans", "Heidelberg", "Mother Nature Network" ]
8,584	Dramaturge	A dramaturge or dramaturg (from Ancient Greek δραματουργός – dramatourgós) is a literary adviser or editor in a theatre, opera, or film company who researches, selects, adapts, edits, and interprets scripts, libretti, texts, and printed programmes (or helps others with these tasks), consults authors, and does public relations work. Its modern-day function was originated by the innovations of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, an 18th-century German playwright, philosopher, and theatre theorist. ==Responsibilities== One of the dramaturge's contributions is to categorise and discuss the various types of plays or operas, their interconnectedness and their styles. The responsibilities of a dramaturge vary from one theatre or opera company to the next. They might include the hiring of actors, the development of a season of plays or operas with a sense of coherence among them, assistance with and editing of new plays or operas by resident or guest playwrights or composers/librettists, the creation of programs or accompanying educational services, and helping the director with rehearsals. At larger theatres or opera houses, the dramaturge works on the historical and cultural research into the play or opera and its setting. In theatre companies, a dramaturge will create a workbook for the director and actors and work extensively with the director prior to the first rehearsal. ==History== Gotthold Ephraim Lessing was hired by the Hamburg National Theatre in 1767, to serve as the theatre's critic of plays and acting, a position which would later be named dramaturge. This position grew over time to what it is today, encompassing the wide variety of tasks seen by modern dramaturges. ==Discrepancies with definition== The modern definition of 'dramaturge' is often debated as to what specific tasks this job does, with some defining it as the bridge between the director and the actors, others defining it as one who determines the meaning of plays and shows for the actors, and others claiming that even they don't quite have a complete definition for their job. This discrepancy between dramaturges is likely due to the lack of an official historical definition, and the wide variety of tasks that dramaturges could be asked to work on, depending on the theatre, director, the show being produced, and the actors. Since Lessing did not create an official definition for his own position at the Hamburg National Theatre, modern dramaturges have to infer their tasks based on what Lessing did during his career, and adapt to the current needs of modern theatre. ==Recent growth== Since the year 2000, the number of dramaturges working around the world has increased. In 2000, 400 active dramaturges were recorded in the United States, with that number growing. There are various possible causes of this growth, but some dramaturges attribute the growth to the fact that dramaturgy combines two popular studies for young students: the liberal arts and theatre. Some dramaturges are worried, however, that this growth may slow down, due to a decrease in the number of modern plays being written.	[ "playwright", "Hamburg Dramaturgy", "theatre", "Internet Archive", "The New York Times", "The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language", "American Theatre (magazine)", "liberal arts education", "philosopher", "Gotthold Ephraim Lessing", "dramaturgy", "Collins English Dictionary", "dramatic theory", "opera", "Hamburg National Theatre", "Peter Lang (publisher)", "public relations" ]
8,585	Dispersion	Dispersion may refer to: ==Economics and finance== Dispersion (finance), a measure for the statistical distribution of portfolio returns Price dispersion, a variation in prices across sellers of the same item Wage dispersion, the amount of variation in wages encountered in an economy Dispersed knowledge, notion that any one person is unable to perceive all economic forces ==Science and mathematics== ===Mathematics=== Statistical dispersion, a quantifiable variation of measurements of differing members of a population Index of dispersion, a normalized measure of the dispersion of a probability distribution Dispersion point, a point in a topological space the removal of which leaves the space highly disconnected ===Physics=== The dependence of wave velocity on frequency or wavelength: Dispersion (optics), for light waves Dispersion (water waves), for water waves Acoustic dispersion, for sound waves Dispersion relation, the mathematical description of dispersion in a system Modal dispersion, spreading of signals in multimode fibers and waveguides by a distortion mechanism Polarization mode dispersion, a form of modal dispersion Dielectric dispersion, the dependence of the permittivity of a dielectric material on the frequency of an applied electric field Dispersion measure, the dispersion of radio signals from pulsars and fast radio bursts Dispersive mass transfer, in fluid dynamics, the spreading of mass from areas of high to low concentration Atmospheric dispersion modeling, mathematical simulation of how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere London dispersion force, an instantaneous induced dipole-induced dipole Dispersed particle resistance, a measured parameter to characterize battery active materials ===Other sciences=== Biological dispersal, the distribution of animals, spores, fruits and their seeds, etc. Dispersion (chemistry), a system in which particles are dispersed in a continuous phase of a different composition Dispersion (geology), a process whereby sodic soil disperses when exposed to water Dispersion (materials science), the fraction of atoms of a material exposed to the surface Dispersion polymerization, a polymerization process Velocity dispersion, the statistical variation of velocities about the mean velocity for a group of astronomical objects ==Other uses== , Jewish communities who lived amongst the gentiles in the first century CE Dispersion (album), the second album by High Rise Dispersion Technology, a scientific instrument manufacturer located in Bedford Hills, New York	[ "Price dispersion", "Dispersion point", "Wage dispersion", "Index of dispersion", "Dispersion Technology", "Velocity dispersion", "Dispersive (disambiguation)", "Dispersion measure", "Dispersity", "Modal dispersion", "London dispersion force", "Dispersion (chemistry)", "Dispersion (materials science)", "Dispersed knowledge", "Polarization mode dispersion", "Dispersive mass transfer", "Dispersion (album)", "Acoustic dispersion", "Dispersed particle resistance", "Dispersion (optics)", "Dispersal (disambiguation)", "Biological dispersal", "Statistical dispersion", "Dielectric dispersion", "Dispersion polymerization", "Dispersion (finance)", "Dispersion relation", "Atmospheric dispersion modeling", "Dispersion (water waves)", "Dispersion (geology)" ]
8,586	Dyson sphere	A Dyson sphere is a hypothetical megastructure that encompasses a star and captures a large percentage of its power output. The concept is a thought experiment that attempts to imagine how a spacefaring civilization would meet its energy requirements once those requirements exceed what can be generated from the home planet's resources alone. Because only a tiny fraction of a star's energy emissions reaches the surface of any orbiting planet, building structures encircling a star would enable a civilization to harvest far more energy. The first modern imagining of such a structure was by Olaf Stapledon in his science fiction novel Star Maker (1937). The concept was later explored by the physicist Freeman Dyson in his 1960 paper "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation". Dyson speculated that such structures would be the logical consequence of the escalating energy needs of a technological civilization and would be a necessity for its long-term survival. A signature of such spheres detected in astronomical searches would be an indicator of extraterrestrial intelligence. Since Dyson's paper, many variant designs involving an artificial structure or series of structures to encompass a star have been proposed in exploratory engineering or described in science fiction, often under the name "Dyson sphere". Fictional depictions often describe a solid shell of matter enclosing a staran arrangement considered by Dyson himself to be impossible. ==Origins== Inspired by the 1937 science fiction novel Star Maker by Olaf Stapledon, the physicist and mathematician Freeman Dyson was the first to formalize the concept of what became known as the "Dyson sphere" in his 1960 Science paper "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation". Dyson theorized that as the energy requirements of an advanced technological civilization increased, there would come a time when it would need to systematically harvest the energy from its local star on a large scale. He speculated that this could be done via a system of structures orbiting the star, designed to intercept and collect its energy. He argued that as the structure would result in the large-scale conversion of starlight into far-infrared radiation, an earth-based search for sources of infrared radiation could identify stars supporting intelligent life. Such a concept has often been referred to as a Dyson swarm; however, in 2013, Dyson said he had come to regret that the concept had been named after him. ==Search for megastructures== Dyson-style energy collectors around a distant star would absorb and re-radiate energy from the star. The wavelengths of such re-radiated energy may be atypical for the star's spectral type, due to the presence of heavy elements not naturally occurring within the star. If the percentage of such atypical wavelengths were to be significant, an alien megastructure could be detected at interstellar distances. SETI has looked for such infrared-heavy spectra from solar analogs, as has Fermilab. Fermilab discovered 17 potential "ambiguous" candidates, of which four were in 2006 called "amusing but still questionable". On 14 October 2015, Planet Hunters' citizen scientists discovered unusual light fluctuations of the star KIC 8462852 raising press speculation that a Dyson sphere may have been discovered. However, subsequent analysis showed that the results were consistent with the presence of dust. A further campaign in 2024 identified seven possible candidates for Dyson-spheres, but further investigation was said to be required. ==Feasibility and science-based speculation== Although Dyson sphere systems are theoretically possible, building a stable megastructure around the Sun is currently far beyond humanity's engineering capacity. The number of craft required to obtain, transmit, and maintain a complete Dyson sphere exceeds present-day industrial capabilities. George Dvorsky has advocated the use of self-replicating robots to overcome this limitation in the relatively near term. Some have suggested that Dyson sphere habitats could be built around white dwarfs and even pulsars. Stellar engines are hypothetical megastructures whose purpose is to extract useful energy from a star, sometimes for specific purposes. For example, Matrioshka brains have been proposed to extract energy for computation, while Shkadov thrusters would extract energy for propulsion. Some proposed stellar engine designs are based on the Dyson sphere. From May until June 2024, speculation grew that potential signs of interstellar Dyson spheres had been discovered. The seven objects of interestall located within a thousand light-years of Earthare M-dwarfs, a class of stars that are smaller and less luminous than the Sun. However, the authors of the findings were careful not to make any overblown claims. Despite this, many media outlets picked up on the story. Less fantastical alternative explanations have been made, including a proposal that the infrared from the discoveries was caused by distant dust-obscured galaxies. ==Fictional examples== A precursor to the concept of Dyson spheres was featured in the 1937 novel Star Maker by Olaf Stapledon, Dyson got his inspiration from this book and suggested that "Stapledon sphere" would be a more apt name for the concept. Fictional Dyson spheres are typically solid structures forming a continuous shell around the star in question, although Dyson himself considered that prospect to be mechanically implausible. Dyson spheres are depicted in the 1975–1983 book series Saga of Cuckoo by Frederik Pohl and Jack Williamson, and one functions as the setting of Bob Shaw's 1975 novel Orbitsville and its sequels. the finds itself trapped in an abandoned Dyson Sphere; in a 2011 interview, Dyson said that he enjoyed the episode, although he considered the sphere depicted to be "nonsense". Michael Jan Friedman who wrote the novelization observed that in the TV episode itself the Dyson sphere was effectively a MacGuffin, with "just nothing about it" in the story, and decided to flesh out the plot element in his novelization. Other science-fiction story examples include Tony Rothman's The World Is Round, Somtow Sucharitkul's Inquisitor series, Timothy Zahn's Spinneret, James White's Federation World, Stephen Baxter's The Time Ships, and Peter F. Hamilton's Pandora's Star. a half sphere in the 2012 novel Bowl of Heaven by Gregory Benford and Niven, and nested spheresalso known as a Matrioshka brainin Colin Kapp's 1980s Cageworld series and Brian Stableford's 1979–1990 Asgard trilogy. Stableford himself observed that Dyson spheres are usually MacGuffins or largely deep in the backgrounds of stories, giving as examples Fritz Leiber's The Wanderer and Linda Nagata's Deception Well, whereas stories involving space exploration tend to employ the variants like Niven's Ringworld.He gives two reasons for this: firstly that Dyson spheres are simply too big to address, which Friedman also alluded to when pointing out that the reason his novelization of "Relics" did not go further into the sphere was that it was only four hundred pages and he had just shy of four weeks to write it; and secondly that, especially for hard science-fiction, Dyson spheres have certain engineering problems that complicate stories. In particular, since gravitational attraction is in equilibrium inside such a sphere (per the shell theorem), other means such as rotating the sphere have to be employed in order to keep things attached to the interior surface, which then leads to the problem of a gravity gradient that goes to zero at the rotational poles. Authors address this with various modifications of the idea such as the aforementioned Cageworld nesting, Dan Alderson's double sphere idea, and Niven's reduced Ringworld (discussed in "Bigger Than Worlds").	[ "planet", "Brian Stableford", "The Science in Science Fiction", "Colin Kapp", "Star Maker", "Foundation (journal)", "Kardashev scale", "Fritz Leiber", "Bowl of Heaven", "BBC Science Focus", "Jack Williamson", "Physica Scripta", "Gregory Benford", "Larry Niven", "Science Fiction Literature through History: An Encyclopedia", "Bob Shaw", "Popular Mechanics", "white dwarf", "Bigger Than Worlds", "George Dvorsky", "The Independent", "star", "The Time Ships", "Scientific American", "Olaf Stapledon", "Far infrared", "MacGuffin", "spectral type", "exploratory engineering", "Extraterrestrial life", "James White (author)", "Big Dumb Object", "Matrioshka brain", "biosphere", "extraterrestrial intelligence", "pulsar", "KIC 8462852", "Infrared Radiation", "Slate (magazine)", "Red dwarf", "megastructure", "Frederik Pohl", "self-replicating robots", "Stellar engine", "Stephen Baxter (author)", "spacefaring", "solar analog", "Star Trek: The Next Generation", "matter", "SETI", "Charles Scribner's Sons", "Planet Hunters", "Orbitsville", "Peter F. Hamilton", "Smithsonian Magazine", "Saga of Cuckoo", "civilization", "Solar power", "Setting (narrative)", "Fermilab", "Linda Nagata", "science fiction", "Science Fact and Science Fiction: An Encyclopedia", "Ringworld", "Michael Jan Friedman", "Relics (Star Trek: The Next Generation)", "Science (journal)", "shell theorem", "thought experiment", "Freeman Dyson", "Pocket Books", "Space.com", "Dan Alderson", "National Geographic", "The Wanderer (Leiber novel)", "Timothy Zahn", "Cageworld series", "Tony Rothman", "The Atlantic", "Warwick University", "The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction", "S. P. Somtow" ]
8,587	Democide	Democide refers to "the intentional killing of an unarmed or disarmed person by government agents acting in their authoritative capacity and pursuant to government policy or high command." The term, first coined by Holocaust historian and statistics expert R.J. Rummel in his book Death by Government, has been described by renowned Holocaust historian Yehuda Bauer as a better term than genocide to refer to certain types of mass killings. According to Rummel, this definition covers a wide range of deaths, including forced labor and concentration camp victims, extrajudicial summary killings, and mass deaths due to governmental acts of criminal omission and neglect, such as in deliberate famines like the Holodomor, as well as killings by de facto governments, for example, killings during a civil war. == Definition == Democide is the murder of any person or people by "their" government (normally the one under whose jurisdiction they live), including genocide, politicide, and mass murder. Democide is not necessarily the elimination of entire cultural groups but rather groups within the country that the government feels need to be eradicated for political reasons and due to claimed future threats. In "How Many Did Communist Regimes Murder?", Rummel wrote: First, however, I should clarify the term democide. It means for governments what murder means for an individual under municipal law. It is the premeditated killing of a person in cold blood, or causing the death of a person through reckless and wanton disregard for their life. Thus, a government incarcerating people in a prison under such deadly conditions that they die in a few years is murder by the state—democide—as would parents letting a child die from malnutrition and exposure be murder. So would government forced labor that kills a person within months or a couple of years be murder. So would government created famines that then are ignored or knowingly aggravated by government action be murder of those who starve to death. And obviously, extrajudicial executions, death by torture, government massacres, and all genocidal killing be murder. However, judicial executions for crimes that internationally would be considered capital offenses, such as for murder or treason (as long as it is clear that these are not fabricated for the purpose of executing the accused, as in communist show trials), are not democide. Nor is democide the killing of enemy soldiers in combat or of armed rebels, nor of noncombatants as a result of military action against military targets. In his work and research, Rummel distinguished between colonial, democratic, and authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. He defined totalitarianism as follows: There is much confusion about what is meant by totalitarian in the literature, including the denial that such systems even exist. I define a totalitarian state as one with a system of government that is unlimited constitutionally or by countervailing powers in society (such as by a church, rural gentry, labor unions, or regional powers); is not held responsible to the public by periodic secret and competitive elections; and employs its unlimited power to control all aspects of society, including the family, religion, education, business, private property, and social relationships. Under Stalin, the Soviet Union was thus totalitarian, as was Mao's China, Pol Pot's Cambodia, Hitler's Germany, and U Ne Win's Burma. Totalitarianism is then a political ideology for which a totalitarian government is the agency for realizing its ends. Thus, totalitarianism characterizes such ideologies as state socialism (as in Burma), Marxism-Leninism as in former East Germany, and Nazism. Even revolutionary Moslem Iran since the overthrow of the Shah in 1978–79 has been totalitarian—here totalitarianism was married to Moslem fundamentalism. In short, totalitarianism is the ideology of absolute power. State socialism, communism, Nazism, fascism, and Moslem fundamentalism have been some of its recent raiments. Totalitarian governments have been its agency. The state, with its international legal sovereignty and independence, has been its base. As will be pointed out, mortacracy is the result. == Estimates == In his estimates, Rudolph Rummel relied mostly on historical accounts, an approach that rarely provides accuracy compared with contemporary academic opinion. In the case of Mexican democide, Rummel wrote that while "these figures amount to little more than informed guesses", he thought "there is enough evidence to at least indict these authoritarian regimes for megamurder." According to Rummel, his research showed that the death toll from democide is far greater than the death toll from war. After studying over 8,000 reports of government-caused deaths, Rummel estimated that there have been 262 million victims of democide in the last century. According to his figures, six times as many people have died from the actions of people working for governments than have died in battle. One of his main findings was that democracies have much less democide than authoritarian regimes. Rummel argued that "concentrated political power is the most dangerous thing on earth." Rummel's estimates, especially about Communist democide, typically included a wide range and cannot be considered determinative. Rummel responded that the 20 million estimate is based on a figure from Robert Conquest's The Great Terror and that Conquest's qualifier "almost certainly too low" is usually forgotten. For Rummell, Conquest's calculations excluded camp deaths before 1936 and after 1950, executions (1939–1953), the forced population transfer in the Soviet Union (1939–1953), the deportation within the Soviet Union of minorities (1941–1944), and those the Soviet Red Army and Cheka (the secret police) executed throughout Eastern Europe after their conquest during the 1944–1945 period. Moreover, the Holodomor that killed 5 million in 1932–1934 (according to Rummel) is also not included. According to Rummel, forced labor, executions, and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea from 1948 to 1987. After decades of research in the state archives, most scholars say that Stalin's regime killed between 6 and 9 million, which is considerably less than originally thought, while Nazi Germany killed at least 11 million, which is in line with previous estimates. == Application == === Authoritarian and totalitarian regimes === ==== Communist regimes ==== Rummel applied the concept of democide to Communist regimes. In 1987, Rudolph Rummel's book Death by Government Rummel estimated that 148 million were killed by Communist governments from 1917 to 1987. The list of Communist countries with more than 1 million estimated victims included: China at 76,702,000 (1949–1987), the Soviet Union at 61,911,000 (1917–1987), Democratic Kampuchea (1975–1979) at 2,035,000, Vietnam (1945–1987) at 1,670,000, Poland (1945–1987) at 1,585,000, North Korea (1948–1987) at 1,563,000, Yugoslavia (1945–1987) at 1,072,000. Due to additional information about Mao Zedong's culpability in the Great Chinese Famine according to Mao: The Unknown Story, a 2005 book authored by Jon Halliday and Jung Chang, Rummel revised upward his total for Communist democide to about 148 million, using their estimate of 38 million famine deaths. Rummel's figures for Communist governments have been criticized for the methodology which he used to arrive at them, and they have also been criticized for being higher than the figures which have been given by most scholars. ==== Right-wing authoritarian, fascist, and feudal regimes ==== Estimates by Rummel for fascist or right-wing authoritarian regimes include: Nazi Germany at 20,946,000 (1933–1945), Nationalist China (1925–1949) and later Taiwan (1949–1987) at 10,214,000, Empire of Japan at 5,964,000 (1900–1945). Estimates for other regime-types include: the Ottoman Empire at 1,883,000 (Armenian genocide and Greek genocide), Pakistan at 1,503,000 (1971 Bangladesh genocide), Porfiriato in Mexico at somewhere between 600,000 and 3,000,000 and closer to 1,417,000 (1900–1920), Democide in Communist and Nationalist China, Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union are characterized by Rummel as deka-megamurderers (128,168,000), while those in Cambodia, Japan, Pakistan, Poland, Turkey, Vietnam, and Yugoslavia are characterized as the lesser megamurderers (19,178,000), and cases in Mexico, North Korea, and feudal Russia are characterized as suspected megamurderers (4,145,000). === Colonial regimes === In response to David Stannard's figures about what he terms "the American Holocaust", Rummel estimated that over the centuries of European colonization about 2 million to 15 million American indigenous people were victims of democide, excluding military battles and unintentional deaths in Rummel's definition. Rummel wrote that "[e]ven if these figures are remotely true, then this still make this subjugation of the Americas one of the bloodier, centuries long, democides in world history." Rummel stated that his estimate for those killed by colonialism is 50,000,000 persons in the 20th century; this was revised upwards from his initial estimate of 815,000 dead. === Democratic regimes === While democratic regimes are considered by Rummel to be the least likely to commit democide and engage in wars per the democratic peace theory, Rummel wrote that "democracies themselves are responsible for some of this democide. Detailed estimates have yet to be made, but preliminarily work suggests that some 2,000,000 foreigners have been killed in cold blood by democracies." Foreign policy and secret services of democratic regimes "may also carry on subversive activities in other states, support deadly coups, and actually encourage or support rebel or military forces that are involved in democidal activities. Such was done, for example, by the American CIA in the 1952 coup against Iran Prime Minister Mossadeq and the 1973 coup against Chile's democratically elected President Allende by General Pinochet. Then there was the secret support given the military in El Salvador and Guatemala although they were slaughtering thousands of presumed communist supporters, and that of the Contras in their war against the Sandinista government of Nicaragua in spite of their atrocities. Particularly reprehensible was the covert support given to the Generals in Indonesia as they murdered hundreds of thousands of communists and others after the alleged attempted communist coup in 1965, and the continued secret support given to General Agha Mohammed Yahya Khan of Pakistan even as he was involved in murdering over a million Bengalis in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)." According to Rummel, examples of democratic democide would include "those killed in indiscriminate or civilian targeted city bombing, as of Germany and Japan in World War II. It would include the large scale massacres of Filipinos during the bloody American colonization of the Philippines at the beginning of this century, deaths in British concentration camps in South Africa during the Boer War, civilian deaths due to starvation during the British blockade of Germany in and after World War I, the rape and murder of helpless Chinese in and around Peking in 1900, the atrocities committed by Americans in Vietnam, the murder of helpless Algerians during the Algerian War by the French, and the unnatural deaths of German prisoners of war in French and American POW camps after World War II."	[ "municipal law", "secret service", "Pinochet", "Criticism of communist party rule", "France", "Vietnam War", "Nazism", "Pogrom", "Robert Conquest", "Ottoman Empire", "Environmental killings", "Colonialism", "Marxism-Leninism", "American Holocaust", "Red Army", "Orders of magnitude (numbers)", "Russian Empire", "extrajudicial execution", "History of Vietnam since 1945", "Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism", "Salvadoran Civil War", "Agha Mohammed Yahya Khan", "History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976)", "Guatemalan Civil War", "Bibliography of genocide studies", "Jung Chang", "Second Boer War", "Policide", "secret police", "Nazi Germany", "right-wing", "Soviet Union", "Polish People's Republic", "Mao: The Unknown Story", "Classicide", "History of the People's Republic of China", "Ethnic conflict", "genocide", "politicide", "Mossadeq", "state socialism", "Philippine–American War", "democratic peace theory", "Martial law in Taiwan", "War crime", "Boxer Rebellion", "R.J. Rummel", "1973 Chilean coup d'état", "Summary execution", "Rudolph Rummel", "constitution", "civil war", "forced labor", "Sandinista", "Extrajudicial punishment", "Crimes against humanity under communist regimes", "special agent", "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide", "Algerian War", "Lynching", "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "Hitler", "Contras", "Porfiriato", "starvation", "Communist state", "30 September Movement", "Communal violence", "fascism", "Salvador Allende", "Armenian genocide", "Jon Halliday", "Ethnic hatred", "Islamic fundamentalism", "Iranian Revolution", "Social cleansing", "Stalin", "Second Boer War concentration camps", "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma", "coup", "European colonization", "Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)", "authoritative", "Ethnocide", "Democratic Kampuchea", "Cheka", "population transfer in the Soviet Union", "unnatural death", "Death toll of the Holocaust", "1971 Bangladesh genocide", "Genocide of indigenous peoples", "Yehuda Bauer", "North Korea", "Ethnic violence", "List of ethnic cleansing campaigns", "authoritarian", "communism", "famine", "Police brutality", "Extrajudicial killing", "Religious violence", "Strategic bombing during World War II", "Vigilantism", "Hate crime", "mass murder", "fascist", "History of the Philippines (1898–1946)", "Hate group", "The Great Terror (book)", "murder", "Holodomor", "Hate studies", "Great Chinese Famine", "Holocaust", "Political cleansing of population", "World War II", "German prisoners of war in the United States", "Anti-communist mass killings", "Terrorism", "Mao", "Nationalist government", "List of genocides", "History of the Soviet Union", "German prisoners of war in France", "Foreign policy", "East Germany", "South Africa", "Hate media", "Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66", "Cultural conflict", "Greek genocide", "David Stannard", "Sectarian violence", "Demographics of Algeria", "political violence", "Cultural genocide", "Democracy", "Ethnic cleansing", "U Ne Win", "recklessness (law)", "Genocides in history", "Iran", "Population cleansing", "Mao Zedong", "Pol Pot", "Communist government", "Democratic People's Republic of Korea", "CIA", "concentration camp", "Empire of Japan", "extrajudicial", "Hate speech", "American indigenous people", "prisoners of war", "communist", "Social murder", "secret ballot", "Violence against LGBT people", "Nicaraguan Revolution", "Nuclear warfare", "Crimes against humanity", "totalitarian", "1953 Iranian coup d'état", "Pakistan" ]
8,589	December 9	==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 536 – Gothic War: The Byzantine general Belisarius enters Rome unopposed; the Gothic garrison flees the capital. 730 – Battle of Marj Ardabil: The Khazars annihilate an Umayyad army and kill its commander, al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami. 1432 – The first battle between the forces of Švitrigaila and Sigismund Kęstutaitis is fought near the town of Oszmiana (Ashmyany), launching the most active phase of the Lithuanian Civil War. 1531 – The Virgin of Guadalupe first appears to Juan Diego at Tepeyac, Mexico City. ===1601–1900=== 1636 – The Qing dynasty of China, led by Emperor Hong Taiji, invades Joseon. 1688 – Glorious Revolution: Williamite forces defeat Jacobites at Battle of Reading, forcing James II to flee England. (Date is Old Style; the date in the New Style modern calendar is 19 December.) 1775 – American Revolutionary War: British troops and Loyalists, misinformed about Patriot militia strength, lose the Battle of Great Bridge, ending British rule in Virginia. 1822 – French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel, in a memoir read to the Academy of Sciences, coins the terms linear polarization, circular polarization, and elliptical polarization, and reports a direct refraction experiment verifying his theory that optical rotation is a form of birefringence. 1824 – Patriot forces led by General Antonio José de Sucre defeat a Royalist army in the Battle of Ayacucho, putting an end to the Peruvian War of Independence. 1835 – Texas Revolution: The Texian Army captures San Antonio following the Siege of Béxar. 1851 – The first YMCA in North America is established in Montreal. 1856 – The Iranian city of Bushehr surrenders to occupying British forces. 1861 – American Civil War: The Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War is established by Congress. 1868 – The first traffic lights are installed, outside the Palace of Westminster in London. Resembling railway signals, they use semaphore arms and are illuminated at night by red and green gas lamps. 1872 – In Louisiana, P. B. S. Pinchback becomes the first African American governor of a U.S. state following the impeachment of Henry C. Warmoth. 1893 – National Assembly bombing by Auguste Vaillant during the Ère des attentats (1892-1894). ===1901–present=== 1905 – In France, a law separating church and state is passed. 1911 – A mine explosion near Briceville, Tennessee, kills 84 miners despite rescue efforts led by the United States Bureau of Mines. 1917 – World War I: Field Marshal Allenby captures Jerusalem from the Ottoman Empire. 1917 – World War I: The Kingdom of Romania signs the Armistice of Focșani with the Central Powers. 1922 – Gabriel Narutowicz is elected the first president of Poland. 1931 – The Constituent Cortes approves a constitution which establishes the Second Spanish Republic. 1935 – Student protests occur in Beijing's Tiananmen Square, and are subsequently dispersed by government authorities. 1935 – Walter Liggett, an American newspaper editor and muckraker, is killed in a gangland murder. 1937 – Second Sino-Japanese War: Battle of Nanking: Japanese troops under the command of Lt. Gen. Yasuhiko Asaka launch an assault on the Chinese city of Nanking. 1940 – World War II: Operation Compass: British and Indian troops under the command of Major-General Richard O'Connor attack Italian forces near Sidi Barrani in Egypt. 1941 – World War II: China, Cuba, Guatemala, and the Philippine Commonwealth declare war on Germany and Japan. 1941 – World War II: The American 19th Bombardment Group attacks Japanese ships off the coast of Vigan, Luzon. 1946 – The subsequent Nuremberg trials begin with the Doctors' Trial, prosecuting physicians and officers alleged to be involved in Nazi human experimentation and mass murder under the guise of euthanasia. 1946 – The Constituent Assembly of India meets for the first time to write the Constitution of India. 1948 – The Genocide Convention is adopted. 1950 – Cold War: Harry Gold is sentenced to 30 years in jail for helping Klaus Fuchs pass information about the Manhattan Project to the Soviet Union. His testimony is later instrumental in the prosecution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. 1953 – Red Scare: General Electric announces that all communist employees will be discharged from the company. 1956 – Trans-Canada Air Lines Flight 810-9, a Canadair North Star, crashes near Hope, British Columbia, Canada, killing all 62 people on board. 1956 – An Aeroflot Lisunov Li-2 crashes near Anadyr, killing all 12 people on board. 1960 – The first episode of Coronation Street, the world's longest-running television soap opera, is broadcast in the United Kingdom. 1961 – Tanganyika becomes independent from Britain. 1965 – Kecksburg UFO incident: A fireball is seen from Michigan to Pennsylvania; with witnesses reporting something crashing in the woods near Pittsburgh. 1968 – Douglas Engelbart gave what became known as "The Mother of All Demos", publicly debuting the computer mouse, hypertext, and the bit-mapped graphical user interface using the oN-Line System (NLS). 1969 – U.S. Secretary of State William P. Rogers proposes his plan for a ceasefire in the War of Attrition; Egypt and Jordan accept it over the objections of the PLO, which leads to civil war in Jordan in September 1970. 1971 – Indo-Pakistani War: The Indian Air Force executes an airdrop of Indian Army units, bypassing Pakistani defences. 1973 – British and Irish authorities sign the Sunningdale Agreement in an attempt to establish a power-sharing Northern Ireland Executive and a cross-border Council of Ireland. 1979 – The eradication of the smallpox virus is certified, making smallpox the first of only two diseases that have been driven to extinction (with rinderpest in 2011 being the other). 1987 – Israeli–Palestinian conflict: The First Intifada begins in the Gaza Strip and West Bank. 1992 – American troops land in Somalia for Operation Restore Hope. 1996 – Gwen Jacob is acquitted of committing an indecent act, giving women the right to be topless in Ontario, Canada. 2003 – A blast in the center of Moscow kills six people and wounds several more. 2006 – Space Shuttle program: Space Shuttle Discovery is launched on STS-116 carrying the P5 truss segment of the International Space Station. 2008 – Governor of Illinois Rod Blagojevich is arrested by federal officials for crimes including attempting to sell the U.S. Senate seat being vacated by President-elect Barack Obama. 2012 – A plane crash in Mexico kills seven people including singer Jenni Rivera. 2013 – At least seven are dead and 63 are injured following a train accident near Bintaro, Indonesia. 2016 – President Park Geun-hye of South Korea is impeached by the country's National Assembly in response to a major political scandal. 2016 – At least 57 people are killed and a further 177 injured when two schoolgirl suicide bombers attack a market area in Madagali, Adamawa, Nigeria in the Madagali suicide bombings. 2017 – The Marriage Amendment Bill receives royal assent and comes into effect, making Australia the 26th country to legalize same-sex marriage. 2019 – A volcano on Whakaari / White Island, New Zealand, kills 22 people after it erupts. 2021 – Fifty-five people are killed and more than 100 injured when a truck with 160 migrants from Central America overturned in Chiapas, Mexico. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 1392 – Peter, Duke of Coimbra (d. 1449) 1447 – Chenghua Emperor of China (d. 1487) 1482 – Frederick II, Elector Palatine (d. 1556) 1493 – Íñigo López de Mendoza, 4th Duke of the Infantado (d. 1566) 1508 – Gemma Frisius, Dutch mathematician and cartographer (d. 1555) 1561 – Edwin Sandys, English lawyer and politician (d. 1629) 1571 – Metius, Dutch mathematician and astronomer (d. 1635) 1579 – Martin de Porres, Peruvian saint (d. 1639) 1594 – Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (d. 1632) ===1601–1900=== 1608 – John Milton, English poet and philosopher (d. 1674) 1610 – Baldassare Ferri, Italian singer and actor (d. 1680) 1617 – Richard Lovelace, English poet (d. 1657) 1652 – Augustus Quirinus Rivinus, German physician and botanist (d. 1723) 1667 – William Whiston, English mathematician, historian, and theologian (d. 1752) 1717 – Johann Joachim Winckelmann, German archaeologist and historian (d. 1768) 1721 – Peter Pelham, English-American organist and composer (d. 1805) 1728 – Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi, Italian composer (d. 1804) 1742 – Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Swedish Pomeranian and German pharmaceutical chemist (d. 1786) 1745 – Maddalena Laura Sirmen, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1818) 1748 – Claude Louis Berthollet, French chemist and academic (d. 1822) 1752 – Antoine Étienne de Tousard, French general and engineer (d. 1813) 1768 – Joseph Desha, American politician (d. 1842) 1787 – John Dobson, English architect, designed Eldon Square and Lilburn Tower (d. 1865) 1779 – Tabitha Babbitt, American tool maker and inventor (d. 1853) 1806 – Jean-Olivier Chénier, Canadian physician (d. 1838) 1813 – Thomas Andrews, Irish chemist and physicist (d. 1885) 1837 – Émile Waldteufel, French pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1915) 1842 – Peter Kropotkin, Russian zoologist, economist, geographer, and philosopher (d. 1921) 1845 – Joel Chandler Harris, American journalist and author (d. 1908) 1850 – Emma Abbott, American soprano and actress (d. 1891) 1861 – Hélène Smith, French psychic and occultist (d. 1929) 1867 – Gregorios Xenopoulos, Greek journalist and author (d. 1951) 1868 – Fritz Haber, Polish-German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1934) 1870 – Ida S. Scudder, Indian physician and missionary (d. 1960) 1870 – Francisco S. Carvajal, Mexican lawyer and politician, president 1914 (d. 1932) 1871 – Joe Kelley, American baseball player and manager (d. 1943) 1873 – George Blewett, Canadian philosopher, author, and academic (d. 1912) 1875 – Harry Miller, American engineer (d. 1943) 1876 – Berton Churchill, Canadian-American actor and singer (d. 1940) 1882 – Elmer Booth, American actor (d. 1915) 1882 – Joaquín Turina, Spanish-French composer, critic, and educator (d. 1949) 1883 – Nikolai Luzin, Russian mathematician, theorist, and academic (d. 1950) 1883 – Alexander Papagos, Greek general and politician, 152nd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1955) 1883 – Joseph Pilates, German-American fitness expert, developed Pilates (d. 1967) 1886 – Clarence Birdseye, American businessman, founded Birds Eye (d. 1956) 1887 – Tim Moore, American actor (d. 1958) 1889 – Hannes Kolehmainen, Finnish-American runner (d. 1966) 1890 – Laura Salverson, Canadian author (d. 1970) 1891 – Maksim Bahdanovič, Belarusian poet and critic (d. 1917) 1892 – André Randall, French actor (d. 1974) 1895 – Dolores Ibárruri, Spanish activist, journalist and politician (d. 1989) 1895 – Conchita Supervía, Spanish soprano and actress (d. 1936) 1897 – Hermione Gingold, English actress and singer (d. 1987) 1898 – Irene Greenwood, Australian radio broadcaster and feminist and peace activist (d. 1992) 1898 – Emmett Kelly, American clown and actor (d. 1979) 1899 – Jean de Brunhoff, French author and illustrator (d. 1937) 1900 – Margaret Brundage, American illustrator, known for illustrating pulp magazine Weird Tales (d. 1976) 1900 – Albert Weisbord, American activist, founded the Communist League of Struggle (d. 1977) ===1901–present=== 1901 – Jean Mermoz, French pilot and politician (d. 1936) 1901 – Ödön von Horváth, Hungarian-German author and playwright (d. 1938) 1902 – Margaret Hamilton, American schoolteacher, actress and voice artist (d. 1985) 1904 – Robert Livingston, American actor and singer (d. 1988) 1905 – Dalton Trumbo, American author, screenwriter, and blacklistee (d. 1976) 1906 – Freddy Martin, American bandleader and tenor saxophonist (d. 1983) 1909 – Douglas Fairbanks Jr., American captain, actor, and producer (d. 2000) 1910 – Vere Bird, first Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda (d. 1999) 1911 – Broderick Crawford, American actor (d. 1986) 1911 – Ryūzō Sejima, Japanese colonel and businessman (d. 2007) 1912 – Tip O'Neill, American lawyer and politician, 55th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1994) 1915 – Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, German-Austrian soprano and actress (d. 2006) 1916 – Jerome Beatty Jr., American soldier, journalist, and author (d. 2002) 1916 – Kirk Douglas, American actor, singer, and producer (d. 2020) 1931 – William Reynolds, American actor (d. 2022) 1931 – Ladislav Smoljak, Czech actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1932 – Donald Byrd, American trumpet player and academic (d. 2013) 1932 – Bill Hartack, American jockey (d. 2007) 1932 – Billy Edd Wheeler, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and playwright (d. 2024) 1933 – Ashleigh Brilliant, English-American author and illustrator 1933 – Milt Campbell, American decathlete and football player (d. 2012) 1933 – Morton Downey Jr., American actor and talk show host (d. 2001) 1933 – Orville Moody, American golfer (d. 2008) 1934 – Judi Dench, English actress 1934 – Alan Ridout, English composer and teacher (d. 1996) 1934 – Junior Wells, American blues singer-songwriter and harmonica player (d. 1998) 1935 – David Houston, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1993) 1938 – Deacon Jones, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (d. 2013) 1943 – Pit Martin, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2008) 1943 – Joanna Trollope, English author, playwright, and director 1943 – Kenny Vance, American singer-songwriter and music producer 1944 – Neil Innes, English singer-songwriter (d. 2019) 1944 – Ki Longfellow, American author, playwright, and producer (d. 2022) 1944 – Bob O'Connor, American businessman and politician, 57th Mayor of Pittsburgh (d. 2006) 1945 – Michael Nouri, American actor 1964 – Michael Foster, American drummer 1964 – Ross Harrington, Australian rugby league player 1964 – Hape Kerkeling, German actor and singer 1964 – Johannes B. Kerner, German journalist and sportscaster 1964 – Les Kiss, Australian rugby league player 1964 – Paul Landers, German guitarist 1965 – Joe Ausanio, American baseball player and coach 1966 – Kirsten Gillibrand, American lawyer and politician 1966 – Dave Harold, English snooker player 1966 – Gideon Sa'ar, Israeli lawyer and politician, 24th Israeli Minister of Internal Affairs 1966 – Martin Taylor, English footballer and coach 1967 – Joshua Bell, American violinist and conductor 1967 – Jason Dozzell, English footballer and manager 1968 – Kurt Angle, American freestyle and professional wrestler 1968 – Brian Bell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1969 – Bixente Lizarazu, French footballer 1969 – Raphaël Rouquier, French mathematician and academic 1969 – Allison Smith, American actress 1973 – Stacey Abrams, American politician and activist 1973 – Fabio Artico, Italian footballer 1973 – Vénuste Niyongabo, Burundian runner 1973 – Bárbara Padilla, Mexican-American soprano 1974 – David Akers, American football player 1974 – Canibus, Jamaican-American rapper 1976 – Mona Hanna-Attisha, American pediatrician, professor, and public health advocate 1977 – Shayne Graham, American football player 1977 – Imogen Heap, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1982 – Bastian Swillims, German sprinter 1983 – Jermaine Beckford, English-Jamaican footballer 1983 – Neslihan Demir Darnel, Turkish volleyball player 1983 – Dariusz Dudka, Polish footballer 1983 – Jolene Purdy, American actress 1987 – Kostas Giannoulis, Greek footballer 1987 – Gerald Henderson Jr., American basketball player 1987 – Mat Latos, American baseball player 1987 – Hikaru Nakamura, Japanese-American chess player 1987 – Jeff Petry, American ice hockey player 1987 – Joshua Sasse, English actor 1990 – Ashleigh Brewer, Australian actress 1991 – Choi Min-ho, South Korean singer and actor 1993 – Cem Ince, German politician 1993 – Mark McMorris, Canadian snowboarder 1993 – Laura Smulders, Dutch cyclist 1994 – Ryan Lomberg, Canadian ice hockey player 1995 – Simone Fontecchio, Italian basketball player 1995 – McKayla Maroney, American gymnast 1996 – Mackenzie Blackwood, Canadian ice hockey player 1996 – Kyle Connor, American ice hockey player 1996 – MyKayla Skinner, American gymnast 1997 – Harvey Barnes, English footballer 2000 – Diāna Ņikitina, Latvian figure skater 2005 – Ni-Ki, Japanese singer ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 638 – Sergius I of Constantinople 730 – Al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah, Arab general 748 – Nasr ibn Sayyar, Umayyad general and politician (b. 663) 933 – Li Congrong, prince of Later Tang 1117 – Gertrude of Brunswick, Markgräfin of Meißen 1165 – Malcolm IV of Scotland (b. 1141) 1242 – Richard le Gras, Lord Keeper of England and Abbot of Evesham 1268 – Vaišvilkas, Prince of Black Ruthenia, Grand Duke of Lithuania 1299 – Bohemond I, Archbishop of Trier 1437 – Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1368) 1544 – Teofilo Folengo, Italian poet (b. 1491) 1565 – Pope Pius IV (b. 1499) ===1601–1900=== 1603 – William Watson, English priest (b. 1559) 1625 – Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (b. 1547) 1636 – Fabian Birkowski, Polish preacher and author (b. 1566) 1641 – Anthony van Dyck, Belgian-English painter and illustrator (b. 1599) 1669 – Pope Clement IX (b. 1600) 1674 – Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, English historian and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1609) 1706 – Peter II of Portugal (b. 1648) 1718 – Vincenzo Coronelli, Italian monk and cartographer (b. 1650) 1761 – Tarabai, Queen of Chatrapati Rajaram (b. 1675) 1793 – Yolande de Polastron, French-Austrian educator (b. 1749) 1798 – Johann Reinhold Forster, German pastor, botanist, and ornithologist (b. 1729) 1830 – Heinrich Christian Friedrich Schumacher, Danish surgeon, botanist, and academic (b. 1757) 1851 – William Thornhill, English army officer (b. 1768) 1854 – Almeida Garrett, Portuguese journalist and author (b. 1799) 1858 – Robert Baldwin, Canadian lawyer and politician, 3rd Premier of Canada West (b. 1804) 1887 – Mahmadu Lamine, Senegalese religious leader ===1901–present=== 1906 – Ferdinand Brunetière, French author and critic (b. 1849) 1907 – Eva Nansen, Norwegian mezzo-soprano singer and pioneer on women skiing (b. 1858) 1916 – Natsume Sōseki, Japanese author and poet (b. 1867) 1924 – Bernard Zweers, Dutch composer and educator (b. 1854) 1930 – Rube Foster, American baseball player and manager (b. 1879) 1932 – Karl Blossfeldt, German photographer, sculptor, and educator (b. 1865) 1932 – Begum Rokeya, Bangladeshi social worker and author (b. 1880) 1935 – Walter Liggett, American journalist and activist (b. 1886) 1937 – Lilias Armstrong, English phonetician (b. 1882) 1937 – Gustaf Dalén, Swedish physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1869) 1941 – Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Russian author, poet, and philosopher (b. 1865) 1943 – Georges Dufrénoy, French painter (b. 1870) 1944 – Laird Cregar, American actor (b. 1913) 1945 – Yun Chi-ho, South Korean activist and politician (b. 1864) 1957 – Ali İhsan Sâbis, Turkish general (b. 1882) 1963 – Daniel O. Fagunwa, Nigerian author and educator (b. 1903) 1963 – Perry Miller, American historian, author, and academic (b. 1905) 1964 – Edith Sitwell, English poet and critic (b. 1887) 1965 – Branch Rickey, American baseball player and manager (b. 1884) 1967 – Charles Léon Hammes, Luxembourgish lawyer and judge, 3rd President of the European Court of Justice (b. 1898) 1968 – Enoch L. Johnson, American mob boss (b. 1883) 1970 – Artem Mikoyan, Armenian-Russian engineer and businessman, co-founded the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau (b. 1905) 1970 – Feroz Khan Noon, Pakistani politician, 7th Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1893) 1971 – Ralph Bunche, American political scientist, academic, and diplomat, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1904) 1971 – Sergey Konenkov, Russian sculptor and painter (b. 1874) 1971 – Rev. Aeneas Francon Williams, Church of Scotland Minister, Missionary in India and China, writer and poet (b. 1886) 1972 – Louella Parsons, American writer and columnist (b. 1881) 1975 – William A. Wellman, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1896) 1979 – Fulton J. Sheen, American archbishop (b. 1895) 1982 – Leon Jaworski, American lawyer and politician (b. 1905) 1982 – Marguerite Henry, Australian zoologist (b. 1895) 1991 – Berenice Abbott, American photographer (b. 1898) 1992 – Vincent Gardenia, American actor (b. 1922) 1993 – Danny Blanchflower, Northern Irish footballer and manager (b. 1926) 1995 – Toni Cade Bambara, American author and academic (b. 1939) 1995 – Douglas Corrigan, American pilot (b. 1907) 1996 – Patty Donahue, American singer-songwriter (b. 1956) 1996 – Mary Leakey, English archaeologist and anthropologist (b. 1913) 1996 – Alain Poher, French lawyer and politician (b. 1909) 1996 – Diana Morgan, Welsh playwright and screenwriter (b. 1908) 1998 – Shaughnessy Cohen, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1948) 1998 – Archie Moore, American boxer and actor (b. 1913) 2001 – Michael Carver, Baron Carver, English field marshal (b. 1915) 2002 – Mary Hansen, Australian singer and guitarist (b. 1966) 2002 – Ian Hornak, American painter and sculptor (b. 1944) 2002 – Stan Rice, American painter and poet (b. 1942) 2003 – Norm Sloan, American basketball player and coach (b. 1926) 2003 – Paul Simon, American soldier, journalist, and politician, 39th Lieutenant Governor of Illinois (b. 1928) 2005 – György Sándor, Hungarian-American pianist and educator (b. 1912) 2005 – Robert Sheckley, American author (b. 1928) 2006 – Georgia Gibbs, American singer (b. 1919) 2007 – Rafael Sperafico, Brazilian race car driver (b. 1981) 2007 – Gordon Zahn, American sociologist, author, and academic (b. 1918) 2008 – Ibrahim Dossey, Ghanaian footballer (b. 1972) 2008 – Yury Glazkov, Russian general, pilot, and astronaut (b. 1939) 2009 – Gene Barry, American actor (b. 1919) 2010 – James Moody, American saxophonist, flute player, and composer (b. 1925) 2010 – Dov Shilansky, Lithuanian-Israeli lawyer and politician, 10th Speaker of the Knesset (b. 1924) 2012 – Béla Nagy Abodi, Hungarian painter and academic (b. 1918) 2012 – Patrick Moore, English lieutenant, astronomer, and educator (b. 1923) 2012 – Alex Moulton, English engineer and businessman, founded the Moulton Bicycle Company (b. 1920) 2012 – Jenni Rivera, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress (b. 1969) 2012 – Charles Rosen, American pianist and musicologist (b. 1927) 2012 – Riccardo Schicchi, Italian director and producer, co-founded Diva Futura (b. 1953) 2012 – Norman Joseph Woodland, American inventor, co-created the bar code (b. 1921) 2013 – Hristu Cândroveanu, Romanian editor, literary critic and writer (b. 1928) 2013 – John Gabbert, American soldier, lawyer, and judge (b. 1909) 2013 – Barbara Hesse-Bukowska, Polish pianist and educator (b. 1930) 2013 – Eleanor Parker, American actress (b. 1922) 2013 – John Wilbur, American football player (b. 1943) 2014 – Sacvan Bercovitch, Canadian-American author, critic, and academic (b. 1933) 2014 – Jane Freilicher, American painter and poet (b. 1924) 2014 – Jorge María Mejía, Argentinian cardinal (b. 1923) 2014 – Mary Ann Mobley, American model and actress, Miss America 1959 (b. 1937) 2014 – Blagoje Paunović, Serbian footballer and manager (b. 1947) 2014 – Jože Toporišič, Slovenian linguist and author (b. 1926) 2015 – Soshana Afroyim, Austrian painter (b. 1927) 2015 – Norman Breslow, American statistician and academic (b. 1941) 2015 – Juvenal Juvêncio, Brazilian lawyer and politician (b. 1934) 2015 – Julio Terrazas Sandoval, Bolivian cardinal (b. 1936) 2021 – Speedy Duncan, American football player (b. 1942) 2021 – Demaryius Thomas, American football player (b. 1987) 2022 – Jovit Baldivino, Filipino singer and actor (b. 1993) 2024 – Nikki Giovanni, American poet, writer and activist (b. 1943) ==Holidays and observances== Anna's Day, marks the day to start the preparation process of the lutefisk to be consumed on Christmas Eve, as well as a Swedish name day, celebrating all people named Anna. (Sweden and Finland) Armed Forces Day (Peru) Christian feast day: Feast of the Conception of the Most Holy Theotokos by St. Anne (Eastern Orthodox Church) Hannah (biblical figure) (Eastern Orthodox Church) Juan Diego Leocadia Nectarius of Auvergne Peter Fourier December 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Fatherland's Heroes Day (Russia) Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Tanganyika from Britain in 1961. (Tanzania) International Anti-Corruption Day (United Nations) National Heroes Day, formerly V.C. Bird Day. (Antigua and Barbuda) Navy Day (Sri Lanka)	[ "1940", "Enoch L. Johnson", "Paul Landers", "Leon Hall", "Jean-Olivier Chénier", "Mary Hansen", "1594", "Empress Masako", "Lilburn Tower", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "1886", "Reiko Aylesworth", "1982", "Artem Mikoyan", "Billy Edd Wheeler", "Fritz Haber", "Ottoman Empire", "1608", "Donny Osmond", "The Plain Dealer", "Kwadwo Asamoah", "1718", "1850", "1899", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Kirsten Gillibrand", "1617", "Johann Reinhold Forster", "Sunningdale Agreement", "Marguerite Henry (scientist)", "Les Kiss", "Emmett Kelly", "Santa Clara Pueblo", "Nick Hysong", "1910", "Archie Moore", "Douglas Engelbart", "Henry Way Kendall", "Kelly Oubre Jr.", "Mahmadu Lamine", "Nectarius of Auvergne", "Aloísio da Silva Filho", "graphical user interface", "Hélène Smith", "AleXa", "Jane Freilicher", "Juan Diego", "Dolores Ibárruri", "Cornelis de Bondt", "John Malkovich", "Kara DioGuardi", "Stacey Abrams", "Natsume Sōseki", "Margaret Hamilton (actress)", "Patty Donahue", "2015", "Émile Waldteufel", "1924", "Eric Bledsoe", "Metius", "Stephen McPhail", "1603", "Unified Task Force", "Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon", "Kuomintang", "Gideon Sa'ar", "1768", "Church of Scotland", "Jeff Petry", "French Academy of Sciences", "Bundestag", "National Hockey League", "Gregorios Xenopoulos", "New Zealand", "1964", "Michael Dorn", "Dick Van Patten", "Yun Chi-ho", "Virginia", "David Houston (singer)", "Minister of Defence (Estonia)", "Henry C. Warmoth", "1898", "Bob O'Connor (mayor)", "Wendy Dillinger", "Stan Rice", "Vere Bird", "Emma Abbott", "Dick Butkus", "1872", "Hermione Gingold", "Our Lady of Guadalupe", "2013 Bintaro train crash", "Danny Blanchflower", "James Rainwater", "William Thornhill (British Army officer)", "Demaryius Thomas", "Lisunov Li-2", "Deacon Jones", "1928", "1915", "Bixente Lizarazu", "1981", "Jorge María Mejía", "2008", "Hape Kerkeling", "Simone Fontecchio", "Al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah", "1854", "Branch Rickey", "Aeneas Francon Williams", "lutefisk", "1946", "Colin McCool", "Battle of Great Bridge", "1813", "Johann Joachim Winckelmann", "John Dobson (architect)", "1887", "1950", "Barbara Hesse-Bukowska", "Michael Foster (musician)", "feast day", "Donald Byrd", "Yolande de Polastron", "1979", "China", "Sigismund Kęstutaitis", "Speaker of the United States House of Representatives", "1994", "bar code", "Republic of China (1912–49)", "Prime Minister of Greece", "Orville Moody", "Tabitha Babbitt", "Independence Day (Tanzania)", "1906", "1972", "2016", "1916", "Aron Baynes", "Baldassare Ferri", "David Nathan (journalist)", "Ni-Ki", "Manhattan Project", "Jože Toporišič", "virus", "1943", "December 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "United Nations", "Ki Longfellow", "1954", "Marriage Amendment (Definition and Religious Freedoms) Act 2017", "Clarence Birdseye", "Richard le Gras", "Hikaru Nakamura", "1717", "Associated Press", "Old Eldon Square", "Buck Henry", "Fred Jones (rugby league)", "Olivia Lufkin", "Texas Revolution", "2019 Whakaari / White Island eruption", "1851", "Moulton Bicycle", "György Sándor", "International Anti-Corruption Day", "Constitution of India", "same-sex marriage", "Australia", "Vincent Gardenia", "1977", "Joaquín Turina", "Peruvian War of Independence", "Rube Foster", "Goths", "Whakaari / White Island", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "1947", "Imogen Heap", "Iran", "Loyalist (American Revolution)", "Anthony van Dyck", "Prime Minister of Australia", "Internal Affairs Minister of Israel", "Carlo Azeglio Ciampi", "War of Attrition", "1922", "Kyle Connor", "Nazi human experimentation", "Guatemala", "Soshana Afroyim", "The New York Times", "Second Red Scare", "communist", "Harry Miller (auto racing)", "elliptical polarization", "1920", "Saskia Garel", "subsequent Nuremberg trials", "1931", "Public holidays in Russia", "1992", "1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State", "Texian Army", "Robert Livingston (actor)", "Peter Pelham (composer)", "2013", "Ali İhsan Sâbis", "Redd Foxx", "1953", "1933", "Roxanne Swentzell", "Dalton Trumbo", "Íñigo López de Mendoza, 4th Duke of the Infantado", "Maksim Bahdanovič", "Lilias Armstrong", "Hristu Cândroveanu", "Miss America 1959", "Qing invasion of Joseon", "Ashleigh Brilliant", "Nikolai Luzin", "Second Sino-Japanese War", "Mikoyan-Gurevich", "1932", "Susan Bullock", "Martin Taylor (footballer, born 1966)", "Jim Slater (ice hockey)", "1935", "1970", "Joel Chandler Harris", "Eleanor Parker", "1299", "1531", "2009", "2021", "Steve Taylor", "1883", "Patrick Moore", "Hong Taiji", "1985", "National Women's History Museum", "1268", "Joseph Pilates", "2010", "Tom Daschle", "December 9th Movement", "Robert Baldwin", "Claude Louis Berthollet", "Gustaf Dalén", "Los Angeles Times", "1870", "Palestine Liberation Organization", "Pope Clement IX", "1990", "Soviet Union", "Maddalena Laura Sirmen", "Joe Lando", "William Reynolds (actor)", "Alex Moulton", "National Heroes Day (Antigua and Barbuda)", "1652", "1961", "Council of Ireland", "Jerome Beatty Jr.", "Indian Air Force", "Gothic War (535–554)", "1926", "1966", "Bárbara Padilla", "P. B. S. Pinchback", "1669", "John Milton", "Fulton J. Sheen", "World War I", "Jesse Metcalfe", "Glorious Revolution", "1508", "Joseph Desha", "Dimitrios Trichopoulos", "Peter II of Portugal", "1938", "Space Shuttle Discovery", "Mayor of Pittsburgh", "The Mother of All Demos", "1925", "List of Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada", "Communist League of Struggle", "2019", "railway signal", "Daniel O. Fagunwa", "NLS (computer system)", "1830", "Leocadia", "1978", "Tanganyika (territory)", "Joan Blos", "World B. Free", "Ère des attentats", "Alain Poher", "1965", "Ida S. Scudder", "Pope Pius IV", "1987", "Spanish Constitution of 1931", "V. Dakshinamoorthy", "Germain Gagnon", "Ralph Bunche", "1892", "1858", "Nobel Peace Prize", "1919", "Blagoje Paunović", "Canadair North Star", "Gastón Gaudio", "COBOL", "Impeachment of Park Geun-hye", "John Cassavetes", "2002", "YMCA", "Neslihan Demir Darnel", "2001", "Mona Hanna-Attisha", "Michael Corcoran (musician)", "Siege of Béxar", "Laura Smulders", "Choi Min-ho", "Cem Ince", "Second Spanish Republic", "Sacvan Bercovitch", "Antonio José de Sucre", "1993", "Dan Hicks (singer)", "1667", "ESPN", "1824", "Indonesia", "Malcolm IV of Scotland", "rinderpest", "Central Powers", "1748", "1787", "Peter, Duke of Coimbra", "Riccardo Schicchi", "Qing dynasty", "General Electric", "2003", "Charles Léon Hammes", "John Wilbur (American football)", "1976", "1447", "Caroline Lucas", "Allison Smith (actress)", "Louisiana", "Tepeyac", "traffic light", "NBC News", "Leon Jaworski", "Thomas Andrews (scientist)", "Trans-Canada Air Lines Flight 810-9", "Wil Besseling", "2012", "Neil Innes", "birefringence", "Kostas Giannoulis", "Congress of the United States", "Park Geun-hye", "Shaughnessy Cohen", "American Revolutionary War", "1989", "Ryan Lomberg", "2000", "Diana Morgan (screenwriter)", "1927", "Armistice of Focșani", "1967", "Vaišvilkas", "1571", "Jenni Rivera", "1779", "Bruno Ruffo", "1437", "soap opera", "linear polarization", "Hope, British Columbia", "Armed Forces Day", "1971", "1904", "Battle of Marj Ardabil", "Albert Weisbord", "Kirk Douglas", "1952", "Augustus Quirinus Rivinus", "Frances Reid", "Heinrich Christian Friedrich Schumacher", "Wrestling Observer Newsletter", "Bob Hawke", "San Antonio, Texas", "Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda", "Empire of Japan", "Coronation Street", "Joe McGinniss", "1984", "Chancellor of the Exchequer", "Nasr ibn Sayyar", "Kecksburg UFO incident", "Battle of Ayacucho", "1242", "Joanna Trollope", "1845", "1907", "Ljubica Sokić", "Sonia Gandhi", "National Basketball Association", "1937", "Sylvia (singer)", "Mardy Fish", "Lieutenant Governor of Illinois", "Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi", "Norman Joseph Woodland", "1996", "Vincenzo Coronelli", "1963", "Joe Ausanio", "1565", "James Jesus Angleton", "Patriot (American Revolution)", "Lorenzo Wright", "1975", "1636", "Sidi Barrani", "Johannes B. Kerner", "Madagali", "Vénuste Niyongabo", "Barack Obama", "Tarabai", "Missionary", "Feast of the Conception of the Virgin Mary", "1893", "Rafael Sperafico", "Gertrude of Brunswick", "John Gabbert", "Rogers Plan", "2012 Mexico Learjet 25 crash", "1895", "Julius and Ethel Rosenberg", "1941", "Cold War", "William Lipscomb", "Female toplessness in Canada", "Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor", "1674", "Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby", "Bill Hartack", "Store norske leksikon", "Ibrahim Dossey", "1742", "Carl Wilhelm Scheele", "Thomas D. Clark", "McKayla Maroney", "Mark Riddell", "Chenghua Emperor", "1728", "Chiapas", "Ödön von Horváth", "Tamilla Abassova", "1867", "STS-116", "Mexico", "circular polarization", "Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War", "Nazi Germany", "Tim Moore (comedian)", "1949", "Beijing", "Harvey Barnes", "1969", "Meghna Heli Bridge", "1842", "1934", "Joan Armatrading", "1962", "1912", "1706", "Dave Harold", "1889", "Genocide Convention", "David Anthony Higgins", "Grace Hopper", "Francisco S. Carvajal", "Ubbo Emmius", "Joshua Bell", "Mat Latos", "2007", "1165", "Gemma Frisius", "Kenny Vance", "1891", "Nikki Giovanni", "Max Manus", "Broderick Crawford", "1957", "Julio Terrazas Sandoval", "Li Congrong", "Tanganyika (1961–1964)", "1871", "Billy Bremner", "Pierre Henry", "1806", "President of Italy", "Lori Greiner", "Georgia Gibbs", "Executive of the 1974 Northern Ireland Assembly", "1822", "Marleen Gorris", "Stefen Fangmeier", "Weird Tales", "Egypt", "Premier League", "Khazars", "Cross Mountain Mine disaster", "Joshua Sasse", "Madagali suicide bombings", "Liaqat Baloch", "Elmer Booth", "Brent Price", "Speedy Duncan", "Allan Jones (cricketer)", "Indian Army", "1876", "Hannah (biblical figure)", "Later Tang", "Constituent Assembly of India", "1625", "Irene Greenwood", "Laura Salverson", "Jan Křesadlo", "Old Style and New Style dates", "2022", "Joseon", "1929", "James Moody (saxophonist)", "1752", "Eva Nansen", "1798", "Ashleigh Brewer", "Beau Bridges", "Gene Barry", "Jovit Baldivino", "William A. Wellman", "Tip O'Neill", "Walter Liggett", "638", "Bohemond I (archbishop of Trier)", "Jean-Claude Juncker", "Martin de Porres", "Ferdinand Brunetière", "gas lamp", "1579", "Morton Downey Jr.", "Meissen", "1995", "Lithuanian Civil War (1431–35)", "Dave Hilton Jr.", "Paul Simon (politician)", "Bushehr", "First Intifada", "President-elect of the United States", "Pit Martin", "Yasuhiko Asaka", "Fabio Artico", "Cliff Hagan", "President of Guatemala", "Fiona MacDonald", "Tom Kite", "933", "Fabian Birkowski", "Harry Gold", "Jean-Pierre Thiollet", "Michael Carver, Baron Carver", "Brian Bell", "Sergius I of Constantinople", "Minister (Christianity)", "Edith Sitwell", "Dariusz Dudka", "1942", "Prime Minister of Luxembourg", "Israeli–Palestinian conflict", "Somalia", "1875", "Jakob Dylan", "Action T4", "hypertext", "1909", "Augustin-Jean Fresnel", "Felicity Huffman", "Chamber of Representatives (Belgium)", "1432", "Dennis Dunaway", "Nicholas Reade", "1873", "Peter Fourier", "Doctors' Trial", "Fabrice Santoro", "Cuba", "Juvenal Juvêncio", "Constituent Cortes", "Mark McMorris", "Integrated Truss Structure", "2006", "Sweden", "1561", "American Civil War", "Dov Shilansky", "Yury Glazkov", "James C. Klotter", "1900", "Alan Ridout", "Geoff Barrow", "African American", "1905", "Rod Blagojevich", "Alexander Papagos", "Elisabeth Schwarzkopf", "1998", "1917", "730", "Jaak Jõerüüt", "Richard Lovelace (poet)", "1493", "Central America", "André Milhoux", "Montreal", "Jason Dozzell", "1890", "1983", "Norm Sloan", "Petr Nedvěd", "1986", "MyKayla Skinner", "1745", "1392", "Vigan", "David Currie, Baron Currie of Marylebone", "writer", "Simon Helberg", "1641", "Eloise Jarvis McGraw", "Ryūzō Sejima", "2024", "Operation Compass", "UPI", "Gaza Strip", "Hollywood blacklist", "Adamawa State", "Nathalie De Vos", "Prime Minister of Pakistan", "Grand Duke of Lithuania", "Teofilo Folengo", "Karl Blossfeldt", "Ashmyany", "Ian Hornak", "1897", "Annick Lambrecht", "Begum Rokeya", "1688", "Briceville, Tennessee", "United States Senate", "Langston Galloway", "Béla Nagy Abodi", "Mehmet Ali Birand", "Berenice Abbott", "1955", "Hannes Kolehmainen", "Otis Birdsong", "Bernard Zweers", "Judi Dench", "Laird Cregar", "Ryder Hesjedal", "2005", "Jean de Brunhoff", "Richard O'Connor", "19th Operations Group", "Name days in Sweden", "Klaus Fuchs", "1901", "748", "1956", "Mario Cantone", "Christmas Eve", "International Space Station", "Canibus", "Mary Ann Mobley", "Óscar Humberto Mejía Víctores", "Aiko Uemura", "Auguste Vaillant", "Berton Churchill", "Kurt Angle", "Peter Kropotkin", "Conchita Supervía", "Space Shuttle program", "1882", "Gordon Zahn", "1991", "Birds Eye", "Battle of Reading (1688)", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "1930", "Jonathan Sumption", "2014", "1968", "1793", "Roy Rubin (basketball)", "William P. Rogers", "National Assembly bombing", "Shayne Graham", "George Blewett", "Douglas Corrigan", "Battle of Nanking", "1902", "India", "1482", "Luzon", "André Randall", "Gabriel Narutowicz", "Antoine Étienne de Tousard", "Juan Samuel", "Diāna Ņikitina", "1973", "Louella Parsons", "Aeroflot", "Peter O'Mara", "Mary Leakey", "Railway semaphore signal", "Battle of Jerusalem", "William Whiston", "Chamras Saewataporn", "List of Knesset speakers", "United States Bureau of Mines", "Diva Futura", "Naruhito", "536", "Indo-Pakistani War of 1971", "Henk ten Cate", "1944", "Clancy Eccles", "1997", "Robert Sheckley", "William Watson (priest)", "Tanzania", "Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden", "1868", "1837", "2003 Red Square bombing", "Lance Krall", "Military history of Italy during World War II", "Junior Wells", "Joe Kelley", "William Turnage", "Ross Harrington", "Toni Cade Bambara", "Ángel Guirado", "Perry Miller", "1835", "1861", "Jim Turnesa", "1911", "Margaret Brundage", "Freddy Martin", "Jermaine Beckford", "Raphaël Rouquier", "Almeida Garrett", "al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami", "Gerald Henderson Jr.", "World War II", "Dmitry Merezhkovsky", "1960", "Švitrigaila", "1948", "smallpox", "Denise Hannema", "Bastian Swillims", "List of members of the European Court of Justice", "1856", "optical rotation", "Mackenzie Blackwood", "David Akers", "Tré Cool", "Georges Dufrénoy", "Commonwealth of the Philippines", "Saima Wazed", "1544", "Ryan Grant (running back)", "1945", "Milt Campbell", "Norman Breslow", "2017", "Jean Mermoz", "1980", "Frederick II, Elector Palatine", "1974", "1988", "Sergey Konenkov", "Palace of Westminster", "Finland", "Feroz Khan Noon", "Tiananmen Square", "Nanjing", "Edwin Sandys (died 1629)", "Belisarius", "1775", "James II of England", "Battle of Sidi Barrani", "Dobroslav Paraga", "1117", "computer mouse", "Reuters", "Governor of Illinois", "Black September in Jordan", "Jolene Purdy", "1721", "Kingdom of Romania", "Ladislav Smoljak", "1610", "1959", "1914", "1956 Anadyr Li-2 crash", "Antigua and Barbuda", "Pilates", "poet", "Umayyad", "Douglas Fairbanks Jr.", "Michael Nouri", "West Bank", "Charles Rosen" ]
8,591	Diaspora studies	Diaspora studies is an academic field established in the late 20th century to study dispersed ethnic populations, which are often termed diaspora peoples. The usage of the term diaspora carries the connotation of forced resettlement, due to expulsion, coercion, slavery, racism, or war, especially nationalist conflicts. ==Academic institutes== The International Institute for Diasporic and Transcultural Studies (IIDTS) — a transnational institute incorporating Jean Moulin University (Lyons, France), the University of Cyprus, Sun Yat-sen University (Guangzhou, China) and Liverpool Hope University (UK) — is a dedicated research network operating in a transdisciplinary logic and focused on cultural representation (and auto-representation) of diasporic communities throughout the world. The institute sponsors the trilingual publication Transtext(e)s-Transcultures: A Journal of Global Cultural Studies. Nehru University's School of International Studies, www.jnu.ac.in has a strong research programme, DIMP (Diaspora and International Programme) and its faculty run a network www.odi.in (Organisation for Diaspora Initiatives), an international network of higher academic researchers focused on studying Diaspora from International Perspective and examining diaspora as a resource in international relations. ODI publishes a research journal www.tandfonline/rdst with Routledge, London. Golong Gilig Institute of Javanese Diaspora Studies, Indonesia. == Select Bibliography == Hall, Stuart (1990). "Cultural Identity and Diaspora." From Jonathan Rutherford, e.d, Identity: Community, Culture, and Difference (Lawrence & Wishart), pp. 222-37. Available online. (Also available here .)	[ "Diaspora politics", "Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)", "racism", "ethnicity", "Lyon", "connotation", "Liverpool Hope University", "nationalism", "diaspora", "diaspora peoples", "Guangzhou", "Sun Yat-sen University", "University of Cyprus", "Jean Moulin University" ]
8,592	Domitian	During the attack, Stephanus and Domitian had struggled on the floor. Dio Cassius states that Stephanus was killed when those who were not part of the assassination rushed upon him. Domitian's body was carried away on a common bier and unceremoniously cremated by his nurse Phyllis. Later, she took the emperor's ashes to the Flavian Temple and mingled them with those of his niece, Julia. He was 44 years old. As had been foretold, his death came at midday. Cassius Dio, writing nearly a hundred years later, suggests that the assassination was improvised, while Suetonius implies it was a well-organized conspiracy, citing Stephanus' feigned injury and claiming that the doors to the servants' quarters had been locked prior to the attack and that a sword Domitian kept concealed beneath his pillow as a last line of personal protection against a would-be assassin, had also been removed beforehand. Dio included Domitia Longina among the conspirators, but in light of her attested devotion to Domitian—even years after her husband had died—her involvement in the plot seems highly unlikely. Despite his political experience, this was a remarkable choice. Nerva was old and childless, and had spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination. According to Cassius Dio, the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination, suggesting that he was at least aware of the plot. He does not appear in Suetonius' version of the events, but this may be understandable, since his works were published under Nerva's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian. To suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder would have been less than sensitive. but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke. The Senate nonetheless rejoiced at the death of Domitian, and immediately following Nerva's accession as Emperor, passed damnatio memoriae on Domitian's memory; his coins and statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records. Domitian and, over a century later, Publius Septimius Geta were the only emperors known to have officially received a damnatio memoriae, though others may have received de facto ones. In many instances, existing portraits of Domitian, such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs, were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva, which allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material. Yet the order of the Senate was only partially executed in Rome, and wholly disregarded in most of the provinces outside Italy. As a compensation measure, the Praetorian Guard demanded the execution of Domitian's assassins, which Nerva refused. Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus, and replaced him with a former commander, Casperius Aelianus. Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs continued to loom over Nerva's reign, and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October 97, when members of the Praetorian Guard, led by Casperius Aelianus, laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians. ==Flavian family tree== ==Legacy== ===Ancient sources=== The classic view of Domitian is usually negative, since most of the antique sources were related to the Senatorial or aristocratic class, with which Domitian had notoriously difficult relations. The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by the historian Suetonius, who was born during the reign of Vespasian, and published his works under Emperor Hadrian (117–138). His De vita Caesarum is the source of much of what is known of Domitian. Although his text is predominantly negative, it neither exclusively condemns nor praises Domitian, and asserts that his rule started well, but gradually declined into terror. The biography is problematic, however, in that it appears to contradict itself with regards to Domitian's rule and personality, at the same time presenting him as a conscientious, moderate man, and as a decadent libertine. Modern historians consider this highly implausible however, noting that malicious rumours such as those concerning Domitia's alleged infidelity were eagerly repeated by post-Domitianic authors, and used to highlight the hypocrisy of a ruler publicly preaching a return to Augustan morals, while privately indulging in excesses and presiding over a corrupt court. Nevertheless, the account of Suetonius has dominated imperial historiography for centuries. Although Tacitus is usually considered to be the most reliable author of this era, his views on Domitian are complicated by the fact that his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola, may have been a personal enemy of the Emperor. In his biographical work Agricola, Tacitus maintains that Agricola was forced into retirement because his triumph over the Caledonians highlighted Domitian's own inadequacy as a military commander. Several modern authors such as Dorey have argued the opposite: that Agricola was in fact a close friend of Domitian, and that Tacitus merely sought to distance his family from the fallen dynasty once Nerva was in power. Tacitus' major historical works, including The Histories and Agricola's biography, were all written and published under Domitian's successors, Nerva (96–98) and Trajan (98–117). Unfortunately, the part of Tacitus' Histories dealing with the reign of the Flavian dynasty is almost entirely lost. His views on Domitian survive through brief comments in its first five books, and the short but highly negative characterization in Agricola in which he severely criticizes Domitian's military endeavours. Nevertheless, Tacitus admits his debt to the Flavians with regard to his own public career. Other influential 2nd century authors include Juvenal and Pliny the Younger, the latter of whom was a friend of Tacitus and in 100 delivered his famous Panegyricus Traiani before Trajan and the Roman Senate, exalting the new era of restored freedom while condemning Domitian as a tyrant. Juvenal savagely satirized the Domitianic court in his Satires, depicting the Emperor and his entourage as corrupt, violent and unjust. As a consequence, the anti-Domitianic tradition was already well established by the end of the 2nd century, and by the 3rd century, even expanded upon by early Church historians, who identified Domitian as an early persecutor of Christians, such as in the Acts of John. === Modern revisionism === Over the course of the 20th century, Domitian's military, administrative and economic policies were re-evaluated. Hostile views of Domitian had been propagated until archeological and numismatic advances brought renewed attention to his reign, and necessitated a revision of the literary tradition established by Tacitus and Pliny. It would be nearly a hundred years after Stéphane Gsell's 1894 Essai sur le règne de l'empereur Domitien however, before any new, book-length studies were published. For the majority of his reign, there was no widespread dissatisfaction with his policies. His harshness was limited to a highly vocal minority, who exaggerated his despotism in favor of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty that followed. In 1930, Ronald Syme argued for a complete reassessment of Domitian's financial policy, which had been largely viewed as a disaster. His economic program, which was rigorously efficient, maintained the Roman currency at a standard it would never again achieve. Domitian's government nonetheless exhibited totalitarian characteristics. As Emperor, he saw himself as the new Augustus, an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of Flavian renaissance. He became personally involved in all branches of the government and successfully prosecuted corruption among public officials. The dark side of his censorial power involved a restriction in freedom of speech, and an increasingly oppressive attitude toward the Roman Senate. He punished libel with exile or death and, due to his suspicious nature, increasingly accepted information from informers to bring false charges of treason if necessary. Despite his vilification by contemporary historians, Domitian's administration provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from his. Much more than a "gloomy coda to the...1st century", the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign that Theodor Mommsen described as a somber but intelligent despotism.	[ "Damnatio memoriae", "Aquila (Roman)", "Sabine", "Withdrawal (military)", "Epirus (Roman province)", "aedile", "Piazza Navona", "Roman censor", "Caligula", "equestrian (Roman)", "Junia Lepida", "Lucius Nonius Calpurnius Torquatus Asprenas", "Khnum", "centurion", "Sarmatians", "Cancelleria Reliefs", "Praefectus urbi", "Treveri", "Augury", "Odeon of Domitian", "Tiberius", "Suetonius", "Cassius Dio", "Stéphane Gsell", "Titus Flavius Petro", "Aqua Traiana", "Gnaeus Julius Agricola", "s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 3", "Publius Septimius Geta", "Afghanistan", "Marcus Asinius Atratinus", "Otho", "Britannicus", "Temple of Vespasian and Titus", "suffect consul", "royal court", "Illyricum (Roman province)", "Princeps", "Iudaea Province", "Pisonian conspiracy", "Aulus Bucius Lappius Maximus", "delatores", "Capitoline Games", "s:Histories (Tacitus)", "apotheosis", "democracy", "Titus Flavius Sabinus (consul AD 82)", "Cornelius Fuscus", "siege", "bodyguard", "Flavian dynasty", "imperium", 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4", "Pompey", "Roman Empire", "census", "Augustus", "Baiae", "s:The War of the Jews/Book VII", "Capitoline Museums", "Terracina", "Egypt", "Quirinal Hill", "First Jewish–Roman War", "Roman Republic", "Azerbaijan", "bias", "Benevolent dictatorship", "house arrest", "denarius", "Battle of Mons Graupius", "Titus Petronius Secundus", "Roman Britain", "Jupiter (mythology)", "Premature burial", "List of early imperial Roman consuls", "Quintus Volusius Saturninus (consul 92)", "moral authority", "Arval Brethren", "Germania Superior", "Forum Romanum", "Nicopolis", "Domitilla the Younger", "assassination", "Athletic sport", "Palace of Domitian", "Domitia Longina", "Raetia", "conflict of interest", "Titus Flavius Clemens (consul)", "cremation", "Statius", "pontifex maximus", "Nervan-Antonian dynasty", "Legio XIV Gemina", "cartouche", "Hadrian", "Satires of Juvenal", "Cohortes urbanae", "devaluation", "File:Esna Tempel 36.jpg", "Cultural depictions of Domitian", "damnatio memoriae", "Arch of 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"literature", "Gaius Manlius Valens", "Mucianus", "Commodus", "Sextus Pompeius Collega", "aegis", "autocracy", "Rabirius (architect)", "auxilia", "Hispania Tarraconensis", "Rhaetia", "edict", "nepotism", "Grain supply to the city of Rome", "Limes Germanicus", "Roman governor", "Suebi", "Titus Flavius Norbanus", "Legio XXI Rapax", "Praetorian Guard", "Second Battle of Bedriacum", "client state", "Roman legion", "Esna", "Imperial Villa of Vicarello", "Rhine", "Danube", "Villa of Domitian", "Rembrandt", "River Forth", "Germania", "Ireland" ]
8,593	Damascus steel	Damascus steel (Arabic: فولاذ دمشقي) refers to the high carbon crucible steel of the blades of historical swords forged using the wootz process in the Near East, characterized by distinctive patterns of banding and mottling reminiscent of flowing water, sometimes in a "ladder" or "rose" pattern. "Damascus steel" developed a high reputation for being tough, resistant to shattering, and capable of being honed to a sharp, resilient edge. The term "Damascus steel" traces its roots to the medieval city of Damascus, Syria, perhaps as an early example of branding. However, there is now a general agreement that many of the swords, or at least the steel ingots from which they were forged, were imported from elsewhere. Originally, they came from either Southern India, where the steel-making techniques used were first developed, or from Khorasan, Iran. The methods used to create medieval Damascus steel died out by the late 19th century. Modern steelmakers and metallurgists have studied it extensively, developing theories on how it was produced, and significant advances have been made. While the exact pattern of medieval Damascus steel has not been reproduced, many similar versions have been made, using similar techniques of lamination, banding, and patterning. These modern reproductions have also been called Damascus steel or "Modern Damascus". == Naming == The origin of the name "Damascus Steel" is contentious. Islamic scholars al-Kindi (full name Abu Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, circa 800 CE – 873 CE) and al-Biruni (full name Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni, circa 973 CE – 1048 CE) both wrote about swords and steel made for swords, based on their surface appearance, geographical location of production or forging, or the name of the smith, and each mentions "damascene" or "damascus" swords to some extent. Drawing from al-Kindi and al-Biruni, there are three potential sources for the term "Damascus" in the context of steel: Al-Kindi called swords produced and forged in Damascus as Damascene but these swords were not described as having a pattern in the steel. Al-Biruni mentions a sword-smith called Damasqui who made swords of crucible steel. The most common explanation is that steel is named after Damascus, the capital city of Syria and one of the largest cities in the ancient Levant. In Damascus, where many of these swords were sold, there is no evidence of local production of crucible steel, though there is evidence of imported steel being forged into swords in Damascus. got their name. ==History== Damascus blades were first manufactured in the Near East from ingots of wootz steel that were imported from Southern India (present-day Telangana Tamil Nadu and Kerala). Al Kindi states that crucible steel was also made in Khorasan in addition to steel that was imported. In addition to being made into blades in India (particularly Golconda) and Sri Lanka, wootz / ukku was exported as ingots to various production centers, including Khorasan, and Isfahan, where the steel was used to produce blades, as well as across the Middle East. The Arabs introduced the wootz steel to Damascus, where a weapons industry thrived. From the 3rd century to the 17th century, steel ingots were being shipped to the Middle East from South India. ==Cultural significance== The reputation and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, such as the ability to cut through a rifle barrel or to cut a hair falling across the blade. Although many types of modern steel outperform ancient Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the production process made the blades extraordinary for their time, as Damascus steel was very flexible and very hard at the same time. In fact, extant examples of patterned crucible steel swords were often tempered in such a way as to retain a bend after being flexed past their elastic limit. The blade that Beowulf used to kill Grendel's mother in the story Beowulf was described in some Modern English translations as "damascened". It was previously incorrectly believed that the steel was hardened by thrusting it six times in the back and thighs of a slave. The misconception originated in an article in the November 4, 1894 issue of the Chicago Tribune titled Tempering Damascus Blades. The note asserts that a certain "Prof. von Eulenspiegel" found a scroll "among the ruins of ancient Tyre"; "Eulenspiegel" is the name of a legendary prankster of medieval Germany. == Material and mechanical properties == Verhoeven, Peterson, and Baker completed mechanical characterization of a Damascus sword, performing tensile testing as well as hardness testing. They found that the Damascus steel was somewhat comparable to hot-rolled steel bars with 1.0 wt% carbon with regards to mechanical properties. The average yield strength of 740 MPa was higher than the hot-rolled steel yield strength of 550 MPa, and the average tensile strength of 1070 MPa was higher than the hot-rolled steel tensile strength of 965 MPa. These results are likely due to the finer pearlite spacing in the Damascus steel, refining the microstructure. The elongation and reduction in area were also slightly higher than the hot-rolled steel averages. Rockwell hardness measurements of the Damascus steel ranged from 62 to 67. These mechanical properties were consistent with the expected properties from the constituent steels of the material, falling between the upper and lower bounds created by the original steels. ===Folding=== Another study investigated the properties of Damascus steel produced from 1075 steel and 15N20 steel, which have approximately equal amounts of carbon, but the 15N20 steel notably has 2 wt% nickel. The 1075 steel is known for high strength, but low toughness, with a pearlitic microstructure, and the 15N20 steel is known for high toughness with a ferritic microstructure. The mechanical properties of the resultant laminate Damascus steel were characterized, in samples with 54 folds in production as well as samples with 250 folds. Charpy V-notch impact tests showed that the 54-fold samples had an impact toughness of 4.36 J/cm2, while the 250-fold samples had an impact toughness of 5.49 J/cm2. Tensile testing showed that yield strengths and elongations for both samples were similar, at around 475 MPa and 3.2% respectively. However, the maximum strength of the 54-fold samples was notably lower than that of the 250-fold samples (750 MPa vs. 860 MPa). This study showed that the folding process has a significant impact on the mechanical properties of the steel, with increasing toughness as fold numbers increase. They also compare mechanical properties of the Damascus to the original materials, finding that the properties of the Damascus steel lie in between those of the two constituent steels, which is consistent with composite material properties. ===Lamination and banding=== The processing and design of the laminations and bands can have a significant effect on mechanical properties as well. Regardless of tempering temperature and the liquid the steel is quenched in, the impact strength of Damascus steel where the impact is perpendicular to the band orientation is significantly higher than the impact strength where the impact is parallel to the band orientation. This is due to the failure and fracture mechanisms in Damascus steel, where cracks propagate fastest along the interfaces between the two constituent steels. When impact is directed parallel to the bands, cracks are able to propagate easily along the lamination interfaces. When impact is directed perpendicular to the bands, the lamination interfaces are effectively protected, deflecting the cracks and increasing the energy required for cracks to propagate through the material. Band orientation should be chosen to protect against deformation and increase toughness. ==Metallurgical process== Identification of crucible "Damascus" steel based on metallurgical structures is difficult, as crucible steel cannot be reliably distinguished from other types of steel by just one criterion, so the following distinguishing characteristics of crucible steel must be taken into consideration: The crucible steel was liquid, leading to a relatively homogeneous steel content with virtually no slag The formation of dendrites is a typical characteristic The segregation of elements into dendritic and interdendritic regions throughout the sample By these definitions, modern recreations suggesting how the nanotubes were formed in the steel. Some experts expect to discover such nanotubes in more relics as they are analyzed more closely. both of which were forms of either high- and low-carbon bloomery iron, or low-carbon bloom with cast iron. In such a crucible recipe, no added plant material is necessary to provide the required carbon content, and as such any nanowires of cementite or carbon nanotubes would not have been the result of plant fibers. ===Modern research=== A research team in Germany published a report in 2006 revealing nanowires and carbon nanotubes in a blade forged from Damascus steel, although John Verhoeven of Iowa State University in Ames suggests that the research team which reported nanowires in crucible steel was seeing cementite, which can itself exist as rods, so there might not be any carbon nanotubes in the rod-like structure. == Loss of the technique == Production of these patterned swords gradually declined, ceasing by around 1900, with the last account being from 1903 in Sri Lanka documented by Coomaraswamy. ===Modern conjecture=== The discovery of alleged carbon nanotubes in the Damascus steel's composition, if true, could support the hypothesis that wootz production was halted due to a loss of ore sources or technical knowledge, since the precipitation of carbon nanotubes probably resulted from a specific process that may be difficult to replicate should the production technique or raw materials used be significantly altered. The claim that carbon nanowires were found has not been confirmed by further studies, and there is contention among academics about whether the nanowires observed are actually stretched rafts or rods formed out of cementite spheroids. == Modern reproduction == Recreating Damascus steel has been attempted by archaeologists using experimental archaeology. Many have attempted to discover or reverse-engineer the process by which it was made. === Moran: billet welding === Since the well-known technique of pattern welding—the forge-welding of a blade from several differing pieces—produced surface patterns similar to those found on Damascus blades, some modern blacksmiths were erroneously led to believe that the original Damascus blades were made using this technique. However today, the difference between wootz steel and pattern welding is fully documented and well understood. Pattern-welded steel has been referred to as "Damascus steel" since 1973 when Bladesmith William F. Moran unveiled his "Damascus knives" at the Knifemakers' Guild Show. This "Modern Damascus" is made from several types of steel and iron slices welded together to form a billet, and currently, the term "Damascus" (although technically incorrect) is widely accepted to describe modern pattern-welded steel blades in the trade. The patterns vary depending on how the smith works the billet. === Verhoeven and Pendray: crucible === J. D. Verhoeven and A. H. Pendray published an article on their attempts to reproduce the elemental, structural, and visual characteristics of Damascus steel. They found that certain carbide forming elements, one of which was vanadium, did not disperse until the steel reached higher temperatures than those needed to dissolve the carbides. Therefore, a high heat treatment could remove the visual evidence of patterning associated with carbides but did not remove the underlying patterning of the carbide forming elements. A subsequent lower-temperature heat treatment, at a temperature at which the carbides were again stable, could recover the structure by the binding of carbon by those elements and causing the segregation of cementite spheroids to those locations. Thermal cycling after forging allows for the aggregation of carbon onto these carbide formers, as carbon migrates much more rapidly than the carbide formers. Progressive thermal cycling leads to the coarsening of the cementite spheroids via Ostwald ripening. === Anosov, Wadsworth and Sherby: bulat === In Russia, chronicles record the use of a material known as bulat steel to make highly valued weapons, including swords, knives, and axes. Tsar Michael of Russia reportedly had a bulat helmet made for him in 1621. The exact origin or the manufacturing process of the bulat is unknown, but it was likely imported to Russia via Persia and Turkestan, and it was similar and possibly the same as Damascus steel. Pavel Petrovich Anosov successfully reproduced the process in the mid-19th century. Wadsworth and Sherby also researched the reproduction of bulat steel and published their results in 1980. === Additional research === A team of researchers based at the Technical University of Dresden that used x-rays and electron microscopy to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of cementite nanowires and carbon nanotubes. German researchers have investigated the possibility of manufacturing high-strength Damascus steel through laser additive manufacturing techniques as opposed to the traditional folding and forging. The resulting samples exhibited superior mechanical properties to ancient Damascus steels, with a tensile strength of 1300 MPa and 10% elongation. === In gun making === Prior to the early 20th century, all shotgun barrels were forged by heating narrow strips of iron and steel and shaping them around a mandrel. This process was referred to as "laminating" or "Damascus".	[ "Telangana", "wootz", "Tempered steel", "Ostwald ripening", "Near East", "iron carbide", "Modern English", "Proof test", "Tamahagane steel", "University of California at Davis", "Michael of Russia", "Hot rolled steel", "Fracture mechanics", "Chicago Tribune", "Charpy impact test", "Colt M1911", "carbon nanotube", "Hardness Testing", "Middle East", "Isfahan", "Crucible steel", "Technische Universität Dresden", "Allotropes of iron", "Till Eulenspiegel", "brand", "manganese", "experimental archaeology", "Germany", "smelting", "Yazd", "Elastic Limit", "Toledo steel", "sword", "Wootz steel", "Merv", "Damascus", "Damask", "Tamil Nadu", "Knifemakers' Guild", "Mokume-gane", "tensile testing", "Reverse engineering", "x-ray", "Noric steel", "American Bladesmith Society", "cementite", "Dendrite (crystal)", "vanadium", "Southern India", "Pearlite", "Microalloyed steel", "Biomass (ecology)", "Pavel Petrovich Anosov", "Levant", "Bladesmith", "Rockwell scale", "Khorasan Province", "al-Biruni", "al-Kindi", "Kerala", "pearlite", "Syria", "ingot", "crucible steel", "Eutectoid", "welded", "Arabic", "electron microscopy", "Grendel's mother", "pattern welding", "Beowulf", "nanowires", "bulat steel", "slag", "mandrel", "Selective laser melting", "Iran", "William F. Moran (knifemaker)", "Bulat steel", "Billet (semi-finished product)", "Beowulf (hero)", "carburizing", "Li Shizhen", "carbon nanotubes", "The New York Times", "blade", "Ananda Coomaraswamy", "tungsten", "wootz steel", "Laminated steel blade", "Annealing (metallurgy)" ]
8,594	Stab-in-the-back myth	The stab-in-the-back myth (, , ) was an antisemitic and anti-communist conspiracy theory that was widely believed and promulgated in Germany after 1918. It maintained that the Imperial German Army did not lose World War I on the battlefield, but was instead betrayed by certain citizens on the home front – especially Jews, revolutionary socialists who fomented strikes and labour unrest, and republican politicians who had overthrown the House of Hohenzollern in the German Revolution of 1918–1919. Advocates of the myth denounced the German government leaders who had signed the Armistice of 11 November 1918 as the "November criminals" (). When Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power in 1933, they made the conspiracy theory an integral part of their official history of the 1920s, portraying the Weimar Republic as the work of the "November criminals" who had "stabbed the nation in the back" in order to seize power. Nazi propaganda depicted Weimar Germany as "a morass of corruption, degeneracy, national humiliation, ruthless persecution of the honest 'national opposition'fourteen years of rule by Jews, Marxists, and 'cultural Bolsheviks', who had at last been swept away by the National Socialist movement under Hitler and the victory of the 'national revolution' of 1933". Historians inside and outside of Germany, whilst recognising that economic and morale collapse on the home front was a factor in German defeat, unanimously reject the myth. Historians and military theorists point to lack of further Imperial German Army reserves, the danger of invasion from the south, and the overwhelming of German forces on the western front by more numerous Allied forces, particularly after the entrance of the United States into the war, as evidence that Germany had already lost the war militarily by late 1918. ==Background== In the later part of World War I, the Supreme High Command (Oberste Heeresleitung, OHL) controlled not only the military but also a large part of the economy through the Auxiliary Services Act of December 1916, which under the Hindenburg Programme aimed at a total mobilisation of the economy for war production. In order to implement the Act, however, Generalfeldmarschall Paul von Hindenburg and his Chief-of-Staff, First Quartermaster General Erich Ludendorff had to make significant concessions to labour unions and the Reichstag. Hindenburg and Ludendorff threatened to resign in July 1917 if the Emperor did not remove Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg. He had lost his usefulness to them when he lost the confidence of the Reichstag after it passed the Reichstag Peace Resolution calling for a negotiated peace without annexations. Bethmann Hollweg resigned and was replaced by Georg Michaelis, whose appointment was supported by the OHL. After only 100 days in office, however, he became the first chancellor to be ousted by the Reichstag. After years of fighting and having incurred millions of casualties, Britain and France were wary about an invasion of Germany with its unknown consequences. However the Allies had been amply resupplied by the United States, which had fresh armies ready for combat. On the Western Front, although the Hindenburg Line had been penetrated and German forces were in retreat, the Allied armies had only crossed the 1914 German frontier in a few places in Alsace-Lorraine (see below map). Meanwhile, on the Eastern Front, Germany had already won its war against Russia, concluded with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. In the West, Germany had successes with the Spring Offensive of 1918 but the attack had run out of momentum, the Allies had regrouped and in the Hundred Days Offensive retaken lost ground with no sign of stopping. Contributing to the Dolchstoßlegende, the overall failure of the German offensive was blamed on strikes in the arms industry at a critical moment, leaving soldiers without an adequate supply of materiel. The strikes were seen as having been instigated by treasonous elements, with the Jews taking most of the blame. On 30 October the Ottoman Empire capitulated at Mudros. In this way, Ludendorff was setting up the republican politicians – many of them Socialists – who would be brought into the government, and would become the parties that negotiated the armistice with the Allies, as the scapegoats to take the blame for losing the war, instead of himself and Hindenburg. Normally, during wartime an armistice is negotiated between the military commanders of the hostile forces, but Hindenburg and Ludendorff had instead handed this task to the new civilian government. The attitude of the military was "[T]he parties of the left have to take on the odium of this peace. The storm of anger will then turn against them," after which the military could step in again to ensure that things would once again be run "in the old way". On 5 October, the German Chancellor, Prince Maximilian of Baden, contacted U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, indicating that Germany was willing to accept his Fourteen Points as a basis for discussions. Wilson's response insisted that Germany institute parliamentary democracy, give up the territory it had gained to that point in the war, and significantly disarm, including giving up the German High Seas Fleet. On 26 October, Ludendorff was dismissed from his post by the Emperor and replaced by Lieutenant General Wilhelm Groener, who started to prepare the withdrawal and demobilisation of the army. On 11 November 1918, the representatives of the newly formed Weimar Republic – created after the Revolution of 1918–1919 forced the abdication of the Kaiser – signed the armistice that ended hostilities. The military commanders had arranged it so that they would not be blamed for suing for peace, but the republican politicians associated with the armistice would: the signature on the armistice document was of Matthias Erzberger, who was later murdered for his alleged treason. In his autobiography, Ludendorff's successor Groener stated, "It suited me just fine when the army and the Supreme Command remained as guiltless as possible in these wretched truce negotiations, from which nothing good could be expected". Given that the heavily censored German press had carried nothing but news of victories throughout the war, and that Germany itself was unoccupied while occupying a great deal of foreign territory, it was no wonder that the German public was mystified by the request for an armistice, especially as they did not know that their military leaders had asked for it, nor did they know that the German Army had been in full retreat after their last offensive had failed. Thus the conditions were set for the "stab-in-the-back myth", in which Hindenburg and Ludendorff were held to be blameless, the German Army was seen as undefeated on the battlefield, and the republican politicians – especially the Socialists – were accused of betraying Germany. Further blame was laid at their feet after they signed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which led to territorial losses and serious financial pain for the shaky new republic, including a crippling schedule of reparation payments. Conservatives, nationalists, and ex-military leaders began to speak critically about the peace and Weimar politicians, socialists, communists, and Jews. Even Catholics were viewed with suspicion by some due to supposed fealty to the Pope and their presumed lack of national loyalty and patriotism. It was claimed that these groups had not sufficiently supported the war and had played a role in selling out Germany to its enemies. These November Criminals, or those who seemed to benefit from the newly formed Weimar Republic, were seen to have "stabbed them in the back" on the home front, by either criticising German nationalism, instigating unrest and mounting strikes in the critical military industries, or by profiteering. These actions were believed to have deprived Germany of almost certain victory at the eleventh hour. ==Assessments of Germany's situation in late 1918== ===Contemporary=== When consulted on terms for an armistice in October 1918, Douglas Haig, commander of the British and Commonwealth forces on the western front, stated that "Germany is not broken in the military sense. During the last weeks her forces have withdrawn fighting very bravely and in excellent order". Ferdinand Foch, Supreme Allied Commander, agreed with this assessment, stating that "the German army could undoubtedly take up a new position, and we could not prevent it". When asked about how long he believed it would take for German forces to be pushed across the Rhine, Foch responded "Maybe three, maybe four or five months, who knows?". In private correspondence Haig was more sanguine. In a mid-October letter to his wife he stated that "I think we have their army beaten now". Aerial reconnaissance also highlighted the lack of any prepared fortified positions beyond the Hindenburg line. Geiss further linked this threat to Germany's borders with the fact that the German revolutionary movement emerged first in the lands that were most threatened by the new invasion threatBavaria and Saxony. In Geiss's account, this led to the two competing movements for peaceone "from above" of establishment figures that wished to use the peace to preserve the status quo, and one "from below" that wished to use the peace to establish a socialist, democratic state. Although Roskill also balanced this by saying that what he characterised as "the triumph of unarmed forces" (i.e., pressure from the German civilian population for peace under the influence of the Allied blockade) was a factor in Allied victory alongside that of armed forces including naval, land, and air forces. German scholar Boris Barth, in contrast to Steigmann-Gall, implies that Doehring did not actually use the term, but spoke only of 'betrayal'. Barth traces the first documented use to a centrist political meeting in the Munich Löwenbräukeller on 2 November 1918, in which Ernst Müller-Meiningen, a member of the Progressive People's Party in the Reichstag, used the term to exhort his listeners to hold out after Kurt Eisner of the radical left Independent Social Democratic Party had predicted an imminent revolution: As long as the front holds, we damned well have the duty to hold out in the homeland. We would have to be ashamed of ourselves in front of our children and grandchildren if we attacked the battle front from the rear and gave it a dagger-stab (wenn wir der Front in den Rücken fielen und ihr den Dolchstoß versetzten). However, the widespread dissemination and acceptance of the "stab-in-the-back" myth came about through its use by Germany's highest military echelon. In Spring 1919, Max Bauer – an army colonel who had been the primary adviser to Ludendorff on politics and economics – published Could We Have Avoided, Won, or Broken Off the War?, in which he wrote that "[The war] was lost only and exclusively through the failure of the homeland." The birth of the specific term "stab-in-the-back" itself can possibly be dated to the autumn of 1919, when Ludendorff was dining with the head of the British Military Mission in Berlin, British general Sir Neill Malcolm. Malcolm asked Ludendorff why he thought Germany lost the war. Ludendorff replied with his list of excuses, including that the home front failed the army. Malcolm asked him: "Do you mean, General, that you were stabbed in the back?" Ludendorff's eyes lit up and he leapt upon the phrase like a dog on a bone. "Stabbed in the back?" he repeated. "Yes, that's it, exactly, we were stabbed in the back". And thus was born a legend which has never entirely perished. The phrase was to Ludendorff's liking, and he let it be known among the general staff that this was the "official" version, which led to it being spread throughout German society. It was picked up by right-wing political factions, and was even used by Kaiser Wilhelm II in the memoirs he wrote in the 1920s. Right-wing groups used it as a form of attack against the early Weimar Republic government, led by the Social Democratic Party (SPD), which had come to power with the abdication of the Kaiser. However, even the SPD had a part in furthering the myth when Reichspräsident Friedrich Ebert, the party leader, told troops returning to Berlin on 10 November 1918 that "No enemy has vanquished you," (kein Feind hat euch überwunden!) and "they returned undefeated from the battlefield" (sie sind vom Schlachtfeld unbesiegt zurückgekehrt). The latter quote was shortened to im Felde unbesiegt (undefeated on the battlefield) as a semi-official slogan of the Reichswehr. Ebert had meant these sayings as a tribute to the German soldier, but it only contributed to the prevailing feeling. Further "proof" of the myth's validity was found in British general Frederick Barton Maurice's book The Last Four Months, published in 1919. German reviews of the book misrepresented it as proving that the German Army had been betrayed on the home front by being "dagger-stabbed from behind by the civilian populace" (von der Zivilbevölkerung von hinten erdolcht), an interpretation that Maurice disavowed in the German press, to no effect. According to William L. Shirer, Ludendorff used the reviews of the book to convince Hindenburg about the validity of the myth. On 18 November 1919, Ludendorff and Hindenburg appeared before the Committee of Inquiry into Guilt for World War I () of the newly elected Weimar National Assembly, which was investigating the causes of the war and Germany's defeat. The two generals appeared in civilian clothing, explaining publicly that to wear their uniforms would show too much respect to the commission. Hindenburg refused to answer questions from the chairman, and instead read a statement that had been written by Ludendorff. In his testimony he cited what Maurice was purported to have written, which provided his testimony's most memorable part. Hindenburg declared at the end of his – or Ludendorff's – speech: "As an English general has very truly said, the German Army was 'stabbed in the back'".Hindenburg, Chief of the German General Staff at the time of the Ludendorff Offensive, also mentioned this event in a statement explaining the Kaiser's abdication:The conclusion of the armistice was directly impending. At moment of the highest military tension revolution broke out in Germany, the insurgents seized the Rhine bridges, important arsenals, and traffic centres in the rear of the army, thereby endangering the supply of ammunition and provisions, while the supplies in the hands of the troops were only enough to last for a few days. The troops on the lines of communication and the reserves disbanded themselves, and unfavourable reports arrived concerning the reliability of the field army proper.It was particularly this testimony of Hindenburg that led to the widespread acceptance of the Dolchstoßlegende in post-World War I Germany. ==Antisemitic aspects== The antisemitic instincts of the German Army were revealed well before the stab-in-the-back myth became the military's excuse for losing the war. In October 1916, in the middle of the war, the army ordered a Jewish census of the troops, with the intent to show that Jews were under-represented in the Heer (army), and that they were over-represented in non-fighting positions. Instead, the census showed just the opposite, that Jews were over-represented both in the army as a whole and in fighting positions at the front. The Imperial German Army then suppressed the results of the census. Charges of a Jewish conspiratorial element in Germany's defeat drew heavily upon figures such as Kurt Eisner, a Berlin-born German Jew who lived in Munich. He had written about the illegal nature of the war from 1916 onward, and he also had a large hand in the Munich revolution until he was assassinated in February 1919. The Weimar Republic under Friedrich Ebert violently suppressed workers' uprisings with the help of Gustav Noske and Reichswehr general Wilhelm Groener, and tolerated the paramilitary Freikorps forming all across Germany. In spite of such tolerance, the Republic's legitimacy was constantly attacked with claims such as the stab-in-the-back. Many of its representatives such as Matthias Erzberger and Walther Rathenau were assassinated, and the leaders were branded as "criminals" and Jews by the right-wing press dominated by Alfred Hugenberg. Anti-Jewish sentiment was intensified by the Bavarian Soviet Republic (6 April – 3 May 1919), a communist government which briefly ruled the city of Munich before being crushed by the Freikorps. Many of the Bavarian Soviet Republic's leaders were Jewish, allowing antisemitic propagandists to connect Jews with communism, and thus treason. In 1919, Deutschvölkischer Schutz und Trutzbund (German Nationalist Protection and Defiance Federation) leader Alfred Roth, writing under the pseudonym "Otto Arnim", published the book The Jew in the Army which he said was based on evidence gathered during his participation on the Judenzählung, a military census which had in fact shown that German Jews had served in the front lines proportionately to their numbers. Roth's work claimed that most Jews involved in the war were only taking part as profiteers and spies, while he also blamed Jewish officers for fostering a defeatist mentality which impacted negatively on their soldiers. As such, the book offered one of the earliest published versions of the stab-in-the-back legend. A version of the stab-in-the-back myth was publicised in 1922 by the anti-Semitic Nazi theorist Alfred Rosenberg in his primary contribution to Nazi theory on Zionism, Der Staatsfeindliche Zionismus (Zionism, the Enemy of the State). Rosenberg accused German Zionists of working for a German defeat and supporting Britain and the implementation of the Balfour Declaration. ==Aftermath== The Dolchstoß was a central image in propaganda produced by the many right-wing and traditionally conservative political parties that sprang up in the early days of the Weimar Republic, including Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party. For Hitler himself, this explanatory model for World War I was of crucial personal importance. He had learned of Germany's defeat while being treated for temporary blindness following a gas attack on the front. ==Wagnerian allusions== To some Germans, the idea of a "stab in the back" was evocative of Richard Wagner's 1876 opera Götterdämmerung, in which Hagen murders his enemy Siegfried – the hero of the story – with a spear in his back. In Hindenburg's memoirs, he compared the collapse of the German Army to Siegfried's death. ==Psychology of belief== Historian Richard McMasters Hunt argues in a 1958 article that the myth was an irrational belief which commanded the force of irrefutable emotional convictions for millions of Germans. He suggests that behind these myths was a sense of communal shame, not for causing the war, but for losing it. Hunt argues that it was not the guilt of wickedness, but the shame of weakness that seized Germany's national psychology, and "served as a solvent of the Weimar democracy and also as an ideological cement of Hitler's dictatorship". ==Equivalents in other countries== ===United States=== Parallel interpretations of national trauma after military defeat appear in other countries. For example, it was applied to the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War and in the mythology of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy.	[ "More German than the Germans", "Communism", "Max Bauer", "Italian front (World War I)", "Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard", "Beer Hall Putsch", "Vietnam War", "Richard Wagner", "Aftermath of World War I", "Allies of World War I", "Pope", "German nationalism", "Munich", "History of Germany during World War I", "Hindenburg Line", "Anti-communism", "White flag", "Ottoman Empire", "Stephen Roskill", "Walther Rathenau", "Balfour Declaration", "Chancellor of Germany", "defamation", "Red Army", "Armistice of Mudros", "People's State of Bavaria", "Süddeutsche Monatshefte", "German Revolution of 1918–1919", "American entry into World War I", "Georg Michaelis", "Château-Salins", "Presidency of Woodrow Wilson", "Neue Freie Presse", "Eastern Front (World War I)", "Reichswehr", "Wilhelm Groener", "Spa Conference (29 September 1918)", "Max Montgelas", "Progressive People's Party (Germany)", "German Emperor", "Defeatism", "Royal Italian Army", "Nazi Germany", "Treaty of Versailles", "Causes of World War II", "Socialism", "Treaty of Brest-Litovsk", "Catholic Church in Germany", "Matthias Erzberger", "Wilhelm II", "Mein Kampf", "Götterdämmerung", "William L. Shirer", "Imperial German Army", "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic", "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "Oberste Heeresleitung", "Weimar National Assembly", "Reichstag Peace Resolution", "Generalfeldmarschall", "World War I", "Richard Steigmann-Gall", "Friedrich Ebert", "Centre for the Study of the Causes of the War", "Hundred Days Offensive", "Kingdom of Bulgaria", "Epic poetry", "Erich Ludendorff", "Antisemitism", "Communist state", "de:Ernst Müller-Meiningen", "House of Hohenzollern", "German General Staff", "Florida Holocaust Museum", "Alfred von Oberndorff", "Frederick Maurice (military historian)", "Jewish war conspiracy theory", "Genocide justification", "Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg", "paramilitary", "Austria victim theory", "Winston Churchill", "B. H. Liddell Hart", "Armistice of Villa Giusti", "President of the United States", "Centre Party (Germany)", "German Empire", "French Third Republic", "John Wheeler-Bennett", "national psychology", "cultural Bolshevism", "History of the Jews in Germany", "Villa Giusti", "Weimar Republic", "Ferdinand Foch", "Gustav Noske", "Adolf Hitler", "conspiracy theory", "Löwenbräukeller", "German Revolution of 1918–19", "Armistice of Salonica", "Alfred Hugenberg", "Neill Malcolm", "Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I", "national trauma", "Holocaust inversion", "materiel", "Alfred Rosenberg", "Central Powers", "Spa Conferences (First World War)", "The Coming of the Third Reich", "Imanuel Geiss", "Fourteen Points", "Propaganda in Nazi Germany", "Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany", "Hindenburg Programme", "Macedonian front", "Padua", "United States in World War I", "Austria-Hungary", "Zionism", "Marieulles", "Western Front (World War I)", "Freikorps", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Nibelungenlied", "President of Germany (1919–1945)", "Bruno Doehring", "Nazi Party", "Independent Air Force", "Sigurd", "Friedrich Meinecke", "Armed Forces & Society", "Douglas Haig", "Bolshevism", "Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld", "WP:COMMONNAME", "Alfred Roth", "unconditional surrender", "Secondary antisemitism", "The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich", "Armistice of 11 November 1918", "Marxism", "Hagen (legend)", "Germanic heroic legend", "racial policy of Nazi Germany", "Lost Cause of the Confederacy", "Quartermaster general", "German spring offensive", "Auxiliary Services Act (1916)", "Kurt Eisner", "William Helmreich", "Reichstag (German Empire)", "Social Democratic Party of Germany", "Bavarian Soviet Republic", "Prince Maximilian of Baden", "Deutschvölkischer Schutz- und Trutzbund", "Judenzählung", "Paul von Hindenburg", "High Seas Fleet", "de:Deutsche Geschichte in Dokumenten und Bildern", "republicanism" ]
8,599	Davenport, Iowa	Davenport ( ) is a city in Scott County, Iowa, United States, and its county seat. It is situated along the Mississippi River on the eastern border of the state. Davenport had a population of 101,724 as of the 2020 census, making it Iowa's third-most populous city, after Des Moines and Cedar Rapids. Davenport was founded on May 14, 1836, by Antoine Le Claire and named for his friend, George Davenport. From 1860 until 1980, Davenport enjoyed a long period of industrial and population growth, averaging yearly increases of about 760 people. Over that period, Davenport industries were diverse, from manufacturing locomotives, a major meat-packing plant, a Caterpillar loader plant, a historic movie-projector plant, to car and truck wheel manufacture. These and other industries left, and since 1980, population growth has been flat, hovering around 100,000 over the past 40 years. The city is prone to frequent flooding due to its location on the Mississippi River and the city's resistance to building a modern levee, unlike its sister cities. Davenport's flood wall dates from the 1919, while Rock Island's higher flood wall dates from 1970 and Bettendorf's from the 1980s. The latter two protected their respective downtowns during the 2019 flood. The history and historical costs of proposed levee projects were summarized in 2023 by the local paper after Davenport received national media attention for the 2019 flood. There are two main universities: St. Ambrose University and Palmer College of Chiropractic, where the first chiropractic adjustment took place. Several annual music festivals take place in Davenport, including the Mississippi Valley Blues Festival, the Mississippi Valley Fair, and the Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Jazz Festival. An internationally known foot race, called the Bix 7, is run during the festival. The city has a Class A minor-league baseball team, the Quad Cities River Bandits. Davenport has 50 plus parks and facilities, as well as more than of recreational paths for biking or walking. Three interstates (80, 74 and 280) and two major United States Highways serve the city. Davenport has seen steady population growth since its incorporation. National economic difficulties in the 1980s resulted in job and population losses. ==History== The land was originally inhabited by the Sauk, Meskwaki (Fox), and Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) Native American tribes. France laid claim to this territory as part of its New France and Illinois Country in the 18th century. Its traders and missionaries came to the area from Canada (Quebec), but it did not have many settlers here. After losing to Great Britain in the Seven Years' War, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi River to the British, and transferred the lands to the west to Spain. In 1803, France regained and sold its holdings in North America west of the Mississippi River to the United States under the Louisiana Purchase. Lieutenant Zebulon Pike was the first United States representative to officially visit the Upper Mississippi River area. On August 27, 1805, Pike camped on the present-day site of Davenport. In 1832, a group of Sauk, Meskwaki, and Kickapoo people were defeated by the United States in the Black Hawk War. The United States government concluded the Black Hawk Purchase, sometimes called the Forty-Mile Strip or Scott's Purchase, by which the US acquired lands in what is now eastern Iowa. The purchase was made for $640,000 on September 21, 1832, and contained an area of some , at a price equivalent to 11 cents/acre ($26/km). Although named after the defeated chief Black Hawk, he was being held prisoner by the US. Sauk chief Keokuk, who had remained neutral in the war, signed off on the purchase. It was made on the site of present-day Davenport. Army General Winfield Scott and Governor of Illinois, John Reynolds, acted on behalf of the United States, with Antoine Le Claire, a mixed-race (Métis) man, serving as translator. He later was credited with founding Davenport. Chief Keokuk gave a generous portion of land to Antoine Le Claire's wife, Marguerite, the granddaughter of a Sauk chief. Le Claire built their home on the exact spot where the agreement was signed, as stipulated by Keokuk, or he would have forfeited the land. Le Claire finished the 'Treaty House' in the spring of 1833. He founded Davenport on May 14, 1836, naming it for his friend Colonel George Davenport, who was stationed at Fort Armstrong during the war. The city was incorporated on January 25, 1839. The area was successively governed by the legislatures of the Michigan Territory, the Wisconsin Territory, Iowa Territory and finally Iowa. Scott County was formed by an act of the Wisconsin Territorial legislature in 1837. Both Davenport and its neighbor Rockingham campaigned to become the county seat. The city with the most votes from Scott County citizens in the February 1838 election would become the county seat. On the eve of the election, Davenport citizens acquired the temporary service of Dubuque laborers so they could vote in the election. Davenport won the election with the help of the laborers. Rockingham supporters protested the elections to the territorial governor, on the grounds the laborers from Dubuque were not Scott County residents. The governor refused to certify the results of the election. A second election was held the following August. To avoid another import of voters, the governor set a 60-day residency requirement for all voters. Davenport won by two votes. Because the margin of victory was so close, a third election was held in the summer of 1840. As the August election drew nearer, Rockingham residents grew tired of the county seat cause. Davenport easily won the third election. Consequently, to avoid questions about the county seat, Davenport quickly built the first county courthouse. The Rock Island Railroad built the first railroad bridge across the Mississippi River in 1856. It connected Davenport to Rock Island, Illinois. This railway connection resulted in significant improvements to transportation and commerce with Chicago, a booming 19th-century city. The addition of new railroad lines to Muscatine and Iowa City, and the acquisition of other lines by the Rock Island Railroad, resulted in Davenport becoming a commercial railroad hub. Prior to the start of the Civil War, Governor Samuel J. Kirkwood declared Davenport to be Iowa's first military headquarters; five military camps were set up in the city to aid the Union. The Davenport City Hall was built in 1895 for price of $100,000 ($ in dollars). Architectural journals of the time poked fun at the project due to the small amount of money budgeted. The skyline began forming in the 1920s with the construction of the Kahl Building, the Parker Building, and the Capitol Theatre during a period of economic and building expansion. By 1932, thousands of Davenport residents were on public relief, due to the Great Depression. A shantytown of the poor developed in the west end of the city, along the Mississippi River. Sickness, hunger, and unsanitary living conditions plagued the area. The situation would soon change, as many citizens went to work for the Works Progress Administration. Davenport had an economic boom during and after World War II, driven by wartime industry and peacetime demand. As Davenport grew, it absorbed smaller surrounding communities, annexing Rockingham, Nahant, Probstei, East Davenport, Oakdale, Cawiezeel, Blackhawk, Mt. Joy, Green Tree, and others. Oscar Mayer, Ralston Purina, and other companies built plants in west Davenport. The Interstate highway network reached Davenport in 1956, improving transportation in the area. By 1959, more than 1,000 homes a year were being constructed. By the late 1970s, the good times were over for both downtown and local businesses and industries. Railroad restructuring in the mid-20th century had caused a loss of jobs in the industry. The farm crisis of the 1980s negatively affected Davenport and the rest of the Quad Cities, where a total of 35,000 workers lost their jobs throughout the entire Quad Cities area. In the early 21st century, many renovations and building additions have occurred to revitalize the downtown area, including repairing Modern Woodmen Park, the building of the Skybridge and the Figge Art Museum. In 2011, the Gold Coast and Hamburg Historic District was named as a 2011 "America's Great Place" by the American Planning Association. ==Geography== According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. Davenport is located approximately west of Chicago and east of the Iowa state capital of Des Moines. The city is located about north of St. Louis, Missouri, and southeast of Minneapolis, Minnesota. Farmland surrounds Davenport, outside the Quad Cities area. Davenport is located on the banks of the Mississippi River. At this point the river has a maximum depth of around and is wide where the Centennial Bridge crosses it. The river flows from east to west in this area, as opposed to its usual north to south direction. From the river the city starts to slope north up a hill, which is steep at some points. The streets of the city, especially downtown and in the central part of the town, follow a grid design. Davenport often makes national headlines when it suffers seasonal flooding by the Mississippi River. Davenport residents prefer to maintain open access to the river for parks and vistas rather than have it cut off by dikes and levees. Davenport has adopted ordinances requiring any new construction in the floodplain to be elevated above the 100-year-flood level, or protected with walls. As a result, former mayor Phil Yerington said that if they "let Mother Nature take her course, we'll all be better off". An example of a Davenport building that is elevated or flood-proofed is the Figge Art Museum. === Climate === Under the Köppen climate classification, Davenport is considered to have a humid continental climate (Dfa). Summers are very warm to hot with high levels of humidity. Winters have cold temperatures and often high winds, with snow likely from November through February. Average snowfall in Davenport is per year. January is on average the coldest month, while July is the warmest. The highest temperature recorded in Davenport was on July 12, 1936. The lowest temperature, , was recorded on January 18, 2009. Substantial weather changes frequently occur at three- to four-day intervals as a result of mid-latitude storm tracks, which is where low and high pressure extratropical disturbances occur. During the summers, farmers experience difficulties while farming such as shallow soil, the humidity, and cold damp winds Although several minor tornadoes have occurred, no devastating tornado has ever touched down in Davenport. Flooding, however, is often a problem in Davenport due to the lack of a flood wall. During the Great Flood of 1993, the water crested at on July 9. This is nearly above the flood stage. Major flooding in Davenport causes many problems. Roads in and around the downtown area, including U.S. Route 67, are closed and cause increased traffic on other city roads. The effects of major flooding can be long-lasting. For example, during the 2008 flooding, Credit Island in the city's southwest corner remained closed for 5½ months while crews worked on cleaning up damage and removing river debris. Duck Creek, a stream situated in Bettendorf and Davenport, is also vulnerable to flash flooding. Severe thunderstorms on June 16, 1990, created heavy flash flooding in Bettendorf and Davenport that killed four people. Another major flood happened on June 12, 2008, when severe thunderstorms caused Duck Creek to overflow its banks and flood properties and nearby streets (see Iowa flood of 2008). The Mississippi river flooded again in 2019 and 2023. ===Neighborhoods=== Davenport has several neighborhoods dating back to the 1840s. The original city plot was around current day Ripley and 5th Streets, where Antoine Le Claire had built his house. The city can be divided into five areas: downtown, central, east end, near north and northwest, and west end. Many architectural designs are found throughout the city including Victorian, Queen Anne, Tudor Revival, and others. Many of the original neighborhoods were inhabited by German settlers. Lindsay Park, in The Village of East Davenport, was used as parade grounds for Civil War soldiers from Camp McClellan. Housing was mostly one and a half to two-story front gable American Foursquare and simplified Queen Anne style. The central Hamburg neighborhood, now known as the Hamburg Historic District, contains the most architecturally significant residences in the old German neighborhoods. Also in central Davenport, the Vander Veer Park Historic District is a neighborhood anchored by Vander Veer Park, a large park with a botanical garden and a fountain. The park was modeled after New York City's Central Park and originally shared its name. Vander Veer is surrounded by large Queen Anne and Tudor Revival style houses that were built between 1895 and 1915. Development of the Vander Veer Park was one of the first major beautification efforts. Other tall buildings include the 11-story Hotel Blackhawk, the 150-foot Kahl Building and the Davenport City Hall. ==Demographics== As of the census of 2020, the population was 101,724. The population density was . There were 46,964 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 74.1% White, 12.0% Black or African American, 2.2% Asian, 0.4% Native American, 2.6% from other races, and 8.7% from two or more races. Ethnically, the population was 8.8% Hispanic or Latino of any race. ===2010 census=== According to the 2010 United States Census estimate, the city population grew to 99,685 and the Quad Cities metropolitan area grew to 379,690. ===2000 census=== As of the 2000 census, there were 98,359 people, 39,124 households, and 24,804 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 41,350 housing units at an average density of . Davenport's population density was 30 times the average density of Iowa and 20 times the average density of the United States. The racial makeup of the area was 83.7% White (410,861), 11.43% Black or African American (27,757), 0.4% American Indian and Alaskan Native (1,255), 2.0% Asian (6,624), 0.03% Pacific Islander (156), and 2.0% from two or more races (11,929). 7.1% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race (37,070). There were 39,124 households, out of which 31.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were married couples living together, 13.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.6% were non-families. Of all households, 29.5% were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.03. ==Economy== Davenport's biggest labor industry is manufacturing, with over 7,600 jobs in the sector. John Deere is the second largest employer in the Quad Cities, after the Rock Island Arsenal as a whole. Deere, however, is the largest single employer, employing 7,200 workers in the Quad Cities and 948 on its north side Davenport plant. John Deere World Headquarters is located in Moline. Other large employers in Davenport and the Quad Cities include, Genesis Health System with 5,125 employees and 4,900 in Davenport, Trinity Regional Health System with 3,333, regional grocery store Hy-Vee with 3,138 and the Davenport Community School District with 2,237 employees. Davenport is also the headquarters of Lee Enterprises, which publishes fifty daily newspapers and more than 300 weekly newspapers, shoppers, and specialty publications, along with online sites in 23 states. As of September 2009, the unemployment rate in Davenport and the rest of the Quad Cities, had risen to 8.4%. The median income for a household in the city was $40,378, with families earning $51,445. Males had a median income of $41,853 versus $30,002 for females. KONE, Inc and Alcoa. ==Arts and culture== ===Landmarks=== Downtown Davenport has many points of interest including the Davenport Public Library, the Davenport Skybridge, Figge Art Museum, River Music Experience, Putnam Museum, the RiverCenter/Adler Theater, Modern Woodmen Park which is home of the Quad City River Bandits baseball team and the Centennial Bridge. The former Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Freight House, now known as The Freight House, is home to several small businesses featuring locally grown items, such as a deli, a grocery hub, and a tap room for a local brewery. Davenport's cultural and educational institutions include the Figge Art Museum, which houses The National Center for Midwest Art and Design, and was founded in 1925 as the Davenport Municipal Art Gallery. The Putnam Museum, which was founded in 1867 and was one of the first museums west of the Mississippi River. The Quad City Symphony Orchestra, headquartered in downtown Davenport, was founded in 1915. The Davenport Public Library was opened in 1839. The German American Heritage Center is located at the foot of the Centennial Bridge. Uptown features a few historic landmarks such as the Iowa Soldiers' Orphans' Home which took in homeless children from all of Iowa's ninety-nine counties following the Civil War and Ambrose Hall which was the original building of St. Ambrose University. Aside from landmarks, uptown contains some entertainment venues too, such as the Great Mississippi Valley Fairgrounds, which hosts fairs, stock car racing, and many other events. NorthPark Mall is the city's main shopping mall and has 160 stores. Its companion, SouthPark Mall, is located in Moline. Brady Street Stadium is home to Davenport high school and Saint Ambrose University football games. Davenport has a number of parks, including Credit Island park which has a bike path, baseball diamonds, tennis courts, and fishing along the Mississippi River. Vander Veer Botanical Park has a small botanical garden and also features a walking path, a lagoon, and a large fountain. The Stampe Lilac Garden is located in Duck Creek Park, on Locust St. ===Events and festivals=== Bix Fest is a three-day music festival with many traditional jazz bands held in tribute to internationally renowned jazz cornetist, pianist, composer, and Davenport native Bix Beiderbecke. The festival was started in August 1971 and the Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Society was founded one year later to organize and sponsor it. 2009 was the 39th consecutive festival. In addition to the Bix Fest, the Wells Fargo Street Fest features live music, food, and vendors. The annual Bix 7 is a road race held in late July in Davenport. The race was founded in 1975 by John A. Hudetz a resident of Bettendorf, Iowa, who wanted to bring to the Quad Cities some of the excitement he felt when he ran his first Boston Marathon. In late July or early August the six-day Great Mississippi Valley Fair features major grandstand concerts, carnival rides, attractions, and food vendors. Sturgis on the River is a large annual gathering of motorcycles which includes bands and food vendors. Other local expositions include River Roots Live, Beaux Arts Fair and many others. ===Livability Award=== Davenport (along with neighboring Rock Island, Illinois), won the 2007 City Livability Award in the small-city category from the U.S. Conference of Mayors. Tom Cochran, executive director of the Conference, stated that the award "gives the Conference a chance to highlight mayoral leadership in making urban areas safer, cleaner and more livable." The award acknowledges achievements from the RiverVision plan of Davenport and Rock Island. ==Sports== Davenport and the Quad Cities are home to many sports teams. The Quad Cities River Bandits baseball team play games at Downtown Davenport's Modern Woodmen Park. The TaxSlayer Center in Moline is home the Quad City Steamwheelers indoor football team and the Quad City Storm hockey team. Davenport high schools are in the Mississippi Athletic Conference for sports. ==Parks and recreation== Davenport has over fifty parks or recreational trails. Bands for the Bix Fest play in the park each July. Vander Veer Botanical Park welcomes approximately 25,000 visitors to continuous floral shows. Plans are being discussed to connect the two trails in Riverdale. Three public golf courses are offered in the city. For river-related activities, The Channel Cat boat offers rides across the river and has two stops in Iowa and three stops in Illinois and connects the bike paths that each state has on its river front. ==Government== Davenport uses a mayor–council form of local government. , city government consists of mayor Mike Matson and a ten-person council. One person is elected from each of the eight wards and two at-large aldermen are elected to represent the whole city. Nonpartisan elections are held in odd-numbered years. The mayor is the top elected individual for the city and presides over city council meetings, voting in case of a tie. The mayor appoints city board members. The city council's job is to make laws and set the city budget. The city administrator, currently Corrin Spiegel, is appointed by the mayor with confirmation by two-thirds of the council. Citywide goals through 2012 include having a financially responsible government, having a growing economy, revitalizing neighborhoods, and upgrading city infrastructure and public facilities. The establishment of Davenport as a political and government unit came in 1839, three years after the city was settled. The city was incorporated as a result of a resolution by Iowa Representative Jonathan W. Parker by special charter in the Iowa Territory on January 25, 1839. After 1900, each mayor brought new agendas for city improvement. Waldo Becker encouraged new railroads for the city. He also promised a more business-like government, in terms of financial responsibility and to depoliticize the police department. In the mid-1920s the city established the first zoning ordinances, electrical traffic signals and street lighting. The city also expanded with the incorporation of the city of Rockingham and the establishment of the Davenport Municipal Airport. The city's general fund receives the largest amount of funds from property taxes, followed by service fees such as solid waste collection and swimming pool or golf course admission and 80% of its expenses go to personnel costs. , the 41st senate district covers the eastern third of the city and all of Bettendorf, Riverdale, and Panorama Park. It is more conservative than other Davenport districts being represented by a Republican since the 1970s. The district is slightly moving more liberal with an increase of 3,000 Democrats between 2006 and 2010. The district is represented by Republican Senator Roby Smith. The 42nd district covers the western third of the city along with all of Scott County that is not in Davenport, Bettendorf, Riverdale, or Panorama Park as well as western and southern rural Clinton County and is represented by Republican Senator Shawn Hamerlinck. The 43rd senate district covers the central third of the city and is represented by Democrat Joe Seng. The 81st house district covers the eastern third of the city along with small western portion of Bettendorf. The district shares the same western boundaries as the forty-first senate district. The district is represented by Democrat Phyllis Thede. The 84th district covers the western third of the city, and has the same eastern boundary as Senate district forty-two and is represented by Republican Ross Paustian. The 85th and 86th districts are made up of the same area as the forty-third senate district. The 85th district covers the north and west-central area while the 86th district covers southern and eastern part of the senate district. Both are represented by Democrats with Jim Lykam representing the 85th and Cindy Winckler representing the 86th. Davenport has a Federal Court House for the United States District Court for the Southern District of Iowa. ==Education== Davenport public schools serve nearly 14,500 students in the communities of Davenport, Blue Grass, Buffalo, and Walcott. The Davenport Community School District is the fourth-largest school district in Iowa. Davenport has four public high schools: Central, West, Mid City and North and one private high school: Assumption. There are six public intermediate schools and 23 public elementary schools. Sudlow, one of the intermediate schools, was named after Phebe Sudlow, the first female public school superintendent in the United States. She was superintendent for Davenport schools from 1874 to 1878. Marycrest International University was a university in Davenport from 1939 to 2002, when it closed. The campus was renovated and adapted to senior citizen housing. ==Media== There are two major daily newspapers in Davenport. The Quad-City Times is based out of Davenport and The Dispatch/Rock Island Argus is based out of Moline. An alternative free newspaper, the River Cities' Reader, is published in Davenport. All four major television networks have stations in the area, including KWQC (NBC) and KLJB (Fox) in Davenport. WHBF (CBS) is located in Rock Island and WQAD (ABC) is in Moline. The Quad Cities ranks as the 97th largest market for television and the 147th largest market for radio. Radio station WOC made its local broadcasting debut on February 18, 1922. It was the second licensed station on the air. In 1933, WOC hired future president Ronald Reagan as a staff announcer. In October 2010, a $230 million federal fund was announced that will bring Amtrak service to the Quad Cities, with a new line running from Moline to Chicago. They had hoped to have the line completed in 2015, and offer two round trips daily to Chicago. Currently the Moline station does not have any Amtrak service. Greyhound Lines/Burlington Trailways bus service has a station in Davenport. The building is shared with the local Davenport Citibus. The bridge, or rather three bridges, is a set of railroad bridges that cross over north and southbound U.S. Route 61 and another street. Every year an average of 12 semi trucks hit the bridge, usually causing massive damage to the trucks. The authority at first provided monetary support to Davenport City Lines Bus Company, which was a privately owned company. After a few years the city purchased the Davenport City Lines and placed the operation of public transportation under the jurisdiction of the city's Department of Municipal Transportation. Today, CitiBus is a division of the Department of Public Works. CitiBus has a total of 20 vehicles and covers approximately of the city. CitiBus connects with both Bettendorf Transit and the Illinois Quad Cities mass transit system, MetroLINK. ===Utilities=== Electricity to Davenport, and the rest of the Iowa Quad Cities, is provided by MidAmerican Energy Company. Water is provided by the Mississippi River and is treated by the Iowa American Water Company. The water treatment facility is located in southeast Davenport. ===Health care=== Davenport is served by two hospitals: Genesis Medical Center East – Rusholme Street and Genesis Medical Center – West Central Park Avenue part of the Genesis Health System. Together the facilities, along with two other facilities outside Davenport have 665 beds. The hospitals employ more than 600 physicians and 5,000 staff members. Fewer than three percent of hospitals receive this honor. Kaiserslautern, Germany (1960) Ilhéus, Brazil (2005) County Carlow, Ireland (2006) ===Friendship cities=== Davenport has friendly relations with: Langfang, China (2018) Colón, Mexico	[ "Iowa flood of 2008", "Abraham Lincoln", "Bix Fest", "African Americans in Davenport, Iowa", "Great Depression in the United States", "Seven Years' War", "Jim Lykam", "levee", "Table of United States Metropolitan Statistical Areas", "George Davenport", "Davenport Municipal Airport (Iowa)", "Republican Party of Iowa", "Blue Grass, Iowa", "Sauk people", "mixed-race", "Buffalo, Iowa", "CBS", "Barack Obama", "Amtrak", "Iowa House of Representatives", "stock car racing", "List of United States cities by population", "Quad Cities", "Wisconsin Territory", "Shawn Hamerlinck", "List of intercity bus stops in Iowa", "mayor–council government", "Assumption High School (Davenport, Iowa)", "Iowa Stubborn", "United States Senators", "Kaiserslautern", "county seat", "Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Freight House", "MidAmerican Energy Company", "West High School (Davenport, Iowa)", "Lyda Krewson", "Saint Ambrose University", "Republican Party (United States)", "Rock Island County, IL", "Hotel Blackhawk", "Geographic Names Information System", "Wells Fargo", "Ralston Purina", "Métis", "St. Ambrose University", "hung jury", "Oscar Mayer", "Mississippi Athletic Conference", "TaxSlayer Center", "Iowa Territory", "Galesburg, Illinois", "American Planning Association", "John Kadlecik", "comma-separated values", "United States Senate", "Michael Nunn", "Jock Mahoney", "Federal Information Processing Standard", "Samuel J. Kirkwood", "Burlington Trailways", "Deere & Company", "sister cities", "NCEI", "KWQC-TV", "Rock Island, Illinois", "U.S. Route 61", "Alcoa", "Kickapoo people", "Davenport North High School", "Roby Smith", "Works Progress Administration", "Davenport Skybridge", "Victorian architecture", "Kenny Shedd", "Spain", "U.S. Route 67", "Riverdale, Iowa", "Phebe Sudlow", "The Dispatch / The Rock Island Argus", "Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Jazz Festival", "Credit Island", "Hispanic and Latino Americans", "Interstate Highway system", "Chuck Grassley", "National Weather Service", "WOC (AM)", "Iowa Highway 22", "The Music Man", "Mayor–council", "flood wall", "gable", "Stuart Margolin", "Bill Monroe", "U.S. state", "German American Heritage Center", "Putnam Museum", "RiverCenter/Adler Theater", "Greg Stolze", "Davenport Central High School", "Lara Flynn Boyle", "Vander Veer Botanical Park", "Race and ethnicity in the United States census", "Interstate 88 (west)", "Antoine Le Claire", "American Nurses Credentialing Center", "Democratic Party of Iowa", "metropolitan statistical area", "Muscatine, Iowa", "Rock Island Railroad", "United States Post Office and Court House (Davenport, Iowa)", "Keokuk (Sauk chief)", "Henry County, IL", "2020 United States census", "Sioux City", "New France", "Isabel Bloom", "Interstate 280 (Illinois–Iowa)", "United States Supreme Court", "Cedar Rapids", "Weather Channel", "Bettendorf, Iowa", "Dubuque, Iowa", "Public Works", "Von Maur", "Gary Mohr", "Seth Rollins", "Caterpillar Inc.", "Linnea Quigley", "Government Bridge", "Bix 7", "Scott County, Iowa", "River Cities' Reader", "Hy-Vee", "Pacific Islander Americans", "Iowa Senate", "John Deere World Headquarters", "Greyhound Lines", "Bix Beiderbecke", "Panorama Park, Iowa", "Mid-American Energy Building", "Clinton County, Iowa", "American Broadcasting Company", "U.S. Route 6", "Davenport Mid City High School", "The National Center for Midwest Art and Design", "Quad City Storm", "WQAD-TV", "KLJB", "Black Hawk War", "Davenport Public Library", "Henry Vollmer", "Quad City Steamwheelers (2018–)", "Interstate 74", "Quad-City Times", "American Discovery Trail", "Johnny Cash", "Monica Kurth", "Marycrest International University", "Modern Woodmen Park", "Fort Armstrong, Illinois", "Dick Durbin", "List of cities in Iowa", "Queen Anne style architecture in the United States", "Palmer Chiropractic College", "List of tallest buildings in the Quad Cities", "Iowa Soldiers' Orphans' Home", "List of Combined Statistical Areas", "North American Central Time Zone", "Union (American Civil War)", "Samuel Cody", "River Music Experience", "Boston Marathon", "Marlon Stewart", "humid continental climate", "flash flood", "Upper Mississippi River", "Downtown Davenport", "Multiracial Americans", "Louisiana Purchase", "Ambrose Hall (Davenport, Iowa)", "Ross Paustian", "Ricky Davis", "ZIP Code", "North American Numbering Plan", "Kaplan University", "I-280 Bridge", "NorthPark Mall (Iowa)", "Palmer College of Chiropractic", "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration", "2010 United States Census", "Rock Island Arsenal", "Davenport Blues", "List of counties in Iowa", "NOAA", "Mercer County, IL", "Joe Seng", "Hamburg Historic District (Davenport, Iowa)", "Mississippi River", "Black Hawk Purchase", "Central Park", "Moline, Illinois", "Zebulon Pike", "Quad City International Airport", "United States District Court for the Southern District of Iowa", "Iowa Highway 130", "Des Moines", "United States Numbered Highways", "Seal of Iowa", "St. Louis, Missouri", "Colón Municipality, Querétaro", "Vander Veer Park Historic District", "Lee Enterprises", "Iowa Interstate Railroad", "Davenport City Hall", "Iowa City", "Tudorbethan architecture", "American Water (company)", "List of United States urban areas", "Great Flood of 1993", "Meskwaki", "Des Moines, Iowa", "Iowa, Chicago and Eastern Railroad", "Tom Harkin", "Sue Lyon", "KONE, Inc", "Mariannette Miller-Meeks", "Native Americans in the United States", "Quad City River Bandits", "Phyllis Thede", "Michigan Territory", "Minneapolis", "Cindy Winckler", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "Moline station", "County Carlow", "Village of East Davenport", "Fejervary Park", "Interstate Highway System", "Alaska Native", "Bucktown, Davenport", "Langfang", "List of mayors of Davenport, Iowa", "Winfield Scott", "Table of United States Combined Statistical Areas", "US 61", "Asian Americans", "John Reynolds (Illinois politician)", "Kahl Building", "Hamilton Technical College", "WHBF-TV", "Dave Blunts", "Tommy Boy", "Big River (Johnny Cash song)", "Area code 563", "SouthPark Mall (Moline, Illinois)", "Rock Island Centennial Bridge", "Walcott, Iowa", "Julian Vandervelde", "Riverfront Parkway", "Ronald Reagan", "American Civil War", "Interstate 80", "The New York Times", "American Foursquare", "LeClaire Park", "Davenport Community School District", "Joni Ernst", "Mark S. Lofgren", "United States Census Bureau", "professional wrestler", "List of largest Iowa cities by population", "American Commercial and Savings Bank", "population density", "Figge Art Museum", "Quad City Symphony Orchestra", "NBC", "Neighborhoods of Davenport, Iowa", "Downtown Davenport, Iowa", "List of municipalities in Iowa", "Quad Cities River Bandits", "Extratropical cyclone", "Iowa's 1st congressional district", "NFL", "Otto Frederick Rohwedder", "Robbie Lawler", "Ilhéus", "Genesis Health System", "Roger Craig (American football)", "Duck Creek Parkway", "Iowa", "Combined statistical area", "Race (United States Census)", "Municipal corporation" ]
8,603	Diffraction	Diffraction is the deviation of waves from straight-line propagation without any change in their energy due to an obstacle or through an aperture. The diffracting object or aperture effectively becomes a secondary source of the propagating wave. Diffraction is the same physical effect as interference, but interference is typically applied to superposition of a few waves and the term diffraction is used when many waves are superposed. The characteristic pattern is most pronounced when a wave from a coherent source (such as a laser) encounters a slit/aperture that is comparable in size to its wavelength, as shown in the inserted image. This is due to the addition, or interference, of different points on the wavefront (or, equivalently, each wavelet) that travel by paths of different lengths to the registering surface. If there are multiple closely spaced openings, a complex pattern of varying intensity can result. These effects also occur when a light wave travels through a medium with a varying refractive index, or when a sound wave travels through a medium with varying acoustic impedance – all waves diffract, including gravitational waves, water waves, and other electromagnetic waves such as X-rays and radio waves. Furthermore, quantum mechanics also demonstrates that matter possesses wave-like properties and, therefore, undergoes diffraction (which is measurable at subatomic to molecular levels). ==History== The effects of diffraction of light were first carefully observed and characterized by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the term diffraction, from the Latin diffringere, 'to break into pieces', referring to light breaking up into different directions. The results of Grimaldi's observations were published posthumously in 1665. Isaac Newton studied these effects and attributed them to inflexion of light rays. James Gregory (1638–1675) observed the diffraction patterns caused by a bird feather, which was effectively the first diffraction grating to be discovered. Thomas Young performed a celebrated experiment in 1803 demonstrating interference from two closely spaced slits. Explaining his results by interference of the waves emanating from the two different slits, he deduced that light must propagate as waves. In 1818, supporters of the corpuscular theory of light proposed that the Paris Academy prize question address diffraction, expecting to see the wave theory defeated. However, Augustin-Jean Fresnel took the prize with his new theory wave propagation, combining the ideas of Christiaan Huygens with Young's interference concept. Siméon Denis Poisson challenged the Fresnel theory by showing that it predicted light in the shadow behind a circular obstruction; Dominique-François-Jean Arago proceeded to demonstrate experimentally that such light is visible, confirming Fresnel's diffraction model. == Mechanism == In classical physics diffraction arises because of how waves propagate; this is described by the Huygens–Fresnel principle and the principle of superposition of waves. The propagation of a wave can be visualized by considering every particle of the transmitted medium on a wavefront as a point source for a secondary spherical wave. The wave displacement at any subsequent point is the sum of these secondary waves. When waves are added together, their sum is determined by the relative phases as well as the amplitudes of the individual waves so that the summed amplitude of the waves can have any value between zero and the sum of the individual amplitudes. Hence, diffraction patterns usually have a series of maxima and minima. In the modern quantum mechanical understanding of light propagation through a slit (or slits) every photon is described by its wavefunction that determines the probability distribution for the photon: the light and dark bands are the areas where the photons are more or less likely to be detected. The wavefunction is determined by the physical surroundings such as slit geometry, screen distance, and initial conditions when the photon is created. The wave nature of individual photons (as opposed to wave properties only arising from the interactions between multitudes of photons) was implied by a low-intensity double-slit experiment first performed by G. I. Taylor in 1909. The quantum approach has some striking similarities to the Huygens-Fresnel principle; based on that principle, as light travels through slits and boundaries, secondary point light sources are created near or along these obstacles, and the resulting diffraction pattern is going to be the intensity profile based on the collective interference of all these light sources that have different optical paths. In the quantum formalism, that is similar to considering the limited regions around the slits and boundaries from which photons are more likely to originate, and calculating the probability distribution (that is proportional to the resulting intensity of classical formalism). There are various analytical models for photons which allow the diffracted field to be calculated, including the Kirchhoff diffraction equation (derived from the wave equation), the Fraunhofer diffraction approximation of the Kirchhoff equation (applicable to the far field), the Fresnel diffraction approximation (applicable to the near field) and the Feynman path integral formulation. Most configurations cannot be solved analytically, but can yield numerical solutions through finite element and boundary element methods. In many cases it is assumed that there is only one scattering event, what is called kinematical diffraction, with an Ewald's sphere construction used to represent that there is no change in energy during the diffraction process. For matter waves a similar but slightly different approach is used based upon a relativistically corrected form of the Schrödinger equation, as first detailed by Hans Bethe. The Fraunhofer and Fresnel limits exist for these as well, although they correspond more to approximations for the matter wave Green's function (propagator) for the Schrödinger equation. More common is full multiple scattering models particular in electron diffraction; in some cases similar dynamical diffraction models are also used for X-rays. It is possible to obtain a qualitative understanding of many diffraction phenomena by considering how the relative phases of the individual secondary wave sources vary, and, in particular, the conditions in which the phase difference equals half a cycle in which case waves will cancel one another out. The simplest descriptions of diffraction are those in which the situation can be reduced to a two-dimensional problem. For water waves, this is already the case; water waves propagate only on the surface of the water. For light, we can often neglect one direction if the diffracting object extends in that direction over a distance far greater than the wavelength. In the case of light shining through small circular holes, we will have to take into account the full three-dimensional nature of the problem. File:Square diffraction.jpg\|Computer-generated intensity pattern formed on a screen by diffraction from a square aperture File:Two-Slit Diffraction.png\|Generation of an interference pattern from two-slit diffraction File:Doubleslit.gif\|Computational model of an interference pattern from two-slit diffraction File:Optical diffraction pattern ( laser), (analogous to X-ray crystallography).JPG\|Optical diffraction pattern (laser, analogous to X-ray diffraction) File:Diffraction pattern in spiderweb.JPG\|Colors seen in a spider web are partially due to diffraction, according to some analyses. == Examples == The effects of diffraction are often seen in everyday life. The most striking examples of diffraction are those that involve light; for example, the closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a diffraction grating to form the familiar rainbow pattern seen when looking at a disc. This principle can be extended to engineer a grating with a structure such that it will produce any diffraction pattern desired; the hologram on a credit card is an example. Diffraction in the atmosphere by small particles can cause a corona - a bright disc and rings around a bright light source like the sun or the moon. At the opposite point one may also observe glory - bright rings around the shadow of the observer. In contrast to the corona, glory requires the particles to be transparent spheres (like fog droplets), since the backscattering of the light that forms the glory involves refraction and internal reflection within the droplet. A shadow of a solid object, using light from a compact source, shows small fringes near its edges. Diffraction spikes are diffraction patterns caused due to non-circular aperture in camera or support struts in telescope; In normal vision, diffraction through eyelashes may produce such spikes. The speckle pattern which is observed when laser light falls on an optically rough surface is also a diffraction phenomenon. When deli meat appears to be iridescent, that is diffraction off the meat fibers. All these effects are a consequence of the fact that light propagates as a wave. Diffraction can occur with any kind of wave. Ocean waves diffract around jetties and other obstacles. Sound waves can diffract around objects, which is why one can still hear someone calling even when hiding behind a tree. Diffraction can also be a concern in some technical applications; it sets a fundamental limit to the resolution of a camera, telescope, or microscope. Other examples of diffraction are considered below. === Single-slit diffraction === A long slit of infinitesimal width which is illuminated by light diffracts the light into a series of circular waves and the wavefront which emerges from the slit is a cylindrical wave of uniform intensity, in accordance with the Huygens–Fresnel principle. An illuminated slit that is wider than a wavelength produces interference effects in the space downstream of the slit. Assuming that the slit behaves as though it has a large number of point sources spaced evenly across the width of the slit interference effects can be calculated. The analysis of this system is simplified if we consider light of a single wavelength. If the incident light is coherent, these sources all have the same phase. Light incident at a given point in the space downstream of the slit is made up of contributions from each of these point sources and if the relative phases of these contributions vary by 2\pi or more, we may expect to find minima and maxima in the diffracted light. Such phase differences are caused by differences in the path lengths over which contributing rays reach the point from the slit. We can find the angle at which a first minimum is obtained in the diffracted light by the following reasoning. The light from a source located at the top edge of the slit interferes destructively with a source located at the middle of the slit, when the path difference between them is equal to Similarly, the source just below the top of the slit will interfere destructively with the source located just below the middle of the slit at the same angle. We can continue this reasoning along the entire height of the slit to conclude that the condition for destructive interference for the entire slit is the same as the condition for destructive interference between two narrow slits a distance apart that is half the width of the slit. The path difference is approximately \frac{d \sin(\theta)}{2} so that the minimum intensity occurs at an angle \theta_\text{min} given by d\,\sin\theta_\text{min} = \lambda, where d is the width of the slit, \theta_\text{min} is the angle of incidence at which the minimum intensity occurs, and \lambda is the wavelength of the light. A similar argument can be used to show that if we imagine the slit to be divided into four, six, eight parts, etc., minima are obtained at angles \theta_{n} given by d\,\sin\theta_{n} = n \lambda, where n is an integer other than zero. There is no such simple argument to enable us to find the maxima of the diffraction pattern. The intensity profile can be calculated using the Fraunhofer diffraction equation as I(\theta) = I_0 \, \operatorname{sinc}^2 \left( \frac{d \pi}{\lambda} \sin\theta \right), where I(\theta) is the intensity at a given angle, I_0 is the intensity at the central maximum which is also a normalization factor of the intensity profile that can be determined by an integration from \theta = -\frac{\pi}{2} to \theta = \frac{\pi}{2} and conservation of energy, and which is the unnormalized sinc function. This analysis applies only to the far field (Fraunhofer diffraction), that is, at a distance much larger than the width of the slit. From the intensity profile above, if the intensity will have little dependency on hence the wavefront emerging from the slit would resemble a cylindrical wave with azimuthal symmetry; If only \theta \approx 0 would have appreciable intensity, hence the wavefront emerging from the slit would resemble that of geometrical optics. When the incident angle \theta_\text{i} of the light onto the slit is non-zero (which causes a change in the path length), the intensity profile in the Fraunhofer regime (i.e. far field) becomes: I(\theta) = I_0 \, \operatorname{sinc}^2 \left[ \frac{d \pi}{\lambda} (\sin\theta \pm \sin\theta_\text{i})\right] The choice of plus/minus sign depends on the definition of the incident angle === Diffraction grating === A diffraction grating is an optical component with a regular pattern. The form of the light diffracted by a grating depends on the structure of the elements and the number of elements present, but all gratings have intensity maxima at angles θm which are given by the grating equation d \left( \sin{\theta_m} \pm \sin{\theta_i} \right) = m \lambda, where \theta_{i} is the angle at which the light is incident, d is the separation of grating elements, and m is an integer which can be positive or negative. The light diffracted by a grating is found by summing the light diffracted from each of the elements, and is essentially a convolution of diffraction and interference patterns. The figure shows the light diffracted by 2-element and 5-element gratings where the grating spacings are the same; it can be seen that the maxima are in the same position, but the detailed structures of the intensities are different. === Circular aperture === The far-field diffraction of a plane wave incident on a circular aperture is often referred to as the Airy disk. The variation in intensity with angle is given by I(\theta) = I_0 \left ( \frac{2 J_1(ka \sin \theta)}{ka \sin \theta} \right )^2 , where a is the radius of the circular aperture, k is equal to 2\pi/\lambda and J_1 is a Bessel function. The smaller the aperture, the larger the spot size at a given distance, and the greater the divergence of the diffracted beams. === General aperture === The wave that emerges from a point source has amplitude \psi at location \mathbf r that is given by the solution of the frequency domain wave equation for a point source (the Helmholtz equation), \nabla^2 \psi + k^2 \psi = \delta(\mathbf r), where \delta(\mathbf r) is the 3-dimensional delta function. The delta function has only radial dependence, so the Laplace operator (a.k.a. scalar Laplacian) in the spherical coordinate system simplifies to \nabla ^2\psi = \frac{1}{r} \frac {\partial ^2}{\partial r^2} (r \psi) . (See del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates.) By direct substitution, the solution to this equation can be readily shown to be the scalar Green's function, which in the spherical coordinate system (and using the physics time convention e^{-i \omega t}) is \psi(r) = \frac{e^{ikr}}{4 \pi r}. This solution assumes that the delta function source is located at the origin. If the source is located at an arbitrary source point, denoted by the vector \mathbf r' and the field point is located at the point \mathbf r, then we may represent the scalar Green's function (for arbitrary source location) as \psi(\mathbf r \| \mathbf r') = \frac{e^{ik \| \mathbf r - \mathbf r' \| }}{4 \pi \| \mathbf r - \mathbf r' \|}. Therefore, if an electric field E_\mathrm{inc}(x, y) is incident on the aperture, the field produced by this aperture distribution is given by the surface integral \Psi(r)\propto \iint\limits_\mathrm{aperture} \!\! E_\mathrm{inc}(x',y') ~ \frac{e^{ik \| \mathbf r - \mathbf r'\|}}{4 \pi \| \mathbf r - \mathbf r' \|} \,dx'\, dy', where the source point in the aperture is given by the vector \mathbf{r}' = x' \mathbf{\hat{x}} + y' \mathbf{\hat{y}}. In the far field, wherein the parallel rays approximation can be employed, the Green's function, \psi(\mathbf r \| \mathbf r') = \frac{e^{ik \| \mathbf r - \mathbf r' \|} }{4 \pi \| \mathbf r - \mathbf r' \|}, simplifies to \psi(\mathbf{r} \| \mathbf{r}') = \frac{e^{ik r}}{4 \pi r} e^{-ik ( \mathbf{r}' \cdot \mathbf{\hat{r}})} as can be seen in the adjacent figure. The expression for the far-zone (Fraunhofer region) field becomes \Psi(r)\propto \frac{e^{ik r}}{4 \pi r} \iint\limits_\mathrm{aperture} \!\! E_\mathrm{inc}(x',y') e^{-ik ( \mathbf{r}' \cdot \mathbf{\hat{r}} ) } \, dx' \,dy'. Now, since \mathbf{r}' = x' \mathbf{\hat{x}} + y' \mathbf{\hat{y}} and \mathbf{\hat{r}} = \sin \theta \cos \phi \mathbf{\hat{x}} + \sin \theta ~ \sin \phi ~ \mathbf{\hat{y}} + \cos \theta \mathbf{\hat{z}}, the expression for the Fraunhofer region field from a planar aperture now becomes \Psi(r) \propto \frac{e^{ik r}}{4 \pi r} \iint\limits_\mathrm{aperture} \!\! E_\mathrm{inc}(x',y') e^{-ik \sin \theta (\cos \phi x' + \sin \phi y')} \, dx' \, dy'. Letting k_x = k \sin \theta \cos \phi and k_y = k \sin \theta \sin \phi \,, the Fraunhofer region field of the planar aperture assumes the form of a Fourier transform \Psi(r)\propto \frac{e^{ik r}}{4 \pi r} \iint\limits_\mathrm{aperture} \!\! E_\mathrm{inc}(x',y') e^{-i (k_x x' + k_y y') } \, dx' \, dy' , In the far-field / Fraunhofer region, this becomes the spatial Fourier transform of the aperture distribution. Huygens' principle when applied to an aperture simply says that the far-field diffraction pattern is the spatial Fourier transform of the aperture shape, and this is a direct by-product of using the parallel-rays approximation, which is identical to doing a plane wave decomposition of the aperture plane fields (see Fourier optics). === Propagation of a laser beam === The way in which the beam profile of a laser beam changes as it propagates is determined by diffraction. When the entire emitted beam has a planar, spatially coherent wave front, it approximates Gaussian beam profile and has the lowest divergence for a given diameter. The smaller the output beam, the quicker it diverges. It is possible to reduce the divergence of a laser beam by first expanding it with one convex lens, and then collimating it with a second convex lens whose focal point is coincident with that of the first lens. The resulting beam has a larger diameter, and hence a lower divergence. Divergence of a laser beam may be reduced below the diffraction of a Gaussian beam or even reversed to convergence if the refractive index of the propagation media increases with the light intensity. This may result in a self-focusing effect. When the wave front of the emitted beam has perturbations, only the transverse coherence length (where the wave front perturbation is less than 1/4 of the wavelength) should be considered as a Gaussian beam diameter when determining the divergence of the laser beam. If the transverse coherence length in the vertical direction is higher than in horizontal, the laser beam divergence will be lower in the vertical direction than in the horizontal. === Diffraction-limited imaging === The ability of an imaging system to resolve detail is ultimately limited by diffraction. This is because a plane wave incident on a circular lens or mirror is diffracted as described above. The light is not focused to a point but forms an Airy disk having a central spot in the focal plane whose radius (as measured to the first null) is \Delta x = 1.22 \lambda N , where \lambda is the wavelength of the light and N is the f-number (focal length f divided by aperture diameter D) of the imaging optics; this is strictly accurate for N \gg 1 (paraxial case). In object space, the corresponding angular resolution is \theta \approx \sin \theta = 1.22 \frac{\lambda}{D}, where D is the diameter of the entrance pupil of the imaging lens (e.g., of a telescope's main mirror). Two point sources will each produce an Airy pattern – see the photo of a binary star. As the point sources move closer together, the patterns will start to overlap, and ultimately they will merge to form a single pattern, in which case the two point sources cannot be resolved in the image. The Rayleigh criterion specifies that two point sources are considered "resolved" if the separation of the two images is at least the radius of the Airy disk, i.e. if the first minimum of one coincides with the maximum of the other. Thus, the larger the aperture of the lens compared to the wavelength, the finer the resolution of an imaging system. This is one reason astronomical telescopes require large objectives, and why microscope objectives require a large numerical aperture (large aperture diameter compared to working distance) in order to obtain the highest possible resolution. === Speckle patterns === The speckle pattern seen when using a laser pointer is another diffraction phenomenon. It is a result of the superposition of many waves with different phases, which are produced when a laser beam illuminates a rough surface. They add together to give a resultant wave whose amplitude, and therefore intensity, varies randomly. === Babinet's principle === Babinet's principle is a useful theorem stating that the diffraction pattern from an opaque body is identical to that from a hole of the same size and shape, but with differing intensities. This means that the interference conditions of a single obstruction would be the same as that of a single slit. === "Knife edge" === The knife-edge effect or knife-edge diffraction is a truncation of a portion of the incident radiation that strikes a sharp well-defined obstacle, such as a mountain range or the wall of a building. The knife-edge effect is explained by the Huygens–Fresnel principle, which states that a well-defined obstruction to an electromagnetic wave acts as a secondary source, and creates a new wavefront. This new wavefront propagates into the geometric shadow area of the obstacle. Knife-edge diffraction is an outgrowth of the "half-plane problem", originally solved by Arnold Sommerfeld using a plane wave spectrum formulation. A generalization of the half-plane problem is the "wedge problem", solvable as a boundary value problem in cylindrical coordinates. The solution in cylindrical coordinates was then extended to the optical regime by Joseph B. Keller, who introduced the notion of diffraction coefficients through his geometrical theory of diffraction (GTD). In 1974, Prabhakar Pathak and Robert Kouyoumjian extended the (singular) Keller coefficients via the uniform theory of diffraction (UTD). File:Diffraction sharp edge.gif\|Diffraction on a sharp metallic edge File:Diffraction softest edge.gif\|Diffraction on a soft aperture, with a gradient of conductivity over the image width == Patterns == Several qualitative observations can be made of diffraction in general: The angular spacing of the features in the diffraction pattern is inversely proportional to the dimensions of the object causing the diffraction. In other words: The smaller the diffracting object, the 'wider' the resulting diffraction pattern, and vice versa. (More precisely, this is true of the sines of the angles.) The diffraction angles are invariant under scaling; that is, they depend only on the ratio of the wavelength to the size of the diffracting object. When the diffracting object has a periodic structure, for example in a diffraction grating, the features generally become sharper. The third figure, for example, shows a comparison of a double-slit pattern with a pattern formed by five slits, both sets of slits having the same spacing, between the center of one slit and the next. == Matter wave diffraction == According to quantum theory every particle exhibits wave properties and can therefore diffract. Diffraction of electrons and neutrons is one of the powerful arguments in favor of quantum mechanics. The wavelength associated with a non-relativistic particle is the de Broglie wavelength \lambda=\frac{h}{p} \, , where h is the Planck constant and p is the momentum of the particle (mass × velocity for slow-moving particles). For example, a sodium atom traveling at about 300 m/s would have a de Broglie wavelength of about 50 picometres. Diffraction of matter waves has been observed for small particles, like electrons, neutrons, atoms, and even large molecules. The short wavelength of these matter waves makes them ideally suited to study the atomic structure of solids, molecules and proteins. ==Bragg diffraction== Diffraction from a large three-dimensional periodic structure such as many thousands of atoms in a crystal is called Bragg diffraction. It is similar to what occurs when waves are scattered from a diffraction grating. Bragg diffraction is a consequence of interference between waves reflecting from many different crystal planes. The condition of constructive interference is given by Bragg's law: m \lambda = 2 d \sin \theta , where \lambda is the wavelength, d is the distance between crystal planes, \theta is the angle of the diffracted wave, and m is an integer known as the order of the diffracted beam. Bragg diffraction may be carried out using either electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength like X-rays or matter waves like neutrons (and electrons) whose wavelength is on the order of (or much smaller than) the atomic spacing. The pattern produced gives information of the separations of crystallographic planes d, allowing one to deduce the crystal structure. For completeness, Bragg diffraction is a limit for a large number of atoms with X-rays or neutrons, and is rarely valid for electron diffraction or with solid particles in the size range of less than 50 nanometers. The length over which the phase in a beam of light is correlated is called the coherence length. In order for interference to occur, the path length difference must be smaller than the coherence length. This is sometimes referred to as spectral coherence, as it is related to the presence of different frequency components in the wave. In the case of light emitted by an atomic transition, the coherence length is related to the lifetime of the excited state from which the atom made its transition. If waves are emitted from an extended source, this can lead to incoherence in the transversal direction. When looking at a cross section of a beam of light, the length over which the phase is correlated is called the transverse coherence length. In the case of Young's double-slit experiment, this would mean that if the transverse coherence length is smaller than the spacing between the two slits, the resulting pattern on a screen would look like two single-slit diffraction patterns. == Applications == === Diffraction before destruction === A new way to image single biological particles has emerged since the 2010s, utilising the bright X-rays generated by X-ray free-electron lasers. These femtosecond-duration pulses will allow for the (potential) imaging of single biological macromolecules. Due to these short pulses, radiation damage can be outrun, and diffraction patterns of single biological macromolecules will be able to be obtained.	[ "Neutron diffraction", "X-ray diffraction", "Double-slit experiment", "Laplace operator", "Fresnel number", "Wave propagation", "Bessel function", "classical physics", "glory (optical phenomenon)", "free-electron laser", "Paris Academy", "sine", "corpuscular theory of light", "Powder diffraction", "1660 in science", "electron diffraction", "Electron diffraction", "Bragg diffraction", "Fourier optics", "Arago spot", "1638", "Diffraction from slits", "spider web", "International Union of Crystallography", "convex lens", "Atmospheric diffraction", "spherical coordinate system", "half-plane", "coherence length", "Angle-sensitive pixel", "Isaac Newton", "far field", "Helmholtz equation", "de Broglie wavelength", "numerical aperture", "frequency domain", "Diffractometer", "aperture", "Airy disk", "amplitude", "wavelet", "Diffraction spikes", "G. I. Taylor", "Ewald's sphere", "Fresnel diffraction", "Dynamical theory of diffraction", "f-number", "electromagnetic radiation", "Oxford University Press", "Diffraction spike", "Huygens-Fresnel principle", "1665 in science", "convolution", "wavefunction", "Coherent diffraction imaging", "del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates", "holography", "X-ray crystallography", "diffraction-limited", "Kirchhoff's diffraction formula", "Fraunhofer diffraction", "near and far field", "Schrödinger equation", "double-slit experiment", "self-focusing", "Diffractive solar sail", "Hans Bethe", "1807 in science", "Joseph B. Keller", "backscatter", "dynamical diffraction", "Wave interference", "Quasioptics", "1803 in science", "speckle pattern", "The Slate Group", "Gaussian beam", "Optical path length", "photon", "Reflection (physics)", "light", "Arnold Sommerfeld", "matter wave", "Proceedings of the IEEE", "wave", "James Gregory (astronomer and mathematician)", "diffraction formalism", "Energy level", "Sound", "point source", "Angular resolution", "Babinet's principle", "Green's function", "Christiaan Huygens", "Robert Kouyoumjian", "gravitational wave", "Schaefer–Bergmann diffraction", "wavelength", "Fresnel zone", "Dominique-François-Jean Arago", "boundary element", "refraction", "acoustic impedance", "1675", "refractive index", "corona (optical phenomenon)", "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London", "Probability amplitude", "zeta Boötis", "Thinned-array curse", "iridescent", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Cloud iridescence", "X-ray", "Interference (wave propagation)", "binary star", "geometrical theory of diffraction", "Fourier transform", "Phase (waves)", "wave equation", "Latin", "kinematical diffraction", "Angle of incidence (optics)", "Refraction", "superposition principle", "Diffraction-limited system", "Quantum mechanics", "Brocken spectre", "Huygens–Fresnel principle", "surface integral", "laser", "Coherence (physics)", "deli meat", "Francesco Maria Grimaldi", "Objective (optics)", "Thomas Young (scientist)", "Fresnel imager", "quantum mechanics", "propagator", "Augustin-Jean Fresnel", "Young's interference experiment", "paraxial", "radiation", "Point spread function", "Diffraction vs. interference", "Treatise on Light", "angular resolution", "radio waves", "wavefront", "diffraction grating", "Wind wave", "1909 in science", "jetty", "Matter wave", "finite element", "Planck constant", "uniform theory of diffraction", "Siméon Denis Poisson", "far-field diffraction pattern", "geometrical optics", "entrance pupil", "path integral formulation", "laser pointer", "unnormalized sinc function", "momentum" ]
8,605	Stephen Donaldson (activist)	Stephen Donaldson (July 27, 1946 – July 18, 1996), born Robert Anthony Martin Jr. and also known by the pseudonym Donny the Punk, was an American bisexual rights activist, and political activist. He is best known for his pioneering activism in LGBT rights and prison reform, and for his writing about punk rock and subculture. At Columbia University, he founded the first LGBT college group in the United States, called the Student Homophile League (SHL) (now the Columbia Queer Alliance). He coined the term "protective pairing". ==Childhood and adolescence (1946–1965)== The son of a career naval officer, Donaldson spent his early childhood in different seaport cities in the eastern United States and in Germany. Donaldson later described his father Robert, the son of Italian and German immigrants, as a man who "frowned on display of emotion" and his mother Lois as "an English, Scottish Texan, artistic, free-spirited, emotional, impulsive." After his parents' divorce in 1953, when he was seven years old, Donaldson's mother suffered from acute porphyria (a rare genetic disease), and his father gained custody of Robert and his two brothers. His father remarried several years later. At age 12, Donaldson was expelled from Boy Scouts for engaging in sexual behavior with other boys (who, as recipients, were not punished). "The disgrace triggered a family crisis, resolved by sending the boy to live in Germany, where he could be watched over by his stepmother's relatives." He attended a boys boarding school and continued homosexual activity, hiding it from adults. In the summer of 1966, Donaldson began a relationship with gay activist Frank Kameny, who had a great influence on him. Donaldson later wrote: After a series of meetings, the Committee of Friends on Bisexuality was formed, with Donaldson (using the name Bob Martin) as its chair until he left the Quakers in 1977. Donaldson was involved in the New York bisexual movement in the mid-1970s, for example appearing in 1974 on a New York Gay Activists Alliance panel with Kate Millett. Donaldson propounded the belief that ultimately bisexuality would be perceived as much more threatening to the prevailing sexual order than homosexuality, because it potentially subverted everyone's identity (the idea that everyone is potentially bisexual was widespread) and could not, unlike exclusive homosexuality, be confined to a segregated, stigmatized and therefore manageable ghetto. ==Washington jail experiences and aftermath (1973)== ===Demonstrations and incarcerations=== After being discharged from the Navy in 1972, Donaldson moved to Washington, D.C., where he "worked as Pentagon correspondent for the Overseas Weekly, a privately owned newspaper distributed to American servicemen stationed in Europe". On August 14 Donaldson was one of 66 demonstrators (including Daniel Berrigan) who took part in a CCNV-sponsored pray-in at the White House protesting the bombing of Cambodia, where he was again arrested. Donaldson again refused to post bail. In a 1974 account under the pseudonym Donald Tucker, he explained: Donaldson wrote that he was aided in his sexual recovery by an understanding woman who helped him regain his confidence. After a year and a half, he returned to his prior level of sexual activity. ==Subsequent arrests and incarcerations (1976–1990)== ===Acceptance of "punk" role (1976)=== While traveling to Florida for his mother's funeral in late 1976, Donaldson was arrested after urinating in a motel parking lot, then was charged with possession after the police searched his hotel room and found cannabis. He was placed in a small cell block with four white and eight black prisoners, most of them Marines from a nearby base, who demanded sexual services. Donaldson later wrote: {{blockquote\|Not wishing to repeat the battering I got in the D.C. Jail, I capitulated....I considered myself lucky that the blocks were so small....The next day the four white marines came up to me and said, "You're moving in with us!" and so I became the fifth occupant of the four-bunk cell.... I had become the Punk of these four lads, who in jail lingo became my Men....They provided me with protection and such things as stamps and snacks, in return wanting blowjobs (from three) and ass (in jail called "pussy") from one. Lozoff was leader of the Prison-Ashram Project, which encourages convicts to use their prisons as ashrams (religious retreats) for spiritual growth. In their correspondence, Donaldson expressed his desire to help other victims but lamented that: {{blockquote\|Writing and working on the rape question and the enslavement of punks (and gays) poses a major dilemma for my own spiritual work...[because] everything I do in it reinforces my own identity as a punk, since I am speaking out of experience.... Perhaps one reason why I work to help other punks in transcending their punk identity, is that the destructive results of assuming that identity are all too manifest in my own life—where the identity has become so firmly attached as to be part of my own name, "Donny the Punk". Oh physician, how to heal thyself? Around 1983, Cahill resurrected the defunct organization "People Organized to Stop Rape of Imprisoned Persons" (POSRIP), which had been founded in 1980 by Russell Smith. In 2004, Cahill recollected: Donaldson became president of Stop Prisoner Rape, Inc. (SPR), which he and Cahill incorporated in the mid-1990s from POSRIP. The organization (since 2008 known as Just Detention International) helps prisoners deal with the psychological and physical trauma of rape, and works to prevent rape from happening. Donaldson was perhaps the first activist against male rape in the United States to gain significant media attention. Writing on behalf of SPR, he appeared on the Op-Ed page of The New York Times, as well as in other major media. He testified on behalf of the American Civil Liberties Union in its case ACLU et al. v. Reno, which went to the U.S. Supreme Court. ==Activism and writing== As "Donny the Punk", Donaldson was already a respected writer and personality in the punk and anti-racist skinhead subcultures. He had published in punk zines such as Maximumrocknroll, Flipside and J.D.s. In the mid-1980s, Donny was the chief organizer of The Alternative Press & Radio Council (APRC), which brought together members of the punk community (such as fanzine editors and college radio DJs) from New York City, New Jersey, and Connecticut. This co-operative group met on Sundays before the weekly CBGB Sunday hardcore matinees and organized several benefit concerts. The group published a newsletter, and released a compilation LP on Mystic Records in 1986, which was entitled Mutiny On The Bowery. The compilation featured live recordings from the group's benefit concerts. Among other active members of the APRC were WFMU-FM DJ Pat Duncan, Maximumrocknroll columnist Mykel Board and Jersey Beat editor Jim Testa. Donaldson was associate editor of the Encyclopedia of Homosexuality (Garland Publishing, 1990). He was editor-in-chief of a concise edition of the encyclopedia, which remains unpublished. ==Legacy and honors== Donaldson died of a bronchial infection in 1996 at the age of 49. He was HIV-positive at the time. After Donaldson's death, the Columbia Queer Alliance renamed its student lounge in his honor. SPR continued to work for prisoners' rights. It contributed to gaining the passage of the first US law against rape in prison Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003. The issue of rape and prisoners' rights continues to receive national and state attention.	[ "Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the US Military", "grand jury", "Fellatio", "Stanford University", "Queer Student Cultural Center", "Washington, D.C.", "solitary confinement", "Boston University", "Sexual orientation and the United States military", "Fire Island", "modern liberalism in the United States", "Dick Leitsch", "Barbara Gittings", "United States Navy", "Cherry Grove, New York", "Encyclopedia of Homosexuality", "San Francisco", "Columbia College of Columbia University", "Gestalt therapy", "West Long Branch", "Frank Hogan", "American Civil Liberties Union", "Supreme Court of the United States", "Chicago Tribune", "University of Massachusetts Amherst", "bisexual", "Bruce Springsteen", "gay liberation", "New York Public Library", "Frank Kameny", "Cannabis (drug)", "Rider College", "Human Kindness Foundation", "Third Avenue", "Male prostitution", "New York City", "University of Minnesota system", "Bob Woodward", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "darkness on the edge of town", "Carl Bernstein", "Columbia Queer Alliance", "Parole in the United States", "Kate Millett", "T. J. Parsell", "clinical depression", "racism in the United States", "NATO", "Homosexuality", "Pensacola, Florida", "Elmo R. Zumwalt Jr.", "Gordon Liddy", "Sodomy laws in the United States", "American Psychiatric Association", "LSD", "Bella Abzug", "psychotherapy", "Sam Ervin", "Cambodia", "The Gainesville Sun", "punk rock", "bisexual community", "Washington Post", "Prison-Ashram Project", "rape", "Jearld Moldenhauer", "Boy Scouts of America", "City College of New York", "New York County District Attorney", "pacifist", "drug possession", "Federal Bureau of Investigation", "Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki", "White House", "Kerner Report", "the Bronx", "Columbia University", "Quaker", "Foster Gunnison Jr.", "Donald E. Lukens", "United States Marine Corps", "Mykel Board", "Rutgers University", "Cointelpro", "Randy Shilts", "Flipside (fanzine)", "Prisoners' rights", "Buddhist", "Student Homophile League", "Jimmy Carter", "D.C. jail", "rectum", "Rock Hudson", "Brenda Howard", "homophobia", "bisexuality", "Maximumrocknroll", "ANSWER Me!", "protective pairing", "J. Edgar Hoover", "lawsuit", "skinhead", "Friends General Conference", "Columbia Daily Spectator", "Daniel Berrigan", "consciousness raising", "WKCR", "53rd Street", "Butch and femme", "insomnia", "Anti-racism", "Brothel", "punk zines", "L. Craig Schoonmaker", "Rita Mae Brown", "CBGB", "LGBT student movement", "panic attack", "Connecticut", "murder", "Just Detention International", "Gay Activists Alliance", "David Truman", "civil disobedience", "Barry Goldwater", "The Advocate (LGBT magazine)", "David Eisenbach", "Howard Callaway", "North American Conference of Homophile Organizations", "Associated Press", "Mystic Records", "Cornell University", "Quakers", "honorable discharge", "pimp", "The Pentagon", "San Francisco State University", "Special Maritime and Territorial Jurisdiction of the United States", "Friends Journal", "homophile movement", "protective custody", "The Virginian-Pilot", "Jersey Beat", "ashram", "Edward Koch", "unlawful entry", "prison reform", "Young Americans for Freedom", "The Washington Post", "United states air force", "Punk subculture", "Washington Star", "Mattachine Society", "Naval Criminal Investigative Service", "J.D.s", "Simulations Publications, Inc.", "Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003", "Types of US federal prisons", "San Antonio, Texas", "subculture", "Hardcore punk", "Libertarian Conservative", "Overseas Weekly", "The New York Times", "Freedom of Information legislation", "Ithaca, New York", "Bo Lozoff", "New York University", "Grayson Kirk", "general discharge", "Roy Cohn", "assault", "African American", "New Jersey", "Richard Schweiker", "Vietnam War", "Norfolk, Virginia" ]
8,608	Dolmen	A dolmen, () or portal tomb, is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more upright megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone or "table". Most date from the Late Neolithic period (40003000 BCE) and were sometimes covered with earth or smaller stones to form a tumulus (burial mound). Small pad-stones may be wedged between the cap and supporting stones to achieve a level appearance. In many instances, the covering has eroded away, leaving only the stone "skeleton". In Sumba (Indonesia), dolmens are still commonly built (about 100 dolmens each year) for collective graves according to lineage. The traditional village of Wainyapu has some 1,400 dolmens. ==Etymology== ===Celtic or French=== The word dolmen entered archaeology when Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne used it to describe megalithic tombs in his (1796) using the spelling dolmin (the current spelling was introduced about a decade later and had become standard in French by about 1885). Some sources indicate that dolmen is Breton, although the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) describes its origin as "Modern French" and argues that de la Tour d'Auvergne used the Cornish word for a cromlech, tolmên, but misspelled it as dolmin, and other sources refer to dolmen as a "continental term." Whatever the origin, dolmen has replaced cromlech as the usual English term in archaeology, when the more technical and descriptive alternatives are not used. The later Cornish term was quoit – an English-language word for an object with a hole through the middle preserving the original Cornish language term of – the name of another dolmen-like monument is Mên-an-Tol 'stone with hole' (Standard Written Form: Men An Toll.) In Irish Gaelic, dolmens are called . ===Germanic=== Dolmens are known by a variety of names in other languages, including Galician and , , , Afrikaans and , , Abkhaz: , Adyghe: Danish and , , , and . Granja is used in Portugal and Galicia. The forms anta and ganda also appear. In Catalan-speaking areas, they are known simply as , but also by a variety of folk names, including ('cave'), ('crate' or 'coffin'), ('table'), ('chest'), ('rock') or ('stone'), usually combined with a second part such as ('of the Arab'), ('of the thief'), ('of the devil'), ('of Roland'). Early in the 20th century, before the advent of scientific dating, Harold Peake proposed that the dolmens of western Europe were evidence of cultural diffusion from the eastern Mediterranean. This "prospector theory" surmised that Aegean-origin prospectors had moved westward in search of metal ores, starting before 2200 BCE, and had carried with them the concept of megalithic architecture. ==Middle East== Dolmens can be found in the Levant, some along the Jordan Rift Valley (Upper Galilee in Israel, the Golan Heights, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and southeast Turkey. Dolmens in the Levant belong to a different, unrelated tradition to that of Europe, although they are often treated "as part of a trans-regional phenomenon that spanned the Taurus Mountains to the Arabian Peninsula." In 2000, (See Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites.) They are mainly distributed along the West Sea coastal area and on large rivers from the Liaoning region of China (the Liaodong Peninsula) to Jeollanam-do. In North Korea, they are concentrated around the Taedong and Jaeryeong Rivers. In South Korea, they are found in dense concentrations in river basins, such as the Han and Nakdong Rivers, and in the west coast area (Boryeong in South Chungcheong Province, Buan in North Jeolla Province, and Jeollanam-do. They are mainly found on sedimentary plains, where they are grouped in rows parallel to the direction of the river or stream. Those found in hilly areas are grouped in the direction of the hill. == India == === Marayoor, Kerala === Also called Muniyaras, these dolmens belong to the Iron Age. These dolmenoids were burial chambers made of four stones placed on edge and covered by a fifth stone called the cap stone. Some of these Dolmenoids contain several burial chambers, while others have a quadrangle scooped out in laterite and lined on the sides with granite slabs. These are also covered with cap stones. Dozens of dolmens around the area of old Siva temple (Thenkasinathan Temple) at Kovilkadavu on the banks of the River Pambar and also around the area called Pius nagar, and rock paintings on the south-western slope of the plateau overlooking the river have attracted visitors. Apart from the dolmens of Stone Age, several dolmens of Iron Age exist in this region especially on the left side of river Pambar as is evident from the usage of neatly dressed granite slabs for the dolmens. At least one of them has a perfectly circular hole of 28 cm diameter inside the underground chamber. This region has several types of dolmens. Large number of them are overground with about 70–90 cm height. Another type has a height 140–170 cm. There is an overground dolmen with double length up to 350 cm. Fragments of burial urns are also available in the region near the dolmens. This indicates that the dolmens with 70–90 cm height were used for burial of the remains of people of high social status. Burial urns were used for the burial of the remains of commoners. The dolmens with raised roofs might have been used for habitation of people. Why some people lived in the cemeteries has not been satisfactorily explained. == Types == File:Trethevy Quoit from the South - geograph.org.uk - 362250.jpg\|Trethevy Quoit – one of the best-preserved in Cornwall, UK dated to around 3500–2500 BCE File:Chûn Quoit (small).jpg\|Chûn Quoit in Cornwall, UK, about 2400 BCE File:Lanyon Quoit 05.jpg\|Lanyon Quoit in Cornwall, UK, 3500–2500 BCE File:MarayoorDolmen.JPG\|A dolmen erected by Neolithic people in Marayur, Kerala, India. File:Muniyara.jpg\|Dolmens of Marayoor, India. File:Example of a southern-style dolmen at Ganghwa Island.jpg\|A southern-style dolmen at Ganghwa Island, South Korea File:Korea-Hwasun Dolmen sites03.jpg\|The biggest dolmen near Hwasun, South Korea File:Dolmen Roch-Feutet.JPG\|The dolmen Er-Roc'h-Feutet in Carnac, Brittany, France File:Crucuno dolmen.jpg\|Crucuno dolmen in Plouharnel, Brittany, France File:KilclooneyDolmen1986.jpg\|Kilclooney More dolmen near Ardara, County Donegal, Ireland File:LG Dolmen1.JPG\|Lancken-Granitz dolmen, Germany File:Hunebed-d27.jpg\|T-shaped Hunebed D27 in Borger-Odoorn, Netherlands File:Antadaaboboreira.jpg\|Dólmen da Aboboreira, Baião, Portugal File:Dolmen di Avola.JPG\|Dolmen of Avola, Sicily File:Bisceglie dolmen della chianca 5.JPG\|Dolmen of Bisceglie, Apulia File:12i dolmen di Montalbano.jpg\|Dolmen of Fasano, Apulia File:Tinkinswood burial chamber (4787).jpg\|Tinkinswood, Vale of Glamorgan, Wales, around 3000 BCE File:Dolmen de Axeitos.jpg\|Dolmen of Oleiros, Galicia File:Mores02.jpg\|Dolmen Sa Coveccada, Mores, Sardinia File:Dolmen Russia Kavkaz Jane 1.jpg\|Russia File:Долмен Начови чаири.jpg\|Bulgaria File:Dolmen-Keriaval.jpg\|Keriaval Dolmen, Carnac, Brittany, France	[ "Cornwall", "Hwasun", "Danish language", "Liaodong Peninsula", "Taurus Mountains", "Hwasun County", "Dolmenoids", "University College Cork", "Carnac", "Sumba", "Megalithic art", "Western Europe", "Apulia", "Ganghwa Island", "Golan Heights", "Breton language", "Bulgaria", "Lebanon", "Jordan Rift Valley", "Irish megalithic tombs", "Lancken-Granitz dolmen", "Israel", "Nakdong River", "Lanyon Quoit", "World Heritage List", "Chûn Quoit", "Iron Age", "Han River (Korea)", "Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites", "Proto-city", "Nordic megalith architecture", "wikt:granja", "Tinkinswood", "List of dolmens", "South Jeolla Province", "UNESCO", "Jordan", "Plouharnel", "Portugal", "County Clare", "jentil", "Chaeryong River", "Turkey", "the Burren", "Giant (mythology)", "radiocarbon dating", "Royal Irish Academy", "cultural diffusion", "Upper Galilee", "Marayur", "Megalith", "megalith", "Early Bronze Age", "South Korea", "Abkhaz language", "Baião Municipality", "Basque Country (greater region)", "Oleiros, Spain", "Catalan language", "Mores, Sardinia", "List of megalithic sites", "Boryeong", "Wainyapu, Sumba", "Buan County", "Welsh language", "Afrikaans", "Levant", "Galician language", "Harold Peake", "Adyghe language", "Taedong River", "tumulus", "Stupa", "Marayoor", "Galicia (Spain)", "Syria", "Kilclooney More", "etymology", "TheGuardian.com", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Kerala, India", "Russia", "Neolithic Europe", "Trethevy Quoit", "Gochang County", "Israel Antiquities Authority", "Celtic languages", "Encyclopedia of Korean Culture", "Bisceglie", "Vale of Glamorgan", "Brittany", "Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne", "Ardara, County Donegal", "Late Neolithic", "Borger-Odoorn", "wikt:quoit", "BCE", "Irish Gaelic", "Roland", "Arabian Peninsula", "Andhra Pradesh", "Mên-an-Tol" ]
8,612	Declination	In astronomy, declination (abbreviated dec; symbol δ) is one of the two angles that locate a point on the celestial sphere in the equatorial coordinate system, the other being hour angle. The declination angle is measured north (positive) or south (negative) of the celestial equator, along the hour circle passing through the point in question. The root of the word declination (Latin, declinatio) means "a bending away" or "a bending down". It comes from the same root as the words incline ("bend forward") and recline ("bend backward"). In some 18th and 19th century astronomical texts, declination is given as North Pole Distance (N.P.D.), which is equivalent to 90 – (declination). For instance an object marked as declination −5 would have an N.P.D. of 95, and a declination of −90 (the south celestial pole) would have an N.P.D. of 180. ==Explanation== Declination in astronomy is comparable to geographic latitude, projected onto the celestial sphere, and right ascension is likewise comparable to longitude. Points north of the celestial equator have positive declinations, while those south have negative declinations. Any units of angular measure can be used for declination, but it is customarily measured in the degrees (°), minutes (′), and seconds (″) of sexagesimal measure, with 90° equivalent to a quarter circle. Declinations with magnitudes greater than 90° do not occur, because the poles are the northernmost and southernmost points of the celestial sphere. An object at the celestial equator has a declination of 0° north celestial pole has a declination of +90° south celestial pole has a declination of −90° The sign is customarily included whether positive or negative. == Effects of precession == The Earth's axis rotates slowly westward about the poles of the ecliptic, completing one circuit in about 26,000 years. This effect, known as precession, causes the coordinates of stationary celestial objects to change continuously, if rather slowly. Therefore, equatorial coordinates (including declination) are inherently relative to the year of their observation, and astronomers specify them with reference to a particular year, known as an epoch. Coordinates from different epochs must be mathematically rotated to match each other, or to match a standard epoch. The currently used standard epoch is J2000.0, which is January 1, 2000 at 12:00 TT. The prefix "J" indicates that it is a Julian epoch. Prior to J2000.0, astronomers used the successive Besselian Epochs B1875.0, B1900.0, and B1950.0. ==Stars== A star's direction remains nearly fixed due to its vast distance, but its right ascension and declination do change gradually due to precession of the equinoxes and proper motion, and cyclically due to annual parallax. The declinations of Solar System objects change very rapidly compared to those of stars, due to orbital motion and close proximity. As seen from locations in the Earth's Northern Hemisphere, celestial objects with declinations greater than 90° − (where = observer's latitude) appear to circle daily around the celestial pole without dipping below the horizon, and are therefore called circumpolar stars. This similarly occurs in the Southern Hemisphere for objects with declinations less (i.e. more negative) than −90° − (where is always a negative number for southern latitudes). An extreme example is the pole star which has a declination near to +90°, so is circumpolar as seen from anywhere in the Northern Hemisphere except very close to the equator. Circumpolar stars never dip below the horizon. Conversely, there are other stars that never rise above the horizon, as seen from any given point on the Earth's surface (except extremely close to the equator. Upon flat terrain, the distance has to be within approximately 2 km, although this varies based upon the observer's altitude and surrounding terrain). Generally, if a star whose declination is is circumpolar for some observer (where is either positive or negative), then a star whose declination is − never rises above the horizon, as seen by the same observer. (This neglects the effect of atmospheric refraction.) Likewise, if a star is circumpolar for an observer at latitude , then it never rises above the horizon as seen by an observer at latitude −. Neglecting atmospheric refraction, for an observer at the equator, declination is always 0° at east and west points of the horizon. At the north point, it is 90° − \|\|, and at the south point, −90° + \|\|. From the poles, declination is uniform around the entire horizon, approximately 0°. Non-circumpolar stars are visible only during certain days or seasons of the year. ==Sun== The Sun's declination varies with the seasons. As seen from arctic or antarctic latitudes, the Sun is circumpolar near the local summer solstice, leading to the phenomenon of it being above the horizon at midnight, which is called midnight sun. Likewise, near the local winter solstice, the Sun remains below the horizon all day, which is called polar night. ==Relation to latitude== When an object is directly overhead its declination is almost always within 0.01 degrees of the observer's latitude; it would be exactly equal except for two complications. The first complication applies to all celestial objects: the object's declination equals the observer's astronomical latitude, but the term "latitude" ordinarily means geodetic latitude, which is the latitude on maps and GPS devices. In the continental United States and surrounding area, the difference (the vertical deflection) is typically a few arcseconds (1 arcsecond = of a degree) but can be as great as 41 arcseconds. The second complication is that, assuming no deflection of the vertical, "overhead" means perpendicular to the ellipsoid at observer's location, but the perpendicular line does not pass through the center of the Earth; almanacs provide declinations measured at the center of the Earth. (An ellipsoid is an approximation to sea level that is mathematically manageable).	[ "Degree (angle)", "polar night", "hour angle", "Star", "Equator", "Julian epoch", "Epoch (astronomy)", "Position of the Sun", "Arctic Circle", "Southern Hemisphere", "Celestial coordinate system", "midnight", "Terrestrial Time", "sexagesimal", "Tropic of Cancer", "Torquetum", "latitude", "ecliptic", "Tropic of Capricorn", "summer solstice", "Northern Hemisphere", "arctic", "celestial pole", "horizon", "circumpolar star", "celestial sphere", "Stellar parallax", "season", "negative number", "Right ascension", "J2000.0", "Geographic coordinate system", "University of Nottingham", "Equatorial coordinate system", "Axial precession", "equator", "hour circle", "Minute of arc", "right ascension", "atmospheric refraction", "great circle", "antarctic", "midnight sun", "Ecliptic", "Celestial pole", "Lunar standstill", "Setting circles", "U.S. National Geodetic Survey", "equinox", "equatorial coordinate system", "Brady Haran", "Antarctic Circle", "precession of the equinoxes", "pole star", "sea level", "celestial equator", "star", "Solar System", "orbit", "astronomy", "45th parallel north", "vertical deflection", "Geographical pole", "proper motion" ]
8,613	Diaspora	A diaspora ( ) is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of origin. The word is used in reference to people who identify with a specific geographic location, but currently reside elsewhere. Notable diasporic populations include the Jewish diaspora formed after the Babylonian exile; Assyrian diaspora following the Assyrian genocide; Greeks that fled or were displaced following the fall of Constantinople and the later Greek genocide as well as the Istanbul pogroms; the emigration of Anglo-Saxons (primarily to the Byzantine Empire) after the Norman Conquest of England; the southern Chinese and South Asians who left their homelands during the 19th and 20th centuries; the Irish diaspora after the Great Famine; the Scottish diaspora that developed on a large scale after the Highland and Lowland Clearances; Romani from the Indian subcontinent; the Italian diaspora and the Mexican diaspora; Circassians in the aftermath of the Circassian genocide; the Palestinian diaspora (shatat) due to Palestinian migration and displacement; the Armenian diaspora following the Armenian genocide; the Lebanese diaspora due to the Lebanese civil war; and Syrians due to the Syrian civil war; The Iranian diaspora, which grew from half a million to 3.8 million between the 1979 revolution and 2019, mostly live in United States, Canada and Turkey. According to a 2019 United Nations report, the Indian diaspora is the world's largest diaspora, with a population of 17.5 million, followed by the Mexican diaspora, with a population of 11.8 million, and the Chinese diaspora, with a population of 10.7 million. ==Etymology== The term "diaspora" is derived from the Ancient Greek verb (), "I scatter", "I spread about" which in turn is composed of (), "between, through, across" and the verb (), "I sow, I scatter". The term () hence meant "scattering". There is confusion over the exact process of derivation from these Ancient Greek verbs to the concept of diaspora. Many cite Thucydides (5th century BC) as the first to use the word. However, sociologist Stéphane Dufoix remarks "not only is the noun diaspora quite absent from the Greek original [Thucydides' Peloponnesian War, II, 27)], but the original does not include the verb diaspeírô either. The verb used is the verb speírô (seed) conjugated in the passive aorist." The passage in Thucydides reads: , translated to mean 'Those of the Aeginetans who did not settle here were scattered over the rest of Hellas.' Dufoix further notes, "Of all the occurrences of diaspora in the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (TLG), which draws upon almost the entire written corpus in the Greek language . . . none refer to colonisation." Dufoix surmises that the confusion may stem from a comment by Jewish historian Simon Dubnow, who wrote an entry on diaspora for the influential Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences. His entry, published in 1931, includes the following remark: "In a sense Magna Graecia constituted a Greek diaspora in the ancient Roman Empire." "Magna Graecia" refers to ancient Greek colonies established along the Italian coast, which lost their independence following the Second Punic War and their integration into the Roman Empire. The first recorded use of the word "diaspora" is found in the Septuagint, first in: Deuteronomy 28:25, in the phrase , , translated to mean 'thou shalt be a dispersion in all kingdoms of the earth' and secondly in: Psalms 146(147).2, in the phrase , , translated to mean 'The Lord doth build up Jerusalem: he gathereth together the outcasts of Israel'. When the Bible was translated into Greek, the word diaspora was applied in reference to the Kingdom of Samaria which was exiled from Israel by the Assyrians between 740 and 722 BC, as well as Jews, Benjaminites, and Levites who were exiled from the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians in 587 BC, and Jews who were exiled from Roman Judea by the Roman Empire in 70 AD. It subsequently came to be used in reference to the historical movements and settlement patterns of the Jews. In English, capitalized, and without modifiers, the term can refer specifically to the Jewish diaspora. The wider application of diaspora evolved from the Assyrian two-way mass deportation policy of conquered populations to deny future territorial claims on their part. ===Definition=== The oldest known use of the word "diaspora" in English is in 1594 in John Stockwood's translation of Lambert Daneau's commentary on the Twelve Prophets. Daneau writes: This scattering abrode of the Iewes, as it were an heauenly sowing, fell out after their returne from the captiuitie of Babylon. Wherevpon both Acts. 2. and also 1. Pet. 1. and 1. Iam. ver. 1. [sic] they are called Diaspora, that is, a scattering or sowing abrode. However, the current entry on "diaspora" in the Oxford English Dictionary Online dates the first recorded use a century later to 1694, in a work on ordination by the Welsh theologian James Owen. Owen wanted to prove that there is no difference in the Bible between Presbyters and Bishops; he cited the example of the Jews in exile: The Presbyters of the Jewish Diaspora, to whom St. Peter wrote, are requir'd ποιμαίνειν ϗ̀ ἐπισκοπείν, to feed or rule the Flock, and to perform the office and work of Bishops among them. The OED records a usage of "diaspora" in 1876, which refers to "extensive diaspora work (as it is termed) of evangelizing among the National Protestant Churches on the continent". The term became more widely assimilated into English by the mid 1950s, with long-term expatriates in significant numbers from other particular countries or regions also being referred to as a diaspora. An academic field, diaspora studies, has become established relating to this sense of the word. ===Scholarly work and expanding definition=== William Safran in an article published in 1991, set out six rules to distinguish diasporas from migrant communities. These included criteria that the group maintains a myth or collective memory of their homeland; they regard their ancestral homeland as their true home, to which they will eventually return; being committed to the restoration or maintenance of that homeland, and they relate "personally or vicariously" to the homeland to a point where it shapes their identity. Safran's definitions were influenced by the idea of the Jewish diaspora. Safran also included a criterion of having been forced into exile by political or economic factors, followed by a long period of settlement in the new host culture. In 1997, Robin Cohen argued that a diasporic group could leave its homeland voluntarily, and assimilate deeply into host cultures. Rogers Brubaker (2005) more inclusively applied three basic definitional criteria: First, geographic dispersion (voluntary or forced) of a people; second, "the orientation to a real or imagined 'homeland' as an authoritative source of value, identity and loyalty"; and third, maintenance of a social boundary corresponding to the conservation of a distinctive diasporic identity which differs from the host culture. Brubaker also noted that the use of the term diaspora has been widening. He suggests that one element of this expansion in use "involves the application of the term diaspora to an ever-broadening set of cases: essentially to any and every nameable population category that is to some extent dispersed in space". Brubaker used the WorldCat database to show that 17 out of the 18 books on diaspora published between 1900 and 1910 were on the Jewish diaspora. The majority of works in the 1960s were also about the Jewish diaspora, but in 2002 only two out of 20 books sampled (out of a total of 253) were about the Jewish case, with a total of eight different diasporas covered. Brubaker outlined the original use of the term diaspora as follows: Some observers have labeled evacuation from New Orleans and the Gulf Coast in the wake of Hurricane Katrina the New Orleans diaspora, since a significant number of evacuees have not been able to return, yet maintain aspirations to do so. Agnieszka Weinar (2010) notes the widening use of the term, arguing that recently, "a growing body of literature succeeded in reformulating the definition, framing diaspora as almost any population on the move and no longer referring to the specific context of their existence". It has even been noted that as charismatic Christianity becomes increasingly globalized, many Christians conceive of themselves as a diaspora, and form a bond that mimics salient features of some ethnic diasporas. Professional communities of individuals no longer in their homeland can also be considered diaspora. For example, science diasporas are communities of scientists who conduct their research away from their homeland and trading diasporas are communities of merchant aliens. In an article published in 1996, Khachig Tölölyan argues that the media have used the term corporate diaspora in a rather arbitrary and inaccurate fashion, for example as applied to "mid-level, mid-career executives who have been forced to find new places at a time of corporate upheaval" (10) The use of corporate diaspora reflects the increasing popularity of the diaspora notion to describe a wide range of phenomena related to contemporary migration, displacement and transnational mobility. While corporate diaspora seems to avoid or contradict connotations of violence, coercion, and unnatural uprooting historically associated with the notion of diaspora, its scholarly use may heuristically describe the ways in which corporations function alongside diasporas. In this way, corporate diaspora might foreground the racial histories of diasporic formations without losing sight of the cultural logic of late capitalism in which corporations orchestrate the transnational circulation of people, images, ideologies and capital. In contemporary times, scholars have classified the different kinds of diasporas based on their causes, such as colonialism, trade/labour migrations, or the social coherence which exists within the diaspora communities and their ties to the ancestral lands. With greater migration flows through the world in modern times, the concept of a secondary diaspora (a new diaspora branching out of a previous diaspora) or sub-diaspora groupings has started being studied. Some diaspora communities maintain strong cultural and political ties to their homelands. Other qualities that may be typical of many diasporas are thoughts of return to the ancestral lands, maintaining any form of ties with the region of origin as well as relationships with other communities in the diaspora, and lack of full integration into the new host countries. Diasporas often maintain ties to the country of their historical affiliation and usually influence their current host country's policies towards their homeland. "Diaspora management" is a term that Harris Mylonas has "re-conceptualized to describe both the policies that states follow in order to build links with their diaspora abroad and the policies designed to help with the incorporation and integration of diasporic communities when they 'return' home". ==African diasporas== The diaspora of Africans during the Atlantic slave trade is one of the most notorious modern diasporas. 10.7 million people from West Africa survived transportation to arrive in the Americas as slaves starting in the late 16th century CE and continuing into the 19th. Outside of the Atlantic slave trade, however, African diasporic communities have existed for millennia. While some communities were slave-based, other groups emigrated for various reasons. From the 8th through the 19th centuries, the Arab slave trade dispersed millions of Africans to Asia and the islands of the Indian Ocean. The Islamic slave trade also has resulted in the creation of communities of African descent in India, most notably the Siddi, Makrani and Sri Lanka Kaffirs. Beginning as early as the 2nd century AD, the kingdom of Aksum (modern-day Ethiopia) created colonies on the Arabian Peninsula. During the 4th century, Aksum formally adopted Christianity as a state religion, becoming the first to do so along with Armenia. In the 6th century, Kaleb of Axum invaded Himyar (modern-day Yemen) to aid and defend Christians under religious persecution. During these campaigns, several groups of soldiers chose not to return to Aksum. These groups are estimated to have ranged in size from the 600s to mid 3000s. Previously, migrant Africans with national African passports could only enter thirteen African countries without advanced visas. In pursuing a unified future, the African Union (AU) launched an African Union Passport in July 2016, allowing people with a passport from one of the 55 member states of the AU to move freely between these countries under this visa free passport and encourage migrants with national African passports to return to Africa. ==Asian diasporas== The largest Asian diaspora in the world is the Indian diaspora. The overseas Indian community, estimated to number over 17.5 million, is spread across many regions of the world, on every continent. It is a global community which is diverse, heterogeneous and eclectic and its members represent different regions, languages, cultures, and faiths (see Desi). Similarly, the Romani, numbering roughly 12 million in Europe trace their origins to the Indian subcontinent, and their presence in Europe is first attested to in the Middle Ages. The South Asian diaspora as a whole has over 44 million people. The earliest known Asian diaspora of note is the Jewish diaspora. With roots in the Babylonian Captivity and later migrations under Hellenism, the majority of the diaspora can be attributed to the Roman conquest, expulsion, and enslavement of the Jewish population of Judea, whose descendants became the Ashkenazim, Sephardim, and Mizrahim of today, roughly numbering 15 million of which 8 million still live in the diaspora, though the number was much higher before Zionist aliyah (immigration to Israel) and the murder of 6 million Jews in the Holocaust. Chinese emigration (also known as the Chinese Diaspora; see also Overseas Chinese) first occurred thousands of years ago. The mass emigration that occurred from the 19th century to 1949 was caused mainly by wars and starvation in mainland China, as well as political corruption. Most migrants were illiterate or poorly educated peasants, called by the now-recognized racial slur coolies (), who migrated to developing countries in need of labor, such as the Americas, Australia, South Africa, Southeast Asia, Malaya and other places. The Pakistani diaspora is the third largest diaspora in Asia with approximately 10 million Pakistanis living abroad mostly in Middle East, North America and Europe. At least three waves of Nepalese diaspora can be identified. The earliest wave dates back hundreds of years as early marriage and high birthrates propelled Hindu settlement eastward across Nepal, then into Sikkim and Bhutan. A backlash developed in the 1980s as Bhutan's political elites realized that Bhutanese Buddhists were at risk of becoming a minority in their own country. At least 60,000 ethnic Nepalese from Bhutan have been resettled in the United States. A second wave was driven by British recruitment of mercenary soldiers beginning around 1815 and resettlement after retirement in the British Isles and Southeast Asia. The third wave began in the 1970s as land shortages intensified and the pool of educated labor greatly exceeded job openings in Nepal. Job-related emigration created Nepalese enclaves in India, the wealthier countries of the Middle East, Europe, and North America. Current estimates of the number of Nepalese living outside Nepal range well up into the millions. In Siam, regional power struggles among several kingdoms in the region led to a large diaspora of ethnic Lao between the 1700s–1800s by Siamese rulers to settle large areas of the Siamese kingdom's northeast region, where Lao ethnicity is still a major factor in 2012. During this period, Siam decimated the Lao capital, capturing, torturing, and killing the Lao king Anuwongse, who led the Lao rebellion in the 19th century. ==European diasporas== European history contains numerous diaspora-causing events. In ancient times, the trading and colonising activities of the Greek tribes from the Balkans and Asia Minor spread people of Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, establishing Greek city-states in southern Italy (the so-called "Magna Graecia"), northern Libya, eastern Spain, the south of France, and the Black Sea coasts. Greeks founded more than 400 colonies. Tyre and Carthage also colonised the Mediterranean. Alexander the Great's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period, characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization in Asia and Africa, with Greek ruling classes established in Egypt, southwest Asia and northwest India. Subsequent waves of colonization and migration during the Middle Ages added to the older settlements or created new ones, thus replenishing the Greek diaspora and making it one of the most long-standing and widespread in the world. The Romans also established numerous colonies and settlements outside of Rome and throughout the Roman empire. The Migration Period relocations, which included several phases, are just one set of many in history. The first phase Migration-Period displacement (between 300 and 500 AD) included relocation of the Goths (Ostrogoths and Visigoths), Vandals, Franks, various other Germanic peoples (Burgundians, Lombards, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Suebi and Alemanni), Alans and numerous Slavic tribes. The second phase, between 500 and 900 AD, saw Slavic, Turkic, and other tribes on the move, resettling in Eastern Europe and gradually leaving it predominantly Slavic, and affecting Anatolia and the Caucasus as the first Turkic tribes (Avars, Huns, Khazars, Pechenegs), as well as Bulgars, and possibly Magyars arrived. The last phase of the migrations saw the coming of the Hungarian Magyars. The Viking expansion out of Scandinavia into southern and eastern Europe, Iceland, the British Isles and Greenland. The recent application of the word "diaspora" to the Viking lexicon highlights their cultural profile distinct from their predatory reputation in the regions they settled, especially in the North Atlantic. The more positive connotations associated with the social science term help to view the movement of the Scandinavian peoples in the Viking Age in a new way. Such colonizing migrations cannot be considered indefinitely as diasporas; over very long periods, eventually, the migrants assimilate into the settled area so completely that it becomes their new mental homeland. Thus the modern Magyars of Hungary do not feel that they belong in the Western Siberia that the Hungarian Magyars left 12 centuries ago; and the English descendants of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes do not yearn to reoccupy the plains of Northwest Germany. In 1492 a Spanish-financed expedition headed by Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas, after which European exploration and colonization rapidly expanded. Historian James Axtell estimates that 240,000 people left Europe for the Americas in the 16th century. Emigration continued. In the 19th century alone over 50 million Europeans migrated to North and South America. Other Europeans moved to Siberia, Africa, and Australasia. The properly Spanish emigrants were mainly from several parts of Spain, but not only the impoverished ones (i.e., Basques in Chile), and the destination varied also along the time. As an example, the Galicians moved first to the American colonies during the XVII-XX (mainly but not only Mexico, Cuba, Argentine and Venezuela, as many writers during the Francoist exile), later to Europe (France, Switzerland) and finally within Spain (to Madrid, Catalonia or the Basque Country). A specific 19th-century example is the Irish diaspora, beginning in the mid-19th century and brought about by or "the Great Hunger" of the Irish Famine. An estimated 45% to 85% of Ireland's population emigrated to areas including Britain, the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand. The size of the Irish diaspora is demonstrated by the number of people around the world who claim Irish ancestry; some sources put the figure at 80 to 100 million. From the 1860s, the Circassian people, originally from Europe, were dispersed through Anatolia, Australia, the Balkans, the Levant, North America, and West Europe, leaving less than 10% of their population in the homeland – parts of historical Circassia (in the modern-day Russian portion of the Caucasus). The Scottish Diaspora includes large populations of Highlanders moving to the United States and Canada after the Highland Clearances; as well as the Lowlanders, becoming the Ulster Scots in Ireland and the Scotch-Irish in America. There were two major Italian diasporas in Italian history. The first diaspora began around 1880, two decades after the Unification of Italy, and ended in the 1920s to the early 1940s with the rise of Fascist Italy. Poverty was the main reason for emigration, specifically the lack of land as mezzadria sharecropping flourished in Italy, especially in the South, and property became subdivided over generations. Especially in Southern Italy, conditions were harsh. Another factor was related to the overpopulation of Southern Italy as a result of the improvements in socioeconomic conditions after Unification. That created a demographic boom and forced the new generations to emigrate en masse in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, mostly to the Americas. The new migration of capital created millions of unskilled jobs around the world and was responsible for the simultaneous mass migration of Italians searching for "work and bread". The second diaspora started after the end of World War II and concluded roughly in the 1970s. Between 1880 and 1980, about 15,000,000 Italians left the country permanently. By 1980, it was estimated that about 25,000,000 Italians were residing outside Italy. ==Internal diasporas== In the United States of America, approximately 4.3 million people moved outside their home states in 2010, according to IRS tax-exemption data. In a 2011 TEDx presentation, Detroit native Garlin Gilchrist referenced the formation of distinct "Detroit diaspora" communities in Seattle and in Washington, DC, while layoffs in the auto industry also led to substantial blue-collar migration from Michigan to Wyoming 2005. In response to a statewide exodus of talent, the State of Michigan continues to host "MichAGAIN" career-recruiting events in places throughout the United States with significant Michigan-diaspora populations. In the People's Republic of China, millions of migrant workers have sought greater opportunity in the country's booming coastal metropolises, though this trend has slowed with the further development of China's interior. Migrant social structures in Chinese megacities are often based on place of origin, such as a shared hometown or province, and recruiters and foremen commonly select entire work-crews from the same village. In two separate June 2011 incidents, Sichuanese migrant workers organized violent protests against alleged police misconduct and migrant-labor abuse near the southern manufacturing hub of Guangzhou. Much of Siberia's population has its origins in internal migration – voluntary or otherwise – from European Russia since the 16th century. The vast majority of the Siberian population (over 85%) is Slavic and other Indo-European ethnicities, mainly the Russians (including their subethnic group Siberians), Ukrainians, and Germans. Most non-Slavic groups are Turkic. Smaller linguistic groups include Mongolic (ca. 600,000 speakers), Uralic (Samoyedic, Ugric; roughly 100,000 speakers), Manchu-Tungus (ca. 40,000 speakers), Chukotko-Kamchatkan (ca. 25,000 speakers), Eskimo–Aleut (some 2,000 speakers), Yukaghir (highly endangered), and languages isolates Ket (but see below) and Nivkh. ===Canada=== In Canada, internal migration has occurred for a number of different factors over the course of Canadian history. An example is the migration of workers from Atlantic Canada (particularly Newfoundland and Labrador) to Alberta, driven in part by the cod collapse in the early 1990s and the 1992 moratorium on cod fishing. Fishing had previously been a major driver of the economies of the Atlantic provinces, and this loss of work proved catastrophic for many families. As a result, beginning in the early 1990s and into the late 2000s, thousands of people from the Atlantic provinces were driven out-of-province to find work elsewhere in the country, especially in the Alberta oil sands during the oil boom of the mid-2000s. This systemic export of labour is explored by author Kate Beaton in her 2022 graphic memoir Ducks, which details her experience working in the Athabasca oil sands. ===Brazil=== Internal migration in Brazil occurs mainly for economic reasons and ecological disasters. Internal migration involves the movement of people within the same territory, which can be between regions, states or municipalities. It does not affect the total number of inhabitants in a country, but it does change the regions involved in this process. In Brazil, economic factors exert the greatest influence on migratory flows, as the capitalist production model creates privileged areas for industries, forcing people to move from one place to another in search of better living conditions and jobs to meet their basic survival needs. Some examples of internal migration in Brazil occurred in the 1960s, when the droughts devastated the Northeast of Brazil, leading thousands of people to abandon their homes in the Brazilian hinterland due to the lack of agricultural alternatives and social policies in the region. At the end of the 19th century, northeasterners migrated to the North of Brazil because of the rubber cycle. In the 1970s, migrants from the Northeast and the South left in search of a better life in the Southeast, Brazil's only industrial center at the time. ===Italy=== The oldest internal migration in Italy goes back to the 11th century when soldiers and settlers from Northern Italy (at the time collectively called "Lombardy"), settled the central and eastern part of Sicily during the Norman conquest of southern Italy. After the marriage between the Norman king Roger I of Sicily with Adelaide del Vasto, member of Aleramici family, many Lombard colonisers left their homeland, in the Aleramici's possessions in Piedmont and Liguria, to settle on the island of Sicily. The migration of people from Northern Italy to Sicily continued until the end of the 13th century. In the same period people from Northern Italy also emigrated to Basilicata. It is believed that the population of Northern Italy who immigrated to Sicily during these centuries was altogether about 200,000 people. Their descendants, who are still present in Sicily today, are called Lombards of Sicily. Following these ancient migrations, in some municipalities of Sicily and Basilicata, dialects of northern origin are still spoken today, the Gallo-Italic of Sicily and the Gallo-Italic of Basilicata. With the fall of Fascist regime in 1943, and the end of World War II in 1945, a large internal migratory flow began from one Italian region to another. This internal emigration was sustained and constantly increased by the economic growth that Italy experienced between the 1950s and 1960s. Given that this economic growth mostly concerned Northwest Italy, which was involved in the birth of many industrial activities, migratory phenomena affected the peasants of the Triveneto and southern Italy, who began to move in large numbers. The rural population of the aforementioned areas began to emigrate to the large industrial centers of the north-west, especially in the so-called "industrial triangle, or the area corresponding to the three-sided polygon with vertices in the cities of Turin, Milan and Genoa. Even some cities in central and southern Italy (such as Rome, which was the object of immigration due to employment in the administrative and tertiary sectors) experienced a conspicuous immigration flow. and from the Iron Curtain regimes established as World War II ended. Hundreds of thousands of these anti-Soviet political refugees and displaced persons ended up in western Europe, Australia, Canada, and the United States of America. After World War II, the Soviet Union and communist-controlled Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Yugoslavia expelled millions of ethnic Germans, most of them were the descendants of immigrants who had settled in those areas centuries ago. This expulsion was allegedly carried out in reaction to Nazi Germany's invasions and pan-German attempts to annex Eastern European territory. Most of the refugees moved to the West, including western Europe, and with tens of thousands seeking refuge in the United States. The Istrian–Dalmatian exodus was the post-World War II exodus and departure of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) as well as ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Istro-Romanians from the Yugoslav territory of Istria, Kvarner, the Julian March as well as Dalmatia, towards Italy, and in smaller numbers, towards the Americas, Australia, and South Africa. These regions were ethnically mixed, with long-established historic Croatian, Italian, and Slovene communities. According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians (the others being ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Istro-Romanians, who chose to maintain Italian citizenship) leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict. Hundreds or perhaps tens of thousands of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) were killed or summarily executed during World War II by Yugoslav Partisans and OZNA during the first years of the exodus, in what became known as the foibe massacres. From 1947, after the war, Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation, which gave them little option other than emigration. In 1953, there were 36,000 declared Italians in Yugoslavia, just about 16% of the original Italian population before World War II. According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia). Spain sent many political activists into exile during the rule of Franco's military regime from 1936 until his death in 1975. Prior to World War II and the re-establishment of Israel in 1948, a series of anti-Jewish pogroms broke out in the Arab world and caused many to flee, mostly to Palestine/Israel. The 1947–1949 Palestine war likewise saw at least 750,000 Palestinians expelled or forced to flee from the newly forming Israel. Many Palestinians continue to live in refugee camps in the Middle East, while others have resettled in other countries. The 1947 Partition in the Indian subcontinent resulted in the migration of millions of people between India, Pakistan, and present-day Bangladesh. Many were murdered in the religious violence of the period, with estimates of fatalities up to 2 million people. Thousands of former subjects of the British Raj went to the UK from the Indian subcontinent after India and Pakistan became independent in 1947. From the late 19th century, and formally from 1910, Japan made Korea a Japanese colony. Millions of Chinese fled to western provinces not occupied by Japan (that is, in particular, Sichuan and Yunnan in the Southwest and Shaanxi and Gansu in the Northwest) and to Southeast Asia. More than 100,000 Koreans moved across the Amur River into the Russian Far East (and later into the Soviet Union) away from the Japanese. ===The Cold War and the formation of post-colonial states=== Both during and after the Cold War-era, huge populations of refugees migrated from countries which experienced conflicts, especially from then-developing countries. Upheavals in the Middle East and Central Asia, some of which were related to power struggles between the United States and the Soviet Union, produced new refugee populations that developed into global diasporas. In Southeast Asia, many Vietnamese people emigrated to France and later millions of other Vietnamese people migrated to the United States, Australia and Canada after the Cold War-related Vietnam War of 1955–1975. Later, 30,000 French colons from Cambodia were displaced after they were expelled by the 1975–1979 Khmer Rouge regime under Pol Pot. A small, predominantly Muslim ethnic group, the Cham people, long residing in Cambodia, were nearly eradicated. The mass exodus of Vietnamese people from Vietnam from 1975 onwards led to the popularisation of the term "boat people". In Southwestern China, many Tibetan people emigrated to India, following the 14th Dalai Lama after the failure of his 1959 Tibetan uprising. This wave lasted until the 1960s, and another wave followed when Tibet opened up to trade and tourism in the 1980s. It is estimated that about 200,000 Tibetans live now dispersed worldwide, half of them in India, Nepal and Bhutan. In lieu of lost citizenship papers, the Central Tibetan Administration offers Green Book identity documents to Tibetan refugees. Sri Lankan Tamils have historically migrated to find work, notably, during the British colonial period (1796–1948). Since the beginning of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 1983, more than 800,000 Tamils have been displaced within Sri Lanka as a local diaspora, and over a half-million Tamils have emigrated as the Tamil diaspora to destinations such as India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the UK, and Europe. The Afghan diaspora resulted from the 1979 invasion of Afghanistan by the former Soviet Union, resulting in the creation of the second-largest refugee population in the world (2.6 million in 2018). Many Iranians fled from the 1979 Iranian Revolution which culminated in the fall of the USA/British-ensconced Shah. In Africa, a new series of diasporas was formed after the end of colonial rule. In some cases, as countries became independent, numerous minority descendants of Europeans emigrated; others stayed. Uganda expelled 80,000 South Asians in 1972 and took over their businesses and properties. The 1990–1994 Rwandan Civil War between rival social/ethnic groups (Hutu and Tutsi) turned deadly and produced a mass efflux of refugees. In Latin America, following the 1959 Cuban Revolution and the introduction of communism, over a million people have left Cuba. A new Jamaican diaspora formed around the start of the 21st century. More than 1 million Dominicans live abroad, a majority living in the US. A million Colombian refugees have left Colombia since 1965 to escape violence and civil wars. Thousands of Argentine and Uruguay refugees fled to Europe during periods of military rule in the 1970s and 1980s. In Central America, Nicaraguans, Salvadorans, Guatemalans, and Hondurans have fled conflict and poor economic conditions. Hundreds of thousands of people fled from the Rwandan genocide in 1994 and moved into neighboring countries. Between 4 and 6 million have emigrated from Zimbabwe beginning in the 1990s especially since 2000, greatly increasing the Zimbabwean diaspora due to a protracted socioeconomic crisis, forming large communities in South Africa, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and smaller communities in the United States, New Zealand and Ireland. The long war in Congo, in which numerous nations have been involved, has also result in millions of displaced refugees. A South Korean diaspora movement during the 1990s caused the homeland fertility rate to drop when a large amount of the middle class emigrated, as the rest of the population continued to age. To counteract the change in these demographics, the South Korean government initiated a diaspora-engagement policy in 1997. ==21st century== ===Middle East=== The 2015 European migrant crisis was a period of significantly increased movement of refugees and migrants into Europe, namely from the Middle East. An estimated 1.3 million people came to the continent to request asylum, the most in a single year since World War II. They were mostly Syrians, but also included a significant number of people from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Nigeria, Eritrea, and the Balkans. The increase in asylum seekers has been attributed to factors such as the escalation of various wars in the Middle East and ISIL's territorial and military dominance in the region due to the Arab Winter, as well as Lebanon, Jordan, and Egypt ceasing to accept Syrian asylum seekers. The EU attempted to enact some measures to address the problem, including distributing refugees among member countries, tackling root causes of emigration in the home countries of migrants, and simplifying deportation processes. However, due to a lack of political coordination at the European level, the distribution of countries was unequal, with some countries taking in many more refugees than others. The initial responses of national governments varied greatly. Political polarization increased, confidence in the European Union fell, and many countries tightened their asylum laws. Right-wing populist parties capitalized on public anxiety and became significantly more popular in many countries. There was an increase in protests regarding immigration and the circulation of the white nationalist conspiracy theory of the Great Replacement. Nonetheless, despite the political consequences, a 2023 study leveraging quantified economic metrics (such as chained GDP and the inflation rate) concluded that the events ultimately resulted in a “low but positive impact” to the German economy. ===Venezuelan refugee crisis=== The Venezuelan refugee crisis, the largest recorded refugee crisis in the Americas, refers to the emigration of millions of Venezuelans from their native country during the presidencies of Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro since the Bolivarian Revolution. The revolution was an attempt by Chávez and later Maduro to establish a cultural and political hegemony, which culminated in the crisis in Venezuela. The resulting refugee crisis has been compared to those faced by Cuban exiles, Syrian refugees and those affected by the European migrant crisis. The Bolivarian government has denied any migratory crisis, stating that the United Nations and others are attempting to justify foreign intervention within Venezuela. Newsweek described the "Bolivarian diaspora" as "a reversal of fortune on a massive scale", where the reversal refers to Venezuela's high immigration rate during the 20th century. This has caused a brain drain that affects the nation, due to the large number of emigrants who are educated or skilled. During the crisis, Venezuelans have been asked about their desire to leave their native country; over 30 percent of respondents to a December 2015 survey said that they planned to permanently leave Venezuela. The percentage nearly doubled the following September as, according to Datincorp, 57 percent of respondents wanted to leave the country. By mid-2019, over four million Venezuelans had emigrated since the revolution began in 1999. The United Nations predicted that by the end of 2019, there would have been over 5 million recorded emigrants during the Venezuelan crisis, over 15% of the population. A late-2018 study by the Brookings Institution suggested that emigration would reach 6 million – approximately 20% of Venezuela's 2017 population – by the end of 2019, with a mid-2019 poll by Consultares 21 estimating that up to 6 million Venezuelans had fled the country by this point; estimates going into 2020 suggested that the number of Venezuelan migrants and refugees was overtaking the 6 million figure, Estimates had risen to 7.1 million by October 2022, over 20 percent of the country's population. The Norwegian Refugee Council, the Brookings Institution and the Organization of American States commissioner for the Venezuelan refugee crisis, David Smolansky, have estimated that the crisis is also one of the most underfunded refugee crisis in modern history. According to the UNHCR, more than 7.7 million people have emigrated from Venezuela in the years corresponding to Maduro's rise to power and the consolidation of Chavismo. The organization's calculation method is based on asylum requests and refugee registrations in each country, which might exclude those in irregular situations. The location-based networking features of mobile applications such as China's WeChat have also created online diaspora communities when used outside of their home markets. Now, large companies from the emerging countries are looking at leveraging diaspora communities to enter the more mature market. == Diaspora languages == The term diaspora language, coined in the 1980s, is a sociolinguistic idea referring to a variety of languages spoken by peoples with common roots who have dispersed, under various pressures and often globally. The emergence and evolution of a diaspora language is usually part of a larger attempt to retain cultural identity. Examples are Yiddish, African American Vernacular English, Yoruba, Molise Slavic, Istro-Romanian, Griko, Gallo-Italic of Sicily, Talian, Cocoliche, Lunfardo and Arbëresh. ==In popular culture== Gran Torino, a 2008 drama starring Clint Eastwood, was the first mainstream American film to feature the Hmong American diaspora.	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8,615	List of dog breeds	This list of dog breeds includes both extant and extinct dog breeds, varieties and types. A research article on dog genomics published in Science/AAAS defines modern dog breeds as "a recent invention defined by conformation to a physical ideal and purity of lineage". According to BigThink, over 40% of the world's dog breeds come from the United Kingdom, France and Germany. It states: "Great Britain and France are the ground zero of dog fancying, with 57 registered breeds each. Germany is not far behind, with 47 breeds. These three countries alone represent more than 40% of all dog breeds recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale." == Extant breeds, varieties and types == === A–C === === D–K === === L–R === === S–Z === == Extinct and critically endangered breeds, varieties and types ==	[ "Dingo", "Cantabrian Water Dog", "List of Italian dog breeds", "Podenco Valenciano", "Welsh Hillman", "Tibetan Kyi Apso", "Poodle", "Kishu", "Labrador Retriever", "Kunming dog", "North Country Beagle", "Australian Cattle Dog", "Kokoni", "Trigg Hound", "Norwegian Lundehund", "West Highland White Terrier", "Pointer (dog breed)", "dingo", "Koolie", "Jeju dog", "Russian Spaniel", "Andalusian Terrier", "Kamchatka Sled Dog", "Cardigan Welsh Corgi", "Belgian Shepherd", "Pastor Garafiano", "Danish–Swedish Farmdog", "Braque Dupuy", "Old English Bulldog", "Bouvier des Ardennes", "Skye Terrier", "List of Tibetan dog breeds", "Nureongi", "Posavac Hound", "Greenland Dog", "Telomian", "Borzoi", "St. Hubert Jura Hound", "Artois Hound", "Norfolk Terrier", "Tahltan Bear Dog", "Braque Français", "Chien Français Blanc et Orange", "Lhasa Apso", "Kuchi dog", "Bearded Collie", "Aksaray Malaklisi", "Rampur Greyhound", "Toy Manchester Terrier", "Serbian Tricolour Hound", "Miniature Pinscher", "Mountain Cur", "Cane Paratore", "Dalmatian (dog)", "Dogo Argentino", "Sarasota Herald-Tribune", "Basenji", "Lakeland Terrier", "Schweizer Laufhund", "Papillon dog", "Moscow Watchdog", "English Cocker Spaniel", "Mudhol Hound", "Petit Bleu de Gascogne", "Georgian Shepherd", "Donggyeongi", "Vizsla", "Pungsan dog", "Šarplaninac", "Moscow Water Dog", "Irish Water Spaniel", "King Shepherd", "Spinone Italiano", "Finnish Hound", "Estrela Mountain Dog", "Catahoula Leopard Dog", "Central Asian Shepherd Dog", "Toy Trawler Spaniel", "Molossus of Epirus", "Great Britain", "Gull Dong", "Australian Silky Terrier", "Kaikadi (dog)", "Blue Lacy", "Coton de Tulear", "Can de Palleiro", "Dunker", "Neapolitan Mastiff", "Pachón Navarro", "Parson Russell Terrier", "Southern Hound", "English Foxhound", "Dumfriesshire hound", "Basset Artésien Normand", "Leonberger", "Cirneco dell'Etna", "Fila Brasileiro", "Chilean Terrier", "Gascon Saintongeois", "Lancashire Heeler", "Bakharwal dog", "Bohemian Spotted Dog", "Wire Fox Terrier", "Kurī", "Cumberland Sheepdog", "Small Međimurje Dog", "French Spaniel", "Kooikerhondje", "Cur", "American Pit Bull Terrier", "Chien Français Tricolore", "Portuguese Water Dog", "Greyhound", "Black Russian Terrier", "Icelandic Sheepdog", "Neontology", "Shar Pei", "Pyrenean Sheepdog", "Entlebucher Mountain Dog", "Standard Schnauzer", "Chippiparai", "Treeing Tennessee Brindle", "Finnish Spitz", "Alopekis", "Afghan Hound", "Sakhalin Husky", "Segugio Maremmano", "Hare Indian Dog", "Gull Terrier", "Welsh Springer Spaniel", "Cretan Hound", "Designer breed", "Rize Koyun", "Grand Basset Griffon Vendéen", "Komondor", "Puli dog", "Tang Dog", "Bergamasco Shepherd", "dog breed", "Perdigueiro Galego", "Chien-gris", "Karelo-Finnish Laika", "Bắc Hà dog", "Ryukyu dog", "German Spaniel", "Phalène", "Swedish Lapphund", "Saluki", "Dogo Sardesco", "Kurdish Mastiff", "German Roughhaired Pointer", "Sleuth hound", "Volpino Italiano", "Plott Hound", "American Bully", "Miniature American Shepherd", "Miniature Schnauzer", "Welsh Sheepdog", "Hygen Hound", "Black Norwegian Elkhound", "Banjara Hound", "American Staffordshire Terrier", "Scottish Terrier", "Dogo Cubano", "Kerry Beagle", "Saint Miguel Cattle Dog", "Mongrel", "Norman Hound", "Ariégeois", "Karelian Bear Dog", "Norwich Terrier", "Cavalier King Charles Spaniel", "Molossus (dog)", "Romanian Raven Shepherd Dog", "Khala (dog breed)", "Shikoku dog", "Chiribaya Dog", "Picardy Spaniel", "Cimarrón Uruguayo", "Kai Ken", "Cesky Terrier", "Danish Spitz", "Schipperke", "Pont-Audemer Spaniel", "Grand Anglo-Français Blanc et Noir", "Shiloh Shepherd", "Hawaiian Poi Dog", "Tahitian Dog", "Japanese Chin", "Kazakh Tazy", "Fédération Cynologique Internationale", "Bavarian Mountain Hound", "dog type", "Saarloos Wolfdog", "Valencian Terrier", "Transylvanian Hound", "Wirehaired Vizsla", "Toy Bulldog", "American Leopard Hound", "Armenian Gampr", "Thai Ridgeback", "Villanuco de Las Encartaciones", "Canadian Eskimo Dog", "New Zealand Heading Dog", "Newfoundland dog", "Polish Greyhound", "West Siberian Laika", "Alaunt", "Corsican Dog", "Belgian Mastiff", "German Shepherd", "St. Bernard (dog)", "Chinook (dog)", "Maneto", "Lupo Italiano", "Sporting Lucas Terrier", "Hmong bobtail dog", "Lithuanian Hound", "Old Croatian Sighthound", "American Water Spaniel", "Canaan Dog", "Korean Jindo", "Smithfield (dog)", "Alano Español", "Australian Shepherd", "Tatra Shepherd Dog", "Kars dog", "Vikhan", "Smooth Fox Terrier", "Treeing Cur", "Basque Shepherd Dog", "Denmark Feist", "Colombian Fino Hound", "Cane Corso", "Can de Chira", "Whippet", "English Setter", "Presa Canario", "Rhodesian Ridgeback", "Bedlington Terrier", "Sapsali", "Westphalian Dachsbracke", "List of dog breeds from India", "Redbone Coonhound", "Pudelpointer", "Ariège Pointer", "List of dog crossbreeds", "Segugio Italiano", "Taigan", "Taiwan Dog", "German Shorthaired Pointer", "Kerry Blue Terrier", "Staghound", "Mountain Feist", "Beagle-Harrier", "Irish Setter", "Silken Windhound", "Field Spaniel", "Tweed Water Spaniel", "Styrian Coarse-haired Hound", "Keeshond", "Peruvian Hairless Dog", "Bluetick Coonhound", "Islamic Azad University", "Broholmer", "Indian pariah dog", "Schweizerischer Niederlaufhund", "Gordon Setter", "Pražský Krysařík", "Talbot (dog)", "Boerboel", "Rottweiler", "Portuguese Podengo", "Africanis", "Border Collie", "Old Welsh Grey Sheepdog", "Aidi", "Perro Majorero", "Border Terrier", "Drentse Patrijshond", "Grand Anglo-Français Blanc et Orange", "Norwegian Buhund", "Treeing Walker Coonhound", "Armant (dog)", "Kombai dog", "Gaucho sheepdog", "Faroese Sheepdog", "Karst Shepherd", "Old Danish Pointer", "Catalan Sheepdog", "Grand Bleu de Gascogne", "Old Spanish Pointer", "Spanish Water Dog", "Rache", "Porcelaine", "Marquesan Dog", "Austrian Pinscher", "Jämthund", "East Siberian Laika", "Turnspit dog", "Australian Terrier", "genomics", "Briquet Griffon Vendéen", "Drever", "Australian Kelpie", "Schillerstövare", "Argentine polar dog", "Indian Spitz", "Pastore della Lessinia e del Lagorai", "Griffon Bruxellois", "Braque du Bourbonnais", "Lapponian Herder", "Pekingese", "Patterdale Terrier", "Cane di Oropa", "Caucasian Shepherd Dog", "Carea Leonés", "Braque Saint-Germain", "Calupoh", "American Cocker Spaniel", "McNab dog", "Boston Terrier", "Pug", "France", "Austrian Black and Tan Hound", "Smaland Hound", "Bulldog", "Swedish Vallhund", "Bullenbeisser", "Lagotto Romagnolo", "Scottish Deerhound", "Pyrenean Mastiff", "Finnish Lapphund", "Sloughi", "Alpine Dachsbracke", "Tibetan Mastiff", "Black and Tan Terrier", "Grand Griffon Vendéen", "Stabyhoun", "German Spitz", "Rough Collie", "Petit Basset Griffon Vendéen", "Dalbo dog", "Córdoba fighting dog", "CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform", "Golden Retriever", "Samoyed dog", "Löwchen", "Dog type", "Sarabi dog", "English Toy Terrier (Black & Tan)", "Continental bulldog", "Spino degli Iblei", "Wirehaired Pointing Griffon", "Chongqing dog", "Toy Fox Terrier", "Briquet de Provence", "Large Münsterländer", "Curly-coated Retriever", "Carpathian Shepherd Dog", "Portuguese Sheepdog", "Halls Heeler", "Alaskan Malamute", "Great Dane", "Hanover Hound", "Alapaha Blue Blood Bulldog", "Rajapalayam dog", "Alpine Mastiff", "Smooth Collie", "Lapponian Shepherd", "Paisley Terrier", "Staffordshire Bull Terrier", "Limer", "Russo-European Laika", "Irish Wolfhound", "American Bulldog", "Manchester Terrier", "English Springer Spaniel", "Bohemian Shepherd", "Greek Harehound", "Griffon Fauve de Bretagne", "BigThink", "Anglo-Français de Petite Vénerie", "Dutch Smoushond", "United Kingdom", "Hovawart", "Billy (dog)", "German Longhaired Pointer", "King Charles Spaniel", "Sealyham Terrier", "Nenets Herding Laika", "Tonya Finosu", "Siberian Husky", "Mahratta Hound", "Chow Chow", "Castro Laboreiro Dog", "Magyar Agár", "Yakutian Laika", "Plummer Terrier", "Shetland Sheepdog", "American English Coonhound", "Serbian Hound", "Pomeranian dog", "Bolognese dog", "White Swiss Shepherd Dog", "Kintamani (dog)", "Phu Quoc Ridgeback", "Alaskan Husky", "Podenco Andaluz", "Teddy Roosevelt Terrier", "Bracco Italiano", "Barbado da Terceira", "Cão de Gado Transmontano", "Bloodhound", "Appenzeller Sennenhund", "German Wirehaired Pointer", "Majorca Shepherd Dog", "Liangshan Dog", "Grand Anglo-Français Tricolore", "Estonian Hound", "Dobermann", "Slovenský kopov", "Chien Français Blanc et Noir", "Braque d'Auvergne", "Pyrenean Mountain Dog", "White Shepherd", "Dogue Brasileiro", "Hällefors Elkhound", "Science/AAAS", "Miniature Fox Terrier", "Basset Hound", "Briard", "Flat-coated Retriever", "Campeiro Bulldog", "Nova Scotia Duck Tolling Retriever", "Podenco Canario", "Irish Red and White Setter", "Tamaskan Dog", "Welsh Terrier", "English Mastiff", "Yorkshire Terrier", "Schapendoes", "Harrier (dog)", "Český fousek", "Argentine Pila", "St. John's water dog", "Irish Terrier", "Basset Fauve de Bretagne", "Patagonian Sheepdog", "English White Terrier", "Norrbottenspets", "Segugio dell'Appennino", "Pumi dog", "Pembroke Welsh Corgi", "Kangal Shepherd Dog", "English Water Spaniel", "Dogue de Bordeaux", "Tosa (dog)", "Havanese dog", "Tesem", "Treeing Feist", "Tyrolean Hound", "Karakachan dog", "American Hairless Terrier", "Ca Mè Mallorquí", "Jack Russell Terrier", "Alaskan Klee Kai", "Saint-Usuge Spaniel", "Czechoslovakian Wolfdog", "Markiesje", "Serrano Bulldog", "Olde English Bulldogge", "Abyssinian sand terrier", "Slovak Rough-haired Pointer", "Maltese dog", "Shiba Inu", "Pampas Deerhound", "Kanni", "Mackenzie River Husky", "Dandie Dinmont Terrier", "Otterhound", "Burgos Pointer", "Sardinian Shepherd Dog", "Dikkulak", "Bichon Frisé", "Mudi", "Old English Sheepdog", "Greek Shepherd", "Polish Hound", "Akita (dog)", "American Eskimo Dog", "Welsh Hound", "Bull Arab", "Hamiltonstövare", "Soft-coated Wheaten Terrier", "Greater Swiss Mountain Dog", "Xoloitzcuintle", "Salish Wool Dog", "Cairn Terrier", "Griffon Bleu de Gascogne", "Galgo Español", "Basset Bleu de Gascogne", "Tenterfield Terrier", "Germany", "Istrian Shorthaired Hound", "Tibetan spaniel", "Gończy Polski", "Fuegian dog", "Berger Picard", "Boxer (dog)", "American Foxhound", "King's White Hound", "Thai Bangkaew Dog", "Weimaraner", "Bullmastiff", "Tornjak", "Bulgarian Hound", "Huntaway", "Black Mouth Cur", "French Bulldog", "Romanian Mioritic Shepherd Dog", "Japanese Terrier", "Rafeiro do Alentejo", "Brittany (dog)", "Ca Rater Mallorquí", "Erbi Txakur", "Beauceron", "East European Shepherd", "German Pinscher", "Bouvier des Flandres", "Wetterhoun", "Lobito Herreño", "English Shepherd", "Rat Terrier", "Black and Tan Coonhound", "Tarsus çatalburun", "Dutch Shepherd", "Terceira Mastiff", "Ibizan Hound", "West Country Harrier", "Biewer Terrier", "Blue Picardy Spaniel", "Carolina Dog", "Kromfohrländer", "Polynesian Dog", "New Guinea singing dog", "Zerdava", "Bully Kutta", "Griffon Nivernais", "Stephens Stock", "Bankhar Dog", "Norfolk Spaniel", "Barbet (dog)", "Lucas Terrier", "Chortai", "Ca de Bou", "Chesapeake Bay Retriever", "Poitevin hound", "Sabueso Español", "Grand Fauve de Bretagne", "Slovak Cuvac", "Techichi", "Levriero Sardo", "Tibetan Terrier", "Bruno Jura Hound", "Xiasi Dog", "Villano de Las Encartaciones", "Sinhala Hound", "Beagle", "Azawakh", "Polish Lowland Sheepdog", "Miniature Bull Terrier", "Landseer dog", "Portuguese Pointer", "Shih Tzu", "Affenpinscher", "Halden Hound", "German Hound", "Italian Greyhound", "South Russian Ovcharka", "Small Münsterländer", "Northern Inuit Dog", "Brazilian Terrier", "Japanese Spitz", "Montenegrin Mountain Hound", "Lài dog", "Ratonero Murciano", "Volkosob", "Sussex Spaniel", "Dachshund", "Maremmano-Abruzzese Sheepdog", "Spanish Mastiff", "Eurasier", "Russkiy Toy", "Jonangi", "Akbash", "Boykin Spaniel", "Giant Schnauzer", "Barak hound", "Rastreador Brasileiro", "Laconian (dog)", "Ecuadorian Hairless Dog", "Assyrian Mastiff", "Himalayan Sheepdog", "Buckhound", "Bulgarian Scenthound", "Glen of Imaal Terrier", "Istrian Coarse-haired Hound", "Airedale Terrier", "Jagdterrier", "Kuvasz", "Croatian Sheepdog", "Hokkaido (dog)", "Bucovina Shepherd Dog", "Norwegian Elkhound", "Australian Stumpy Tail Cattle Dog", "Clumber Spaniel", "Bull Terrier", "Bernese Mountain Dog", "Chihuahua (dog)", "Pharaoh Hound", "Chukotka sled dog", "Chinese Crested Dog" ]
8,617	Daniel Jones (phonetician)	Daniel Jones (12 September 1881 – 4 December 1967) was a British phonetician who studied under Paul Passy, professor of phonetics at the École des Hautes Études at the Sorbonne (University of Paris). He was head of the department of phonetics at University College London. ==Biography== In 1900, Jones studied briefly at William Tilly's Marburg Language Institute in Germany, where he was first introduced to phonetics. In 1903, he received his BA degree in mathematics at the University of Cambridge, and by right his MA in 1907. From 1905 to 1906, he studied in Paris under Paul Passy, who was one of the founders of the International Phonetic Association, and in 1911, he married Passy's niece Cyrille Motte. He briefly took private lessons from the British phonetician Henry Sweet. In 1907, he became a part-time lecturer at the University College London and was afterwards appointed to a full-time position. In 1912, he became the head of the Department of Phonetics and was appointed to a chair in 1921, a post he held until his retirement in 1949. From 1906 onwards, Jones was an active member of the International Phonetic Association, and was assistant secretary from 1907 to 1927, secretary from 1927 to 1949, and president from 1950 to 1967. In 1909, Jones wrote the short Pronunciation of English, a book he later radically revised. The resulting work, An Outline of English Phonetics, followed in 1918 and is the first truly comprehensive description of British Received Pronunciation, and the first such description of the standard pronunciation of any language. The year 1917 was a landmark for Jones in many ways. He became the first linguist in the western world to use the term phoneme in its current sense, employing the word in his article "The phonetic structure of the Sechuana Language". Jones had made an earlier notable attempt at a pronunciation dictionary but it was now that he produced the first edition of his famous English Pronouncing Dictionary, a work which in revised form is still in print. It was here that the cardinal vowel diagram made a first appearance. The problem of the phonetic description of vowels is of long standing, going back to the era of the ancient Indian linguists. Three nineteenth-century British phoneticians worked on this topic. Alexander Melville Bell (1867) devised a phonetic alphabet which included an elaborate system for vowels. Alexander John Ellis had also suggested vowel symbols for his phonetic alphabets. Sweet did much work on the systematic description of vowels, producing an elaborate system of vowel description involving a multitude of symbols. Jones however was the one who is generally credited with having gone much of the way towards a practical solution through his scheme of 'cardinal vowels', a relatively simple system of reference vowels which for many years has been taught systematically to students within the British tradition. Much of the inspiration for this scheme can be found in the earlier publications of Passy. In the original form of the cardinal vowels, Jones employed a dual-parameter system of description based on the supposed height of the tongue arch together with the shape of the lips. This he reduced to a simple quadrilateral diagram which could be used to help visualize how vowels are articulated. Tongue height (close vs. open) is represented on the vertical axis and front vs. back on the horizontal axis indicates the portion of the tongue raised on the horizontal axis. Lip-rounding is also built into the system, so that front vowels (such as [i, e, a]) have spread or neutral lip postures, but the back vowels (such as [o, u]) have more marked lip-rounding as vowel height increases. Jones thus arrived at a set of eight "primary Cardinal Vowels", and recorded these on gramophone disc for HMV in 1917. Later modifications to his theory allowed for an additional set of eight "secondary Cardinal Vowels" with reverse lip shapes, permitting the representation of eight secondary cardinal vowels (front rounded and back unrounded). Eventually, Jones also devised symbols for central vowels and positioned these on the vowel diagram. He made two further disc recordings for Linguaphone in 1943 and 1956. With the passing years, the accuracy of many of Jones's statements on vowels has come increasingly under question, and most linguists now consider that the vowel quadrilateral must be viewed as a way of representing auditory space in visual form, rather than the tightly defined articulatory scheme envisaged by Jones. Nevertheless, the International Phonetic Association still uses a version of Jones's model, and includes a Jones-type vowel diagram on its influential International Phonetic Alphabet leaflet contained in the "Handbook of the International Association". Many phoneticians (especially those trained in the British school) resort to it constantly as a quick and convenient form of reference. Although Jones is especially remembered for his work on the phonetics and phonology of English, he ranged far more widely. He produced phonetic/phonological treatments which were masterly for their time on the sound systems of Cantonese, Tswana (Sechuana as it was then known), Sinhalese, and Russian. He was the first phonetician to produce, in his "Sechuana Reader", a competent description of an African tone language, including the concept of downstep. Jones helped develop new alphabets for African languages, and suggested systems of romanisation for Indian languages and Japanese. He also busied himself with support for revised spelling for English through the Simplified Spelling Society. Apart from his own vast array of published work, Jones acted as mentor to numerous scholars who later went on to become famous linguists in their own right. These included such names as Lilias Armstrong, Harold Palmer, Ida C. Ward, Hélène Coustenoble, Arthur Lloyd James, Dennis Fry, A. C. Gimson, Gordon Arnold, J.D. O'Connor, Clive Sansom, and many more. For several decades, his department at University College was pivotal in the development of phonetics and in making its findings known to the wider world. Beverley Collins and Inger M. Mees (1998) speculate that it is Jones, not as is often thought Sweet, who provided George Bernard Shaw with the basis for his fictional character Professor Henry Higgins in Pygmalion. After retirement, Jones worked at his publications almost up to the end of his long life. He died at his home in Gerrards Cross in Buckinghamshire on 4 December 1967.	[ "Germany", "Tswana language", "Clive Sansom", "Arthur Lloyd James", "phonetics", "English Pronouncing Dictionary", "Phonetician", "Vowel quadrilateral", "Lilias Armstrong", "University of Cambridge", "Visible Speech", "Henry Sweet", "University of Paris", "Simplified Spelling Society", "J. D. O'Connor", "Received Pronunciation", "Alexander John Ellis", "Alexander Melville Bell", "George Bernard Shaw", "Ida C. Ward", "Buckinghamshire", "Pygmalion (play)", "Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)", "phoneme", "A. C. Gimson", "cardinal vowel", "Paris", "downstep", "University College London", "Marburg", "Gerrards Cross", "alphabet", "Harold E. Palmer", "International Phonetic Association", "Dennis Fry", "Paul Passy" ]
8,618	David Beckham	David Robert Joseph Beckham ( ; born 2 May 1975) is an English former professional footballer, the president and co-owner of Inter Miami CF and co-owner of Salford City. Primarily a right winger and known for his range of passing, crossing ability and free-kick taking, Beckham is considered one of the best players of his generation, one of the greatest players in Premier League history and one of the best free-kick takers of all time. He won 19 major trophies in his career, and is the first English player to win league titles in four different countries: England, Spain, the United States and France. Beckham's professional club career began with Manchester United, where he made his first-team debut in 1992 at age 17. With United, he won the Premier League title six times, the FA Cup twice, the FA Charity Shield twice, the Intercontinental Cup and the UEFA Champions League in 1999. winning the La Liga title in his final season with the club. In July 2007, Beckham signed a five-year contract with Major League Soccer club LA Galaxy; it was widely cited as a historic transfer for football in America. While a Galaxy player, he spent two loan spells in Italy with AC Milan in 2009 and 2010, and became the first British footballer to play 100 Champions League games. In international football, Beckham made his England debut on 1 September 1996, at the age of 21. He was captain for six years, earning 58 caps during his tenure. He made 115 career appearances in total, appearing at three FIFA World Cups in 1998, 2002 and 2006 as well as two UEFA European Championships in 2000 and 2004. Beckham held the England appearance record for an outfield player until 2016. A global ambassador of football, Beckham is considered a British cultural icon. He has been in a well publicised marriage to Victoria Beckham since 1999 and was consistently ranked among the highest earners in football, in 2013 being listed as the highest-paid player in the world having earned over in the previous twelve months. Beckham was runner-up in the Ballon d'Or in 1999, twice runner-up for FIFA World Player of the Year (1999 and 2001) and in 2004 was named by Pelé in the FIFA 100 list of the world's greatest living players. He was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2008, and the Premier League Hall of Fame in 2021. He has been a UNICEF ambassador since 2005, and in 2015 he launched 7: The David Beckham UNICEF Fund. In 2014, MLS announced that Beckham and a group of investors would own Inter Miami, which began playing in 2020. ==Early life, family and education== David Robert Joseph Beckham was born on 2 May 1975 at Whipps Cross University Hospital in Leytonstone, London, England. He is the son of Sandra Georgina (née West), a hairdresser, and David Edward Alan "Ted" Beckham, a kitchen fitter; the couple married in 1969 in the London Borough of Hackney. He was given the middle name Robert in honour of Bobby Charlton, his father's favourite footballer. He has an older sister, Lynne Georgina, and a younger sister, Joanne Louise. Beckham's maternal grandfather's maternal grandmother, Elizabeth Lazarus Llewellyn, was Jewish. Beckham has referred to himself as "half Jewish" and wrote in his autobiography "I've probably had more contact with Judaism than with any other religion". In his book Both Feet on the Ground, Beckham states that growing up he attended church every week with his parents, because that was the only way he could play football for their team. His parents were fanatical Manchester United supporters who frequently travelled to Old Trafford from London to attend the team's home matches. David inherited his parents' love of Manchester United, and his main sporting passion was football. In a 2007 interview, Beckham said that, "At school whenever the teachers asked, 'What do you want to do when you're older?' I'd say, 'I want to be a footballer.' And they'd say, 'No, what do you really want to do, for a job?' But that was the only thing I ever wanted to do." Beckham was a late developer and not selected to represent the England Schoolboys' team primarily on account of his small size. He attended one of Bobby Charlton's Soccer Schools in Manchester and won the chance to take part in a training session with Barcelona, as part of a talent competition. He played for a local youth team called Ridgeway Rovers, which was coached by his father, Stuart Underwood, and Steve Kirby. Beckham was a Manchester United mascot for a match against West Ham United in 1986. Young Beckham had trials with his local club Leyton Orient, Norwich City and attended Tottenham Hotspur's school of excellence, though never represented the club in a match. During a two-year period in which Beckham played for Brimsdown Rovers' youth team, he was named Under-15 Player of the Year in 1990. Beckham attended Chingford County High School in Nevin Drive, Chingford. He also attended Bradenton Preparatory Academy, but signed schoolboy forms at Manchester United on his 14th birthday, and subsequently signed a Youth Training Scheme contract on 8 July 1991. ==Club career== ===Manchester United=== ====1991–1994: Youth and early-career==== Having signed for Manchester United as a trainee on 8 July 1991, Beckham was part of a group of young players, including Ryan Giggs, Gary Neville, Phil Neville, Nicky Butt and Paul Scholes, who were coached by Eric Harrison, and helped the club win the FA Youth Cup in May 1992. Beckham scored Manchester United's second goal in the 30th minute of their 3–1 first-leg win of the final against Crystal Palace on 14 April 1992. In the second leg on 15 May, Beckham played a full 90-minutes of the fixture which ended 3–2 in favour of Manchester United and 6–3 on aggregate. Beckham's impact led to a first-team debut on 23 September 1992, as a substitute for Andrei Kanchelskis in a League Cup match against Brighton & Hove Albion. Shortly afterwards, Beckham signed as a professional on 23 January 1993. ====1994–1995: Loan to Preston North End==== Beckham then went to Preston North End, on loan for part of the 1994–95 season, to get some first-team experience. He scored two goals in five appearances, notably directly from a corner kick. ====1995–1996: Return to United and first Championship==== Beckham returned to Manchester and made his Premier League debut for Manchester United on 2 April 1995 in a goalless draw against Leeds United. He played four times for United in the league that season, as they finished second behind Blackburn Rovers, missing out on a third successive Premier League title by a single point. He was not in the squad for the FA Cup final with Everton on 20 May, which United lost 1–0, leaving the club without a major trophy for the first time since 1989. United manager Sir Alex Ferguson had a great deal of confidence in the club's young players. Beckham was part of a group of young talents Ferguson brought into United in the 1990s (known as "Fergie's Fledglings"), which included Nicky Butt and Gary and Phil Neville. When experienced players Paul Ince, Mark Hughes and Andrei Kanchelskis left the club after the end of the 1994–95 season, his decision to let youth team players replace them instead of buying star players from other clubs (United had been linked with moves for players including Darren Anderton, Marc Overmars and Roberto Baggio, but no major signings were made that summer), drew a great deal of criticism. The criticism increased when United started the season with a 3–1 defeat at Aston Villa, with Beckham scoring United's only goal of the game. However, United recovered from this early-season defeat and the young players performed well. Beckham swiftly established himself as United's right-sided midfielder (rather than a right-winger in the style of his predecessor Andrei Kanchelskis) and helped them to win the Premier League title and FA Cup double that season, scoring the winner in the semi-final against Chelsea and also providing the corner from which Eric Cantona scored in the FA Cup Final. Beckham's first title medal had, for a while, looked like it would not be coming that season, as United were still 10 points adrift of leaders Newcastle United at the turn of the new year, but Beckham and his teammates had overhauled the Tynesiders at the top of the league by mid March and they remained top until the end of the season. Despite playing regularly and to a consistently high standard for Manchester United, Beckham did not break into the England squad before Euro 1996. ====1996–1998: First-choice and inheriting No. 7 shirt==== As the summer 2003 transfer window approached, Manchester United appeared keen to sell Beckham to Barcelona and the two clubs even announced that they reached a deal for Beckham's transfer, but instead he joined reigning Spanish champions Real Madrid for on a four-year contract. Beckham was the latest signing in the Galácticos era of global stars signed by club president Florentino Pérez every summer. The news came as a bitter blow to the newly elected Barcelona president Joan Laporta, who based much of his presidential campaign on signing Beckham. The transfer to Real Madrid was announced in mid-June and formally completed on 1 July 2003, making Beckham the third Englishman to play for the club, after Laurie Cunningham and Steve McManaman, the latter of whom he succeeded in his position. Following a successful medical on 2 July, Beckham was unveiled in front of 500 accredited journalists from 25 countries at the club's basketball facility, where he was handed the famous white shirt by former Real Madrid player Alfredo Di Stéfano. Although Beckham had worn the number seven shirt for Manchester United and England, he was unable to wear it at Madrid as it was assigned to club captain Raúl. Beckham decided to wear number 23 instead, citing his admiration of basketball player Michael Jordan, who also wore number 23. On sales of Beckham-related merchandise following his arrival at Real, an Adidas spokesman stated: "Put Beckham's name on any product and Real Madrid didn't stop selling". Shortly after his transfer to Real, Beckham ended his relationship with agent Tony Stephens of SFX Europe, who had guided him through his career until that point, including helping to engineer Beckham's move from Manchester to Madrid. Beckham signed on with Simon Fuller and his company 19 Entertainment, which already managed the career of Victoria. Beckham appointed close friend Terry Byrne to be his personal manager. In late-August 2003, Real Madrid won the Spanish Super Cup over two legs versus Mallorca, with Beckham scoring the final goal in a 3–0 return leg win at home, thus setting the stage for the start of the league season. Playing in a star-laden team which included three former FIFA World Player of the Year recipients, Zinedine Zidane, Ronaldo and Luís Figo, in addition to Roberto Carlos, Raúl and Iker Casillas, Beckham did not require much time to settle in, scoring five times in his first 16 matches (including a goal less than three minutes into his La Liga debut). Queiroz mostly favoured the adaptable 5–3–2 formation, with two fullbacks Míchel Salgado and Roberto Carlos, often joining the attack down the wings, while Beckham played on the right of the three-man midfield, alongside Zidane and Figo. Real Madrid were runners-up in the Copa del Rey, were knocked out of the UEFA Champions League at the quarter-final stage and finished the league season in fourth place, meaning the team, whose president Pérez expected them to win either the Spanish league or the Champions League each season, did not match expectations. In July 2004, while Beckham was in pre-season training in Spain, an intruder scaled a wall at the Beckham home while carrying a can of petrol. Victoria and their children were home at the time, but security guards apprehended the man before he reached the house. ====2004–2005: Managerial changes==== The league season began with new head coach José Antonio Camacho at the helm, but he ended up lasting only three matches, handing in his resignation as Real dropped to eighth spot in the La Liga standings. Camacho's assistant Mariano García Remón took over on temporary basis as Real's leadership scrambled to find a permanent replacement. Beckham made more headlines on 9 October 2004 when he admitted intentionally fouling Ben Thatcher in an England match against Wales to get himself booked. Beckham was due to receive a one-match suspension for his next caution, and had picked up an injury which he knew would keep him out of England's next match, so he deliberately fouled Thatcher to serve his suspension in a match that he would have had to miss anyway. The Football Association asked Beckham for an explanation of his actions and he admitted that he had "made a mistake" and apologised. He was sent off shortly afterwards, this time in a league match for Real Madrid against Valencia. Having received a yellow card, he was judged to have sarcastically applauded the referee and was given a second yellow card, causing an automatic dismissal, although the suspension was cancelled on appeal. By Christmas 2004, with the team sitting in second position in the league, García Remón was dismissed, and Vanderlei Luxemburgo became the new head coach. However, the well-travelled Brazilian failed to inspire the team to the title as Real again finished the season in second position. On 3 December 2005, Beckham was sent off for the third time that season in a league match against Getafe. A day later Luxemburgo was sacked and was replaced by Juan Ramón López Caro. By the end of that season, Beckham was third in La Liga in number of assists. ====2005–2006: Outpaced by Barcelona==== During the season, Beckham established football academies in Los Angeles and east London and was named a judge for the 2006 British Book Awards. Real Madrid finished second to Barcelona in the 2005–06 La Liga, albeit with a large twelve-point gap, and only reached the last 16 in the Champions League after losing to Arsenal. Pérez resigned his post as president in January 2006, with Vicente Boluda named as replacement on an interim basis until the end of the season. ====2006–2007: Real Madrid exit==== The summer 2006 off-season marked a turbulent time as the club's presidential elections were held. Ramón Calderón became the new Real president. As expected, none of the club officials who served under the previous president was kept, including head coach López Caro. Initially out of favour with newly arrived head coach Fabio Capello, Beckham started only a few games at the beginning of the season, as the speedier José Antonio Reyes was normally preferred on the right wing. Of the first nine matches Beckham started, Real lost seven. On 10 January 2007, after prolonged contractual negotiations, Real Madrid's sporting director Predrag Mijatović announced that Beckham would not remain at Real Madrid after the end of the season. However, he later claimed that he was mistranslated and that he actually said that Beckham's contract had not yet been renewed. On 11 January 2007, Beckham announced that he had signed a five-year deal to play for the LA Galaxy, beginning 1 July 2007. On 13 January 2007, Fabio Capello said that Beckham had played his last game for Real Madrid, although he continued to train with the team. A few days later, while speaking to the students at Villanueva University Center in Madrid, Calderón said that Beckham is "going to Hollywood to be half a film star", adding "our technical staff were right not to extend his contract, which has been proved by the fact that no other technical staff in the world wanted him except Los Angeles". About a month later, however, Capello backtracked on his earlier statement, allowing Beckham to rejoin the team for the match against Real Sociedad on 10 February 2007. The player immediately repaid his head coach's trust by scoring the equalising goal from a free kick, as Real Madrid eventually recorded a 2–1 victory. In his final UEFA Champions League appearance for the club, Real Madrid were knocked out of the competition by Bayern Munich at the round-of-16 stage (on the away goals rule) on 7 March 2007. Beckham played a pivotal role in all three Madrid goals in the home game, with Bayern goalkeeper Oliver Kahn describing his performance as "world class". On 17 June 2007, the last day of the La Liga season, Beckham started in his final match for the club, a 3–1 win over Mallorca which saw them clinch the title from Barcelona. With Real down 0–1, Beckham limped off the field and was replaced by José Antonio Reyes, who scored two goals, leading the team to that season's La Liga title, their first since Beckham had signed with them and 30th overall in the club's history. Although Real and Barçelona both finished level on points, Madrid took the title because of their superior head-to-head record, capping a remarkable six-month turnaround for Beckham. Towards the end of the season, as Beckham was getting back into Capello's good books after successfully fighting his way back into the first team, Real Madrid announced they would try to untie his transfer to LA Galaxy, but were ultimately unsuccessful. Several weeks before Beckham's scheduled arrival in the United States, Real's management contacted LA Galaxy's ownership group about reacquiring the player, but were quickly turned down. A month after the conclusion of Beckham's Real career, Forbes magazine reported that he had been the party primarily responsible for the team's huge increase in merchandise sales, a total reported to top during Beckham's four years at the club. ===LA Galaxy=== ====2007: First season in MLS==== Beckham's involvement with Major League Soccer (MLS) began while he was still a Real Madrid player when it was confirmed on 11 January 2007 that he would be leaving Madrid in six months to join MLS side LA Galaxy. The speculation about his new contract in Madrid was thus put to an end and the following day Beckham's official press conference was held in conjunction with the 2007 MLS SuperDraft. The announcement made global headlines and elevated the league's profile. Though many worldwide media outlets reported the deal to be worth , the astronomical figure was soon revealed to be a PR stunt engineered by Beckham's media handlers (British representative agency 19 Entertainment). To maximise the media effect, in the press release they decided to list the potential sum that Beckham could make over the five-year period from all his revenue sources, which in addition to his Galaxy pay, also include his personal endorsements. Beckham's actual deal with the Galaxy was a five-year contract worth in total or per year. The high-profile acquisition paid immediate financial dividends for Galaxy long before Beckham joined the team. On the strength of the signing and the media frenzy it created, the club was able to pull off a new five-year shirt sponsorship deal with the Herbalife nutrition company worth . The gate revenue peaked as well with 11,000 new season tickets holders and sold-out luxury suites (each one of the 42 inside the team's home stadium, the Home Depot Center). LA Galaxy owners Anschutz Entertainment Group (AEG) also reported an immediate spike in business. Involved on many business fronts worldwide, AEG was already leveraging its Beckham association in places such as Shanghai and Beijing, where the company had been working aggressively for years to receive clearance to build arenas and stadiums. The company's CEO Tim Leiweke put it as follows: "Suddenly, we're known as the company that owns the team that David Beckham is going to play for, so our world changed". In the months following the announcement, the additional terms of Beckham's contract became public knowledge. One unique contract provision was giving him the option of buying an MLS expansion franchise in any market except New York City at the fixed price of whenever he stopped playing in the league – an allowance that the league's owners had never given to a player before. Another provision was the opt-out clause after the 2009 season, meaning that should he decide so, Beckham was free to leave the club after completing year three of his five-year contract. Beckham's contract with LA Galaxy took effect on 11 July, and on 13 July, he was officially unveiled as a Galaxy player at the Home Depot Center, to much fanfare and world media interest, in front of more than 5,000 gathered fans and some 700 accredited media members. Beckham chose to wear number 23. It was announced that Galaxy jersey sales had already reached a record figure of over 250,000 prior to this formal introduction. In parallel, Beckham's handlers at 19 Entertainment succeeded in putting together an unprecedented US media rollout designed to expand his carefully crafted personal brand in America. He made the cover of Sports Illustrated, a few weeks earlier Adidas launched the extensive 13-part ad campaign "Fútbol meets Football" starring Beckham and NFL running back Reggie Bush, and W magazine published a racy photo spread featuring David and wife Victoria photographed by Steven Klein. Meanwhile, ESPN sports network was running a promotional campaign and agreed to air the David Beckham: New Beginnings documentary produced by 19 Entertainment before the friendly match versus Chelsea, which was expected to be Beckham's American debut. In addition to popularising soccer, Beckham's arrival was used as platform for entertainment industry endeavours. Since both Beckham's and his wife's often overlapping careers were handled by 19 Entertainment, which is owned by Simon Fuller, who in turn has a business relationship with the Creative Artists Agency (CAA), one of Hollywood's most powerful talent agencies, it was important for CAA that the Beckhams made as big an impact as possible upon their arrival in the US. On 16 July, CAA had hosted a welcoming bash for David at its new eight-storey, headquarters in Century City, with CAA employees reportedly instructed beforehand to line the staircase and clap for Beckham upon his arrival. That night Victoria's reality show prime-time special Victoria Beckham: Coming to America aired on NBC, drawing negative reviews in the press and poor viewership ratings. On Saturday afternoon, 21 July, despite still nursing the injured left ankle that he picked up a month earlier during the final match of La Liga's season, Beckham made his Galaxy debut, coming on for Alan Gordon in the 78th minute of a 0–1 friendly loss to Chelsea as part of the World Series of Soccer. With a capacity crowd, along with a long Hollywood celebrity list featuring Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, Eva Longoria, Governor of California Arnold Schwarzenegger and Drew Carey among others, present at the Home Depot Center, the match was broadcast live on ESPN's main network. However, the proceedings on the field of play took a back seat to the Beckham spectacle, and despite the presence of worldwide football stars such as Andriy Shevchenko, Didier Drogba, Michael Ballack and Frank Lampard, the US television cameras were firmly focused on Beckham, who spent most of the match on the bench. The match's added time featured a scare for already injured Beckham when he got tackled by Steve Sidwell, whose cleats struck Beckham's right foot, sending him airborne before he crumpled hard to the ground. Though the existing injury was not aggravated too much, Beckham's recovery process was set back by about a week. ESPN's presentation of Beckham's debut earned a 1.0 TV rating, meaning it was seen in an average of 947,000 television homes in the US – a disappointing figure given the national media buzz and two weeks of constant promotion by ESPN. Beckham missed the next four LA Galaxy matches – three in the North American SuperLiga and an MLS game away at Toronto FC - though he still made the trip with his teammates, sitting on the bench in street clothes. It was in Toronto on 5 August that the team got its first taste of what life would be like on the road with Beckham on the roster. Due to security concerns, it was the first time the team flew on a charter for a road match, rather than flying commercial; MLS normally forbids charter flights for away matches, claiming they provide competitive advantage, but in this case they made an exception due to the frenzy created around Beckham and resulting security issues. Instead of the usual MLS-mandated modest hotels, LA Galaxy stayed at the five-star Le Méridien King Edward in downtown Toronto (an expense paid for by the local Toronto promoter), while the glitz and glamour continued with the velvet rope, red carpet party at the Ultra Supper Club with Beckham as the centerpiece guest. Two weeks after his twelve-minute appearance against Chelsea, Beckham made his league debut as a substitute on 9 August away versus D.C. United in front of the sellout crowd of 46,686 (nearly three times the average D.C. United home crowd) at the RFK Stadium, coming on for Quavas Kirk in the 71st minute. Coming into the nationally televised match on ESPN, played under a heavy downpour with his team down a man and down a goal, Beckham left a mark during the remaining 20-plus minutes. He hit a long free kick that Carlos Pavón failed to finish on for the equaliser, and then in the final minutes Beckham served a weighted through ball into Landon Donovan's path that United's keeper Troy Perkins managed to break up in the last moment – the Galaxy lost 1–0. The next match on the road trip was at New England Revolution and Beckham decided to sit it out, fearing further aggravating his ankle injury on the Gillette Stadium's artificial surface. Beckham returned to the pitch the following week, again facing D.C. United, in the SuperLiga semi-final on 15 August. During this game, he had many firsts with the Galaxy; his first start, first yellow card and first game as team captain. He scored his first goal for the team, from a free kick, and also made his first assist, for Landon Donovan in the second half. These goals gave the team a 2–0 victory, and a place in the North American SuperLiga final versus Pachuca on 29 August. During the SuperLiga final against Pachuca, Beckham injured his right knee, with an MRI scan revealing that he had sprained his medial collateral ligament and would be out for six weeks. He returned to play in the final home match of the season. The Galaxy were eliminated from playoff contention on 21 October, in the final MLS match of the season, a 1–0 loss to the Chicago Fire. Beckham played as a substitute in the match, bringing his season totals to eight matches played (5 league); one goal scored (0 league); and three assists (2 league). ====2008==== Beckham trained with Arsenal from 4 January 2008 for three weeks, until he returned to the Galaxy for pre-season training. Beckham scored his first league goal with the Galaxy on 3 April, against the San Jose Earthquakes in the ninth minute. On 24 May 2008, the Galaxy defeated the Kansas City Wizards 3–1, giving the Galaxy their first winning record in two years and moving the club into first place in the Western Conference. In the match, Beckham scored an empty-net goal from out. The goal marked the second time in Beckham's career that he had scored from his own half, the other being a 1996-goal from the half-way line against Wimbledon at Selhurst Park. Overall, however, the Galaxy had a disappointing year, failing to qualify for the end-of-season play-offs. ====2009: Loan to AC Milan==== In 2008, Beckham's success in the England national team under Fabio Capello led to speculation that he might return to Europe to retain match fitness for the World Cup qualifying matches in 2009. On 30 October 2008, AC Milan announced that Beckham was to join them on loan from 7 January 2009. Despite this and other speculation, Beckham made it clear that the move in no way signalled his intent to leave MLS and announced his intent to return to the Galaxy in time for the start of the 2009 season in March. Many at Milan both within and outside of the club expressed serious reservations about the transfer, with it considered by some players no more than a marketing move. Beckham was unveiled at Milan's training facility by the club's chief executive Adriano Galliani on 20 December 2008. The player chose the number 32 shirt previously worn by Christian Vieri, as both the number 7 and 23 shirts were already used by Alexandre Pato and club vice captain Massimo Ambrosini, respectively. The day after his unveiling, Beckham was brought to the San Siro, where he was introduced to the home fans by walking out on the pitch before the league match versus Udinese and proclaiming "Forza Milan" over the public address system. Afterwards, he and wife Victoria watched from a luxury box as Milan won 5–1. Playing on the squad led by the 26-year-old superstar Kaká, in addition to several other world-class players at or near the peak of their careers – such as 28-year-old Ronaldinho and 29-year-old Andrea Pirlo – as well as club veterans Paolo Maldini, Clarence Seedorf, Massimo Ambrosini, Giuseppe Favalli, Gianluca Zambrotta, Filippo Inzaghi and Andriy Shevchenko, Beckham made his competitive debut for the rossoneri in Serie A as a starter away at Roma on 11 January 2009, playing 89 minutes of the 2–2 draw in front of 53,444 at the Stadio Olimpico. Playing his first competitive match in almost three months, Beckham gave a decent performance in right midfield alongside Pirlo. Though lacking match fitness and occasionally struggling to keep up in a high-tempo match, Beckham put in enough useful crosses and corners to justify the coach Carlo Ancelotti's decision to play him from the start. In Beckham's home debut against Fiorentina a week later, he turned in another understated performance on the right side of midfield before advancing into a more active central role in the second half, thus effectively taking over Seedorf's role after the Dutchman was subbed off. Milan won 1–0 courtesy of Pato, but the 65,000+ San Siro crowd mostly focused on Kaká, imploring him to stay. A noticeably older team, the Ancelotti-coached Milan was proving a good fit for the 33-year-old Englishman. He scored his first goal in Serie A for Milan in a 4–1 victory over Bologna on 25 January, his third appearance for the club. Though Beckham was expected to return to Los Angeles in March, after impressing at the Italian club, scoring two goals in his first four matches and assisting on several more, rumours began to swirl that Beckham would stay in Milan, with the Italian club reportedly offering to pay a multi-million-dollar fee. The rumours were confirmed on 4 February, when Beckham stated that he was seeking a permanent transfer to Milan, in a bid to sustain his England career through the 2010 World Cup. Milan, however, failed to match Galaxy's valuation of Beckham, in the range. Still, negotiations continued during a month of speculation. On 2 March, the Los Angeles Times reported that Beckham's loan had been extended through mid-July. This was later confirmed by Beckham, revealing what was described as a unique "timeshare" deal, in which Beckham would play with LA from mid-July until the end of the 2009 MLS season. ====2009: Return to Galaxy==== After his return from Milan, many LA fans showed dislike and anger towards him as he missed the first half of the season, and several held up signs saying "Go home fraud", and "Part-time player". The Galaxy, however, had a much more successful season than in previous years, rising from third to first in the Western Conference during Beckham's time with them. He remained a key part of the squad which saw Galaxy win the 2009 Western Conference final after a 2–0 overtime victory over the Houston Dynamo. In the MLS Cup final on 22 November 2009, the Galaxy lost to Real Salt Lake by 5–4 in a penalty shoot-out after a 1–1 draw. Beckham scored in the shootout. ====2010: Second loan to Milan==== In November 2009, after the end of 2009 MLS season, it was confirmed that Beckham would return to Milan for a second loan period, beginning in January 2010. On 6 January 2010, Beckham made a winning return in a Milan shirt, playing 75 minutes of a 5–2 victory over Genoa. On 16 February 2010, Beckham played against Manchester United for the first time since he left the club in 2003. He played 76 minutes of the match at the San Siro – which ended 3–2 to Manchester United – before being substituted for Clarence Seedorf. Beckham returned to Old Trafford for the second leg of the tie on 10 March 2010; he did not start the match, but was brought on for Ignazio Abate in the 64th minute to a positive reception from the Manchester United fans. The score was 3–0 for United at that point and the tie was all but decided. The match was the first time Beckham had played against Manchester United at Old Trafford, and saw him create several scoring opportunities via crosses and corner kicks, but Manchester United dominated Milan and beat them 4–0, winning the tie 7–2. Following the final whistle, he aroused a bit of controversy by draping the green-and-gold scarf around his neck that was given to him by the Manchester United supporters protesting against club owner Malcolm Glazer. As the fan protests against Glazer by the people gathered around Manchester United Supporters' Trust gained steam in 2010, the green-and-gold scarf had come to be seen as an anti-Glazer symbol, and by extension many saw Beckham's decision to publicly put it on as gesture of support. When asked about it later, however, Beckham responded that protests are not his business. In Milan's next game, against Chievo, Beckham suffered a torn left Achilles tendon, causing him to miss the World Cup as well as the MLS season due to the injury, which took him out of action for the next five months. Doctor Sakari Orava performed surgery on Beckham's tendon in Turku, Finland, on 15 March 2010. After the operation, Orava confirmed: "it went quite fine. The prognosis is he needs a rehabilitation for the next few months, and the plaster cast is the next six to eight weeks. I would say that [it will be] maybe four months before he's running, but six months before he's jumping and kicking." ====2010: Second return to Galaxy==== On 11 September 2010, after recovering from his Achilles tendon injury, Beckham returned to the game as a substitute in the 70th minute in the Galaxy's 3–1 win over Columbus Crew. On 4 October, Beckham scored a trademark free kick in a 2–1 win over Chivas USA to mark his first goal in 2010. On 24 October, Beckham scored his second goal of the season in the Galaxy's 2–1 win over FC Dallas which secured them their second successive Western Conference title and first MLS Supporters' Shield since 2002. ====2011: MLS Cup champion==== During January and February 2011, ahead of the 2011 MLS season, Beckham trained with Tottenham Hotspur. Rumours in the media claimed that the club were in talks with the Galaxy to sign the player on loan, but, according to Spurs manager Harry Redknapp, the move was blocked by Galaxy, who wanted a full final season from their number 23. As a result, he ended up only training with the club as he had done with Arsenal three years earlier. With Beckham playing in the centre of midfield, the Galaxy won the 2011 MLS cup. On 9 July, Beckham scored directly from a corner in a 2–1 win over Chicago Fire, repeating a feat he achieved while playing for Preston North End. After having his best season with the Galaxy to date, and finishing second in the league in assists, Beckham finished his fifth MLS season on a high. On 20 November 2011, he joined an elite group of players to have won league titles in three countries, when Los Angeles won their third MLS Cup against the Houston Dynamo, winning 1–0 on a goal by captain Landon Donovan, with assists from Beckham and fellow designated player Robbie Keane. ====2012: Second successive cup victory==== Following the 2011 season, in which the Galaxy won their second consecutive Supporters' Shield, having the second most points in MLS history, Beckham's five-year contract with the Galaxy expired on 31 December 2011. Despite being 36, he stated that he did not intend to retire. Beckham was heavily linked with Paris Saint-Germain, but on 18 January 2012, Galaxy announced Beckham had signed a new two-year contract to remain in Los Angeles. In May 2012, Beckham and his victorious teammates were received by President of the United States Barack Obama at the White House. Beckham helped the Galaxy to a fourth-place finish in the Western Conference during the 2012 regular season, with Beckham scoring seven goals and adding nine assists. The Galaxy defeated Vancouver Whitecaps FC, the San Jose Earthquakes and Seattle Sounders FC on their way to the MLS Cup final, where they defeated the Houston Dynamo 3–1 to retain the cup. He was subbed off in the 89th minute for Marcelo Sarvas, and was given a standing ovation at their home venue. Beckham had earlier announced that the 2012 MLS Cup Final would be his final game with the Galaxy, despite having another year remaining on his contract. ===Paris Saint-Germain=== On 31 January 2013, ahead of the transfer deadline it was announced that Beckham would be undergoing a medical with Paris Saint-Germain, ahead of a potential move to the Ligue 1 side. Beckham signed a five-month deal with the club later that afternoon, and confirmed that his entire salary during his time in Paris would be donated to a local children's charity. His PSG debut came on 24 February 2013, when he came off the bench in the 76th minute in a Ligue 1 home match against Marseille. This made him the 400th player in the history of the club. On 12 May 2013, Beckham won a fourth different top flight winners' medal, after PSG beat Lyon 1–0 to claim the Ligue 1 title. On 16 May 2013, Beckham announced that he would retire from professional football at the end of that year's French football season. Following his decision to retire at the end of the 2012–13 season, Beckham was given specially designed boots in the colours of the Union Jack to wear in his final game. These boots had the names of his wife and children stitched on them. On 18 May 2013, Beckham was made captain in his final home game against Brest. PSG went on to win the game 3–1.]] On 1 September 1996, Beckham made his first appearance for England on 1 in a FIFA World Cup qualifying match against Moldova. In June 1997, he participated in the Tournoi de France, the friendly international football tournament held in France as a warm-up to the 1998 FIFA World Cup. ===1998 FIFA World Cup=== Beckham played in all of England's qualifying matches for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and was part of the 23-man squad for the finals in France, but the team's manager Glenn Hoddle publicly accused him of not concentrating on the tournament, and he did not start in either of England's first two games. He was picked for the third game against Colombia and scored with a bending free kick in a 2–0 victory, which was his first goal for England. In the second round (last 16) of that competition, he received a red card in England's match against Argentina. Beckham, after having been fouled by Diego Simeone, kicked Simeone while lying on the ground, striking him on the calf. Simeone later admitted to trying to get Beckham sent off by over-reacting to the kick and then, along with other members of his team, urging the referee to send Beckham off. The match finished in a draw, and England were eliminated in a penalty shootout. Many supporters and journalists blamed Beckham for England's elimination and he became the target of criticism and abuse, including the hanging of an effigy outside a London pub, and the Daily Mirror printing a dartboard of him. He received death threats after the World Cup. ===Euro 2000 and England captaincy=== The abuse that Beckham was receiving from English supporters peaked during England's 3–2 defeat by Portugal in Euro 2000, a match where Beckham set up two goals, when a group of England supporters taunted him throughout the match. Beckham responded by raising his middle finger and, while the gesture attracted some criticism, many of the newspapers that had previously encouraged his vilification asked their readers to stop abusing him. On 15 November 2000, following Kevin Keegan's resignation as England manager in October, Beckham was promoted to team captain by the caretaker manager Peter Taylor, and then kept the role under new manager Sven-Göran Eriksson. The final step in Beckham's conversion from villain to national hero happened in England's final qualifying game against Greece on 6 October 2001. England needed to win or draw the match to qualify outright for the World Cup, but were losing 2–1 with little time remaining. When Teddy Sheringham was fouled outside the Greek penalty area, England were awarded a free-kick and Beckham ensured England's qualification with a curling strike of the kind that had become his trademark. ===2002 FIFA World Cup and Euro 2004=== Beckham was partially fit by the time of the 2002 World Cup held in Japan and South Korea, and played in the first match against Sweden. After the events of four years earlier, Beckham achieved a degree of revenge over Argentina by scoring the winning goal with a penalty. England defeated Denmark in the second round with Beckham providing an assist in a 3–0 win. England were knocked out in the quarter-finals by eventual winners Brazil after Ronaldinho scored the winner; following the match, Beckham was criticised in the media for jumping over a tackle late in the first half, which led to Brazil's equaliser. The following month, at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, Beckham escorted Kirsty Howard as she presented the Jubilee Baton to the Queen. Beckham played in all of England's matches at Euro 2004. He had a penalty saved in England's opening 2–1 defeat to France and missed another in a penalty shootout in the quarter-final match against hosts Portugal, following a 2–2 draw. In October 2005, Beckham's sending off against Austria made him the first England captain to be sent off and the first player to be sent off twice while playing for England. He captained England for the 50th time in a friendly international against Argentina the following month. In England's next match, played against Trinidad and Tobago on 15 June 2006, Beckham's cross in the 83rd minute led to a Peter Crouch goal, which put England into the lead 1–0. Beckham gave another assist to Steven Gerrard. In the end they won 2–0. He was named Man of the Match by tournament sponsor Budweiser. During England's second round match against Ecuador, Beckham scored from a free kick in the 59th minute, becoming the first English player to score in three separate World Cups, and giving England a 1–0 victory and a place in the quarter-finals. He was sick before the game and vomited several times as a result of dehydration and illness that he got after having scored the winning goal for England. After his substitution, Beckham was visibly shaken and emotional for not being able to play, being in tears at one point. A day after England were knocked out of the World Cup, an emotional Beckham made a statement in a news conference that he had stepped down as England captain, stating: "It has been an honour and privilege to captain my country but, having been captain for 58 of my 95 games, I feel the time is right to pass on the armband as we enter a new era under Steve McClaren." (Beckham had won 94 caps up to that point.) He was succeeded by Chelsea captain John Terry. Having stepped down as captain after the World Cup, Beckham was dropped completely from the England national team selected by new coach Steve McClaren on 11 August 2006. McClaren said that he was "looking to go in a different direction" with the team, and that Beckham "wasn't included within that". McClaren said Beckham could be recalled in future. Shaun Wright-Phillips, Kieran Richardson and the World Cup alternative to Beckham, Aaron Lennon, were all included, although McClaren eventually opted to employ Steven Gerrard in that role. ===Post-2006 World Cup=== On 26 May 2007, McClaren announced that Beckham would be recalled to the England squad for the first time since stepping down as their captain. Beckham started against Brazil in England's first match at the new Wembley Stadium and put in a positive performance. In the second half, he set up England's goal converted by captain John Terry. It looked as though England would claim victory over Brazil, but newcomer Diego equalised in the dying seconds. In England's next match, a Euro 2008 qualifier against Estonia, Beckham sent two trademark assists for Michael Owen and Peter Crouch, helping England to prevail 3–0. Beckham had assisted in three of England's four total goals in those two games, and he stated his desire to continue to play for England after his move to Major League Soccer. On 22 August 2007, Beckham played in a friendly for England against Germany, becoming the first to play for England while with a non-European club team. On 21 November 2007, Beckham earned his 99th cap against Croatia, setting up a goal for Peter Crouch to tie the game at 2–2. Following the 2–3 loss, England failed to qualify for the Euro 2008 Finals. Despite this, Beckham said that he had no plans to retire from international football and wanted to continue playing for the national team. After being passed over by new England coach and Beckham's former manager at Real Madrid, Fabio Capello, for a friendly against Switzerland which would have given him his hundredth cap; Beckham admitted that he was not in shape at the time, as he had not played a competitive match in three months. ===100 England caps, final appearance=== On 20 March 2008, Beckham was recalled to the England squad by Capello for the friendly against France in Paris on 26 March. Beckham became only the fifth Englishman to win 100 caps. Capello had hinted on 25 March 2008 that Beckham had a long-term future in his side, ahead of crucial qualifiers for the 2010 World Cup. On 11 May 2008, Capello included an in-form Beckham in his 31-man England squad to face the United States at Wembley on 28 May before the away fixture with Trinidad and Tobago on 1 June. Beckham – who wore a pair of golden boots to mark the occasion – was honoured before the match by receiving an honorary gold cap representing his 100th cap from Bobby Charlton, and was given a standing ovation from the crowd. He played well and assisted John Terry on the match-winning goal. When substituted at half-time for David Bentley, the pro-Beckham crowd booed the decision. In a surprise move, Capello handed Beckham the captaincy for England's friendly against Trinidad and Tobago on 1 June 2008. The match was the first time since the 2006 World Cup that Beckham had skippered England and marked a dramatic turnaround for Beckham. In two years, he had gone from being dropped completely from the England squad to being reinstated (though temporarily) as England captain. During the 2010 World Cup Qualifier against Belarus, which England won 3–1 in Minsk, Beckham came off the bench in the 87th minute to earn his 107th cap making him England's third-most-capped player in history, overtaking Bobby Charlton in the process. On 11 February 2009, Beckham drew level with Bobby Moore's record of 108 caps for an English outfield player, coming on as a substitute for Stewart Downing in a friendly match against Spain. On 28 March 2009, Beckham surpassed Moore to hold the record outright when he came on as a substitute in a friendly against Slovakia, providing the assist for a goal from Wayne Rooney in the process. Overall, Beckham had made 16 appearances out of a possible 20 for England under Capello until his ruptured Achilles tendon of March 2010 ruled him out of selection for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. Beckham remained ten caps short of the record number of 125 caps by goalkeeper Peter Shilton, for a player of any position. He was not included in the final selection by manager Stuart Pearce, while Andy Hunt, the head the British Olympic Association, contacted Beckham's representatives for him to be related to Team GB more broadly. ==Player profile== ===Style of play=== Throughout his career, Beckham was considered one of the best and most recognisable players of his generation, as well as one of the greatest free-kick exponents of all time. As of September 2023, Beckham ranks joint-5th all time (alongside Lionel Messi) in goals scored from direct free kicks with 65. Beckham has been rated by some pundits as one of the greatest wide midfielders of all time. Predominantly right-footed, his range of passing, vision, crossing ability and bending free-kicks enabled him to create chances for teammates or score goals, attributes that saw him excel as a right winger, despite his lack of significant pace. Unlike his Manchester United teammate Ryan Giggs on the opposite wing, Beckham preferred to beat players through his movement and passing, rather than going at opponents directly with the ball. He formed a strong partnership on the right side of the pitch with full-back Gary Neville during his time with the club, due to their understanding, as well as Neville's ability to get forward with his overlapping runs, get on the end of Beckham's passes, and deliver crosses into the box whenever the latter was heavily marked. Although Beckham primarily played on the right flank, he was also used as a central midfielder throughout his career (occasionally with Manchester United, but in particular with Real Madrid and AC Milan), and on rare instances as a deep-lying playmaker, in particular in his later career, to compensate for his physical decline with his advancing age. Beckham felt that his best role was on the right, although he personally preferred playing in the centre. In addition to his passing, crossing, and prowess from set-pieces, Beckham stood out for his stamina and defensive work-rate on the pitch, having played both as an attacking midfielder and as a box-to-box midfielder in his youth; he was occasionally deployed as a wing-back. Moreover, he was also an accurate striker of the ball from distance, as well as being a competent penalty taker. He also drew praise in the media for his ball control and ability to create space for himself on the pitch, as well as his anticipation, composure, determination, athleticism, dedication, and intelligence as a footballer. ===Approach to training and praise from managers=== {{Quote box\|width=28%\|align=right\|quote="David Beckham is Britain's finest striker of a football not because of God-given talent but because he practises with a relentless application that the vast majority of less gifted players wouldn't contemplate."\|source=—Former Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson. Beckham reportedly spent hours practising his free kicks after training sessions had ended. Beckham maintained his training routine at Real Madrid and even when his relationship with management was strained in early 2007, Real Madrid president Ramón Calderón and manager Fabio Capello praised Beckham for maintaining his professionalism and commitment to the club. Beckham's Real Madrid teammate Roberto Carlos regarded Beckham to be the best free-kick exponent he had ever seen. During Beckham's time with Milan, his manager Carlo Ancelotti praised the Englishman for his intelligence and work-rate, in particular the improvements he demonstrated to the technical and tactical aspects of his game, which allowed him to compensate for his loss of pace. Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger stated, "What remains in your memory is his genuine commitment and dedication, his natural humility which he always had, that will stay forever." Beckham was the first England player ever to collect two red cards, and the first England captain to be sent off. Beckham's most notorious red card was during the 1998 World Cup after Argentina's Diego Simeone had fouled him: Beckham, lying face down on the pitch, kicked out at the Argentine midfielder, who fell dramatically. His second red card for England came on 8 October 2005, in a 2006 World Cup qualifier against Austria in Manchester. His only red card with LA Galaxy came on 15 August 2009, in a 2–0 home defeat to the Seattle Sounders in MLS. He received one red card while at Paris Saint-Germain, in a match against Evian on 28 April 2013. Between 2000 and 2013, Beckham played 572 competitive games for England, Milan, LA Galaxy, Manchester United, Real Madrid and PSG, and he received nine red cards – one every 63–64 matches, on average. His former Manchester United manager, Alex Ferguson, speculated in 2007 that Beckham's increasing celebrity status, in particular following his highly publicised relationship with his future wife Victoria, had actually had a negative impact on his playing career. In 2015, he claimed he had only coached four world class players throughout his time at United, excluding Beckham from the list, commenting: "I don't mean to demean or criticise any of the great or very good footballers who played for me during my 26-year career at United, but there were only four who were world class: Cantona, Giggs, Cristiano Ronaldo and Scholes." Upon his departure to LA Galaxy, reflected on the dichotomy of Beckham's playing career and his status off the pitch, describing him as "the great paradox of world football", also adding: He is the greatest icon on the planet and the cause of such delirium in the media and on the streets, the greatest catwalk model there is. And yet he has been an anti-diva. He was the most galactic of the galacticos off the pitch, but the greatest of earthlings when he walked on to the field. Regarding Beckham's crossing ability, Rob Smyth of The Guardian said in 2014: "he was a great crosser and perhaps the greatest of all time," also noting that "he was a dead-ball specialist and also a dying-ball specialist: [...] his signature crosses in open play involved a ball that was barely moving, which allowed him to use the same technique as with corners and free-kicks." Nigel Reed of CBC Sports commented on Beckham's career and celebrity status, stating: "His brand is global, his appeal universal. He sparked debate and polarized opinion. But underneath the gloss he was, first and foremost, a very good footballer." He also added that while he felt that "Beckham was not the greatest player of his generation," he believed he had the ability to change games, describing him as "master of his art and a deadly opponent", whose "talent was only topped by his passion." ==Football-related business activities== ===David Beckham Academy=== In 2005, Beckham founded the David Beckham Academy football school, operating in London and Los Angeles. It was announced in late 2009 that both would close. ===Inter Miami=== On 5 February 2014, MLS announced that Beckham had exercised his option to buy a MLS expansion team for , which he had received as part of the contract he signed with the LA Galaxy in 2007. The team name and crest were revealed on 5 September. Club Internacional de Futbol Miami – more commonly known as, Inter Miami – is represented by a black crest with neon pink trimmings and herons whose legs clasp to form an "M" for Miami. The club made its MLS debut on 1 March 2020 with a 1–0 away loss to Los Angeles. ===Salford City=== In January 2019, it was announced that Beckham was set to join his Class of '92 teammates as part owner of English non-league club Salford City, taking 10% of the club previously held by Peter Lim, with the deal being subject to Football Association approval. On 31 January, the club announced that the FA had approved him to become a director of the club. ==Personal life== In 1997, Beckham started dating Victoria Adams after she attended a Manchester United match. She was famously known as "Posh Spice" of the pop music group Spice Girls, one of Britain's top pop groups at the time, and his team was also enjoying a great run of success. Their relationship instantly attracted a great deal of media attention. The couple were dubbed "Posh and Becks" by the media. He proposed to her on 24 January 1998 in a restaurant in Cheshunt, England. On 4 July 1999, they married at Luttrellstown Castle in Ireland. Beckham's teammate Gary Neville was the best man, The media were kept away from the ceremony, as the Beckhams had an exclusive deal with OK! Magazine, but newspapers were able to obtain photographs of them sitting on golden thrones. 437 staff were employed for the wedding reception, which was estimated to have cost £500,000. David and Victoria have four children: sons Brooklyn Joseph (born 4 March 1999 in London), Romeo James (born 1 September 2002 in London), Cruz David (born 20 February 2005 in Madrid), and daughter Harper Seven (born 10 July 2011 in Los Angeles). Elton John and David Furnish are reportedly the godparents to Brooklyn and Romeo Beckham; their godmother is Elizabeth Hurley. Cruz and Harper were baptized Catholic at Holy Trinity, Chipping Norton; among their godparents were Eva Longoria and Marc Anthony. Beckham's three sons have all played football in the Arsenal academy. Brooklyn played football for Arsenal U16, Like their father, Brooklyn and Romeo have both done modelling work and been named among GQ's best dressed British men. In his early Manchester United career, Beckham lived in a four-bedroom house in Worsley that he bought directly from the property developer as a 20-year-old in 1995. In 1999, shortly after his wedding, he and Victoria bought a country house set in in Sawbridgeworth, Hertfordshire, which the media nicknamed "Beckingham Palace". They sold the property in 2014. Known by the nickname "Golden Balls", Beckham acquired the name from Victoria, who revealed it on national TV in 2008 while praising him for rebuilding his reputation after the 1998 World Cup. Beckham has obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), which he says makes him "have everything in a straight line or everything has to be in pairs." Victoria claimed: "If you open our fridge, it's all co-ordinated down either side. We've got three fridges – food in one, salad in another and drinks in the third. In the drinks one, everything is symmetrical. If there's three cans, he'll throw one away because it has to be an even number." A staunch monarchist, Beckham queued for 12 hours in September 2022 to see Queen Elizabeth II lying in state at Westminster Hall. In 2004, various newspapers carried claims by Beckham's former personal assistant Rebecca Loos that she and Beckham had engaged in an extramarital affair. A week later, the Malaysian-born Australian model Sarah Marbeck claimed that she had slept with Beckham on two occasions. Beckham dismissed both claims as "ludicrous". A documentary called Beckham was released in 2023 on Netflix, 20 years after the alleged affair with Rebecca Loos took place. In it, Beckham did not deny the affair took place; instead, he stated how hard that general period was on his marriage. David Beckham has been actively involved in beekeeping, animal husbandry and farming since 2020 in the barn they bought in the Cotswolds in 2016. ===Legal issues=== In September 2010, Beckham announced that he was making a court application against prostitute Irma Nici and several others over claims in the magazine In Touch that he had sex with her. His court application was dismissed under US freedom of speech laws, and the magazine later accepted that the allegations against Beckham were untrue. On 9 May 2019, at Bromley Magistrates Court, Beckham was banned from driving for six months. He previously pleaded guilty to using a mobile phone while driving on 21 November 2018. The court heard he was photographed by a member of the public holding a phone as he drove in "slowly moving" traffic. Beckham received six points on his licence, to add to the six he already had for previous speeding matters. He was also fined £750, and ordered to pay £100 in prosecution costs and a £75 surcharge fee. ===Tattoos=== , Beckham has more than 65 tattoos covering a large part of his body, including tattoos on his hands, neck and head. There are names of his sons Romeo, Cruz and Brooklyn, and of his wife Victoria. His wife's name, tattooed on his left forearm, is in the Devanagari script (used for the Hindi and Sanskrit languages, among others) because Beckham thought it would be "tacky" to have it in English. However, this was misspelt as the equivalent of "Vhictoria". In his autobiography David Beckham: My Side, he said that the idea of having tattoos came to him in 1999 after his son Brooklyn was born, following a conversation on the subject of tattoos with Mel B and her then-husband, Jimmy Gulzar. Beckham said: "When you see me, you see the tattoos. You see an expression of how I feel about Victoria and the boys. They're part of me." He has several tattoos that pay tribute to his daughter, Harper, as well as several with religious significance. In 2018, Beckham added to his collection a tattoo of a solar system covering the left side of his scalp. Many of Beckham's tattoos were completed by the Manchester-based tattoo artist Louis Molloy. ===Leaked emails=== In 2015, a Portuguese company associated with Beckham's spokesman had their server hacked which contained personal emails from Beckham. Germany's Der Spiegel and France's L'Equipe published details of the hack, reporting how Beckham was angry at not being granted a knighthood in 2013, and that the Honours Committee was concerned about his tax affairs due to input from UK government department HMRC. Beckham's team stated some of the published emails were doctored, but they confirmed others as genuine. ==Celebrity status and commercial partnerships == Beckham's relationship and marriage to Victoria, famous in her own right as part of the Spice Girls, contributed to his celebrityhood beyond football. Beckham became known as a fashion icon, and together with Victoria, the couple became lucrative spokespeople sought after by clothing designers, health and fitness specialists, fashion magazines, and perfume and cosmetics manufacturers. Early endorsements included the British hair styling brand Brylcreem for £4 million in 1997, which saw him appear in UK commercials. In 2002 he was hailed as the ultimate "metrosexual" by the man who invented the term and has been described as such by numerous other articles since. The various iconic hairstyles he sported throughout his career – including a buzz cut, a Mohawk, and a ponytail – were widely covered in the media. While heterosexual, Beckham actively courted a gay fanbase and openly supported gay media, preferring to give interviews to publications that supported the LGBTQ community. He came to be called a "gay icon" – a term he embraces – for his popularity among the gay community. This honorific has been in dispute, however, since Beckham signed a deal with Qatar (which persecutes LGBT people) to become a brand ambassador for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. In a statement, Beckham said that the World Cup will be "[a platform for] progress, inclusivity and tolerance". The Beckhams were paid in 2007 to launch his fragrance line in the US. In the world of fashion, David has appeared on the covers of many magazines. US covers have included the men's magazine Details, and with Victoria for the August 2007 issue of W. According to Google, "David Beckham" was searched for more than any other sports topic on their site in 2003 and 2004. According to Ask Jeeves, Beckham ranked third among subjects most searched for by British users of that site in the first decade of the 2000s. Upon their arrival in Los Angeles on 12 July 2007, the night before Beckham's formal introduction, Los Angeles International Airport was filled with paparazzi and news reporters. On the next night, Victoria appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno to talk about their move to LA and her NBC TV show Victoria Beckham: Coming to America. On 22 July, a private welcoming party was held for the couple at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. A-list celebrities attending included Steven Spielberg, Jim Carrey, George Clooney, Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, Will Smith, Jada Pinkett Smith, and Oprah Winfrey. Beckham's many endorsement deals make him one of the most recognisable athletes throughout the world. Having worn Adidas football boots from the start of his career (notably Adidas Predator), in 2003 he signed a lifetime contract with Adidas, earning nearly half the money upfront, and would continue to earn percentages of profits on all of his branded Adidas products. His 2004 Adidas television commercial "Kicking it", in which he appears with England Rugby World Cup winner Jonny Wilkinson, was voted among the best British commercials of the year, and featured as one of the Great Ads of the 21st Century in Channel 4's 2004 update of The 100 Greatest TV Ads. He had a 10-year collaboration with PepsiCo that expired in 2009. He has also promoted The Walt Disney Company theme parks. In April 2021, he became a global ambassador for Maserati. In 2023, as part of Maserati's new personalisation program, "Fuoriserie Essentials", the brand unveiled its first collection with Beckham. and he was brand ambassador for exercise video game EA Sports Active 2. Beckham featured in EA Sports' FIFA video game series; he was on the cover for the UK edition of FIFA 98. During his playing career (which ended in May 2013), Beckham generated an estimated £1 billion in shirt and boot sales. Beckham played a critical part in bringing the Olympics to London in 2012, travelling with the British delegation to Singapore in 2005 for the host city selection. At the 2008 Beijing Olympics closing ceremony, Beckham, Jimmy Page, and Leona Lewis represented Britain during the handover segment for the 2012 Olympics. Beckham rode a London double-decker bus into the stadium and Page and Lewis performed "Whole Lotta Love". He featured at the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, carrying the Olympic flame to the stadium by speedboat. Beckham visited Afghanistan in May 2010 for a morale-boosting visit to British troops fighting the Taliban insurgency. The appearance of Beckham as well as British Foreign Secretary William Hague and Defence Secretary Liam Fox was believed to have prompted a Taliban attack on Kandahar airfield. Chinese authorities appointed Beckham as global ambassador for Chinese football in March 2013. After numerous officials had been banned for match-fixing, and the Chinese Super League had failed to retain the services of well-known international names, Beckham's role was to help improve the image of the game and raise its profile both in China and abroad. From 14 July 2013, Beckham appeared in adverts for BSkyB, advertising their Sky Sports coverage via the Sky Go app. In January 2014, Beckham appeared on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on NBC in the U.S., and in March he made a guest appearance in the BBC's Sport Relief special of Only Fools and Horses. He was named one of GQs 50 best dressed British men in 2015. He also has over 80 million Instagram followers, the fifth highest for a footballer, behind Cristiano Ronaldo, Messi, Neymar and Kylian Mbappé, and the second most for a person from the UK, after Dua Lipa. During the 2016 EU referendum, Beckham voiced his opposition to Brexit, stating: "For our children and their children we should be facing the problems of the world together and not alone. For these reasons, I am voting to remain." Beckham was announced as the new Ambassadorial president of the British Fashion Council on 11 May 2018. Prior to the June 2018 vote by FIFA member nations for selecting the hosts of the 2026 FIFA World Cup, Beckham endorsed the North American bid (Canada, Mexico and the United States). Beckham's former club LA Galaxy unveiled a statue of him outside of their stadium in March 2019, the first of its kind in the MLS. In June 2020, Beckham became a minority owner of the London-based esports organisation Guild Esports. In November 2020, EA Sports had an agreement with Beckham to feature him in FIFA 21, in which he would earn £40m from a three-year deal. In June 2021, Beckham bought 10% stake of vehicle electrification firm, Lunaz. In May 2024, during Israel's Rafah offensive in the Gaza Strip, Beckham called for "an immediate ceasefire". ==Philanthropy== In 2013, he donated all his £3.4 million salary from Paris Saint-Germain to two children's charities in France. Beckham is a founding member of the Malaria No More UK Leadership Council and helped launch the charity in 2009 with Andy Murray at Wembley Stadium. In November 2014, Beckham designed a Paddington Bear statue, one of fifty created by various celebrities which were located around London prior to the release of the film Paddington. The statues were auctioned to raise funds for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. ==Appearances in films== Beckham never personally appeared in the 2002 film Bend It Like Beckham, except in archive footage. He and his wife wanted to make cameo appearances, but scheduling proved difficult, so the director used lookalike Andy Harmer instead. Beckham makes a cameo appearance with Zinedine Zidane and Raúl, in the 2005 film Goal!. Harmer doubled for him in the party scene. Beckham himself appears in the sequel, Goal II: Living the Dream, in a larger role, when the film's lead character gets transferred to Real Madrid. The story centres on the Real Madrid team, with other Madrid players also appearing on and off the pitch, alongside the fictional characters. Through the use of stock footage from the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Beckham appeared in Goal III: Taking on the World, released straight to DVD on 15 June 2009. In 2013, British magazine Marketing Week wrote of his "somewhat limited acting skills". and as Trigger in King Arthur: Legend of the Sword. Artist Sam Taylor-Johnson recorded Beckham sleeping in a hotel room in Madrid in January 2004 following a morning's training session with Real Madrid. The film was commissioned by the National Portrait Gallery in London. \|- \| 2020 !scope="row"\|Modern Family \| Himself \| Episode: "The Prescott" \|- \| 2023 ! scope="row" \| Beckham \| Himself \| 4 episodes on Netflix \|} ==Career statistics== ===Club=== ===International=== Scores and results list England's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Beckham goal. ==Honours== Manchester United Premier League: 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2002–03 FA Cup: 1995–96, 1998–99 FA Charity Shield: 1996, 1997 UEFA Champions League: 1998–99 Intercontinental Cup: 1999 Real Madrid Supporters' Shield: 2010, 2011 Paris Saint-Germain FIFA World Player of the Year silver award: 1999, 2001 Most assists in the Premier League: 1997–98, 1999–2000 (shared), 2000–01 Premier League Player of the Month: August 1996 FWA Tribute Award: 2008 Sir Matt Busby Player of the Year: 1996–97 England Player of the Year: 2003 ESM Team of the Year: 1998–99 UEFA Club Footballer of the Year: 1998–99 UEFA Club Midfielder of the Year: 1998–99 Goal of the Decade (vs. Wimbledon, 17 August 1996) BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award: 2010 1997–98 Premier League, 1998–99 Premier League, 1999–2000 Premier League FIFA 100 ESPY Awards: Best Male Soccer Player: 2004 Best MLS Player: 2008, 2012 English Football Hall of Fame: 2008 Premier League Hall of Fame: 2021 MLS Comeback Player of the Year Award: 2011 PFA Team of the Century (1997–2007): 2007 International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS) Legends UEFA President's Award: 2018 Orders and special awards Officer of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II: 2003 The Celebrity 100, number 15 – Forbes, 2007 Number 1 on the list of the 40 most influential men under the age of 40 in the UK – Arena, 2007 Time 100: 2008 Gold Blue Peter Badge winner, 2001 Do Something Athlete Award, 2011 AC Milan Hall of Fame Records First Englishman to win league titles in four countries (England, Spain, United States, France). 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(film)", "2006 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group 6", "Beverly Hills", "The Football League", "National Portrait Gallery, London", "Steve McManaman", "The Walt Disney Company", "Neymar", "Liverpool F.C.", "Theo Walcott", "UEFA President's Award", "George Clooney", "Trinidad and Tobago national football team", "FIFA Club World Cup", "timeshare", "BSkyB", "Inter Miami CF", "List of most-followed Instagram accounts", "David (2004 film)", "Team GB", "Billy Wright (footballer born 1924)", "Mariano García Remón", "Man of the Match", "Stade Bollaert-Delelis", "Argentina national football team", "Double (association football)", "Governor of California", "2007 Open Championship", "United Nations Children's Fund", "MLS Cup 2012", "Jewish", "President of the United States", "Malcolm Glazer", "finger (gesture)", "Arena (magazine)", "2006 FIFA World Cup", "Mohawk hairstyle", "Teddy Sheringham", "A&E Networks", "Michael Jordan", "Sports Illustrated", "Louis Molloy", "Sporting Kansas City", "Kevin Keegan", "Football boot", "Chingford Foundation School", "downtown Toronto", "Sarah Marbeck redirect points to this section", "UNICEF", "Pelé", "Live Nation Entertainment", "FIFA (video game series)", "2002–03 FA Premier League", "2002–03 Manchester United F.C. season", "Entertainment Weekly", "Details (magazine)", "Stuart Pearce", "i (British newspaper)", "ponytail", "Expansion of Major League Soccer", "Beatlemania", "Luís Figo", "esports", "2012 Los Angeles Galaxy season", "electrification", "List of footballers with 100 or more UEFA Champions League appearances", "Queue for the lying-in-state of Elizabeth II", "Brexit", "Fabio Capello", "Sapporo Dome", "Alan Hansen", "Goal (website)", "platform game", "Belarus national football team", "darts", "Giuseppe Favalli", "Liam Fox", "Marc Overmars", "2010 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group 6", "Jada Pinkett Smith", "UEFA Euro 2008", "MLS Comeback Player of the Year Award", "Laurie Cunningham", "2003–04 Real Madrid CF season", "Will Smith", "Spain men's national football team", "FIFA 21", "Designated Player Rule", "Everton F.C.", "CBC Sports", "UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying Group 7", "Mel B", "W magazine", "The Tonight Show", "Phil Neville", "The FA England Awards", "Victoria Beckham: Coming to America", "Toronto FC", "effigy", "Agriculture", "LGBT rights in Qatar", "Vicente Boluda", "IMDb", "Roy Keane", "Football Association", "Andrei Kanchelskis", "UEFA Champions League", "2026 FIFA World Cup", "Luttrellstown Castle", "Goal II: Living the Dream", "Sky Sports", "2008 Beijing Olympics", "1995 FA Cup Final", "Penalty shootout (association football)", "Miami MLS stadium", "Curl (association football)", "Florentino Pérez", "Athens", "Manchester United F.C. Reserves and Academy", "UEFA Club Football Awards", "Steve McClaren", "UEFA Cup", "UEFA Club Footballer of the Year", "Exhibition match", "Norwich City F.C.", "Fergie's Fledglings", "Ignazio Abate", "Oprah Winfrey", "CBS News", "2009 Major League Soccer season", "Paolo Maldini", "Malaria No More UK", "2009 Los Angeles Galaxy season", "attacking midfielder", "Steven Spielberg", "Andy Harmer", "Major League Soccer 2002 Season", "Kunming Changshui International Airport", "Joan Laporta", "El País", "Leona Lewis", "Wales national football team", "1998–99 UEFA Champions League", "Los Angeles Times", "Ecuador national football team", "Paddington (film)", "Squad number (association football)", "Supercopa de España", "Rivaldo", "Ipswich", "Penalty shoot-out (association football)", "Filippo Inzaghi", "Valencia CF", "2001 Germany v England football match", "2000–01 in English football", "Míchel Salgado", "Reggie Bush", "Century City", "Ballon d'Or", "Malaria No More", "Quavas Kirk", "Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium", "UEFA Euro 2000", "Devanagari", "José Antonio Camacho", "Honours Committee", "Andy Murray", "FC Dallas", "Katie Holmes", "AC Milan", "Real Salt Lake", "Olympic Stadium (Athens)", "Landon Donovan", "FIFA World Player of the Year", "Set piece (football)", "Premier League Hall of Fame", "Diego (footballer, born 1985)", "LA Galaxy", "Michael Owen", "The Daily Telegraph", "Guild Esports", "Supporters' Shield", "CNN", "Mark Hughes", "1993–94 Manchester United F.C. season", "Worsley", "Jimmy Page", "Roberto Baggio", "Old Trafford", "1999 Ballon d'Or", "Kandahar", "Andrea Pirlo", "Bend It Like Beckham", "Brylcreem", "England national under-21 football team", "XIX Entertainment", "2006 FIFA World Cup qualification (UEFA)", "William Hague", "List of England national football team captains", "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum", "ACF Fiorentina", "Whole Lotta Love", "UEFA Team of the Year", "King Arthur: Legend of the Sword", "1996–97 Manchester United F.C. season", "PepsiCo", "Jonny Wilkinson", "Maserati", "David Beckham Soccer", "Chinese Super League", "1996–97 in English football", "Guy Ritchie", "PFA Team of the Year (2000s)", "1997–98 Manchester United F.C. season", "TikTok", "2011 Los Angeles Galaxy season", "Arsenal F.C.", "football boot", "animal husbandry", "2012 Major League Soccer season", "W (magazine)", "Daily News (New York)", "ESPN", "MLS Cup", "Turku", "1998–99 Manchester United F.C. season", "Ben Thatcher", "Paul Scholes", "EFL Cup", "1997–98 FA Premier League", "Nicky Butt", "Estonia national football team", "FYI (TV network)", "Lens, Pas-de-Calais", "2002 Commonwealth Games", "Creative Artists Agency", "The Guardian", "FIFA Club World Championship", "John Terry", "International Federation of Football History & Statistics", "Captain (association football)", "Frank Lampard", "bookmaker", "Michael Ballack", "Rebecca Loos", "Adidas Predator", "Sport Relief 2014 Special", "Iker Casillas", "Facebook", "FC Bayern Munich", "Roberto Carlos", "Do Something", "treble (association football)", "Ramón Calderón", "1998 FIFA World Cup", "Beckingham Palace", "Club Necaxa", "Lloyd's of London", "Penalty kick (association football)", "2003–04 Copa del Rey", "FIFA World Cup", "FA Cup", "Tim Leiweke", "Paris Saint-Germain", "Getafe CF", "EA Sports Active 2", "World Series of Soccer (MLS)", "UEFA European Championship", "Genoa C.F.C.", "MLS Cup 2009", "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon", "List of Jews in sports", "OK!", "Stadium of Light", "Columbus Crew", "Newcastle United F.C.", "Steve Sidwell", "England national under-18 football team", "Moldova national football team", "English Football Hall of Fame", "Paul Ince", "San Siro", "National Football League", "NBC", "Dignity Health Sports Park", "right winger", "gasoline", "Alex Ferguson", "Stadio Olimpico", "Bologna F.C. 1909", "Cap (sport)", "Lionel Messi", "Dua Lipa", "Sunderland", "2007 Los Angeles Galaxy season", "2000–01 FA Premier League", "The Football Association", "Chivas USA", "2012–13 Paris Saint-Germain F.C. season", "Raúl (footballer)", "The Times", "1999–2000 FA Premier League", "Manchester United F.C.", "Olympique de Marseille", "Barack Obama", "Galácticos", "Diego Simeone", "Leeds United F.C.", "FIFA 100", "cap (sport)", "BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award", "1999 FIFA World Player of the Year", "Peter Crouch", "1996–97 FA Premier League", "Channel 4", "Game Boy Advance", "obsessive compulsive disorder", "Brimsdown Rovers F.C.", "Tottenham Hotspur F.C.", "Zinedine Zidane", "1997–98 in English football", "Anfield", "Gillette Stadium", "Austria national football team", "1995–96 Manchester United F.C. season", "England national football team", "public house", "Queen's Birthday Honours List", "Beijing", "Coupe de France", "Adriano Galliani", "Peter Shilton", "Intercontinental Cup (1960–2004)", "1995–96 FA Cup", "CONCACAF Champions League", "Salford City F.C.", "1999 FA Cup Final", "Juan Ramón López Caro", "Video game platforms", "Taliban insurgency", "Jim Carrey", "Paraguay national football team", "Sapporo", "Love Actually", "Kieran Richardson", "Tablet Magazine", "In Touch Weekly", "2004–05 Real Madrid CF season", "1997 Tournoi de France", "Southampton", "2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony", "Portugal national football team", "2001–02 Manchester United F.C. season", "Villanueva University", "Taliban", "Sweden men's national football team", "The Belfast Telegraph", "King Edward Hotel (Toronto)", "Achilles tendon rupture", "Sport Relief 2014", "2008 Major League Soccer season", "Westminster Hall", "buzz cut", "2012–13 Ligue 1", "Marc Anthony", "Premier League", "Didier Drogba", "Bobby Charlton", "Victoria Beckham", "Udinese Calcio", "Elizabeth Hurley", "Sam Taylor-Johnson", "FC Barcelona", "2001 FIFA World Player of the Year", "Access Hollywood", "Miami", "Forbes", "1998–99 in English football", "Vanderlei Luxemburgo", "gastroenteritis", "Terry Byrne", "Defender (association football)", "Drew Carey", "George Best", "Wayne Rooney", "Goal III: Taking on the World", "List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps", "Paddington Bear", "Nicola Peltz", "People (American magazine)", "Magnetic resonance imaging", "Metatarsus", "Eva Longoria", "Aldo Duscher", "Steven Klein (photographer)", "ESPY Awards", "Holy Trinity Church, Chipping Norton", "Manchester", "Elton John", "Galatasaray S.K. (football)", "Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire", "FA Youth Cup Finals of the 1990s", "UEFA Euro 1996", "2003 Supercopa de España", "Premier League Player of the Month", "Hugh Grant", "Whipps Cross University Hospital", "UEFA Euro 2004", "Tom Cruise", "2007 North American SuperLiga", "Elizabeth II", "St Mary's Stadium", "2010 FIFA World Cup", "2002 FIFA World Cup", "Sven-Göran Eriksson", "Major League Baseball", "Tournoi de France", "Simon Fuller", "Minsk", "Denmark national football team", "National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children", "Blackburn Rovers F.C.", "Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II", "Anschutz Entertainment Group", "Bryan Robson", "Death and state funeral of Elizabeth II", "Playmaker", "Eric Cantona", "Darren Anderton", "beekeeping", "Far East", "Greatest Britons", "FA Community Shield", "Association football", "New England Revolution", "Half-Jewish", "2002 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group 9", "Western Conference (MLS)", "Wembley Stadium", "FA Charity Shield", "Serie A", "Skopje City Stadium", "Chingford", "Direct-to-video", "Newcastle upon Tyne", "Ryan Giggs", "MLS Cup Playoffs", "2022–23 Manchester City F.C. season", "2011 Major League Soccer season", "Adam Johnson (footballer)", "Beckham (TV series)", "gay media", "2007 MLS SuperDraft", "100 Greatest (TV series)", "Kirsty Howard", "Jay Leno", "Houston Dynamo", "Copa del Rey", "Ronaldo (Brazilian footballer)", "Chelsea F.C.", "St James' Park", "Catholic Church", "North American SuperLiga", "Chicago Fire Soccer Club", "Vaduz", "Qatar", "Football League Cup", "2006–07 Real Madrid CF season", "Professional Footballers' Association", "Forbes (magazine)", "London Borough of Hackney", "Skopje", "European Sports Media", "Ole Gunnar Solskjær", "Selhurst Park", "UNICEF UK", "BBC Sport", "2006–07 La Liga", "Vancouver Whitecaps FC", "Colombia national football team", "1997 FA Charity Shield", "Neil Sullivan", "Stuttgart", "Gaza Strip", "Budweiser", "GameSpot", "Posh and Becks", "Peter Taylor (footballer born 1953)", "Monarchism", "Toronto", "Switzerland national football team", "Bayer 04 Leverkusen", "Preston North End F.C.", "Manchester United Supporters' Trust", "Spice Girls", "La Liga", "Brighton & Hove Albion F.C.", "BBC News", "Gottlieb-Daimler-Stadion", "gay icon", "Shanghai", "BBC Sports Personality of the Year", "Bratislava", "1999–2000 in English football", "Carlos Pavón", "Paris Saint-Germain F.C.", "Shaun Wright-Phillips", "The 100 Greatest TV Ads", "Troy Perkins", "2000–01 Manchester United F.C. season", "D.C. United", "Port Vale F.C.", "Juventus FC", "Alexandre Pato", "PFA Team of the Year", "2010 Major League Soccer season", "Liverpool F.C.–Manchester United F.C. rivalry", "2008–09 AC Milan season", "Andriy Shevchenko", "San Jose Earthquakes", "Fouls and misconduct (association football)", "salary cap", "Slovakia national football team", "Great Britain men's Olympic football team", "Leytonstone", "FA Youth Cup", "Yellow card (sports)", "1998–99 FA Cup", "David Beckham Academy", "Gianluca Zambrotta", "Modern Family", "Real Madrid CF", "Massimo Ambrosini", "Aaron Lennon", "Rheinpark Stadion", "UEFA", "José Antonio Reyes", "White House", "A.S. Roma", "Only Fools and Horses", "Carlos Gamarra", "London Stadium", "Sky Go", "2002–03 in English football", "FourFourTwo", "Romeo Beckham", "Kylian Mbappé", "19 Entertainment", "Pride Park Stadium", "Milanello", "Germany national football team", "Major League Soccer", "1999 Intercontinental Cup", "dehydration", "loan (sports)", "Herbalife", "Arsène Wenger", "Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles", "Premier League 10 Seasons Awards", "Carlo Ancelotti", "List of UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors", "Cristiano Ronaldo", "Youth Training Scheme", "HM Revenue and Customs", "Cotswolds", "1994–95 in English football", "Los Angeles FC", "Eurogamer", "United States men's national soccer team", "Greece national football team", "1996 FA Charity Shield", "Cheshunt", "Real Sociedad", "Entertainment Tonight", "Oliver Kahn", "Bobby Moore", "Cross (association football)", "Alan Gordon (soccer)", "Arnold Schwarzenegger", "Wimbledon F.C.", "Seattle Sounders FC", "Union Jack", "FWA Tribute Award", "David Bentley", "West Ham United F.C.", "Rafah offensive", "2006–07 UEFA Champions League knockout stage", "own-goal", "Crystal Palace F.C.", "2022 FIFA World Cup", "Beckham in Peckham", "Marcelo Sarvas", "Biography.com", "Kit (association football)", "David Furnish", "tattoo", "1998–99 FA Premier League", "A-list", "Ronaldinho", "EA Sports", "United 2026 FIFA World Cup bid", "metrosexual", "Sawbridgeworth", "Ligue 1", "UEFA Super Cup", "Sakari Orava", "RCD Mallorca", "2007 Honda 200", "Order of the British Empire", "barn", "Ask Jeeves", "Adidas", "Robbie Keane", "UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying Group G", "Brooklyn Beckham", "Christian Vieri", "Santiago Bernabéu Stadium", "Alfredo Di Stéfano", "Tehelné pole", "C.F. Pachuca", "2010 FIFA World Cup qualification", "Outfield", "Fox Sports (USA)", "Goal! (film)", "Daily Mirror", "MLS Supporters' Shield", "1994–95 Football League", "Brazil national football team", "Paris", "Peter Lim", "Robbie Savage", "Time 100", "1995–96 FA Premier League", "Gary Neville", "2000 FIFA Club World Championship", "1999 UEFA Champions League Final", "Kaká", "Blue Peter Badge", "Aston Villa F.C." ]
8,620	Dianic Wicca	Dianic Wicca, also known as Dianic Witchcraft, is a modern pagan goddess tradition focused on female experience and empowerment. Leadership is by women, who may be ordained as priestesses, or in less formal groups that function as collectives. While some adherents identify as Wiccan, it differs from most traditions of Wicca in that only goddesses are honored (whereas most Wiccan traditions honor both female and male deities). The practice of magic is rooted in the belief that energy or 'life force' can be directed to enact change. However it is important to note that rituals are often improvised to suit individual or group needs and vary from coven to coven. Some Dianic Wiccans eschew manipulative spellwork and hexing because it goes against the Wiccan Rede. However, many other Dianic witches (notably Budapest) do not consider hexing or binding of those who attack women to be wrong, and actively encourage the binding of rapists.]] Like other Wiccans, Dianics may form covens, attend festivals, celebrate the eight major Wiccan holidays, and gather on Esbats.}} Sociological studies have shown that there is therapeutic value inherent in Dianic ritual. Healing rituals to overcome personal trauma and raise awareness about violence against women have earned comparisons to the female-centered consciousness-raising groups of the 1960s and 1970s. Some Dianic groups develop rituals specifically to confront gendered personal trauma, such as battery, rape, incest, and partner abuse. In one ethnographic study of such a ritual, women shifted their understanding of power from the hands of their abusers to themselves. It was found that this ritual had improved self-perception in participants in the short-term, and that the results could be sustained with ongoing practice. Dianic Wicca developed from the Women's Liberation Movement and some covens traditionally compare themselves with radical feminism. Dianics pride themselves on the inclusion of lesbian and bisexual members in their groups and leadership. It is a goal within many covens to explore female sexuality and sensuality outside of male control, and many rituals function to affirm lesbian sexuality, making it a popular tradition for lesbians and bisexuals. Some covens exclusively consist of same-sex oriented women and advocate lesbian separatism. Ruth Rhiannon Barrett was ordained by Z Budapest in 1980 and inherited Budapest's Los Angeles ministry. This community continues through Circle of Aradia, a grove of Temple of Diana, Inc. ==Criticism for transphobia== Dianic Wicca has been criticised by elements in the Neopagan community for being transphobic. In February 2011, Zsuzsanna Budapest conducted a ritual with the Circle of Cerridwen at PantheaCon for "genetic women only" from which she barred males. This caused a backlash that led many to criticize Dianic Wicca as an inherently transphobic lesbian-separatist movement. The Los Angeles Times wrote that:	[ "lesbian", "Aphrodite", "Zsuzsanna Budapest", "modern pagan", "monotheistic", "lesbian separatism", "Starhawk", "Modern Paganism", "Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)", "goddess movement", "domestic violence", "Riane Eisler", "The Wild Hunt (periodical)", "Ellen Cole", "coven", "Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches", "New Age", "British Traditional Wicca", "Drawing Down the Moon (book)", "Sacred Mysteries", "Charles Leland", "Lesbian separatism", "incest", "Goddess movement", "Wicca", "Magic (paranormal)", "Wiccan Rede", "United States", "patriarchy", "goddess", "festival", "rape", "Magical tools in Wicca", "The White Goddess", "internalized oppression", "bisexual", "Diana (mythology)", "meditation", "transphobic", "Spell (paranormal)", "Goddess", "Curse", "consciousness-raising", "Los Angeles Times", "males", "Esbat", "Wheel of the Year", "Artemis", "radical feminism", "Winter Solstice", "violence against women", "Roman goddess", "Aradia", "Robert Graves", "Ariadne", "Women's Liberation Movement", "pentacle" ]
8,622	Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol	The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network management protocol used on Internet Protocol (IP) networks for automatically assigning IP addresses and other communication parameters to devices connected to the network using a client–server architecture. The technology eliminates the need for individually configuring network devices manually, and consists of two network components, a centrally installed network DHCP server and client instances of the protocol stack on each computer or device. When connected to the network, and periodically thereafter, a client requests a set of parameters from the server using DHCP. DHCP can be implemented on networks ranging in size from residential networks to large campus networks and regional ISP networks. Many routers and residential gateways have DHCP server capability. Most residential network routers receive a unique IP address within the ISP network. Within a local network, a DHCP server assigns a local IP address to each device. DHCP services exist for networks running Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), as well as version 6 (IPv6). The IPv6 version of the DHCP protocol is commonly called DHCPv6. ==History== The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) was defined in 1984 for the configuration of simple devices, such as diskless workstations, with a suitable IP address. Acting in the data link layer, it made implementation difficult on many server platforms. It required that a server be present on each individual network link. RARP was superseded by the Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) defined in September 1985. This introduced the concept of a relay agent, which allowed the forwarding of BOOTP packets across networks, allowing one central BOOTP server to serve hosts on many IP subnets. DHCP was first defined in October 1993. It is based on BOOTP, but can dynamically allocate IP addresses from a pool and reclaim them when they are no longer in use. It can also be used to deliver a wide range of extra configuration parameters to IP clients, including platform-specific parameters. Four years later, the DHCPINFORM message type (used for WPAD) and other small changes were added. This definition, from 1997, remains the core of the standard for IPv4 networks. DHCPv6 was initially defined in 2003. After updates by many subsequent RFCs, its definition was replaced in 2018, where prefix delegation and stateless address autoconfiguration were now merged. ==Overview== Internet Protocol (IP) defines how devices communicate within and across local networks on the Internet. A DHCP server can manage IP settings for devices on its local network, e.g., by assigning IP addresses to those devices automatically and dynamically. DHCP operates based on the client–server model. When a computer or other device connects to a network, the DHCP client software sends a DHCP broadcast query requesting the necessary information. Any DHCP server on the network may service the request. The DHCP server manages a pool of IP addresses and information about client configuration parameters such as default gateway, domain name, the name servers, and time servers. On receiving a DHCP request, the DHCP server may respond with specific information for each client, as previously configured by an administrator, or with a specific address and any other information valid for the entire network and for the time period for which the allocation (lease) is valid. A DHCP client typically queries this information immediately after booting, and periodically thereafter before the expiration of the information. When a DHCP client refreshes an assignment, it initially requests the same parameter values, but the DHCP server may assign a new address based on the assignment policies set by administrators. On large networks that consist of multiple links, a single DHCP server may service the entire network when aided by DHCP relay agents located on the interconnecting routers. Such agents relay messages between DHCP clients and DHCP servers located on different subnets. Depending on implementation, the DHCP server may have three methods of allocating IP addresses: Dynamic allocation: A network administrator reserves a range of IP addresses for DHCP, and each DHCP client on the LAN is configured to request an IP address from the DHCP server during network initialization. The request-and-grant process uses a lease concept with a controllable time period, allowing the DHCP server to reclaim and then reallocate IP addresses that are not renewed. Automatic allocation: The DHCP server permanently assigns an IP address to a requesting client from a range defined by an administrator. This is like dynamic allocation, but the DHCP server keeps a table of past IP address assignments, so that it can preferentially assign to a client the same IP address that the client previously had. Manual allocation: This method is also variously called static DHCP allocation, fixed address allocation, reservation, and MAC/IP address binding. An administrator maps a unique identifier (a client id or MAC address) for each client to an IP address, which is offered to the requesting client. DHCP servers may be configured to fall back to other methods if this fails. DHCP services are used for Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and IPv6. The details of the protocol for IPv4 and IPv6 differ sufficiently that they may be considered separate protocols. For the IPv6 operation, devices may alternatively use stateless address autoconfiguration. IPv6 hosts may also use link-local addressing to achieve operations restricted to the local network link. ==Operation== The DHCP employs a connectionless service model, using the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). It is implemented with two UDP port numbers for its operations which are the same as for the bootstrap protocol (BOOTP). The server listens on UDP port number 67, and the client listens on UDP port number 68. DHCP operations fall into four phases: server discovery, IP lease offer, IP lease request, and IP lease acknowledgement. These stages are often abbreviated as DORA for discovery, offer, request, and acknowledgement. The DHCP operation begins with clients broadcasting a request. If the client and server are in different Broadcast Domains, a DHCP Helper or DHCP Relay Agent may be used. Clients requesting renewal of an existing lease may communicate directly via UDP unicast, since the client already has an established IP address at that point. Additionally, there is a BROADCAST flag (1 bit in 2 byte flags field, where all other bits are reserved and so are set to 0) the client can use to indicate in which way (broadcast or unicast) it can receive the DHCPOFFER: 0x8000 for broadcast, 0x0000 for unicast. Usually, the DHCPOFFER is sent through unicast. For those hosts which cannot accept unicast packets before IP addresses are configured, this flag can be used to work around this issue. ===Discovery=== The DHCP client broadcasts a DHCPDISCOVER message on the network subnet using the destination address (limited broadcast) or the specific subnet broadcast address (directed broadcast). A DHCP client may also request an IP address in the DHCPDISCOVER, which the server may take into account when selecting an address to offer. For example, if HTYPE is set to 1, to specify that the medium used is Ethernet, HLEN is set to 6 because an Ethernet address (MAC address) is 6 octets long. The CHADDR is set to the MAC address used by the client. Some options are set as well. ===Offer=== When a DHCP server receives a DHCPDISCOVER message from a client, which is an IP address lease request, the DHCP server reserves an IP address for the client and makes a lease offer by sending a DHCPOFFER message to the client. This message may contain the client's Client ID (Option 61, containing a unique value, traditionally a MAC address), the IP address that the server is offering, the subnet mask, the lease duration, and the IP address of the DHCP server making the offer. The DHCP server may also take notice of the hardware-level MAC address (as specified in the CHADDR field). This field must be used to identify the client, if no Client ID is provided in the DHCP packet. The DHCP server determines the configuration based on the client's hardware address as specified in the CHADDR (client hardware address) field. In the following example the server () specifies the client's IP address in the YIADDR (your IP address) field. ===Request=== In response to the DHCP offer, the client replies with a DHCPREQUEST message, broadcast to the server, requesting the offered address. A client can receive DHCP offers from multiple servers, but it will accept only one DHCP offer. The client must send the server identification option in the DHCPREQUEST message, indicating the server whose offer the client has selected. When other DHCP servers receive this message, they withdraw any offers that they have made to the client and return their offered IP address to the pool of available addresses. ===Acknowledgement=== When the DHCP server receives the DHCPREQUEST message from the client, the configuration process enters its final phase. The acknowledgement phase involves sending a DHCPACK packet to the client. This packet includes the lease duration and any other configuration information that the client might have requested. At this point, the IP configuration process is completed. The protocol expects the DHCP client to configure its network interface with the negotiated parameters. ===Selecting and configuring IP addresses=== When the server is reusing an IP address from its pool, it may first check (using ping) to see if it is not taken already. This may happen if a host is configured manually with an IP address that lies within the DHCP scope. Before claiming an IP address, the client should probe the newly received address (e.g. with ARP), in order to find if there is another host present in the network with the proposed IP address. If there is no reply, this address does not conflict with that of another host, so it is free to be used. If this probe finds another computer using that address, the client should broadcast a DHCPDECLINE to the DHCP server(s). ===Information=== A DHCP client may request more information than the server sent with the original DHCPOFFER. The client may also request repeat data for a particular application. For example, browsers use DHCP Inform to obtain web proxy settings via WPAD. ===Releasing=== The client sends a request to the DHCP server to release the DHCP information and the client deactivates its IP address. As client devices usually do not know when users may unplug them from the network, the protocol does not mandate the sending of DHCP Release. ==Client configuration parameters== A DHCP server can provide optional configuration parameters to the client. RFC 2132 describes the available DHCP options defined by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) - DHCP and BOOTP PARAMETERS. A DHCP client can select, manipulate and overwrite parameters provided by a DHCP server. In Unix-like systems this client-level refinement typically takes place according to the values in the configuration file /etc/dhclient.conf. ==Options== Options are octet strings of varying length. This is called Type–length–value encoding. The first octet is the option code, the second octet is the number of following octets and the remaining octets are code dependent. For example, the DHCP message-type option for an offer would appear as 0x35, 0x01, 0x02, where 0x35 is code 53 for "DHCP message type", 0x01 means one octet follows and 0x02 is the value of "offer". The following tables list the available DHCP options. The DHCP server can then augment its DHCPOFFER with an IP address of an Aruba wireless controller in option 43, so the access point knows where to register itself. Setting a VCI by the client allows a DHCP server to differentiate between client machines and process the requests from them appropriately. ===Other extensions=== ====Relay agent information sub-options==== The relay agent information option (option 82) specifies container for attaching sub-options to DHCP requests transmitted between a DHCP relay and a DHCP server. ==Relaying== In small networks, where only one IP subnet is being managed, DHCP clients communicate directly with DHCP servers. However, DHCP servers can also provide IP addresses for multiple subnets. In this case, a DHCP client that has not yet acquired an IP address cannot communicate directly with a DHCP server not on the same subnet, as the client's broadcast can only be received on its own subnet. In order to allow DHCP clients on subnets not directly served by DHCP servers to communicate with DHCP servers, DHCP relay agents can be installed on these subnets. A DHCP relay agent runs on a network device, capable of routing between the client's subnet and the subnet of the DHCP server. The DHCP client broadcasts on the local link; the relay agent receives the broadcast and transmits it to one or more DHCP servers using unicast. The IP addresses of the DHCP servers are manually configured in the relay agent. The relay agent stores its own IP address, from the interface on which it has received the client's broadcast, in the GIADDR field of the DHCP packet. The DHCP server uses the GIADDR-value to determine the subnet, and subsequently the corresponding address pool, from which to allocate an IP address. When the DHCP server replies to the client, it sends the reply to the GIADDR-address, again using unicast. The relay agent then retransmits the response on the local network, using unicast (in most cases) to the newly reserved IP address, in an Ethernet frame directed to the client's MAC address. The client should accept the packet as its own, even when that IP address is not yet set on the interface. Directly after processing the packet, the client sets the IP address on its interface and is ready for regular IP communication, directly thereafter. If the client's implementation of the IP stack does not accept unicast packets when it has no IP address yet, the client may set the broadcast bit in the FLAGS field when sending a DHCPDISCOVER packet. The relay agent will use the broadcast IP address (and the clients MAC address) to inform the client of the server's DHCPOFFER. The communication between the relay agent and the DHCP server typically uses both a source and destination UDP port of 67. ==Client states== A DHCP client can receive these messages from a server: DHCPOFFER DHCPACK DHCPNAK The client moves through DHCP states depending on how the server responds to the messages that the client sends. ==Reliability== The DHCP ensures reliability in several ways: periodic renewal, rebinding, and failover. DHCP clients are allocated leases that last for some period of time. Clients begin to attempt to renew their leases once half the lease interval has expired. They do this by sending a unicast DHCPREQUEST message to the DHCP server that granted the original lease. If that server is down or unreachable, it will fail to respond to the DHCPREQUEST. However, in that case the client repeats the DHCPREQUEST from time to time, so if the DHCP server comes back up or becomes reachable again, the DHCP client will succeed in contacting it and renew the lease. If the DHCP server is unreachable for an extended period of time, the DHCP client will attempt to rebind, by broadcasting its DHCPREQUEST rather than unicasting it. Because it is broadcast, the DHCPREQUEST message will reach all available DHCP servers. If some other DHCP server is able to renew the lease, it will do so at this time. In order for rebinding to work, when the client successfully contacts a backup DHCP server, that server must have accurate information about the client's binding. Maintaining accurate binding information between two servers is a complicated problem; if both servers are able to update the same lease database, there must be a mechanism to avoid conflicts between updates on the independent servers. A proposal for implementing fault-tolerant DHCP servers was submitted to the Internet Engineering Task Force, but never formalized. If rebinding fails, the lease will eventually expire. When the lease expires, the client must stop using the IP address granted to it in its lease. At that time it will restart the DHCP process from the beginning by broadcasting a DHCPDISCOVER message. Since its lease has expired, it will accept any IP address offered to it. Once it has a new IP address (presumably from a different DHCP server) it will once again be able to use the network. However, since its IP address has changed, any ongoing connections will be broken. ==IPv6 networks== The basic methodology of DHCP was developed for networks based on Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). Since the development and deployment of IPv6 networks, DHCP has also been used for assigning parameters in such networks, despite the inherent features of IPv6 for stateless address autoconfiguration. The IPv6 version of the protocol is designated as DHCPv6. ==Security== The base DHCP does not include any mechanism for authentication. Because of this, it is vulnerable to a variety of attacks. These attacks fall into three main categories: Unauthorized DHCP servers providing false information to clients. Unauthorized clients gaining access to resources. Resource exhaustion attacks from malicious DHCP clients. Because the client has no way to validate the identity of a DHCP server, unauthorized DHCP servers (commonly called "rogue DHCP") can be operated on networks, providing incorrect information to DHCP clients. or as a man-in-the-middle attack. Because the DHCP server provides the DHCP client with server IP addresses, such as the IP address of one or more DNS servers, an attacker can convince a DHCP client to do its DNS lookups through its own DNS server, and can therefore provide its own answers to DNS queries from the client. This in turn allows the attacker to redirect network traffic through itself, allowing it to eavesdrop on connections between the client and network servers it contacts, or to simply replace those network servers with its own. DHCP does provide some mechanisms for mitigating these problems. The Relay Agent Information Option protocol extension (usually referred to in the industry by its actual number as Option 82) allows network operators to attach tags to DHCP messages as these messages arrive on the network operator's trusted network. This tag is then used as an authorization token to control the client's access to network resources. Because the client has no access to the network upstream of the relay agent, the lack of authentication does not prevent the DHCP server operator from relying on the authorization token. Another extension, Authentication for DHCP Messages (RFC 3118), provides a mechanism for authenticating DHCP messages. As of 2002, this extension had not seen widespread adoption because of the problems of managing keys for large numbers of DHCP clients. A 2007 book about DSL technologies remarked that:[T]here were numerous security vulnerabilities identified against the security measures proposed by RFC 3118. This fact, combined with the introduction of 802.1X, slowed the deployment and take-rate of authenticated DHCP, and it has never been widely deployed. A 2010 book notes that:[T]here have been very few implementations of DHCP Authentication. The challenges of key management and processing delays due to hash computation have been deemed too heavy a price to pay for the perceived benefits. Architectural proposals from 2008 involve authenticating DHCP requests using 802.1X or PANA (both of which transport EAP). An IETF proposal was made for including EAP in DHCP itself, the so-called EAPoDHCP; this does not appear to have progressed beyond IETF draft level, the last of which dates to 2010. ==IETF standards documents==	[ "default gateway", "IEN 116", "Network Information Service", "Post Office Protocol", "name server", "Internet Assigned Numbers Authority", "IP address", "Reverse Address Resolution Protocol", "set-top boxes", "Boot Service Discovery Protocol", "residential gateway", "Ethernet frame", "Time Protocol", "Type–length–value", "residential network", "Time zone", "booting", "Network News Transfer Protocol", "Octet (computing)", "Web Proxy Auto-Discovery Protocol", "Protocol for Carrying Authentication for Network Access", "IETF", "prefix delegation", "link-local addressing", "campus network", "Ping (networking utility)", "Variable-length code", "Broadcasting (networking)", "Internet Protocol", "client–server model", "Type-length-value", "Server (computing)", "Broadcast domain", "SAMS Publishing", "DHCPv6", "domain name", "Extensible Authentication Protocol", "Internet Systems Consortium", "Web Proxy Autodiscovery Protocol", "Address Resolution Protocol", "User Datagram Protocol", "Aruba Networks", "client–server", "unicast", "Simple Mail Transfer Protocol", "UDP Helper Address", "LAN", "routing", "Internet Relay Chat", "tz database", "rogue DHCP", "X Window System", "Preboot Execution Environment", "Universally unique identifier", "man-in-the-middle attack", "IPv6", "Bootstrap Protocol", "data link layer", "wireless access point", "Merit Network", "Kea (software)", "StreetTalk", "Resource Location Protocol", "BOOTP", "HTTP cookie", "Finger protocol", "network protocol", "MAC address", "Search domain", "Line Printer Daemon protocol", "Zeroconf", "World Wide Web", "Router (computing)", "Ethernet", "Comparison of DHCP server software", "NetBoot", "protocol stack", "Request–response", "DNS", "Magic Cookie", "Rogue DHCP", "diskless workstation", "time server", "stateless address autoconfiguration", "Network Time Protocol", "Novell Directory Service", "802.1X", "network administrator", "fault-tolerant", "connectionless", "Internet Protocol version 4", "wireless controller" ]
8,623	Dava Sobel	Dava Sobel (born June 15, 1947) is an American writer of popular expositions of scientific topics. Her books include Longitude, about English clockmaker John Harrison; Galileo's Daughter, about Galileo's daughter Maria Celeste; and The Glass Universe: How the Ladies of the Harvard Observatory Took the Measure of the Stars about the Harvard Computers. ==Biography== Sobel was born in The Bronx, New York City. She graduated from the Bronx High School of Science and Binghamton University. She wrote Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time in 1995. The story was made into a television movie, of the same name by Charles Sturridge and Granada Film in 1999, and was shown in the United States by A&E. Her book Galileo's Daughter: A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith, and Love was a finalist for the 2000 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography. She holds honorary doctor of letters degrees from the University of Bath and Middlebury College, Vermont, both awarded in 2002. Sobel made her first foray into teaching at the University of Chicago as the Vare Writer-in-Residence in the winter of 2006. She taught a one-quarter seminar on writing about science. She served as a judge for the PEN/E. O. Wilson Literary Science Writing Award in 2012. Sobel is the niece of journalist Ruth Gruber and the cousin of epidemiologist David Michaels. ==Legacy== Asteroid 30935 Davasobel, discovered by Carolyn S. Shoemaker and David H. Levy was named after her for her literary work in physics. ==Publications== Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time (1995) . – the genius in question was John Harrison, who spent decades trying to convince the British Admiralty of the accuracy of his naval timepieces and their use in determining longitude when at sea in order to win the longitude prize. The book itself won the 1997 British Book of the Year award. Galileo's Daughter: A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith, and Love (2000) The Best American Science Writing 2004 (editor) , The Planets: A discourse on the discovery, science, history and mythology, of the planets in our solar system, with one chapter devoted to each of the celestial spheres. (2005) , The Glass Universe: How the Ladies of the Harvard Observatory Took the Measure of the Stars (2016) , The Elements of Marie Curie: How the Glow of Radium Lit a Path for Women in Science (2024) , ==Recognition== She was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2022 "for outstanding writings covering many centuries of key developments in physics and astronomy and the people central to those developments".	[ "Binghamton University", "Charles Sturridge", "solar eclipse", "Longitude (book)", "Maria Celeste", "British Book of the Year", "PEN American Center", "Carolyn S. Shoemaker", "Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time", "University of Bath", "Fellow of the American Physical Society", "A&E (TV network)", "PEN/E. O. Wilson Literary Science Writing Award", "David Michaels (epidemiologist)", "30935 Davasobel", "Galileo's Daughter", "Middlebury College", "David H. Levy", "Harvard Computers", "Granada Productions", "Jennifer Byrne Presents", "Longitude (TV series)", "Galileo's Daughter: A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith, and Love", "University of Chicago", "John Harrison", "British Admiralty", "longitude prize", "Bronx High School of Science", "Shanghai International Literary Festival", "longitude", "Galileo", "Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography", "C-SPAN", "The Bronx", "Solar eclipse of November 13, 2012", "Doctor of Humane Letters", "The Jewish Week", "Ruth Gruber" ]
8,625	Differential geometry	Differential geometry is a mathematical discipline that studies the geometry of smooth shapes and smooth spaces, otherwise known as smooth manifolds. It uses the techniques of single variable calculus, vector calculus, linear algebra and multilinear algebra. The field has its origins in the study of spherical geometry as far back as antiquity. It also relates to astronomy, the geodesy of the Earth, and later the study of hyperbolic geometry by Lobachevsky. The simplest examples of smooth spaces are the plane and space curves and surfaces in the three-dimensional Euclidean space, and the study of these shapes formed the basis for development of modern differential geometry during the 18th and 19th centuries. Since the late 19th century, differential geometry has grown into a field concerned more generally with geometric structures on differentiable manifolds. A geometric structure is one which defines some notion of size, distance, shape, volume, or other rigidifying structure. For example, in Riemannian geometry distances and angles are specified, in symplectic geometry volumes may be computed, in conformal geometry only angles are specified, and in gauge theory certain fields are given over the space. Differential geometry is closely related to, and is sometimes taken to include, differential topology, which concerns itself with properties of differentiable manifolds that do not rely on any additional geometric structure (see that article for more discussion on the distinction between the two subjects). Differential geometry is also related to the geometric aspects of the theory of differential equations, otherwise known as geometric analysis. Differential geometry finds applications throughout mathematics and the natural sciences. Most prominently the language of differential geometry was used by Albert Einstein in his theory of general relativity, and subsequently by physicists in the development of quantum field theory and the standard model of particle physics. Outside of physics, differential geometry finds applications in chemistry, economics, engineering, control theory, computer graphics and computer vision, and recently in machine learning. == History and development == The history and development of differential geometry as a subject begins at least as far back as classical antiquity. It is intimately linked to the development of geometry more generally, of the notion of space and shape, and of topology, especially the study of manifolds. In this section we focus primarily on the history of the application of infinitesimal methods to geometry, and later to the ideas of tangent spaces, and eventually the development of the modern formalism of the subject in terms of tensors and tensor fields. === Classical antiquity until the Renaissance (300 BC1600 AD) === The study of differential geometry, or at least the study of the geometry of smooth shapes, can be traced back at least to classical antiquity. In particular, much was known about the geometry of the Earth, a spherical geometry, in the time of the ancient Greek mathematicians. Famously, Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth around 200 BC, and around 150 AD Ptolemy in his Geography introduced the stereographic projection for the purposes of mapping the shape of the Earth. Implicitly throughout this time principles that form the foundation of differential geometry and calculus were used in geodesy, although in a much simplified form. Namely, as far back as Euclid's Elements it was understood that a straight line could be defined by its property of providing the shortest distance between two points, and applying this same principle to the surface of the Earth leads to the conclusion that great circles, which are only locally similar to straight lines in a flat plane, provide the shortest path between two points on the Earth's surface. Indeed, the measurements of distance along such geodesic paths by Eratosthenes and others can be considered a rudimentary measure of arclength of curves, a concept which did not see a rigorous definition in terms of calculus until the 1600s. Around this time there were only minimal overt applications of the theory of infinitesimals to the study of geometry, a precursor to the modern calculus-based study of the subject. In Euclid's Elements the notion of tangency of a line to a circle is discussed, and Archimedes applied the method of exhaustion to compute the areas of smooth shapes such as the circle, and the volumes of smooth three-dimensional solids such as the sphere, cones, and cylinders. In regards to differential geometry, Euler studied the notion of a geodesic on a surface deriving the first analytical geodesic equation, and later introduced the first set of intrinsic coordinate systems on a surface, beginning the theory of intrinsic geometry upon which modern geometric ideas are based. in 1827 Gauss produced the Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas detailing the general theory of curved surfaces. In this work and his subsequent papers and unpublished notes on the theory of surfaces, Gauss has been dubbed the inventor of non-Euclidean geometry and the inventor of intrinsic differential geometry. Around this same time János Bolyai and Lobachevsky independently discovered hyperbolic geometry and thus demonstrated the existence of consistent geometries outside Euclid's paradigm. Concrete models of hyperbolic geometry were produced by Eugenio Beltrami later in the 1860s, and Felix Klein coined the term non-Euclidean geometry in 1871, and through the Erlangen program put Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries on the same footing. Implicitly, the spherical geometry of the Earth that had been studied since antiquity was a non-Euclidean geometry, an elliptic geometry. The development of intrinsic differential geometry in the language of Gauss was spurred on by his student, Bernhard Riemann in his Habilitationsschrift, On the hypotheses which lie at the foundation of geometry. In this work Riemann introduced the notion of a Riemannian metric and the Riemannian curvature tensor for the first time, and began the systematic study of differential geometry in higher dimensions. This intrinsic point of view in terms of the Riemannian metric, denoted by ds^2 by Riemann, was the development of an idea of Gauss's about the linear element ds of a surface. At this time Riemann began to introduce the systematic use of linear algebra and multilinear algebra into the subject, making great use of the theory of quadratic forms in his investigation of metrics and curvature. At this time Riemann did not yet develop the modern notion of a manifold, as even the notion of a topological space had not been encountered, but he did propose that it might be possible to investigate or measure the properties of the metric of spacetime through the analysis of masses within spacetime, linking with the earlier observation of Euler that masses under the effect of no forces would travel along geodesics on surfaces, and predicting Einstein's fundamental observation of the equivalence principle a full 60 years before it appeared in the scientific literature. In 1899 Luigi Bianchi produced his Lectures on differential geometry which studied differential geometry from Riemann's perspective, and a year later Tullio Levi-Civita and Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro produced their textbook systematically developing the theory of absolute differential calculus and tensor calculus. At the start of the 1900s there was a major movement within mathematics to formalise the foundational aspects of the subject to avoid crises of rigour and accuracy, known as Hilbert's program. As part of this broader movement, the notion of a topological space was distilled in by Felix Hausdorff in 1914, and by 1942 there were many different notions of manifold of a combinatorial and differential-geometric nature. ===Contact geometry=== Contact geometry deals with certain manifolds of odd dimension. It is close to symplectic geometry and like the latter, it originated in questions of classical mechanics. A contact structure on a -dimensional manifold M is given by a smooth hyperplane field H in the tangent bundle that is as far as possible from being associated with the level sets of a differentiable function on M (the technical term is "completely nonintegrable tangent hyperplane distribution"). Near each point p, a hyperplane distribution is determined by a nowhere vanishing 1-form \alpha, which is unique up to multiplication by a nowhere vanishing function: H_p = \ker\alpha_p\subset T_{p}M. A local 1-form on M is a contact form if the restriction of its exterior derivative to H is a non-degenerate two-form and thus induces a symplectic structure on Hp at each point. If the distribution H can be defined by a global one-form \alpha then this form is contact if and only if the top-dimensional form \alpha\wedge (d\alpha)^n is a volume form on M, i.e. does not vanish anywhere. A contact analogue of the Darboux theorem holds: all contact structures on an odd-dimensional manifold are locally isomorphic and can be brought to a certain local normal form by a suitable choice of the coordinate system. ===Complex and Kähler geometry=== Complex differential geometry is the study of complex manifolds. An almost complex manifold is a real manifold M, endowed with a tensor of type (1, 1), i.e. a vector bundle endomorphism (called an almost complex structure) J:TM\rightarrow TM , such that J^2=-1. \, It follows from this definition that an almost complex manifold is even-dimensional. An almost complex manifold is called complex if N_J=0, where N_J is a tensor of type (2, 1) related to J, called the Nijenhuis tensor (or sometimes the torsion). An almost complex manifold is complex if and only if it admits a holomorphic coordinate atlas. An almost Hermitian structure is given by an almost complex structure J, along with a Riemannian metric g, satisfying the compatibility condition g(JX,JY)=g(X,Y). \, An almost Hermitian structure defines naturally a differential two-form \omega_{J,g}(X,Y):=g(JX,Y). \, The following two conditions are equivalent: N_J=0\mbox{ and }d\omega=0 \, \nabla J=0 \, where \nabla is the Levi-Civita connection of g. In this case, (J, g) is called a Kähler structure, and a Kähler manifold is a manifold endowed with a Kähler structure. In particular, a Kähler manifold is both a complex and a symplectic manifold. A large class of Kähler manifolds (the class of Hodge manifolds) is given by all the smooth complex projective varieties. ===CR geometry=== CR geometry is the study of the intrinsic geometry of boundaries of domains in complex manifolds. ===Conformal geometry=== Conformal geometry is the study of the set of angle-preserving (conformal) transformations on a space. === Differential topology === Differential topology is the study of global geometric invariants without a metric or symplectic form. Differential topology starts from the natural operations such as Lie derivative of natural vector bundles and de Rham differential of forms. Beside Lie algebroids, also Courant algebroids start playing a more important role. === Lie groups === A Lie group is a group in the category of smooth manifolds. Beside the algebraic properties this enjoys also differential geometric properties. The most obvious construction is that of a Lie algebra which is the tangent space at the unit endowed with the Lie bracket between left-invariant vector fields. Beside the structure theory there is also the wide field of representation theory. === Geometric analysis === Geometric analysis is a mathematical discipline where tools from differential equations, especially elliptic partial differential equations are used to establish new results in differential geometry and differential topology. === Gauge theory === Gauge theory is the study of connections on vector bundles and principal bundles, and arises out of problems in mathematical physics and physical gauge theories which underpin the standard model of particle physics. Gauge theory is concerned with the study of differential equations for connections on bundles, and the resulting geometric moduli spaces of solutions to these equations as well as the invariants that may be derived from them. These equations often arise as the Euler–Lagrange equations describing the equations of motion of certain physical systems in quantum field theory, and so their study is of considerable interest in physics. == Bundles and connections == The apparatus of vector bundles, principal bundles, and connections on bundles plays an extraordinarily important role in modern differential geometry. A smooth manifold always carries a natural vector bundle, the tangent bundle. Loosely speaking, this structure by itself is sufficient only for developing analysis on the manifold, while doing geometry requires, in addition, some way to relate the tangent spaces at different points, i.e. a notion of parallel transport. An important example is provided by affine connections. For a surface in R3, tangent planes at different points can be identified using a natural path-wise parallelism induced by the ambient Euclidean space, which has a well-known standard definition of metric and parallelism. In Riemannian geometry, the Levi-Civita connection serves a similar purpose. More generally, differential geometers consider spaces with a vector bundle and an arbitrary affine connection which is not defined in terms of a metric. In physics, the manifold may be spacetime and the bundles and connections are related to various physical fields. == Intrinsic versus extrinsic == From the beginning and through the middle of the 19th century, differential geometry was studied from the extrinsic point of view: curves and surfaces were considered as lying in a Euclidean space of higher dimension (for example a surface in an ambient space of three dimensions). The simplest results are those in the differential geometry of curves and differential geometry of surfaces. Starting with the work of Riemann, the intrinsic point of view was developed, in which one cannot speak of moving "outside" the geometric object because it is considered to be given in a free-standing way. The fundamental result here is Gauss's theorema egregium, to the effect that Gaussian curvature is an intrinsic invariant. The intrinsic point of view is more flexible. For example, it is useful in relativity where space-time cannot naturally be taken as extrinsic. However, there is a price to pay in technical complexity: the intrinsic definitions of curvature and connections become much less visually intuitive. These two points of view can be reconciled, i.e. the extrinsic geometry can be considered as a structure additional to the intrinsic one. (See the Nash embedding theorem.) In the formalism of geometric calculus both extrinsic and intrinsic geometry of a manifold can be characterized by a single bivector-valued one-form called the shape operator. == Applications == Below are some examples of how differential geometry is applied to other fields of science and mathematics. In physics, differential geometry has many applications, including: Differential geometry is the language in which Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity is expressed. According to the theory, the universe is a smooth manifold equipped with a pseudo-Riemannian metric, which describes the curvature of spacetime. Understanding this curvature is essential for the positioning of satellites into orbit around the Earth. Differential geometry is also indispensable in the study of gravitational lensing and black holes. Differential forms are used in the study of electromagnetism. Differential geometry has applications to both Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics. Symplectic manifolds in particular can be used to study Hamiltonian systems. Riemannian geometry and contact geometry have been used to construct the formalism of geometrothermodynamics which has found applications in classical equilibrium thermodynamics. In chemistry and biophysics when modelling cell membrane structure under varying pressure. In economics, differential geometry has applications to the field of econometrics. Geometric modeling (including computer graphics) and computer-aided geometric design draw on ideas from differential geometry. In engineering, differential geometry can be applied to solve problems in digital signal processing. In control theory, differential geometry can be used to analyze nonlinear controllers, particularly geometric control In probability, statistics, and information theory, one can interpret various structures as Riemannian manifolds, which yields the field of information geometry, particularly via the Fisher information metric. In structural geology, differential geometry is used to analyze and describe geologic structures. In computer vision, differential geometry is used to analyze shapes. In image processing, differential geometry is used to process and analyse data on non-flat surfaces. Grigori Perelman's proof of the Poincaré conjecture using the techniques of Ricci flows demonstrated the power of the differential-geometric approach to questions in topology and it highlighted the important role played by its analytic methods. In wireless communications, Grassmannian manifolds are used for beamforming techniques in multiple antenna systems. In geodesy, for calculating distances and angles on the mean sea level surface of the Earth, modelled by an ellipsoid of revolution.	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V. D. Hodge", "gauge (mathematics)", "Smooth function", "moduli space", "Euclidean geometry", "non-degenerate", "control theory", "Atiyah–Singer index theorem", "bilinear form", "parallel transport", "topology", "Leonhard Euler", "Differential geometry of surfaces", "Archimedes", "characteristic class", "Kähler manifold", "vector field", "Sophus Lie", "Shiing-Shen Chern", "Holomorphic function", "mathematical physics", "geometrothermodynamics", "theorema egregium", "structural geology", "Mercator projection", "Courant algebroid", "plane curve", "Grigori Perelman", "tangency", "second fundamental form", "Definite bilinear form", "engineering", "Ricci flow", "isometry", "Hermitian manifold", "Grassmannian", "geodesic triangle", "Seiberg–Witten invariant", "differential form", "econometrics", "digital signal processing", "geometric analysis", "Geometric analysis", "thermodynamics", "machine learning", "stereographic projection", "Habilitationsschrift", "Jean Gaston Darboux", "Poincaré conjecture", "tangent space", "Theorema Egregium", "Euclidean space", "Group (mathematics)", "astronomy", "René Descartes", "Johann Bernoulli", "Conformal geometry", "non-Euclidean geometry", "William Rowan Hamilton", "Mathematics", "analytical mechanics", "Carl Friedrich Gauss", "physicists", "linear algebra", "orthogonality", "vector calculus", "moving frames", "ancient Greek", "Calculus", "differential topology", "Lagrange", "Jean-Louis Koszul", "tangent bundle", "symplectic manifold", "volume form", "image processing", "Projective differential geometry", "equivalence principle", "differential equation", "projective geometry", "beamforming", "information geometry", "topological quantum field theory", "Differential geometry of curves", "Einstein–Cartan theory", "Renaissance", "Integral geometry", "Erlangen program", "wireless", "exterior calculus", "shape operator", "Bernhard Riemann", "Lagrangian mechanics", "analytic geometry", "first fundamental form", "Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro", "Ehresmann connection", "positive definite bilinear form", "calculus", "vector bundle", "representation of a Lie group", "symplectic geometry", "pseudo-Riemannian manifold", "Differential topology", "quantum field theory", "Analysis Situs (paper)", "Mechanica", "differential forms", "metric tensor", "Hamiltonian mechanics", "Levi-Civita connection", "ambient space", "Exterior derivative", "conformal geometry", "Carl Gustav Jacobi", "great circles", "statistics", "Poincaré–Birkhoff theorem", "osculating circle", "gauge theory", "Leibniz", "first order of approximation", "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis", "Glossary of differential geometry and topology", "Mathematische Annalen", "volume", "principal bundle", "Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime", "circle", "absolute differential calculus", "probability", "Pierre de Fermat", "complex manifolds", "G.D. Birkhoff", "minimal surface", "Euler's theorem (differential geometry)", "Geometric modeling", "natural science", "geodesic", "computer graphics", "curvature", "Guillaume de l'Hôpital", "Gaspard Monge", "Euler–Lagrange equations", "tensor", "Christoffel symbols", "Tullio Levi-Civita", "Alexis Clairaut", "Gaussian curvature", "theory of general relativity", "infinitesimal", "skew-symmetric matrix", "phase space", "Jacob Bernoulli", "subtangent", "annulus (mathematics)", "Lie group", "Fisher information metric", "connection (vector bundle)", "general theory of relativity", "string theory", "almost complex structure", "complex manifold", "Lie groups", "Gauss map", "computer-aided geometric design", "Eratosthenes", "Differential form", "Gauss", "Darboux's theorem", "Differential forms", "connection (mathematics)", "electromagnetism", "Contact geometry", "Noncommutative geometry", "Systolic geometry", "Élie Cartan", "geometry", "Nijenhuis tensor", "Yang–Mills equations", "arclength", "directional derivative", "Banach norm", "economics", "Riemannian geometry", "Riemannian curvature tensor", "Nash embedding theorem", "Hermann Weyl", "almost complex manifold", "standard model of particle physics", "symmetric bilinear form", "theoretical physics", "Lorentzian manifold", "Hilbert's program", "symplectomorphism", "List of differential geometry topics", "algebraic geometry", "Earth", "Eugenio Beltrami", "elliptic geometry", "calculus of variations", "Riemannian manifold", "geodesic equation", "pseudo-Riemannian geometry", "classical antiquity", "area", "geodesy", "Geography (Ptolemy)", "Riemannian metric" ]
8,626	Dhole	}} Dholes are also known from the Middle and Late Pleistocene fossil record of Europe. In 2021, the analyses of the mitochondrial genomes extracted from the fossil remains of two extinct European dhole specimens from the Jáchymka cave, Czech Republic dated 35,000–45,000 years old indicate that these were genetically basal to modern dholes and possessed much greater genetic diversity. Subsequent authors, including Juliet Clutton-Brock, noted greater morphological similarities to canids of the genera Canis, Dusicyon and Alopex than to either Speothos or Lycaon, with any resemblance to the latter two being due to convergent evolution. Some authors consider the extinct Canis subgenus Xenocyon as ancestral to both the genus Lycaon and the genus Cuon. This closeness to Canis may have been confirmed in a menagerie in Madras, where according to zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock there is a record of a dhole that interbred with a golden jackal. DNA sequencing of the Sardinian dhole (Cynotherium sardous) an extinct small canine species formerly native to the island of Sardinia in the Mediterranean, and which has often been suggested to have descended from Xenocyon, has found that it is most closely related to the living dhole among canines. === Admixture with the African wild dog === In 2018, whole genome sequencing was used to compare all members (apart from the black-backed and side-striped jackals) of the genus Canis, along with the dhole and the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). There was strong evidence of ancient genetic admixture between the dhole and the African wild dog. Today, their ranges are remote from each other; however, during the Pleistocene era the dhole could be found as far west as Europe. The study proposes that the dhole's distribution may have once included the Middle East, from where it may have admixed with the African wild dog in North Africa. However, there is no evidence of the dhole having existed in the Middle East nor North Africa, though the Lycaon was present in Europe during the Early Pleistocene, with its last record in the region dating to 830,000 years ago. Genetic evidence from the Sardinan dhole suggests that both Sardinian and modern dholes (which are estimated to have split from each other around 900,000 years ago) share ancestry from the Lycaon lineage, but this ancestry is significantly higher in modern dholes than in the Sardinian dhole. , seven subspecies are recognised. In the absence of further data, the researchers involved in the study speculated that Javan and Sumatran dholes could have been introduced to the islands by humans. Fossils of dhole from the early Middle Pleistocene have been found in Java. {\| class="wikitable sortable" width=90% font=90% \|- bgcolor="#115a6c" !Subspecies !Image !Trinomial authority !Description !Distribution !Synonyms \|---- \|C. a. adjustus Burmese dhole, \|Northeastern India and south of the Ganges River, northern Myanmar The dhole has a wide and massive skull with a well-developed sagittal crest, The rostrum is shorter than that of domestic dogs and most other canids. The upper molars are weak, being one third to one half the size of those of wolves and have only one cusp as opposed to between two and four, as is usual in canids, In appearance, the dhole has been variously described as combining the physical characteristics of the gray wolf and the red fox, but it is now also extinct in South Korea, The current presence of dholes in North Korea and Pakistan is considered uncertain. This was the first record of dholes from the country in almost three decades. It possibly still lives in the Primorsky Krai province in far eastern Russia, where it was considered a rare and endangered species in 2004, with unconfirmed reports in the Pikthsa-Tigrovy Dom protected forest area; no sighting was reported in other areas since the late 1970s. Currently, no other recent reports are confirmed of dholes being present in Russia, so the IUCN considered them to be extinct in Russia. In 2011 to 2013, local government officials and herders reported the presence of several dhole packs at elevations of near Taxkorgan Nature Reserve in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region. Several packs and a female adult with pups were also recorded by camera traps at elevations of around in Yanchiwan National Nature Reserve in the northern Gansu Province in 2013–2014. Dholes have been also reported in the Altyn-Tagh Mountains. In China's Yunnan Province, dholes were recorded in Baima Xueshan Nature Reserve in 2010–2011. Dhole samples were obtained in Jiangxi Province in 2013. Confirmed records by camera-trapping since 2008 have occurred in southern and western Gansu province, southern Shaanxi province, southern Qinghai province, southern and western Yunnan province, western Sichuan province, the southern Xinjiang Autonomous Region and in the Southeastern Tibet Autonomoous Region. There are also historical records of dhole dating to 1521–1935 in Hainan Island, but the species is no longer present and is estimated to have become extinct around 1942. Its presence was confirmed in the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area in 2011 by camera traps. In February 2020, dholes were sighted in the Vansda National Park, with camera traps confirming the presence of two individuals in May of the same year. This was the first confirmed sighting of dholes in Gujarat since 1970. In Bhutan, the dhole is present in Jigme Dorji National Park. In Bangladesh, it inhabits forest reserves in the Sylhet area, as well the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the southeast. Recent camera trap photos in the Chittagong in 2016 showed the continued presence of the dhole. These regions probably do not harbour a viable population, as mostly small groups or solitary individuals were sighted. Its range is highly fragmented in the Malaysian Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Vietnam and Thailand, with the Vietnamese population considered to be possibly extinct. A camera trapping survey in the Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand from January 2008 to February 2010 documented one healthy dhole pack. In northern Laos, dholes were studied in Nam Et-Phou Louey National Protected Area. In Vietnam, dholes were sighted only in Pu Mat National Park in 1999, in Yok Don National Park in 2003 and 2004; and in Ninh Thuan Province in 2014. A disjunct dhole population was reported in the area of Trabzon and Rize in northeastern Turkey near the border with Georgia in the 1990s. This report was not considered to be reliable. In August 2015, researchers from the National Museum of Natural History and the Karadeniz Technical University started an expedition to track and document possible Turkish population of dhole. In October 2015, they concluded that two skins of alleged dholes in Turkey probably belonged to dogs, pending DNA analysis of samples from the skins, and, having analysed photos of the skull of alleged dhole in Kabardino-Balkaria Republic of Russia, they concluded it was a grey wolf. ==Ecology and behaviour== Dholes produce whistles resembling the calls of red foxes, sometimes rendered as coo-coo. How this sound is produced is unknown, though it is thought to help in coordinating the pack when travelling through thick brush. When attacking prey, they emit screaming KaKaKaKAA sounds. Other sounds include whines (food soliciting), growls (warning), screams, chatterings (both of which are alarm calls) and yapping cries. In contrast to wolves, dholes do not howl or bark. ===Social and territorial behaviour=== Dholes are more social than gray wolves, They live in clans rather than packs, as the latter term refers to a group of animals that always hunt together. In contrast, dhole clans frequently break into small packs of three to five animals, particularly during the spring season, as this is the optimal number for catching fawns. Dominant dholes are hard to identify, as they do not engage in dominance displays as wolves do, though other clan members will show submissive behaviour toward them. Clans typically number 5 to 12 individuals in India, though clans of 40 have been reported. In Thailand, clans rarely exceed three individuals. and domestic dogs. They may defecate in conspicuous places, though a territorial function is unlikely, as faeces are mostly deposited within the clan's territory rather than the periphery. Faeces are often deposited in what appear to be communal latrines. They do not scrape the earth with their feet, as other canids do, to mark their territories. Like African wild dogs and dingoes, dholes will avoid killing prey close to their dens. The gestation period lasts 60–63 days, with litter sizes averaging four to six pups. Pups are suckled at least 58 days. During this time, the pack feeds the mother at the den site. Dholes do not use rendezvous sites to meet their pups as wolves do, though one or more adults will stay with the pups at the den while the rest of the pack hunts. Once weaning begins, the adults of the clan will regurgitate food for the pups until they are old enough to join in hunting. They remain at the den site for 70–80 days. By the age of six months, pups accompany the adults on hunts and will assist in killing large prey such as sambar by the age of eight months. Maximum longevity in captivity is 15–16 years. Dholes are primarily diurnal hunters, hunting in the early hours of the morning. They rarely hunt at night, except on moonlit nights, indicating they greatly rely on sight when hunting. They can chase their prey for many hours. When chasing fleet-footed prey, they run at a pace of . Once large prey is caught, one dhole grabs the prey's nose, while the rest of the pack pulls the animal down by the flanks and hindquarters. They do not use a killing bite to the throat. They occasionally blind their prey by attacking the eyes. Serows are among the only ungulate species capable of effectively defending themselves against dhole attacks, due to their thick, protective coats and short, sharp horns capable of easily impaling dholes. Prey weighing less than is usually killed within two minutes, while large stags may take 15 minutes to die. Once prey is secured, dholes tear off pieces of the carcass and eat in seclusion. They give the pups access to a kill. They are generally tolerant of scavengers at their kills. Both mother and young are provided with regurgitated food by other pack members. There is one record of a pack bringing down an Indian elephant calf in Assam, despite desperate defense of the mother, resulting in numerous losses to the pack. Dholes eat fruit and vegetable matter more readily than other canids. In captivity, they eat various kinds of grasses, herbs and leaves, seemingly for pleasure rather than just when ill. In summertime in the Tian Shan Mountains, dholes eat large quantities of mountain rhubarb. Livestock predation by dholes has been a problem in Bhutan since the late 1990s, as domestic animals are often left outside to graze in the forest, sometimes for weeks at a time. Livestock stall-fed at night and grazed near homes are never attacked. Oxen are killed more often than cows, probably because they are given less protection. ===Enemies and competitors=== In some areas, dholes are sympatric to tigers and leopards. Competition between these species is mostly avoided through differences in prey selection, although there is still substantial dietary overlap. Along with leopards, dholes typically target animals in the range (mean weights of for dhole and for leopard), while tigers selected for prey animals heavier than (but their mean prey weight was ). Also, other characteristics of the prey, such as sex, arboreality and aggressiveness, may play a role in prey selection. For example, dholes preferentially select male chital, whereas leopards kill both sexes more evenly (and tigers prefer larger prey altogether), dholes and tigers kill langurs rarely compared to leopards due to the leopards' greater arboreality, while leopards kill wild boar infrequently due to the inability of this relatively light predator to tackle aggressive prey of comparable weight. Tigers are dangerous opponents for dholes, as they have sufficient strength to kill a dhole with a single paw strike. Dhole packs are smaller in areas with higher tiger densities due to tigers directly killing dholes and stealing kills they made. The kleptoparasitism causes dholes to prefer hunting smaller animals because they can eat more of a smaller carcass before a tiger arrives to steal it. Direct predation can lead to lower reproductive and recruitment rates, lower hunting success rates and less food for the pups when a helper is killed, and potentially pack destabilization if one member of the breeding pair is killed. Dhole packs may steal leopard kills, while leopards may kill dholes if they encounter them singly or in pairs. Dholes were once thought to be a major factor in reducing Asiatic cheetah populations, though this is doubtful, as cheetahs live in open areas as opposed to forested areas favoured by dholes. Since leopards are smaller than tigers and are more likely to hunt dholes, dhole packs tend to react more aggressively toward them than they do towards tigers. Dhole packs occasionally attack Asiatic black bears, snow leopards and sloth bears. When attacking bears, dholes will attempt to prevent them from seeking refuge in caves and lacerate their hindquarters. The dhole is also sympatric with the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) in parts of its range. There is at least one record of a lone wolf associating with a pair of dholes in Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary, and two observations in Satpura Tiger Reserve. They infrequently associate in mixed groups with golden jackals. Domestic dogs may kill dholes, though they will feed alongside them on occasion. ===Diseases and parasites=== Dholes are vulnerable to a number of different diseases, particularly in areas where they are sympatric with other canid species. Infectious pathogens such as Toxocara canis are present in their faeces. They may suffer from rabies, canine distemper, mange, trypanosomiasis, canine parvovirus and endoparasites such as cestodes and roundworms. Some ethnic groups like the Kuruba and Mon Khmer-speaking tribes will appropriate dhole kills; some Indian villagers welcome the dhole because of this appropriation of dhole kills. The Indochinese dhole population suffers heavily from nonselective hunting techniques such as snaring. The dhole has been protected in Russia since 1974, though it is vulnerable to poison left out for wolves. In China, the animal is listed as a category II protected species under the Chinese wildlife protection act of 1988. In Cambodia, the dhole is protected from all hunting, while conservation laws in Vietnam limit extraction and utilisation. ==In culture and literature== Three dhole-like animals are featured on the coping stone of the Bharhut stupa dating from 100 BC. They are shown waiting by a tree, with a woman or spirit trapped up it, a scene reminiscent of dholes treeing tigers. The animal's fearsome reputation in India is reflected by the number of pejorative names it possesses in Hindi, which variously translate as "red devil", "devil dog", "jungle devil", or "hound of Kali". Dholes appear in Rudyard Kipling's Red Dog, where they are portrayed as aggressive and bloodthirsty animals which descend from the Deccan Plateau into the Seeonee Hills inhabited by Mowgli and his adopted wolf pack to cause carnage among the jungle's denizens. They are described as living in packs numbering hundreds of individuals, and that even Shere Khan and Hathi make way for them when they descend into the jungle. The dholes are despised by the wolves because of their destructiveness, their habit of not living in dens and the hair between their toes. With Mowgli and Kaa's help, the Seeonee wolf pack manages to wipe out the dholes by leading them through bee hives and torrential waters before finishing off the rest in battle. Japanese author Uchida Roan wrote (; A dog's tale) in 1901 as a nationalistic critique of the declining popularity of indigenous dog breeds, which he asserted were descended from the dhole. A fictional version of the dhole, imbued with supernatural abilities, appears in a sixth-season episode of TV series The X-Files, titled "Alpha". In China, the dhole were widely known throughout history and mythology. One notable legendary creature is the Yazi (), which was believed to be a creature that was part-dhole, part-dragon. In modern times, however, the Chinese word for dhole () is often confused with 'jackal' or 'wolf', resulting in many confusions and mistranslations of dholes as jackals or wolves. Dholes also appear as enemies in the video game Far Cry 4, alongside other predators such as the Bengal tiger, honey badger, snow leopard, clouded leopard, Tibetan wolf and Asian black bear. They can be found hunting the player and other NPCs across the map, but are easily killed, being one of the weakest enemies in the game. They once again appear in the video game Far Cry Primal, where they play similar roles as their counterparts in the previous game, but can now also be tamed and used in combat by Takkar, the main protagonist of the game. ===Tameability=== Brian Houghton Hodgson kept captured dholes in captivity, and found, with the exception of one animal, they remained shy and vicious even after 10 months. Adult dholes are nearly impossible to tame, though pups are docile and can even be allowed to play with domestic dog pups until they reach early adulthood.	[ "Karadeniz Technical University", "insect", "fruit", "Habitat loss", "Singapore", "Rize", "Uzbekistan", "Zabaykalsky Krai", "dingo", "wikt:rendezvous", "Malay Peninsula", "Afghanistan", "Malaysian Peninsula", "Caucasus", "Caspian red deer", "goral", "Serow", "Oxen", "Ganges", "Juliet Clutton-Brock", "Madras", "Phylogenetic tree", "mtDNA", "Bengal tiger", "Reginald Innes Pocock", "Tungusic peoples", "South Asia", "Japanese nationalism", "Valencia", "Yangju", "porcupine", "rostrum (anatomy)", "stupa", "cattle", "Indo-Gangetic Plain", "sloth bear", "Czech Republic", "Lake Baikal", "Lycaon (genus)", "Gansu", "Central Asia", "IUCN Red List", "Javan rusa", "Irkutsk Oblast", "striped hyena", "Canidae", "Animal latrine", "copulatory tie", "Canis", "Tofalaria", "ruble", "Kyushu", "North Korea", "Hathi", "Kabardino-Balkarian State University", "China", "Hybrid (biology)", "Disembowelment", "muntjac", "Cusp (dentistry)", "Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary", "Side-striped jackal", 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wolf", "genome", "Alpha (The X-Files)", "Iberian Peninsula", "gaur", "Red Dog (Kipling short story)", "genetic admixture", "camera trap", "golden jackal", "Bjorn Kurten", "Golden jackal", "Nine sons of the dragon", "Siberian ibex", "Yenisei", "sagittal crest", "Himalaya", "Wild Dog Diaries", "Indira Gandhi Zoological Park", "Mosbach", "Pu Mat National Park", "East Asia", "Yok Don National Park", "Thomas Hardwicke", "The Guardian", "roe deer", "red fox", "Manchurian wapiti", "south China", "Valdarno", "Sylhet", "binomial name", "canine parvovirus", "Visual perception", "gray wolf", "Southeast Asia", "Java", "Georgia (country)", "Indian elephant", "Transbaikal", "Far Cry 4", "oestrogen", "weaning", "Ussuriysk", "Visakhapatnam", "Altyn-Tagh", "North Africa", "Terai", "Asian black bear", "alpine zone", "honey badger", "Seoni, Madhya Pradesh", "Xàtiva", "Livestock", "North America", "Japan", "Kali", "Glacial period", "Toxocara canis", "Myanmar", "wild boar", "Lena River", "gray wolves", "nilgai", "Kanchenjunga Conservation Area", "Primorsky Krai", "wikt:toll", "Last Glacial Period", "whole genome sequencing", "Shere Khan", "Amurland", "Xenocyon", "European dhole", "Europe", "video game", "non-player character", "canine distemper", "Bharhut", "progesterone", "Kashmir", "Middle Pleistocene", "Gansu Province", "National Museum of Natural History (Bulgaria)", "domestic dog", "Republic of Buryatia", "Gujarat", "surrogate mother", "Yunnan", "ungulate", "Kazakhstan", "water buffalo", "microsatellite", "Trabzon", "Mitochondrial DNA", "International Union for the Conservation of Nature", "Jigme Dorji National Park", "Cambodia", "Merriam-Webster", "Deccan Plateau", "Nam Et-Phou Louey", "Satpura Tiger Reserve", "Primorye", "Speothos", "Malayan tapir", "Bek-Tosot Conservancy", "Wildlife Protection Act of 1972", "Dajia River", "African wild dog", "subfamily", "Canina (subtribe)", "territory (animal)", "Bhutan", "Yeoncheon", "leopard", "Molar (tooth)", "Canid Specialist Group", "Pleistocene", "mouse deer", "Bangladesh", "Rudyard Kipling", "The X-Files", "Coping (architecture)", "Mongolia", "arkhar", "rabies", "scavenger", "fur coat", "faeces", "Sumatra", "Hundsheim", "hyena", "Luobi Cave", "plain", "barasingha", "Thailand", "snaring", "dominance hierarchies", "mating", "Indus Valley Civilisation", "Qilian Mountains", "stomach", "musk deer", "sika deer", "Endangered", "Kazakhstani tenge", "Dusicyon", "langur", "subgenus", "Sumatran serow", "Asiatic black bear", "Himalayan field rat", "Hindi", "Leopold von Schrenck", "pack (canine)", "Moscow Zoo", "wikt:dull", "Qinghai", "Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty", "Journal of Animal Ecology", "Project Tiger", "Amur", "Sichuan", "mating season", "Caninae", "Baima Xueshan Nature Reserve", "cow", "Kuruba", "Pakistan", "sambar deer", "Vansda National Park", "wikt:deli", "Ussuri dhole", "genomes", "Palawan", "trypanosomiasis", "Melanism", "Khao Yai National Park", "Taichung County", "Taxkorgan Nature Reserve", "masseter muscle", "Journal of Archaeological Science", "Meghalaya", "Shaanxi", "bush dog", "Philippines", "argali", "Middle East", "Yangtze", "convergent evolution", "reticulate evolution", "Wildlife Protection Act, 1972", "Chittagong Hill Tracts", "Sardinian dhole", "Tibet", "Sri Lanka", "hormone", "gestation period", "Altai Mountains", "Tajikistan", "Tien Shan dhole", "British Raj", "Villafranchian", "clan", "Allee effect", "African wolf", "Kaa", "Turkey", "banteng", "India", "Howling", "Late Pleistocene", "South Korea", "Indian wolf", "Manchuria", "Raised-leg urination", "Mowgli", "Jiangxi", "Tunkinsky National Park", "goat", "Tarbagatai Mountains", "rupee", "Asia", "Italy", "George Gaylord Simpson", "Alpine ibex", "cestode", "Mon Khmer", "Gilyaks", "Black-backed jackal", "Karen State", "Arunachal Pradesh", "chital", "wolves", "Kabardino-Balkaria", "Richard Lydekker", "Basal (phylogenetics)", "Tibetan wolf", "Honshu", "Diurnality", "liver", "Charles Hamilton Smith", "lungs", "The 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8,629	Donald Rumsfeld	Donald Henry Rumsfeld (July 9, 1932 – June 29, 2021) was an American politician, government official, and businessman who served as secretary of defense from 1975 to 1977 under President Gerald Ford, and again from 2001 to 2006 under President George W. Bush. He was both the youngest and the oldest secretary of defense. Additionally, Rumsfeld was a four-term U.S. Congressman from Illinois (1963–1969), director of the Office of Economic Opportunity (1969–1970), counselor to the president (1969–1973), the U.S. Representative to NATO (1973–1974), and the White House Chief of Staff (1974–1975). Between his terms as secretary of defense, he served as the CEO and chairman of several companies. Born in Illinois, Rumsfeld attended Princeton University, graduating in 1954 with a degree in political science. After serving in the Navy for three years, he mounted a campaign for Congress in Illinois's 13th Congressional District, winning in 1962 at the age of 30. Rumsfeld accepted an appointment by President Richard Nixon to head the Office of Economic Opportunity in 1969; appointed counsellor by Nixon and entitled to Cabinet-level status, he also headed up the Economic Stabilization Program before being appointed ambassador to NATO. Called back to Washington in August 1974, Rumsfeld was appointed chief of staff by President Ford. Rumsfeld recruited a young one-time staffer of his, Dick Cheney, to succeed him when Ford nominated him to be secretary of defense in 1975. When Ford lost the 1976 election, Rumsfeld returned to private business and financial life, and was named president and CEO of the pharmaceutical corporation G. D. Searle & Company. He was later named CEO of General Instrument from 1990 to 1993 and chairman of Gilead Sciences from 1997 to 2001. Rumsfeld was appointed secretary of defense for a second time in January 2001 by President George W. Bush. As secretary of defense, Rumsfeld played a central role in the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan and 2003 invasion of Iraq. Before and during the Iraq War, he claimed that Iraq had an active weapons of mass destruction program; no stockpiles were ever found. A Pentagon Inspector General report found that Rumsfeld's top policy aide "developed, produced, and then disseminated alternative intelligence assessments on the Iraq and al-Qaeda relationship, which included some conclusions that were inconsistent with the consensus of the Intelligence Community, to senior decision-makers". Rumsfeld's tenure was controversial for its use of torture and the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal. Rumsfeld gradually lost political support and resigned in late 2006. In his retirement years, he published an autobiography, Known and Unknown: A Memoir, as well as Rumsfeld's Rules: Leadership Lessons in Business, Politics, War, and Life. ==Early life and education== Donald Henry Rumsfeld was born at St. Lukes Hospital on July 9, 1932, in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Jeannette Kearsley (née Husted) and George Donald Rumsfeld. His father came from a German family that had emigrated in the 1870s from Weyhe in Lower Saxony, but young Donald was sometimes ribbed about looking like a "tough Swiss". and its Silver Buffalo Award in 2006. Living in Winnetka, his family attended a Congregational church. From 1943 to 1945, Rumsfeld lived in Coronado, California, while his father was stationed on an aircraft carrier in the Pacific in World War II. He was a ranger at Philmont Scout Ranch in 1949. Rumsfeld attended Baker Demonstration School, and later graduated from New Trier High School where he excelled academically as well as in sports. In the band, the young Rumsfeld played drums and also excelled at saxophone. He attended Princeton University on academic and NROTC partial scholarships. He graduated in 1954 with an A.B. in politics after completing a senior thesis titled "The Steel Seizure Case of 1952 and Its Effects on Presidential Powers". During his time at Princeton, he was an accomplished amateur wrestler, becoming captain of the varsity wrestling team, and captain of the Lightweight Football team playing defensive back. While at Princeton he was friends with another future Secretary of Defense, Frank Carlucci. Rumsfeld married Joyce P. Pierson on December 27, 1954. They had three children, six grandchildren, and one great-grandchild. He attended Case Western Reserve University School of Law and the Georgetown University Law Center, but did not take a degree from either institution. === Naval service === Rumsfeld served in the United States Navy from 1954 to 1957, as a naval aviator and flight instructor. His initial training was in the North American SNJ Texan basic trainer after which he transitioned to the T-28 advanced trainer. In 1957, he transferred to the Naval Reserve and continued his naval service in flying and administrative assignments as a drilling reservist. On July 1, 1958, he was assigned to Anti-submarine Squadron 662 at Naval Air Station Anacostia in Washington, D.C., as a selective reservist. Rumsfeld was designated aircraft commander of Anti-submarine Squadron 731 on October 1, 1960, at Naval Air Station Grosse Ile, Michigan, where he flew the S2F Tracker. ==Career in government (1962–1975)== ===Member of Congress=== In 1957, during the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration, Rumsfeld served as administrative assistant to David S. Dennison Jr., a Congressman representing the 11th district of Ohio. In 1959, he moved on to become a staff assistant to Congressman Robert P. Griffin of Michigan. Engaging in a two-year stint with an investment banking firm, A. G. Becker & Co., from 1960 to 1962, Rumsfeld then set his sights on becoming a member of Congress. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives for Illinois's 13th congressional district in 1962, at the age of 30, and was re-elected by large majorities in 1964, 1966, and 1968. While in Congress, he served on the Joint Economic Committee, the Committee on Science and Aeronautics, and the Government Operations Committee, as well as on the Subcommittees on Military and Foreign Operations. He was also a co-founder of the Japanese-American Inter-Parliamentary Council in addition to being a leading cosponsor of the Freedom of Information Act. In 1965, following the defeat of Barry Goldwater by Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1964 presidential election, which also led to the Republicans losing many seats in the House of Representatives, Rumsfeld proposed new leadership for the Republicans in the House, suggesting that representative Gerald Ford from Michigan's 5th congressional district was the most suited candidate to replace Charles A. Halleck as Republican leader. Rumsfeld, along with other members of the Republican caucus, then urged Ford to run for Republican leader. Ford eventually defeated Halleck and became House Minority Leader in 1965. The group of Republicans that encouraged Ford to run for the Republican leadership became known as the "Young Turks". Rumsfeld later served during Ford's presidency as his chief of staff in 1974, and was chosen by Ford to succeed James Schlesinger as United States Secretary of Defense in 1975. He later took part in Friedman's PBS series Free to Choose. During his tenure in the House, Rumsfeld voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1968, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. ===Nixon administration=== Rumsfeld resigned from Congress in 1969his fourth termto serve in the Nixon administration in a variety of executive branch positions. Nixon appointed Rumsfeld director of the United States Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), a position with Cabinet rank. Rumsfeld had voted against the creation of OEO when he was in Congress, After much negotiation, he accepted the OEO appointment with Nixon's "assurances that he would be ... also an assistant to the President, with Cabinet-level status and an office in the White House," which "sweetened (the OEO position) with status and responsibility". As director, Rumsfeld sought to reorganize the Office to serve what he later described in his 2011 memoir as "a laboratory for experimental programs". and Dick Cheney to serve under him. He was the subject of one of writer Jack Anderson's columns, alleging that "anti-poverty czar" Rumsfeld had cut programs to aid the poor while spending thousands to redecorate his office. Rumsfeld dictated a four-page response to Anderson, labeling the accusations as falsehoods, and invited Anderson to tour his office. Despite the tour, Anderson did not retract his claims, and only much later admitted that his column was a mistake. When Rumsfeld left OEO in December 1970, Nixon named him Counselor to the President, a general advisory position; in this role, he retained Cabinet status. In February 1973, Rumsfeld left Washington to serve as U.S. Ambassador to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in Brussels, Belgium. He served as the United States' Permanent Representative to the North Atlantic Council and the Defense Planning Committee, and the Nuclear Planning Group. In this capacity, he represented the United States in wide-ranging military and diplomatic matters, and was asked to help mediate a conflict on behalf of the United States between Cyprus and Turkey. ===Ford administration=== In August 1974, after Nixon resigned as president in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal, Rumsfeld was called back to Washington to serve as the transition chairman for the new president, Gerald Ford. He had been Ford's confidante since their days in the House, before Ford was House minority leader and was one of the members of the "Young Turks" who played a major role in bringing Ford to Republican leadership in the House of Representatives. Ford named Rumsfeld to succeed Schlesinger as the 13th U.S. Secretary of Defense and George H. W. Bush to become Director of Central Intelligence. According to Bob Woodward's 2002 book Bush at War, a rivalry developed between the two men and "Bush senior was convinced that Rumsfeld was pushing him out to the CIA to end his political career." Rumsfeld's confirmation hearing as Secretary of Defense began on November 12, 1975. During the hearing, Rumsfeld was mostly asked about the administration's defense policy on the Cold War. Rumsfeld stated that the Soviet Union was a "clear and present danger," especially following the end of the Vietnam War, which Rumsfeld described as the USSR's chance to build up its domination. During his tenure as Secretary of Defense, Rumsfeld oversaw the transition to an all-volunteer military. He sought to reverse the gradual decline in the defense budget and to build up U.S. strategic and conventional forces, undermining Secretary of State Henry Kissinger at the SALT talks. He asserted, along with Team B (which he helped to set up), that trends in comparative U.S.-Soviet military strength had not favored the United States for 15 to 20 years and that, if continued, they "would have the effect of injecting a fundamental instability in the world".) and combining certain offices. More than his predecessors, Rumsfeld frequently traveled both within the U.S. and internationally, acting as a key representative for the Defense Department, focusing on the politics of his defense role, to fulfill an imperative goal of budget increase, in order to maintain strategic parity with the Soviet Union. Rumsfeld, who previously was assigned to the House Committee on Science and Astronautics, emphasized the importance of the next stage of the space program following the successful Moon landing in 1969. While serving as Secretary of Defense, Rumsfeld organized a joint-cooperation between the Department of Defense and NASA to develop Skylab. Rumsfeld's first tenure as Secretary of Defense ended on January 20, 1977. He was succeeded by former Secretary of the Air Force Harold Brown. In 1985, Searle was sold to the Monsanto Company. Rumsfeld served as chairman and chief executive officer of General Instrument from 1990 to 1993. A leader in broadband transmission, distribution, and access control technologies for cable, satellite, and terrestrial broadcasting applications, the company pioneered the development of the first all-digital high-definition television (HDTV) technology. After taking the company public and returning it to profitability, Rumsfeld returned to private business in late 1993. From January 1997 until being sworn in as the 21st Secretary of Defense in January 2001, Rumsfeld served as chairman of Gilead Sciences, Inc. Gilead is the developer of Tamiflu (Oseltamivir), which is used in the treatment of bird flu as well as influenza A and influenza B in humans. As a result, Rumsfeld's holdings in the company grew significantly when avian flu became a subject of popular anxiety during his later term as Secretary of Defense. Following standard practice, Rumsfeld recused himself from any decisions involving Gilead, and he directed the Pentagon's general counsel to issue instructions outlining what he could and could not be involved in if there were an avian flu pandemic and the Pentagon had to respond. ===Part-time public service=== During his business career, Rumsfeld continued part-time public service in various posts. In November 1983, Rumsfeld was appointed special envoy to the Middle East by President Ronald Reagan, at a turbulent time in modern Middle Eastern history when Iraq was fighting Iran in the Iran–Iraq War. The United States wished for Iraq to win the conflict, and Rumsfeld was sent to the Middle East to serve as a mediator on behalf of the president. When Rumsfeld visited Baghdad on December 20, 1983, he met Saddam Hussein at Saddam's palace and engaged a 90-minute discussion with him. They largely agreed on opposing Syria's occupation of Lebanon; preventing Syrian and Iranian expansion; and preventing arms sales to Iran. Rumsfeld suggested that if U.S.-Iraq relations could improve the U.S. might support a new oil pipeline across Jordan, which Iraq had opposed but was now willing to reconsider. Rumsfeld also informed Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz that "Our efforts to assist were inhibited by certain things that made it difficult for us ... citing the use of chemical weapons." In addition to taking the position of Middle East envoy, Rumsfeld served as a member of the President's General Advisory Committee on Arms Control (1982–1986); President Reagan's special envoy on the Law of the Sea Treaty (1982–1983); a senior adviser to President Reagan's Panel on Strategic Systems (1983–1984); a member of the Joint Advisory Commission on U.S./Japan Relations (1983–1984); a member of the National Commission on the Public Service (1987–1990); a member of the National Economic Commission (1988–1989); a member of the board of visitors of the National Defense University (1988–1992); a member of the FCC's High Definition Television Advisory Committee (1992–1993); a member of the U.S. Trade Deficit Review Commission (1999–2000); a member of the Council on Foreign Relations; and chairman of the U.S. Commission to Assess National Security Space Management and Organization (2000). Among his most noteworthy positions was chairman of the nine-member Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States from January to July 1998. In its findings, the commission concluded that Iraq, Iran, and North Korea could develop intercontinental ballistic missile capabilities in five to ten years and that U.S. intelligence would have little warning before such systems were deployed. During the 1980s, Rumsfeld became a member of the National Academy of Public Administration, and was named a member of the boards of trustees of the Gerald R. Ford Foundation, the Eisenhower Exchange Fellowships, the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, and the National Park Foundation. He was also a member of the U.S./Russia Business Forum and chairman of the Congressional Leadership's National Security Advisory Group. Rumsfeld was a member of the Project for the New American Century, a think-tank dedicated to maintaining U.S. primacy. In addition, he was asked to serve the U.S. State Department as a foreign policy consultant from 1990 to 1993. Though considered one of the Bush administration's staunchest hard-liners against North Korea, Rumsfeld sat on European engineering giant Asea Brown Boveri's board from 1990 to 2001, a company that sold two light-water nuclear reactors to the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization for installation in North Korea, as part of the 1994 agreed framework reached under President Bill Clinton. Rumsfeld's office said that he did not "recall it being brought before the board at any time" though Fortune magazine reported that "board members were informed about this project". The Bush administration repeatedly criticized the 1994 agreement and the former Clinton presidency for its softness towards North Korea, regarding the country as a state sponsor of terrorism, and later designated North Korea as part of the Axis-of-Evil. ===Presidential and vice-presidential aspirations=== During the 1976 Republican National Convention, Rumsfeld received one vote for Vice President of the United States, although he did not seek the office, and the nomination was easily won by Ford's choice, Senator Bob Dole. During the 1980 Republican National Convention he again received one vote for vice president. Rumsfeld briefly sought the presidential nomination in 1988, but withdrew from the race before primaries began. During the 1996 election season, he initially formed a presidential exploratory committee, but declined to formally enter the race. He was instead named national chairman for Republican nominee Bob Dole's campaign. == Secretary of Defense (2001–2006) == Rumsfeld was named Secretary of Defense soon after President George W. Bush took office in 2001 despite Rumsfeld's past rivalry with the previous President Bush. Bush's first choice, FedEx founder Fred Smith, was unavailable and Vice President-elect Cheney recommended Rumsfeld for the job. Rumsfeld's second tenure as Secretary of Defense cemented him as the most powerful Pentagon chief since Robert McNamara and one of the most influential Cabinet members in the Bush administration. His tenure proved to be a pivotal and rocky one that led the United States military into the 21st century. Following the September 11 attacks, Rumsfeld led the military planning and execution of the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan and the subsequent 2003 invasion of Iraq. He pushed hard to send as small a force as soon as possible to both conflicts, a concept codified as the Rumsfeld Doctrine. Throughout his time as defense secretary, Rumsfeld was noted for his candor and quick wit when giving weekly press conferences or speaking with the press. U.S. News & World Report called him "a straight-talking Midwesterner" who "routinely has the press corps doubled over in fits of laughter". ===September 11, 2001 attacks=== On September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked commercial airliners and crashed them in coordinated strikes into both towers of the World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan, New York City, and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. The fourth plane crashed into a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, and its target was likely a prominent building in Washington, D.C., most probably either the U.S. Capitol Building or the White House. Within three hours of the start of the first hijacking and two hours after American Airlines Flight 11 struck the World Trade Center, Rumsfeld raised the defense condition signaling of the United States offensive readiness to DEFCON 3, the highest it had been since the Arab–Israeli war in 1973. Rumsfeld addressed the nation in a press conference at the Pentagon, just eight hours after the attacks and stated, "It's an indication that the United States government is functioning in the face of this terrible act against our country. I should add that the briefing here is taking place in the Pentagon. The Pentagon's functioning. It will be in business tomorrow." ===Military decisions in the wake of 9/11=== On the afternoon of September 11, Rumsfeld issued rapid orders to his aides to look for evidence of possible Iraqi involvement in regard to what had just occurred, according to notes taken by senior policy official Stephen Cambone. "Best info fast. Judge whether good enough hit S.H."meaning Saddam Hussein"at same time. Not only UBL" (Osama bin Laden), Cambone's notes quoted Rumsfeld as saying. "Need to move swiftlyNear term target needsgo massivesweep it all up. Things related and not." In the first emergency meeting of the National Security Council on the day of the attacks, Rumsfeld asked, "Why shouldn't we go against Iraq, not just al-Qaeda?" with his deputy Paul Wolfowitz adding that Iraq was a "brittle, oppressive regime that might break easily—it was doable," and, according to John Kampfner, "from that moment on, he and Wolfowitz used every available opportunity to press the case." President George W. Bush reacted to Rumsfeld's suggestion, "Wait a minute, I didn't hear a word said about him (Saddam Hussein) being responsible for the attack" and the idea was initially rejected at the behest of Secretary of State Colin Powell, but, according to Kampfner, "Undeterred Rumsfeld and Wolfowitz held secret meetings about opening up a second front—against Saddam. Powell was excluded." In such meetings they created a policy that would later be dubbed the Bush Doctrine, centering on "pre-emption" and the war on Iraq, which the PNAC had advocated in their earlier letters. Richard A. Clarke, the White House counter-terrorism coordinator at the time, has revealed details of another National Security Council meeting the day after the attacks, during which officials considered the U.S. response. Already, he said, they were certain al-Qa'ida was to blame and there was no hint of Iraqi involvement. "Rumsfeld was saying we needed to bomb Iraq," according to Clarke. Clarke then stated, "We all said, 'No, no, al-Qa'ida is in Afghanistan. Clarke also revealed that Rumsfeld complained in the meeting, "there aren't any good targets in Afghanistan and there are lots of good targets in Iraq." Rumsfeld even suggested to attack other countries like Libya and Sudan, arguing that if this was to be a truly "global war on terror" then all state sponsors of terrorism should be dealt with. Rumsfeld wrote in Known and Unknown, "Much has been written about the Bush administration's focus on Iraq after 9/11. Commentators have suggested that it was strange or obsessive for the President and his advisers to have raised questions about whether Saddam Hussein was somehow behind the attack. I have never understood the controversy. I had no idea if Iraq was or was not involved, but it would have been irresponsible for any administration not to have asked the question."]] ===War in Afghanistan=== Rumsfeld directed the planning for the War in Afghanistan after the September 11 attacks. Rumsfeld rejected Franks's plan, saying "I want men on the ground now!" Franks returned the next day with a plan utilizing U.S. Special Forces. Rumsfeld also stated "the only way to deal with these terrorist threats is to go at them where they exist. You cannot defend at every place at every time against every conceivable, imaginable, even unimaginable terrorist attack. And the only way to deal with it is to take the battle to where they are and to root them out and to starve them out by seeing that those countries and those organizations and those non-governmental organizations and those individuals that are supporting and harboring and facilitating these networks stop doing it and find that there's a penalty for doing it". Rumsfeld announced in November 2001, that he received "authoritative reports" that Al-Qaeda's number three Mohammed Atef, bin Laden's primary military chief and a planner of the September 11 attacks on America, was killed by a U.S. airstrike. "He was very, very senior," Rumsfeld said. "We obviously have been seeking [him] out." On March 15, 2002, in another press conference at the Pentagon, Rumsfeld commented on the mission of Operation Anaconda by stating "Operation Anaconda continues in the area south of Gardez in eastern Afghanistan. The fighting is winding down as you know. Coalition forces are for the most part in an exploitation phase, doing the difficult work of searching caves and clearing areas where the battles and fighting has taken place. Our forces are finding weapons, ammunition, some intelligence information. In the top 25 al Qaeda, we know some are dead and we know some may be dead; we know some are captured and there are a larger number that we don't know. And roughly the same proportions with respect to Taliban". On May 1, 2003, Rumsfeld during a visit to Afghanistan meeting with U.S. troops stationed in Kabul told the press "General Franks and I have been looking at the progress that's being made in this country and have concluded that we are at a point where we clearly have moved from major combat activity to a period of stability and stabilization and reconstruction and activities." "I should underline however, that there are still dangers, there are still pockets of resistance in certain parts of the country and General McNeal and General Franks and their, the cooperation they have with the President Karzai's government and leadership and Marshall Fayheems assistance. We will be continuing as a country to work with the Afghan government and the new Afghan National Army to see that the any areas where there is resistance to this government and to the coalition forces will be dealt with promptly and efficiently." There was also controversy between the Pentagon and the CIA over who had the authority to fire Hellfire missiles from Predator drones. Even though the drones were not ready for deployment until 2002, In December 2005, Rumsfeld again visited Kabul and met with the Afghan defense minister, Rahim Wardak. During the meeting, Rumsfeld expressed doubts about the effectiveness of the Afghan army and attributed the worsening situation in Afghanistan to ineffective governance. He criticized the longstanding plan to expand the Afghan army to 70,000 troops and requested a reduction in the size of the Afghan army to 52,000 at most, claiming that this was necessary to "suit Afghanistan's limited revenues." Shortly after the trip, Rumsfeld also withdrew 3,000 U.S. troops from Afghanistan and canceled the planned deployment of one army brigade headed there. In 2009, three years after Rumsfeld's tenure as Defense secretary ended, the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations led an investigation into the Battle of Tora Bora in December 2001, during the early phase of the U.S-led coalition war in Afghanistan. They concluded that Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld and General Franks had not committed enough troops during the battle to secure the area around Tora Bora. They believed that Al-Qaeda's number one leader Osama bin Laden had likely been at Tora Bora and his escape prolonged the war in Afghanistan. Rumsfeld and Franks were apparently motivated by fear that a substantial American presence near Tora Bora could incite a rebellion by local Pashtuns, despite the latter's lack of organizational capability at the time and the fierce dissent voiced by many CIA analysts including Charles E. Allen (who warned Franks that "the back door [to Pakistan] was open") and Gary Berntsen (who called for army rangers to "kill this baby in the crib"). Instead of rangers or marines, the U.S. assault on Tora Bora relied on the CIA-backed Afghan militias of Hazrat Ali and Zahir Qadeer, supplemented with B-52 bombardment. The resulting influx of hundreds of al-Qaeda fighters into Pakistan destabilized the country and damaged Pakistan–United States relations. The follow-up Operation Anaconda "witnessed failures of planning and execution, the product of the fractured lines of command," as recounted by Steve Coll. In mid-2002, Rumsfeld announced that "The war is over in Afghanistan," to the disbelief of State Department, CIA, and military officials in the country. As a result, Rumsfeld downplayed the need for an Afghan army of even 70,000 troops, far fewer than the 250,000 envisaged by Karzai. ===Iraq War=== Before and during the Iraq War, Rumsfeld claimed that Iraq had an active weapons of mass destruction program; in particular during his famous phrase "there are known knowns" in a press conference at the Pentagon on February 12, 2002, no stockpiles were ever found. After the war in Afghanistan was launched, Rumsfeld participated in a meeting in regard to the review of the Department of Defense's Contingency Plan in the event of a war with Iraq. The plan, as it was then conceived, contemplated troop levels of up to 500,000, which Rumsfeld felt was far too many. Gordon and Trainor wrote: In a press conference at the Pentagon on February 27, 2003, Rumsfeld told reporters after being asked a question that Army Chief of Staff General Eric Shinseki suggested it would take several hundred thousand troops on the ground to secure Iraq and provide stability. Is he wrong?. Rumsfeld replied "the idea that it would take several hundred thousand U.S. forces I think is far from the mark. The reality is that we already have a number of countries that have offered to participate with their forces in stabilization activities, in the event force has to be used." Rumsfeld addressed the nation in a press conference at the Pentagon on March 20, 2003, just hours after the launch of the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, where he announced the first strike of the war to liberate Iraq and that "The days of the Saddam Hussein regime are numbered," and "We continue to feel there is no need for a broader conflict if the Iraqi leaders act to save themselves and act to prevent such a conflict." Rumsfeld's role in directing the Iraq War included a plan that was the Shock and Awe campaign, which resulted in a lightning invasion with 145,000 soldiers on the ground that took Baghdad within three weeks. Many government buildings, plus major museums, electrical generation infrastructure, and even oil equipment were looted and vandalized during the transition from the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime to the establishment of the Coalition Provisional Authority. A violent insurrection began shortly after the military operation started. On March 30, 2003, in an interview with George Stephanopoulos on ABC's This Week program, Rumsfeld answered a question by Stephanopoulos about finding weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, Rumsfeld stated "We know where they are. They're in the area around Tikrit and Baghdad and east, west, south and north somewhat." On April 9, 2003, at a press conference at the Pentagon, Rumsfeld addressed reporters during the Fall of Baghdad, and stated "The scenes of free Iraqis celebrating in the streets, riding American tanks, tearing down the statues of Saddam Hussein in the center of Baghdad are breathtaking." After the Iraq invasion, U.S. troops were criticized for not protecting the historical artifacts and treasures located at the National Museum of Iraq. On April 11, 2003, at a press conference at the Pentagon, when asked at the time why U.S. troops did not actively seek to stop the lawlessness, Rumsfeld replied, "Stuff happens ... and it's untidy and freedom's untidy, and free people are free to make mistakes and commit crimes and do bad things. They're also free to live their lives and do wonderful things. And that's what's going to happen here." He further commented that, "The images you are seeing on television you are seeing over, and over, and over, and it's the same picture of some person walking out of some building with a vase, and you see it 20 times, and you think, "My goodness, were there that many vases?" In October 2003, Rumsfeld approved a secret Pentagon "roadmap" on public relations, calling for "boundaries" between information operations abroad and the news media at home. The Roadmap advances a policy according to which as long as the U.S. government does not intentionally target the American public, it does not matter that psychological operations reach the American public. On December 14, 2003, Rumsfeld in an interview with journalist Lesley Stahl on 60 Minutes after U.S. forces captured Saddam Hussein in Operation Red Dawn, stated, "Here was a man who was photographed hundreds of times shooting off rifles and showing how tough he was, and in fact, he wasn't very tough, he was cowering in a hole in the ground, and had a pistol and didn't use it, and certainly did not put up any fight at all. I think that ... he resulted in the death of an awful lot of Iraqi people, in the last analysis, he seemed not terribly brave." As Secretary of Defense, Rumsfeld was deliberate in crafting the public message from the Department of Defense. People will "rally" to the word "sacrifice", Rumsfeld noted after a meeting. "They are looking for leadership. Sacrifice = Victory." In May 2004, Rumsfeld considered whether to redefine the war on terrorism as a fight against "worldwide insurgency". He advised aides "to test what the results could be" if the war on terrorism were renamed. Rumsfeld also ordered specific public Pentagon attacks on and responses to U.S. newspaper columns that reported the negative aspects of the war. During Rumsfeld's tenure, he regularly visited U.S. troops stationed in Iraq. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation reported that though Rumsfeld didn't specify a withdrawal date for troops in Iraq, "He says it would be unrealistic to wait for Iraq to be peaceful before removing U.S. led forces from the country, adding that Iraq had never been peaceful and perfect." On August 2, 2006, at a press conference at the Pentagon, Rumsfeld commented on the sectarian violence in Iraq where he stated "there's sectarian violence; people are being killed. Sunnis are killing Shi'a and Shi'a are killing Sunnis. Kurds seem not to be involved. It's unfortunate, and they need a reconciliation process." On October 26, 2006, at a press conference at the Pentagon after the failure of Operation Together Forward in Iraq, Rumsfeld stated "Would defeat in Iraq be so bad?" Well, the answer is: Yes, it would be. Those who are fighting against the Iraqi government want to seize power so that they can establish a new sanctuary and a base of operations for terrorists and any idea that U.S. military leaders are rigidly refusing to make adjustments in their approaches is just flat wrong. The military is continuing to adapt and to adjust as required. Yes, there are difficulties and problems to be sure." As a result, Rumsfeld stirred controversy as to whether the forces that did invade Iraq were enough in size.}} Rumsfeld told Hume that Franks ultimately decided against such a troop level. Throughout his tenure, Rumsfeld sought to remind the American people of the 9/11 attacks and threats against Americans, noting at one time in a 2006 memo to "[m]ake the American people realize they are surrounded in the world by violent extremists". In a September 2007 interview with The Daily Telegraph, General Mike Jackson, the head of the British army during the invasion, criticized Rumsfeld's plans for the invasion of Iraq as "intellectually bankrupt", adding that Rumsfeld is "one of those most responsible for the current situation in Iraq", and that he felt that "the US approach to combating global terrorism is 'inadequate' and too focused on military might rather than nation building and diplomacy." In December 2004, Rumsfeld was heavily criticized for using a signing machine instead of personally signing over 1000 letters of condolence to the families of soldiers killed in action in Iraq and Afghanistan. He promised to personally sign all letters in the future. ===Prisoner abuse and torture concerns=== The Department of Defense's preliminary concerns for holding, housing, and interrogating captured prisoners on the battlefield were raised during the military build-up prior to the Iraq War. Because Saddam Hussein's military forces surrendered when faced with military action, many within the DOD, including Rumsfeld and United States Central Command General Tommy Franks, decided it was in the best interest of all to hand these prisoners over to their respective countries. Additionally, it was determined that maintaining a large holding facility was, at the time, unrealistic. Instead, the use of many facilities such as Abu Ghraib to house prisoners of interest prior to handing them over, and Rumsfeld defended the Bush administration's decision to detain enemy combatants. Because of this, critics, including members of the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee, held Rumsfeld responsible for the ensuing Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal. Rumsfeld himself said: "These events occurred on my watch as Secretary of Defense. I am accountable for them." He offered his resignation to President Bush in the wake of the scandal, but it was not accepted. In a memo read by Rumsfeld detailing how Guantanamo Bay detention camp interrogators induced stress in prisoners by forcing them to remain standing in one position for a maximum of four hours, Rumsfeld scrawled a handwritten note on the memo reading: "I stand for 8–10 hours a day. Why is standing [by prisoners] limited to 4 hours? D.R." Various organizations, such as Human Rights Watch, called for investigations of Rumsfeld regarding his involvement in managing the Iraq War and his support of the Bush administration's policies of "enhanced interrogation techniques", which are widely regarded as torture. Legal scholars have argued that Rumsfeld "might be held criminally responsible if [he] would be prosecuted by the ICC". In 2005 the ACLU and Human Rights First filed a lawsuit against Rumsfeld and other top government officials, "on behalf of eight men who they say were subjected to torture and abuse by U.S. forces under the command of Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld". In 2005, a suit was filed against Rumsfeld by several human rights organizations for allegedly violating U.S. and international law that prohibits "torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading punishment". In 2007, U.S. District Judge Thomas F. Hogan ruled that Rumsfeld could not "be held personally responsible for actions taken in connection with his government job". The ACLU tried to revive the case in 2011 with no success. In 2004, German prosecutor Wolfgang Kaleck filed a criminal complaint charging Rumsfeld and 11 other U.S. officials as war criminals who either ordered the torture of prisoners or drafted laws that legitimated its use. The charges based on breaches of the UN Convention against Torture and the German Code of Crimes against International Law. Rumsfeld's disclosure of the whistleblower's identity during a Senate hearing, despite assurances to Joe Darby of his anonymity led to shunning within the community, harassment and death threats against him and his family, resulting in them being taken into protective custody by the U.S. Army. Darby would come to doubt the unintentionality of his public identification, though Rumsfeld sent him a letter stating there had been no malicious intent, the mention was meant as praise, that Rumsfeld was unaware of Darby's anonymity. ===Resignation=== Eight U.S. and other NATO-member retired generals and admirals called for Rumsfeld to resign in early 2006 in what was called the "Generals Revolt", accusing him of "abysmal" military planning and lack of strategic competence. Commentator Pat Buchanan reported at the time that Washington Post columnist David Ignatius, who traveled often to Iraq and supported the war, said the generals "mirror the views of 75 percent of the officers in the field, and probably more". Rumsfeld rebuffed these criticisms, stating, "out of thousands and thousands of admirals and generals, if every time two or three people disagreed we changed the secretary of defense of the United States, it would be like a merry-go-round." Bush defended Rumsfeld throughout and responded by stating that Rumsfeld is "exactly what is needed". On November 1, 2006, Bush stated he would stand by Rumsfeld as defense secretary for the length of his term as president. Rumsfeld wrote a resignation letter dated November 6, 2006, and, per the stamp on the letter, Bush saw it on Election Day, November 7, 2006. In the elections, the House and the Senate shifted to Democratic control. After the elections on November 8, 2006, Bush announced Rumsfeld would resign his position as Secretary of Defense. Many Republicans were unhappy with the delay, believing they would have won more votes if voters had known Rumsfeld was resigning. On December 15, 2006, a farewell ceremony, with an armed forces full honor review and a 19-gun salute, was held at the Pentagon Mall Terrace in honor of the departing Rumsfeld. ==Retirement and later life (2006–2021)== In the months after his resignation, Rumsfeld toured the New York City publishing houses in preparation for a potential memoir. After receiving what one industry source labeled "big bids", he reached an agreement with the Penguin Group to publish the book under its Sentinel HC imprint. Rumsfeld declined to accept an advance for the publication of his memoir, and said he was donating all proceeds from the work to veterans groups. In conjunction with the publication of Known and Unknown, Rumsfeld established "The Rumsfeld Papers", a website with documents "related to the endnotes" of the book and his service during the George W. Bush administration; during the months that followed the book's publication, the website was expanded to include over 4,000 documents from his archive. As of June 2011, the topics included his Congressional voting record, the Nixon administration, documents and memos of meetings while he was part of the Ford, Reagan, and George W. Bush administrations, private sector documents, and NATO documents, among other items. Rumsfeld personally financed the foundation. As of January 2014, the foundation had sponsored over 90 fellows from Central Asia, provided over million in tuition and stipend support for graduate students, awarded over million in microfinance grants, and donated over million to charities for veterans' affairs. Rumsfeld was awarded the "Defender of the Constitution Award" at the 2011 Conservative Political Action Conference in Washington, D.C., on February 10, 2011. After his retirement from government, Rumsfeld criticized former fellow Cabinet member Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of State, in his memoir, asserting that she was basically unfit for office. In 2011, she responded, saying that Rumsfeld "doesn't know what he's talking about. The reader may imagine what can be correct about the conflicted matter." In February 2011, Rumsfeld endorsed the repeal of the military's "Don't ask, don't tell" policy, saying that allowing gays and lesbians to openly serve "is an idea whose time has come". In March 2011, Rumsfeld spoke out on the 2011 military intervention in Libya, telling ABC News Senior White House Correspondent Jake Tapper that the Obama administration should "recognize the mission has to determine the coalition. The coalition ought not determine the mission." Rumsfeld also used the word "confusion" six times to describe the United Nations-backed military effort in Libya. In October 2011, Rumsfeld conducted an interview with Al Jazeera's Washington, D.C., bureau chief Abderrahim Foukara. Foukara asked Rumsfeld whether, in hindsight, the Bush administration had sent enough troops into Iraq to secure the borders of the country, and whether that made the United States culpable in the death of innocent Iraqis. Foukara said people in the Pentagon told Rumsfeld the number of troops sent into Iraq was insufficient. Rumsfeld said, "You keep making assertions which are fundamentally false. No one in the Pentagon said they were not enough." Foukara pressed Rumsfeld repeatedly. Rumsfeld then asked, "Do you want to yell or do you want to have an interview?" Foukara then asked, "Do you think the numbers that you went to Iraq with did absolve you from the responsibility of tens, maybe hundreds of thousands of innocent Iraqis killed by the Coalition and those criminals that you talked about?" Rumsfeld called the question "pejorative" and said Foukara was "not being respectful" (Foukara disagreed) and was "just talking over, and over, and over again". Rumsfeld was the subject of the 2013 Errol Morris documentary The Unknown Known, the title a reference to his response to a question at a February 2002 press conference. In the film Rumsfeld "discusses his career in Washington D.C. from his days as a congressman in the early 1960s to planning the invasion of Iraq in 2003". In January 2016, in partnership with the literary and creative agency Javelin, which handled design and development, Rumsfeld released a mobile app game of solitaire called Churchill Solitaire, emulating a variant of the card game as played by Winston Churchill. Rumsfeld and the Churchill family said that profits from the game would be donated to charity. In June 2016, Rumsfeld announced that he would vote for Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election. On January 5, 2021, Rumsfeld was one of the ten living former Secretaries of Defense that sent a warning letter in order to warn President Trump not to involve the military in a 2020 presidential election dispute. ==Death== On June 29, 2021, Rumsfeld died from multiple myeloma at his home in Taos, New Mexico. Following a private funeral at Fort Myer, he was buried in Arlington National Cemetery on August 24, 2021. ==Electoral history== During the four elections during which he ran to represent Illinois's 13th congressional district, Rumsfeld received shares of the popular vote that ranged from 58% (in 1964) to 76% (in 1966). In 1975 and 2001, Rumsfeld was overwhelmingly confirmed by the U.S. Senate after presidents Gerald Ford and George W. Bush, respectively, appointed him as U.S. Secretary of Defense. ==Awards== Rumsfeld was awarded 11 honorary degrees. Some of his other awards included: All Navy Wrestling Champion (1956) Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement (1983) George C. Marshall Medal by the Association of the U.S. Army (1984) Woodrow Wilson Medal by Princeton University (1985) Distinguished Eagle Scout Award by the Boy Scouts of America (1976) Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor (2004) for his appearance in Fahrenheit 9/11 Union League of Philadelphia Gold Medal for Citizenship (2006) Claremont Institute Statesmanship Award (2007) Victory of Freedom Award from the Richard Nixon Foundation (2010) Order of Anthony Wayne from Valley Forge Military Academy National Flag award from Albania's President Bujar Nishani (2013) == Honors == ==Legacy and reputation== Secretary of State Henry Kissinger described Rumsfeld as "the most ruthless man" he knew. George Packer of The Atlantic named Rumsfeld "the worst secretary of defense in American history" who "lacked the wisdom to change his mind." Bradley Graham, a Washington Post reporter and author of the book titled By His Own Rules: The Ambitions, Successes, and Ultimate Failures of Donald Rumsfeld released on June 23, 2009, stated "Rumsfeld left office as one of the most controversial Defense Secretaries since Robert McNamara and widely criticized for his management of the Iraq war and for his difficult relationships with Congress, administration colleagues, and military officers." Neoconservative commentator Bill Kristol was also critical of Rumsfeld, stating he "breezily dodged responsibility" for planning mistakes made in the Iraq War, including insufficient troop levels. In Jon Meacham's book Destiny and Power: The American Odyssey of George Herbert Walker Bush, published in November 2015, the 41st president George H.W. Bush was critical of Rumsfeld and called Rumsfeld "an arrogant fellow" and "I think he served the president badly," and "I don't like what he did, and I think it hurt the president having his iron-ass view of everything." ==Affiliation history== ===Institutional affiliations=== Center for Security Policy: longtime associate; winner of the CSP's 1998 "Keeper of the Flame" award (5) Hoover Institution: former member, board of trustees Project for the New American Century: signed PNAC's founding statement of principles as well as two policy letters on Iraq Freedom House: former board member RAND Corporation: former chairman Committee for the Free World: former chairman National Park Foundation: former member Bohemian Club: member Alfalfa Club: member National Academy of Public Administration: member	[ "Frontline Club", "Robert McNamara", "Presidential Medal of Freedom", "1842 retreat from Kabul", "Battle of Baghdad (2003)", "Washington, D.C.", "Robert P. 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Church", "Michigan", "Ambassadors from the United States", "American Broadcasting Company", "President of the United States", "Tampa Bay Times", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Al Qaeda", "Oseltamivir", "Woodrow Wilson Medal", "Civil Rights Act of 1964", "North Korea", "Gilead Sciences", "United States Secretary of State", "Charles Scribner's Sons", "Order of Brilliant Star", "Soviet armed forces", "Academy Awards", "oil pipeline", "Oval Office", "2003 Invasion of Iraq", "Enhanced interrogation techniques", "Office of Economic Opportunity", "2006 United States general elections", "Ford Foundation", "Richard Nixon Foundation", "Syria", "Operation Anaconda", "SALT", "A. G. Becker & Co.", "The Daily Beast", "International Criminal Court", "Barry Goldwater", "Bill Clements", "Center for Security Policy", "Ukraine–NATO relations", "Associated Press", "Gordon R. England", "Asea Brown Boveri", "Fox News", "The Pentagon", "United States Department of Defense", "Penguin Group", "RAND Corporation", "Hellfire missiles", "Yahoo! News", "Hudson Institute", "Carl Levin", "Lyndon B. Johnson", "Supreme Allied Commander Europe", "Nuclear Planning Group", "United States Senate Committee on Armed Services", "The Washington Post", "1980 Republican National Convention", "NASCAR", "KOGO (AM)", "PBS", "S2F Tracker", "Hoover Institution", "NPR", "Tribune Company", "Harold Brown (Secretary of Defense)", "Democracy Now!", "Cyprus", "The New York Times", "Charlie Rose (TV show)", "Illinois's 13th congressional district", "U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee", "2016 United States presidential election", "John Kampfner", "Lower Saxony", "National Security Archive", "Abu Ghraib prison", "Charles A. Halleck", "cruise missile", "Stanford University", "Alexander Haig", "Chicago School of Economics", "Federation of American Scientists", "Joe Darby", "Operation Together Forward", "U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation", "CBS News", "Princeton University", "Economic Stabilization Act of 1970", "Kellogg School of Management", "FactCheck.org", "Gulfstream Aerospace", "U.S. News & World Report", "Nixon administration", "recusal", "Iraq War", "Allard K. Lowenstein", "University of Chicago", "Sentinel (publisher)", "George Scratchley Brown", "Skylab", "Watergate scandal", "General Instrument", "National Defense University (Washington, D.C.)", "Seymour Hersh", "saxophone", "Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America)", "War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)", "Shock and Awe", "Silver Buffalo Award", "Fox News Channel", "Regnery Publishing", "Bujar Nishani", "The Boston Globe", "Robert Ellsworth", "The Daily Telegraph", "Bible", "H5N1", "Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland", "microfinance", "American Academy of Achievement", "CNN", "West Wing", "Union League of Philadelphia", "Boy Scouts of America", "60 Minutes", "Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor", "Kandahar", "BBC Radio 4", "Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq", "Known and Unknown: A Memoir", "North Atlantic Council", "al-Qaeda", "iReport", "Conservative Political Action Conference", "Gideon Rachman", "Member states of NATO", "Sears", "Richard A. Clarke", "United States Central Command", "Australian Broadcasting Corporation", "U.S. Capitol Building", "Steven Simon", "1976 Republican National Convention", "United States Permanent Representative to NATO", "Al Jazeera Media Network", "Milton Friedman", "The Guardian", "United States Naval Aviator", "Freedom House", "Volunteer military", "Fort Myer", "International Security Assistance Force", "Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse", "Case Western Reserve University", "NBC News", "American Airlines Flight 11", "FedEx", "United States in the Vietnam War", "endnotes", "Financial World", "Defense Planning Committee", "Bloomberg News", "United States National Security Council", "Buenos Aires", "This Week (American TV program)", "9/11 Commission", "Qusay Hussein", "Project for the New American Century", "The Wall Street Transcript", "David O. Cooke", "psychological operations", "Autopen", "The Orange County Register", "British army", "North American Aviation", "Afghan Army", "Fahrenheit 9/11", "Captain (United States O-6)", "NASA", "Midge Decter", "RQ-1 Predator", "Committee for the Free World", "Association of the United States Army", "Ronald Reagan", "Gulf News", "George H. W. Bush", "Frederick W. Smith", "United States Association of Former Members of Congress", "Gerald Ford", "2003 invasion of Iraq", "Colin Powell", "The Atlantic", "National Economic Commission", "Mike Jackson (British Army officer)", "Georgetown University", "James Mann (writer)", "Solitaire (game)", "Naval Air Station Anacostia", "Kurds", "Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps", "Bagram Air Base", "Broadside Books", "McGraw-Hill", "Director of Central Intelligence", "Daniel Patrick Moynihan", "Richard Nixon", "David K. E. Bruce", "United States Intelligence Community", "The Times", "Joint Economic Committee", "Tariq Aziz", "State of Denial", "Case Western Reserve University School of Law", "Wolfgang Kaleck", "List of positions filled by presidential appointment with Senate confirmation", "Tikrit", "Alfalfa Club", "Iran–Iraq War", "National Security Advisor (United States)", "Lower Manhattan", "Republican Party (United States)", "Osama bin Laden", "Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States", "Internet Movie Database", "Claremont Institute", "habeas corpus", "John Warner", "Donald Trump", "Human Rights Watch", "Freedom of Information Act (United States)", "United States invasion of Afghanistan", "Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff", "Air Force Times", "Ford administration", "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic", "Jordan", "Metropolitan Books", "political science", "Andrew Cockburn", "Jack Anderson (columnist)", "Uday Hussein", "Joint Chiefs of Staff", "Election Day (United States)", "Secretary of State for Defence", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "World Trade Center (1973–2001)", "George Shultz", "influenza B", "Taliban", "German Americans", "Association of the U.S. Army", "United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations", "Saddam Hussein", "Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda link allegations", "1996 United States presidential election", "The American Conservative", "Chicago magazine", "Harper's Magazine", "National Academy of Public Administration (United States)", "Individual Ready Reserve", "Mohammed Atef", "The steel seizure case", "United States Army Rangers", "Hazrat Ali (Afghan politician)", "Abderrahim Foukara", "Jon Meacham", "Taos, New Mexico", "Rahim Wardak", "Condoleezza Rice", "United States Secretary of the Air Force", "Order of the Star of Romania", "Federal Communications Commission", "Soviet–Afghan War", "U.S. Congress", "David Ignatius", "Scouting (magazine)", "Vladivostok", "Daniel Benjamin", "George H.W. Bush", "The Wall Street Journal", "Paul Wolfowitz", "Free to Choose", "Sunnis", "Chicago", "Ronald Reagan Freedom Award", "James Schlesinger", "Senate Armed Services Committee", "Office of Special Plans", "The Free Lance–Star", "pharmaceutical", "Young Turks (U.S. politics)", "Henry Holt (publisher)", "Skokie, Illinois", "Council on Foreign Relations", "presidential exploratory committee", "Pakistan–United States relations", "influenza A", "Law of the Sea Treaty", "Eisenhower Exchange Fellowships", "Time (magazine)", "Le Cercle", "DEFCON", "University Press of Kansas", "Kellogg's", "Arlington National Cemetery", "Frank Carlucci", "Winnetka, Illinois", "Sentinel HC", "G.D. Searle, LLC", "WorldCat", "G. D. Searle & Company", "PublicAffairs", "There are known knowns", "Eisenhower Executive Office Building", "USA Today", "Financial Times", "Victoria Nuland", "Partisan primary", "United States Deputy Secretary of Defense", "Guantanamo Bay detention camp", "Lightweight Football", "B-1 Lancer", "Pashtuns", "poverty reduction", "Pakistan", "Bryce Harlow", "Donald Vance", "United States House of Representatives", "Congressional Record", "United States Department of State", "Pat Buchanan", "Hugh Shelton", "David S. Dennison Jr.", "Thomas E. White", "enhanced interrogation techniques", "Carlos Gutierrez", "Food and Drug Administration", "Errol Morris", "National Park Foundation", "George W. Bush", "New Trier High School", "Lebanon", "List of United States Representatives from Illinois", "Lesley Stahl", "chemical weapons", "Leonid Brezhnev", "US Special Forces", "Philmont Scout Ranch", "2011 military intervention in Libya", "Woodrow Wilson School", "Boeing B-52 Stratofortress", "Bob Woodward", "drums", "Time Magazine", "Bush at War", "Bob Dole", "Jake Tapper", "Peter Pace", "ACCRA Cost of Living Index", "The Sunday Telegraph", "David M. Kennedy (politician)", "Baghdad", "Sectarian violence in Iraq (2006–2009)", "Halloween Massacre (Ford administration)", "North American T-28 Trojan", "Gary Berntsen", "Phil Crane", "Space Shuttle program", "Counselor to the President", "The New York Sun", "Bagram Airfield", "Coalition Provisional Authority", "Agreed Framework between the United States of America and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea", "CNNMoney", "The Irish Times", "United States Navy Reserve", "Frontline (U.S. TV program)", "Turkey", "Bohemian Club", "White House", "Bachelor of Arts", "Order of King Abdulaziz", "South Vietnam", "Richard Myers", "Bush Doctrine", "Slate (magazine)", "Shi'a", "Weapon of mass destruction", "Bill Kristol", "Civil Rights Act of 1968", "Zalmay Khalilzad", "Winston Churchill", "Congregational church", "Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson", "Shanksville, Pennsylvania", "Coronado, California", "1988 United States presidential election", "weapons of mass destruction", "United States support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War", "James R. Schlesinger", "Rumsfeld Doctrine", "T-6 Texan", "McClatchy", "Tommy Franks", "Battle of Tora Bora", "Team B", "Neoconservatism", "Cabinet of the United States", "James H. Doolittle", "Brussels", "advance payment", "St. Luke's Hospital (Chicago, Illinois)", "Amylin Pharmaceuticals", "high-definition television", "Fortune (magazine)", "Stephen Cambone", "there are known knowns", "Geoff Hoon", "Naval Air Station Grosse Ile", "William Cohen", "mobile app", "1964 United States presidential election", "Douglas J. Feith", "flight instructor", "Distinguished Eagle Scout Award", "United States Office of Economic Opportunity", "Illinois", "Old Europe (politics)", "Monsanto Company", "client state", "The Unknown Known", "George Packer", "Henry Kissinger", "enemy combatant", "Bill Clinton", "North Atlantic Treaty Organization", "aspartame", "Axis of evil", "Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff", "Eastern Air Lines", "multiple myeloma", "Trove", "Dick Cheney", "Reuters", "History News Network", "Nelson Rockefeller", "Academy of Achievement", "Eric Shinseki", "C-SPAN", "Order of the Rising Sun", "Robert Gates", "George Stephanopoulos", "Northern Alliance" ]
8,630	Diego Garcia	Diego Garcia (Foalhavahi ފޯޅަވަހި in Dhivehi) is the largest island of the Chagos Archipelago, part of the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT). It has been used as a joint UK–U.S. military base since the 1970s, following the expulsion of the Chagossians by the UK government. The Chagos Islands have been a British overseas territory, but in early October 2024, the UK engaged in discussions with Mauritius with a view to transfer sovereignty of the islands, while allowing the military base to remain under a 99-year lease, pending a treaty ratification. that includes the Lakshadweep, the Maldives, and the other 60 small islands of the Chagos Archipelago. The island observes UTC+6 year-round. Diego Garcia was discovered by Portuguese sailors in 1512 and remained uninhabited until the French began using it as a leper colony and for coconut plantations in the late 18th century. After the Napoleonic Wars, the island was transferred to British control. It remained part of Mauritius until 1965, when it became part of the newly formed BIOT. In 1966, Diego Garcia had a population of 924, mostly contract workers employed in coconut plantations. However, between 1968 and 1973, the Chagossian inhabitants were forcibly removed to make way for the military base. In 2019, the International Court of Justice ruled that the UK's administration of the Chagos Archipelago was illegal, a decision supported by the United Nations, though the UK has dismissed the ruling as non-binding. Diego Garcia remains the only inhabited island of the BIOT, with its population consisting of military personnel and contractors. It is one of two critical U.S. bomber bases in the Indo-Pacific region, alongside Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. It is nicknamed the "Footprint of Freedom" by the US Navy due to its shape and strategic location in the Indian Ocean. ==History== ===Before European arrival=== No tangible evidence exists of people on Diego Garcia before the arrival of Europeans. There is speculation about visits during the Austronesian diaspora around AD 700, as some say the old Maldivian name for the islands originated from Malagasy. Arabs, who reached Lakshadweep and Maldives around AD 900, may have visited the Chagos. Southern Maldivian oral tradition tells of occasional traders and fishermen marooned on, and later rescued from, Foalhavahi ( ފޯޅަވަހި) Chagos. ===European arrival=== The uninhabited islands were discovered by the Portuguese navigator, explorer, and diplomat Pedro Mascarenhas in 1512, first named as Dom Garcia, in honour of his patron, Dom Garcia de Noronha when he was detached from the Portuguese India Armadas during his voyage of 1512–1513. Another Portuguese expedition with a Spanish explorer of Andalusian origin, Diego García de Moguer, rediscovered the island in 1544 and named it after himself. Garcia de Moguer died the same year on the return trip to Portugal in the Indian Ocean, off the South African coast. The misnomer "Diego" could have been made unwittingly by the British ever since, as they copied the Portuguese maps. It is assumed that the island was named after one of its first two discoverers—the one by the name of Garcia, the other with name Diego. Also, a cacography of the saying Deo Gracias (literally 'Thank God') is eligible for the attribution of the atoll. Although the Cantino planisphere (1504) and the Ruysch map (1507) clearly delineate the Maldive Islands, giving them the same names, they do not show any islands to the south which can be identified as the Chagos archipelago. The Sebastian Cabot map (Antwerp 1544) shows a number of islands to the south which may be the Mascarene Islands. The first map which identifies and names "Los Chagos" (in about the right position) is that of Pierre Desceliers (Dieppe 1550), although Diego Garcia is not named. An island called "Don Garcia" appears on the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum of Abraham Ortelius (Antwerp 1570), together with "Dos Compagnos", slightly to the north. It may be the case that "Don Garcia" was named after Garcia de Noronha, although no evidence exists to support this. The island is also labelled "Don Garcia" on Mercator's Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigatium Emendate (Duisburg 1569). However, on the Vera Totius Expeditionis Nauticae Description of Jodocus Hondius (London 1589), "Don Garcia" mysteriously changes its name to "I. de Dio Gratia", while the "I. de Chagues" appears close by. The first map to delineate the island under its present name, Diego Garcia, is the World Map of Edward Wright (London 1599), possibly as a result of misreading Dio (or simply "D.") as Diego, and Gratia as Garcia. The Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Geographica of Hendrik Hondius II (Antwerp 1630) repeats Wright's use of the name, which is then proliferated on all subsequent Dutch maps of the period, and to the present day. ===Settlement of the island=== Diego Garcia and the rest of the Chagos islands were uninhabited until the late 18th century. In 1778, the French Governor of Mauritius granted Monsieur Dupuit de la Faye the island of Diego Garcia, and evidence exists of temporary French visits to collect coconuts and fish. Several Frenchmen living in "a dozen huts" abandoned Diego Garcia when the British East India Company attempted to establish a settlement there in April 1786. Following the departure of the British, the French colony of Mauritius began marooning lepers on the island, Diego Garcia became a colony of the UK after the Napoleonic Wars as part of the Treaty of Paris (1814), and from 1814 to 1965 it was administered from Mauritius; In 1882, the French-financed, Mauritian-based Société Huilière de Diego et de Peros (the "Oilmaking Company of Diego and Peros"), consolidated all the plantations in the Chagos under its control. In 1942, the British opened RAF Station Diego Garcia and established an advanced flying boat unit at the East Point Plantation, staffed and equipped by No. 205 and No. 240 Squadrons, then stationed on Ceylon. Both Catalina and Sunderland aircraft were flown during the course of World War II in search of Japanese and German submarines and surface raiders. At Cannon Point, two 6-inch naval guns were installed by a Royal Marines detachment. In February 1942, the mission was to protect the small Royal Navy base and Royal Air Force station located on the island from Japanese attack. Following the conclusion of hostilities, the station was closed on 30 April 1946. In 1962, the Chagos Agalega Company of the British colony of Seychelles purchased the Société Huilière de Diego et Peros and moved company headquarters to Seychelles. In the early 1960s, the UK was withdrawing its military presence from the Indian Ocean, not including the airfield at RAF Gan to the north of Diego Garcia in the Maldives (which remained open until 1976), and agreed to permit the United States to establish a naval communication station on one of its island territories there. The United States requested an unpopulated island belonging to the UK to avoid political difficulties with newly independent countries, and ultimately the UK and United States agreed that Diego Garcia was a suitable location. ===Purchase by the United Kingdom=== To accomplish the UK–US mutual defence strategy, in November 1965, the UK purchased the Chagos Archipelago, which includes Diego Garcia, from the then self-governing colony of Mauritius for £3 million to create the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), with the intent of ultimately closing the plantations to provide the uninhabited British territory from which the United States would conduct its military activities in the region. On 30 December 1966, the United States and the UK executed an agreement through an Exchange of Notes which permitted the United States to use the BIOT for defence purposes for 50 years until December 2016, followed by a 20-year extension (to 2036) as long as neither party gave notice of termination in a two-year window (December 2014 – December 2016) and the UK may decide on what additional terms to extend the agreement. No monetary payment was made from the United States to the UK as part of this agreement or any subsequent amendment. Rather, the United Kingdom received a US$14-million discount from the United States on the acquisition of submarine-launched Polaris missiles per a now-declassified addendum to the 1966 agreement. ===Arrival of the U.S. Navy=== To the United States, Diego Garcia was a prime territory for setting up a foreign military base. According to Stuart Barber—a civilian working for the US Navy at the Pentagon—Diego Garcia was located far away from any potential threats, it was low in a native population and it was an island that was not sought after by other countries as it lacked economic interest. To Barber, Diego Garcia and other acquired islands would play a key role in maintaining US dominance. Here Barber designed the strategic island concept, where the US would obtain as many less populated islands as possible for military purposes. According to Barber, this was the only way to ensure security for a foreign base. Diego Garcia is often referred to as "Fantasy Island" for its seclusion. The key component in obtaining Diego Garcia was the perceived lack of a native population on the island. Uninhabited until the late 18th century, Diego Garcia had no indigenous population. Its only inhabitants were European overseers who managed the coconut plantations for their absentee landowners and contract workers mostly of African, Indian, and Malay ancestry, known as Chagossians, who had lived and worked on the plantations for several generations. Prior to setting up a military base, the United States government was informed by the British government—which owned the island—that Diego Garcia had a population of hundreds. The eventual number of Chagossians numbered around 1,000. Regardless of the size of the population, the Chagossians had to be removed from the island before the base could be constructed. In 1968, the first tactics were implemented to decrease the population of Diego Garcia. Those who left the island—either for vacation or medical purposes—were not allowed to return, and those who stayed could obtain only restricted food and medical supplies. This tactic was in hope that those that stayed would leave "willingly". One of the tactics used was ordering all Chagossian dogs to be killed. In March 1971, United States Naval construction battalions arrived on Diego Garcia to begin the construction of the communications station and an airfield. To satisfy the terms of an agreement between the UK and the United States for an uninhabited island, the plantation on Diego Garcia was closed in October of that year. The plantation workers and their families were relocated to the plantations on Peros Banhos and Salomon atolls to the northwest. The by-then-independent Mauritian government refused to accept the islanders without payment, and in 1974, the UK gave the Mauritian government an additional £650,000 to resettle the islanders. Those who still remained on the island of Diego Garcia between 1971 and 1973 were forced onto cargo ships that were heading to Mauritius and the Seychelles. By 1973, construction of the Naval Communications Station was complete. In the early 1970s, setbacks to United States military capabilities in the region including the fall of Saigon, victory of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, the closure of the Peshawar Air Station listening post in Pakistan and Kagnew Station in Eritrea, the Mayaguez incident, and the build-up of Soviet naval presence in Aden and a Soviet airbase at Berbera, Somalia, caused the United States to request, and the UK to approve, permission to build a fleet anchorage and enlarged airfield on Diego Garcia, and the Seabees doubled the number of workers constructing these facilities. ===21st century=== On 23 June 2017, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) voted in favour of referring the territorial dispute between Mauritius and the UK to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in order to clarify the legal status of the Chagos Islands archipelago in the Indian Ocean. The motion was approved by a majority vote with 94 voting for and 15 against. In February 2019, the ICJ in The Hague ruled that the United Kingdom must transfer the islands to Mauritius as they were not legally separated from the latter in 1965. The UK Foreign Office said the ruling is not legally binding. In May 2019, the United Nations General Assembly affirmed the decision of the International Court of Justice and demanded that the United Kingdom withdraw its colonial administration from the Islands and cooperate with Mauritius to facilitate the resettlement of Mauritian nationals in the archipelago. In a written statement, the U.S. government said that neither the Americans nor the British have any plans to discontinue use of the military base on Diego Garcia. The statement said in a footnote: "In 2016, there were discussions between the United Kingdom and the United States concerning the continuing importance of the joint base. Neither party gave notice to terminate and the agreement remains in force until 2036". ===Chagos Marine Protected Area=== On 1 April 2010, the Chagos Marine Protected Area (MPA) was declared to cover the waters around the Chagos Archipelago. However, Mauritius objected, stating this was contrary to its legal rights, and on 18 March 2015, in light of the Mauritius v. United Kingdom case, the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled that the Chagos Marine Protected Area was illegal under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea as Mauritius had legally binding rights to fish in the waters surrounding the Chagos Archipelago, to an eventual return of the Chagos Archipelago, and to the preservation of any minerals or oil discovered in or near the Chagos Archipelago prior to its return. === Handover of the island to Mauritius === On 3 October 2024, the UK prime minister Keir Starmer announced in a statement with the Mauritian prime minister Pravind Jugnauth that the UK will hand over the Chagos islands to Mauritius. The joint base on the island will stay, with the UK initially taking a 99-year lease of the base from Mauritius. Mauritius will be allowed to begin resettlement on the Chagos Archipelago, but not on Diego Garcia due to the sensitive nature of the base. US president Joe Biden welcomed the agreement, saying that it was a "clear demonstration that through diplomacy and partnership, countries can overcome long-standing historical challenges to reach peaceful and mutually beneficial outcomes". The deal was put on hold following the 2024 United States presidential election to allow consideration from the new incoming administration. ==Inhabitants== Diego Garcia had no permanent inhabitants when discovered by the Spanish explorer Diego García de Moguer in the 16th century, then in the service of Portugal, and this remained the case until it was settled as a French colony in 1793. The Îlois also evolved a French-based Creole dialect now called Chagossian Creole. Throughout their recorded history, the plantations of the Chagos Archipelago had a population of approximately 1,000 individuals, about two-thirds of whom lived on Diego Garcia. A peak population of 1,142 on all islands was recorded in 1953. ===Expulsion of 1971=== All the inhabitants of Diego Garcia were forcibly resettled to other islands in the Chagos Archipelago, Mauritius or Seychelles by 1971 to satisfy the requirements of a UK/United States Exchange of Notes signed in 1966 to depopulate the island when the United States constructed a base upon it. No current agreement exists on how many of the evacuees met the criteria to be an Îlois, and thus be an indigenous person at the time of their removal, but the UK and Mauritian governments agreed in 1972 that 426 families, numbering 1,151 individuals, Fifteen years after the last expulsion, the Chagossians received compensation from the British, totalling $6,000 per person; some Chagossians received nothing. The British expulsion action remains in litigation . Today, Chagossians remain highly impoverished and are living as "marginalised" outsiders on the island of Mauritius and the Seychelles. ===After 1971=== Between 1971 and 2001, the only residents on Diego Garcia were UK and US military personnel and civilian employees of those countries. These included contract employees from the Philippines and Mauritius, including some Îlois. During combat operations from the atoll against Afghanistan (2001–2006) and Iraq (2003–2006), a number of allied militaries were based on the island including Australian, Japanese, and the Republic of Korea. According to David Vine, "Today, at any given time, 3,000 to 5,000 US troops and civilian support staff live on the island." The inhabitants today do not rely on the island and the surrounding waters for sustenance. Although some recreational fishing for consumption is permitted, all other food is shipped in by sea or air. In 2004, US Navy recruitment literature described Diego Garcia as being one of the world's best-kept secrets, boasting great recreational facilities, exquisite natural beauty, and outstanding living conditions. Since October 2021 there have been asylum seekers on Diego Garcia. ==Politics== Diego Garcia is the only inhabited island in the British Indian Ocean Territory, an overseas territory of the United Kingdom, usually abbreviated as "BIOT". The Government of the BIOT consists of a commissioner appointed by King Charles III. The commissioner is based in London, resident in the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO), and is assisted by an administrator and small staff. Originally colonised by the French, Diego Garcia was ceded, along with the rest of the Chagos Archipelago, to the United Kingdom in the Treaty of Paris (1814) at the conclusion of a portion of the Napoleonic Wars. The BIOT administration was moved to Seychelles following the independence of Mauritius in 1968 until the independence of Seychelles in 1976, and to a desk in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London since. ===Military administration=== The UK represents the territory internationally. A local government as normally envisioned does not exist. Rather, the administration is represented in the territory by the officer commanding British Forces on Diego Garcia, the "Brit rep". Laws and regulations are promulgated by the commissioner and enforced in the BIOT by Brit rep. Of major concern to the BIOT administration is the relationship with the United States military forces resident on Diego Garcia. An annual meeting called "The Pol-Mil Talks" (for "political-military") of all concerned is held at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London to resolve pertinent issues. These resolutions are formalised by an "Exchange of Letters". It is not publicly known whether nuclear weapons have ever been stored on the island. Noam Chomsky and Peter Sand have observed and emphasised that the US and UK stance is blocking the implementation of the treaty. ===Transnational political issues=== There are two transnational political issues which affect Diego Garcia and the BIOT, through the British government. The island state of Mauritius claims the Chagos Archipelago (which is conterminous with the BIOT), including Diego Garcia. A subsidiary issue is the Mauritian opposition to the UK Government's declaration of 1 April 2010 that the BIOT is a marine protected area with fishing and extractive industry (including oil and gas exploration) prohibited. The issue of compensation and repatriation of the former inhabitants, exiled since 1973, continues in litigation and as of August 2010 had been submitted to the European Court of Human Rights by a group of former residents. Some groups allege that Diego Garcia and its territorial waters out to have been restricted from public access without permission of the BIOT Government since 1971. On 3 November 2022, the British Foreign Secretary James Cleverly announced that the UK and Mauritius had decided to begin negotiations on sovereignty over the British Indian Ocean Territory, taking into account international legal proceedings. Both states had agreed to ensure the continued operation of the joint UK/US military base on Diego Garcia. ===Prison site allegations=== In 2015, U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell's former chief of staff, Lawrence Wilkerson, said Diego Garcia was used by the CIA for "nefarious activities". He said that he had heard from three US intelligence sources that Diego Garcia was used as "a transit site where people were temporarily housed, let us say, and interrogated from time to time" and, "What I heard was more along the lines of using it as a transit location when perhaps other places were full or other places were deemed too dangerous or insecure, or unavailable at the moment". In June 2004, the British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw stated that United States authorities had repeatedly assured him that no detainees had passed in transit through Diego Garcia or were disembarked there. Diego Garcia was first rumoured to have been one of the locations of the CIA's black sites in 2005. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed is one of the "high-value detainees" suspected to have been held in Diego Garcia. In October 2007, the Foreign Affairs Select Committee of the British Parliament announced that it would launch an investigation of continued allegations of a prison camp on Diego Garcia, which it claimed were twice confirmed by comments made by retired U.S. Army general Barry McCaffrey. On 31 July 2008, an unnamed former White House official alleged that the United States had imprisoned and interrogated at least one suspect on Diego Garcia during 2002 and possibly 2003. Manfred Nowak, one of five United Nations special rapporteurs on torture, said that credible evidence exists supporting allegations that ships serving as black sites have used Diego Garcia as a base. The human rights group Reprieve alleged that United States-operated ships moored outside the territorial waters of Diego Garcia were used to incarcerate and torture detainees. ===Rendition flight refuelling admission=== Several groups claim that the military base on Diego Garcia has been used by the United States government for transport of prisoners involved in the controversial extraordinary rendition program, an allegation formally reported to the Council of Europe in June 2007. On 21 February 2008, British Foreign Secretary David Miliband admitted that two United States extraordinary rendition flights refuelled on Diego Garcia in 2002, and was "very sorry" that earlier denials were having to be corrected. ===Leaked diplomatic cables=== According to leaked diplomatic cables, in a calculated move planned in 2009, the UK proposed that the BIOT become a "marine reserve" with the aim of preventing the former inhabitants from returning to the islands. A summary of the diplomatic cable is as follows:HMG would like to establish a "marine park" or "reserve" providing comprehensive environmental protection to the reefs and waters of the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), a senior Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) official informed Polcouns on 12 May. The official insisted that the establishment of a marine park—the world's largest—would in no way impinge on USG use of the BIOT, including Diego Garcia, for military purposes. He agreed that the UK and United States should carefully negotiate the details of the marine reserve to assure that United States interests were safeguarded and the strategic value of BIOT was upheld. He said that the BIOT's former inhabitants would find it difficult, if not impossible, to pursue their claim for resettlement on the islands if the entire Chagos Archipelago were a marine reserve. ==Natural history== No species of plant, bird, amphibian, reptile, mollusc, crustacean or mammal is endemic on Diego Garcia or the surrounding waters, though some species of fish and aquatic invertebrates are endemic. All plants, wildlife, and aquatic species are protected to some degree. Much of the lagoon and other waters of Diego Garcia are protected wetlands, following an application by the UK in 2004 to obtain Ramsar site wetlands conservation status, and large parts of the island are nature preserves. ===Geography=== Diego Garcia is the largest land mass in the Chagos Archipelago (which includes Peros Banhos, the Salomon Islands, the Three Brothers, the Egmont Islands, and the Great Chagos Bank), being an atoll occupying approximately , of which is dry land. The continuous portion of the atoll rim stretches from one end to the other, enclosing a lagoon long and up to wide, with a pass opening at the north. Three small islands are located in the pass. The total area of the atoll is about . The lagoon area is roughly with depths ranging down to about . The total land area (excluding peripheral reefs) is around . The coral reef surrounding the seaward side of the atoll is generally broad, flat, and shallow around below mean sea level in most locations and varying from in width. This fringing seaward reef shelf comprises an area around . At the outer edge of the reef shelf, the bottom slopes very steeply into deep water, at some locations dropping to more than within of the shore. Diego Garcia is frequently subject to earthquakes caused by tectonic plate movement along the Carlsberg Ridge located just to the west of the island. One was recorded in 1812; one measuring 7.6 on the Richter Scale hit on 30 November 1983, at 23:46 local time and lasted 72 seconds, resulting in minor damage including wave damage to a 50-m stretch of the southern end of the island, and another on 2 December 2002, an earthquake measuring 4.6 on the Richter scale struck the island at 12:21 am. ===Oceanography=== Diego Garcia lies within the influence of the South Equatorial Current year-round. The surface currents of the Indian Ocean also have a monsoonal regimen associated with the Asian Monsoonal wind regimen. Sea surface temperatures are in the range of year-round. ===Fresh water supply=== Diego Garcia is the above-water rim of a coral atoll composed of Holocene coral rubble and sand to the depth of about , overlaying Pleistocene limestone deposited at the then-sea level on top of a seamount rising about from the floor of the Indian Ocean. The Holocene sediments are porous and completely saturated with sea water. Any rain falling on the above-water rim quickly percolates through the surface sand and encounters the salt water underneath. Diego Garcia is of sufficient width to minimise tidal fluctuations in the aquifer, and the rainfall (in excess of 102.5 inches/260 cm per year on average) is sufficient in amount and periodicity for the fresh water to form a series of convex, freshwater, Ghyben-Herzberg lenses floating on the heavier salt water in the saturated sediments. The horizontal structure of each lens is influenced by variations in the type and porosity of the subsurface deposits, which on Diego Garcia are minor. At depth, the lens is globular; near the surface, it generally conforms to the shape of the island. When a Ghyben-Herzberg lens is fully formed, its floating nature will push a freshwater head above mean sea level, and if the island is wide enough, the depth of the lens below mean sea level will be 40 times the height of the water table above sea level. On Diego Garcia, this equates to a maximum depth of 20 m. However, the actual size and depth of each lens is dependent on the width and shape of the island at that point, the permeability of the aquifer, and the equilibrium between recharging rainfall and losses to evaporation to the atmosphere, transpiration by plants, tidal advection, and human use. In the plantation period, shallow wells, supplemented by rainwater collected in cisterns, provided sufficient water for the pastoral lifestyle of the small population. On Diego Garcia today, the military base uses over 100 shallow "horizontal" wells to produce over 560,000 L per day from the "Cantonment" lens on the northwest arm of the island—sufficient water for western-style usage for a population of 3,500. This 3.7 km2 lens holds an estimated 19 million m3 of fresh water and has an average daily recharge from rainfall over 10,000 m3, of which 40% remains in the lens and 60% is lost through evapotranspiration. Extracting fresh water from a lens for human consumption requires careful calculation of the sustainable yield of the lens by season because each lens is susceptible to corruption by saltwater intrusion caused by overuse or drought. In addition, overwash by tsunamis and tropical storms has corrupted lenses in the Maldives and several Pacific islands. Vertical wells can cause salt upcoming into the lens, and overextraction will reduce freshwater pressure resulting in lateral intrusion by seawater. Because the porosity of the surface soil results in virtually zero runoff, lenses are easily polluted by fecal waste, burials, and chemical spills. Corruption of a lens can take years to "flush out" and reform, depending on the ratio of recharge to losses. Two are of significance to island wildlife and to recharge their respective freshwater lenses. One of these is centred on the northwest point of the atoll; another is found near the Point Marianne Cemetery on the southeast end of the airfield. Other, smaller freshwater wetlands are found along the east side of the runway, and in the vicinity of the receiver antenna field on the northwest arm of the atoll. Also, several man-made freshwater ponds resulted from excavations made during construction of the airfield and road on the western half of the atoll rim. These fill from rainfall and from extending into the Ghyben-Herzberg lenses found on this island. ===Climate=== Diego Garcia has an equatorial tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af). The surrounding sea surface temperature is the primary climatic control, and temperatures are generally uniform throughout the year, with an average maximum of by day during March and April, and from July to September. Diurnal variation is roughly , falling to the low by night. Diego Garcia is at minimum risk from tropical cyclones due to its proximity to the equator where the coriolis parameter required to organise circulation of the upper atmosphere is minimal. Low-intensity storms have hit the island, including one in 1901, which blew over 1,500 coconut trees; one on 16 September 1944, which caused the wreck of a Royal Air Force PBY Catalina; one in September 1990 which demolished the tent city then being constructed for United States Air Force bomber crews during Operation Desert Storm; and one on 22 July 2007, when winds exceeded and over of rain fell in 24 hours. A biological survey conducted in early 2005 indicated erosional effects of the tsunami wave on Diego Garcia and other islands of the Chagos Archipelago. One stretch of shoreline was found to have been breached by the tsunami wave, representing about 10% of the eastern arm. A biological survey by the Chagos Conservation Trust reported that the resulting inundation additionally washed away shoreline shrubs and small to medium-sized coconut palms. \|source 2 = Meteo Climat (record highs and lows) }} ===Vegetation=== The first botanical observations of the island were made by Hume in 1883, when the coconut plantations had been in operation for a full century. Subsequent studies and collections during the plantation era were made in 1885, 1905, 1939, and 1967. Thus, very little of the nature of the precontact vegetation is known. The 1967 survey, published by the Smithsonian is used as the most authoritative baseline for more recent research. These studies indicate the vegetation of the island may be changing rapidly. For example, J. M. W. Topp collected data annually between 1993 and 2003 and found that on the average three new plant species arrived each year, mainly on Diego Garcia. His research added fully a third more species to Stoddart. Topp and Martin Hamilton of Kew Gardens compiled the most recent checklist of vegetation in 2009. In 1967, Stoddart described the land area of Diego Garcia as having a littoral hedge of Scaevola taccada, while inland, Cocos nucifera (coconut) was the most dominant tree, covering most of the island. The substory was either managed and park-like, with understory less than 0.5 m in height, or consisted of what he called "Cocos Bon-Dieu" – an intermediate story of juvenile trees and a luxuriant ground layer of self-sown seedlings – causing those areas to be relatively impenetrable. Also, areas of remnant tropical hardwood forest are at the sites of the plantation-era villages, as well as Casuarina equisetifolia (iron wood pines) woodlands. None of these was endemic, and another survey in 2005 identified just 36 species as "native", meaning arriving without the assistance of humans, and found elsewhere in the world. No terrestrial plant species are of any conservation-related concern at present. Of the 36 native vascular plants on Diego Garcia, 12 are trees, five are shrubs, seven are dicotyledon herbs, three are grasses, four are vines, and five are ferns. The 12 tree species are: Barringtonia asiatica (fish-poison tree), Calophyllum inophyllum (Alexandrian laurel), Cocos nucifera, Cordia subcordata, Guettarda speciosa, Intsia bijuga, Hernandia sonora, Morinda citrifolia, Neisosperma oppositifolium, Pisonia grandis, Terminalia catappa, and Heliotropium foertherianum. Another three tree species are common, and may be native, but they may also have been introduced by humans: Casuarina equisetifolia, Hibiscus tiliaceus, and Pipturus argenteus. The five native shrubs are: Caesalpinia bonduc, Pemphis acidula, Premna serratifolia, Scaevola taccada (often mispronounced "Scaveola"), and Suriana maritima. Also, 134 species of plants are classified as "weedy" or "naturalised alien species", being those unintentionally introduced by man, or intentionally introduced as ornamentals or crop plants which have now "gone native", including 32 new species recorded since 1995, indicating a very rapid rate of introduction. The remainder of the species list consists of cultivated food or ornamental species, grown in restricted environments such as a planter's pot. In 2004, 10 plant communities were recognised on the atoll rim: Mixed native forest, with no dominant canopy species Marshes are divided into three different types: cattail (Typha domingensis), wetland, and mixed species. Cattail marshes contained almost entirely cattails. These areas are often man-made reservoirs or drainages that have been almost entirely monotypic. Wetlands were based upon vegetation that occurred in the area with fresh water. Mixed-species marshes were highly variable and usually had no standing water. ===Wildlife=== All the terrestrial and aquatic fauna of Diego Garcia are protected, with the exception of certain game fish, rats, and cats; hefty fines are levied against violators. ====Crustaceans==== The island is a haven for several types of crustacean; "warrior crabs" (Cardisoma carnifex) overrun the jungle at night. The extremely large coconut crab or robber crab (Birgus latro) is found here in large numbers. Because of the protections provided the species on this atoll, and the isolation of the east rim of the atoll, the species is recorded in greater densities there than anywhere else in its range (339 crabs/ha). ====Mammals==== No mammal species are native on Diego Garcia, with no record of bats. Other than rats (Rattus rattus), all "wild" mammal species are feral descendants of domesticated species. During the plantation era, Diego Garcia was home to large herds of Sicilian donkeys (Equus asinus), dozens of horses (Equus caballus), hundreds of dogs (Canis familiaris), and house cats (Felis catus). In 1971, the BIOT Commissioner ordered the extermination of feral dogs following the departure of the last plantation workers, and the program continued through 1975, when the last feral dog was observed and shot. Donkeys, which numbered over 400 in 1972, were down to just 20 individuals in 2005. The last horse was observed in 1995, The 680-hectare Barton Point Nature Reserve was identified as an Important Bird Area for its large breeding colony of red-footed boobies. ====Introduced birds==== The island hosts introduced bird species from many regions, including cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis), Indian barred ground dove, also called the zebra dove (Geopelia striata), turtle dove (Nesoenas picturata), Indian mynah (Acridotheres tristis), Madagascar fody (Foudia madagascariensis), and chickens (Gallus gallus). ====Terrestrial reptiles and freshwater amphibians==== Currently, three lizards and one toad are known to inhabit Diego Garcia, and possibly one snake. All are believed to have been introduced by human activity. The house gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), the mourning gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris), the garden lizard (an agamid) (Calotes versicolor), and the cane toad (Bufo marinus). A viable population of a type of blind snake from the family Typhlopidae may be present, probably the brahminy blind snake (Ramphotyphlops braminus). This snake feeds on the larvae, eggs, and pupae of ants and termites, and is about the size of a large earthworm. ====Sea turtles==== Diego Garcia provides suitable foraging and nesting habitat for both the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) and the green turtle (Chelonia mydas). Juvenile hawksbills are quite common in the lagoon and at Barachois Sylvane (also known as Turtle Cove) in the southern part of the lagoon. Adult hawksbills and greens are common in the surrounding seas and nest regularly on the ocean-side beaches of the atoll. Hawksbills have been observed nesting during June and July, and from November to March. Greens have been observed nesting in every month; the average female lays three clutches per season, each having an average clutch size of 113 eggs. Diurnal nesting is common in both species. An estimated 300–700 hawksbills and 400–800 greens nest in the Chagos. ====Endangered species==== Four reptiles and six cetaceans are endangered and may or may not be found on or around Diego Garcia: Hawksbill turtle (Eretmocheyls imbricata) – known; leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) – possible; green turtle (Chelonia mydas) – known; olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys oliveacea) – possible; sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) – possible; sei whale (Balaeonoptera borealis) – possible; finback whale (Balaeonoptera physalus) – possible; Bryde's whale (Balaeonoptera edeni) – possible; blue whale (Balaeonoptera musculus) – possible; humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) – possible; southern right whale (Eubalaena australis) – possible. ==United Kingdom military activities== British Forces British Indian Ocean Territories (BFBIOT) is the official name for the British Armed Forces deployment at the Permanent Joint Operating Base (PJOB) on Diego Garcia, in the British Indian Ocean Territory. While the naval and airbase facilities on Diego Garcia are leased to the United States, in practice, it operates as a joint UK-US base, with the UK retaining full and continual access. Diego Garcia is strategically located, offering access to East Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia. The base serves as a staging area for the buildup or resupply of military forces prior to an operation. There are approximately 40–50 British military personnel posted on Diego Garcia, most of them from Naval Party 1002 (NP1002). NP1002 forms the island's civil administration and some naval forces. ==United States military activities== During the Cold War era, following the British withdrawal from East of Suez, the United States was keen to establish a military base in the Indian Ocean to counter Soviet influence and establish American dominance in the region and protect its sea-lanes for oil transportation from the Middle East. The United States saw the atoll as the "Malta of the Indian Ocean" equidistant from all points. The island has served as an "unsinkable aircraft carrier" for United States activities during the Iranian revolution, the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, Operation Desert Fox, Operation Enduring Freedom, and Operation Iraqi Freedom. In the contemporary era, the atoll retains a key role in America's strategic approach to the Indian Ocean, acting as a flexible forward military hub able to support a range of offensive activities. The United States military facilities on Diego Garcia have been known informally as Camp Justice and, after renaming in July 2006, as Camp Thunder Cove. Formally, the base is known as Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia (the US activity) or Permanent Joint Operating Base (PJOB) Diego Garcia (the UK's term). United States military activities in Diego Garcia have caused friction between India and the United States in the past. Political party CPI(M) in India has repeatedly called for the military base to be dismantled, as they saw the United States naval presence in Diego Garcia as a hindrance to peace in the Indian Ocean. Recent construction in support of US military activities on Diego Garcia has included Black Construction/Mace International JV building a 34-metre antenna facility (expected completed by April 2021) and two new 13-metre radomes (expected completed by February 2021); and SJC-BVIL moving underground the overhead power and telephone lines that run from the Navy ammunition area to the Air Force ammunition area along DG1 (expected completed by September 2022). ===Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia=== Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia provides Base Operating Services to tenant commands located on the island. The command's mission is "To provide logistic support to operational forces forward deployed to the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf AORs in support of national policy objectives." KBR has run base operations support services at Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia. ===United States Air Force and Space Force units based on Diego Garcia=== 36 MSG, Pacific Air Force Det 1, 730th Air Mobility Squadron, Air Mobility Command Det 1, 21st Space Operations Squadron, a Satellite Control Network Remote Tracking Station, Space Operations Command Det 2, a GEODSS facility, Space Operations Command ===United States pre-positioned vessels=== The atoll shelters the ships of the United States Marine Pre-positioning Squadron Two. These ships carry equipment and supplies to support a major armed force with tanks, armoured personnel carriers, munitions, fuel, spare parts and even a mobile field hospital. This equipment was used during the Persian Gulf War, when the squadron transported equipment to Saudi Arabia. The ship composition of MPSRON TWO is dynamic. During August 2010 it was composed of the following: MV Capt. Steven L. Bennett USNS SGT William R. Button (T-AK-3012), MV SSG Edward A. Carter, Jr. (T-AK-4544), MV Maj. Bernard F. Fisher USNS Lawrence H. Gianella USNS SGT Matej Kocak (T-AK-3005), USNS 1st LT Baldomero Lopez (T-AK-3010), MV LTC John U. D. Page USNS GYSGT Fred W. Stockham Five of these vessels carry supplies for the US Marine Corps sufficient to support a Marine Air-Ground Task Force for 30 days: USNS Button, USNS Kocak, USNS Lopez, USNS Stockham, and USNS Fisher. Prior to 2001, COMPSRON 2 consisted of up to 20 ships, including four Combat Force Ships which provided rapid-response delivery of equipment to ground troops in the United States Army. Three are lighter aboard ships (LASH) which carry barges called lighters that contain Army ammunition to be ferried ashore: MV American Cormorant, SS Green Harbour, (LASH), SS Green Valley, (LASH), MV Jeb Stuart, (LASH). There were logistics vessels to service the rapid delivery requirements of the United States Air Force, United States Navy and Defense Logistics Agency. These included container ships for Air Force munitions, missiles and spare parts; a 500-bed hospital ship, and floating storage and offloading units assigned to Military Sealift Command supporting the Defense Logistics Agency, and an offshore petroleum discharge system (OPDS) tanker. Examples of ships are MV Buffalo Soldier, MV Green Ridge, pre-position tanker USNS Henry J. Kaiser, and tanker . ===HF global station=== The United States Air Force operates a High Frequency Global Communications System transceiver site located on the south end of the atoll near the GEODSS station. The transceiver is operated remotely from Andrews Air Force Base and Grand Forks Air Force Base and is locally maintained by NCTS FE personnel. ===Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station Far East Detachment Diego Garcia=== Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station Far East Detachment Diego Garcia operates a detachment in Diego Garcia. This detachment provides base telephone communications, base network services (Local Network Services Center), pier connectivity services, and an AN/GSC-39C SHF satellite terminal, operates the Hydroacoustic Data Acquisition System, and performs on-site maintenance for the remotely operated Air Force HF-GCS terminal. In July 2023, Reuters confirmed an underwater fibre-optic cable spur from the Oman Australia Cable was constructed to Diego Garcia during 2022. ===Naval Security Group Detachment Diego Garcia=== Naval Security Group detachment Diego Garcia was disestablished on 30 September 2005. Remaining essential operations were transferred to a contractor. The large AN/AX-16 High Frequency Radio direction finding Circularly Disposed Antenna Array has been demolished, but the four satellite antenna radomes around the site remain . However, multiple CDAAs on the island still exist, as seen in satellite imagery. ==Space Shuttle== The island was designated as one of the emergency landing sites worldwide for the NASA Space Shuttle. None of these facilities were ever used throughout the life of the shuttle program. ==Cargo service== All consumable food and equipment are brought to Diego Garcia by sea or air, and all non-biodegradable waste is shipped off the island as well. From 1971 to 1973, United States Navy LSTs provided this service. Beginning in 1973, civilian ships were contracted to provide these services. From 2004 to 2009, the US-flagged container ship MV Baffin Strait, often referred to as the "DGAR shuttle", delivered 250 containers every month from Singapore to Diego Garcia. The ship delivered "more than 200,000 tons of cargo to the island each year". In 2004, TransAtlantic Lines outbid Sealift Incorporated for the transport contract between Singapore and Diego Garcia. The route had previously been serviced by Sealift Inc.'s MV Sagamore, crewed by members of American Maritime Officers and Seafarers' International Union.	[ "Radio direction finding", "Thunderstorm", "United States Air Force", "Her Majesty's Government", "billet", "Egmont Islands", "United States Navy", "Shah of Iran", "Joe Biden", "US National Geodetic Survey", "shrub", "extraordinary rendition", "Mascarene Islands", "Central Intelligence Agency", "History of Portugal (1415–1578)", "Xavier Romero-Frias", "Barringtonia asiatica", "Smithsonian Institution", "U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay", "aquifer", "Early world maps", "leper colony", "Khmer Rouge", "African Nuclear Weapons Free Zone Treaty", "Peros Banhos", "Cocos nucifera", "Afghanistan", "depopulation of Chagossians from the Chagos Archipelago", "Mauritius", "Commissioner of the British Indian Ocean Territory", "savanna", "Peshawar Air Station", "List of United States military bases", "Guam", "Bubulcus ibis", "ant", "bridled tern", "MV Buffalo Soldier", "Hemidactylus frenatus", "UTC+06:00", "Rattus rattus", "Dieppe maps", "South Equatorial Current", "cistern", "red-footed booby", "515th Air Mobility Operations Wing", "Malay race", "oral tradition", "Lakshadweep", "dredge", "United States Marine Corps", "Oman Australia Cable", "upper atmosphere", "Suez Canal", "lesser noddy", "Abraham Ortelius", "Air Force Technical Applications Center", "Cleo Laine", "Heliotropium foertherianum", "Chagossians", "Iranian revolution", "coconut", "Strait of Hormuz", "extractivism", "Operation Desert Fox", "USNS GYSGT Fred W. Stockham (T-AK-3017)", "Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs", "World War I", "Aden", "Satellite Control Network", "atoll", "plant community", "olive ridley", "Associated Press", "Camp Justice (Diego Garcia)", "Plate tectonics", "Operation Iraqi Freedom", "Cyperus", "Holocene", "Jack Straw", "United States Department of Defense", "Cantino planisphere", "hedge", "Australia", "Edward Wright (mathematician)", "HF-GCS", "Pravind Jugnauth", "British Mauritius", "The Washington Post", "Pipturus", "Sebastian Cabot (explorer)", "Treaty of Paris (1814)", "Asplenium nidus", "Marine Air-Ground Task Force", "tsunami", "UGM-27 Polaris", "hawksbill turtle", "21st Space Operations Squadron", "Tariffs in the second Trump administration", "Seychelles", "Sei whale", "Coriolis effect", "Fin whale", "2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami", "Ramsar Convention", "Portuguese India Armadas", "Chagos–Laccadive Ridge", "coral reef", "Maldives", "Mauritius v. United Kingdom", "fall of Saigon", "Triumfetta", "USNS Henry J. Kaiser", "Important Bird Area", "the Pentagon", "Kew Gardens", "Typha domingensis", "Guettarda speciosa", "Free-ranging dog", "Caesalpinia bonduc", "Iraqi invasion of Kuwait", "Manfred Nowak", "Hydraulic head", "Coconut", "Iraq War", "Stealing a Nation", "mean sea level", "Garcia de Noronha", "Grand Forks Air Force Base", "barachois", "List of British Army installations", "War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)", "University of Auckland", "British Armed Forces", "Second cabinet of Donald Trump", "Acridotheres tristis", "Ipomoea pes-caprae", "Dermochelys coriacea", "coaling station", "tropical shearwater", "Lepidodactylus lugubris", "Gulf War", "MV Capt. Steven L. Bennett (T-AK-4296)", "bomber", "Equus asinus", "Denis Quilley", "vascular plant", "The Hague", "Foudia madagascariensis", "Chagos Archipelago", "black-naped tern", "Council of Europe", "Ghyben-Herzberg lenses", "British Overseas Territories", "Expulsion of the Chagossians", "Ramsar site", "container ship", "Noam Chomsky", "seawater", "termite", "turning basin", "vine", "list of Space Shuttle landing sites", "floating storage and offloading unit", "Khalid Sheikh Mohammed", "Fimbristylis", "United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea", "Pemphis", "The Guardian", "Smithsonian", "Governor of the Seychelles", "Air Mobility Command", "Three Brothers (islands), Chagos", "MV Maj. Bernard F. Fisher (T-AK-4396)", "Chagos Archipelago", "Napoleonic Wars", "Navy League of the United States", "black sites", "precipitation (meteorology)", "Eubalaena australis", "International Court of Justice", "NASA", "Nias Island", "fern", "Sealift Incorporated", "brown noddy", "Arab people", "Theatrum Orbis Terrarum", "Andrews Air Force Base", "Antwerp", "Seafarers' International Union", "Colin Powell", "King Charles III", "Salomon Islands", "Space Shuttle", "Tanker (ship)", "Bryde's whale", "B-52 bomber", "Indian Ocean", "Copra", "white tern", "Naval Security Group", "Köppen climate classification", "Wullenweber", "Diego García de Moguer", "Barry McCaffrey", "Cold War", "seamount", "Pisonia grandis", "Equus caballus", "British Indian Ocean Territory", "Lighter (barge)", "United States Army", "Foreign Affairs Select Committee", "Donald Trump", "Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew", "Slavery", "Chagossian Creole", "Calotes versicolor", "nuclear weapon", "Lawrence Wilkerson", "white-breasted waterhen", "Nesoenas picturata", "Deutscher Wetterdienst", "Hernandiaceae", "Andersen Air Force Base", "Megaptera novaeangliae", "Defense Logistics Agency", "United Nations special rapporteur", "Clark Air Base", "littoral zone", "Space Shuttle abort modes", "Intertropical Convergence Zone", "Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia", "Endemism", "Robert Moresby", "Scaevola taccada", "RAF Gan", "James Horsburgh", "2024 United States presidential election", "Pacific Air Forces", "steamships", "Pleistocene", "red-tailed tropicbird", "Keir Starmer", "American Maritime Officers", "Fuelling station", "evapotranspiration", "Hendrik Hondius II", "Eretmochelys imbricata", "crustacean", "Austronesia", "Royal Marines", "Sumatra", "Communist Party of India (Marxist)", "Suriana", "36th Wing", "Outer Islands of Mauritius", "No. 205 Squadron RAF", "high-value detainees", "Carlsberg Ridge", "territorial waters", "Calophyllum inophyllum", "Neisosperma oppositifolium", "Barton Point Nature Reserve", "Gallus gallus", "Mayaguez incident", "lighter aboard ship", "copra", "Somalia", "East of Suez", "East India Company", "Felis catus", "MV Baffin Strait (T-AK W9519)", "Indian Navy", "GEODSS", "Operation Enduring Freedom", "equator", "Indo-Pacific", "CIA", "United States diplomatic cables leak", "No. 240 Squadron RAF", "French-based creole languages", "cacography", "Physeter macrocephalus", "Malagasy language", "Short Sunderland", "David Miliband", "Great Chagos Bank", "saltwater intrusion", "Pakistan", "rainfall", "Germplasm Resources Information Network", "Terminalia catappa", "Gerardus Mercator", "2004 Indian Ocean earthquake", "Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office", "overseas territory of the United Kingdom", "Philippines", "dicotyledon", "mammal", "BBC News", "Permanent Court of Arbitration", "Iran hostage crisis", "Canis familiaris", "striated heron", "wedge-tailed shearwater", "Jonathan Freedland", "Slavery Abolition Act 1833", "The New York Review of Books", "Elsevier", "Foreign and Commonwealth Office", "Seabee", "World War II", "lesser frigatebird", "Reprieve (organisation)", "ocean topography", "Saudi Arabia", "Bufo marinus", "coconut oil", "sea cucumber", "Premna", "hospital ship", "Government of the British Indian Ocean Territory", "Cordia subcordata", "Ramphotyphlops braminus", "James Cleverly", "USNS Lawrence H. Gianella (T-AOT-1125)", "torture", "unsinkable aircraft carrier", "Chelonia mydas", "Indian Ocean", "TransAtlantic Lines LLC", "India", "Geopelia striata", "Hibiscus tiliaceus", "United Nations General Assembly", "tropical cyclone", "The Sunday Times", "Consolidated PBY Catalina", "expulsion of the Chagossians", "botanical", "Military Sealift Command", "Linnean Society of London", "coconut crab", "British Overseas Territory", "plantations", "The Toronto Star", "Tanzania", "Cardisoma carnifex", "Naval Party (Royal Navy)", "Royal Navy", "blue whale", "Îlois", "Chagos Marine Protected Area", "William Russo (musician)", "Kagnew Station", "Intsia bijuga", "tropical rainforest climate", "Mauritian Creole", "Pierre Desceliers", "lepers", "Madagascar", "Casuarina equisetifolia", "Morinda citrifolia", "Diurnality", "Super high frequency", "United States Department of Agriculture", "perimeter", "Lepturus", "Persian Gulf", "Space Operations Command", "Pedro Mascarenhas", "yards", "Adrian Mitchell", "radome", "slaves", "terrestrial plant" ]
8,631	Dimmu Borgir	Dimmu Borgir () is a Norwegian symphonic black metal band from Jessheim, formed in 1993. The name is derived from Dimmuborgir, a volcanic formation in Iceland, the name of which means "dark cities" or "dark castles/fortresses" in Icelandic, Faroese and Old Norse. The band has been through numerous lineup changes over the years; vocalist Shagrath and rhythm guitarist Silenoz are the only original members who still remain. == History == === For All Tid and Stormblåst period === Dimmu Borgir was founded in 1993 by Silenoz and Tjodalv. Shagrath, Brynjard Tristan and Stian Aarstad later joined Dimmu Borgir, and then released an EP in 1994 entitled Inn i evighetens mørke ("Into the Darkness of Eternity"). This short EP sold out within weeks, and the band followed up with the 1994 full-length album For All Tid ("For All Time"). This album featured vocal contributions by Vicotnik of Ved Buens Ende and Dødheimsgard and Aldrahn of Dødheimsgard and Zyklon-B. The initial line-up consisted of Shagrath playing drums with Tjodalv on guitar and Silenoz contributing lead vocals. This line-up changed before the release of Stormblåst ("Stormblown") on Cacophonous Records in 1996, an album considered by many to be their finest. It is also the last album which features all lyrics written and sung in Norwegian. === Enthrone Darkness Triumphant period === After Stormblåst, keyboardist Stian Aarstad left the band due to his obligation to serve in the Norwegian army, thus being unable to participate in the 1996 recording of Devil's Path. That period was also marked by the departure of bassist Brynjard Tristan and the arrival of Nagash. Stian Aarstad returned for the recording of 1997's Enthrone Darkness Triumphant. He had trouble attending rehearsals and was unable to tour. He was then subsequently dismissed and replaced by Kimberly Goss for their 1997/1998 world tour. Enthrone Darkness Triumphant was a huge success for the band, and was their first release signed to Nuclear Blast, a German record label. The album was recorded in the Abyss Studios, owned by Hypocrisy's frontman Peter Tägtgren. After the release of Enthrone Darkness Triumphant, the band went on tour with In Flames, Dissection and other bands who were prominent in the scene at the time. === Spiritual Black Dimensions and Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia period === After the tour for Enthrone Darkness Triumphant, the band recruited new members Mustis on keyboards and Astennu on lead guitar. Dimmu Borgir's following full-length albums Spiritual Black Dimensions in 1999 and 2001's Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia, both met critical acclaim. However, another line-up change occurred between the two albums; Nagash quit and was replaced by new bassist/singer ICS Vortex, and Tjodalv left due to his family commitments, and to form the subsequent band Susperia, to be replaced with Nick Barker of Cradle of Filth. Astennu was fired from his guitar duties as well due to creative differences, and was replaced by Galder. === Death Cult Armageddon and Stormblåst MMV period === Despite the regular video play on MTV2 and Fuse that their follow-up album would receive, the band stated that they were not "commercially-oriented", and instead, they "simply wished to spread their message to more people". In 2003, Dimmu Borgir recorded Death Cult Armageddon. Death Cult Armageddon was recorded with the Prague Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Adam Klemens. All orchestrations were arranged by Gaute Storaas (who had previously worked with Dimmu Borgir on the album Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia). In 2004, Dimmu Borgir performed on the mainstage at Ozzfest. In 2005, the band did a complete re-recording of the Stormblåst album, featuring Hellhammer of Mayhem fame as the session drummer. The album also featured a DVD with a live performance from the 2004 Ozzfest tour. ===In Sorte Diaboli period=== Dimmu Borgir's seventh studio album, In Sorte Diaboli, was released on 24 April 2007. A special edition version was released in a boxed case with a DVD, backward-printed lyrics, and a mirror. The album artwork was released on 14 February 2007 on a promotional webpage for the album. This album features once more the drumming of Hellhammer of Mayhem. Blomberg left the band in mid-tour in 2007 because of a neck injury that resulted in limited movement of his right arm. With the release of this album, Dimmu Borgir became the first black metal band with a number one album on the charts in their native country. In October 2008, they released their second live DVD set titled The Invaluable Darkness, which was based on several shows during the world tour supporting "In Sorte Diaboli". In 2008, the band played the UK festival Bloodstock. In 2009, members ICS Vortex and Mustis independently announced their departure from Dimmu Borgir. Mustis released a statement claiming his disfavor with the band, stating that he was not properly credited for his writing contributions to the band's music, mentioning possibly taking legal action. Dimmu Borgir soon after confirmed the pair's dismissal from the band, releasing a statement explaining why the two were fired. Shagrath, Silenoz and Galder wrote: "Funny then, how the new album is half-way finished written already by the rest of us without any of these guys' input, still having all those elements we're known for." Silenoz explained that the growing periods of time between albums was because the band had stopped writing music while touring, which was affecting the quality of the music. He described the new album as having an "eerie and haunting feel to it", adding that the material is "epic", "primal", atmospheric and ambient. A promotional image released with the statement showed Shagrath returning to the keyboards. The album features an ensemble orchestra, the Kringkastingsorkestret (the Norwegian Broadcasting Orchestra), as well as the Schola Cantorum choir, totaling more than 100 musicians and singers. Gaute Storaas, composer of the orchestral arrangements, released a statement on his role in working on the album. "Their music is epic, thematic and symphonic already from the creation; they are clearly having an orchestral approach to composing. My role in this is sometimes just to transcribe their themes, sometimes to take their ideas, tear them apart and build them back up in ways that are true to the band's intentions. The music must also be both interesting and playable for the musicians, and hopefully, meet the quality standards of the orchestral world." On 8 July the band confirmed that they had tapped Swedish multi-instrumentalist Snowy Shaw (Therion, Dream Evil) to replace bassist/clean vocalist ICS Vortex on their then-upcoming album, Abrahadabra, and world tour. On 25 August it was announced that Snowy Shaw had left Dimmu Borgir to rejoin Therion. On 17 September 2010 Dimmu Borgir released the song "Born Treacherous" from Abrahadabra on their official Myspace page. Then on 24 September the band announced they would stream Abrahadabra in its entirety until 7 p.m. EST that evening. The keyboards and bass are currently played by Gerlioz from Apoptygma Berzerk and Cyrus of Susperia respectively, and the clean vocals are sampled. 28 May 2011 saw Dimmu Borgir, for the first time in the band's career, perform live with a full symphony orchestra and choir in a one-off show with the Norwegian Broadcasting Orchestra and Schola Cantorum Choir (who collaborated on Abrahadabra the previous year) at the Oslo Spectrum entitled "Forces of the Northern Night". This was broadcast live on Norway's main national TV carrier NRK. The setlist for this show consisted of tracks from the band's recent transfiguration Abrahadabra, leading tracks "Vredysbyrd" and "Progenies of the Great Apocalypse" from Death Cult Armageddon, as well as newly updated versions of tracks from their standard back catalog; "The Serpentine Offering", "Kings of the Carnival Creation", and "Mourning Palace" which were re-orchestrated by Gaute Storaas. The band played a similar show the following year at the Wacken Open Air festival, having yet performed a second live show with a symphony orchestra and choir. This time, they were accompanied by the Czech National Orchestra with the same choir, being the second band in the festival's history to play with a live orchestra and choir (next to German power metal band Rage's 2007 performance). The show was broadcast live on Germany's Kultur TV arts channel. Silenoz has also said in several recent interviews that both live sets have been fully mixed and will be accompanied by a feature-length documentary and bonus material when released. In late 2011-2012 the band went on a special tour for fans in various European countries, including playing in some small, intimate venues celebrating their 1997 album Enthrone Darkness Triumphant by playing the album in its entirety, alongside an additional set of various fan favourite tracks, following a poll to fans directly, asking which of their first 3 albums would they want to see played in full on their next European tour. ===Forces of the Northern Night and Eonian=== The band originally announced in August 2013 that work had commenced on the band's next album. However, the production and release of the album has faced numerous delays. It will mark the longest-ever gap between each studio release. Following various delays, the Oslo and Wacken Orchestra performances, recorded between 2011 and 2012, were released on CD/DVD/Blu-ray format on 28 April 2017 worldwide as their third live video release titled Forces of the Northern Night. Silenoz recently revealed that the band is in the mixing stage of the follow-up to Abrahadabra. Ten songs will feature on the next album and they have said it has since been completed. On 18 December 2017 it was announced that the first single from the new album will be initially released on a 7-inch vinyl EP, and will be titled Interdimensional Summit, and was released on 23 February 2018. The new album was titled Eonian and was released on 4 May through Nuclear Blast, and marked the band's first new release of original material in almost eight years. A second song from the new album, "Council of Wolves and Snakes", was made available for streaming online on 30 March. On 28 May, it was announced that Victor Brandt (Entombed A.D., Firespawn) had officially joined as the band's new touring bassist. ===Upcoming tenth studio album=== According to updates on the band members' Instagram accounts in September 2020, the band is in the process of writing and pre-production for their tenth studio album. Silenoz originally claimed the new album wouldn't take as long to release. However, he later took back this statement in December 2023, where he said the band was not prepared to rush the album, and said it will be finished when it is finished, and referred to the 8 years it took Eonian to be released as the longest time it could take for the next album. A cover album was released on December 8, 2023, titled Inspiratio Profanus. It contains all the covers the band has recorded up to Abrahadabra. On March 30, 2024, during a show in Norway, the band reunited with former members Tjodalv, ICS Vortex and Mustis for a live performance. On August 18, 2024, Galder announced via his Instagram account that he had left Dimmu Borgir, playing his last show the day before at Dynamo Metal Fest. In December 2024 it was revealed on the band’s official Instagram that they had entered the studio to record their tenth studio album, indicating a possibility it will be released later in 2025, although an official statement regarding its release is yet to be announced. ==Musical style and influences== Dimmu Borgir's older releases (since 1994 to 1999) are, according to AllMusic journalist Bradley Torreano, strongly influenced by Darkthrone, Mayhem, Bathory, Emperor, Celtic Frost, Immortal, Venom, and Iron Maiden. Enthrone Darkness Triumphant, Dimmu Borgir's third album, "distinguished itself in two important areas, firstly forgoing their native language for English and secondly for its dramatic increase in synthesizer content." As the music strongly differed from the older, rawer black metal style, Jon "Metalion" Kristiansen called Spiritual Black Dimensions "a fine case of melodic, over-produced symphonic metal. If you like this melodic style I can't really think of anyone doing it better [...]. No, I wouldn't call this black metal. Read the interview with Funeral Mist for the right definition of black metal." ==Members== ===Current official members=== Silenoz – rhythm guitar , lead vocals , bass Shagrath – lead vocals , drums , lead guitar , keyboards, synthesizers, bass ===Current session/touring members=== Daray – drums Gerlioz – keyboards, synthesizers Victor Brandt – bass ==Discography== For all tid (1995) Stormblåst (1996) Enthrone Darkness Triumphant (1997) Spiritual Black Dimensions (1999) Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia (2001) Death Cult Armageddon (2003) In Sorte Diaboli (2007) Abrahadabra (2010) Eonian (2018)	[ "Norwegian language", "Nick Barker (drummer)", "Galder", "Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia", "Zyklon-B (band)", "Stian Arnesen", "Ozzfest", "Richard Wagner", "Apoptygma Berzerk", "Schola Cantorum (Norwegian choir)", "Ov Hell", "Nile (band)", "Code (band)", "Cradle of Filth", "Nuclear Blast", "Peter Tägtgren", "Emperor (Norwegian band)", "Carpe Tenebrum", "Eonian", "Faroese language", "Inn i evighetens mørke", "Geir Bratland", "Therion (band)", "Spiritual Black Dimensions", "No Colours Records", "Dimmuborgir", "Devil's Path (Dimmu Borgir EP)", "Silenoz", "Funeral Mist", "ICS Vortex", "Death Cult Armageddon", "Vader (band)", "Gaute Storaas", "MTV2", "symphonic black metal", "Tjodalv", "Entombed A.D.", "The Kovenant", "Iron Maiden", "Arcturus (band)", "Enya", "Dariusz Brzozowski", "AllMusic", "Jessheim", "Dissection (band)", "Chrome Division", "Century Media Records", "Brujeria (band)", "Blabbermouth.net", "Korn", "Darkthrone", "Brynjard Tristan", "Stormblåst MMV", "Old Norse", "Nachtmystium", "For all tid", "Mustis", "Bathory (band)", "Fuse (TV channel)", "Kimberly Goss", "Firespawn", "Old Man's Child", "Mayhem (band)", "Celtic Frost", "In Flames", "Daray", "For All Tid", "Exclaim!", "Spikefarm Records", "Hypocrisy (band)", "Dødheimsgard", "Ved Buens Ende", "Icelandic language", "Kringkastingsorkestret", "Symphonic black metal", "Facebook", "Victor Brandt (musician)", "Borknagar", "Snowy Shaw", "Shagrath", "Stormblåst", "Enthrone Darkness Triumphant", "Venom (band)", "Ragnarok (Norwegian band)", "Angelcorpse", "Astennu (musician)", "Dream Evil", "In Sorte Diaboli", "Vesania", "power metal", "Wacken Open Air", "Jan Axel Blomberg", "Frédéric Chopin", "Immortal (band)", "Susperia", "melodic black metal", "Rage (German band)", "Stian Aarstad", "The Invaluable Darkness", "Abrahadabra (album)", "Antonín Dvořák", "God Dethroned" ]
8,632	Druze	The Druze ( ; , ' or ', , '), who call themselves al-Muwaḥḥidūn (), are an Arab esoteric religious group from West Asia who adhere to the Druze faith''', an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and syncretic religion whose main tenets assert the unity of God, reincarnation, and the eternity of the soul. Although the Druze faith developed from Isma'ilism, Druze do not identify as Muslims. They maintain Arabic language and culture as integral parts of their identity, with Arabic being their primary language. Most Druze religious practices are kept secret, and conversion to their religion is not permitted for outsiders. Interfaith marriages are rare and strongly discouraged. They differentiate between spiritual individuals, known as "uqqāl", who hold the faith's secrets, and secular ones, known as "juhhāl", who focus on worldly matters. Druze believe that, after completing the cycle of rebirth through successive reincarnations, the soul reunites with the Cosmic Mind (). The Epistles of Wisdom is the foundational and central text of the Druze faith. The Druze faith originated in Isma'ilism (a branch of Shia Islam), and has been influenced by a diverse range of traditions, including Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Pythagoreanism. This has led to the development of a distinct and secretive theology, characterized by an esoteric interpretation of scripture that emphasizes the importance of the mind and truthfulness. They regard Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, and the Isma'ili Imam Muhammad ibn Isma'il as prophets. Additionally, Druze tradition honors figures such as Salman the Persian, al-Khidr (whom they identify with Elijah, John the Baptist and Saint George), Job, Luke the Evangelist, and others as "mentors" and "prophets". The Druze faith is one of the major religious groups in the Levant, with between 800,000 and a million adherents. They are primarily located in Lebanon, Syria, and Israel, with smaller communities in Jordan. They make up 5.5% of Lebanon's population, 3% of Syria and 1.6% of Israel. The oldest and most densely-populated Druze communities exist in Mount Lebanon and in the south of Syria around Jabal al-Druze (literally the "Mountain of the Druze"). The Druze community played a critically important role in shaping the history of the Levant, where it continues to play a significant political role. As a religious minority, they have often faced persecution from various Muslim regimes, including contemporary Islamic extremism. Several theories about the origins of the Druze have been proposed, with the Arabian hypothesis being the most widely accepted among historians, intellectuals, and religious leaders within the Druze community. This hypothesis significantly influences the Druze's self-perception, cultural identity, and both oral and written traditions. It suggests that the Druze are descended from 12 Arab tribes that migrated to Syria before and during the early Islamic period. This perspective is accepted by the entire Druze communities in Syria and Lebanon, as well as by most Druze in Israel. == Etymology == The name Druze is derived from the name of Muhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazī (from Persian , "seamster") who was an early preacher. Although the Druze consider ad-Darazī a heretic, the name has been used to identify them, possibly by their historical opponents as a way to attach their community with ad-Darazi's poor reputation. Before becoming public, the movement was secretive and held closed meetings in what was known as Sessions of Wisdom. During this stage a dispute occurred between ad-Darazi and Hamza bin Ali mainly concerning ad-Darazi's ' ("exaggeration"), which refers to the belief that God was incarnated in human beings to ad-Darazi naming himself "The Sword of the Faith", which led Hamza to write an epistle refuting the need for the sword to spread the faith and several epistles refuting the beliefs of the '. In 1016 ad-Darazi and his followers openly proclaimed their beliefs and called people to join them, causing riots in Cairo against the Unitarian movement including Hamza bin Ali and his followers. This led to the suspension of the movement for one year and the expulsion of ad-Darazi and his supporters. Some authorities see in the name "Druze" a descriptive epithet, derived from Arabic ' ("she who studies"). Others have speculated that the word comes from the Persian word ' ( "bliss") or from Shaykh Hussayn ad-Darazī, who was one of the early converts to the faith. As for Western sources, Benjamin of Tudela, the Jewish traveler who passed through Lebanon in or around 1165, was one of the first European writers to refer to the Druze by name. The word ("Druzes") occurs in an early Hebrew edition of his travels, but it is clear that this is a scribal error. Be that as it may, he described the Druze as "mountain dwellers, monotheists, who believe in 'soul eternity' and reincarnation". He also stated that "they loved the Jews". == Location == The number of Druze people worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in the Levant. The primary countries with Druze populations are Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. According to the Institute of Druze Studies, as of 1998, approximately 40–50% of Druze live in Syria, 30–40% in Lebanon, 6–7% in Israel, and 1–2% in Jordan. Outside the Middle East, significant Druze communities exist in Australia, Canada, Europe, Latin America (mainly Venezuela, In 2021 the largest Druze communities outside the Middle East are in Venezuela, with approximately 60,000, and in the United States, with around 50,000. In 2017, the Los Angeles Times reported about 30,000 Druze in the United States, with the largest concentration in Southern California. == History == === Early history === The story of the creation of the Druze faith in the days between 1017 and 1018 is dominated by three men and their struggle for influence. Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad was an Ismaili mystic and scholar from Khorasan, who arrived in Fatimid Egypt in 1014 or 1016 arrived in Fatimid Egypt in 1014 or 1016. In 1017, Hamza began to preach a Muwaḥḥidūn (Unitarian) doctrine. Hamza gained the support of the Fātimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, who issued a decree promoting religious freedom and eventually became a central figure in the Druze faith. ==== al-Darazi arrives in Cairo ==== Little is known about the early life of al-Darazi. According to most sources, he was born in Bukhara. He is believed to have been of Persian origins and his title al-Darazi is Persian in origin, meaning "the tailor". He arrived in Cairo in 1015, or 1017, after which he joined the newly emerged Druze movement. Al-Darazi was converted early to the Unitarian faith and became one of its early preachers. At that time, the movement enlisted a large number of adherents. As the number of his followers grew, he became obsessed with his leadership and gave himself the title "The Sword of the Faith". Al-Darazi argued that he should be the leader of the daʻwah rather than Hamza ibn Ali and gave himself the title "Lord of the Guides" because Caliph al-Hakim referred to Hamza as "Guide of the Consented". It is said that al-Darazi allowed wine, forbidden marriages and taught metempsychosis It promoted absolute monotheism and the concepts of supporting your fellow man, true speech and pursuit of oneness with God. These concepts superseded all ritual, law and dogma and requirements for pilgrimage, fasting, holy days, prayer, charity, devotion, creed and particular worship of any prophet or person was downplayed. Sharia was opposed and Druze traditions started during the call continue today, such as meeting for reading, prayer and social gathering on a Thursday instead of a Friday at Khalwats instead of mosques. Such gatherings and traditions were not compulsory and people were encouraged to pursue a state of compliance with the real law of nature governing the universe. Epistle thirteen of the Epistles of Wisdom called it "A spiritual doctrine without any ritualistic imposition". The time of the call was seen as a revolution of truth, with missionaries preaching its message all around the Middle East. These messengers were sent out with the Druze epistles and took written vows from believers, whose souls are thought to still exist in the Druze of today. The souls of those who took the vows during the call are believed to be continuously reincarnating in successive generations of Druze until the return of al-Hakim to proclaim a second Divine call and establish a Golden Age of justice and peace for all. ==== al-Darazi is executed ==== By 1018, al-Darazi had gathered around him partisans—"Darazites"—who believed that universal reason became incarnated in Adam at the beginning of the world, was then passed to the prophets, then into Ali, and then into his descendants, the Fatimid Caliphs. ==== Disappearance of Al-Hakim ==== Al-Hakim disappeared one night while on his evening ride—presumably assassinated, perhaps at the behest of his formidable elder sister Sitt al-Mulk. The Druze believe he went into Occultation with Hamza ibn Ali and three other prominent preachers, leaving the care of the "Unitarian missionary movement" to a new leader, al-Muqtana Baha'uddin. The call was suspended briefly between 19 May 1018 and 9 May 1019 during the apostasy of al-Darazi and again between 1021 and 1026 during a period of persecution by the Fatimid caliph al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah for those who had sworn the oath to accept the call. Persecutions started forty days after the disappearance into Occultation of al-Hakim, who was thought to have been converting people to the Unitarian faith for over twenty years prior. Al-Hakim convinced some heretical followers such as al-Darazi of his soteriological divinity and officially declared the Divine call after issuing a decree promoting religious freedom. This was the result of a power struggle inside of the Fatimid Calphate, in which the Druze were viewed with suspicion because they refused to recognize the new caliph as their Imam. Many spies, mainly the followers of al-Darazi, joined the Unitarian movement to infiltrate the Druze community. The spies set about agitating trouble and soiling the reputation of the Druze. This resulted in friction with the new caliph who clashed militarily with the Druze community. The clashes ranged from Antioch to Alexandria, where tens of thousands of Druze were slaughtered by the Fatimid army, The largest massacre was at Antioch, where 5000 prominent Druze were killed, followed by that of Aleppo. These sources assert that al-Hakim rejected al-Darazi's claims of divinity, === During the Crusades === Wadi al-Taym, in Lebanon, was one of the two most important centers of Druze missionary activity in the 11th century and was the first area where the Druze appeared in the historical record under the name "Druze". It is generally considered the birthplace of the Druze faith. It was during the period of Crusader rule in Levant (1099–1291) that the Druze first emerged into the full light of history in the Gharb region of the Chouf. As powerful warriors serving the leaders in Damascus against the Crusades, the Druze were given the task of keeping watch over the Crusaders in the seaport of Beirut, to prevent them from making any encroachments inland. Subsequently, the Druze chiefs of the Gharb placed their considerable military experience at the disposal of the Mamluk sultans in Egypt (1250–1516); first, to assist them in putting an end to what remained of Crusader rule in the coastal Levant, and later to help them safeguard the Lebanese coast against Crusader retaliation by sea. In the early period of the Crusader era, the Druze feudal power was in the hands of two families, the Tanukhs and the Arslans. From their fortresses in the Gharb area (now in Aley District of southern Mount Lebanon Governorate), the Tanukhs led their incursions into the Phoenician coast and finally succeeded in holding Beirut and the marine plain against the Franks. Because of their fierce battles with the Crusaders, the Druze earned the respect of the Sunni caliphs and thus gained important political powers. After the middle of the twelfth century, the Maan family superseded the Tanukhs in Druze leadership. The origin of the family goes back to Prince Ma'an, who made his appearance in Lebanon in the days of the Abbasid caliph al-Mustarshid (1118–35). The Ma'ans chose for their abode the Chouf in south-western Lebanon (southern Mount Lebanon Governorate), overlooking the maritime plain between Beirut and Sidon, and made their headquarters in Baaqlin, which is still a leading Druze village. They were invested with feudal authority by Sultan Nur ad-Din Zengi and furnished respectable contingents to the Muslim ranks in their struggle against the Crusaders. Certain aspects of the faith, such as transmigration of souls between adherents and incarnation, were viewed as heretical or kufr (infidelity) and foreign by Sunni and Shia Muslims, but contributed to solidarity among the Druze, who closed their religion to new converts in 1046 due to the threat of persecution. The proto-Salafi thinker ibn Taymiyya believed the Druze had a high level of infidelity besides being apostates. Thus, they were not trustworthy and should not be forgiven. He taught also that Muslims cannot accept Druze penitence nor keep them alive, and that Druze property should be confiscated and their women enslaved. Having cleared the Holy Land of the Crusaders, the Mamluk Sultanate now turned their attention to the schismatic Muslims of Syria. In 1305, after the issuing of a fatwa by the scholar ibn Taymiyya calling for jihad against all non-Sunni Muslim groups like the Druze, Alawites, Isma'ilis, and Twelver Shi'a, al-Nasir Muhammad inflicted a disastrous defeat on the Druze at Keserwan, and forced outward compliance on their part to Sunnism. The Sunni Mamluk campaigns led to the destruction of many Christian churches and monasteries and Druze sanctuaries khilwat, and caused mass destruction of Maronite and Druze villages and the killings and mass displacement of its inhabitants. Lebanese Sunni authors generally write of the campaigns from a pro-Mamluk stance, seeing in them the legitimate Muslim state's efforts to incorporate Mount Lebanon into the Islamic realm, while Druze authors write with a focus on the Druze community's consistent connection to Mount Lebanon and defense of its practical autonomy. Later, the Druze were severely attacked at Saoufar in the 1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze after the Ottomans claimed that the Druze had assaulted their caravans near Tripoli. As a result of the Ottoman experience with the rebellious Druze, the word Durzi in Turkish came, and continues, to mean someone who is the ultimate thug. The 16th and 17th centuries witnessed a succession of armed Druze rebellions against the Ottomans countered by repeated Ottoman punitive expeditions against the Chouf, in which the Druze population of the area was severely depleted and many villages destroyed. These military measures, severe as they were, did not succeed in reducing the local Druze to the required degree of subordination. This led the Ottoman government to agree to an arrangement whereby the different nahiyahs (districts) of the Chouf would be granted in iltizam ("fiscal concession") to one of the region's amirs, or leading chiefs, leaving the maintenance of law and order and the collection of taxes in the area in the hands of the appointed amir. This arrangement was to provide the cornerstone for the privileged status ultimately enjoyed by the whole of Mount Lebanon, Druze and Christian areas alike. Fakhr-al-Din II was the first ruler in modern Lebanon to open the doors of his country to foreign Western influences. Under his auspices the French established a khān (hostel) in Sidon, the Florentines a consulate, and Christian missionaries were admitted into the country. Beirut and Sidon, which Fakhr-al-Din II beautified, still bear traces of his benign rule. See the new biography of this Prince, based on original sources, by TJ Gorton: Renaissance Emir: a Druze Warlord at the Court of the Medici (London, Quartet Books, 2013), for an updated view of his life. Fakhr ad Din II was succeeded in 1635 by his nephew Mulhim Ma'n, who ruled through his death in 1658. (Fakhr ad Din's only surviving son, Husayn, lived the rest of his life as a court official in Constantinople.) Emir Mulhim exercised Iltizam taxation rights in the Shuf, Gharb, Jurd, Matn, and Kisrawan districts of Lebanon. Mulhim's forces battled and defeated those of Mustafa Pasha, Beylerbey of Damascus, in 1642, but he is reported by historians to have been otherwise loyal to Ottoman rule. Following Mulhim's death, his sons Ahmad and Korkmaz entered into a power struggle with other Ottoman-backed Druze leaders. In 1660, the Ottoman Empire moved to reorganize the region, placing the sanjaks (districts) of Sidon-Beirut and Safed in a newly formed province of Sidon, a move seen by local Druze as an attempt to assert control. Ahmad however emerged victorious in the power struggle among the Druze in 1667, but the Maʿnīs lost control of Safad Ahmad continued as local ruler through his death from natural causes, without heir, in 1697. During the Ottoman–Habsburg War (1683–1699), Ahmad Ma'n collaborated in a rebellion against the Ottomans which extended beyond his death. Having consolidated his conquests in Syria (1831–1838), Ibrahim Pasha, son of the viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, made the fatal mistake of trying to disarm the Christians and Druze of the Lebanon and to draft the latter into his army. This was contrary to the principles of the life of independence which these mountaineers had always lived, and resulted in a general uprising against Egyptian rule. The Druze of Wadi al-Taym and Ḥawran, under the leadership of Shibli al-Aryan, distinguished themselves in their stubborn resistance at their inaccessible headquarters, al-Laja, lying southeast of Damascus. === Qaysites and the Yemenites === The conquest of Syria by the Muslim Arabs in the middle of the seventh century introduced into the land two political factions later called the Qaysites and the Yemenites. The Qaysite party represented the Bedouin Arabs who were regarded as inferior by the Yemenites who were earlier and more cultured emigrants into Syria from southern Arabia. Druze and Christians grouped in political, rather than religious, parties; the party lines in Lebanon obliterated ethnic and religious lines and the people grouped themselves into one or the other of these two parties regardless of their religious affiliations. The sanguinary feuds between these two factions depleted, in course of time, the manhood of the Lebanon and ended in the decisive battle of Ain Dara in 1711, which resulted in the utter defeat of the Yemenite party. Many Yemenite Druze thereupon migrated to the Hauran region, laying the foundation of Druze power there. The Qays were led by Emir Haydar of the Shihab dynasty and consisted of the Druze clans of Jumblatt, Talhuq, Imad and Abd al-Malik and the Maronite clan of Khazen. The Yamani faction was led by Mahmoud Abu Harmoush and consisted of the Druze Alam al-Din, Arslan and Sawaf clans. The Yamani faction also had backing from the Ottoman provincial authorities of Sidon and Damascus. The battle ended in a rout of the Yamani faction and resulted in the consolidation of Qaysi political and fiscal domination over Mount Lebanon. with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including 1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus. In 1840, social disturbance started between Druze and their Christian Maronite neighbors, who had previously been on friendly terms. This culminated in the civil war of 1860. After the Shehab dynasty converted to Christianity, some prominent Druze families, including the Druze Abi-Lamma clan—who were close allies of the Shihabs—also converted to Christianity and joined the Maronite Church. The Druze community and feudal leaders came under attack from the regime with the collaboration of the Maronite Catholic Church, and the Druze lost most of their political and feudal powers. Also, the Druze formed an alliance with Britain and allowed Protestant missionaries to enter Mount Lebanon, creating tension between them and the Catholic Maronites. The Maronite-Druze conflict in 1840–60 was an outgrowth of the Maronite independence movement, directed against the Druze, Druze feudalism, and the Ottoman-Turks. The civil war was not therefore a religious war, except in Damascus, where it spread and where the vastly non-Druze population was anti-Christian. This animosity was fueled by economic disparities, with Christians, who were generally wealthier and more prosperous, compare to the economically struggling Muslim residents. The movement culminated with the 1859–60 massacre and defeat of the Maronites by the Druze. The civil war of 1860 cost the Maronites some ten thousand lives in Damascus, Zahlé, Deir al-Qamar, Hasbaya, and other towns of Lebanon. The European powers then determined to intervene, and authorized the landing in Beirut of a body of French troops under General Beaufort d'Hautpoul, whose inscription can still be seen on the historic rock at the mouth of Nahr al-Kalb. French intervention on behalf of the Maronites did not help the Maronite national movement, since France was restricted in 1860 by the British government, which did not want the Ottoman Empire dismembered. But European intervention pressured the Turks to treat the Maronites more justly. Following the recommendations of the powers, the Ottoman Porte granted Lebanon local autonomy, guaranteed by the powers, under a Maronite governor. This autonomy was maintained until World War I. The Maronite Catholics and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" which developed in Ottoman-era Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, The ruling and social system in the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate was formed from the Maronite-Druze dualism, and the security stability and Druze-Maronite coexistence in the Mutasarrifate allowed the development of the economy and the system of government. Al-Farouqi also disarmed the population, extracted significant taxes, and launched a census of the region. == Modern history == In Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and Jordan, the Druzites have official recognition as a separate religious community with its own religious court system. Although most Druze no longer consider themselves Muslim, Al Azhar of Egypt recognized them in 1959 as one of the Islamic sects in the Al-Azhar Shia Fatwa due to political reasons, as Gamal Abdel Nasser saw it as a tool to spread his appeal and influence across the entire Arab world. The Druze religion does not endorse separatism, and urges blending with the communities they reside in; the Druze have often done so to avoid persecution. Yet the Druze also have a history of resistance to occupying powers, and they have at times enjoyed more freedom than most other groups living in the Levant. Other notable communities live in the Harim Mountains, the Damascus suburb of Jaramana, and on the southeast slopes of Mount Hermon. A large Syrian Druze community historically lived in the Golan Heights, but following wars with Israel in 1967 and 1973, many of these Druze fled to other parts of Syria; most of those who remained live in a handful of villages in the disputed zone, while only a few live in the narrow remnant of Quneitra Governorate that is still under effective Syrian control. The Druze always played a far more important role in Syrian politics than its comparatively small population would suggest. With a community of little more than 100,000 in 1949, or roughly three percent of the Syrian population, the Druze of Syria's southwestern mountains constituted a potent force in Syrian politics and played a leading role in the nationalist struggle against the French. Under the military leadership of Sultan Pasha al-Atrash, the Druze provided much of the military force behind the Syrian Revolution of 1925–27. In 1945, Amir Hasan al-Atrash, the paramount political leader of the Jebel al-Druze, led the Druze military units in a successful revolt against the French, making the Jebel al-Druze the first and only region in Syria to liberate itself from French rule without British assistance. At independence the Druze, made confident by their successes, expected that Damascus would reward them for their many sacrifices on the battlefield. They demanded to keep their autonomous administration and many political privileges accorded them by the French and sought generous economic assistance from the newly independent government. the Druze community was subjected to a heavy attack by the Syrian government. Shishakli believed that among his many opponents in Syria, the Druze were the most potentially dangerous, and he was determined to crush them. He frequently proclaimed: "My enemies are like a serpent: The head is the Jebel al-Druze, the stomach Homs, and the tail Aleppo. If I crush the head, the serpent will die." Shishakli dispatched 10,000 regular troops to occupy the Jebel al-Druze. Several towns were bombarded with heavy weapons, killing scores of civilians and destroying many houses. According to Druze accounts, Shishakli encouraged neighboring Bedouin tribes to plunder the defenseless population and allowed his own troops to run amok. After the Shishakli's military campaign, the Druze community lost much of its political influence, but many Druze military officers played important roles in the Ba'ath government currently ruling Syria. Before the Syrian civil war, it was estimated that around 700,000 Druze lived in Syria in 2010, constituting about 3% of the population. Of these, approximately 337,500 resided in the Suwayda Governorate, which had a Druze majority of around 90% and a significant Christian minority. Additionally, about 250,000 Druze, or 35.7% of the total Druze population, lived in Damascus and its surrounding areas, including Jaramana, Sahnaya, and Jdeidat Artouz. Approximately 30,000 Druze lived on the eastern side of Mount Hermon, while around 25,000 Druze were spread across 14 villages in Jabal al-Summaq in Idlib Governorate. Several Druze militias fought in the Syrian civil war. These included Jaysh al-Muwahhidin which largely engaged in defensive war, though were also described as supporters of Bashar al-Assad and the Ba'athist government. The Druze Al-Jabal Brigade played a major role in the 2024 Syrian opposition offensives, which toppled the Ba'athists. === In Lebanon === The Druzite community in Lebanon played an important role in the formation of the modern state of Lebanon, and even though they are a minority they play an important role in the Lebanese political scene. Before and during the Lebanese Civil War (1975–90), the Druze were in favor of Pan-Arabism and Palestinian resistance represented by the PLO. Most of the community supported the Progressive Socialist Party formed by their leader Kamal Jumblatt and they fought alongside other leftist and Palestinian parties against the Lebanese Front that was mainly constituted of Christians. At the time, the Lebanese government and economy were running under the significant influence of elites within the Maronite Christian community. After the assassination of Kamal Jumblatt on 16 March 1977, his son Walid Jumblatt took the leadership of the party and played an important role in preserving his father's legacy after winning the Mountain War and sustained the existence of the Druze community during the sectarian bloodshed that lasted until 1990. In August 2001, Maronite Catholic Patriarch Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir toured the predominantly Druze Chouf region of Mount Lebanon and visited Mukhtara, the ancestral stronghold of Druze leader Walid Jumblatt. The tumultuous reception that Sfeir received not only signified a historic reconciliation between Maronites and Druze, who had fought a bloody war in 1983–1984, but underscored the fact that the banner of Lebanese sovereignty had broad multi-confessional appeal and was a cornerstone for the Cedar Revolution in 2005. Jumblatt's post-2005 position diverged sharply from the tradition of his family. He also accused Damascus of being behind the 1977 assassination of his father, Kamal Jumblatt, expressing for the first time what many knew he privately suspected. The BBC describes Jumblatt as "the leader of Lebanon's most powerful Druze clan and heir to a leftist political dynasty". The second largest political party supported by Druze is the Lebanese Democratic Party led by Prince Talal Arslan, the son of Lebanese independence hero Emir Majid Arslan. The Druze community is primarily located in the rural and mountainous regions to the east and south of Beirut. They represent approximately 5.2 percent of Lebanon's population and are spread across 136 villages in areas such as Hasbaya, Rashaya, Chouf, Aley, Marjeyoun and Beirut. The Druze make up the majority in Aley, Baakleen, Hasbaya and Rashaya. Specifically, they constitute over half of the population in the Aley District, about a third in the Rashaya District, and around a quarter in both the Chouf and Matn Districts. === In Israel=== The Druzites form a religious minority in Israel of more than 100,000, mostly residing in the north of the country. In 2004, there were 102,000 Druze living in the country. In 2010, the population of Israeli Druze citizens grew to over 125,000. At the end of 2018, there were 143,000 in Israel and the Israeli-occupied portion of the Golan Heights. Today, thousands of Israeli Druze belong to "Druze Zionist" movements. By the end of 2019, around 81% of the Israeli Druze population resided in the Northern District, while 19% were in the Haifa District. The largest Druze communities are found in Daliyat al-Karmel and Yirka (also known as Yarka). The Druze live in 19 towns and villages scattered across the mountaintops in northern Israel, either in exclusively Druze areas or in mixed communities with Christians and Muslims. As of 2011, fewer than 10% of the Druze population in the Golan Heights had accepted Israeli citizenship. In 1957, the Israeli government designated the Druze a distinct religious community at the request of its communal leaders. The Druze are Arabic-speaking citizens of Israel and serve in the Israel Defense Forces, just as most citizens do in Israel. Members of the community have attained top positions in Israeli politics and public service. The number of Druze parliament members usually exceeds their proportion in the Israeli population, and they are integrated within several political parties. Some scholars maintain that Israel has tried to separate the Druze from other Arab communities, and that the effort has influenced the way Israel's Druze perceive their modern identity. === In the diaspora === Venezuela hosts the largest Druze communities outside the Middle East, estimated at 60,000 individuals. Arab immigration to Venezuela started as early as the 19th and 20th centuries, with migrants primarily hailing from the Ottoman provinces of Lebanon, Syria, and Palestine. They settled predominantly in Caracas, and have significantly influenced Venezuelan culture, particularly in terms of Arabic food and music. Religiously, the Arab-Venezuelans community consists mainly of Druze and Christians, who are affiliated with the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Rite Catholic Churches. The early Druze migrants to Venezuela assimilated well into the local population, with some even converting Catholicism. Nevertheless, many retained a strong Druze and Arab identity, along with adherence to Druze values. A prominent example of Druze influence in Venezuela is the former vice president, Tareck El Aissami, who is of Druze descent. Other notable Venezuelan figures of Druze origin include Haifa El Aissami and Tarek William Saab. The United States is the second largest home of Druze communities outside the Middle East after Venezuela. Estimates vary between about 30,000 and 50,000 == Beliefs == === God === The Druze conception of the deity is declared by them to be one of strict and uncompromising unity. The main Druze doctrine states that God is both transcendent and immanent, in which he is above all attributes, but at the same time, he is present. In their desire to maintain a rigid confession of unity, they stripped from God all attributes (tanzīh). In God, there are no attributes distinct from his essence. He is wise, mighty, and just, not by wisdom, might, and justice, but by his own essence. God is "the whole of existence", rather than merely "above existence" or on his throne, which would make him "limited". There is neither "how", "when", nor "where" about him; in this way, he is incomprehensible. In this dogma, they are similar to the semi-philosophical, semi-religious body which flourished under Al-Ma'mun and was known by the name of Mu'tazila and the fraternal order of the Brethren of Purity (Ikhwan al-Ṣafa). Unlike the Mu'tazila, and similar to some branches of Sufism, the Druze believe in the concept of Tajalli (meaning "theophany"). Other ancient Druze writings include the Rasa'il al-Hind (Epistles of India) and the previously lost (or hidden) manuscripts such as al-Munfarid bi-Dhatihi and al-Sharia al-Ruhaniyya as well as others including didactic and polemic treatises. === Reincarnation === Reincarnation is a paramount principle in the Druze faith. Reincarnations occur instantly at one's death because there is an eternal duality of the body and the soul and it is impossible for the soul to exist without the body. A human soul will transfer only to a human body, in contrast to the Neoplatonic, Hindu and Buddhist belief systems, according to which souls can transfer to any living creature. Furthermore, a male Druze can be reincarnated only as another male Druze and a female Druze only as another female Druze. A Druze cannot be reincarnated in the body of a non-Druze. Additionally, souls cannot be divided and the number of souls existing in the universe is finite. The cycle of rebirth is continuous and the only way to escape is through successive reincarnations. When this occurs, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind and achieves the ultimate happiness. The Druze also use a similar formula, called al-'ahd, when one is initiated into the ʻUqqāl. === Sanctuaries === The prayer-houses of the Druze are called khilwa, khalwa, khilwat or khalwat. The primary sanctuary of the Druze is at Khalwat al-Bayada. === Esotericism === The Druze believe that many teachings given by prophets, religious leaders and holy books have esoteric meanings preserved for those of intellect, in which some teachings are symbolic and allegorical in nature, and divide the understanding of holy books and teachings into three layers. These layers, according to the Druze, are as follows: The obvious or exoteric (zahir), accessible to anyone who can read or hear; The hidden or esoteric (batin), accessible to those who are willing to search and learn through the concept of exegesis; And the hidden of the hidden, a concept known as anagoge, inaccessible to all but a few really enlightened individuals who truly understand the nature of the universe. Druze do not believe that the esoteric meaning abrogates or necessarily abolishes the exoteric one. Hamza bin Ali refutes such claims by stating that if the esoteric interpretation of taharah (purity) is purity of the heart and soul, it doesn't mean that a person can discard his physical purity, as salat (prayer) is useless if a person is untruthful in his speech and that the esoteric and exoteric meanings complement each other. === Seven Druze precepts === The Druze follow seven moral precepts or duties that are considered the core of the faith. Druze in different states can have radically different lifestyles. === Theophany === Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the Druze and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts. Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah is an important figure in the Druze faith whose eponymous founder ad-Darazi proclaimed him as the incarnation of God in 1018. Historian David R. W. Bryer defines the Druzes as ghulat of Isma'ilism, since they exaggerated the cult of the caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah and considered him divine; he also defines the Druzes as a religion that deviated from Islam. He also added that as a result of this deviation, the Druze faith "seems as different from Islam as Islam is from Christianity or Christianity is from Judaism". John the Baptist, Saint Matthew, Saint Mark, and Saint Luke. Formal Druze worship is confined to weekly meeting on Thursday evenings, during which all members of community gather together to discuss local issues before those not initiated into the secrets of the faith (the juhhāl, or the ignorant) are dismissed, and those who are "uqqāl" or "enlightened" (those few initiated in the Druze holy books) remain to read and study. == Religious symbol == The Druze strictly avoid iconography, but use five colors ("Five Limits" ) as a religious symbol: green, red, yellow, blue, and white. The five limits were listed by Ismail at-Tamimi (d. 1030) in the Epistle of the Candle (risalat ash-sham'a) as: First limit: Hamza Ibn Ali () (or Jesus according to other sources) The stripes are a diagrammatic cut of the spheres in neoplatonic philosophy, while the five-pointed star embodies the golden ratio, phi, as a symbol of temperance and a life of moderation. == Prayer houses and holy places == Holy places of the Druze are archaeological sites important to the community and associated with religious holidays; the most notable example being Nabi Shu'ayb, dedicated to Jethro, who is a central figure of the Druze religion. Druze make pilgrimages to this site on the holiday of Ziyarat al-Nabi Shu'ayb. One of the most important features of the Druze village having a central role in social life is the khilwa or '—a house of prayer, retreat and religious unity. The ' may be known as in local languages. The second type of religious shrine is one associated with the anniversary of a historic event or death of a prophet. If it is a mausoleum the Druze call it mazār and if it is a shrine they call it maqām. The holy places become more important to the community in times of adversity and calamity. The holy places and shrines of the Druze are scattered in various villages, in places where they are protected and cared for. They are found in Syria, Lebanon and Israel. As such, there is no "Druze clergy". Those few initiated in the Druze holy books are called ("the wise"), while the regular members of the group are called ("the ignorant"). Some find this classification disparaging however, and as such, terms like , meaning "(concerned with the) spiritual", and , meaning "(concerned with the) physical", are also used. Given the strict religious, intellectual and spiritual requirements, most of the Druze are not initiated and might be referred to as ' (), literally "the Ignorant", but in practice referring to the non-initiated Druze. However, that term is seldom used by the Druze. Those Druze are not granted access to the Druze holy literature or allowed to attend the initiated religious meetings of the '. The "juhhāl" are the vast majority of the Druze community. The Druze believe in the unity of God, and are often known as the "People of Monotheism" or simply "Monotheists". Their theology has a Neo-Platonic view about how God interacts with the world through emanations and is similar to some gnostic and other esoteric sects. Druze philosophy also shows Sufi influences. Druze principles focus on honesty, loyalty, filial piety, altruism, patriotic sacrifice, and monotheism. They reject nicotine, alcohol, and other drugs and often, the consumption of pork (to the Uqqāl and not necessarily to the Juhhāl). Druze reject polygamy, believe in reincarnation, and are not obliged to observe most of the religious rituals. The Druze believe that rituals are symbolic and have an individualistic effect on the person, for which reason Druze are free to perform them, or not. The community does celebrate Eid al-Adha, however, considered their most significant holiday; though their form of observance is different compared to that of most Muslims. == Culture == The Druze community maintains Arabic language and culture as core elements of their identity. Because a non-Druze partner cannot convert to Druze faith, the couple cannot have Druze children, because the Druze faith can only be passed on through birth to two Druze parents. The procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition, and has no religious significance in the Druze faith. There is no special date for this act in the Druze faith: male Druze infants are usually circumcised shortly after birth, however some remain uncircumcised until the age of ten or older. Some Druze do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice". Druze communities are often close-knit and maintain a strong sense of identity and solidarity. A key aspect of their religious practice includes ziyarat, or visits to holy places. One of the most significant events in Druze religious life is the annual pilgrimage to the Shrine of Shu'ayb, observed between April 25 and 28. This pilgrimage is dedicated to Shu'ayb, whom Druze believe to be a prophet and whose purported tomb is located at this shrine. This event is so important that it is officially recognized as a public holiday in Israel. === Language === The mother tongue of Druze in Syria, Lebanon and Israel is Levantine Arabic, except those born and living in the Druze diaspora such as Venezuela, where Arabic was not taught or spoken at home. The Druze Arabic dialect, especially in the rural areas, is often different from the other regional Arabic dialects. Druze Arabic dialect is distinguished from others by retention of the phoneme , the use of which by Druze is particularly prominent in the mountains and less so in urban areas. The Druze citizens of Israel are Arabic in language and culture, and linguistically speaking, the majority of them are fluently bilingual, speaking both a Central Northern Levantine Arabic dialect and Hebrew. In Druze Arab homes and towns in Israel, the primary language spoken is Arabic, while some Hebrew words have entered the colloquial Arabic dialect. They often use Hebrew characters to write their Arabic dialect online. === Cultural identity === Various scholars agree that the Druze community's cultural identity is deeply intertwined with their Arab heritage. Historian Nejla Abu-Izzedin and Kamal Salibi both argue that the Druze are profoundly embedded within the Arab cultural framework, as demonstrated by their common language and social customs. They assert that this integration is apparent through the Druze's active participation in regional traditions and their assimilation into Arab society, despite their distinct religious and philosophical beliefs. Scholar Robert Brenton Betts explains that the Druze social structure is characterized by a strong sense of community and the leadership of religious elders known as 'sheikhs'. These leaders are pivotal in guiding both the spiritual and social aspects of Druze life, which is crucial for preserving their unique identity. Betts also points to specific Druze practices, such as the annual pilgrimage to the Shrine of Shu'ayb, as examples of how these traditions, along with the role of the sheikhs, are deeply ingrained in Druze social life. He argues that these practices are not just religious rituals but are fundamental to reinforcing Druze unity and continuity. According to some scholars, the Druze cultural identity is shaped by their interactions with both Christian and Muslim communities, reflecting a synthesis of religious and cultural influences. Historians notes that the Druze have historically maintained a positive relationship with Christians, as evidenced by shared traditions and social practices in Mount Lebanon. This interaction has led to overlapping symbols, customs, mutual veneration of saints and their shrines, and shared terminology for God. Sites such as the Church of Saidet et Tallé in Deir el Qamar, historically a popular Marian pilgrimage site among the Druze, exemplify this cultural exchange. The Druze also venerate Christian saints like Saint George and the Prophet Elijah, admired for their "bravery and warrior-like qualities". Conversely, despite sharing historical roots with Muslims, the Druze often experience a more complex relationship with Muslim communities due to their distinct religious beliefs and practices. According to Druze narrative, these acts of persecution were aimed at eradicating the entire community. This narrative has shaped the Druze sense of identity and their awareness of survival. As a survival strategy, some Druze have historically posed as Muslims, a practice known as taqiya. === Cuisine === Druze cuisine is Arab cuisine, and shares many similarities with other Levantine cuisines. It features a rich array of grains, meat, potato, cheese, bread, whole grains, fruits, vegetables, fresh fish and tomatoes. A hallmark of Druze and Levantine cuisine is meze including tabbouleh, hummus and baba ghanoush. Kibbeh nayyeh is also a popular mezze among the Druze. Other well-known dishes among Druzes include falafel, sfiha, shawarma, dolma, kibbeh, kusa mahshi, shishbarak, muhammara, and mujaddara. Among the popular traditional Arabic dessert by the Druze is Knafeh. In Israel, the Saj bread is known as "Druze Pita" as it was easier for Israeli Jews to identify with Druze than with Arabs. It is a pita filled with labneh (thick yoghurt) and topped with olive oil and za’atar, and a very popular bread in Israel. Al-Meleh a popular dish among Druze in Hauran region (Suwayda Governorate), cooked in a pressure cooker and served on huge special plates at weddings, holidays, and other special occasions. And consists of bulgur wheat immersed in ghee with lamb and yogurt, and served hot with fried kibbeh and vegetables. For reasons that remain unclear, the Mulukhiyah dish was banned by the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah sometime during his reign (996–1021). While the ban was eventually lifted after the end of his reign, the Druze, who hold Al-Hakim in high regard and give him quasi-divine authority, Mate (in Levantine Arabic, /mæte/) is a popular drink consumed by the Druze brought to the Levant by Syrian migrants from Argentina in the 19th century. === Marriage === The Druze rejection of polygamy, unlike in traditional Islamic traditions, reflects a significant influence from Christianity on their faith. Marrying a non-Druze, whether male or female, is viewed as apostasy from the Druze religion. The Druze community holds a negative perception of apostates who marry outside the religion. Consequently, those who leave the Druze religion due to interfaith marriage are forced to leave their village and are exiled to distant, non-Druze areas. This religious and social pressure leads to their isolation and classification as outcasts within their Druze community. == Druze and other religions == === Relationship with Muslims === The Druze faith is often classified as a branch of Isma'ilism; although according to various scholars Druze faith "diverge substantially from Islam, both Sunni and Shia". Even though the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, most Druze do not identify as Muslims, and they do not accept the five pillars of Islam. Historian David R. W. Bryer defines the Druzes as ghulat of Isma'ilism, since they exaggerated the cult of the caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah and considered him divine; he also defines the Druzes as a religion that deviated from Islam. Historically the relationship between the Druze and Muslims has been characterized by intense persecution. The persecution of the Druze included massacres, demolishing Druze prayer houses and holy places, and forced conversion to Islam. Those acts of persecution were meant to eradicate the whole community according to the Druze narrative. Most recently, the Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011, saw persecution of the Druze at the hands of Islamic extremists. Since Druze emerged from Islam and share certain beliefs with Islam, its position of whether it is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial among Muslim scholars. Druze are not considered Muslims by those belonging to orthodox Islamic schools of thought. Ibn Taymiyya, a prominent Muslim scholar muhaddith, dismissed the Druze as non-Muslims, and his fatwa cited that Druze: "Are not at the level of ′Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book) nor mushrikin (polytheists). Rather, they are from the most deviant kuffār (Infidel) ... Their women can be taken as slaves and their property can be seized ... they are to be killed whenever they are found and cursed as they described ... It is obligatory to kill their scholars and religious figures so that they do not misguide others", which in that setting would have legitimized violence against them as apostates. The Ottoman Empire often relied on Ibn Taymiyya's religious ruling to justify their persecution of Druze. In contrast, according to Ibn Abidin, whose work Radd al-Muhtar 'ala al-Durr al-Mukhtar is still considered the authoritative text of Hanafi fiqh today, the Druze are neither Muslims nor apostates. In 1959, in an ecumenical move driven by Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser's effort to broaden his political appeal after the establishment of the United Arab Republic between Egypt and Syria in 1958, the Islamic scholar Mahmud Shaltut at Al Azhar University in Cairo classified the Druze as Muslims, even though most Druze no longer consider themselves Muslim. The fatwa declares that the Druze are Muslims because they recite the twofold Shahada, and believe in the Qur'an and monotheism and do not oppose Islam in word or deed. This fatwa was not accepted by all in the Islamic world, many dissenting scholars have argued the Druze recite the Shahada as a form of taqiya; a precautionary dissimulation or denial of religious belief and practice in the face of persecution. Some sects of Islam, including all Shia denominations, don't recognize the religious authority of Al Azhar University, those that do sometimes challenge the religious legitimacy of Shaltut's fatwa because it was issued for political reasons, as Gamal Abdel Nasser saw it as a tool to spread his appeal and influence across the entire Arab world. Both religions venerate Shuaib and Muhammad: Shuaib (Jethro) is revered as the chief prophet in the Druze religion, and in Islam he is considered a prophet of God. Muslims regard Muhammad as the final and paramount prophet sent by God, to the Druze, Muhammad is exalted as one of the seven prophets sent by God in different periods of history. Scholars argue that Druze recite the Shahada in order to protect their religion and their own safety, and to avoid persecution by Muslims. including some of Shihab dynasty members, as well as the Abi-Lamma clan. Christian and Druze communities share a long history of interaction dating back roughly a millennium, particularly in Mount Lebanon. Jabal al-Druze, the Galilee region, Mount Carmel, and Golan Heights. The Maronite Catholic and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early Eighteenth Century, through a governing and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" in the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate. The Druze faith incorporates some elements of Christianity, The full Druze canon or Druze scripture (Epistles of Wisdom) includes the Old Testament, the New Testament, the Quran and philosophical works by Plato and those influenced by Socrates among works from other religions and philosophers. The Druze faith shows influence of Christian monasticism, among other religious practices. and it is practiced in Coptic Christianity, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church as a rite of passage. Male circumcision is also widely practiced by the Druze, The Druze revere Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary" and his four disciples, who wrote the Gospels. According to the Druze manuscripts Jesus is the Greatest Imam and the incarnation of Ultimate Reason (Akl) on earth and the first cosmic principle (Hadd), and regards Jesus and Hamza ibn Ali as the incarnations of one of the five great celestial powers, who form part of their system. In the Druze tradition, Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah (al-Masih al-Haq), the Messiah of all Nations (Masih al-Umam), and the Messiah of Sinners. This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness. Both religions venerate the Virgin Mary, John the Baptist, Saint George, Elijah, Luke the Evangelist, Antisemitic material is contained in the Druze literature such as the Epistles of Wisdom; for example in an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druze, Baha al-Din al-Muqtana, probably written sometime between AD 1027 and AD 1042, accused the Jews of crucifying Jesus. In other epistles, Jews are depicted negatively as "morally corrupt and murderers of prophets", particularly in chapters 13–14 of the Epistles of Wisdom. The epistle "Excuses and Warnings" predicts that, as a sign of the end times, Jews will seize control of Jerusalem and seek revenge on its inhabitants as well as those of Acre. Afterwards, Messiah Jesus will expel the Jews from Jerusalem due to their spread of moral corruption worldwide. Christians will then dominate Muslims until the Day of Judgment, when divine judgment by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah will occur. On the other hand, Benjamin of Tudela, a Jewish traveler from the 12th century, pointed out that the Druze maintained good commercial relations with the Jews nearby, and according to him this was because the Druze liked the Jewish people. Yet, the Jews and Druze lived isolated from each other, except in a few mixed towns such as Deir al-Qamar and Peki'in. The Deir el Qamar Synagogue was built in 1638, during the Ottoman era in Lebanon, to serve the local Jewish population, some of whom were part of the immediate entourage of the Druze Emir Fakhr-al-Din II. During the Ottoman period, relations between the Druze of Galilee and the Jewish community were generally strained and marked by conflict. In 1660, during a Druze power struggle in Mount Lebanon, Druze forces destroyed Jewish settlements in the Galilee, including Safad and Tiberias. The tension escalated in 1834 during the Peasants' Revolt, when Safed's Jewish community endured a month-long assault that involved extensive looting, violence, and the destruction of Jewish properties by both Druze and Muslims. During the Druze revolt against the rule of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, the Jewish community in Safad was attacked by Druze rebels in early July 1838, the violence against the Jews included plundering their homes and desecrating their synagogues. Interactions between Jews and Druze were rare before the establishment of Israel in 1948, as they historically lived isolated from each other. During the British Mandate for Palestine, the Druze did not embrace the rising Arab nationalism of the time or participate in violent confrontations with Jewish immigrants. In 1948, many Druze volunteered for the Israeli army and no Druze villages were destroyed or permanently abandoned. Since the establishment of the state of Israel, the Druze have demonstrated solidarity with Israel and distanced themselves from Arab Islamic radicalism. Israeli Druze male citizens serve in the Israel Defense Forces. The Jewish-Druze partnership was often referred as "a covenant of blood" (Hebrew: , brit damim) in recognition of the common military yoke carried by the two peoples for the security of the country. Israeli Druze scholars Kais M. Firro and Rabah Halabi contend that the Israeli narrative of a "special historical bond" or "blood pact" between Druze and Jews is a myth fabricated by early Zionist circles to divide and control Arab religious communities in Israel, with no historical foundation. From 1957, the Israeli government formally recognized the Druze as a separate religious community, and they are defined as a distinct ethnic group in the Israeli Ministry of Interior's census registration. Scholars attribute this trend to cultural differences between Jews and Druze. In terms of religious comparison, scholars consider Judaism and the Druze faith as ethnoreligious groups, Figures in the Hebrew Bible such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Moses are considered important prophets of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history. Jethro of Midian is considered an ancestor of the Druze who revere him as their spiritual founder and chief prophet. == Origins == === Ethnic origins === A study carried out by th Israeli Druze historian Kais M. Firro examines various theories about the origins of the Druze, including possible connections to the Arameans, Arabs, Itureans, Cuthites, Hivites, Armenians, Persians, and Turks. Some suggested a European origin. In the 17th century, there was a prevailing belief in France that the Druze were descendants of a lost army of European Christian crusaders. According to this notion, after the fall of the Christian stronghold of Acre in 1291 and the subsequent persecution by the victorious Mamluks, these crusaders sought refuge in the mountains of Lebanon and settled there permanently. Additionally, Two English researchers, Gertrude Bell and David Hogarth, also proposed that the Druze are a blend of Arabs from Southern Arabia and the mountain-dwelling Aramaeans. The second approach, used by Druze historians, scholars, intellectuals and clerics, emphasizes the migration and settlement of Arab tribes to highlight the pure Arab lineage of those who adopted Druze beliefs in the 11th century. Proponents argue that the Druze speak a "pure Arab dialect" and are of "pure Arab blood", not mixed with Turkish or other influences, due to their practice of strict endogamy marriage. This view maintains that most Druze are descended from 12 Arab tribes that migrated to Syria before the Islamic period. It relies on historical records, Druze chronicles, and genealogical trees reconstructed by Druze families to trace their ancestry and settlement in Syria. According to Firro, all Druze historians, scholars and leaders in Lebanon and Syria consider the Druze to be Arabs, and this view is accepted by the entire Druze community in those countries. In contrast, while most Druze in Israel consider themselves Arabs, some Israeli Druze politicians have begun to reject the idea of Arabic racial origin as a component of Druze national identity for political reasons. According to Firro, the third approach in the research on Druze origins is based on the conclusions of researchers and anthropologists. Studies by Felix von Luschan, Arries and Kappers found that Druze in the Levant, along with their Muslim and Christian counterparts, share the same origins. Similarly, Druze historian Nejla Abu-Izzedin has concluded that Druze, Christians, and Muslims in the Levant have the same racial background. According to Druze historian Amin Talea', Druze oral and written traditions recount that twelve Arab tribes converted to Islam and fought alongside Muslim warriors until they were introduced to the Druze religion by preachers sent from Egypt by the Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Talea' adds that, over time, the Druze developed a strong sense of their pure Arab origins, believing that, apart from their unique religious practices, their spiritual and material culture closely mirrored that of the broader population of Greater Syria. ==== Arabian hypothesis ==== The Druze faith extended to many areas in the Middle East, but most of the modern Druze can trace their origin to the Wadi al-Taym in Southern Lebanon, which is named after an Arab tribe Taym Allah (or Taym Allat) which, according to Islamic historian al-Tabari, first came from the Arabian Peninsula into the valley of the Euphrates where they had been Christianized prior to their migration into Lebanon. Many of the Druze feudal families, whose genealogies have been preserved by the two modern Syrian chroniclers Haydar al-Shihabi and Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq, seem also to point in the direction of this origin. Arabian tribes emigrated via the Persian Gulf and stopped in Iraq on their route that would later to lead them to Syria. The first feudal Druze family, the Tanukhids, which made for itself a name in fighting the Crusaders was, according to Haydar al-Shihabi, an Arab tribe from Mesopotamia where it occupied the position of a ruling family and apparently was Christianized. Travelers like Niebuhr, and scholars like Max von Oppenheim, undoubtedly echoing the popular Druze belief regarding their own origin, have classified them as Arabs. The Arabian hypothesis is widely regarded as the leading explanation for the origins of the Druze people among historians, scholars, intellectuals, and religious leaders within the Druze community. This theory suggests that the Druze descended from twelve Arab tribes that migrated to Syria before and during the early Islamic period. It also serves as the primary framework for understanding their historical and racial origins, as reflected in their oral traditions and written literature. This hypothesis is central to the Druze's self-perception and cultural identity. This view is accepted by the entire Druze community in Syria and Lebanon, as well as by most Druze in Israel. The Arabic language is spoken by the Druze and is also the language in which their sacred texts are written. Scholars who hold this view argue that this linguistic connection underscores the Druze's ethnic Arab identity. According to Druze historian Nejla Abu-Izzedin, the Druze people are of Arab origin, both culturally and historically. She explains that Druze traditions and narratives consistently trace their roots to Arab tribes who settled in Syria, some prior to the advent of Islam and others during the Muslim conquest. Abu-Izzedin further notes that when the Druze community was established, its members were spread across a wide area of Syria. The majority of those who embraced the Druze faith were Arab tribes from the northern region, making the Arab elements of the community predominant. According to Abu-Izzedin, "ethnically", the "Wadi al-Taym has been authoritatively stated to be one of the most Arab regions of [geographical] Syria". The area was one of the two most important centers of Druze missionary activity in the 11th century. Additionally, Abu-Izzedin highlights that the Tanukhids, an Arab tribe, hold a significant place in Druze history. She asserts that the Druze claims of Arab origin were not driven by self-interest, as Arabs were no longer in a dominant position when the Druze community was founded in the 11th century. Furthermore, Druze narratives recount their involvement in pivotal events in Arab history. In modern times, the Druze have largely adopted Arab nationalism and played a notable role in the Great Syrian Revolt of 1920's. Druze scholar Sami Makarem notes that Wadi Taym and southern Lebanon (Jabal Amel) were pivotal centers for Druze missionary activity in the 11th century, inhabited by Arab tribes. He explains that Druze oral traditions and religious documents suggest that most Druze ancestors came from twelve Arab tribes in Maarat al-Numan during the early period of Islam and its conquests. Later, they migrated and settled in Lebanon. Makarem highlights the Druze's strong Arab heritage, noting that early Druze followers were predominantly of Arab descent. He also points out that many tribes settling in the Levant before Islam came from southern Arabia, including Yamani and Qaysi tribes. According to Makarem, Druze belief links their ancestry to tribes that lived in [geographical] Syria, some before Islam and others arriving during the conquest. Israeli Druze historian Salman Hamud Fallah asserted that the Druze people of today originated from the Arabian Peninsula. He noted that some of their ancestors came from the northern part of the peninsula, while others came from the southern region, specifically Yemen. In addition, Israeli Druze historian Yusri Hazran describes the Druze narrative, which holds that twelve Arab tribes migrated into the Syrian region either before the rise of Islam or during the early Islamic period. These tribes were predominantly of Yamani tribes, with the Tanukhids being the most dominant among them. Subsequently, these tribes adopted the Druze doctrine. Hazran affirms that this narrative is recognized within Druze doctrine and its scriptures. Druze researchers and historians from Israel, such as Kais M. Firro, Rabah Halabi, Munir Fakhr El-Din, and Afifa E. Kheir, confirm that the Druze are Arabs and note that this was not a contentious issue in Israel before 1962. Halabi observes that Israeli policies aimed at granting the Druze a distinct community status and political identity led some Druze to see this separate "Druze-Israeli identity" as an ethnic marker for social integration within Israeli society. Scholar Michael Cohen adds that, despite the Israeli and Zionist narrative promoting a distinct "Druze ethnic identity", most Druze in Israel view their origins as Arab and consider their Druze identity primarily as religious. ==== Druze as a mixture of Western Asian tribes ==== The 1911 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica states that the Druze are "a mixture of refugee stocks, in which the Arab largely predominates, grafted on to an original mountain population of Aramaic blood". ==== Iturean hypothesis ==== According to Jewish contemporary literature, the Druze, who were visited and described in 1165 by Benjamin of Tudela, were pictured as descendants of the Itureans, an Ismaelite Arab tribe, which used to reside in the northern parts of the Golan plateau through Hellenistic and Roman periods. The word Druzes, in an early Hebrew edition of his travels, occurs as Dogziyin, but it is clear that this is a scribal error. Archaeological assessments of the Druze region have also proposed the possibility of Druze descending from Itureans, who had inhabited Mount Lebanon and Golan Heights in late classic antiquity, but their traces fade in the Middle Ages. === Genetics === Lebanese Christians and Druze became a genetic isolate in the predominantly Islamic world. In a 2005 study of ASPM gene variants, Mekel-Bobrov et al. found that the Israeli Druze people of the Mount Carmel region have among the highest rate of the newly evolved ASPM- Haplogroup D, at 52.2% occurrence of the approximately 6,000-year-old allele. While it is not yet known exactly what selective advantage is provided by this gene variant, the Haplogroup D allele is thought to be positively selected in populations and to confer some substantial advantage that has caused its frequency to rapidly increase. A 2004 DNA study has shown that Israeli Druze are remarkable for the high frequency (35%) of males who carry the Y-chromosomal haplogroup L, which is otherwise uncommon in the Middle East (Shen et al. 2004). This haplogroup originates from prehistoric South Asia and has spread from Pakistan into southern Iran. A 2008 study done on larger samples showed that L-M20 averages 27% in Mount Carmel Druze, 2% in Galilee Druze, 8% in Lebanese Druze, and it was not found in a sample of 59 Syrian Druze (Slush et al. 2008). Also, a new study concluded that the Druze harbor a remarkable diversity of mitochondrial DNA lineages that appear to have separated from each other thousands of years ago. But instead of dispersing throughout the world after their separation, the full range of lineages can still be found within the Druze population. The researchers noted that the Druze villages contained a striking range of high frequency and high diversity of the X haplogroup, suggesting that this population provides a glimpse into the past genetic landscape of the Near East at a time when the X haplogroup was more prevalent. A 2008 study published on the genetic background of Druze communities in Israel showed highly heterogeneous parental origins. A total of 311 Israeli Druze were sampled: 37 from the Golan Heights, 183 from the Galilee, and 35 from Mount Carmel, as well as 27 Druze immigrants from Syria and 29 from Lebanon (Slush et al. 2008). The researchers found the following frequencies of Y-chromosomal and MtDNA haplogroups: Mount Carmel: L 27%, R 27%, J 18%, E 15%, G 12%. Galilee: J 31%, R 20%, E 18%, G 14%, K 11%, Q 4%, L 2%. Golan Heights: J 54%, E 29%, I 8%, G 4%, C 4%. Lebanon: J 58%, K 17%, Q 8%, R 8%, L 8%. Syria: J 39%, E 29%, R 14%, G 14%, K 4%. Maternal MtDNA haplogroup frequencies: H 32%, X 13%, K 12.5%, U 10%, T 7.5%, HV 4.8%, J 4.8%, I 3.5%, pre HV 3%, L2a3 2.25%, N1b 2.25%, M1 1.6%, W 1.29%. In a principal component analysis of a 2014 study, Druze were located between Lebanese people and Mizrahi Jews. According to a 2015 study, Druze have a largely similar genome with Middle Eastern Arabs, but they have not married outside of their clans in 1000 years and Druze families from different regions share a similarity with each other that distinguishes them from other Middle Eastern populations. A 2016 study based on testing samples of Druze in the historic region of Syria, in comparison with ancient humans (including Anatolian and Armenian), and on Geographic Population Structure (GPS) tool by converting genetic distances into geographic distances, concluded that Druze might hail from the Zagros Mountains and the surroundings of Lake Van in eastern Anatolia, then they later migrated south to settle in the mountainous regions in Syria, Lebanon and Israel. A 2020 study on remains from Canaanaite (Bronze Age southern Levantine) populations suggests a significant degree of genetic continuity in currently Arabic-speaking Levantine populations (including the Druze, Lebanese, Palestinians, and Syrians), as well as in most Jewish groups (including Sephardi Jews, Ashkenazi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, and Maghrebi Jews) from the populations of the Bronze Age Levant, suggesting that the aforementioned groups all derive more than half of their overall ancestry (atDNA) from Canaanite / Bronze Age Levantine populations, albeit with varying sources and degrees of admixture from differing host or invading populations depending on each group. In a 2021 study, Druze were a part of the larger Levant-Iraq cluster in a fineSTRUCTURE tree analysis, and overlapped with Lebanese people in a principal component analysis.	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(mtDNA)", "Maronite Christians in Lebanon", "Monotheism", "Sitt al-Mulk", "allegory", "Cuthites", "Christians", "Shrines to Mary, mother of Jesus", "al-Tabari", "Cairo", "University of Oslo", "Harvard University", "qualia", "Al-Jabal Brigade", "2024 Syrian opposition offensives", "Joshpara", "Christianized", "Caracas", "esoteric", "South Asia", "Christianity in Israel", "dogma", "Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq", "Jabal el Druze (state)", "slavery", "oral tradition", "Persianization", "al-Nasir Muhammad", "Neo-Platonism", "Antisemitism", "Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad", "muhaddith", "Irbid", "Kisrawan campaigns (1292–1305)", "Martin Sprengling", "Nur ad-Din Zengi", "Last Judgment", "Kent State University Press", "ghulat", "Chouf", "Mu'tazila", "Apostasy in Islam", "University of South Florida", "Lebanese Druze", "Mazar (mausoleum)", "veil", "University of Washington Press", "Military saint", "Infobase Publishing", "second language", "temperance (virtue)", "Ahmad Ma'n", "kafir", "Jdeidat Artouz", "monasticism", "Jesus Christ", "al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah", "Mount Carmel", "liturgical year", "apostates", "Constantinople", "Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate", "proselytize", "Hivites", "harmony", "Israel Defense Forces", "dawah", "Isma'ilism", "Mulhim Ma'n", "Alexandria", "Jaramana", "ritual", "Maronite Church", "Jesus", "Persian language", "Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt", "Rashaya District", "Ethnic religion", "human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup", "Conversion to Christianity", "Mizrahi Jews", "London", "Syria", "Jebel al-Druze", "Druze power struggle (1658–1667)", "Sussex University Press", "Benjamin of Tudela", "Ziyara (Druze)", "Logos", "John the Baptist", "Buhturids", "The Economist", "Arab Reform Initiative", "Safad", "Alam al-Din", "Shrine of Shu'ayb", "Qalb Loze massacre", "scholar", "Western esotericism", "Zahir (Islam)", "Mordechai Nisan", "Washington Institute for Near East Policy", "Socrates", "golden ratio", "Israeli Jews", "Maarat al-Numan", "nicotine", "Hebrew language", "Jabal Amel", "Religious symbolism", "Kibbeh nayyeh", "Noah", "Talal Arslan", "Levantine cuisine", "Muslims", "Syrian Army", "The Washington Post", "Zozan", "Haaretz", "Four Evangelists", "Eastern Rite Catholic Churches", "Arab Liberation Movement", "Tripoli, Lebanon", "Mukhtara", "Occultation (Islam)", "Iran", "Shuaib", "Florence", "Beirut", "Christianity in Lebanon", "Emir", "Haplogroup L (Y-DNA)", "five-pointed star", "Shihab family", "Nabi Shu'ayb", "ibn Taymiyya", "Jezzine", "West Asia", "Platonism in Islamic philosophy", "Al-Ma'mun", "falafel", "Arabian Peninsula", "Roman Catholic Church", "Haifa", "Hawran", "Shia Islam", "Sami Makarem", "Princeton University Press", "Duke University Press", "Eastern Orthodox Churches", "battle of Ain Dara", "dolma", "2018 As-Suwayda attacks", "heretic", "Presbyterian", "Moses", "Istanbul", "Palestine (region)", "Arab tribes", "Greenwood Publishing Group", "Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah", "Deir el Qamar", "Fruit", "treatises", "crypto-Christian", "Pythagoras", "transmigration of the soul", "Midian", "Mahmud Shaltut", "Kenite", "Gnosticism", "1660 destruction of Safed", "Syrian people", "labneh", "Jabal al-Druze", "Southern California", "Alawite", "Ibn Taymiyya", "Nahr al-Kalb", "Murad IV", "Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)", "altruism", "Maqam (Sufism)", "Khazen", "Mafraq", "prayer", "Israel", "Arabization", "Religious syncretism", "Philip Hitti", "Arabic language in Israel", "Los Angeles Times", "Muslim Brotherhood", "CBC News", "Hijaz", "John Esposito", "atDNA", "Arab world", "Quranic", "Cell (journal)", "Christianity and Druze", "divorce", "sfiha", "1948 Arab–Israeli War", "salat", "anti-Christian", "Mamluk", "Mesopotamia", "DNA", "Saint George", "Bible", "Israeli Christians", "Wadi al-Taym", "oath", "despotism", "Tareck El Aissami", "Simon & Schuster", "Israeli Declaration of Independence", "Damascus", "Persian culture", "Aix-Marseille University", "Eid al-Adha", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Protestantism", "Circumcision", "olive oil", "Majdal Shams", "People of the Book", "philosopher", "Christianizing", "Ma'ans", "Shaykh", "iltizam", "creed", "Ismaili Islam", "mausoleum", "Shukri al-Quwatli", "Scarecrow Press", "Rowman & Littlefield", "Arab identity", "Interfaith marriage", "Maghrebi Jews", "Homs", "proselytism", "Arslan family", "Gospel", "Qalb Loze", "Persecution of Druze", "Progressive Socialist Party", "Northern District (Israel)", "Nejla Abu-Izzedin", "Mahdi", "Christianity", "Jethro (biblical figure)", "Catholic", "Salman Hamud Fallah", "exoteric", "Jabal Druze State", "Bashir Shihab II", "gnosticism", "Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region", "Palmyra", "philosophical", "University of California, Berkeley Press", "Qaysi", "social integration", "Salman the Persian", "sanjak", "Jethro (Bible)", "Saj bread", "persecution by Muslims", "Stuffed squash", "Aley", "Abrahamic religions", "Saint Mark", "Major religious groups", "ad-Darazi", "Southern Arabia", "Qur'an", "jihad", "Zionism", "Iraqis", "History of Islam", "Carsten Niebuhr", "Hanafi", "Iblis", "marriage", "Ismailism", "Siege of Acre (1291)", "vow", "missionary", "Apostasy", "Daliyat al-Karmel", "Prophet Elijah", "Prometheus Books", "Science (journal)", "Dawah", "Adam", "Vegetable", "mountain people", "Fatimid Caliphate", "Aley District", "Arabs", "Druze in Israel", "pan-Arabist", "Arabic language", "Euphrates", "loyalty", "kibbeh", "Arab", "Sidon Province, Ottoman Empire", "fasting", "Taylor & Francis", "Sephardic Jews", "Druze in Syria", "pita", "Der Islam", "Gamla", "Lebanese Maronite Christians", "History of the Jews in Iraq", "Panentheism", "Venezuela", "Arab nationalism", "Central Bureau of Statistics (Israel)", "Harim Mountains", "Golan Heights Law", "muhammara", "metempsychosis", "Peasants' revolt in Palestine", "Hamza ibn Ali", "crucifixion of Jesus", "incarnation", "John Wiley & Sons", "anti-Zionist", "polytheist", "Nafs", "Ottoman Lebanon", "Bedouin", "Sahnaya", "Sword Battalion", "Golden Age", "exegesis", "Tanukhids", "Mate (drink)", "Evangelism", "Near East", "baba ghanoush", "France", "University of Philadelphia Press", "Day of Judgment", "Yemen", "preacher", "Psychology Press", "Charles-Marie-Napoléon de Beaufort d'Hautpoul", "Canaan", "filial piety", "Harvard University Press", "Yirka", "Mount Lebanon Governorate", "Journal of the American Oriental Society", "Aqaba", "Kamal Jumblatt", "Suwayda Governorate", "Infidel", "Niha, Chouf", "Virgin Mary", "Jaysh al-Muwahhidin", "Küçük Ahmed Pasha", "Haifa El Aissami", "Mulukhiyah", "President of Egypt", "justice", "Syria (region)", "Arutz Sheva", "Hasidic Judaism", "University of California Press", "PLO", "Brill Publishers", "monogamy", "Sultan Pasha al-Atrash", "BBC", "Muslim conquest of the Levant", "Sidon Eyalet", "crusaders", "Logos (Islam)", "Naples", "circumcision", "Reincarnation", "ʻAql", "Jordan", "Adib Shishakli", "Bloomsbury Publishing", "Melkite Greek Catholic Church", "ethnoreligious group", "Manichaeism", "Turkish language", "Christianity in the Middle East", "United States", "taqiyya", "Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church", "Elijah", "Hittin", "Druze people in Syria", "Oxford University Press", "University of Nebraska, Lincoln", "David Hogarth", "pilgrimage", "Reform Judaism", "Zoroastrianism", "Taym Allah", "endogamy", "Job (biblical figure)", "Y-chromosome", "Lebanese Sunni Muslims", "Syracuse University Press", "Yahya of Antioch", "Khidr", "Marcia C. Inhorn", "Maronite", "Kamal Salibi", "Itureans", "Umm Al-Quttein", "Napoleon", "University of Oxford Press", "United Kingdom", "Egypt", "Mamluks", "Selim I", "theophany", "Sawwaf family", "Max von Oppenheim", "Fakhr-al-Din al-Maani Castle", "Batin (Islam)", "Ismail at-Tamimi", "Jabal al-Summaq", "Israeli-occupied territories", "Hauran", "Neoplatonism and Gnosticism", "Lake Van", "I.B. Tauris", "Yaman (tribal group)", "Syrian civil war", "Jabal Druze", "Persians", "Gamal Abdel Nasser", "Protestant", "Quran", "iconography", "soul", "Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire", "President of Syria", "Russiefa", "Hasbaya District", "Crusades", "Razavi Khorasan province", "Monotheistic", "Alawites", "Druze power struggle (1658–67)", "Al Azhar", "Suwayda", "Christian monasticism", "Eastern esotericism", "Methodist", "Galilee", "Saint Luke", "transmigration of souls", "Zgharta", "Christian views on divorce", "Adib al-Shishakli", "Israeli Druze", "Cambridge University Press", "Arab cuisine", "majlis", "Sephardi Jews", "Muhammad", "State University of New York Press", "Hebrew script", "Matn District", "Nous", "Palestinian identity", "anagoge", "Lebanese people", "Scientific Reports", "nahiyah", "Christian views on marriage", "Jumblatt", "Deir al-Qamar", "Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir", "Divine illumination", "Time (magazine)", "mujaddara", "Tanzih", "South America", "al-Mustarshid", "Sharia", "Arabic food", "Arab Venezuelans", "sanctuary", "Saoufar", "God", "ASPM (gene)", "Israel Central Bureau of Statistics", "Prophets and messengers in Islam", "Australian Bureau of Statistics", "Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church", "Radd al-Muhtar 'ala al-Durr al-Mukhtar", "Deir el Qamar Synagogue", "massacre", "National Geographic", "The People of Monotheism", "Knafeh", "Ad-Darazi", "Nasut", "Catholicism", "Polygyny in Islam", "Mary, mother of Jesus", "amir", "Church of Saidet et Tallé", "Arameans", "Brethren of Purity", "Southern Lebanon", "US State Department", "Anima mundi", "Abraham", "Pakistan", "Mountain War", "Saint Joseph", "Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch", "Shroud of Turin", "Whole grain", "theology", "rite of passage", "PLOS ONE", "Beylerbey", "phi", "Tuscany", "Pan-Arabism", "Islam", "Khalwat al-Bayada", "Arabic culture", "Melkite", "Emir Majid Arslan II", "Al-Muqtana Baha'uddin", "Jerusalem", "Golan Heights", "didactic", "Shahada", "Bashar al-Assad", "Lahut", "Lebanon", "Fish (food)", "Armenians", "Maronites", "BBC News", "Gertrude Bell", "Palestinians", "Middle East", "Quneitra Governorate", "Berghahn Books", "Rich Text Format", "University of Alabama Press", "apostasy in Islam", "Al Azhar University", "al-Atrash", "Parmenides", "Yale University Press", "Plato", "Shihab dynasty", "British Library", "Islam in Israel", "Six-Day War", "Immanence", "W. W. Norton", "Deutschlandfunk", "Great Syrian Revolt", "Zarqa", "Sunni", "1660 destruction of Tiberias", "Zagros Mountains", "Pythagoreanism", "polemic", "Nature (journal)", "Al-Azhar Shia Fatwa", "Peki'in", "Greater Syria", "Sufi", "New Testament", "Twelver Shi'ism", "Acre, Israel", "Epistles of Wisdom", "Orthodox Judaism", "apostasy", "Zenobia", "Plurinationalism", "Venezuelan culture", "Rashaya", "Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany", "alcohol (drug)", "Baaqlin", "Ottoman–Habsburg War (1683–1699)", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Nicene Christianity", "Gilgul", "Routledge", "Lebanese Civil War", "Shehab dynasty", "Mamluk Sultanate", "baptism", "Saladin", "Farang", "Maqam (shrine)", "Syrian Argentines", "ABC-CLIO", "Christoph Heger", "Hamza bin Ali", "Old Testament", "1838 Druze revolt", "Idlib Governorate", "divinity", "Empedocles", "Jews", "Antioch", "shawarma", "polygamy", "Aleppo", "meze", "Adams Media", "Levant", "Conservative Judaism", "Zarka", "Wipf and Stock Publishers", "Druze flag", "Arab citizens of Israel", "Saint Matthew", "za’atar", "Tanukh", "Hashemite", "Cedar Revolution", "Kafr Yasif", "University of Michigan Press", "universal reason", "Imamate in Ismaili doctrine", "Jewish ethnic divisions", "Sunni Islam", "Iltizam", "Ibn Abidin", "Syrians", "soteriological", "Five Pillars of Islam", "Mandatory Palestine", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Al-Hakim Mosque", "Maan family", "heresy in Islam", "Reason", "Arab history", "Moroccan Jews", "Anatolia", "Holy Land", "Damascus Eyalet", "hummus", "'Aql", "Marjeyoun District", "Mount Lebanon", "Aliyah", "Arabic", "Beiteddine Palace", "Shia", "monotheistic", "Muhammad ibn Isma'il", "Tarek William Saab", "al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah", "Ziyarat al-Nabi Shu'ayb", "Religious denomination", "1838 Druze attack on Safed", "Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria", "Fakhr-al-Din II", "Bukhara", "Ministry of Interior (Israel)", "List of Druze", "Divine simplicity", "Shirk (Islam)", "Syrian Civil War", "Druze in Lebanon", "tabbouleh", "Classical Arabic", "peace", "Amman", "reincarnation", "History of Lebanon under Ottoman rule", "Judaism", "Baakleen", "reproduction", "Persian Gulf", "Druze star", "Samanid Empire", "Azraq, Jordan", "Hermon", "infidelity", "Edward Elgar Publishing", "Reuters", "Keserwan District", "1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus", "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant", "Lebanese Front", "fatwa", "elite", "Arab culture", "Zahlé", "1834 looting of Safed", "Mount Hermon", "sinful", "Egypt Eyalet", "Hasbaya" ]
8,633	December 12	==Events== ===Pre-1600=== 627 – Battle of Nineveh: A Byzantine army under Emperor Heraclius defeats Emperor Khosrau II's Persian forces, commanded by General Rhahzadh. 1388 – Maria of Enghien sells the lordship of Argos and Nauplia to the Republic of Venice. ===1601–1900=== 1787 – Pennsylvania becomes the second state to ratify the US Constitution. 1862 – American Civil War: sinks on the Yazoo River. 1866 – Oaks explosion: The worst mining disaster in England kills 361 miners and rescuers. 1870 – Joseph H. Rainey of South Carolina becomes the second black U.S. congressman. ===1901–present=== 1901 – Guglielmo Marconi receives the first transatlantic radio signal (the letter "S" [•••] in Morse Code), at Signal Hill in St John's, Newfoundland. 1915 – Yuan Shikai declares the establishment of the Empire of China and proclaims himself Emperor. 1917 – Father Edward J. Flanagan founds Boys Town as a farm village for wayward boys. 1935 – The Lebensborn Project, a Nazi reproduction program, is founded by Heinrich Himmler. 1936 – The beginning of Xi'an incident. As a result, Chiang Kai Shek is captured. 1937 – Second Sino-Japanese War: USS Panay incident: Japanese aircraft bomb and sink U.S. gunboat on the Yangtze river in China. 1939 – sinks after a collision with off the coast of Scotland with the loss of 124 men. 1939 – Winter War: The Battle of Tolvajärvi, also known as the first major Finnish victory in the Winter War, begins. 1941 – World War II: Fifty-four Japanese A6M Zero fighters raid Batangas Field, Philippines. Jesús Villamor and four Filipino fighter pilots fend them off; César Basa is killed. 1941 – The Holocaust: Adolf Hitler declares the imminent extermination of the Jews at a meeting in the Reich Chancellery. 1945 – The People's Republic of Korea is outlawed in the South, by order of the United States Army Military Government in Korea. 1946 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 13 relating to acceptance of Siam (now Thailand) to the United Nations is adopted. 1956 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 121 relating to acceptance of Japan to the United Nations is adopted. 1963 – Kenya declares independence from Great Britain. 1969 – The Piazza Fontana bombing; a bomb explodes at the headquarters of Banca Nazionale dell'Agricoltura (the National Agricultural Bank) in Piazza Fontana in Milan, Italy, killing 17 people and wounding 88. The same afternoon, three more bombs are detonated in Rome and Milan, and another is found unexploded. 1979 – The 8.2 Tumaco earthquake shakes Colombia and Ecuador with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), killing 300–600, and generating a large tsunami. 1979 – Coup d'état of December Twelfth occurs in South Korea. 1985 – Arrow Air Flight 1285R, a McDonnell Douglas DC-8, crashes after takeoff in Gander, Newfoundland, killing all 256 people on board, including 236 members of the United States Army's 101st Airborne Division. 1988 – The Clapham Junction rail crash kills thirty-five and injures hundreds after two collisions of three commuter trains—one of the worst train crashes in the United Kingdom. 1999 – A magnitude 7.3 earthquake hits the Philippines's main island of Luzon, killing six people, injuring 40, and causing power outages that affected the capital Manila. 2000 – The United States Supreme Court releases its decision in Bush v. Gore. 2001 – Prime Minister of Vietnam Phan Văn Khải announces the decision on upgrading the Phong Nha–Kẻ Bàng nature reserve to a national park, providing information on projects for the conservation and development of the park and revised maps. 2012 – North Korea successfully launches its first satellite, Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2. 2015 – The Paris Agreement relating to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is adopted. 2021 – Dutch Formula One racing driver Max Verstappen wins the controversial 2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, beating seven-time World Champion Lewis Hamilton to become the first Formula One World Champion to come from the Netherlands. 2024 – Indian Grandmaster Gukesh Dommaraju became the undisputed World Chess Champion in a tournament held in Singapore, making him the 18th and the youngest champion in chess history. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== 1526 – Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz, Spanish admiral (d. 1588) ===1601–1900=== 1685 – Lodovico Giustini, Italian pianist and composer (d. 1743) 1724 – Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood, English admiral and politician (d. 1816) 1786 – William L. Marcy, American lawyer, judge, and politician, 21st United States Secretary of State (d. 1857) 1799 – Karl Bryullov, Russian painter (d. 1852) 1805 – Henry Wells, American businessman, co-founded Wells Fargo and American Express (d. 1878) 1806 – Stand Watie, American general (d. 1871) 1812 – John Sandfield Macdonald, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Premier of Ontario (d. 1872) 1821 – Gustave Flaubert, French novelist (d. 1880) 1830 – Joseph Orville Shelby, Confederate general (d. 1897) 1842 – Adolf Bötticher, German journalist and historian (d. 1901) 1845 – Bruce Price, American architect, designed the American Surety Building and Bank of the Metropolis (d. 1903) 1863 – Edvard Munch, Norwegian painter (d. 1944) 1866 – Alfred Werner, Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1919) 1870 – Walter Benona Sharp, American businessman, co-founded Hughes Tool Company (d. 1912) 1876 – Alvin Kraenzlein, American hurdler and runner (d. 1928) 1881 – Louise Thuliez, French school teacher, resistance fighter during World War I and World War II and author (d. 1966) 1893 – Edward G. Robinson, American actor (d. 1973) ===1901–present=== 1901 – Harald Kaarmann, Estonian footballer (d. 1942) 1907 – Roy Douglas, English pianist and composer (d. 2015) 1912 – Henry Armstrong, American boxer (d. 1988) 1914 – Patrick O'Brian, English author (d. 2000) 1915 – Frank Sinatra, American singer, actor, and producer (d. 1998) 1918 – Joe Williams, American singer and pianist (d. 1999) 1920 – Josef Doležal, Czech race walker (d. 1999) 1923 – Bob Barker, American game show host and producer (d. 2023) 1923 – Bob Dorough, American musician, composer, and producer (d. 2018) 1923 – Emahoy Tsegué-Maryam Guèbrou, Ethiopian pianist, composer and nun (d. 2023) 1924 – Ed Koch, American politician, 105th Mayor of New York City (d. 2013) 1925 – Ted Kennedy, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2009) 1925 – Dattu Phadkar, Indian cricketer (d. 1985) 1925 – Vladimir Shainsky, Ukrainian-Russian pianist and composer (d. 2017) 1927 – Robert Noyce, American inventor and businessman, co-founded the Intel Corporation (d. 1990) 1928 – Helen Frankenthaler, American painter and academic (d. 2011) 1929 – Toshiko Akiyoshi, Japanese pianist and composer 1932 – Bob Pettit, American basketball player and coach 1933 – Christa Stubnick, German sprinter (d. 2021) 1934 – Miguel de la Madrid, Mexican lawyer and politician, 52nd President of Mexico (d. 2012) 1936 – Iolanda Balaș, Romanian high jumper and educator (d. 2016) 1937 – Connie Francis, American singer, musician, and actress 1940 – Sharad Pawar, Indian politician, Indian Minister of Agriculture 1940 – Dionne Warwick, American singer 1942 – Bob Thompson, American jazz pianist, composer and arranger 1943 – Dickey Betts, American musician and songwriter (d. 2024) 1945 – Gísli S. Einarsson, Icelandic politician 1945 – Tony Williams, American drummer, composer, and producer (d. 1997) 1946 – Emerson Fittipaldi, Brazilian racing driver 1947 – Wings Hauser, American actor (d. 2025) 1947 – Chris Mullin, English journalist and politician 1948 – Randy Smith, American basketball player (d. 2009) 1948 – Colin Todd, English football player and coach 1949 – Bill Nighy, English actor 1949 – Marc Ravalomanana, Malagasy businessman and politician, President of Madagascar 1950 – Pedro Ferriz de Con, Mexican journalist 1950 – Heiner Flassbeck, German economist and academic 1950 – Rajinikanth, Indian actor 1950 – Billy Smith, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager 1950 – Gorman Thomas, American baseball player 1951 – Rehman Malik, Pakistani politician, Pakistani Minister of Interior (d. 2022) 1952 – Cathy Rigby, American gymnast 1953 – Martin Ferguson, Australian lawyer and politician 1953 – Rafael Septién, Mexican-American football player 1955 – Eddy Schepers, Belgian cyclist 1955 – Stephen Smith, Australian politician 1956 – Johan van der Velde, Dutch cyclist 1957 – Sheila E., American singer and musician 1961 – Andrey Perlov, Russian race walker 1962 – Tracy Austin, American tennis player and sportscaster 1962 – Arturo Barrios, Mexican-American runner 1962 – Mike Golic, American football player and radio host 1963 – Eduardo Castro Luque, Mexican businessman and politician (d. 2012) 1964 – Haywood Jeffires, American football player and coach 1964 – Sabu, American wrestler 1965 – Russell Batiste Jr., American funk and R&B drummer (d. 2023) 1965 – Will Carling, English rugby union player 1967 – John Randle, American football player 1968 – Sašo Udovič, Slovenian footballer 1969 – Wilfred Kirochi, Kenyan runner 1969 – Fiona May, English-Italian long jumper 1969 – Michael Möllenbeck, German discus thrower 1970 – Mädchen Amick, American actress and director 1970 – Jennifer Connelly, American actress 1970 – Regina Hall, American actress 1971 – Sammy Korir, Kenyan runner 1972 – Nicky Eaden, English footballer and coach 1972 – Craig Field, Australian rugby league player 1972 – Wilson Kipketer, Kenyan-Danish runner 1972 – Georgios Theodoridis, Greek sprinter 1974 – Bernard Lagat, Kenyan-American runner 1974 – Nolberto Solano, Peruvian footballer and manager 1975 – Mayim Bialik, American actress, neuroscientist, and author 1975 – Craig Moore, Australian footballer and manager 1977 – Yoel Hernández, Cuban hurdler 1977 – Orlando Hudson, American baseball player 1977 – Dean Macey, English decathlete and bobsledder 1977 – Colin White, Canadian ice hockey player 1979 – Garrett Atkins, American baseball player 1979 – Nate Clements, American football player 1979 – John Salmons, American basketball player 1980 – Dejene Berhanu, Ethiopian runner (d. 2010) 1980 – Dorin Goian, Romanian footballer 1981 – Eddie Kingston, American wrestler 1981 – Pedro Ríos, Spanish footballer 1981 – Yuvraj Singh, Indian cricketer 1981 – Stephen Warnock, English footballer 1981 – Andrew Whitworth, American football player and commentator 1982 – Ervin Santana, Dominican baseball player 1982 – Dmitry Tursunov, Russian tennis player and coach 1983 – Roni Porokara, Finnish footballer 1984 – Daniel Agger, Danish footballer 1985 – Pat Calathes, Greek-American basketball player 1985 – Andrew Ladd, Canadian ice hockey player 1986 – Daddy Birori, Rwandan footballer 1986 – Përparim Hetemaj, Finnish footballer 1986 – Nina Kolarič, Slovenian long jumper 1986 – T. J. Ward, American football player 1988 – Isaac John, New Zealand rugby league player 1988 – Lonah Chemtai Salpeter, Israeli Olympic marathon runner 1990 – Nixon Chepseba, Kenyan runner 1990 – Dawin, American singer-songwriter 1990 – Victor Moses, Nigerian footballer 1990 – Tyron Smith, American football player 1991 – Joseph Leilua, Australian-Samoan rugby league player 1993 – Zeli Ismail, English footballer 1994 – Otto Warmbier, American student imprisoned in North Korea (d. 2017) 1996 – Lucas Hedges, American actor 1997 – Ed Oliver, American football player 2001 – Michael Olise, French footballer ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 884 – King Carloman II of the Franks (born c.866; hunting accident) 1296 – Isabella of Mar, first wife of Robert Bruce VII (b. 1277) 1572 – Loredana Marcello, Dogaressa of Venice, botanist, author ===1601–1900=== 1751 – Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, English philosopher and politician, Secretary at War (b. 1678) 1766 – Johann Christoph Gottsched, German philosopher, author, and critic (b. 1700) 1794 – Meshullam Feivush Heller, Ukrainian author (b. 1742) 1803 – Prince Frederick Adolf of Sweden (b. 1750) 1858 – Jacques Viger, Canadian archeologist and politician, 1st Mayor of Montreal (b. 1787) 1889 – Viktor Bunyakovsky, Ukrainian-Russian mathematician and theorist (b. 1804) 1894 – John Sparrow David Thompson, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1845) ===1901–present=== 1913 – Menelik II, Ethiopian emperor (b. 1844) 1921 – Henrietta Swan Leavitt, American astronomer and academic (b. 1868) 1923 – Raymond Radiguet, French author and poet (b. 1903) 1934 – Thorleif Haug, Norwegian skier (b. 1894) 1939 – Douglas Fairbanks, Sr., American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1883) 1941 – César Basa, Filipino lieutenant and pilot (b. 1915) 1948 – Marjory Stephenson, British biochemist (b. 1885) 1951 – Mildred Bailey, American singer (b. 1907) 1958 – Albert Walsh, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland (b. 1900) 1966 – Karl Ruberl, Austrian-American swimmer (b. 1880) 1968 – Tallulah Bankhead, American actress (b. 1902) 1970 – Doris Blackburn, Australian politician (b. 1889) 1975 – Richard Baggallay, English colonel and cricketer (b. 1884) 1980 – Jean Lesage, Canadian lawyer and politician, 19th Premier of Quebec (b. 1912) 1985 – Anne Baxter, American actress (b. 1923) 1993 – József Antall, Hungarian historian and politician, 35th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1932) 1994 – Stuart Roosa, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b. 1933) 1996 – Vance Packard, American journalist, author, and critic (b. 1914) 1997 – Evgenii Landis, Ukrainian-Russian mathematician and academic (b. 1921) 1998 – Lawton Chiles, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 41st Governor of Florida (b. 1930) 1998 – Morris Udall, American captain and politician (b. 1922) 1999 – Paul Cadmus, American painter and illustrator (b. 1904) 1999 – Joseph Heller, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright(b. 1923) 2001 – Ardito Desio, Italian geologist and explorer (b. 1897) 2002 – Dee Brown, American historian and author (b. 1908) 2003 – Heydar Aliyev, Azerbaijani general and politician, 3rd President of Azerbaijan (b. 1923) 2005 – Robert Newmyer, American actor and producer (b. 1956) 2005 – Annette Stroyberg, Danish actress (b. 1936) 2005 – Gebran Tueni, Lebanese journalist and politician (b. 1957) 2006 – Paul Arizin, American basketball player (b. 1928) 2006 – Peter Boyle, American actor (b. 1935) 2006 – Raymond P. Shafer, American attorney and politician, 39th Governor of Pennsylvania (b. 1917) 2006 – Alan Shugart, American engineer and businessman, co-founded Seagate Technology (b. 1930) 2007 – François al-Hajj, Lebanese general (b. 1953) 2007 – Ike Turner, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1931) 2008 – Avery Dulles, American cardinal and theologian (b. 1918) 2008 – Van Johnson, American actor (b. 1916) 2010 – Tom Walkinshaw, Scottish race car driver, founded Tom Walkinshaw Racing (b. 1946) 2012 – Joe Allbritton, American banker, publisher, and philanthropist, founded the Allbritton Communications Company (b. 1924) 2012 – David Tait, English rugby player (b. 1987) 2013 – Tom Laughlin, American actor, director, screenwriter, author, educator, and activist (b. 1931) 2013 – Abdul Quader Molla, Bangladeshi journalist and politician (b. 1948) 2013 – Audrey Totter, American actress (b. 1917) 2014 – Norman Bridwell, American author and illustrator, created Clifford the Big Red Dog (b. 1928) 2014 – Ivor Grattan-Guinness, English mathematician, historian, and academic (b. 1941) 2014 – Herb Plews, American baseball player (b. 1928) 2015 – Frans Geurtsen, Dutch footballer (b. 1942) 2015 – Evelyn S. Lieberman, American politician, White House Deputy Chief of Staff (b. 1944) 2016 – Shirley Hazzard, Australian-American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b. 1931) 2017 – Ed Lee, American politician and attorney, 43rd Mayor of San Francisco (b. 1952) 2017 – Pat DiNizio, American singer and songwriter (b. 1955) 2019 – Danny Aiello, American actor (b. 1933) 2020 – John le Carré, English author (b. 1931) 2020 – Ann Reinking, American actress, dancer, and choreographer (b. 1949) 2021 – Vicente Fernández, Mexican actor, ranchera singer, and film producer (b. 1940) 2021 – Bernie Fowler, American politician and environmental advocate (b. 1924) 2021 – Maʻafu Tukuiʻaulahi, Tongan politician and military officer, Deputy Prime Minister (b. 1955) ==Holidays and observances== Christian feast day: Corentin of Quimper Jane Frances de Chantal Edburga of Minster-in-Thanet Finnian of Clonard Thomas Holland Ida of Nivelles Peter the Aleut Vicelinus Our Lady of Guadalupe December 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Constitution Day (Russia) Day of Neutrality (Turkmenistan)	[ "Eddie Kingston", "Vicente Fernández", "1940", "Ike Turner", "1921", "Corentin of Quimper", "American Express", "1296", "Kenya", "Tracy Austin", "1982", "Douglas Fairbanks, Sr.", "Maʻafu Tukuiʻaulahi", "1794", "mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk", "Arturo Barrios", "Pedro Ferriz de Con", "The Plain Dealer", "Ann Reinking", "Supreme Court of the United States", "Karl Bryullov", "Texas State Historical Association", "Avery Dulles", "Joe Allbritton", "Wells Fargo", "Viktor Bunyakovsky", "Grover Washington, Jr.", "Paul Cadmus", "1979 Tumaco earthquake", "Eduardo Castro Luque", "Philippine", "Michael Olise", "2015", "Republic of Venice", "1924", "Columbia Missourian", "Clapham Junction rail crash", "Gustave Flaubert", "Xi'an Incident", "United States Congress", "National Hockey League", "1964", "Annette Stroyberg", "White House Deputy Chief of Staff", "Allbritton Communications Company", "Meshullam Feivush Heller", "Ivor Grattan-Guinness", "2020", "Tom Laughlin", "The Holocaust", "Alvin Kraenzlein", "1881", "Our Lady of Guadalupe", "1928", "1915", "1981", "2008", "Philip Ledger", "New Japan Pro Wrestling", "Yuvraj Singh", "1946", "Alan Shugart", "Edburga of Minster-in-Thanet", "1950", "Dean Macey", "Lebensborn", "Tallulah Bankhead", "Ervin Santana", "feast day", "North Korea", "United States Secretary of State", "The Search for Modern China", "101st Airborne Division", "1979", "Rajinikanth", "Vicelinus", "Maria of Enghien", "Adolf Hitler", "Premier of Ontario", "1994", "Thomas Holland (Jesuit)", "Heydar Aliyev", "Oklahoma Historical Society", "1972", "2016", "Roni Porokara", "1766", "Otto Warmbier", "1943", "Patrick O'Brian", "Yazoo River", "United Nations", "President of Azerbaijan", "Lewis Hamilton", "The Philadelphia Inquirer", "John le Carré", "Edvard Munch", "Gísli S. 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Wilson", "Khosrau II", "1870", "Jesús Villamor", "Heiner Flassbeck", "Andrew Ladd", "1990", "Isaac John", "President of Madagascar", "1961", "Helen Frankenthaler", "Bruce Price", "1966", "Abdul Quader Molla", "Jean Lesage", "United States Army Military Government in Korea", "Sašo Udovič", "Jane Frances de Chantal", "Paris Agreement", "Rehman Malik", "627", "1999", "1925", "Mercalli intensity scale", "Hughes Tool Company", "Craig Field", "2019", "Dorin Goian", "1830", "Pat Calathes", "Arrow Air Flight 1285R", "Ministry of Interior (Pakistan)", "1965", "Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland and Labrador", "Grandmaster (chess)", "T. J. Ward", "1858", "1939", "Byzantine Empire", "Governor of Florida", "Rhahzadh", "József Antall", "Craig Moore", "American Surety Building", "2002", "2001", "Turkmenistan", "Battle of Tolvajärvi", "Emahoy Tsegué-Maryam Guèbrou", "Norman Bridwell", "1993", "ESPN", "Morris Udall", "1787", "Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood", "The Guardian", "2003", "Mayor of New York City", "Vance Packard", "Lodovico Giustini", "Haywood Jeffires", "Dee Brown (writer)", "2012", "Ed Oliver (American football)", "Black Entertainment Television", "John Sparrow David Thompson", "2000", "1927", "1967", "Peter the Aleut", "Sabu (wrestler)", "Rafael Septién", "List of youngest grandmasters", "Formula One", "1971", "US Constitution", "1952", "1751", "Louise Thuliez", "Walter Benona Sharp", "1894", "Raymond P. Shafer", "Department of Transport", "Premier of Quebec", "Clifford the Big Red Dog", "Empire of Japan", "Bob Dorough", "Chris Mullin (politician)", "Bob Barker", "1984", "Carloman II", "Mike Golic", "December 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "1845", "Japan", "Andrey Perlov", "1907", "Manila", "1923", "National Basketball Association", "1937", "1913", "Pennsylvania", "1996", "Timeline of first orbital launches by country", "1963", "Tyron Smith", "Jack Belrose", "Tom Walkinshaw Racing", "Gebran Tueni", "1975", "Winter War", "The Times", "John Sandfield Macdonald", "1893", "Prime Minister of Canada", "Henry Wells", "1958", "Álvaro de Bazán, 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz", "Coup d'état of December Twelfth", "Lonah Chemtai Salpeter", "Thorleif Haug", "Dawin", "1941", "Mayor of San Francisco", "Bernard Lagat", "Netherlands", "Dmitry Tursunov", "1949", "Central Arkansas Library System", "1969", "Wilfred Kirochi", "1799", "1842", "1934", "1962", "1912", "A6M Zero", "Yoel Hernández (athlete)", "Michael Möllenbeck", "Dejene Berhanu", "1889", "Victor Moses", "State Historical Society of Missouri", "Prince Frederick Adolf of Sweden", "Dattu Phadkar", "2007", "Don Keith", "Përparim Hetemaj", "Danny Aiello", "1957", "César Basa", "Martina Hellmann", "AllMusic", "Daniel Agger", "Stephen Warnock", "1806", "John Randle", "CageSide Seats", "Mädchen Amick", "Constitution Day", "Guglielmo Marconi", "Times Higher Education", "Johan van der Velde", "Reich Chancellery meeting of 12 December 1941", "Jennifer Connelly", "Audrey Totter", "1876", "François al-Hajj", "Bank of the Metropolis", "Bob Thompson (pianist)", "Emerson Fittipaldi", "Heraclius", "South Carolina", "Joe Williams (jazz singer)", "Toshiko Akiyoshi", "1929", "1572", "Stephen Smith (Australian politician)", "1862", "Gukesh Dommaraju", "Billy Smith (ice hockey)", "Ted Kennedy (ice hockey)", "Bill Nighy", "Joseph Heller", "Richard Baggallay (cricketer)", "Adolf Bötticher", "Menelik II", "Minister of Agriculture (India)", "Heinrich Himmler", "People's Republic of Korea", "Max Verstappen", "Thailand", "Herb Plews", "Henry Armstrong", "Randy Smith (basketball)", "Orlando Hudson", "E!", "Major League Baseball", "Paul Arizin", "Pat DiNizio", "1942", "Robert Noyce", "Connie Francis", "1805", "David Tait", "Josef Doležal", "Van Johnson", "Playbill", "Raymond Radiguet", "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change", "list of Montreal mayors", "Ed Koch", "Shirley Hazzard", "Colin Todd", "Karl Ruberl", "World Chess Championship 2024", "2006", "American Civil War", "Neue Deutsche Biographie", "Jonathan Spence", "Piazza Fontana bombing", "HITC", "Wilson Kipketer", "Gander, Newfoundland and Labrador", "Iolanda Balaș", "Frank Sinatra", "1998", "1917", "1866", "BBC News Online", "Signal Hill, St. John's", "1983", "Henrietta Swan Leavitt", "1986", "Bush v. Gore", "Phan Văn Khải", "Marjory Stephenson", "Ardito Desio", "1388", "2024", "Althing", "UPI", "Wings Hauser", "Philippines", "Martin Ferguson (politician)", "Jacques Viger (1787–1858)", "Nate Clements", "Nina Kolarič", "Nixon Chepseba", "Yangtze", "Anne Baxter", "1812", "1955", "2005", "1901", "Sharad Pawar", "1956", "Regina Hall", "1821", "Evelyn S. Lieberman", "Miguel de la Madrid", "Edward G. 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Marcy", "Prime Minister of Vietnam", "1918", "USS Panay incident", "Joseph Rainey", "Russell Batiste Jr.", "Peter Boyle", "World War II", "Chiang Kai-shek", "1960", "1948", "Empire of China (1915–1916)", "1945", "Robert Newmyer", "Marc Ravalomanana", "Alfred Werner", "2017", "1980", "1988", "1974", "Finland", "Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park", "Evgenii Landis", "Day of Neutrality", "Ecuador", "Joseph Leilua", "Dickey Betts", "Zeli Ismail", "hunting", "Stuart Roosa", "Doris Blackburn", "Frans Geurtsen", "1914", "Will Carling", "Fiona May", "Edward J. Flanagan", "Loredana Marcello", "Ida of Nivelles", "Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2", "1803" ]
8,637	Door	A door is a hinged or otherwise movable barrier that allows ingress (entry) into and egress (exit) from an enclosure. The created opening in the wall is a doorway or portal. A door's essential and primary purpose is to provide security by controlling access to the doorway (portal). Conventionally, it is a panel that fits into the doorway of a building, room, or vehicle. Doors are generally made of a material suited to the door's task. They are commonly attached by hinges, but can move by other means, such as slides or counterbalancing. The door may be able to move in various ways (at angles away from the doorway/portal, by sliding on a plane parallel to the frame, by folding in angles on a parallel plane, or by spinning along an axis at the center of the frame) to allow or prevent ingress or egress. In most cases, a door's interior matches its exterior side. But in other cases (e.g., a vehicle door) the two sides are radically different. Many doors incorporate locking mechanisms to ensure that only some people can open them (such as with a key). Doors may have devices such as knockers or doorbells by which people outside announce their presence. Apart from providing access into and out of a space, doors may have the secondary functions of ensuring privacy by preventing unwanted attention from outsiders, of separating areas with different functions, of allowing light to pass into and out of a space, of controlling ventilation or air drafts so that interiors may be more effectively heated or cooled, of dampening noise, and of blocking the spread of fire. Doors can have aesthetic, symbolic, ritualistic purposes. Receiving the key to a door can signify a change in status from outsider to insider. Doors and doorways frequently appear in literature and the arts with metaphorical or allegorical import as a portent of change. == History == The earliest recorded doors appear in the paintings of Egyptian tombs, which show them as single or double doors, each of a single piece of wood. People may have believed these were doors to the afterlife, and some include designs of the afterlife. In Egypt, where the climate is intensely dry, doors were not framed against warping, but in other countries required framed doors—which, according to Vitruvius (iv. 6.) was done with stiles (sea/si) and rails (see: Frame and panel), the enclosed panels filled with tympana set in grooves in the stiles and rails. The stiles were the vertical boards, one of which, tenoned or hinged, is known as the hanging stile, the other as the middle or meeting stile. The horizontal cross pieces are the top rail, bottom rail, and middle or intermediate rails. The most ancient doors were made of timber, such as those referred to in the Biblical depiction of King Solomon's temple being in olive wood (I Kings vi. 31–35), which were carved and overlaid with gold. The doors that Homer mentions appear to have been cased in silver or brass. Besides olive wood, elm, cedar, oak and cypress were used. Two doors over 5,000 years old have been found by archaeologists near Zürich, Switzerland. Ancient doors were hung by pintles at the top and bottom of the hanging stile, which worked in sockets in the lintel and sill, the latter in some hard stone such as basalt or granite. Those Hilprecht found at Nippur, dating from 2000 BC, were in dolerite. The tenons of the gates at Balawat were sheathed with bronze (now in the British Museum). These doors or gates were hung in two leaves, each about wide and high; they were encased with bronze bands or strips, high, covered with repoussé decoration of figures. The wood doors would seem to have been about thick, but the hanging stile was over diameter. Other sheathings of various sizes in bronze show this was a universal method adopted to protect the wood pivots. In the Hauran in Syria where timber is scarce, the doors were made of stone, and one measuring is in the British Museum; the band on the meeting stile shows that it was one of the leaves of a double door. At Kuffeir near Bostra in Syria, Burckhardt found stone doors, high, being the entrance doors of the town. In Etruria many stone doors are referred to by Dennis. Ancient Greek and Roman doors were either single doors, double doors, triple doors, sliding doors or folding doors, in the last case the leaves were hinged and folded back. In the tomb of Theron at Agrigentum there is a single four-panel door carved in stone. In the Blundell collection is a bas-relief of a temple with double doors, each leaf with five panels. Among existing examples, the bronze doors in the church of SS. Cosmas and Damiano, in Rome, are important examples of Roman metal work of the best period; they are in two leaves, each with two panels, and are framed in bronze. Those of the Pantheon are similar in design, with narrow horizontal panels in addition, at the top, bottom and middle. Two other bronze doors of the Roman period are in the Lateran Basilica. The Greek scholar Heron of Alexandria created the earliest known automatic door in the first century AD during the era of Roman Egypt. The first foot-sensor-activated automatic door was made in China during the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui (r. 604–618), who had one installed for his royal library. Copper and its alloys were integral in medieval architecture. The doors of the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (6th century) are covered with plates of bronze, cut out in patterns. Those of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople, of the eighth and ninth century, are wrought in bronze, and the west doors of the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle (9th century), of similar manufacture, were probably brought from Constantinople, as also some of those in St. Marks, Venice. The bronze doors on the Aachen Cathedral in Germany date back to about 800 AD. Bronze baptistery doors at the Cathedral of Florence were completed in 1423 by Ghiberti. (For more information, see: Copper in architecture). Of the 11th and 12th centuries there are numerous examples of bronze doors, the earliest being one at Hildesheim, Germany (1015). The Hildesheim design affected the concept of Gniezno door in Poland. Of others in South Italy and Sicily, the following are the finest: in Sant'Andrea, Amalfi (1060); Salerno (1099); Canosa di Puglia (1111); Troia, two doors (1119 and 1124); Ravello (1179), by Barisano of Trani, who also made doors for Trani cathedral; and in Monreale and Pisa cathedrals, by Bonano of Pisa. In all these cases the hanging stile had pivots at the top and bottom. The exact period when the builder moved to the hinge is unknown, but the change apparently brought about another method of strengthening and decorating doors—wrought-iron bands of various designs. As a rule, three bands with ornamental work constitute the hinges, with rings outside the hanging stiles that fit on vertical tenons set into the masonry or wooden frame. There is an early example of the 12th century in Lincoln. In France, the metalwork of the doors of Notre Dame at Paris is a beautiful example, but many others exist throughout France and England. In Italy, celebrated doors include those of the Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence), which are all in bronze—including the door frames. The modeling of the figures, birds and foliage of the south doorway, by Andrea Pisano (1330), and of the east doorway by Ghiberti (1425–1452), are of great beauty. In the north door (1402–1424), Ghiberti adopted the same scheme of design for the paneling and figure subjects as Andrea Pisano, but in the east door, the rectangular panels are all filled, with bas-reliefs that illustrate Scripture subjects and innumerable figures. These may the gates of Paradise of which Michelangelo speaks. Doors of the mosques in Cairo were of two kinds: those externally cased with sheets of bronze or iron, cut in decorative patterns, and incised or inlaid, with bosses in relief; and those of wood-framed with interlaced square and diamond designs. The latter design is Coptic in origin. The doors of the palace at Palermo, which were made by Saracenic workmen for the Normans, are fine examples in good preservation. A somewhat similar decorative class of door is found in Verona, where the edges of the stiles and rails are beveled and notched. In the Renaissance period, Italian doors are quite simple, their architects trusting more to the doorways for effect; but in France and Germany the contrary is the case, the doors being elaborately carved, especially in the Louis XIV and Louis XV periods, and sometimes with architectural features such as columns and entablatures with pediment and niches, the doorway being in plain masonry. While in Italy the tendency was to give scale by increasing the number of panels, in France the contrary seems to have been the rule; and one of the great doors at Fontainebleau, which is in two leaves, is entirely carried out as if consisting of one great panel only. The earliest Renaissance doors in France are those of the cathedral of St. Sauveur at Aix (1503). In the lower panels there are figures . high in Gothic niches, and in the upper panels a double range of niches with figures about . high with canopies over them, all carved in cedar. The south door of Beauvais Cathedral is in some respects the finest in France; the upper panels are carved in high relief with figure subjects and canopies over them. The doors of the church at Gisors (1575) are carved with figures in niches subdivided by classic pilasters superimposed. In St. Maclou at Rouen are three magnificently carved doors; those by Jean Goujon have figures in niches on each side, and others in a group of great beauty in the center. The other doors, probably about forty to fifty years later, are enriched with bas-reliefs, landscapes, figures and elaborate interlaced borders. NASA's Vehicle Assembly Building at the Kennedy Space Center contains the four largest doors. The Vehicle Assembly Building was originally built for the assembly of the Apollo missions' Saturn vehicles and was then used to support Space Shuttle operations. Each of the four doors are high. The oldest door in England can be found in Westminster Abbey and dates from 1050. In England in the 17th century the door panels were raised with bolection or projecting moldings, sometimes richly carved, around them; in the 18th century the moldings worked on the stiles and rails were carved with the egg-and-dart ornament. File:Fragment from a tomb door MET 23.3.174f-emf.jpg\|Fragment from an Ancient Egyptian tomb door, circa 2150 –1981 BC, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) File:The Hercules Sarcophagus depicting the Twelve Labors of Hercules, 150-160 AD, Kayseri Archaeological Museum, Turkey (26261172056) (lighter version).jpg\|Ancient Greek door carved on the Hercules sarcophagus from the Kayseri Archaeology Museum (Kayseri, Turkey) File:Bronze door, Basilica di San Giovanni, 2013.jpg\|Ancient Roman bronze doors of the Curia Julia, now in the Basilica of St. John Lateran (Rome) File:Gate, ash-Shibak Fort, Ibra (North ash-Sharqiyah Governorate) Origin- Surat, India (Mughal Empire) Teak wood and brass.jpg\|Indian Mughal teak wood and brass door File:Tenghua Jiuguan 21 2015-04.JPG\|Traditional Chinese folding doors in The Old Museum of Wisteria (Changzhou, China) File:Lateral door church Theotokos Gorgoepikoos Athens, Greece.jpg\|Byzantine door of the Little Metropolis (Athens, Greece) File:Door in Morocco, 2010.jpg\|Islamic door decorated with geometric patterns in Morocco File:'Berfrestone' (DB) door and tympanum arch St Nicholas Church Barfrestone Kent England 1.jpg\|Romanesque door of the Saint Nicholas' Church in Barfrestone (Kent, England) File:Doorway detail, St Magnus Cathedral, Kirkwall, Orkney.jpg\|Gothic door of the St Magnus Cathedral (Kirkwall, Scotland) File:Iconography - Saint Basil's Cathedral (19970306871).jpg\|Russian door in Saint Basil's Cathedral (Moscow) File:The entrance of the Antim Monastery Church.jpg\|Brâncovenesc door of the Antim Monastery (Bucharest, Romania), with a pisanie above it File:Gdańsk (158).JPG\|Renaissance door in Gdańsk (Poland) File:Chateau de Versailles Vestibule Haut 11 (lighter and fixed angles).jpg\|Baroque door in the Palace of Versailles (Versailles, France) File:Porte rue Monsieur-le-Prince Paris.jpg\|Rococo door on Rue Monsieur-le-Prince (Paris) File:P1210063 Paris III rue des Francs-Bourgeois n26 rwk.jpg\|Louis XVI door of the Hôtel Mortier de Sandreville, on Rue des Francs-Bourgeois (Paris) File:Pierre Rousseau - Double-Leaf Doors - 1942.2.12 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif\|Neoclassical painted double-leaf door, 1790s, by , in the Cleveland Museum of Art (US) File:Brooklyn Museum 1994.92 Door with Lock (2).jpg\|African door with lock, late 19th or early 20th century, wood with iron, from Burkina Faso, in the Brooklyn Museum (New York City) File:Zespół klasztoru Gandan (39).jpg\|A decorated door from the Gandantegchinlen Monastery (Mongolia) File:P1250574 Paris V rue Malebranche n3 porte gothique bis encours.jpg\|Gothic Revival door on Rue Malebranche (Paris) File:Egyptian Revival mausoleum, Forest Home Cemetery.jpg\|Egyptian Revival door of a mausoleum in the Forest Home Cemetery (Wisconsin, US) File:Armoiries de lIrlande à lambassade dIrlande à Paris.jpg\|Rococo Revival door of the Hôtel de Breteuil (Paris) File:3-5, Strada Icoanei, Bucharest (Romania) 1.jpg\|Romanian Revival door of the Școala Centrală National College on Strada Icoanei (Bucharest) File:Paris Porte cochère rue La Bruyère 2012.jpg\|19th century Eclectic Classicist door on Rue La Bruyère (Paris) File:Entrance of the George Enescu Museum.jpg\|Beaux-Arts door of the Cantacuzino Palace (Bucharest) File:Porte et marquise CCI Nancy.jpg\|Art Nouveau metal and glass door in Nancy (France), with a big transparent awning above it File:49-53, Calea Victoriei, Bucharest (Romania) 10.jpg\|Stripped Classicist door of the Royal Palace of Bucharest, now the National Museum of Art of Romania File:La Maison Bleue, porte d'entrée - Angers - 20110119.jpg\|Art Deco door in Angers (France) File:Fischerkirche (main door), Born a. Darß.jpg\|Wooden church door in Born auf dem Darß (Germany) == Design and styles == There are many kinds of doors, with different purposes: The most common type is the single-leaf door, which consists of a single rigid panel that fills the doorway. There are many variations on this basic design, such as the double-leaf door or double door and French windows, which have two adjacent independent panels hinged on each side of the doorway. A half door or Dutch door or stable door is divided in half horizontally. Traditionally the top half opens so a worker can feed a horse or other animal while the bottom half remains closed to keep the animal inside. This style of door has been adapted for homes. Saloon doors are a pair of lightweight swing doors often found in public bars, and especially associated with the American west. Saloon doors, also known as cafe doors, often use bidirectional hinges that close the door regardless of which direction it opens by incorporating springs. Saloon doors that only extend from knee-level to chest-level are known as batwing doors. A blind door, Gibb door, or jib door has no visible trim or operable components. It blends with the adjacent wall in all finishes, to appear as part of the wall—a disguised door. A French door consists of a frame around one or more transparent or translucent panels (called lights or lites) that may be installed singly, in matching pairs, or even as series. A matching pair of these doors is called a French window, as it resembles a door-height casement window. When a pair of French doors is used as a French window, the application does not generally include a central mullion (as do some casement window pairs), thus allowing a wider unobstructed opening. The frame typically requires a weather strip at floor level and where the doors meet to prevent water ingress. An espagnolette bolt may let the head and foot of each door be secured in one movement. The slender window joinery maximizes light into the room and minimizes the visual impact of the doorway joinery when considered externally. The doors of a French window often open outward onto a balconet, balcony, porch, or terrace and they may provide an entrance to a garden. A louvered door has fixed or movable wooden fins (often called slats or louvers) which permit open ventilation while preserving privacy and preventing the passage of light to the interior. Being relatively weak structures, they are most commonly used for wardrobes and drying rooms, where security is of less importance than good ventilation, although a very similar structure is commonly used to form window shutters. Double louvred doors were introduced into Seagate, built in Florida in 1929 by Gwendolyn and Powel Crosley, that provided the desired circulation of air with an added degree of privacy in that it is impossible to see through the fins in any direction. A composite door is a single leaf door that can be solid or with glass, and is usually filled with high density foam. In the United Kingdom, composite doors are commonly certified to BS PAS 23/24 and be compliant with Secured by Design, an official UK police initiative. A steel security door is one which is made from strong steel, often for use on vaults and safe rooms to withstand attack. These may also be fitted with wooden outer panels to resemble standard internal and external doors. A flush door is a completely smooth door, having plywood or MDF fixed over a light timber frame, the hollow parts of which are often filled with a cardboard core material. Skins can also be made out of hardboards, the first of which was invented by William H Mason in 1924. Called Masonite, its construction involved pressing and steaming wood chips into boards. Flush doors are most commonly employed in the interior of a dwelling, although slightly more substantial versions are occasionally used as exterior doors, especially within hotels and other buildings containing many independent dwellings. A moulded door has the same structure as that of flush door. The only difference is that the surface material is a moulded skin made of MDF. Skins can also be made out of hardboards. A ledge and brace door often called board and batten doors are made from multiple vertical boards fixed together by two or more horizontal timbers called ledges (or battens) and sometimes kept square by additional diagonal timbers called braces. A wicket door is a pedestrian door built into a much larger door allowing access without requiring the opening of the larger door. Examples might be found on the ceremonial door of a cathedral or in a large vehicle door in a garage or hangar. A bifold door is a unit that has several sections, folding in pairs. Wood is the most common material, and doors may also be metal or glass. Bifolds are most commonly made for closets, but may also be used as units between rooms. Bi-fold doors are essentially now doors that let the outside in. They open in concert; where the panels fold up against one another and are pushed together when opened. The main door panel (often known as the traffic door) is accompanied by a stack of panels that fold very neatly against one another when opened fully, which almost look like room dividers. A sliding glass door, sometimes called an Arcadia door or patio door, is a door made of glass that slides open and sometimes has a screen (a removable metal mesh that covers the door). Australian doors are a pair of plywood swinging doors often found in Australian public houses. These doors are generally red or brown in color and bear a resemblance to the more formal doors found in other British Colonies' public houses. A false door is a wall decoration with the appearance of a window. In ancient Egyptian architecture, this was a common element in a tomb, the false door representing a gate to the afterlife. They can also be found in the funerary architecture of the desert tribes (e.g., Libyan Ghirza). == Types == === Hinged === Most doors are hinged along one side to allow the door to pivot away from the doorway in one direction, but not the other. The axis of rotation is usually vertical. In some cases, such as hinged garage doors, the axis may be horizontal, above the door opening. Doors can be hinged so that the axis of rotation is not in the plane of the door to reduce the space required on the side to which the door opens. This requires a mechanism so that the axis of rotation is on the side other than that in which the door opens. This is sometimes the case in trains or airplanes, such as for the door to the toilet, which opens inward. A swing door has special single-action hinges that allow it to open either outward or inward, and is usually sprung to keep it closed. French doors are derived from the French design called the casement door. It is a door with lites where all or some panels would be in a casement door. A French door traditionally has a moulded panel at the bottom of the door. It is called a French window when used in a pair as double-leaved doors with large glass panels in each door leaf, and in which the doors may swing out (typically) as well as in. A double-acting door, patented in 1880 by the Dutch-American engineer Lorenz Bommer, swings both ways. They are often used in areas where many people are likely to pass through, such as restaurant kitchens. A Dutch door or stable door consists of two halves. The top half operates independently from the bottom half. A variant exists in which opening the top part separately is possible, but because the lower part has a lip on the inside, closing the top part, while leaving the lower part open, is not. A garden door resembles a French window (with lites), but is more secure because only one door is operable. The hinge of the operating door is next to the adjacent fixed door and the latch is located at the wall opening jamb rather than between the two doors or with the use of an espagnolette bolt. A Lev door or convection door is an internal floor-to-ceiling (full height) door, consisting of a standard door leaf and an upper leaf in place of the usual header wall. The leaves may or may not be separated by a transom. The doors enable effective convection of warm air. === Sliding === It is often useful to have doors which slide along tracks, often for space or aesthetic considerations. A bypass door is a door unit that has two or more sections. The doors can slide in either direction along one axis on parallel overhead tracks, sliding past each other. They are most commonly used in closets to provide access one side of the closet at a time. Doors in a bypass unit overlap slightly when viewed from the front so they do not have a visible gap when closed. Doors which slide inside a wall cavity are called pocket doors. This type of door is used in tight spaces where privacy is also required. The door slab is mounted to roller and a track at the top of the door and slides inside a wall. Sliding glass doors are common in many houses, particularly as an entrance to the backyard. Such doors are also popular for use for the entrances to commercial structures, although they are not counted as fire exit doors. The door that moves is called the "active leaf", while the door that remains fixed is called the "inactive leaf". === Rotating === A revolving door has several wings or leaves, generally four, radiating from a central shaft, forming compartments that rotate about a vertical axis. A revolving door allows people to pass in both directions without colliding, and forms an airlock maintaining a seal between inside and out. A pivot door, instead of hinges, is supported on a bearing some distance away from the edge, so that there is more or less of a gap on the pivot side as well as the opening side. In some cases the pivot is central, creating two equal openings. === High-speed === A high-speed door is a very fast door some with opening speeds of up to 4 m/s, mainly used in the industrial sector where the speed of a door has an effect on production logistics, temperature and pressure control. High-speed cleanroom doors, usually consisting of a transparent material on a stainless steel frame, are used in pharmaceutical industries to allow passage between work areas while admitting minimal contaminants. The powerful high-speed doors have a smooth surface structure and no protruding edges, allowing minimal particle retention and easy cleaning. High-speed doors are made to handle a high number of openings, generally more than 200,000 a year. They must be built with heavy-duty parts and counterbalance systems for speed enhancement and emergency opening function. The door curtain was originally made of PVC, but was later also developed in aluminium and acrylic glass sections. High-speed refrigeration and cold-room doors with excellent insulation values have also been introduced for green and energy-saving requirements. In North America, the Door and Access Systems Manufacturing Association (DASMA) defines high-performance doors as non-residential powered doors characterized by rolling, folding, sliding or swinging action, that are either high-cycle (minimum 100 cycles/day) or high-speed (minimum 20 inches (508 mm)/second), and two out of three of the following: made-to-order for exact size and custom features, able to withstand equipment impact (break-away if accidentally hit by vehicle), or able to sustain heavy use with minimal maintenance. === Automatic === Automatically opening doors are powered open and closed either by electricity, spring, or both. There are several methods by which an automatically opening door is activated: A sensor detects traffic is approaching. Sensors for automatic doors are generally: A pressure sensor – e.g., a floor mat which reacts to the pressure of someone standing on it. An infrared curtain or beam which shines invisible light onto sensors; if someone or something blocks the beam the door is triggered open. A motion sensor which uses low-power microwave radar for the same effect. A remote sensor (e.g. based on infrared or radio waves) can be triggered by a portable remote control, or is installed inside a vehicle. These are popular for garage doors. A switch is operated manually, perhaps after security checks. This can be a push button switch or a swipe card. The act of pushing or pulling the door triggers the open and close cycle. These are also known as power-assisted doors. In addition to activation sensors, automatically opening doors are generally fitted with safety sensors. These are usually an infrared curtain or beam, but can be a pressure mat fitted on the swing side of the door. The safety sensor prevents the door from colliding with an object by stopping or slowing its motion. A mechanism in modern automatic doors ensures that the door can open in a power failure. === Other === Up-and-over or overhead doors are often used in garages. Instead of hinges, it has a mechanism, often counterbalanced or sprung, so it can lift and rest horizontally above the opening. A roller shutter or sectional overhead door is one variant of this type. A tambour door or roller door is an up-and-over door made of narrow horizontal slats that rolls up and down by sliding along vertical tracks; it is typically found in entertainment centres and cabinets. Rebated doors, a term chiefly used in Britain, are double doors with a lip or overlap (i.e. a rabbet) on the vertical edge(s) where they meet. Fire-rating can be achieved with an applied edge-guard or astragal molding on the meeting stile, in accordance with the American fire door. == Applications == Architectural doors have numerous general and specialized uses. Doors are generally used to separate interior spaces (closets, rooms, etc.) for convenience, privacy, safety, and security reasons. Doors are also used to secure passages into a building from the exterior, for reasons of climate control and safety. Doors also are applied in more specialized cases: A blast-proof door is constructed to allow access to a structure as well as to provide protection from the force of explosions. A garden door is any door that opens to a backyard or garden. This term is often used specifically for French windows, double French doors (with lites instead of panels), in place of a sliding glass door. The term also may refer to what is known as patio doors. A jib door is a concealed door, whose surface reflects the moldings and finishes of the wall. These were used in historic English houses, mainly as servants' doors. A pet door (also known as a cat flap or dog door) is an opening in a door to allow pets to enter and exit without the main door's being opened. It may be simply covered by a rubber flap, or it may be an actual door hinged on the top that the pet can push through. Pet doors may be mounted in a sliding glass door as a new (permanent or temporary) panel. Pet doors may be unidirectional, only allowing pets to exit. Additionally, pet doors may be electronic, only allowing animals with a special electronic tag to enter. A trapdoor is a door that is oriented horizontally in a ceiling or floor, often accessed via a ladder. A water door or water entrance, such as those used in Venice, Italy, is a door leading from a building built on the water, such as a canal, to the water itself where, for example, one may enter or exit a private boat or water taxi. == Construction and components == === Paneling === Panel doors, also called stile and rail doors, are built with frame and panel construction. EN 12519 is describing the terms which are officially used in European Member States. The main parts are listed below: Stiles – Vertical boards that run the full height of a door and compose its right and left edges. The hinges are mounted to the fixed side (known as the "hanging stile"), and the handle, lock, bolt or latch are mounted on the swinging side (known as the "latch stile"). Rails – Horizontal boards at the top, bottom, and optionally in the middle of a door that join the two stiles and split the door into two or more rows of panels. The "top rail" and "bottom rail" are named for their positions. The bottom rail is also known as "kick rail". A middle rail at the height of the bolt is known as the "lock rail", other middle rails are commonly known as "cross rails". Mullions – Smaller optional vertical boards that run between two rails, and split the door into two or more columns of panels, the term is used sometimes for verticals in doors, but more often (UK and Australia) it refers to verticals in windows. Muntin – Optional vertical members that divide the door into smaller panels. Panels – Large, wider boards used to fill the space between the stiles, rails, and mullions. The panels typically fit into grooves in the other pieces, and help to keep the door rigid. Panels may be flat, or in raised panel designs. Can be glued in or stay as a floating panel. Light – a piece of glass used in place of a panel, essentially giving the door a window. === Board battening === Also known as ledges and braced, board and batten doors are an older design consisting primarily of vertical slats: Planks – Boards wider than 9" that extend the full height of the door, and are placed side by side filling the door's width. Ledges and braces – Ledges extend horizontally across the door which the boards are affixed to. The ledges hold the planks together. When diagonally they are called braces which prevent the door from skewing. On some doors, especially antique ones, the ledges are replaced with iron bars that are often built into the hinges as extensions of the door-side plates. === Ledging and bracing === As board and batten doors. === Impact resistance === Impact-resistant doors have rounded stile edges to dissipate energy and minimize edge chipping, scratching and denting. The formed edges are often made of an engineered material. Impact-resistant doors excel in high traffic areas such as hospitals, schools, hotels and coastal areas. === Frame and fill === This type consists of a solid timber frame, filled on one face, face with tongue and groove boards. Quite often used externally with the boards on the weather face. === Flushing === Flushing of a door means the door is flush with the face of the wall on either side. === Moulding === Stiles and rails – As above, but usually smaller. They form the outside edges of the door. Core material: Material within the door used simply to fill space, provide rigidity and reduce druminess. Hollow-core – Often consists of a lattice or honeycomb made of corrugated cardboard, extruded polystyrene foam, or thin wooden slats. Can also be built with staggered wooden blocks. Hollow-core molded doors are commonly used as interior doors. Lock block – A solid block of wood mounted within a hollow-core flush door near the bolt to provide a solid and stable location for mounting the door's hardware. Stave-core – Consists of wooden slats stacked upon one another in a manner similar to a board & batten door (though the slats are usually thinner) or the wooden-block hollow-core (except that the space is entirely filled). Solid-core – Can consist of low-density particle board or foam used to completely fill the space within the door. Solid-core flush doors (especially foam-core ones) are commonly used as exterior doors because they provide more insulation and strength. Skin – The front and back faces of the door are covered with HDF/MDF skins. === Swing direction === Generally, door swings, or handing, are determined while standing on the outside or less secure side of the door while facing the door (i.e., standing on the side requiring a key to open, going from outside to inside, or from public to private). It is important to get the hand and swing correct on exterior doors, as the transom is usually sloped and sealed to resist water entry, and properly drain. In some custom millwork (or with some master carpenters), the manufacture or installer bevels the leading edge (the first edge to meet the jamb as the door closes) so that the door fits tight without binding. Specifying an incorrect hand or swing can make the door bind, not close properly, or leak. Fixing this error is expensive or time-consuming. In North America, many doors now come with factory-installed hinges, pre-hung on the jamb and sills. While facing the door from the outside or less secure side, if the hinge is on the right side of the door, the door is "right handed"; or if the hinge is on the left, it is "left handed". If the door swings toward you, it is "reverse swing"; or if the door swings away from you, it is "normal swing". In other words: In the United States: Left hand hinge (LHH): Standing outside (or on the less secure side, or on the public side of the door), the hinges are on the left and the door opens in (away from you). Right hand hinge (RHH): Standing outside (or on the less secure side), the hinges are on the right and the door opens in (away from you). Left hand reverse (LHR): Standing outside the house (or on the less secure side), the hinges are on the left, knob on right, on opening the door it swings toward you (i.e. the door swings open toward the outside, or "outswing") Right hand reverse (RHR): Standing outside the house (i.e. on the less secure side), the hinges are on the right, knob on left, opening the door by pulling the door toward you (i.e. open swings to the outside, or "outswing") In Europe: One of the oldest DIN standard applies: DIN 107 "Building construction; identification of right and left side" (first 1922–05, current 1974–04) defines that doors are categorized from the side where the door hinges can be seen. If the hinges are on the left, it is a DIN Left door (DIN Links, DIN gauche), if the hinges are on the right, it is a DIN Right door (DIN Rechts, DIN droite). The DIN Right and DIN Left marking are also used to categorize matching installation material such as mortise locks (referenced in DIN 107). The European Standard DIN EN 12519 "Windows and pedestrian doors. Terminology" includes these definitions of orientation. In Australia: The "refrigerator rule" applies, and a refrigerator door is not opened from the inside. If the hinges are on the right then it is a right hand (or right hung) door. (Australian Standards for Installation of Timber Doorsets, AS 1909–1984 pg 6.) In public buildings, exterior doors open to the outside to comply with applicable fire codes. In a fire, a door that opens inward could cause a crush of people who cannot open it. === Main materials === New exterior doors are largely defined by the type of materials they are made from: wood, steel, fiberglass, UPVC/vinyl, aluminum, composite, glass (patio doors), etc. Wooden doors – including solid wood doors – are a top choice for many homeowners, largely because of the aesthetic qualities of wood. Many wood doors are custom-made, but they have several downsides: their price, their maintenance requirements (regular painting and staining) and their limited insulating value (R-5 to R-6, not including the effects of the glass elements of the doors). Wood doors often have an overhang requirement to maintain a warranty. An overhang is a roof, porch area or awning that helps to protect the door and its finish from UV rays. Steel doors are another major type of residential front doors; most of them come with a polyurethane or other type of foam insulation core – a critical factor in a building's overall comfort and efficiency. Steel doors mostly in default comes along with frame and lock system, which is a high cost efficiency factor compared to wooden doors. Most modern exterior walls provide thermal insulation and energy efficiency, which can be indicated by the Energy Star label or the passive house standards. Premium composite (including steel doors with a thick core of polyurethane or other foam), fiberglass and vinyl doors benefit from the materials they are made from, from a thermal perspective. === Insulation and weatherstripping === There are very few door models with an R-value close to 10 (the R-value measures how well a barrier resists the conductive flow of heat). This is far less than the R-40 walls or the R-50 ceilings of super-insulated buildings – passive solar and zero-energy buildings. Typical doors are not thick enough to provide very high levels of energy efficiency. Many doors may have good R-values at their center, but their overall energy efficiency is reduced because of the presence of glass and reinforcing elements, or because of poor weatherstripping and the way the door is manufactured. Door weatherstripping is particularly important for energy efficiency. German-made passive house doors use multiple weatherstrips, including magnetic strips, to meet higher standards. These weatherstrips reduce energy losses due to air leakage. === Dimensions === ==== United States ==== Standard door sizes in the US run along 2" increments. Customary sizes have a height of and a width of . Most residential passage (room to room) doors are . A standard US residential (exterior) door size is . Interior doors for wheelchair access must also have a minimum width of . Residential interior doors, as well as the doors of many small stores, offices, and other light commercial buildings, are often somewhat smaller than the doors of larger commercial buildings, public buildings, and grand homes. Older buildings often have smaller doors. Thickness: Most pre-fabricated doors are 1 3/8" thick (for interior doors) or 1 3/4" (exterior). Closets: small spaces such as closets, dressing rooms, half-baths, storage rooms, cellars, etc. often are accessed through doors smaller than passage doors in one or both dimensions but similar in design. Garages: Garage doors are generally 84" (7 feet; 2134 mm) or 96" (8 feet; 2438 mm) wide for a single-car opening. Two car garage doors (sometimes called double car doors) are a single door 192" (16 feet; 4877 mm). Because of size and weight these doors are usually sectional. That is split into four or five horizontal sections so that they can be raised more easily and do not require a lot of additional space above the door when opening and closing. Single piece double garage doors are common in some older homes. ==== Europe ==== Standard DIN doors are defined in DIN 18101 (published 1955–07, 1985–01, 2014–08). Door sizes are also given in the construction standard for wooden door panels (DIN 68706–1). The DIN commission created the harmonized European standard DIN EN 14351-1 for exterior doors and DIN EN 14351-2 for interior doors (published 2006–07, 2010–08), which define requirements for the CE marking and provide standard sizes by examples in the appendix. The DIN 18101 standard has a normative size (Nennmaß) slightly larger than the panel size (Türblatt) as the standard derives the panel sizes from the normative size being different single door vs double door and molded vs unmolded doors. DIN 18101/1985 defines interior single molded doors to have a common panel height of 1985 mm (normativ height 2010 mm) at panel widths of 610 mm, 735 mm, 860 mm, 985 mm, 1110 mm, plus a larger door panel size of 1110 mm x 2110 mm. The newer DIN 18101/2014 drops the definition of just five standard door sizes in favor of a basic raster running along 125 mm increments where the height and width are independent. Panel width may be in the range 485 mm to 1360 mmm, and the height may be in the range of 1610 mm to 2735 mm. The most common interior door is . === Doorways === When framed in wood for snug fitting of a door, the doorway consists of two vertical jambs on either side, a lintel or head jamb at the top, and perhaps a threshold at the bottom. When a door has more than one movable section, one of the sections may be called a leaf. See door furniture for a discussion of attachments to doors such as door handles, doorknobs, and door knockers. Lintel – A horizontal beam above a door that supports the wall above it. (Also known as a header) Jambs or legs – The vertical posts that form the sides of a door frame, where the hinges are mounted, and with which the bolt interacts. Door casing, door frame, or chambranle – formed by the lintel and the two jambs. Sill (for exterior doors) – A horizontal sill plate below the door that supports the door frame. Similar to a window sill but for a door Threshold (for exterior doors) – A horizontal plate below the door that bridges the crack between the interior floor and the sill. Doorstop – a thin slat built inside the frame to prevent a door from swinging through when closed, an act which might break the hinges. Architrave – The decorative molding that outlines a door frame, called an Archivolt if the door is arched. Sometimes called brickmold in North America. Doormat (also called door mat) – a mat placed typically in front of or behind a door of a home. This practice originated so that mud and dirt would be less prevalent on floors inside a building. Door lock.jpg\|Front door of a house with typical door furniture: a letter box, door knocker, a latch and two locks Paris Rue de Douai5134.JPG\|A door knocker with putti holding a cartouche, in Paris Galerie dorée071.jpg\|Pair of door knobs in the Galerie dorée de la Banque de France of the Hôtel de Toulouse (Paris) St. Pancras Station (door & hinge). Camden.JPG\|Hinge of a door of the St Pancras railway station (London) === Related hardware === Door furniture or hardware refers to any of the items that are attached to a door or a drawer to enhance its functionality or appearance. This includes items such as hinges, handles, door stops, etc. == Safety == Door safety relates to prevention of door-related accidents. Such accidents take place in various forms, and in a number of locations; ranging from car doors to garage doors. Accidents vary in severity and frequency. According to the National Safety Council in the United States, around 300,000 door-related injuries occur every year. The types of accidents vary from relatively minor cases where doors cause damage to other objects, such as walls, to serious cases resulting in human injury, particularly to fingers, hands, and feet. A closing door can exert up to 40 tons per square inch of pressure between the hinges. Because of the number of accidents taking place, there has been a surge in the number of lawsuits. Thus organisations may be at risk when car doors or doors within buildings are unprotected. According to the US General Services Administration, discussing child care centres: === Opening direction === Whenever a door is opened outward, there is a risk that it could strike another person. In many cases this can be avoided by architectural design which favors doors which open inward to rooms (from the perspective of a common area such as a corridor, the door opens outward). In cases where this is infeasible, it may be possible to avoid an accident by placing vision panels in the door. Inward-hinged doors can also escalate an accident by preventing people from escaping the building: people inside the building may press against the doors, and thus prevent the doors from opening. Related accidents include: Grue Church fire: Grue, Norway in 1822 Victoria Hall Disaster: Sunderland, UK in 1883 Glen Cinema disaster: Paisley, UK in 1929 Cocoanut Grove fire: Boston, USA in 1942 Today, the exterior doors of most large (especially public) buildings open outward, while interior doors such as doors to individual rooms, offices, suites, etc. open inward, as do many exterior doors of houses, particularly in North America. === Stops === Doorstops are simple devices that prevent a door from contacting and possibly damaging another object (typically a wall). They may either absorb the force of a moving door, or hold the door against unintended motion. === Guards === Door guards (hinge guards, anti-finger trapping devices, or finger guards) help prevent finger trapping accidents, as doors pose a risk to children, especially when closing. Door guards protect fingers in door hinges by covering the hinge-side gap of an open door, typically with a piece of rubber or plastic that wraps from the door frame to the door. Other door safety products eject the fingers from the push side of the door as it closes. There are various levels of door protection. Anti-finger trapping devices in front may leave the rear hinge pin side of doors unprotected. Full door protection uses front and rear anti-finger trapping devices and ensures the hinge side of a door is fully isolated. A risk assessment of the door determines the appropriate level of protection. There is also handle-side door protection, which prevents the door from slamming shut on the frame, which can cause injury to fingers/hands. === Glass === Glass doors pose the risk of unintentional collision if a person is unaware there is a door, or thinks it is open when it is not. This risk is greater with sliding glass doors because they often have large single panes that are hard to see. Stickers or other types of warnings on the glass surface make it more visible and help prevent injury. In the UK, Regulation 14 of the Workplace (Health and Safety Regulations) 1992 requires that builders mark windows and glass doors to make them conspicuous. Australian Standards: AS1288 and AS2208 require that glass doors be made of laminated, tempered, or toughened glass. === Fire === Buildings often have special purpose doors that automatically close to prevent the spread of fire and smoke. Fire doors that are improperly installed or tampered with can increase risk during a fire. Sometimes, door closer mechanisms ensure fire doors remain closed. An additional fire risk is that doors may prevent access to emergency services personnel coming to fight the fire and rescue occupants, etc. Fire fighters must use door breaching techniques in these situations to gain access. Doors in public buildings often have panic bars, which open the door in response to anyone pressing against the bar from the inside in the event of a fire or other emergency. === Automobiles === Vehicle doors present an increased risk of trapping hands or fingers due to the proximity of occupants. Bicyclists cycling on public roads risk dooring: collision with an abruptly opened vehicle door. Because cyclists often ride near parked cars alongside the road, they are particularly vulnerable. === Aircraft === In aircraft, doors in a pressurized cabin or cargo hold could pose risk if they open during flight, causing decompression. Air may rush out of the fuselage with sufficient velocity to eject unsecured occupants, cargo, and other items, and drastic pressure differences between compartments may cause aircraft floors or other interior partitions to fail. These concerns are typically mitigated with plug doors, which open inward. They are secured into their door frames by the difference in air pressure. Most cabin doors and emergency exits are of this type, but cargo doors typically open outward to maximise interior space. A number of aircraft accidents have involved outward-opening door failures, including: American Airlines Flight 96 (1972) (design flaw) Turkish Airlines Flight 981 (1974) (design flaw) 1975 Tân Sơn Nhứt C-5 accident (poor maintenance) United Airlines Flight 811 (1989) (design flaw)	[ "Kirkwall", "oak (wood)", "Tympanum (architecture)", "awning", "Victoria Hall Disaster", "hexagonal lattice", "Medium-density fibreboard", "revolving door", "chambranle", "West Africa", "Automatic door", "Pantheon, Rome", "Stripped Classicism", "Trani cathedral", "letter box", "balconet", "louver", "allegory", "Frame and panel", "Lorenzo Ghiberti", "Thermal insulation", "Royal Palace of Bucharest", "Cairo", "vehicle", "Egyptian Revival architecture", "roller shutter", "Ancient Egyptian architecture", "Palace of Versailles", "dolerite", "Bank vault", "symbol", "counterbalance", "cedar (wood)", "passive house", "Ancient Roman architecture", "vision panel", "putti", "Gdańsk", "Gandantegchinlen Monastery", "Curia Julia", "Egyptian architecture", "Archivolt", "Duomo di Pisa", "St Pancras railway station", "particle board", "risk assessment", "Nancy, France", "Libya", "Islamic architecture", "Neoclassical architecture", "lawsuit", "Thermal conduction", "olive wood", "Renaissance", "Threshold (door)", "Constantinople", "elm (wood)", "pet door", "weatherstripping", "Cleveland Museum of Art", "fuselage", "wood", "garage door", "plug door", "energy conservation", "ritual", "room", "Eclecticism in architecture", "espagnolette", "Glen Cinema disaster", "aesthetics", "bas-relief", "Beauvais Cathedral", "folding door", "Masonite", "convenience", "pocket door", "Normans", "passive solar", "Iran", "Russian architecture", "medieval", "fire", "Ancient Rome", "Gothic architecture", "Kayseri Archaeology Museum", "wikt:cafe", "Monreale", "door knocker", "National Museum of Art of Romania", "Athens", "Ultraviolet", "door frame", "egg-and-dart", "rabbet", "cleanroom", "ceiling", "imperial cypher", "Janus", "stile", "accident", "Stile", "Amalfi Cathedral", "Burkina Faso", "Ancient Greece", "Pedro II of Brazil", "1975 Tân Sơn Nhứt C-5 accident", "ornament (architecture)", "Gisors", "Zürich, Switzerland", "Ancient Greek architecture", "Identity document", "repoussé", "American Airlines Flight 96", "Mat", "Saint Petersburg", "Door security", "Agrigentum", "air draft", "Metropolitan Museum of Art", "Louis XVI style", "Sticker", "garden", "sensor", "bolection", "Louis XIV of France", "Vehicle Assembly Building", "R-value (insulation)", "niche (architecture)", "rubber", "Villa Boscoreale", "Pompeii", "Gniezno Doors", "Born auf dem Darß", "Rococo", "Glass", "Latch (hardware)", "Basilica of St. John Lateran", "Energy saving", "pintle", "Mortise and tenon", "Fontainebleau", "Balawat", "car door", "Deutsches Institut für Normung", "spring (device)", "Antim Monastery", "Copper in architecture", "Louis XV of France", "window shutter", "British Museum", "dooring", "hinge", "ventilation (architecture)", "radar", "Amalfi", "Vitruvius", "Aix-en-Provence", "Millwork (building material)", "Mughal architecture", "infrared", "privacy", "Western saloon", "NASA", "mullion", "pressure sensor", "National Safety Council", "Coal hole", "aircraft", "Lincoln Cathedral", "Electronic lock", "the arts", "Emperor Yang of Sui", "Door loop", "foam", "Doorstop", "Lev door", "Florida", "Art Nouveau", "Hôtel de Toulouse", "door breaching", "Locksmithing", "Batten", "Verona", "high-speed door", "panic bar", "motion sensor", "safe room", "noise", "security", "Cocoanut Grove fire", "Nippur", "horse", "Copt", "Heron of Alexandria", "University of Texas Press", "polyurethane", "Palermo", "Lock picking", "convection", "Hinge bender", "Turkish Airlines Flight 981", "Dutch door", "Morocco", "cat flap", "Aix Cathedral", "Safety Science", "Hôtel Mortier de Sandreville", "Powel Crosley, Jr.", "climate", "fire door", "UPVC", "window sill", "Hauran", "Closed-circuit television", "Versailles", "Transom (architecture)", "wicket gate", "lintel", "pisanie", "Singer House", "Chinese architecture", "glass", "basalt", "sliding glass door", "torsion spring", "Lock (security device)", "steel", "Mongolia", "Wisconsin", "United Airlines Flight 811", "tambour door", "sliding door", "building", "Grue Church fire", "Troia (FG)", "sill plate", "switch", "Școala Centrală National College", "cedrus", "mortise lock", "Apollo program", "Mullion", "Hampi", "Saturn V", "metaphor", "Keycard", "IP camera", "refrigerator", "Gibbs surround", "Renaissance architecture", "frame and panel", "Key (lock)", "Architrave", "safety", "Folding", "Notre Dame de Paris", "church of the Nativity", "Angers", "pressure", "corrugated cardboard", "Hildesheim", "lock (security device)", "Baroque", "Pierre Rousseau (architect)", "closet", "blast door", "Double margin doors", "ladder", "St Mark's Basilica", "Art Deco", "Indian architecture", "door handle", "Roman Egypt", "Gothic Revival architecture", "aluminum", "General Services Administration", "Islamic geometric patterns", "Romanesque architecture", "Black Rod", "plywood", "gate", "trapdoor", "Little Metropolis", "Venice, Italy", "St Magnus Cathedral", "Persepolis", "Homer", "Canosa di Puglia", "casement window", "cypress (wood)", "Door casing", "Hôtel de Breteuil", "remote control", "Andrea Pisano", "Santi Cosma e Damiano, Rome", "Al-Jazari", "Lintel", "Biometrics", "key (lock)", "Jamb", "Logical security", "batten", "Bucharest", "Saint Basil's Cathedral", "thermal insulation", "The Old Museum of Wisteria", "Hagia Sophia", "Westminster Abbey", "Green energy", "curtain", "door furniture", "Kayseri", "light", "square lattice", "wall", "architectural design", "literature", "Rococo Revival", "ton", "doorbell", "CE marking", "Brâncovenesc style", "Energy Star", "Etruria", "zero-energy building", "Cabin pressurization", "Bethlehem", "Romanian Revival architecture", "fiberglass", "floor", "Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence)", "Byzantine architecture", "Michelangelo", "Barfrestone", "Convention (norm)", "door closer", "water taxi", "Beaux-Arts architecture", "emergency service", "cartouche (design)", "Changzhou", "Aachen", "Brazilian imperial family", "Donna Leon", "Salerno", "louvered door", "Platform screen doors", "Brooklyn Museum", "Ancient Egypt", "bas-reliefs", "Ravello", "doorknob", "granite", "Cantacuzino Palace", "wardrobe", "molding (decorative)", "Kent", "Rouen", "Arcadia door", "Vienna", "Solomon's Temple" ]
8,640	Database normalization	Database normalization is the process of structuring a relational database in accordance with a series of so-called normal forms in order to reduce data redundancy and improve data integrity. It was first proposed by British computer scientist Edgar F. Codd as part of his relational model. Normalization entails organizing the columns (attributes) and tables (relations) of a database to ensure that their dependencies are properly enforced by database integrity constraints. It is accomplished by applying some formal rules either by a process of synthesis (creating a new database design) or decomposition (improving an existing database design). == Objectives == A basic objective of the first normal form defined by Codd in 1970 was to permit data to be queried and manipulated using a "universal data sub-language" grounded in first-order logic. An example of such a language is SQL, though it is one that Codd regarded as seriously flawed. The objectives of normalization beyond 1NF (first normal form) were stated by Codd as: When an attempt is made to modify (update, insert into, or delete from) a relation, the following undesirable side effects may arise in relations that have not been sufficiently normalized: Insertion anomaly: There are circumstances in which certain facts cannot be recorded at all. For example, each record in a "Faculty and Their Courses" relation might contain a Faculty ID, Faculty Name, Faculty Hire Date, and Course Code. Therefore, the details of any faculty member who teaches at least one course can be recorded, but a newly hired faculty member who has not yet been assigned to teach any courses cannot be recorded, except by setting the Course Code to null. Update anomaly: The same information can be expressed on multiple rows; therefore updates to the relation may result in logical inconsistencies. For example, each record in an "Employees' Skills" relation might contain an Employee ID, Employee Address, and Skill; thus a change of address for a particular employee may need to be applied to multiple records (one for each skill). If the update is only partially successful – the employee's address is updated on some records but not others – then the relation is left in an inconsistent state. Specifically, the relation provides conflicting answers to the question of what this particular employee's address is. Deletion anomaly: Under certain circumstances, the deletion of data representing certain facts necessitates the deletion of data representing completely different facts. The "Faculty and Their Courses" relation described in the previous example suffers from this type of anomaly, for if a faculty member temporarily ceases to be assigned to any courses, the last of the records on which that faculty member appears must be deleted, effectively also deleting the faculty member, unless the Course Code field is set to null. === Minimize redesign when extending the database structure === A fully normalized database allows its structure to be extended to accommodate new types of data without changing existing structure too much. As a result, applications interacting with the database are minimally affected. Normalized relations, and the relationship between one normalized relation and another, mirror real-world concepts and their interrelationships. == Normal forms == Codd introduced the concept of normalization and what is now known as the first normal form (1NF) in 1970. Codd went on to define the second normal form (2NF) and third normal form (3NF) in 1971, and Codd and Raymond F. Boyce defined the Boyce–Codd normal form (BCNF) in 1974. Ronald Fagin introduced the fourth normal form (4NF) in 1977 and the fifth normal form (5NF) in 1979. Christopher J. Date introduced the sixth normal form (6NF) in 2003. Informally, a relational database relation is often described as "normalized" if it meets third normal form. Most 3NF relations are free of insertion, updation, and deletion anomalies. The normal forms (from least normalized to most normalized) are: == Example of a step-by-step normalization == Normalization is a database design technique, which is used to design a relational database table up to higher normal form. The process is progressive, and a higher level of database normalization cannot be achieved unless the previous levels have been satisfied. That means that, having data in unnormalized form (the least normalized) and aiming to achieve the highest level of normalization, the first step would be to ensure compliance to first normal form, the second step would be to ensure second normal form is satisfied, and so forth in order mentioned above, until the data conform to sixth normal form. However, normal forms beyond 4NF are mainly of academic interest, as the problems they exist to solve rarely appear in practice. The data in the following example were intentionally designed to contradict most of the normal forms. In practice it is often possible to skip some of the normalization steps because the data is already normalized to some extent. Fixing a violation of one normal form also often fixes a violation of a higher normal form. In the example, one table has been chosen for normalization at each step, meaning that at the end, some tables might not be sufficiently normalized. === Initial data === Let a database table exist with the following structure: This table is in 4NF, but the Supplier ID is equal to the join of its projections: . No component of that join dependency is a superkey (the sole superkey being the entire heading), so the table does not satisfy the ETNF and can be further decomposed: === Satisfying DKNF === Let's have a look at the Book table from previous examples and see if it satisfies the domain-key normal form: Logically, Thickness is determined by number of pages. That means it depends on Pages which is not a key. Let's set an example convention saying a book up to 350 pages is considered "slim" and a book over 350 pages is considered "thick". This convention is technically a constraint but it is neither a domain constraint nor a key constraint; therefore we cannot rely on domain constraints and key constraints to keep the data integrity. In other words – nothing prevents us from putting, for example, "Thick" for a book with only 50 pages – and this makes the table violate DKNF. To solve this, a table holding enumeration that defines the Thickness is created, and that column is removed from the original table: \| \|} That way, the domain integrity violation has been eliminated, and the table is in DKNF. === Satisfying 6NF === A simple and intuitive definition of the sixth normal form is that "a table is in 6NF when the row contains the Primary Key, and at most one other attribute". That means, for example, the Publisher table designed while creating the 1NF: needs to be further decomposed into two tables: \| \|} The obvious drawback of 6NF is the proliferation of tables required to represent the information on a single entity. If a table in 5NF has one primary key column and N attributes, representing the same information in 6NF will require N tables; multi-field updates to a single conceptual record will require updates to multiple tables; and inserts and deletes will similarly require operations across multiple tables. For this reason, in databases intended to serve online transaction processing (OLTP) needs, 6NF should not be used. However, in data warehouses, which do not permit interactive updates and which are specialized for fast query on large data volumes, certain DBMSs use an internal 6NF representation – known as a columnar data store. In situations where the number of unique values of a column is far less than the number of rows in the table, column-oriented storage allow significant savings in space through data compression. Columnar storage also allows fast execution of range queries (e.g., show all records where a particular column is between X and Y, or less than X.) In all these cases, however, the database designer does not have to perform 6NF normalization manually by creating separate tables. Some DBMSs that are specialized for warehousing, such as Sybase IQ, use columnar storage by default, but the designer still sees only a single multi-column table. Other DBMSs, such as Microsoft SQL Server 2012 and later, let you specify a "columnstore index" for a particular table.	[ "Communications of the ACM", "data warehouses", "British people", "Third normal form", "first-order logic", "Second normal form", "SQL", "Database refactoring", "superkey", "fifth normal form", "Edgar F. Codd", "fourth normal form", "Fourth normal form", "Compound key", "online transaction processing", "5NF", "Sybase IQ", "relation (database)", "relational database", "Fifth normal form", "relational model", "second normal form", "Ronald Fagin", "composite key", "domain-key normal form", "computer scientist", "First normal form", "Elementary key normal form", "Essential tuple normal form", "Raymond F. Boyce", "data integrity", "Lossless join decomposition", "data redundancy", "Dependency theory (database theory)", "first normal form", "Denormalization", "candidate key", "Domain-key normal form", "Sixth normal form", "primary key", "Database normalization", "Boyce–Codd normal form", "third normal form", "Unnormalized form", "multivalued dependency", "functional dependency", "unnormalized form", "column (database)", "Column-oriented DBMS", "join dependency", "Christopher J. Date", "null (SQL)", "sixth normal form", "Association for Computing Machinery", "4NF" ]
8,641	Desmothoracid	Order Desmothoracida, the desmothoracids, are a group of heliozoan protists, usually sessile and found in freshwater environments. The adult is a spherical cell around 10-20 μm in diameter surrounded by a perforated organic lorica, or shell, with many radial pseudopods projecting through the holes to capture food. These are supported by small bundles of microtubules that arise near a point on the nuclear membrane. Unlike other heliozoans, the microtubules are not in any regular geometric array, there does not appear to be a microtubule organizing center, and there is no distinction between the outer and inner cytoplasm. Reproduction takes place by the budding-off of small motile cells, usually with two flagella. Later these are lost, and the pseudopods and lorica are formed. Typically, a single lengthened pseudopod will secrete a hollow stalk that attaches the cell to the substrate. The form of the flagella, the tubular cristae within the mitochondria, and other characters have led to the suggestion that the desmothoracids belong among what is now the Cercozoa. This was later confirmed by genetic studies. As of the year 2000, the order Desmothoracida contained five genera with a total of 10 species. Order Desmothoracida Hartwig & Lesser 1874 emend. Honigberg et al. 1964 Family Clathrulinidae Claus 1874 Genus Clathrulina Cienkowski 1867 [Podosphaera Archer 1868 non Kunze 1823; Elaster Grimm 1872; Eleaster (sic) Schmidt 1913; Orbulinella Entz 1877] Species Clathrulina elegans Cienkowski 1867 [Clathrulina ovalis (von Daday 1885) Deflandre, 1926; Clathrulina cienkowskii ovalis von Daday 1885; Clathrulina cienkowskii Mereschkowsky 1879; Clathrulina stuhlmanni Schaudinn 1897; Podosphaera haeckeliana Archer 1868; Elaster greeffi Grimm 1872] Species Clathrulina smaragdea (Entz 1877) Mikrjukov 2000 [Orbulinella smaragdea Entz 1877; Orbulinella salina Labbe 1924] Genus Hedriocystis Hertwig & Lesser 1874 Species Hedriocystis pellucida Hertwig & Lesser 1874 Species Hedriocystis minor Siemensma 1991 Species Hedriocystis zhadani Mikrjukov 2000 Genus Penardiophrys Mikrjukov 2000 Species Penardiophrys reticulata (Penard 1904) Mikrjukov 2000 [Hedriocystis reticulata Penard 1904] Species Penardiophrys spinifera (Brown 1918) Mikrjukov 2000 [Hedriocystis spinifera Brown 1918] Genus Cienkowskya Schaudinn 1896 non Regel & Rach 1859 non Solms 1867 [Cienkowskia Weldon & Hickson 1909 non Rostafinski 1873 non Schweinfurth 1867 non Solms 1867; Wagneria Cienkowsky 1881 non Robineau-Desvoidy 1830 non Gistl 1848 non Alenitzin 1873 non Lemaire 1857 non Hesse 1912 non Heilprin 1887 non McCook 1895 non Jedlicka 1935 non Denier 1933 non Meladze 1967; Monomastigocystis de Saedeleer 1930] Species Cienkowskya mereschkovckii (Cienkowsky 1881) Schaudinn 1896 [Wagneria mereschkowskyi Cienkowsky 1881] Species Cienkowskya brachypous (De Saedeleer 1930) Mikrjukov 2000 [Monomastigocystis brachypous de Saedeleer 1930; Hedriocystis brachypous (De Saedeleer 1930) Siemensma 1991] Genus Actinosphaeridium Zacharias 1893 [Actinopshaeridium (sic)] Species Actinosphaeridium pedatus Zacharias 1893 [Nuclearia caulescens Penard 1903]	[ "Richard Hertwig", "flagella", "Actinosphaeridium pedatus", "mitochondrion", "Penardiophrys reticulata", "pseudopod", "nuclear membrane", "Clathrulina smaragdea", "Podosphaera", "Monomastigocystis", "Lorica (biology)", "Blaschka", "Clathrulina elegans", "Hedriocystis zhadani", "Hedriocystis", "Cienkowskia", "microtubule", "Orbulinella", "Cienkowskya brachypous", "Hedriocystis pellucida", "Penardiophrys spinifera", "protist", "Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Claus", "cytoplasm", "Clathrulina", "Wagneria", "Penardiophrys", "Cienkowskya mereschkovckii", "heliozoa", "Cercozoa", "Edmund Lesser", "Elaster", "Actinosphaeridium", "genus", "Cienkowskya", "Hedriocystis minor" ]
8,642	Dalhousie University	Dalhousie University (commonly known as Dal) is a large public research university in Nova Scotia, Canada, with three campuses in Halifax, a fourth in Bible Hill, and a second medical school campus in Saint John, New Brunswick. Dalhousie offers over 200 degree programs in 13 undergraduate, graduate, and professional faculties. The university is a member of the U15, a group of research-intensive universities in Canada. The institution was established as Dalhousie College, a nonsectarian institution established in 1818 by the eponymous Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia, George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie, with education reformer Thomas McCulloch as its first principal. However, the college did not hold its first class until 1838, with operations remaining sporadic due to financial difficulties. The college was reorganized in 1863 and renamed The Governors of Dalhousie College and University. The university formally changed its name to Dalhousie University in 1997 through the same provincial legislation that merged the institution with the Technical University of Nova Scotia. Dalhousie's varsity teams, the Tigers, compete in the Atlantic University Sport conference of Canadian Interuniversity Sport. Dalhousie's Faculty of Agriculture varsity teams are called the Dalhousie Rams, and compete in the ACAA and CCAA. Dalhousie is a coeducational university with more than 20,000 students and 150,000 alumni around the world. The university's notable alumni include a Nobel Prize winner and 94 Rhodes Scholars. ==History== Dalhousie was founded, as the Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie, desired a non-denominational college in Halifax. Financing largely came from customs duties collected by a previous Lieutenant Governor, John Coape Sherbrooke, during the War of 1812 occupation of Castine, Maine; Sherbrooke invested £7,000 as an initial endowment and reserved £3,000 for the physical construction of the college. The college was established in 1818 though it faltered shortly after, as Ramsay left Halifax to serve as the Governor General of British North America. The school was structured upon the principles of the University of Edinburgh, located near Ramsay's home in Scotland, where lectures were open to male students, regardless of Christian religion or nationality. In 1821, Dalhousie College was officially incorporated by the Nova Scotia House of Assembly under the 1821 Act of Incorporation. The college did not hold its first class until 1838; operation of the college was intermittent and no degrees were awarded. and firmly against the Church of England's hold on higher education in Nova Scotia (through King's College), McCulloch carried with him from Pictou his education theory and pedagogy, “If Dalhousie College acquires usefulness and eminence, it will be not by an imitation of Oxford, but as an institution of science, and practical intelligence.” His approach to education was radical: he firmly believed that all schools "ought first to be ascertained, how far it is calculated to improve the community; and, if its general utility appear, it is, in proportion to its value and to the extent of the public funds, unquestionably entitled to the protection of Government, whether it belong to churchmen or [Presbyterian] dissenters, protestants or catholics, ought to be entirely disregarded!" He was responsible for creating a chair of natural history at Dalhousie to teach "geology, mineralogy, botany, and zoology." Following McCulloch's death, the college fell into decline once again and was reorganized as a high school in 1848. In 1863, the college opened for a third time and was reorganized by another legislative act, which added "University" to the school's name: "The Governors of Dalhousie College and University". Dalhousie reopened with six professors and one tutor. When it awarded its first degrees in 1866, the student body consisted of 28 male students working toward degrees and 28 occasional students. The first female graduate was Margaret Florence Newcombe from Grafton, Nova Scotia, who earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1885. Originally located at the space now occupied by Halifax City Hall, the college moved in 1886 to Carleton Campus and spread gradually to Studley Campus. In 1920, several buildings were destroyed by fire on the campus of the University of King's College in Windsor, Nova Scotia. Through a grant from the Carnegie Foundation, King's College relocated to Halifax and entered into a partnership with Dalhousie that continues to this day. Dalhousie expanded on 1 April 1997 when provincial legislation mandated an amalgamation with the nearby Technical University of Nova Scotia. This merger saw reorganization of faculties and departments to create the Faculty of Engineering, Faculty of Computer Science and the Faculty of Architecture and Planning. From 1997 to 2000, the Technical University of Nova Scotia operated as a constituent college of Dalhousie called Dalhousie Polytechnic of Nova Scotia (DalTech) until the collegiate system was dissolved. The legislation that merged the two schools also formally changed the name of the institution to its present form, Dalhousie University. On 1 September 2012, the Nova Scotia Agricultural College merged into Dalhousie to form a new Faculty of Agriculture, located in Bible Hill, Nova Scotia. ==Campuses== Dalhousie has three campuses within the Halifax Peninsula and a fourth, the Agricultural Campus, in Bible Hill, Nova Scotia. The campus is largely surrounded by residential neighbourhoods. Robie Street divides it from the adjacent Carleton Campus, which houses the faculties of dentistry, medicine, and other health profession departments. The campus is adjacent to two large teaching hospitals affiliated with the school: the IWK Health Centre and the Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre. The university presently operates the largest academic library system in Atlantic Canada, and hosts the headquarters for the Ocean Tracking Network. The buildings at Dalhousie vary in age from Hart House, which was completed in 1864, to the Collaborative Health Education Building, completed in 2015. The original building of Dalhousie University was completed in 1824 on Halifax's Grand Parade. It was demolished in 1885 when the university outgrew the premises, and the City of Halifax sought possession of the entire Grand Parade. Halifax City Hall presently occupies the site of the original Dalhousie College. The W. K. Kellogg Health Science Library provides services largely for the faculties of dentistry, medicine, and other health professions. The Sexton Design & Technology Library is located within Sexton Campus. Its collection largely serves those in the faculties of engineering, architecture and planning, and houses the university's rare books collection. The Sir James Dunn Law Library holds the university's collection of common law materials, legal periodicals, as well as books on international law, health law, and environmental law. MacRae Library is located at the university's Agricultural Campus, and has the largest collection of agricultural resource material in Atlantic Canada. The Dalhousie University Archives houses official records of, or relating to, or people/activities connected with Dalhousie University and its founding institutions. The archives also houses material related to theatre, business and labour in Nova Scotia. The collection consists of manuscripts, texts, photographs, audio-visual material, microfilm, music, and artifacts. The university's first library, Macdonald Memorial Library, was built after alumni raised funds on the death of professor Charles Macdonald, who had left the university $2,000 to buy books in English literature on his death in 1901. The biology department operates the Thomas McCulloch Museum in its Life Sciences Centre (LSC). The most notable of the museum's exhibits include its preserved birds collection. Other collections include its Lorenzen ceramic mushrooms, its coral and shell collection, and its butterfly and insect collection. The museum's namesake Thomas McCulloch was a Scottish Presbyterian minister who served as Dalhousie's first president and created the Audubon mounted bird collection which is now housed at the museum. The Dalhousie Art Gallery is both a public gallery and an academic support unit housed since 1971 on the lowest level of the Dalhousie Arts Centre. Admission is free of charge. It is host to a permanent collection of over 1000 works. Some of the outdoor sculptures around the campus are part of this collection, such as the distinctive Marine Venus which has sat in the median of University Avenue since 1969. A notable exhibition from the Dalhousie Art Gallery includes "Archives of the Future" (March – April 2016) exploring the relationship between art creation and commerce with work by artists Zachary Gough, Dawn Georg, Sharlene Bamboat, Katie Vida and Dana Claxton. ===Sustainability=== Dalhousie University is actively involved in sustainability issues and has received a number of sustainability awards and recognition for academic programs, university operations, and research. In 2022, Dalhousie received a GOLD rating from AASHE STARS (Version 2.2). In 2009, the university signed the University and College Presidents' Climate Change Statement of Action for Canada to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. Dalhousie is also a signatory of UNEP's International Declaration on Cleaner Production. In 1999, the university signed the Talloires Declaration, which committed Dalhousie and other higher education institutions to developing, creating, supporting, and maintaining sustainability. the Office of Sustainability, and the Dalhousie Student Union Sustainability Office were formed. During 2008, the President's Advisory Council on Sustainability was also created. The council meets quarterly to discuss pan-university sustainability issues. Dalhousie's College of Sustainability offers an undergraduate Major in Environment, Sustainability and Society (ESS) integrating with seven bachelor's degrees and 40 subjects across five faculties. ==Administration== University governance is conducted through the Board of Governors and the Senate, both of which were given much of their present power in the Unofficial Consolidation of an Act for the Regulation and Support of Dalhousie College in Chapter 24 of the Acts of 1863. This statute replaced ones from 1820, 1823, 1838, 1841 and 1848, and has since been supplemented 11 times, most recently in 1995. The president acts as the chief executive officer and is responsible to the Board of Governors and to the Senate for the supervision of administrative and academic works. Kim Brooks is the 13th president of the university, and has served since August 2023. Thomas McCulloch served as the first president when the office was created in 1838. John Forrest was the longest-serving president, holding the office from 1885 to 1911. ===Affiliated institutions=== University of King's College is a post-secondary institution in Halifax affiliated with Dalhousie. The institution's campus is located adjacent to Dalhousie's Studley campus. Established in 1789, it was the first post-secondary institution in English Canada and the oldest English-speaking Commonwealth university outside the United Kingdom. ===Finances=== The university completed the 2017–18 year with revenues of $697.354 million and expenses of $664.274 million, yielding a surplus of $33.08 million. The largest source of revenue for the university was provincial operational grants, followed by tuition fees. The total endowment revenue reported in fiscal 2017–2018 was $481.372 million. ===Diversity=== The university has attempted to increase the representation of under-represented groups at Dalhousie through inclusive recruitment strategies. There have been several Dalhousie University scandals related to discrimination at the university. ==Academics== Dalhousie is a publicly funded research university, and a member of the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, as well as the U15. , there were 20,970 students enrolled at the university. Dalhousie offers more than 4,000 courses and over 200 degree programs in 13 undergraduate, graduate, and professional faculties. The requirements for admission differ between students from Nova Scotia, students from other provinces in Canada, and international students due to lack of uniformity in marking schemes. The requirements for admission also differ depending on the program. In 2011, the secondary school average for incoming first-year undergraduate students was 85 percent. The university's registrar provides scholarships for its students in order to provide financial assistance, or to reward academic merits or performances in another fields, such as community involvement and leadership. Dalhousie also placed in a number of rankings that evaluated the employment prospects of its graduates. In the Times Higher Education's 2022 global employability ranking, Dalhousie placed 186th in the world, and eighth in Canada. ===Research=== In 2018, Research Infosource ranked Dalhousie as 15th on their list for top 50 research universities in Canada, with a sponsored research income (external sources of funding) of $150.038 million in 2017. In the same year, Dalhousie's faculty averaged a sponsored research income of $130,000, while its graduate students averaged a sponsored research income of $44,600. In 2007 Dalhousie topped the list of The Scientist's "Best Places to Work in Academia". The annual list divides research and academic institutions into American and international lists; Dalhousie University ranked first in the international category. According to a survey conducted by The Scientist, Dalhousie was the best non-commercial scientific institute in which to work in Canada. Dalhousie's research performance has been noted in several bibliometric university rankings, which use citation analysis to evaluate the impact a university has on academic publications. In 2019, the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities ranked Dalhousie 301st in the world, tied for 12th in Canada with the University of Manitoba; whereas the University Ranking by Academic Performance 2018–19 rankings placed the university 302nd in the world, and 13th in Canada. Marine research at Dalhousie has become a large focus of the university, with many of the university's faculty members involved in some form of marine research. Notably, Dalhousie is the headquarters of the Ocean Tracking Network, a research effort using implanted acoustic transmitters to study fish migration patterns. Dalhousie houses a number of marine research pools, a wet laboratory, and a benthic flume, which are collectively known as the Aquatron laboratory. Dalhousie is one of the founding members of the Halifax Marine Research Institute, founded on 2 June 2011. The institute, which is a partnership between a number of private industries, government, and post-secondary institutions, was designed to help increase the scale, quality, internationalization and impact of marine research in the region. In 2011, the university, along with WWF-Canada, created the Conservation Legacy For Oceans, which aimed at providing scholarships, funding, curriculum development, and work placements for students and academics dedicated to marine research, law, management, and policy making. In 2016, Dalhousie partnered with Memorial University of Newfoundland and the University of Prince Edward Island to form a collaborative research organization known as The Ocean Frontier Institute. Many of Dalhousie's faculties and departments focus on marine research. The Faculty of Engineering operates the Ocean Research Centre Atlantic, which is dedicated to research and tests in naval and off-shore engineering. Schulich School of Law also operates the Marine & Environmental Law Institute, which carries out research and conducts consultancy activities for governmental and non-governmental organizations. The school's Department of Political Science similarly operates the Centre for Foreign Policy Studies, which is primarily concerned with the fields of Canadian and American foreign, security, and defence policy, including maritime security policy. ==Student life== The student body of Dalhousie is currently represented by two student unions; the Dalhousie Student Union, which represents the general student population, and the Dalhousie Association for Graduate Students, which represents the interests of graduate students specifically. As of 2011, there were three sororities and three fraternities. They operate as non-accredited organizations and are not recognized by the Dalhousie Student Union. The main student newspaper, The Dalhousie Gazette, claims to be the oldest student-run newspaper in North America. The newspaper's offices are in the Student Union building. In 2021 and 2022, controversies arose around alcohol consumption at unsanctioned student gatherings on campus, specifically 'homecoming' in early October. Halifax Police urged the university to play a more active role in the issue. ===Clubs and societies=== In addition to the efforts made by the Dalhousie Student Union (DSU) Council, Dalhousie students have created and participated in over 320 clubs/societies. The Management Society, for example, is a group of students in the Faculty of Management who group together to enhance the experience of students in that faculty by hosting events, providing assistance and giving back. Until 25 July 2016, Dalhousie offered a website named "Tiger Society" which listed all current clubs and societies that were available for students to join. Through this website, students could request to join a society. Dalhousie also holds a Society Fair at the beginning of each fall and winter semester, in which all societies are given the opportunity to display their purpose/efforts and recruit new members. Student societies partake in a range of activities from simple gatherings, study groups, bake sales, intramural sports teams, to organizing larger scale fundraising events. ===Athletics=== Dalhousie's sports teams are called the Tigers. The Tigers varsity teams participate primarily in the Atlantic University Sport (AUS) of U Sports. There are teams for basketball, hockey, soccer, swimming, track and field, cross country running, and volleyball. The Tigers garnered a number of championships in the first decade of the 20th century, winning 63 AUS championships and two U Sports championships. More than 2,500 students participate in competitive clubs, intramural sport leagues, and tournaments. Opportunities are offered at multiple skill levels across a variety of sports. Dalhousie has six competitive sports clubs and 17 recreational clubs. Dalhousie's Agricultural Campus operates its own varsity team, called the Dalhousie Rams. The Rams varsity team participates in the Atlantic Collegiate Athletic Association, a member of the Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association. The Rams varsity teams include badminton, basketball, rugby, soccer, volleyball, and woodsmen. Dalhousie has a number of athletic facilities open to varsity teams and students. Dalplex is the largest main fitness and recreational facility. It houses a large fieldhouse, an Olympic-sized swimming pool, an indoor running track, weight rooms, courts and other facilities. Wickwire Field, with a seating capacity of up to 1,200, is the university's main outdoor field and is host to the varsity football, soccer, field hockey, lacrosse and rugby teams. Other sporting facilities include the Studley Gymnasium, and the Sexton Gymnasium and field. The Memorial Arena, home to the varsity hockey team, was demolished in 2012. The school is working to build a new arena jointly with nearby Saint Mary's University, whose facility is also aging. The Agricultural Campus has one athletic facility, the Langille Athletic Centre. As of 2010, through the efforts of alumni and devoted volunteers, the Dalhousie Football Club was reinstated. Playing in the Atlantic Football League (AFL), the team operates on donations from alumni. The team plays its home games at Wickwire Field. == Insignia and other representations == ===Seal=== The Dalhousie seal is based on the heraldic achievement of Clan Ramsay of Scotland, of which founder George Ramsay was clan head. The heraldic achievement consists of five parts – shield, coronet, crest, supporters and motto. One major difference between the Ramsay achievement and the university seal is that the Ramsay achievement features a griffin and greyhound, whereas the Dalhousie seal has two dragons supporting the eagle-adorned shield. Initially, the Ramsay achievement was used to identify Dalhousie, but the seal has evolved with the amalgamations the university has undergone. The seal was originally silver-coloured, but in 1950, the university's Board of Governors changed it to gold to match the university's colours of gold and black. These colours were adopted in 1887, after the rugby team led the debate about college colours for football jerseys. The shield and eagle of Dalhousie's seal have been used as the logo since 1987, with the present incarnation in use since 2003, which includes the tagline "inspiring minds". ==Notable alumni== File:Richard Bedford Bennett.jpg\|R. B. Bennett, 1st Viscount Bennett, 11th Prime Minister of Canada. File:JoeClark.jpg\|Joe Clark, 16th Prime Minister of Canada. File:Mulroney.jpg\|Brian Mulroney, 18th Prime Minister of Canada. File:Frank Bainimarama November 2014.jpg\|Frank Bainimarama, 8th Prime Minister of Fiji File:Arthur B. McDonald 5193-2015.jpg\|Arthur B. McDonald, awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for his work with solar neutrino. File:Kathryn D. Sullivan.jpg\|Kathryn D. Sullivan, first American woman to walk in space. File:C. Peter McColough, Xerox Corp..jpg\|Charles Peter McColough, former chairman, CEO, and president of Xerox File:LMM signed photo.jpg\|Lucy Maud Montgomery, author, best known for the Anne of Green Gables series Dalhousie graduates have found success in a variety of fields, serving as heads of a diverse array of public and private institutions. Dalhousie University has over 130,000 alumni. Throughout Dalhousie's history, faculty, alumni, and former students have played prominent roles in many fields, and include 91 Rhodes Scholars. Dalhousie has also educated Nobel laureates. Astrophysicist and Dalhousie alumni Arthur B. McDonald (BSc 1964, MSc 1965) received the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics for identifying neutrino change identities and mass. McDonald was also previously awarded the Herzberg Prize and the Benjamin Franklin Prize in physics. Other notable graduates of Dalhousie includes Donald O. Hebb, who helped advance the field of neuropsychology, Kathryn D. Sullivan, the first American woman to walk in space and Jeff Dahn, one of the world's foremost researchers in lithium battery chemistry and aging. E. Elizabeth Patton, elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (2021) and Personal Chair in Melanoma Genetics and Drug Discovery, MRC Human Genetics Unit, Edinburgh. Notable politicians who have attended Dalhousie include three Prime Ministers of Canada, R. B. Bennett, Joe Clark, and Brian Mulroney. Eight graduates have served as Lieutenant Governors: John Crosbie, Myra Freeman, Clarence Gosse, John Keiller MacKay, Henry Poole MacKeen, Fabian O'Dea, and Albert Walsh. Thirteen graduates have served as provincial premiers: Allan Blakeney, John Buchanan, Alex Campbell, Amor De Cosmos, Darrell Dexter, David Eby, Joe Ghiz, John Hamm, Angus Lewis Macdonald, Russell MacLellan, Gerald Regan, Robert Stanfield, Clyde Wells, and Danny Williams. The first woman appointed to the Supreme Court of Canada, Bertha Wilson, was a graduate from Dalhousie Law School. Other notable alumni from the Dalhousie include Lucy Maud Montgomery, an author that wrote a series of novels, including Anne of Green Gables. Prominent business leaders who studied at Dalhousie include Jamie Baillie, former CEO of Credit Union Atlantic, Graham Day, former CEO of British Shipbuilders, Sean Durfy, former CEO of WestJet, and Charles Peter McColough, former president and CEO of Xerox. ==Fictional representations== Redmond College, attended by Anne Shirley in L.M. Montgomery Anne of the Island, is based on Dalhousie.	[ "Universities Canada", "Clarence Gosse", "Kim Brooks", "Bertha Wilson", "Sean Durfy", "Association of Commonwealth Universities", "Earl of Dalhousie", "FM broadcasting", "Saint Mary's University (Halifax)", "Prime Minister of Canada", "Melanoma", "Brian Mulroney", "Russell MacLellan", "Nova Scotia", "Katie Vida", "Arthur B. McDonald", "AASHE STARS", "Gerald Regan", "Pictou Academy", "Grafton, Nova Scotia", "Pray and work", "The Scientist (magazine)", "John Robert Nicholson", "List of prime ministers of Canada", "Darrell Dexter", "Castine, Maine", "Atlantic University Sport", "fieldhouse", "Student loans in Canada", "Atlantic Football League", "John Hamm", "Public University", "John Forrest (Canadian clergyman)", "University of Manitoba", "Graham Day", "WestJet", "Dana Claxton", "Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada", "Dalhousie Memorial Arena", "Canadian Association of Research Libraries", "Prime Ministers of Canada", "Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association", "Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)", "L.M. Montgomery", "Carnegie Corporation of New York", "War of 1812", "Woodsman", "List of public art in Halifax, Nova Scotia", "Nova Scotia House of Assembly", "Anne of Green Gables", "Premier (Canada)", "IWK Health Centre", "U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking", "Lieutenant governor (Canada)", "Academic Ranking of World Universities", "Myra Freeman", "Canadian University Society for Intercollegiate Debate", "Nova Scotia Agricultural College", "Anne Shirley", "Dalhousie Student Union", "Times Higher Education World University Rankings", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "British Shipbuilders", "Joe Clark", "Greenhouse gas emissions", "solar neutrino", "Epic poetry", "Clyde Kirby Wells", "List of fraternities and sororities at Dalhousie University", "Jeff Dahn", "WWF-Canada", "U Sports", "Mayor of Halifax", "United Kingdom", "Canadian Interuniversity Sport", "Nobel Prize", "Halifax, Nova Scotia", "Pound sterling", "Seal (emblem)", "Albert Walsh", "Pictou", "Virgil", "Prime Minister of Fiji", "Frank Bainimarama", "List of colleges and universities named after people", "University of King's College", "Maclean's", "QS World University Rankings", "Amor De Cosmos", "research university", "Charles Macdonald (professor)", "Dalhousie Tigers", "Donald O. Hebb", "University of Prince Edward Island", "Xerox", "University Ranking by Academic Performance", "Truro, Nova Scotia", "Technical University of Nova Scotia", "Windsor, Nova Scotia", "Kathryn D. Sullivan", "David Eby", "Canadian dollar", "The Canadian Encyclopedia", "Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh", "Franklin Institute", "Réseau du sport étudiant du Québec", "English Canada", "John Crosbie", "bibliometrics", "nonsectarian", "Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University", "Memorial University of Newfoundland", "greyhound", "Faculty of Engineering, Dalhousie University", "The Dalhousie Gazette", "Anne of the Island", "John Keiller MacKay", "Faculty of Computer Science, Dalhousie University", "University of Aberdeen", "R. B. Bennett", "Ocean Tracking Network", "citation analysis", "Allan Blakeney", "Halifax Peninsula", "Bible Hill, Nova Scotia", "George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie", "Aeneid", "Joe Ghiz", "List of universities in Nova Scotia", "John Coape Sherbrooke", "Aberdeen", "Halifax City Hall", "Elizabeth Patton", "Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia", "Thomas McCulloch", "impact factor", "neuropsychology", "Clan Ramsay", "Killam Library", "List of Canadian universities by endowment", "Dalhousie Arts Centre", "Alex Campbell (politician)", "Redmond College", "Robert Stanfield", "Robie Street", "Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre", "CKDU-FM", "Downtown Halifax", "Jamie Baillie", "The Ocean Frontier Institute", "University of Edinburgh", "Schulich School of Law", "New Ireland (Maine)", "Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities", "Gerhard Herzberg Canada Gold Medal for Science and Engineering", "Talloires Declaration", "Governor General of Canada", "Rhodes Scholarship", "griffin", "student newspaper", "Library and Archives Canada", "Charles Peter McColough", "The Chronicle-Herald", "Henry Poole MacKeen", "wet laboratory", "Achievement (heraldry)", "Angus Lewis Macdonald", "Danny Williams (Canadian politician)", "Supreme Court of Canada", "Maritime Conservatory of Performing Arts", "Higher education in Nova Scotia", "Atlantic Collegiate Athletic Association", "John Buchanan (Canadian politician)", "Atlantic Canada", "Lucy Maud Montgomery", "Canadian Broadcasting Corporation", "Langille Athletic Centre", "Saint John, New Brunswick", "Historica Canada", "George Munro (philanthropist)", "Fabian O'Dea", "R. B. Bennett", "Mixed-sex education", "Grand Parade (Halifax)", "students' union", "U15 Group of Canadian Research Universities" ]
8,643	Molecular diffusion	Molecular diffusion is the motion of atoms, molecules, or other particles of a gas or liquid at temperatures above absolute zero. The rate of this movement is a function of temperature, viscosity of the fluid, size and density (or their product, mass) of the particles. This type of diffusion explains the net flux of molecules from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. Once the concentrations are equal the molecules continue to move, but since there is no concentration gradient the process of molecular diffusion has ceased and is instead governed by the process of self-diffusion, originating from the random motion of the molecules. The result of diffusion is a gradual mixing of material such that the distribution of molecules is uniform. Since the molecules are still in motion, but an equilibrium has been established, the result of molecular diffusion is called a "dynamic equilibrium". In a phase with uniform temperature, absent external net forces acting on the particles, the diffusion process will eventually result in complete mixing. Consider two systems; S1 and S2 at the same temperature and capable of exchanging particles. If there is a change in the potential energy of a system; for example μ1>μ2 (μ is Chemical potential) an energy flow will occur from S1 to S2, because nature always prefers low energy and maximum entropy. Molecular diffusion is typically described mathematically using Fick's laws of diffusion. == Applications == Diffusion is of fundamental importance in many disciplines of physics, chemistry, and biology. Some example applications of diffusion: Sintering to produce solid materials (powder metallurgy, production of ceramics) Chemical reactor design Catalyst design in chemical industry Steel can be diffused (e.g., with carbon or nitrogen) to modify its properties Doping during production of semiconductors. == Significance == Diffusion is part of the transport phenomena. Of mass transport mechanisms, molecular diffusion is known as a slower one. === Biology === In cell biology, diffusion is a main form of transport for necessary materials such as amino acids within cells. Diffusion of solvents, such as water, through a semipermeable membrane is classified as osmosis. Metabolism and respiration rely in part upon diffusion in addition to bulk or active processes. For example, in the alveoli of mammalian lungs, due to differences in partial pressures across the alveolar-capillary membrane, oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out. Lungs contain a large surface area to facilitate this gas exchange process. == Tracer, self- and chemical diffusion == Fundamentally, two types of diffusion are distinguished: Tracer diffusion and Self-diffusion, which is a spontaneous mixing of molecules taking place in the absence of concentration (or chemical potential) gradient. This type of diffusion can be followed using isotopic tracers, hence the name. The tracer diffusion is usually assumed to be identical to self-diffusion (assuming no significant isotopic effect). This diffusion can take place under equilibrium. An excellent method for the measurement of self-diffusion coefficients is pulsed field gradient (PFG) NMR, where no isotopic tracers are needed. In a so-called NMR spin echo experiment this technique uses the nuclear spin precession phase, allowing to distinguish chemically and physically completely identical species e.g. in the liquid phase, as for example water molecules within liquid water. The self-diffusion coefficient of water has been experimentally determined with high accuracy and thus serves often as a reference value for measurements on other liquids. The self-diffusion coefficient of neat water is: 2.299·10−9 m2·s−1 at 25 °C and 1.261·10−9 m2·s−1 at 4 °C. Chemical diffusion occurs in a presence of concentration (or chemical potential) gradient and it results in net transport of mass. This is the process described by the diffusion equation. This diffusion is always a non-equilibrium process, increases the system entropy, and brings the system closer to equilibrium. The diffusion coefficients for these two types of diffusion are generally different because the diffusion coefficient for chemical diffusion is binary and it includes the effects due to the correlation of the movement of the different diffusing species. == Non-equilibrium system == Because chemical diffusion is a net transport process, the system in which it takes place is not an equilibrium system (i.e. it is not at rest yet). Many results in classical thermodynamics are not easily applied to non-equilibrium systems. However, there sometimes occur so-called quasi-steady states, where the diffusion process does not change in time, where classical results may locally apply. As the name suggests, this process is a not a true equilibrium since the system is still evolving. Non-equilibrium fluid systems can be successfully modeled with Landau-Lifshitz fluctuating hydrodynamics. In this theoretical framework, diffusion is due to fluctuations whose dimensions range from the molecular scale to the macroscopic scale. Chemical diffusion increases the entropy of a system, i.e. diffusion is a spontaneous and irreversible process. Particles can spread out by diffusion, but will not spontaneously re-order themselves (absent changes to the system, assuming no creation of new chemical bonds, and absent external forces acting on the particle). == Concentration dependent "collective" diffusion == Collective diffusion is the diffusion of a large number of particles, most often within a solvent. Contrary to brownian motion, which is the diffusion of a single particle, interactions between particles may have to be considered, unless the particles form an ideal mix with their solvent (ideal mix conditions correspond to the case where the interactions between the solvent and particles are identical to the interactions between particles and the interactions between solvent molecules; in this case, the particles do not interact when inside the solvent). In case of an ideal mix, the particle diffusion equation holds true and the diffusion coefficient D the speed of diffusion in the particle diffusion equation is independent of particle concentration. In other cases, resulting interactions between particles within the solvent will account for the following effects: the diffusion coefficient D in the particle diffusion equation becomes dependent of concentration. For an attractive interaction between particles, the diffusion coefficient tends to decrease as concentration increases. For a repulsive interaction between particles, the diffusion coefficient tends to increase as concentration increases. In the case of an attractive interaction between particles, particles exhibit a tendency to coalesce and form clusters if their concentration lies above a certain threshold. This is equivalent to a precipitation chemical reaction (and if the considered diffusing particles are chemical molecules in solution, then it is a precipitation). == Molecular diffusion of gases == Transport of material in stagnant fluid or across streamlines of a fluid in a laminar flow occurs by molecular diffusion. Two adjacent compartments separated by a partition, containing pure gases A or B may be envisaged. Random movement of all molecules occurs so that after a period molecules are found remote from their original positions. If the partition is removed, some molecules of A move towards the region occupied by B, their number depends on the number of molecules at the region considered. Concurrently, molecules of B diffuse toward regimens formerly occupied by pure A. Finally, complete mixing occurs. Before this point in time, a gradual variation in the concentration of A occurs along an axis, designated x, which joins the original compartments. This variation, expressed mathematically as -dCA/dx, where CA is the concentration of A. The negative sign arises because the concentration of A decreases as the distance x increases. Similarly, the variation in the concentration of gas B is -dCB/dx. The rate of diffusion of A, NA, depend on concentration gradient and the average velocity with which the molecules of A moves in the x direction. This relationship is expressed by Fick's law N_{A}= -D_{AB} \frac{dC_{A}}{dx} (only applicable for no bulk motion) where D is the diffusivity of A through B, proportional to the average molecular velocity and, therefore dependent on the temperature and pressure of gases. The rate of diffusion NA is usually expressed as the number of moles diffusing across unit area in unit time. As with the basic equation of heat transfer, this indicates that the rate of force is directly proportional to the driving force, which is the concentration gradient. This basic equation applies to a number of situations. Restricting discussion exclusively to steady state conditions, in which neither dCA/dx or dCB/dx change with time, equimolecular counterdiffusion is considered first. ==Equimolecular counterdiffusion== If no bulk flow occurs in an element of length dx, the rates of diffusion of two ideal gases (of similar molar volume) A and B must be equal and opposite, that is N_A=-N_B. The partial pressure of A changes by dPA over the distance dx. Similarly, the partial pressure of B changes dPB. As there is no difference in total pressure across the element (no bulk flow), we have \frac{dP_A}{dx}=-\frac{dP_B}{dx}. For an ideal gas the partial pressure is related to the molar concentration by the relation P_{A}V=n_{A}RT where nA is the number of moles of gas A in a volume V. As the molar concentration CA is equal to nA/ V therefore P_{A}=C_{A}RT Consequently, for gas A, N_{A}=-D_{AB} \frac{1}{RT} \frac{dP_{A}}{dx} where DAB is the diffusivity of A in B. Similarly, N_{B}=-D_{BA} \frac{1}{RT} \frac{dP_{B}}{dx}=D_{AB} \frac{1}{RT}\frac{dP_{A}}{dx} Considering that dPA/dx=-dPB/dx, it therefore proves that DAB=DBA=D. If the partial pressure of A at x1 is PA1 and x2 is PA2, integration of above equation, N_{A}=-\frac{D}{RT} \frac{(P_{A2}-P_{A1})}{x_{2}-x_{1}} A similar equation may be derived for the counterdiffusion of gas B.	[ "Fick's law", "Precipitation (chemistry)", "flux", "potential energy", "Chemical potential", "Mass diffusivity", "gas", "solvent", "Molecule", "oxygen", "temperature", "carbon dioxide", "Kinetic isotope effect", "liquid", "chemical equilibrium", "absolute zero", "lung", "pulmonary alveolus", "pulsed field gradient", "osmosis", "entropy", "diffusion", "Metabolism", "mammal", "Chemical reactor", "Isotopic labeling", "molecule", "spin echo", "brownian motion", "Doping (semiconductor)", "semiconductor", "diffusion equation", "amino acid", "transport phenomena", "energy", "self-diffusion", "Catalysis", "atom", "Sintering", "powder metallurgy", "ceramic", "semipermeable membrane", "Respiration (physiology)", "particle", "viscosity", "concentration", "Fick's laws of diffusion", "NMR", "Steel", "cell biology", "Phase (matter)" ]
8,645	Declension	In linguistics, declension (verb: to decline) is the changing of the form of a word, generally to express its syntactic function in the sentence by way of an inflection. Declension may apply to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and determiners. It serves to indicate number (e.g. singular, dual, plural), case (e.g. nominative, accusative, genitive, or dative), gender (e.g. masculine, feminine, or neuter), and a number of other grammatical categories. Inflectional change of verbs is called conjugation. Declension occurs in many languages. It is an important aspect of language families like Quechuan (i.e., languages native to the Andes), Indo-European (e.g. German, Icelandic, Irish, Lithuanian and Latvian, Slavic, Sanskrit, Latin, Ancient and Modern Greek, Albanian, Romanian, Kurdish, Classical and Modern Armenian), Bantu (e.g. Swahili, Zulu, Kikuyu), Semitic (e.g. Modern Standard Arabic), Finno-Ugric (e.g. Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian), and Turkic (e.g. Turkish). Old English was an inflectional language, but largely abandoned inflectional changes as it evolved into Modern English. Though traditionally classified as synthetic, Modern English has become a mostly analytic language. ==English-speaking perspective== Unlike English, many languages use suffixes to specify subjects and objects and word cases in general. Inflected languages have a freer word order than modern English, an analytic language in which word order identifies the subject and object. As an example, even though both of the following sentences consist of the same words, the meaning is different: the adjective little would be in the same case as the noun it modifies (boy), and the case of the determiner our would agree with the case of the noun it determines (street). Using the case suffixes invented for this example, the original sentence would read: Mum, this little boy dog was chasing a cat down our street! And like other inflected languages, the sentence rearranged in the following ways would mean virtually the same thing, but with different expressiveness: A cat was down our street chasing dog this little boy, mum! Mum, down street our a cat was chasing this little boy dog! Instead of the locative, the instrumental form of "down our street" could also be used: Mum, this little boy dog our street was chasing a cat! A cat was, mum, our street chasing dog this little boy Our street a cat was chasing dog this little boy, mum! Different word orders preserving the original meaning are possible in an inflected language, and articles are also declined. == History == It is agreed that Ancient Greeks had a "vague" idea of the forms of a noun in their language. A fragment of Anacreon seems to confirm this idea. Nevertheless, it cannot be concluded that the Ancient Greeks actually knew what the cases were. The Stoics developed many basic notions that today are the rudiments of linguistics. The idea of grammatical cases is also traced back to the Stoics, but it is still not completely clear what the Stoics exactly meant with their notion of cases. ==Modern English== In Modern English, the system of declensions is so simple compared to some other languages that the term declension is rarely used. ===Nouns=== Most nouns in English have distinct singular and plural forms. Nouns and most noun phrases can form a possessive construction. Plurality is most commonly shown by the ending -s (or -es), whereas possession is always shown by the enclitic -'s or, for plural forms ending in s, by just an apostrophe. Consider, for example, the forms of the noun girl. Most speakers pronounce all forms other than the singular plain form (girl) exactly the same. By contrast, a few irregular nouns (like man/men) are slightly more complex in their forms. In this example, all four forms are pronounced distinctly. For nouns, in general, gender is not declined in Modern English. There are isolated situations where certain nouns may be modified to reflect gender, though not in a systematic fashion. Loan words from other languages, particularly Latin and the Romance languages, often preserve their gender-specific forms in English, e.g. alumnus (masculine singular) and alumna (feminine singular). Similarly, names borrowed from other languages show comparable distinctions: Andrew and Andrea, Paul and Paula, etc. Additionally, suffixes such as -ess, -ette, and -er are sometimes applied to create overtly gendered versions of nouns, with marking for feminine being much more common than marking for masculine. Many nouns can actually function as members of two genders or even all three, and the gender classes of English nouns are usually determined by their agreement with pronouns, rather than marking on the nouns themselves. There can be other derivations from nouns that are not considered declensions. For example, the proper noun Britain has the associated descriptive adjective British and the demonym Briton. Though these words are clearly related, and are generally considered cognates, they are not specifically treated as forms of the same word, and thus are not declensions. ===Pronouns=== Pronouns in English have more complex declensions. For example, the first person "I": Whereas nouns do not distinguish between the subjective (nominative) and objective (oblique) cases, some pronouns do; that is, they decline to reflect their relationship to a verb or preposition, or case. Consider the difference between he (subjective) and him (objective), as in "He saw it" and "It saw him"; similarly, consider who, which is subjective, and the objective whom (although it is increasingly common to use who for both). The one situation where gender is still clearly part of the English language is in the pronouns for the third person singular. Consider the following: The distinguishing of neuter for persons and non-persons is peculiar to English. This has existed since the 14th century. However, the use of singular they is often restricted to specific contexts, depending on the dialect or the speaker. It is most typically used to refer to a single person of unknown gender (e.g. "someone left their jacket behind") or a hypothetical person where gender is insignificant (e.g. "If someone wants to, then they should"). Its use has expanded in recent years due to increasing social recognition of persons who do not identify themselves as male or female (see gender-nonbinary). The singular they still uses plural verb forms, reflecting its origins. ===Adjectives and adverbs=== Some English adjectives and adverbs are declined for degree of comparison. The unmarked form is the positive form, such as quick. Comparative forms are formed with the ending -er (quicker), while superlative forms are formed with -est (quickest). Some are uncomparable; the remainder are usually periphrastic constructions with more (more beautiful) and most (most modestly). See degree of comparison for more. Adjectives are not declined for case in Modern English (though they were in Old English), nor number nor gender. ===Determiners=== The demonstrative determiners this and that are declined for number, as these and those. The article is never regarded as declined in Modern English, although formally, the words that and possibly she correspond to forms of the predecessor of the (sē m., þæt n., sēo f.) as it was declined in Old English. ==Latin== Just as verbs in Latin are conjugated to indicate grammatical information, Latin nouns and adjectives that modify them are declined to signal their roles in sentences. There are five important cases for Latin nouns: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative. Since the vocative case usually takes the same form as the nominative, it is seldom spelt out in grammar books. Yet another case, the locative, is limited to a small number of words. The usual basic functions of these cases are as follows: Nominative case indicates the subject. Genitive case indicates possession and can be translated with 'of'. Dative case marks the indirect object and can be translated with 'to' or 'for'. Accusative case marks the direct object. Ablative case is used to modify verbs and can be translated as 'by', 'with', 'from', etc. Vocative case is used to address a person or thing. The genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative also have important functions to indicate the object of a preposition. Given below is the declension paradigm of Latin puer 'boy' and puella 'girl': From the provided examples we can see how cases work: ==Sanskrit== Sanskrit, another Indo-European language, has eight cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, locative and instrumental. Some do not count vocative as a separate case, despite it having a distinctive ending in the singular, but consider it as a different use of the nominative. Sanskrit grammatical cases have been analyzed extensively. The grammarian Pāṇini identified six semantic roles or karaka, which correspond closely to the eight cases: agent (, related to the nominative) patient (, related to the accusative) means (, related to the instrumental) recipient (, related to the dative) source (, related to the ablative) relation (, related to genitive) locus (, related to the locative) address (, related to the vocative) For example, consider the following sentence: Here leaf is the agent, tree is the source, and ground is the locus. The endings -aṁ, -at, -āu mark the cases associated with these meanings. Verse 37 of the Rāmarakṣāstotram gives an example of all 8 types of declensions in Sanskrit for the singular proper noun Rāma. ==Declension in specific languages== Albanian declension Basque declension === Arabic === Classical and Modern Standard Arabic declension (ʾIʿrab) === Greek and Latin === Ancient Greek and Latin First declension Ancient Greek and Latin Second declension Ancient Greek and Latin Third declension Greek declension Latin declension === Celtic languages === Irish declension === Germanic languages === German declension Icelandic declension Gothic declension Dutch declension system (abandoned) Middle English declension === Baltic languages === Latvian declension Lithuanian declension === Slavic languages === Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian declension Czech declension Polish declension Russian declension Slovak declension Slovene declension Ukrainian declension === Romance languages === Romanian declension === Indo-Aryan languages === Urdu and Hindi declension === Uralic languages === Finnish noun cases === Languages that lost their declension system === Modern Arabic dialects (incl. Maltese) Most Germanic languages: English Dutch Danish many Norwegian dialects many Swedish dialects Most Romance languages: Spanish Portuguese French Italian Catalan Some Slavic languages Bulgarian Macedonian Some Celtic languages Welsh	[ "English articles", "Finnish language", "Modern Greek grammar", "Part of speech", "adverb", "Modern English", "James Clackson", "Ablative case", "plural", "gender", "genitive case", "Kurdish language", "Croatian language", "Synthetic language", "grammatical gender", "Kikuyu language", "Finno-Ugric languages", "Pāṇini", "Weak inflection", "Hindustani declension", "Russian grammar", "verb", "wikt:Britain", "Modern Greek", "positive (linguistics)", "Grammatical number", "She (pronoun)", "Slovak declension", "preposition", "wikt:Briton", "Quechuan languages", "ʾIʿrab", "adjective", "Thematic relation", "suffixes", "Andes", "Dative case", "grammatical categories", "oblique case", "Third declension", "Ukrainian grammar", "Locative case", "Estonian language", "Turkish language", "Serbo-Croatian grammar", "Grammatical conjugation", "Irish declension", "First person pronoun", "cognate", "affix", "Lithuanian declension", "Article (grammar)", "Ancient Greek", "nominative case", "pronoun", "German declension", "Slovene declension", "word order", "Possessive", "Sanskrit", "Noun gender", "instrumental case", "inflection", "natural gender", "accusative case", "Albanian morphology", "wikt:decline", "Non-binary gender", "locative case", "grammatical number", "Semitic languages", "Modern Standard Arabic", "Agreement (linguistics)", "Subject (grammar)", "Swahili language", "Zulu language", "Stoics", "Latin declension", "degree of comparison", "Irish language", "Strong inflection", "First declension", "Czech declension", "Maltese language", "Latvian declension", "Who (pronoun)", "Adjective", "Middle English declension", "dative case", "man", "Basque grammar", "Grammatical case", "analytic language", "Instrumental case", "word", "inflectional language", "Object (grammar)", "Polish grammar", "grammatical case", "linguistics", "singular they", "Ablative (Latin)", "Bantu languages", "Slavic languages", "wikt:British", "Icelandic language", "Varieties of Arabic", "Old English", "demonym", "German language", "Ancient Greeks", "Nominative case", "Romanian language", "Latin", "Turkic languages", "Romanian grammar", "Icelandic grammar", "Baltic language", "Pronouns", "Albanian language", "girl", "genitive", "nominative", "Classical Armenian", "demonstrative", "possessive", "sandhi", "Dutch declension system", "Numeral (linguistics)", "ablative case", "Hungarian language", "Modern Armenian", "wikt:I", "Vocative case", "syntactic function", "irregular verbs", "Finnish noun cases", "Anacreon", "Second declension", "Word order", "visarga", "Genitive case", "vocative case", "Inflected languages", "noun", "Indo-European languages", "Verb conjugation", "determiner", "Accusative case", "Gothic declension", "clitic", "infixes" ]
8,648	Daffynition	A daffynition (a portmanteau blend of daffy and definition) is a form of pun involving the reinterpretation of an existing word, on the basis that it sounds like another word (or group of words). Presented in the form of dictionary definitions, they are similar to transpositional puns, but often much less complex and easier to create. Under the name Uxbridge English Dictionary, making up daffynitions is a popular game on the BBC Radio 4 comedy quiz show I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue. A lesser-known subclass of daffynition is the goofinition, which relies strictly on literal associations and correct spellings, such as "lobster = a weak tennis player". This play on words is similar to Cockney rhyming slang. ==Examples== acrostic: An angry bloodsucking arachnid. (a-cross-tick) American: A happy cylindrical food container. (a-merry-can) apéritif: A set of dentures. (a-pair-of-teeth) avoidable: What a bullfighter tries to do. (avoid-a-bull) buccaneer: too much to pay for corn ([a]-buck-an-ear) dandelion: A fashionably dressed big cat (dandy-lion) decadent: Possessing only ten teeth. (deca-dent) denial: A river in Egypt. (the-Nile) devastation: Where people wait for buses. (the-bus-station) dilate: live long (die-late) euthanasia: Teenagers in the world's largest continent. (youth-in-Asia) fortunate: Consumption of an expensive meal. (fortune-ate) impolite: A flaming goblin. (imp-alight) indistinct: where one places dirty dishes (in-the-sink) information: how geese fly (in-formation) innuendoes: Italian suppositories. () insolent: Fallen off the Isle of Wight ferry. (in-Solent) isolate: Me not on time. (I-(am)-so-late) laburnum: French for barbecue. (la-burn-em) legend: A foot. (leg-end) oboe: A French tramp. (hobo) paradox: Two doctors. (pair-of-docs) or where one ties two boats. (Pair of docks) pasteurise: Too far to see. () protein: In favour of youth. (pro-teen) propaganda: A gentlemanly goose. (proper-gander) or to look at something very carefully (proper-gander, where gander is slang for looking) recycle: To repair a bicycle, or obtain a replacement bicycle. (re-cycle) relief: What trees do in Spring. (re-leaf) specimen: An Italian astronaut. (spaceman) symmetry: A South African or New Zealand graveyard. (cemetery)	[ "quiz show", "Cockney rhyming slang", "Solent", "bullfighter", "definition", "transpositional puns", "comedy", "tramp", "Asia", "portmanteau", "Nile", "wikt:daffy", "BBC Radio 4", "goose", "Sniglet", "Isle of Wight", "I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue", "The Devil's Dictionary", "Egypt", "The Meaning of Liff", "pun", "Isle of Wight ferry services" ]
8,649	List of football clubs in the Netherlands	The Dutch Football League is organized by the Royal Dutch Football Association (KNVB, Koninklijke Nederlandse Voetbalbond).The most successful teams are Ajax (36), PSV (24) and Feyenoord (16). Important teams of the past are HVV (10 titles), Sparta Rotterdam (6 titles) and Willem II (3 titles). The annual match that marks the beginning of the season is called the Johan Cruijff Schaal (Johan Cruyff Shield). Contenders are the champions and the cup winners of the previous season. == Dutch professional clubs == == Former Dutch league teams == Koninklijke HFC AVV RAP (of Amsterdam) were the first official champions of the Netherlands in 1899. The club however became a Cricket club in 1916 following a total of 5 national football titles. Fortuna 54 (of Geleen) and Sittardia (of Sittard) merged to form Fortuna Sittard in 1968. Blauw Wit, DWS and De Volewijckers merged to form FC Amsterdam in 1972, which ceased to exist in 1982. PEC and the Zwolsche Boys merged to form PEC Zwolle in 1971, which became FC Zwolle in 1990. Sportclub Enschede and the Enschedese Boys merged to form FC Twente in 1965. DOS, Elinkwijk and Velox merged to form FC Utrecht in 1970. GVAV became FC Groningen in 1971. Alkmaar 54 and FC Zaanstreek merged to form AZ in 1967. Roda Sport and Rapid JC merged to form Roda JC in 1962. BVC Rotterdam and BVC Flamingos merged to form Scheveningen Holland Sport in 1954, which merged with ADO in 1971 to form FC Den Haag, and became ADO Den Haag in 1996. SVV and Dordrecht '90 merged to form SVV/Dordrecht '90 in 1991. The club has since been renamed FC Dordrecht. VC Vlissingen (from Flushing) became a professional club in 1990, changed its name to VCV Zeeland a year later, and became an amateur club again in 1992. FC Wageningen (founded in 1911) won the Dutch cup in 1939 and 1948, joined the Dutch professional league when it was formed in 1954, and remained professional until the club went bankrupt in 1992. HVC of Amersfoort was formed in 1905, joined the league in 1954, was renamed to SC Amersfoort in 1973 and went bankrupt in 1982. Fortuna Vlaardingen (formed in 1904) joined the professional league in 1955, was renamed to FC Vlaardingen in 1974 and went bankrupt in 1981. HFC Haarlem (formed in 1889) joined the professional league in 1954 and remained professional until the club went bankrupt in 2010. RBC Roosendaal (formed in 1927) joined the professional league in 1955 till 1971 and 1983 and remained professional until the club went bankrupt in 2011. AGOVV Apeldoorn (formed in 1913) joined the professional league in 1954 till 1971, returned to professional soccer on 1 July 2003, and went bankrupt in 2013. SC Veendam (formed in 1894) joined the professional league in 1954, and went bankrupt in 2013. Zwart-Wit '28 won the national amateur championship in 1971 and the national cup for women in 2000. Went bankrupt in 2004.	[ "Edward Sturing", "Ruud Brood", "Euroborg", "FC Utrecht", "NAC Breda", "Flushing, Netherlands", "Willem II Tilburg", "Nijmegen", "De Graafschap", "Johan Cruyff Arena", "Bob Peeters", "Breda", "Roda JC", "FC Vlaardingen", "Univé Stadion", "Sittard", "Jeroen Rijsdijk", "HVV Den Haag", "Blauw-Wit Amsterdam", "Feyenoord", "Peter Maes", "Jan Vreman", "Stadion Woudestein", "Groningen", "Bas Sibum", "VC Vlissingen", "Go Ahead Eagles", "FC Emmen", "Tilburg", "Netherlands", "Groningse Voetbal en Atletiek Vereniging", "Roda JC Kerkrade", "Geleen", "SC Amersfoort", "Cricket", "Waalwijk", "Oss", "Hedwiges Maduro", "Anthony Correia (footballer, born 1982)", "Jan Louwers Stadion", "Helmond", "Heesen Yachts Stadion", "De Vijverberg", "FC Amsterdam", "Brian Priske", "SC Heerenveen", "AVV RAP", "List of football stadiums in the Netherlands", "Carl Hoefkens", "Joseph Oosting", "Dick Lukkien", "Maarten Martens", "René Hake", "Leeuwarden", "HFC Haarlem", "Stadion de Goffert", "De Volewijckers", "Maurice Verberne", "The Hague", "MAC³PARK Stadion", "VCV Zeeland", "Fortuna Vlaardingen", "Philips Stadion", "SC Cambuur", "Amersfoort", "FC Den Bosch", "Cambuur Stadion", "SC Veendam", "Almere City FC", "Eindhoven", "Amsterdam", "Erwin van de Looi", "Deventer", "Almere", "Koning Willem II Stadion", "Peter Bosz", "David Nascimento", "Fred Grim", "FC Zwolle", "FC Twente", "Door Oefening Sterk", "Adelaarshorst", "Ron Jans", "PEC Zwolle", "AZ Alkmaar", "Cars Jeans Stadion", "Danny Buijs", "Excelsior Rotterdam", "Rogier Meijer", "Francesco Farioli", "Utrecht", "Abe Lenstra Stadion", "FC Groningen", "AFC DWS", "TATA Steel Stadion", "NEC Nijmegen", "FC Eindhoven", "Holland Victoria Combinatie", "Stadion Galgenwaard", "Willem II (football club)", "Johnny Jansen", "SBV Excelsior", "Schiedamse Voetbal Vereniging", "FC Volendam", "De Vliert", "Melvin Boel", "Maastricht", "Helmond Sport", "KNVB Cup", "Telstar (football club)", "Dordrecht", "De Geusselt", "Yanmar Stadion", "GN Bouw Stadion", "SBV Vitesse", "Zwart-Wit '28", "Polman Stadion", "Arnhem", "Stadion De Braak", "De Koel", "Koninklijke HFC", "Enschede", "FC Wageningen", "Alkmaar", "Willem Weijs", "Volendam", "TOP Oss", "Marinus Dijkhuizen", "Eredivisie", "Royal Dutch Football Association", "De Grolsch Veste", "Heerenveen", "RBC Roosendaal", "VVV-Venlo", "Venlo", "'s-Hertogenbosch", "Fortuna Sittard", "Heracles Almelo", "Parkstad Limburg Stadion", "Sparta Stadion Het Kasteel", "Darije Kalezić", "Eerste Divisie", "Mandemakers Stadion", "Rotterdam", "Emmen, Netherlands", "Rat Verlegh Stadion", "Henk Fraser", "Velsen", "FC Dordrecht", "Robin van Persie", "Stadion Feijenoord", "ADO Den Haag", "Almelo", "Henk de Jong", "Sparta Rotterdam", "Rick Kruys", "GelreDome", "Zwolle", "Doetinchem", "RKC Waalwijk", "Fortuna Sittard Stadion", "AGOVV Apeldoorn", "PSV Eindhoven", "AFAS Stadion", "Kerkrade", "ja:エールディヴィジ", "MVV Maastricht", "AFC Ajax", "Regillio Simons", "Kras Stadion" ]
8,650	Dragon 32/64	{{Infobox information appliance \| name = \| logo = \| image = \| caption = A Dragon 32 home computer \| developer = \| manufacturer = Dragon Data \| carrier = \| family = \| type = Home computer \| generation = \| releasedate = \| lifespan = \| price = \| discontinued = Additionally, as a cost-cutting measure, the hardware-supported text modes only included upper case characters; this restricted the system's appeal to the educational market. It was acquired by the Spanish company Eurohard S.A., which moved the factory from Wales to Cáceres and released the Dragon 200 (a Dragon 64 with a new case that allowed a monitor to be placed on top) and the Dragon 200-E (an enhanced Dragon 200 with both upper and lower case characters and a Spanish keyboard), but ultimately filed for bankruptcy in 1987. The remaining stock from Eurohard was purchased by a Spanish electronics hobbyist magazine and given away to those who paid for a three-year subscription, until 1992. In the United States it was possible to purchase the Tano Dragon new in box until early 2017 from California Digital, a retailer that purchased the remaining stock. File:PIC 0119 Dragon 32-2.jpg\|Dragon 32 front view File:Dragon 32 Trasera.jpg\|Dragon 32 back view File:Dragon 32 laterales-3.jpg\|Dragon 32 side views File:Dragon 64 top view.jpg\|Dragon 64 top view File:Dragon 64 trasera.JPG\|Dragon 64 back view File:Dragon 64 laterales.jpg\|Dragon 64 side views File:Dragon by Tano 64K computer.jpg\|Dragon by Tano File:Dragon200Box.jpg\|Dragon 200 box File:Dragon200-4.jpg\|Dragon 200 top view File:Dragon200-5.jpg\|Dragon 200 back view File:Dragon200E Top.jpg\|Dragon 200-E top view File:Dragon200E Back.jpg\|Dragon 200-E back view File:Dragon200E Left.jpg\|Dragon 200-E left side view File:Dragon200E Right.jpg\|Dragon 200-E right side view File:MC6847 Dragon200E Charset.png\|Dragon 200-E upper and lower case Spanish character set ==Reception== BYTE wrote in January 1983 that the Dragon 32 "offers more feature for the money than most of its competitors", but "there's nothing exceptional about it". The review described it as a redesigned, less-expensive Color Computer with 32K RAM and better keyboard. ==Technical notes== ===Hardware and peripherals=== The Dragon is built around the Motorola MC6809E processor running at 0.89 MHz. It was an advanced 8-bit CPU design, with limited 16-bit capabilities. It was possible to increase the speed of the computer by using POKE 65495,0 which accelerated the ROM-resident BASIC interpreter, but temporarily disabled proper functioning of the cassette/printer ports. Manufacturing variances mean that not all Dragons were able to function at this higher speed, and use of this POKE could cause some units to crash or be unstable, though with no permanent damage. POKE 65494,0 returned the speed to normal. POKE 65497,0 pushed the speed yet higher but the display was lost until a slower speed was restored. The Dragon used the SN74LS783/MC6883 Synchronous Address Multiplexer (SAM) and the MC6847 Video Display Generator (VDG). I/O was provided by two MC6821 Peripheral Interface Adapters (PIAs). Many Dragon 32s were upgraded by their owners to 64 KB of memory. A few were further expanded to 128 KB, 256 KB, or 512 KB with home-built memory controllers/memory management units (MMUs). A broad range of peripherals exist for the Dragon 32/64, and there are add-ons such as the Dragon's Claw which give the Dragons a port that is hardware-compatible with the BBC Micro's user port, though separate software drivers for connected devices must be developed. Although neither machine has a built-in disk operating system (Compact Cassettes being the standard storage mechanism commonly used for machines of the time), DragonDOS was supplied as part of the disk controller interface from Dragon Data Ltd. The versatile external ports, including the standard RS-232 on the 64, also allows hobbyists to attach a diverse range of equipment. The computer featured a composite monitor port as an alternative to the TV RF output which can be used to connect the Dragon 32 to most modern TVs to deliver a much better picture. The Dragon used analogue joysticks, unlike most systems of the time which used simpler and cheaper digital systems. Other uses for the joystick ports included light pens. Tony Clarke and Richard Wadman established the specifications for the Dragon. The units had a robust motherboard in a spacious case, reminiscent of the BBC Micro, and so were more tolerant of aftermarket modification than some of their contemporaries, which often had their components crammed into the smallest possible space. ===Video modes=== The Dragon's main display mode is 'black on green' text (the black was, in actuality, a deeper, muddier green). The only graphics possible in this mode are quarter-tile block based. It also has a selection of five high-resolution modes, named PMODEs 0–4, which alternate monochrome and four-colour in successively higher resolutions, culminating in the black-and-white 256×192 PMODE 4. Each mode has two possible colour palettes – these are rather garish and cause the system to fare poorly in visual comparisons with other home computers of the time. It is also impossible to use standard printing commands to print text in the graphical modes, causing software development difficulties. Full-colour, scanline-based 64×192 semi-graphics modes are also possible, though their imbalanced resolution and programming difficulty (not being accessible via BASIC) meant they were not often utilised. ===Disk systems=== First to market was a complete disk operating system produced by Premier Microsystems, located near Croydon. The system was sold as the "Delta" disk operating system; there was a proposal for Dragon to market this as an addon. Dragon did not enter into such an agreement and instead produced the DragonDOS system. The two systems were incompatible. Delta's lead in availability ensured that software was released in the format, whilst Dragon's "official" status ensured that it, too, gained software published in its format. This led to confusion and frustration, with customers finding they had either purchased a version incompatible with their setup, or that the software was only available for the competing standard. === System software === The Dragon comes with a Microsoft BASIC interpreter in 16 KB of ROM. The BASIC appears to be nearly identical to Tandy Color Computer's Extended Basic with a few changes necessary to interact with the Dragon system. The Dragon has additional circuitry to make the MC6847 VDG compatible with European 625-line PAL television standards, rather than the US 525-line NTSC standard, and a Centronics parallel printer port not present on the TRS-80. Some models were manufactured with NTSC video for the US and Canadian markets.	[ "Ocean Software", "light pen", "Peripheral Interface Adapter", "New Orleans", "Video Display Generator", "beige", "random-access memory", "device driver", "Imagine Software", "Europe", "semigraphics", "OS-9", "machine code", "Cuthbert (Microdeal)", "Assembly language", "Casar de Cáceres", "Manic Miner", "BASIC", "Read-only memory", "porting", "Croydon", "Addictive Games", "Arcadia (video game)", "home computer", "Spain", "tokenize", "Jet Set Willy", "BBC Micro", "memory management unit", "PEEK and POKE", "Cuthbert Goes Walkabout", "Microdeal", "ZX Spectrum", "RS-232", "serial port", "upper case", "compiler", "MC6847", "Color BASIC", "BASIC interpreter", "megahertz", "Microsoft", "Cáceres, Spain", "Centronics", "Motorola 6809E", "disk operating system", "Software Projects", "Commodore 64", "Dragon User", "motherboard", "I/O", "Port Talbot", "Home computer", "Dragon Data", "BYTE", "Atari ST", "Unix", "Motorola 6809", "Atari 8-bit", "Lines of resolution", "Wales", "read-only memory", "Airball (video game)", "Motorola", "Louisiana", "Chuckie Egg", "Swansea", "NTSC", "disassembler", "PAL", "Compact Cassette (data)", "Semigraphics", "Amiga", "Tanglewood (1987 video game)", "Computer multitasking", "TRS-80 Color Computer", "scanline", "kilobyte", "Hunchback (video game)", "Composite video", "radio frequency", "microcomputer", "FLEX (operating system)", "8-bit", "16-bit", "Football Manager (1982 series)", "Microsoft BASIC" ]
8,651	Dark matter	In astronomy, dark matter is an invisible and hypothetical form of matter that does not interact with light or other electromagnetic radiation. Dark matter is implied by gravitational effects that cannot be explained by general relativity unless more matter is present than can be observed. Such effects occur in the context of formation and evolution of galaxies, gravitational lensing, the observable universe's current structure, mass position in galactic collisions, the motion of galaxies within galaxy clusters, and cosmic microwave background anisotropies. Dark matter is thought to serve as gravitational scaffolding for cosmic structures. After the Big Bang, dark matter clumped into blobs along narrow filaments with superclusters of galaxies forming a cosmic web at scales on which entire galaxies appear like tiny particles. In the standard Lambda-CDM model of cosmology, the mass–energy content of the universe is 5% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark matter, and 68.2% a form of energy known as dark energy. Thus, dark matter constitutes 85% of the total mass, while dark energy and dark matter constitute 95% of the total mass–energy content. While the density of dark matter is significant in the halo around a galaxy, its local density in the Solar System is much less than normal matter. The total of all the dark matter out to the orbit of Neptune would add up about 10^17 kg, the same as a large asteroid. Dark matter is not known to interact with ordinary baryonic matter and radiation except through gravity, making it difficult to detect in the laboratory. The most prevalent explanation is that dark matter is some as-yet-undiscovered subatomic particle, such as either weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) or axions. The other main possibility is that dark matter is composed of primordial black holes. a minority of astrophysicists, intrigued by specific observations that are not well explained by ordinary dark matter, argue for various modifications of the standard laws of general relativity. These include modified Newtonian dynamics, tensor–vector–scalar gravity, or entropic gravity. So far none of the proposed modified gravity theories can describe every piece of observational evidence at the same time, suggesting that even if gravity has to be modified, some form of dark matter will still be required. Wm. Thomson, Lord Kelvin, discussed the potential number of stars around the Sun in the appendices of a book based on a series of lectures given in 1884 in Baltimore. In 1906, Henri Poincaré A publication from 1930 by Swedish astronomer Knut Lundmark points to him being the first to realise that the universe must contain much more mass than can be observed. Dutch radio astronomy pioneer Jan Oort also hypothesized the existence of dark matter in 1932. Oort was studying stellar motions in the galactic neighborhood and found the mass in the galactic plane must be greater than what was observed, but this measurement was later determined to be incorrect. In 1933, Swiss astrophysicist Fritz Zwicky studied galaxy clusters while working at Caltech and made a similar inference.{{efn\| "Um, wie beobachtet, einen mittleren Dopplereffekt von 1000 km/sek oder mehr zu erhalten, müsste also die mittlere Dichte im Comasystem mindestens 400 mal grösser sein als die auf Grund von Beobachtungen an leuchtender Materie abgeleitete. Falls sich dies bewahrheiten sollte, würde sich also das überraschende Resultat ergeben, dass dunkle Materie in sehr viel grösserer Dichte vorhanden ist als leuchtende Materie." Zwicky applied the virial theorem to the Coma Cluster and obtained evidence of unseen mass he called ('dark matter'). Zwicky estimated its mass based on the motions of galaxies near its edge and compared that to an estimate based on its brightness and number of galaxies. He estimated the cluster had about 400 times more mass than was visually observable. The gravity effect of the visible galaxies was far too small for such fast orbits, thus mass must be hidden from view. Based on these conclusions, Zwicky inferred some unseen matter provided the mass and associated gravitational attraction to hold the cluster together. Zwicky's estimates were off by more than an order of magnitude, mainly due to an obsolete value of the Hubble constant; the same calculation today shows a smaller fraction, using greater values for luminous mass. Nonetheless, Zwicky did correctly conclude from his calculation that most of the gravitational matter present was dark. He attributed it to either light absorption within the galaxy or modified dynamics in the outer portions of the spiral, rather than to unseen matter. Following Babcock's 1939 report of unexpectedly rapid rotation in the outskirts of the Andromeda Galaxy and a mass-to-light ratio of 50; in 1940, Oort discovered and wrote about the large non-visible halo of NGC 3115. === 1970s === The hypothesis of dark matter largely took root in the 1970s. Several different observations were synthesized to argue that galaxies should be surrounded by halos of unseen matter. In two papers that appeared in 1974, this conclusion was drawn in tandem by independent groups: in Princeton, New Jersey, by Jeremiah Ostriker, Jim Peebles, and Amos Yahil, and in Tartu, Estonia, by Jaan Einasto, Enn Saar, and Ants Kaasik. One of the observations that served as evidence for the existence of galactic halos of dark matter was the shape of galaxy rotation curves. These observations were done in optical and radio astronomy. In optical astronomy, Vera Rubin and Kent Ford worked with a new spectrograph to measure the velocity curve of edge-on spiral galaxies with greater accuracy. At the same time, radio astronomers were making use of new radio telescopes to map the 21 cm line of atomic hydrogen in nearby galaxies. The radial distribution of interstellar atomic hydrogen (H) often extends to much greater galactic distances than can be observed as collective starlight, expanding the sampled distances for rotation curves – and thus of the total mass distribution – to a new dynamical regime. Early mapping of Andromeda with the telescope at Green Bank and the dish at Jodrell Bank already showed the H rotation curve did not trace the decline expected from Keplerian orbits. As more sensitive receivers became available, Roberts & Whitehurst (1975) were able to trace the rotational velocity of Andromeda to 30 kpc, much beyond the optical measurements. Illustrating the advantage of tracing the gas disk at large radii; that paper's Figure 16 In 1978, Albert Bosma showed further evidence of flat rotation curves using data from the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope. By the late 1970s the existence of dark matter halos around galaxies was widely recognized as real, and became a major unsolved problem in astronomy. The evidence for dark matter also included gravitational lensing of background objects by galaxy clusters, The search for this particle, by a variety of means, is one of the major efforts in particle physics. == Technical definition == In standard cosmological calculations, "matter" means any constituent of the universe whose energy density scales with the inverse cube of the scale factor, i.e., This is in contrast to "radiation", which scales as the inverse fourth power of the scale factor and a cosmological constant, which does not change with respect to (). the energy of ultra-relativistic particles, such as early-era standard-model neutrinos, is similarly halved. The cosmological constant, as an intrinsic property of space, has a constant energy density regardless of the volume under consideration. In principle, "dark matter" means all components of the universe which are not visible but still obey In practice, the term "dark matter" is often used to mean only the non-baryonic component of dark matter, i.e., excluding "missing baryons". Context will usually indicate which meaning is intended. == Observational evidence == This section presents the observational evidence for dark matter from the smallest to the largest scales. === Galaxy rotation curves === The arms of spiral galaxies rotate around their galactic center. The luminous mass density of a spiral galaxy decreases as one goes from the center to the outskirts. If luminous mass were all the matter, then the galaxy can be modelled as a point mass in the centre and test masses orbiting around it, similar to the Solar System. From Kepler's Third Law, it is expected that the rotation velocities will decrease with distance from the center, similar to the Solar System. This is not observed. Instead, the galaxy rotation curve remains flat or even increases as distance from the center increases. If Kepler's laws are correct, then the obvious way to resolve this discrepancy is to conclude the mass distribution in spiral galaxies is not similar to that of the Solar System. In particular, there may be a lot of non-luminous matter (dark matter) in the outskirts of the galaxy. === Velocity dispersions === Stars in bound systems must obey the virial theorem. The theorem, together with the measured velocity distribution, can be used to measure the mass distribution in a bound system, such as elliptical galaxies or globular clusters. With some exceptions, velocity dispersion estimates of elliptical galaxies do not match the predicted velocity dispersion from the observed mass distribution, even assuming complicated distributions of stellar orbits. As with galaxy rotation curves, the obvious way to resolve the discrepancy is to postulate the existence of non-luminous matter. === Galaxy clusters === Galaxy clusters are particularly important for dark matter studies since their masses can be estimated in three independent ways: From the scatter in radial velocities of the galaxies within clusters From X-rays emitted by hot gas in the clusters. From the X-ray energy spectrum and flux, the gas temperature and density can be estimated, hence giving the pressure; assuming pressure and gravity balance determines the cluster's mass profile. Gravitational lensing (usually of more distant galaxies) can measure cluster masses without relying on observations of dynamics (e.g., velocity). Generally, these three methods are in reasonable agreement that dark matter outweighs visible matter by approximately 5 to 1. === Bullet Cluster === The Bullet Cluster is the result of a recent collision of two galaxy clusters. It is of particular note because the location of the center of mass as measured by gravitational lensing is different from the location of the center of mass of visible matter. This is difficult for modified gravity theories, which generally predict lensing around visible matter, to explain. Standard dark matter theory however has no issue: the hot, visible gas in each cluster would be cooled and slowed down by electromagnetic interactions, while dark matter (which does not interact electromagnetically) would not. This leads to the dark matter separating from the visible gas, producing the separate lensing peak as observed. === Gravitational lensing === One of the consequences of general relativity is the gravitational lens. Gravitational lensing occurs when massive objects between a source of light and the observer act as a lens to bend light from this source. Lensing does not depend on the properties of the mass; it only requires there to be a mass. The more massive an object, the more lensing is observed. An example is a cluster of galaxies lying between a more distant source such as a quasar and an observer. In this case, the galaxy cluster will lens the quasar. Strong lensing is the observed distortion of background galaxies into arcs when their light passes through such a gravitational lens. It has been observed around many distant clusters including Abell 1689. By measuring the distortion geometry, the mass of the intervening cluster can be obtained. In the weak regime, lensing does not distort background galaxies into arcs, causing minute distortions instead. By examining the apparent shear deformation of the adjacent background galaxies, the mean distribution of dark matter can be characterized. The measured mass-to-light ratios correspond to dark matter densities predicted by other large-scale structure measurements. === Type Ia supernova distance measurements === Type Ia supernovae can be used as standard candles to measure extragalactic distances, which can in turn be used to measure how fast the universe has expanded in the past. Data indicates the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate, the cause of which is usually ascribed to dark energy. Since observations indicate the universe is almost flat, it is expected the total energy density of everything in the universe should sum to 1 (). The measured dark energy density is ; the observed ordinary (baryonic) matter energy density is and the energy density of radiation is negligible. This leaves a missing which nonetheless behaves like matter (see technical definition section above)dark matter. === Redshift-space distortions === Large galaxy redshift surveys may be used to make a three-dimensional map of the galaxy distribution. These maps are slightly distorted because distances are estimated from observed redshifts; the redshift contains a contribution from the galaxy's so-called peculiar velocity in addition to the dominant Hubble expansion term. On average, superclusters are expanding more slowly than the cosmic mean due to their gravity, while voids are expanding faster than average. In a redshift map, galaxies in front of a supercluster have excess radial velocities towards it and have redshifts slightly higher than their distance would imply, while galaxies behind the supercluster have redshifts slightly low for their distance. This effect causes superclusters to appear squashed in the radial direction, and likewise voids are stretched. Their angular positions are unaffected. This effect is not detectable for any one structure since the true shape is not known, but can be measured by averaging over many structures. It was predicted quantitatively by Nick Kaiser in 1987, and first decisively measured in 2001 by the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey. Results are in agreement with the Lambda-CDM model. === Lyman-alpha forest === In astronomical spectroscopy, the Lyman-alpha forest is the sum of the absorption lines arising from the Lyman-alpha transition of neutral hydrogen in the spectra of distant galaxies and quasars. Lyman-alpha forest observations can also constrain cosmological models. These constraints agree with those obtained from WMAP data. === Cosmic microwave background === Although both dark matter and ordinary matter are matter, they do not behave in the same way. In particular, in the early universe, ordinary matter was ionized and interacted strongly with radiation via Thomson scattering. Dark matter does not interact directly with radiation, but it does affect the cosmic microwave background (CMB) by its gravitational potential (mainly on large scales) and by its effects on the density and velocity of ordinary matter. Ordinary and dark matter perturbations, therefore, evolve differently with time and leave different imprints on the CMB. The CMB is very close to a perfect blackbody but contains very small temperature anisotropies of a few parts in 100,000. A sky map of anisotropies can be decomposed into an angular power spectrum, which is observed to contain a series of acoustic peaks at near-equal spacing but different heights. The locations of these peaks depend on cosmological parameters. Matching theory to data, therefore, constrains cosmological parameters. The CMB anisotropy was first discovered by COBE in 1992, though this had too coarse resolution to detect the acoustic peaks. After the discovery of the first acoustic peak by the balloon-borne BOOMERanG experiment in 2000, the power spectrum was precisely observed by WMAP in 2003–2012, and even more precisely by the Planck spacecraft in 2013–2015. The results support the Lambda-CDM model. but difficult to reproduce with any competing model such as modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND). === Structure formation === Structure formation refers to the period after the Big Bang when density perturbations collapsed to form stars, galaxies, and clusters. Prior to structure formation, the Friedmann solutions to general relativity describe a homogeneous universe. Later, small anisotropies gradually grew and condensed the homogeneous universe into stars, galaxies and larger structures. Ordinary matter is affected by radiation, which is the dominant element of the universe at very early times. As a result, its density perturbations are washed out and unable to condense into structure. If there were only ordinary matter in the universe, there would not have been enough time for density perturbations to grow into the galaxies and clusters currently seen. Dark matter provides a solution to this problem because it is unaffected by radiation. Therefore, its density perturbations can grow first. The resulting gravitational potential acts as an attractive potential well for ordinary matter collapsing later, speeding up the structure formation process. === Sky surveys and baryon acoustic oscillations === Baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO) are fluctuations in the density of the visible baryonic matter (normal matter) of the universe on large scales. These are predicted to arise in the Lambda-CDM model due to acoustic oscillations in the photon–baryon fluid of the early universe and can be observed in the cosmic microwave background angular power spectrum. BAOs set up a preferred length scale for baryons. As the dark matter and baryons clumped together after recombination, the effect is much weaker in the galaxy distribution in the nearby universe, but is detectable as a subtle (≈1 percent) preference for pairs of galaxies to be separated by 147 Mpc, compared to those separated by 130–160 Mpc. This feature was predicted theoretically in the 1990s and then discovered in 2005, in two large galaxy redshift surveys, the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey. Combining the CMB observations with BAO measurements from galaxy redshift surveys provides a precise estimate of the Hubble constant and the average matter density in the Universe. The results support the Lambda-CDM model. == Theoretical classifications == Dark matter can be divided into cold, warm, and hot categories. These categories refer to velocity rather than an actual temperature, and indicate how far corresponding objects moved due to random motions in the early universe, before they slowed due to cosmic expansion. This distance is called the free streaming length. The categories of dark matter are set with respect to the size of the collection of mass prior to structure formation that later collapses to form a dwarf galaxy. This collection of mass is sometimes called a protogalaxy. Dark matter particles are classified as cold, warm, or hot if their free streaming length is much smaller (cold), similar to (warm), or much larger (hot) than the protogalaxy of a dwarf galaxy. Mixtures of the above are also possible: a theory of mixed dark matter was popular in the mid-1990s, but was rejected following the discovery of dark energy. The significance of the free streaming length is that the universe began with some primordial density fluctuations from the Big Bang (in turn arising from quantum fluctuations at the microscale). Particles from overdense regions will naturally spread to underdense regions, but because the universe is expanding quickly, there is a time limit for them to do so. Faster particles (hot dark matter) can beat the time limit while slower particles cannot. The particles travel a free streaming length's worth of distance within the time limit; therefore this length sets a minimum scale for later structure formation. Because galaxy-size density fluctuations get washed out by free-streaming, hot dark matter implies the first objects that can form are huge supercluster-size pancakes, which then fragment into galaxies, while the reverse is true for cold dark matter. Deep-field observations show that galaxies formed first, followed by clusters and superclusters as galaxies clump together, \|- \| strangelet \|- \| dynamical dark matter \| \|- \|rowspan=3\| macroscopic \| primordial black holes \|- \| massive compact halo objects (MACHOs) \|- \| macroscopic dark matter (Macros) \|} === Baryonic matter === Dark matter can refer to any substance which interacts predominantly via gravity with visible matter (e.g., stars and planets). Hence in principle it need not be composed of a new type of fundamental particle but could, at least in part, be made up of standard baryonic matter, such as protons or neutrons. Most of the ordinary matter familiar to astronomers, including planets, brown dwarfs, red dwarfs, visible stars, white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes, fall into this category. A black hole would ingest both baryonic and non-baryonic matter that comes close enough to its event horizon; afterwards, the distinction between the two is lost. These massive objects that are hard to detect are collectively known as MACHOs. Some scientists initially hoped that baryonic MACHOs could account for and explain all the dark matter. However, multiple lines of evidence suggest the majority of dark matter is not baryonic: Sufficient diffuse, baryonic gas or dust would be visible when backlit by stars. The theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis predicts the observed abundance of the chemical elements. If there are more baryons, then there should also be more helium, lithium and heavier elements synthesized during the Big Bang. Agreement with observed abundances requires that baryonic matter makes up between 4–5% of the universe's critical density. In contrast, large-scale structure and other observations indicate that the total matter density is about 30% of the critical density. Detailed analysis of the small irregularities (anisotropies) in the cosmic microwave background by WMAP and Planck indicate that around five-sixths of the total matter is in a form that only interacts significantly with ordinary matter or photons through gravitational effects. === Non-baryonic matter === If baryonic matter cannot make up most of dark matter, then dark matter must be non-baryonic. There are two main candidates for non-baryonic dark matter: new particles and primordial black holes. Unlike baryonic matter, nonbaryonic particles do not contribute to the formation of the elements in the early universe (Big Bang nucleosynthesis) Candidates abound (see the table above), each with their own strengths and weaknesses. ====Undiscovered massive particles==== There exists no formal definition of a Weakly Interacting Massive Particle, but broadly, it is an elementary particle which interacts via gravity and any other force (or forces) which is as weak as or weaker than the weak nuclear force, but also non-vanishing in strength. Many WIMP candidates are expected to have been produced thermally in the early Universe, similarly to the particles of the Standard Model according to Big Bang cosmology, and usually will constitute cold dark matter. Obtaining the correct abundance of dark matter today via thermal production requires a self-annihilation cross section of \langle \sigma v \rangle \simeq 3 \times 10^{-26} \mathrm{cm}^{3} \;\mathrm{s}^{-1}, which is roughly what is expected for a new particle in the 100 GeV mass range that interacts via the electroweak force. Because supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model of particle physics readily predict a new particle with these properties, this apparent coincidence is known as the "WIMP miracle", and a stable supersymmetric partner has long been a prime explanation for dark matter. Experimental efforts to detect WIMPs include the search for products of WIMP annihilation, including gamma rays, neutrinos and cosmic rays in nearby galaxies and galaxy clusters; direct detection experiments designed to measure the collision of WIMPs with nuclei in the laboratory, as well as attempts to directly produce WIMPs in colliders, such as the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. In the early 2010s, results from direct-detection experiments along with the lack of evidence for supersymmetry at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) experiment have cast doubt on the simplest WIMP hypothesis. ====Undiscovered ultralight particles==== Axions are hypothetical elementary particles originally theorized in 1978 independently by Frank Wilczek and Steven Weinberg as the Goldstone boson of Peccei–Quinn theory, which had been proposed in 1977 to solve the strong CP problem in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). QCD effects produce an effective periodic potential in which the axion field moves. Expanding the potential about one of its minima, one finds that the product of the axion mass with the axion decay constant is determined by the topological susceptibility of the QCD vacuum. An axion with mass much less than 60 keV is long-lived and weakly interacting: A perfect dark matter candidate. The oscillations of the axion field about the minimum of the effective potential, the so-called misalignment mechanism, generate a cosmological population of cold axions with an abundance depending on the mass of the axion. With a mass above 5 μeV/2 ( times the electron mass) axions could account for dark matter, and thus be both a dark-matter candidate and a solution to the strong CP problem. If inflation occurs at a low scale and lasts sufficiently long, the axion mass can be as low as 1 peV/2. Because axions have extremely low mass, their de Broglie wavelength is very large, in turn meaning that quantum effects could help resolve the small-scale problems of the Lambda-CDM model. A single ultralight axion with a decay constant at the grand unified theory scale provides the correct relic density without fine-tuning. Axions as a dark matter candidate have gained in popularity in recent years, because of the non-detection of WIMPS. ====Primordial black holes==== Primordial black holes are hypothetical black holes that formed soon after the Big Bang. In the inflationary era and early radiation-dominated universe, extremely dense pockets of subatomic matter may have been tightly packed to the point of gravitational collapse, creating primordial black holes without the supernova compression typically needed to make black holes today. Because the creation of primordial black holes would pre-date the first stars, they are not limited to the narrow mass range of stellar black holes and also not classified as baryonic dark matter. The idea that black holes could form in the early universe was first suggested by Yakov Zeldovich and Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov in 1967, and independently by Stephen Hawking in 1971. It quickly became clear that such black holes might account for at least part of dark matter. Primordial black holes as a dark matter candidate has the major advantage that it is based on a well-understood theory (General Relativity) and objects (black holes) that are already known to exist. However, producing primordial black holes requires exotic cosmic inflation or physics beyond the standard model of particle physics, and might also require fine-tuning. Primordial black holes can also span nearly the entire possible mass range, from atom-sized to supermassive. The idea that primordial black holes make up dark matter gained prominence in 2015 following results of gravitational wave measurements which detected the merger of intermediate-mass black holes. Black holes with about 30 solar masses are not predicted to form by either stellar collapse (typically less than 15 solar masses) or by the merger of black holes in galactic centers (millions or billions of solar masses), which suggests that the detected black holes might be primordial. A later survey of about a thousand supernovae detected no gravitational lensing events, when about eight would be expected if intermediate-mass primordial black holes above a certain mass range accounted for over 60% of dark matter. However, that study assumed that all black holes have the same or similar mass to the LIGO/Virgo mass range, which might not be the case (as suggested by subsequent James Webb Space Telescope observations). Nonetheless, research and theories proposing dense dark matter accounts for dark matter continue as of 2018, including approaches to dark matter cooling, and the question remains unsettled. In 2019, the lack of microlensing effects in the observation of Andromeda suggests that tiny black holes do not exist. Nonetheless, there still exists a largely unconstrained mass range smaller than that which can be limited by optical microlensing observations, where primordial black holes may account for all dark matter. === Modified gravity === The last major possibility is that general relativity, the theory underpinning modern cosmology, is incorrect. General relativity is well-tested on Solar System scales, but its validity on galactic or cosmological scales has not been well proven. A suitable modification to general relativity can conceivably eliminate the need for dark matter. The best-known theories of this class are MOND and its relativistic generalization tensor–vector–scalar gravity (TeVeS), f(R) gravity, negative mass, dark fluid, and entropic gravity. Alternative theories abound. A problem with modifying gravity is that observational evidence for dark matter – let alone general relativity – comes from so many independent approaches (see the "observational evidence" section above). Explaining any individual observation is possible but explaining all of them in the absence of dark matter is very difficult. Nonetheless, there have been some scattered successes for alternative hypotheses, such as a 2016 test of gravitational lensing in entropic gravity and a 2020 measurement of a unique MOND effect. The prevailing opinion among most astrophysicists is that while modifications to general relativity can conceivably explain part of the observational evidence, there is probably enough data to conclude there must be some form of dark matter present in the universe. ==Dark matter aggregation and dense dark matter objects== If dark matter is composed of weakly interacting particles, then an obvious question is whether it can form objects equivalent to planets, stars, or black holes. Historically, the answer has been it cannot,{{efn\| "One widely held belief about dark matter is it cannot cool off by radiating energy. If it could, then it might bunch together and create compact objects in the same way baryonic matter forms planets, stars, and galaxies. Observations so far suggest dark matter doesn't do that – it resides only in diffuse halos ... As a result, it is extremely unlikely there are very dense objects like stars made out of entirely (or even mostly) {{nobr\|dark matter." — Buckley & Difranzo (2018) because of two factors: It lacks an efficient means to lose energy Many experiments aim to test this hypothesis. Although WIMPs have been the main search candidates, Another candidate is heavy hidden sector particles which only interact with ordinary matter via gravity. These experiments can be divided into two classes: direct detection experiments, which search for the scattering of dark matter particles off atomic nuclei within a detector; and indirect detection, which look for the products of dark matter particle annihilations or decays. The DAMA/NaI and more recent DAMA/LIBRA experimental collaborations have detected an annual modulation in the rate of events in their detectors, which they claim is due to dark matter. This results from the expectation that as the Earth orbits the Sun, the velocity of the detector relative to the dark matter halo will vary by a small amount. This claim is so far unconfirmed and in contradiction with negative results from other experiments such as LUX, SuperCDMS and XENON100. A special case of direct detection experiments covers those with directional sensitivity. This is a search strategy based on the motion of the Solar System around the Galactic Center. A low-pressure time projection chamber makes it possible to access information on recoiling tracks and constrain WIMP-nucleus kinematics. WIMPs coming from the direction in which the Sun travels (approximately towards Cygnus) may then be separated from background, which should be isotropic. Directional dark matter experiments include DMTPC, DRIFT, Newage and MIMAC. === Indirect detection === Indirect detection experiments search for the products of the self-annihilation or decay of dark matter particles in outer space. For example, in regions of high dark matter density (e.g., the centre of the Milky Way) two dark matter particles could annihilate to produce gamma rays or Standard Model particle–antiparticle pairs. Alternatively, if a dark matter particle is unstable, it could decay into Standard Model (or other) particles. These processes could be detected indirectly through an excess of gamma rays, antiprotons or positrons emanating from high density regions in the Milky Way and other galaxies. A major difficulty inherent in such searches is that various astrophysical sources can mimic the signal expected from dark matter, and so multiple signals are likely required for a conclusive discovery. Such a signal would be strong indirect proof of WIMP dark matter. The detection by LIGO in September 2015 of gravitational waves opens the possibility of observing dark matter in a new way, particularly if it is in the form of primordial black holes. Many experimental searches have been undertaken to look for such emission from dark matter annihilation or decay, examples of which follow. The Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope observed more gamma rays in 2008 than expected from the Milky Way, but scientists concluded this was most likely due to incorrect estimation of the telescope's sensitivity. The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope is searching for similar gamma rays. In 2009, an as yet unexplained surplus of gamma rays from the Milky Way's galactic center was found in Fermi data. This Galactic Center GeV excess might be due to dark matter annihilation or to a population of pulsars. In April 2012, an analysis of previously available data from Fermi's Large Area Telescope instrument produced statistical evidence of a 130 GeV signal in the gamma radiation coming from the center of the Milky Way. WIMP annihilation was seen as the most probable explanation. At higher energies, ground-based gamma-ray telescopes have set limits on the annihilation of dark matter in dwarf spheroidal galaxies and in clusters of galaxies. The PAMELA experiment (launched in 2006) detected excess positrons. They could be from dark matter annihilation or from pulsars. No excess antiprotons were observed. In 2013, results from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station indicated excess high-energy cosmic rays which could be due to dark matter annihilation. === Collider searches for dark matter === An alternative approach to the detection of dark matter particles in nature is to produce them in a laboratory. Experiments with the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) may be able to detect dark matter particles produced in collisions of the LHC proton beams. Because a dark matter particle should have negligible interactions with normal visible matter, it may be detected indirectly as (large amounts of) missing energy and momentum that escape the detectors, provided other (non-negligible) collision products are detected. Constraints on dark matter also exist from the LEP experiment using a similar principle, but probing the interaction of dark matter particles with electrons rather than quarks. Any discovery from collider searches must be corroborated by discoveries in the indirect or direct detection sectors to prove that the particle discovered is, in fact, dark matter. == In popular culture == Dark matter regularly appears as a topic in hybrid periodicals that cover both factual scientific topics and science fiction, and dark matter itself has been referred to as "the stuff of science fiction". Mention of dark matter is made in works of fiction. In such cases, it is usually attributed extraordinary physical or magical properties, thus becoming inconsistent with the hypothesized properties of dark matter in physics and cosmology. For example: Dark matter serves as a plot device in the 1995 X-Files episode "Soft Light". A dark-matter-inspired substance known as "Dust" features prominently in Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials trilogy. Beings made of dark matter are antagonists in Stephen Baxter's Xeelee Sequence. More broadly, the phrase "dark matter" is used metaphorically in fiction to evoke the unseen or invisible. ==Gallery==	[ "PandaX", "hydrogen line", "Jodrell Bank Observatory", "French language", "free streaming", "Nature Astronomy", "Cosmic Evolution Survey", "Henri Poincaré", "particle physics", "Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array", "neutrinos", "WISP (particle physics)", "Cygnus (constellation)", "observable universe", "Jaan Einasto", "dark matter halo", "Kent Ford (astronomer)", "minute and second of arc", "Víctor M. Blanco Telescope", "Sloan Digital Sky Survey", "protogalaxy", "supernovae", "Scientific American", "center of mass", "negative mass", "List of deep fields", "phonon", "Canfranc Underground Laboratory", "Lambda-CDM model", "Astronomy and Astrophysics", "Knut Lundmark", "atomic dark matter", "cosmic microwave background", "weak gravitational lensing", "FRW metric", "Radio telescope", "Galaxy clusters", "f(R) gravity", "GeV", "Scale factor (cosmology)", "Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science", "hidden sector", "cosmic ray", "Friedmann equations", "Structure formation", "Springer Nature", "Hubble constant", "Stephen Baxter (author)", "XENON", "Analog Science Fiction and Fact", "James Webb Space Telescope", "Greater Sudbury", "2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey", "Physics Today", "lightest supersymmetric particle", "ANTARES (telescope)", "Hawking radiation", "DAMA/LIBRA", "proton", "dynamical dark matter", "European Underground Rare Event Calorimeter Array", "Noble gas", "IOP Publishing", "CERN", "Jan Oort", "The New York Times", "cosmic microwave background radiation", "LZ experiment", "Kepler's Third Law", "Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics", "Proton", "IACT", "DarkSide (dark matter experiment)", "NGC 3115", "positron", "Hubble Space Telescope", "planet", "LIGO", "Hubble's law", "Andromeda Galaxy", "Helvetica Physica Acta", "grand unified theory", "Abell 1689", "antiproton", "Soudan mine", "EDELWEISS", "Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov", "supersymmetry", "elementary particle", "cosmology", "atom", "scintillation (physics)", "Modern Physics Letters A", "Astronomy (magazine)", "Lyman series", "gravitational microlensing", "annihilation", "neutron", "Fermi LAT", "David H. Rogstad (astronomer)", "Steven Weinberg", "gravitational lens", "GW150914", "Big Bang nucleosynthesis", "spectral line", "sterile neutrinos", "Cryogenic Dark Matter Search", "gravity", "gamma rays", "gravitational wave", "University of Nottingham", "weak interaction", "astronomical spectroscopy", "The Astrophysical Journal", "xenon", "Yakov Zeldovich", "baryon", "Philip Pullman", "X-ray", "Kavli Foundation (United States)", "mass–energy equivalence", "WMAP", "mixed dark matter", "Nature Physics", "Science (journal)", "mass-to-light ratio", "Planck (spacecraft)", "Physical Review Letters", "spiral galaxy", "Amos Yahil", "Seth Shostak", "NASA", "Macroscopic scale", "axion", "IceCube", "standard model of particle physics", "argon", "electron-volt", "thermal production", "supermassive black hole", "Dark Energy Survey", "Axion Dark Matter Experiment", "His Dark Materials", "velocity", "Planck spacecraft", "cosmological constant", "DEAP", "galaxy cluster", "Boulby Underground Laboratory", "Rochester Institute of Technology", "gravitational collapse", "strangelet", "WIMP Argon Programme", "structure formation", "SNOLAB", "primordial black hole", "Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope", "cosmic expansion", "self-interacting dark matter", "star", "entropic gravity", "Rainer Weiss", "GSFC", "germanium", "BOOMERanG", "Local Group", "Atomic nucleus", "Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics", "SIMPLE (dark matter)", "VLT Survey Telescope", "supernova", "electromagnetic interaction", "Galactic Center", "galactic collision", "Baryonic matter", "Jacobus Kapteyn", "Jeremiah Ostriker", "Andromeda galaxy", "Subatomic particle", "photon", "massive compact halo objects", "electron", "Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society", "missing baryon problem", "Ars Technica", "Dandelion (magazine)", "Galactic Center GeV excess", "The X-Files", "scale factor (cosmology)", "Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope", "dwarf spheroidal galaxy", "Astrophysical Journal", "Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics", "black hole", "tensor–vector–scalar gravity", "abundance of the chemical elements", "Robert N. Whitehurst (astronomer) --- not the Olympic sailor ---", "modified Newtonian dynamics", "Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope", "Luminiferous aether", "Cornell University", "standard candles", "Alternatives to general relativity", "The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review", "Large Hadron Collider", "Peccei–Quinn theory", "macroscopic dark matter", "PICASSO (dark matter)", "Cross section (physics)", "California Institute of Technology", "Astrophysical Journal Supplement", "quasar", "Fritz Zwicky", "William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin", "Xeelee Sequence", "redshift survey", "Jim Peebles", "Dark Matter Time Projection Chamber", "Voyager 1", "Physics Reports", "Density wave theory", "Gran Sasso National Laboratory", "Lick Observatory Bulletin", "hypothesis", "Morton S. Roberts", "general relativity", "galaxy", "Green Bank Observatory", "Forbes (magazine)", "virial theorem", "Princeton, New Jersey", "Gravitational lens", "strong interaction", "electron mass", "Goldstone boson", "gravitational lensing", "dark energy", "strong CP problem", "Nautilus Quarterly", "Ants Kaasik", "black holes", "Swinburne University of Technology", "General Relativity", "large-scale structure of the universe", "Anisotropy", "The Record (Bergen County)", "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope", "spectrograph", "Rijksuniversiteit Groningen", "gamma ray", "Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer", "cold dark matter", "Chemical element", "Vera Rubin", "de Broglie wavelength", "atomic hydrogen", "galaxy rotation curve", "International Space Station", "Large Electron–Positron Collider", "Subaru Telescope", "Lambda-CDM", "New Scientist", "Galaxy formation and evolution", "DAMA/NaI", "21 cm line", "Soft Light (The X-Files)", "weak lensing", "American Physical Society", "Annihilation", "electromagnetic radiation", "neutrino", "pulsar", "weakly interacting massive particle", "electroweak force", "Solar System", "nuclear fusion", "astronomy", "Modified Newtonian dynamics", "Weakly Interacting Massive Particle", "fuzzy cold dark matter", "Reports on Progress in Physics", "light", "Frank Wilczek", "Stawell Underground Physics Laboratory", "weak nuclear force", "matter", "Cryogenic Rare Event Search with Superconducting Thermometers", "dark fluid", "redshift", "keV", "Big Bang", "Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory", "H I region", "subatomic particle", "Large Underground Xenon experiment", "Cosmic Background Explorer", "Directional Recoil Identification From Tracks", "Thomson scattering", "Massive compact halo object", "shell theorem", "quantum chromodynamics", "ArDM", "Coma Cluster", "Horace W. Babcock", "radiation", "China Jinping Underground Laboratory", "inflationary era", "spiral galaxies", "Enn Saar", "Starts With a Bang", "potential well", "stellar black hole", "cosmic inflation", "Milky Way", "parsec", "Stephen Hawking", "time projection chamber", "Light boson", "momentum" ]
8,653	Ducati	Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A () is an Italian motorcycle manufacturing company headquartered in Bologna, Italy. ==History== Barely a month after the official liberation of Italy in 1944, SIATA announced its intention to sell this engine, called the "Cucciolo" (Italian for "puppy," in reference to the distinctive exhaust sound) to the public. The first Cucciolos were available alone, to be mounted on standard bicycles, by the buyer; however, businessmen soon bought the little engines in quantity, and offered complete motorized-bicycle units for sale. In 1950, after more than 200,000 Cucciolos had been sold, in collaboration with SIATA, the Ducati firm offered its own Cucciolo-based motorcycle. This first Ducati motorcycle was a 48 cc bike weighing , with a top speed of , and had a giving just under . Ducati soon dropped the Cucciolo name in favor of "55M" and "65TL". When the market moved toward larger motorcycles, Ducati management decided to respond, making an impression at an early-1952 Milan show, introducing their 65TS cycle and Cruiser (a four-stroke motor scooter). Despite being described as the most interesting new machine at the 1952 show, the Cruiser was not a great success, and only a few thousand were made over a two-year period before the model ceased production. In the 1960s, Ducati earned its place in motorcycling history by producing the fastest 250 cc road bike then available, the Mach 1. In the 1960s and 1970s, Ducati produced a wide range of small two-stroke bikes, mainly sub-100 cc capacities. ==Product history== ===1950s=== ===1960s=== In addition to manufacturing two-wheelers, Ducati also assembled Triumph Heralds for sale in the Italian market in their Borgo Panigale plant beginning in early 1963. ===1970s=== In 1973, Ducati commemorated its 1972 win at the Imola 200 with the production model green frame Ducati 750 SuperSport. Ducati also targeted the offroad market with the two-stroke Regolarità 125, building 3,486 models from 1975 to 1979, but the bike was not successful. In 1975, the company introduced the 860 GT, designed by noted car stylist Giorgetto Giugiaro. Its angular lines were unique, but raised handlebars made for an uncomfortable seating position at high speeds and also caused steering issues. The 860GT's angular styling was a sales disaster, and it was hurriedly re-designed for the 1976 season with a more rounded fuel tank. In 1975 Ducati offered hand-built production racers, the 'square case' 750SS and later 900SS models, built in limited numbers. Sales of the 900SS proved so strong, and sales of the 860GT/GTE/GTS so weak, that production of the 900SS was ramped up, and it became Ducati's #1 selling model. ===1980s=== Ducati's liquid-cooled, multi-valve 90° V-twins, made from 1985 on, are known as Desmoquattro ("desmodromic valve four"). These include the 851, 916 and 996, 999 and a few predecessors and derivatives. The Ducati Paso was introduced in 1986 with the Paso 750, followed in 1989 with the Paso 906. The final version came in 1991 with the 907IE (Iniezione Elettronica), now without the name "Paso". The design was from the hand of Massimo Tamburini, who also designed the Ducati 916 and MV Agusta F4. The Paso was a typical "you love it, you hate it" bike. However, at that time it looked like that all-enclosed bodywork would be the future for all motorcycles. The Paso design was copied for the Moto Morini Dart 400 and Cagiva Freccia 125. Together with Tamburini's Bimota DB1, they were enormously influential in terms of styling. ===1990s=== In 1993, Miguel Angel Galluzzi introduced the Ducati Monster, a naked bike with exposed trellis and engine. Today the Monster accounts for almost half of the company's worldwide sales. The Monster has undergone the most changes of any motorcycle that Ducati has ever produced. In 1993, Pierre Terblanche, Massimo Bordi and Claudio Domenicali designed the Ducati Supermono. A 550 cc single-cylinder lightweight "Catalog Racer". Only 67 were built between 1993 and 1997. In 1994, the company introduced the Ducati 916 model designed by Massimo Tamburini, a water-cooled version that allowed for higher output levels and a striking new bodywork that had aggressive lines, an underseat exhaust, and a single-sided swingarm. Ducati has since ceased production of the 916, supplanting it (and its progeny, the 748, 996 and 998) with the 749 and 999. ===2000s=== In 2006, the retro-styled Ducati PaulSmart 1000 LE was released, which shared styling cues with the 1973 750 SuperSport (itself a production replica of Paul Smart's 1972 race winning 750 Imola Desmo), as one of a SportClassic series representing the 750 GT, 750 Sport, and 750 SuperSport Ducati motorcycles. Monster: 620, 695, 696, 750, 796, 900, S2R, S4R Paul Smart 1000LE and SportClassic variants Monster Monster+ Monster 821 Monster 821 Stealth Monster 1200 Monster 1200 S Multistrada Multistrada 950 Multistrada 950S Multistrada V4 Multistrada V4 S Multistrada V4 S Sport Multistrada 1260 Enduro Diavel Diavel 1260 Diavel 1260 S Diavel 1260 Lamborghini XDiavel XDiavel S XDiavel Black Star Panigale Panigale 899 Panigale 959 Panigale 1199 Panigale 1299 Panigale V2 Panigale V4 Panigale V4 S Panigale V4 SP Panigale V4 R Superleggera V4 Streetfighter Streetfighter V4 Streetfighter V4 S Streetfighter V2 SuperSport SuperSport SuperSport S Hypermotard Hypermotard 950 Hypermotard 950 SP Hypermotard 950 RVE Scrambler Scrambler 1100 Pro Scrambler 1100 Sport Pro Scrambler 1100 Dark Pro Scrambler Nightshift Scrambler Full Throttle Scrambler Café Racer Scrambler Desert Sled Scrambler Icon Scrambler Icon Dark Scrambler Sixty2 ==Product design== Ducati is best known for high-performance motorcycles characterized by large-capacity four-stroke, 90° V-twin engines, with a desmodromic valve design. === Designer === The chief designer of most Ducati motorcycles in the 1950s was Fabio Taglioni (1920–2001). His designs ranged from the small single-cylinder machines that were successful in the Italian 'street races' to the large-capacity twins of the 1980s. Taglioni used the Cavallino Rampante (identified with the Ferrari brand) on his Ducati motorbikes. He chose this emblem of courage and daring as a sign of respect and admiration for Francesco Baracca, a World War I fighter pilot who died during an air raid in 1918. === Engine === Ducati has produced several styles of motorcycle engines, including varying the number of cylinders, type of valve actuation and fuel delivery. Ducati introduced the Pantah in 1979; its engine was updated in the 1990s in the Ducati SuperSport (SS) series. All modern Ducati engines are derivatives of the Pantah, which uses a toothed belt to actuate the engine's valves. Ducati is best known for its 90° V-twin engine, used on nearly all Ducatis since the 1970s. Ducati brands its engine as "L-twin", emphasizing the 90° V angle, to create product differentiation from competing V-twin motorcycles. As one cylinder is vertical while the other is horizontal, it looks like the letter "L" ==== Past variations ==== Ducati has also made other engine types, mostly before the 1970s. Those engines had one, two, three, or four cylinders; operated by pull rod valves and push rod valves; single, double and triple overhead camshafts; two-stroke and even at one stage manufactured small diesel engines, many were used to power boats, generators, garden machinery and emergency pumps (for example, for fire fighting). The engines were the IS series from air-cooled and the larger twin DM series water- and air-cooled. The engines have been found in all parts of the globe. Wisconsin Diesel even assembled and "badge engineered" the engines in the USA. They have also produced outboard motors for marine use. From the 1960s to the 1990s, the Spanish company MotoTrans licensed Ducati engines and produced motorcycles that, although they incorporated subtle differences, were clearly Ducati-derived. MotoTrans's most notable machine was the 250 cc 24 Horas (Spanish for "24 hours"). Currently, Ducati makes no other engines except for its motorcycles. === Desmodromic valve === Ducati is also famous for using the desmodromic valve system championed by engineer and designer Fabio Taglioni, though the firm has also used engines that use valve springs to close their valves. Desmodromic valves are closed with a separate, dedicated cam lobe and lifter instead of the conventional valve springs used in most internal combustion engines in consumer vehicles. This allows the cams to have a more radical profile, thus opening and closing the valves more quickly without the risk of valve-float, which causes a loss of power that is likely when using a "passive" closing mechanism under the same conditions. On current Ducati motors, except for the Desmosedici and 1199 Panigale, the valves are actuated by a standard valve cam shaft which is rotated by a timing belt driven by the motor directly. The teeth on the belt keep the camshaft drive pulleys indexed. ==== Past variants ==== On older Ducati motors, prior to 1986, drive was by solid shaft that transferred to the camshaft through bevel-cut gears. This method of valve actuation was used on many of Ducati's older single-cylinder motorcycles — the shaft tube is visible on the outside of the cylinder. In the early days, Ducati reserved the desmodromic valve heads for its higher performance bikes and its race bikes. These valves do not suffer from valve float at high engine speeds, thus a desmodromic engine is capable of far higher revolutions than a similarly configured engine with traditional spring-valve heads. === Dry clutches === While most other manufacturers use wet clutches (with the spinning parts bathed in oil) Ducati previously used multiplate dry clutches in many of their motorcycles. The dry clutch eliminates the power loss from oil viscosity drag on the engine, even though the engagement may not be as smooth as the oil-bath versions, but the clutch plates can wear more rapidly. Ducati has converted to wet clutches across their current product lines. === Others === Ducati also extensively uses a trellis frame, although Ducati's MotoGP project broke with this tradition by introducing a revolutionary carbon fibre frame for the Ducati Desmosedici GP9. == Marketing == , Ducati was still pursuing the "win on Sunday, sell on Monday" business model and spending 10% of company revenues, , on its racing business. === Enthusiasts groups === A key part of Ducati's marketing strategy since the 1990s has been fostering a distinct community identity in connection with branding efforts including online communities and local, regional, and national Ducati enthusiast clubs. ==== In the USA ==== There are more than 400 Ducati clubs worldwide and 20,000 registered users of the Ducati Owners Club web site and 17,000 subscribers to the racing web site. Enthusiasts and riders are informally referred to in the motorcycling community as Ducatista (singular) or Ducatisti (plural). In North America there are several Ducati enthusiasts organizations with varying degrees of factory sponsorship, such as the Bay Area Desmo Owners Club (BADOC) located in and around the city of San Francisco, CA. Ducati Riders of Illinois (DRILL) located in Chicago, IL. DESMO, the Ducati Enthusiast Sport Motorcycle Organization, is a North American group affiliated with the factory Desmo Owners Club. Some groups are focused on vintage Ducatis while several are based primarily or entirely on email discussion lists or web forums. === Merchandising === Ducati has a wide range of accessories, lifestyle products and co-branded merchandise bearing their logos and designs. The company has a licensing agreement with Tumi Inc., launching a collection of eight co-branded luggage pieces in 2006, sold through both of the brands' retail outlets. ==Racing== Ducati has rejoined Grand Prix motorcycle racing in , after a 30-year absence. On 23 September 2007, Casey Stoner clinched his and Ducati's first Grand Prix World Championship. And 15 years later, Bagnaia became the Italian manufacturer's second-ever MotoGP champion. Nine-time world champion Valentino Rossi rode for Ducati Corse for and . Aside from MotoGP, Ducati has also deployed teams in various motorcycle racing competitions.	[ "Massimo Tamburini", "Ducati Scrambler (2015)", "two-stroke", "Ducati 748", "product differentiation", "Cubic centimetre", "carburetor", "Tumi Inc.", "Subsidiary", "Paul Smart (motorcycle racer)", "Ducati 848", "dry clutch", "Ducati 1098", "V engine", "Ducati SuperSport", "ProQuest", "Ducati 998", "four-stroke engine", "Motorcycle", "luggage", "CEO", "Ducati PaulSmart 1000 LE", "Francesco Bagnaia", "Miguel Angel Galluzzi", "Lamborghini", "Ducati Corse", "Ducati 1198", "wet clutch", "Ferrari", "Triumph Herald", "Ducati Pantah", "MotoTrans", "Ducati Desmosedici RR", "Ducati Monster", "it:Moto Morini Dart", "Claudio Domenicali", "it:Cagiva Freccia", "Ducati 749", "Ducati Mach 1", "Bologna", "Ducati 916", "Ducati ST4s", "Pierre Terblanche", "Ducati ST2", "Ducati 750 Imola Desmo", "V-twin engine", "single-cylinder", "Euro", "Ducati Desmosedici", "motorcycle racing", "Francesco Baracca", "List of Italian companies", "Grand Prix motorcycle racing", "spring (device)", "camshaft", "Giorgetto Giugiaro", "Ducati 750SS", "motor scooter", "Ducati Streetfighter", "MV Agusta F4 series", "desmodromic valve", "Ducati 996", "Space frame", "Fabio Taglioni", "Ducati Cucciolo", "Business Week", "Ducati 860 GT", "Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari", "Valentino Rossi", "Ducati Panigale V4", "Ducati SportClassic", "timing belt (camshaft)", "Ducati 999", "Ducati Diavel", "valve float", "Ducati Hypermotard", "List of motorcycle manufacturers", "Ducati Supermono", "Ducati Multistrada", "Ducati ST3", "Financial Times", "The New York Times", "Bimota DB1", "Casey Stoner", "General OneFile" ]
8,654	Data General Nova	The Nova is a series of 16-bit minicomputers released by the American company Data General. The Nova family was very popular in the 1970s and ultimately sold tens of thousands of units. The first model, known simply as "Nova", was released in 1969. The Nova was packaged into a single 3U rack-mount case and had enough computing power to handle most simple tasks. The Nova became popular in science laboratories around the world. It was followed the next year by the SuperNOVA, which ran roughly four times as fast, making it the fastest mini for several years. Introduced during a period of rapid progress in integrated circuit (or "microchip") design, the line went through several upgrades over the next five years, introducing the 800 and 1200, the Nova 2, Nova 3, and ultimately the Nova 4. A single-chip implementation was also introduced as the microNOVA in 1977, but did not see widespread use as the market moved to new microprocessor designs. Fairchild Semiconductor also introduced a microprocessor version of the Nova in 1977, the Fairchild 9440, but it also saw limited use in the market. The Nova line was succeeded by the Data General Eclipse, which was similar in most ways but added virtual memory support and other features required by modern operating systems. A 32-bit upgrade of the Eclipse resulted in the Eclipse MV series of the 1980s. ==History== ===Edson de Castro and the PDP-X=== Edson de Castro was the Product Manager of the pioneering Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-8, a 12-bit computer widely referred to as the first true minicomputer. He also led the design of the upgraded PDP-8/I, which used early integrated circuits in place of individual transistors. During the PDP-8/I process, de Castro had been visiting circuit board manufacturers who were making rapid advances in the complexity of the boards they could assemble. de Castro concluded that the 8/I could be produced using fully automated assembly on large boards, which would have been impossible only a year earlier. Others within DEC had become used to the smaller boards used in earlier machines and were concerned about tracking down problems when there were many components on a single board. For the 8/I, the decision was made to stay with small boards, using the new "flip-chip" packaging for a modest improvement in density. During the period when the PDP-8 was being developed, the introduction of ASCII and its major update in 1967 led to a new generation of designs with word lengths that were multiples of 8 bits rather than multiples of 6 bits as in most previous designs. This led to mid-range designs working at 16-bit word lengths instead of DEC's current 12- and 18-bit lineups. de Castro was convinced that it was possible to improve upon the PDP-8 by building a 16-bit minicomputer CPU on a single 15-inch square board. In 1967, de Castro began a new design effort known as "PDP-X" which included several advanced features. Among these was a single underlying design that could be used to build 8-, 16-, and 32-bit platforms. This progressed to the point of producing several detailed architecture documents. Ken Olsen was not supportive of this project, feeling it did not offer sufficient advantages over the 12-bit PDP-8 and the 18-bit PDP-9. It was eventually canceled in the spring of 1968. ===Design=== Cancelation of the PDP-X prompted de Castro to consider leaving DEC to build a system on his own. He was not alone; in late 1967 a group of like-minded engineers formed to consider such a machine. The group included Pat Green, a divisional manager; Richard Sogge, another hardware engineer; and Henry Burkhardt III, a software engineer. In contrast to the PDP-X, the new effort focused on a single machine that could be brought to market quickly, as de Castro felt the PDP-X concept was far too ambitious for a small startup company. Discussing it with the others at DEC, the initial concept led to an 8-bit machine which would be less costly to implement. The group began talking with Herbert Richman, a salesman for Fairchild Semiconductor who knew the others through his contacts with DEC. At the time, Fairchild was battling with Texas Instruments and Signetics in the rapidly growing TTL market and were introducing new fabs that allowed more complex designs. Fairchild's latest 9300 series allowed up to 96 gates per chip, and they had used this to implement a number of 4-bit chips like binary counters and shift registers. Using these ICs reduced the total IC count needed to implement a complete arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the core mathematical component of a CPU, allowing the expansion from an 8-bit design to 16-bit. This did require the expansion of the CPU from a single printed circuit board to two, but such a design would still be significantly cheaper to produce than the PDP-8/I while still being more powerful and ASCII-based. A third board held the input/output circuitry and a complete system typically included another board with 4 kB of random-access memory. A complete four-card system fit in a single rackmount chassis. The boards were designed so they could be connected together using a printed circuit backplane, with minimal manual wiring, allowing all the boards to be built in an automated fashion. This greatly reduced costs over the PDP-8/I, which consisted of many smaller boards that had to be wired together at the backplane, which was itself connected together using wire wrap. The larger-board construction also made the Nova more reliable, which made it especially attractive for industrial or lab settings. The new design used a simple load–store architecture which would reemerge in the RISC designs in the 1980s. Because the complexity of a flip-flop was being rapidly reduced as they were implemented in chips, the design offset the lack of addressing modes of the load–store design by adding four general-purpose accumulators, instead of the single register that would be found in similar low-cost offerings like the PDP series. ===Introduction=== Late in 1967, Richman introduced the group to New York-based lawyer Fred Adler, who began canvassing various funding sources for seed capital. By 1968, Adler had arranged a major funding deal with a consortium of venture capital funds from the Boston area, who agreed to provide an initial investment with a second available for production ramp-up. de Castro, Burkhart and Sogge quit DEC and started Data General (DG) on 15 April 1968. Green did not join them, considering the venture too risky, and Richman did not join until the product was up and running later in the year. Work on the first system took about nine months, and the first sales efforts started that November. They had a bit of luck because the Fall Joint Computer Conference had been delayed until December that year, so they were able to bring a working unit to San Francisco where they ran a version of Spacewar!. DG officially released the Nova in 1969 at a base price of , advertising it as "the best small computer in the world." The basic model was not very useful out of the box, and adding () RAM in the form of core memory typically brought the price up to . The first sale was to a university in Texas, with the team hand-building an example which shipped out in February. However, this was in the midst of a strike in the airline industry and the machine never arrived. They sent a second example, which arrived promptly as the strike had ended by that point, and in May the original one was finally delivered as well. The system was successful from the start, with the 100th being sold after six months, Sales accelerated as newer versions were introduced, and by 1975 the company had annual sales of . ===SuperNOVA=== Ken Olsen had publicly predicted that DG would fail, but with the release of the Nova it was clear that was not going to happen. By this time, a number of other companies were talking about introducing 16-bit designs as well. Olsen decided these presented a threat to their 18-bit line as well as 12-bit, and began a new 16-bit design effort. This emerged in 1970 as the PDP-11, a much more complex design that was as different from the PDP-X as the Nova was. The two designs competed heavily in the market. Rumors of the new system from DEC reached DG shortly after the Nova began shipping. In spring 1970 they hired a new designer, Larry Seligman, to leapfrog any possible machine in the making. Two major changes had taken place since the Nova was designed; one was that Signetics had introduced the 8260, a 4-bit IC that combined an adder, XNOR and AND, meaning the number of chips needed to implement the basic logic was reduced by about three times. Another was that Intel was aggressively talking up semiconductor-based memories, promising 1024 bits on a single chip and running at much higher speeds than core memory. Seligman's new design took advantage of both of these improvements. To start, the new ICs allowed the ALU to be expanded to full 16-bit width on the same two cards, allowing it to carry out math and logic operations in a single cycle and thereby making the new design four times as fast as the original. In addition, new smaller core memory was used that improved the cycle time from the original's 1,200 ns to 800 ns, offering a further improvement. Performance could be further improved by replacing the core with read-only memory; lacking core's read–write cycle, this could be accessed in 300 ns for a dramatic performance boost. The resulting machine, known as the SuperNOVA, was released in 1970. Although the initial models still used core, the entire design was based on the premise that faster semiconductor memories would become available and the platform could make full use of them. This was introduced later the same year as the SuperNOVA SC, featuring semiconductor (SC) memory. The much higher performance memory allowed the CPU, which was synchronous with memory, to be further increased in speed to run at a 300 ns cycle time (3.3 MHz). This made it the fastest available minicomputer for many years. Initially the new memory was also very expensive and ran hot, so it was not widely used. ===1200 and 800=== As a demonstration of the power of their Micromatrix gate array technology, in 1968 Fairchild prototyped the 4711, a single-chip 4-bit ALU. There were three different versions of the Nova 4, the Nova 4/C, the Nova 4/S and the Nova 4/X. The Nova 4/C was a single-board implementation that included all of the memory (16 or 32 kwords). The Nova 4/S and 4/X used separate memory boards. The Nova 4/X had the on-board memory management unit (MMU) enabled to allow up to 128 kwords of memory to be used. The MMU was also installed in the Nova 4/S, but was disabled by firmware. Both the 4/S and the 4/X included a "prefetcher" to increase performance by fetching up to 11 instructions from memory before they were needed. The first chip in the series was the mN601, of 1977. This was sold both as a CPU for other users, a complete chipset for those wanting to implement a computer, a complete computer on a single board with 4 kB of RAM, and as a complete low-end model of the Nova. ===Legacy=== The Nova influenced the design of both the Xerox Alto (1973) and Apple I (1976) computers, and its architecture was the basis for the Computervision CGP (Computervision Graphics Processor) series. Its external design has been reported to be the direct inspiration for the front panel of the MITS Altair (1975) microcomputer. Data General followed up on the success of the original Nova with a series of faster designs. The Eclipse family of systems was later introduced with an extended upwardly compatible instruction set, and the MV-series further extended the Eclipse into a 32-bit architecture to compete with the DEC VAX. The development of the MV-series was documented in Tracy Kidder's popular 1981 book, The Soul of a New Machine. Data General itself would later evolve into a vendor of Intel processor-based servers and storage arrays, eventually being purchased by EMC. There is a diverse but ardent group of people worldwide who restore and preserve original 16-bit Data General systems. ==Technical description== ===Processor design=== \|} The Nova, unlike the PDP-8, was a load–store architecture. It had four 16-bit accumulator registers, two of which (2 and 3) could be used as index registers. There was a 15-bit program counter and a single-bit carry register. As with the PDP-8, current + zero page addressing was central. There was no stack register, but later Eclipse designs would utilize a dedicated hardware memory address for this function. The earliest models of the Nova processed math serially in 4-bit packets, using a single 74181 bitslice ALU. A year after its introduction, this design was improved to include a full 16-bit parallel math unit using four 74181s, this design being referred to as the SuperNova. Future versions of the system added a stack unit and hardware multiply/divide. The Nova 4 / Eclipse S/140 was based on four AMD 2901 bit-slice ALUs, with microcode in read-only memory, and was the first Nova designed for DRAM main memory only, without provision for magnetic-core memory. ===Memory and I/O=== The smallest unit of addressable and writable memory is the 16-bit word; byte addressing is not supported. The first models were available with 8 K words of magnetic-core memory as an option, one that practically everyone had to buy, bringing the system cost up to $7,995. This core memory board was organized in planar fashion as four groups of four banks, each bank carrying two sets of core in a 64 by 64 matrix; thus there were 64 x 64 = 4096 bits per set, x 2 sets giving 8,192 bits, x 4 banks giving 32,768 bits, x 4 groups giving a total of 131,072 bits, and this divided by the machine word size of 16 bits gave 8,192 words of memory. The core on this 8K word memory board occupied a centrally located "board-on-a-board", 5.25" wide by 6.125" high, and was covered by a protective plate. It was surrounded by the necessary support driver read-write-rewrite circuitry. All of the core and the corresponding support electronics fit onto a single standard 15 x board. Up to 32K of such core RAM could be supported in one external expansion box. Semiconductor ROM was already available at the time, and RAM-less systems (i.e. with ROM only) became popular in many industrial settings. The original Nova machines ran at approximately 200 kHz, but its SuperNova was designed to run at up to 3 MHz when used with special semiconductor main memory. The standardized backplane and I/O signals created a simple, efficient I/O design that made interfacing programmed I/O and Data Channel devices to the Nova simple compared to competing machines. In addition to its dedicated I/O bus structure, the Nova backplane had wire wrap pins that could be used for non-standard connectors or other special purposes. ===Programming model=== The instruction format could be broadly categorized into one of three functions: 1) register-to-register manipulation, 2) memory reference, and 3) input/output. Each instruction was contained in one word. The register-to-register manipulation was almost RISC-like in its bit-efficiency; and an instruction that manipulated register data could also perform tests, shifts and even elect to discard the result. Hardware options included an integer multiply and divide unit, a floating-point unit (single and double precision), and memory management. The earliest Nova came with a BASIC interpreter on punched tape. As the product grew, Data General developed many languages for the Nova computers, running under a range of consistent operating systems. FORTRAN IV, ALGOL, Extended BASIC, Data General Business Basic, Interactive COBOL, and several assemblers were available from Data General. Third-party vendors and the user community expanded the offerings with Forth, Lisp, BCPL, C, ALGOL, and other proprietary versions of COBOL and BASIC. ===Instruction set=== The machine instructions implemented below are the common set implemented by all of the Nova series processors. Specific models often implemented additional instructions, and some instructions were provided by optional hardware. ====Arithmetic instructions==== All arithmetic instructions operated between accumulators. For operations requiring two operands, one was taken from the source accumulator, and one from the destination accumulator, and the result was deposited in the destination accumulator. For single-operand operations, the operand was taken from the source register and the result replaced the destination register. For all single-operand opcodes, it was permissible for the source and destination accumulators to be the same, and the operation functioned as expected. All arithmetic instructions included a "no-load" bit which, when set, suppressed the transfer of the result to the destination register; this was used in conjunction with the test options to perform a test without losing the existing contents of the destination register. In assembly language, adding a '#' to the opcode set the no-load bit. The CPU contained a single-bit register called the carry bit, which after an arithmetic operation would contain the carry out of the most significant bit. The carry bit could be set to a desired value prior to performing the operation using a two-bit field in the instruction. The bit could be set, cleared, or complemented prior to performing the instruction. In assembly language, these options were specified by adding a letter to the opcode: 'O' — set the carry bit; 'Z' — clear the carry bit, 'C' — complement the carry bit, nothing — leave the carry bit alone. If the no-load bit was also specified, the specified carry value would be used for the computation, but the actual carry register would remain unaltered. All arithmetic instructions included a two-bit field which could be used to specify a shift option, which would be applied to the result before it was loaded into the destination register. A single-bit left or right shift could be specified, or the two bytes of the result could be swapped. Shifts were 17-bit circular, with the carry bit "to the left" of the most significant bit. In other words, when a left shift was performed, the most significant bit of the result was shifted into the carry bit, and the previous contents of the carry bit were shifted into the least significant bit of the result. Byte swaps did not affect the carry bit. In assembly language, these options were specified by adding a letter to the opcode: 'L' — shift left; 'R' — shift right, 'S' — swap bytes; nothing — do not perform a shift or swap. All arithmetic instructions included a three-bit field that could specify a test which was to be applied to the result of the operation. If the test evaluated to true, the next instruction in line was skipped. In assembly language, the test option was specified as a third operand to the instruction. The available tests were: — skip on zero result — skip on nonzero result — skip on zero carry — skip on nonzero carry — skip if both carry and result are nonzero — skip if either carry or result, or both, is zero — always skip Nothing — never skip The actual arithmetic instructions were: — move the contents of the source accumulator to the destination accumulator — move the bitwise complement of the source accumulator to the destination accumulator — add source accumulator to destination accumulator — take the bitwise complement of the source accumulator and add it to the destination accumulator — move the negative of the source accumulator to the destination accumulator — subtract the contents source accumulator from the destination accumulator — add 1 to the contents of the source accumulator and move to the destination accumulator — perform the bitwise AND of the two accumulators and place the result in the destination accumulator An example arithmetic instructions, with all options utilized, is: This decoded as: clear the carry bit; add the contents of AC2 (accumulator 2) to AC0; circularly shift the result one bit to the right; test the result to see if the carry bit is set and skip the next instruction if so. Discard the result after performing the test. In effect, this adds two numbers and tests to see if the result is odd or even. ====Memory reference instructions==== The Nova instruction set contained a pair of instructions that transferred memory contents to accumulators and vice versa, two transfer-of-control instructions, and two instructions that tested the contents of a memory location. All memory reference instructions contained an eight-bit address field, and a two-bit field that specified the mode of memory addressing. The four modes were: Mode 0 — absolute addressing. The contents of the address field of the instruction is zero-filled on the left and used as the target address. Mode 1 — relative addressing. The contents of the address field of the instruction is sign extended to the left and added to the current value of the program counter (which, by the time the instruction executes, points to the next instruction). The result is used as the target address. Mode 2 — indexed addressing. The contents of the address field of the instruction is sign extended to the left and added to the current value of accumulator 2. The result is used as the target address. Mode 3 — indexed addressing. The contents of the address field of the instruction is sign extended to the left and added to the current value of accumulator 3. The result is used as the target address. Obviously, mode 0 was only capable of addressing the first 256 memory words, given the eight-bit address field. This portion of memory was referred to as "page zero". Page zero memory words were considered precious to Nova assembly language programmers because of the small number available; only page zero locations could be addressed from anywhere in the program without resorting to indexed addressing, which required tying up accumulator 2 or 3 to use as an index register. In assembly language, a ".ZREL" directive caused the assembler to place the instructions and data words that followed it in page zero; an ".NREL" directive placed the following instructions and data words in "normal" memory. Later Nova models added instructions with extended addressing fields, which overcame this difficulty (at a performance penalty). The assembler computed relative offsets for mode 1 automatically, although it was also possible to write it explicitly in the source. If a memory reference instruction referenced a memory address in .NREL space but no mode specifier, mode 1 was assumed and the assembler calculated the offset between the current instruction and the referenced location, and placed this in the instruction's address field (provided that the resulting value fit into the 8-bit field). The two load and store instructions were: — load the contents of a memory location into the specified accumulator. — store the contents of the specified accumulator into a memory location. Both of these instructions included an "indirect" bit. If this bit was set (done in assembly language by adding a '@' to the opcode), the contents of the target address were assumed to be a memory address itself, and that address would be referenced to do the load or store. The two transfer-of-control instructions were: — transfers control to the specified memory location ("jump subroutine") — Does the same as the JMP instruction, but additionally loads the return address (the instruction following the JSR instruction in line) into accumulator 3 before jumping. As in the case of the load and store instructions, the jump instructions contained an indirect bit, which likewise was specified in assembly using the '@' character. In the case of an indirect jump, the processor retrieved the contents of the target location, and used the value as the memory address to jump to. However, unlike the load and store instructions, if the indirect address had the most significant bit set, it would perform a further cycle of indirection. On the Nova series processors prior to the Nova 3, there was no limit on the number of indirection cycles; an indirect address that referenced itself would result in an infinite indirect addressing loop, with the instruction never completing. (This could be alarming to users, since when in this condition, pressing the STOP switch on the front panel did nothing. It was necessary to reset the machine to break the loop.) The two memory test instructions were: — increment the memory location, and skip the next instruction if the result is zero. — decrement the memory location, and skip the next instruction if the result is zero. As in the case of the load and store instructions, there was an indirect bit that would perform a single level of indirect addressing. These instructions were odd in that, on the Novas with magnetic core memory, the instruction was executed within the memory board itself. As was common at the time, the memory boards contained a "write-back" circuit to solve the destructive-read problem inherent to magnetic core memory. But the write-back mechanism also contained a mini arithmetic unit, which the processor used for several purposes. For the ISZ and DSZ instructions, the increment or decrement occurred between the memory location being read and the write-back; the CPU simply waited to be told if the result was zero or nonzero. These instructions were useful because they allowed a memory location to be used as a loop counter without tying up an accumulator, but they were slower than performing the equivalent arithmetic instructions. Some examples of memory reference instructions: Transfers the contents of the memory location labeled COUNT into accumulator 1. Assuming that COUNT is in .NREL space, this instruction is equivalent to: LDA 1,1,(COUNT-(.+1)) where '.' represents the location of the LDA instruction. Jump indirect to the memory address specified by the contents of location 17, in page zero space, and deposit the return address in accumulator 3. This was the standard method for making an RDOS system call on early Nova models; the assembly language mnemonic ".SYSTM" translated to this. Jump to the memory location whose address is contained in accumulator 3. This was a common means of returning from a function or subroutine call, since the JSR instruction left the return address in accumulator 3. Store the contents of accumulator 0 in the location that is one less than the address contained in accumulator 3. Decrement the value in the location labeled COUNT, and skip the next instruction if the result is zero. As in the case above, if COUNT is assumed to be in .NREL space, this is equivalent to: DSZ 1,(COUNT-(.+1)) ====I/O Instructions==== The Novas implemented a channelized model for interfacing to I/O devices. In the model, each I/O device was expected to implement two flags, referred to as "Busy" and "Done", and three data and control registers, referred to as A, B, and C. I/O instructions were available to read and write the registers, and to send one of three signals to the device, referred to as "start", "clear", and "pulse". In general, sending a start signal initiated an I/O operation that had been set up by loading values into the A/B/C registers. The clear signal halted an I/O operation and cleared any resulting interrupt. The pulse signal was used to initiate ancillary operations on complex subsystems, such as seek operations on disk drives. Polled devices usually moved data directly between the device and the A register. DMA devices generally used the A register to specify the memory address, the B register to specify the number of words to be transferred, and the C register for control flags. Channel 63 referred to the CPU itself and was used for various special functions. Each I/O instruction contained a six-bit channel number field, a four-bit to specify which register to read or write, and a two-bit field to specify which signal was to be sent. In assembly language, the signal was specified by adding a letter to the opcode: 'S' for start, 'C' for clear, 'P' for pulse, and nothing for no signal. The opcodes were: — move the contents of the device's A register to the specified accumulator — send the contents of the specified accumulator to the A register of the device on the specified channel — move the contents of the device's B register to the specified accumulator — send the contents of the specified accumulator to the B register of the device on the specified channel — move the contents of the device's C register to the specified accumulator — send the contents of the specified accumulator to the C register of the device on the specified channel — "no I/O", a misnomer. The instruction was used to send a signal to a device without doing a register transfer. In addition, four instructions were available to test the status of a device: — skip the next instruction if the device's busy flag is set — skip the next instruction if the device's busy flag is clear — skip the next instruction if the device's done flag is set — skip the next instruction if the device's done flag is clear Starting a device caused it to set its busy flag. When the requested operation was completed, conventionally the device cleared its busy flag and set its done flag; most devices had their interrupt request mechanism wired to the done flag, so setting the done flag caused an interrupt (if interrupts were enabled and the device wasn't masked). ====Special Instructions==== These instructions performed various CPU control and status functions. All of them were actually shorthand mnemonics for I/O instructions on channel 63, the CPU's self-referential I/O channel. — interrupt acknowledge. Transferred the channel number of the interrupting device to the specified accumulator. — disabled all interrupts — enabled all interrupts — I/O reset. Sent a reset signal on the I/O bus, which stopped all I/O, disabled interrupts and cleared all pending interrupts. — mask out. Used the contents of the specified accumulator to set up the interrupt mask. How the mask was interpreted was up to the implementation of each I/O device. Some devices could not be masked. — transferred the contents of the 16 front panel data switches to the specified accumulator. — stopped the CPU. Once halted, the CPU could be made to start again only by manual intervention at the front panel. ===Interrupts and interrupt handling=== From the hardware standpoint, the interrupt mechanism was relatively simple, but also less flexible, than current CPU architectures. The backplane supported a single interrupt request line, which all devices capable of interrupting connected to. When a device needed to request an interrupt, it raised this line. The CPU took the interrupt as soon as it completed the current instruction. As stated above, a device was expected to raise its "done" I/O flag when it requested an interrupt, and the convention was that the device would clear its interrupt request when the CPU executed a I/O clear instruction on the device's channel number. The CPU expected the operating system to place the address of its interrupt service routine into memory address 1. When a device interrupted, the CPU did an indirect jump through address 1, placing the return address into memory address 0, and disabling further interrupts. The interrupt handler would then perform an INTA instruction to discover the channel number of the interrupting device. This worked by raising an "acknowledge" signal on the backplane. The acknowledge signal was wired in a daisy-chain format across the backplane, such that it looped through each board on the bus. Any device requesting an interrupt was expected to block the further propagation of the acknowledge signal down the bus, so that if two or more devices had pending interrupts simultaneously, only the first one would see the acknowledge signal. That device then responded by placing its channel number on the data lines on the bus. This meant that, in the case of simultaneous interrupt requests, the device that had priority was determined by which one was physically closest to the CPU in the card cage. The operating system's interrupt service routine then typically performed an indexed jump using the received channel number, to jump to the specific interrupt handling routine for the device. There were a few devices, notably the CPU's power-failure detection circuit, which did not respond to the INTA instruction. If the INTA returned a result of zero, the interrupt service routine had to poll all of the non-INTA-responding devices using the SKPDZ/SKPDN instructions to see which one interrupted. After the interrupt had been processed and the service routine had sent the device an I/O clear, it resumed normal processing by enabling interrupts and then returning via an indirect jump through memory address 0. In order to prevent a pending interrupt from interrupting immediately before the return jump (which would cause the return address to be overwritten), the INTEN instruction had a one-instruction-cycle delay. When INTEN was executed, interrupts would not be enabled until after the following instruction was executed, which was expected to be the JMP@ 0 instruction. The operating system could somewhat manage the ordering of interrupts by setting an interrupt mask using the MSKO instruction. This was intended to allow the operating system to determine which devices were permitted to interrupt at a given time. When this instruction was issued, a 16-bit interrupt mask was transmitted to all devices on the backplane. It was up to the device to decide what the mask actually meant to it; by convention, a device that was masked out was not supposed to raise the interrupt line, but the CPU had no means of enforcing this. Most devices that were maskable allowed the mask bit to be selected via a jumper on the board. There were devices that ignored the mask altogether. On the systems having magnetic core memory (which retained its contents without power), recovery from a power failure was possible. A power failure detection circuit in the CPU issued an interrupt when loss of the main power coming into the computer was detected; from this point, the CPU had a short amount of time until a capacitor in the power supply lost its charge and the power to the CPU failed. This was enough time to stop I/O in progress, by issuing an IORST instruction, and then save the contents of the four accumulators and the carry bit to memory. When the power returned, if the CPU's front panel key switch was in the LOCK position, the CPU would start and perform an indirect jump through memory address 2. This was expected to be the address of an operating system service routine that would reload the accumulators and carry bit, and then resume normal processing. It was up to the service routine to figure out how to restart I/O operations that were aborted by the power failure. ===Front panel layout=== As was the convention of the day, most Nova models provided a front panel console to control and monitor CPU functions. Models prior to the Nova 3 all relied on a canonical front panel layout, as shown in the Nova 840 panel photo to the right. The layout contained a keyed power switch, two rows of address and data display lamps, a row of data entry switches, and a row of function switches that activated various CPU functions when pressed. The address lamps always displayed the current value of the program counter, in binary. The data lamps displayed various values depending on which CPU function was active at the moment. To the left of the leftmost data lamp, an additional lamp displayed the current value of the carry bit. On most models the lamps were incandescent lamps which were soldered to the panel board; replacing burned-out lamps was a bane of existence for Data General field service engineers. Each of the data switches controlled the value of one bit in a 16-bit value, and per Data General convention, they were numbered 0-15 from left to right. The data switches provided input to the CPU for various functions, and could also be read by a running program using the READS assembly language instruction. To reduce panel clutter and save money, the function switches were implemented as two-way momentary switches. When a function switch lever was lifted, it triggered the function whose name was printed above the switch on the panel; when the lever was pressed down, it activated the function whose name appeared below the switch. The switch lever returned to a neutral position when released. Referencing the Nova 840 photo, the first four switches from the left performed the EXAMINE and DEPOSIT functions for the four accumulators. Pressing EXAMINE on one of these caused the current value of the accumulator to be displayed in binary by the data lamps. Pressing DEPOSIT transferred the binary value represented by the current settings of the data switches to the accumulator. Going to the right, the next switch was the RESET/STOP switch. Pressing STOP caused the CPU to halt after completing the current instruction. Pressing RESET caused the CPU to halt immediately, cleared a number of CPU internal registers, and sent an I/O reset signal to all connected devices. The switch to the right of that was the START/CONTINUE switch. Pressing CONTINUE caused the CPU to resume executing at the instruction currently pointed at by the program counter. Pressing START transferred the value currently set in data switches 1–15 to the program counter, and then began executing from there. The next two switches provided read and write access to memory from the front panel. Pressing EXAMINE transferred the value set in data switches 1–15 to the program counter, fetched the value in the corresponding memory location, and displayed its value in the data lamps. Pressing EXAMINE NEXT incremented the program counter and then performed an examine operation on that memory location, allowing the user to step through a series of memory locations. Pressing DEPOSIT wrote the value contained in the data switches to the memory location pointed at by the program counter. Pressing DEPOSIT NEXT first incremented the program counter and then deposited to the pointed-to memory location. The INST STEP function caused the CPU to execute one instruction, at the current program counter location, and then halt. Since the program counter would be incremented as part of the instruction execution, this allowed the user to single-step through a program. MEMORY STEP, a misnomer, caused the CPU to run through a single clock cycle and halt. This was of little use to users and was generally only used by field service personnel for diagnostics. PROGRAM LOAD was the mechanism usually used to boot a Nova. When this switch was triggered, it caused the 32-word boot ROM to be mapped over the first 32 words of memory, set the program counter to 0, and started the CPU. The boot ROM contained code that would read 256 words (512 bytes) of code from a selected I/O device into memory and then transfer control to the read-in code. The data switches 8-15 were used to tell the boot ROM which I/O channel to boot from. If switch 0 was off, the boot ROM would assume the device was a polled device (e.g., the paper tape reader) and run a polled input loop until 512 bytes had been read. If switch 0 was on, the boot ROM assumed the device was a DMA-capable device and it initiated a DMA data transfer. The boot ROM was not smart enough to position the device prior to initiating the transfer. This was a problem when rebooting after a crash; if the boot device was a disk drive, its heads had likely been left on a random cylinder. They had to be repositioned to cylinder 0, where RDOS wrote the first-level boot block, in order for the boot sequence to work. Conventionally this was done by cycling the drive through its load sequence, but users who got frustrated with the wait time (up to 5 minutes depending on the drive model) learned how to input from the front panel a drive "recalibrate" I/O code and single-step the CPU through it, an operation that took an experienced user only a few seconds. The power switch was a 3-way keyed switch with positions marked OFF, ON, and LOCK. In the OFF position all power was removed from the CPU. Turning the key to ON applied power to the CPU. However, unlike current CPUs, the CPU did not start automatically when power was applied; the user had to use PROGRAM LOAD or some other method to start the CPU and initiate the boot sequence. Turning the switch to LOCK disabled the front panel function switches; by turning the switch to LOCK and removing the key, the user could render the CPU resistant to tampering. On systems with magnetic core memory, the LOCK position also enabled the auto power failure recovery function. The key could be removed in the OFF or LOCK positions. ===Performance=== The Nova 1200 executed core memory access instructions (LDA and STA) in 2.55 microseconds (μs). Use of read-only memory saved 0.4 μs. Accumulator instructions (ADD, SUB, COM, NEG, etc.) took 1.55 μs, MUL 2.55 μs, DIV 3.75 μs, ISZ 3.15-4.5 μs. On the later Eclipse MV/6000, LDA and STA took 0.44 μs, ADD, etc. took 0.33 μs, MUL 2.2 μs, DIV 3.19 μs, ISZ 1.32 μs, FAD 5.17 μs, FMMD 11.66 μs. ==Assembly language examples== ===Hello world program=== This is a minimal programming example in Nova assembly language. It is designed to run under RDOS and prints the string “Hello, world.” on the console. a "hello, world" program for Nova running RDOS uses PCHAR system call .titl hello .nrel .ent start start: dochar: lda 0,@pmsg ; load ac0 with next character, mov# 0,0,snr ; test ac0; skip if nonzero (don't load result) jmp done .systm .pchar ; print first jmp er ; skipped if OK movs 0,0 ; swap bytes .systm .pchar ; print second jmp er ; skipped if OK isz pmsg ; point to next character jmp dochar ; go around again done: .systm ; normal exit .rtn er: .systm ; error exit .ertn halt pmsg: .+1 ; pointer to first character of string note bytes are packed right-to-left by default denotes a CR LF pair. .txt /Hello, world./ 0 ; flag word to end string .end start ===16-bit multiplication=== Basic models of the Nova came without built-in hardware multiply and divide capability, to keep prices competitive. The following routine multiplies two 16-bit words to produce a 16-bit word result (overflow is ignored). It demonstrates combined use of ALU op, shift, and test (skip). Note that when this routine is called by jsr, AC3 holds the return address. This is used by the return instruction jmp 0,3. An idiomatic way to clear an accumulator is sub 0,0. Other single instructions can be arranged to load a specific set of useful constants (e.g. -2, -1, or +1). mpy: ; multiply AC0 <- AC1 * AC2, by Toby Thain sub 0,0 ; clear result mbit: movzr 1,1,szc ; shift multiplier, test lsb add 2,0 ; 1: add multiplicand movzl 2,2,szr ; shift and test for zero jmp mbit ; not zero, do another bit jmp 0,3 ; return ===Binary print accumulator=== The following routine prints the value of AC1 as a 16-digit binary number, on the RDOS console. It reveals further quirks of the Nova instruction set. For instance, there is no instruction to load an arbitrary "immediate" value into an accumulator (although memory reference instructions do encode such a value to form an effective address). Accumulators must generally be loaded from initialized memory locations (e.g. n16). Other contemporary machines such as the PDP-11, and practically all modern architectures, allow for immediate loads, although many such as ARM restrict the range of values that can be loaded immediately. Because the RDOS .systm call macro implements a jsr, AC3 is overwritten by the return address for the .pchar function. Therefore, a temporary location is needed to preserve the return address of the caller of this function. For a recursive or otherwise re-entrant routine, a stack, hardware if available, software if not, must be used instead. The return instruction becomes jmp @ retrn which exploits the Nova's indirect addressing mode to load the return PC. The constant definitions at the end show two assembler features: the assembler radix is octal by default (20 = sixteen), and character constants could be encoded as e.g. "0. pbin: ; print AC1 on console as 16 binary digits, by Toby Thain sta 3,retrn ; save return addr lda 2,n16 ; set up bit counter loop: lda 0,chr0 ; load ASCII '0' movzl 1,1,szc ; get next bit in carry inc 0,0 ; bump to '1' .systm .pchar ; AC0-2 preserved jmp err ; if error inc 2,2,szr ; bump counter jmp loop ; loop again if not zero lda 0,spc ; output a space .systm .pchar jmp err ; if error jmp @retrn spc: " ;that's a space chr0: "0 n16: -20 retrn: 0 ==Applications== The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in Montreal used the Nova 1200 for channel play-out automation up until the late 1980s. It was then replaced with refurbished Nova 4 units and these were in use until the mid-1990s.	[ "FORTRAN IV", "Texas Instruments", "Ken Olsen", "PDP-8", "74181", "Edson de Castro", "return address", "National Semiconductor PACE", "backplane", "gate array", "BCPL", "IBM PC", "ARM architecture family", "core memory", "microcode", "wire wrap", "printed circuit board", "random-access memory", "program counter", "AMD Am2900", "Apple I", "Altair 8800", "shift register", "arithmetic logic unit", "RISC", "kilo-", "integrated circuit", "Dell EMC", "Tracy Kidder", "punched tape", "magnetic-core memory", "BASIC", "dual in-line package", "Rack unit", "VAX", "octal", "carry flag", "boot ROM", "North Carolina", "kilohertz", "input/output", "memory management unit", "price–performance ratio", "instruction set architecture", "stack register", "Data General Business Basic", "PDP-10", "Lisp (programming language)", "Xerox Alto", "load–store architecture", "Dynamic random-access memory", "bank switching", "floppy disk", "PDP-6", "Carry flag", "Spacewar!", "Data General Eclipse", "memory management", "flip-flop (electronics)", "minicomputer", "zero page", "National Semiconductor IMP-16", "instruction set", "Transistor–transistor logic", "Flip-Chip module", "semiconductor device fabrication", "Research Triangle Park", "COBOL", "binary number", "startup company", "PMOS logic", "address bus", "PDP-11", "ALGOL", "VLSI", "Data General RDOS", "C (programming language)", "Intel", "Fairchild Semiconductor", "front panel", "Signetics", "rack-mount", "bit slicing", "bit-slice", "index register", "AMD Am2901", "venture capital", "read-only memory", "Fairchild 9440", "data bus", "GitHub", "word (computer architecture)", "Forth (programming language)", "accumulator (computing)", "kiloword", "Digital Equipment Corporation", "Computervision", "Data General Eclipse MV/8000", "byte", "Data General", "addressing mode", "ASCII", "Joint Computer Conference", "floating-point unit", "transistor-transistor logic", "operating system", "PDP-9", "The Soul of a New Machine", "Semiconductor", "16-bit computing", "Portable C compiler", "virtual memory", "Hello world program", "computer terminal" ]
8,659	Protestant Church in the Netherlands	The Protestant Church in the Netherlands (, abbreviated PKN) is the largest Protestant denomination in the Netherlands, being both Calvinist and Lutheran. It was founded on 1 May 2004 as the merger of the vast majority of the Dutch Reformed Church, the vast majority of the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The merger was the culmination of an organizational process started in 1961. Several orthodox Reformed and liberal churches did not merge into the new church. The Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN) forms the country's second largest Christian denomination after the Catholic Church, with approximately 1.4 million members as per the church official statistics or some 7.9% of the population in 2023. Ordination of women and blessings of same-sex marriages are allowed. The PKN contains both liberal and conservative movements, although the liberal Remonstrants left talks when they could not agree with the unaltered adoption of the Canons of Dordt. Local congregations have far-reaching powers concerning "controversial" matters (such as admittance to holy communion or whether women are admitted as members of the congregation's consistory). ==Organization== The polity of the Protestant Church in the Netherlands is a hybrid of presbyterian and congregationalist church governance. Church governance is organised along local, regional, and national lines. At the local level is the congregation. An individual congregation is led by a church council made of the minister along with elders and deacons elected by the congregation. At the regional level were 75 classical assemblies whose members are chosen by the church councils. As of May 1, 2018, these 75 classical assemblies are reorganized into 11 larger ones. At the national level is the General Synod which directs areas of common interest, such as theological education, ministry training and ecumenical cooperation. The PKN has four different types of congregations: Protestant congregations: local congregations from different church bodies that have merged Dutch Reformed congregations Reformed congregations (congregations of the former Reformed Churches in the Netherlands) Lutheran congregations (congregations of the former Evangelical-Lutheran Church) Lutherans are a minority (about 1 percent) of the PKN's membership. To ensure that Lutherans are represented in the Church, the Lutheran congregations have their own synod. The Lutheran Synod also has representatives in the General Synod. Its make-up by former affiliation of its congregations was as follows in 2017: Trend shows that since 2011 identification with former denominations has been falling in favor of simply identifying as "Protestant". ==Secularization== Secularization, or the decline in religiosity, first became noticeable after 1960 in the Protestant rural areas of Friesland and Groningen. Then, it spread to Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and the other large cities in the west. Finally, the southern Catholic areas showed religious declines. Research in 2007 concluded that 42% of the members of the PKN were non-theists. Furthermore, in the PKN and several other smaller denominations of the Netherlands, one in six clergy were either agnostic or atheist. A Dutch minister of the PKN, Klaas Hendrikse once described God as "a word for experience, or human experience" and said that Jesus may have never existed. A countervailing trend is produced by a religious revival in the Dutch Bible Belt. ==Separations== Only those congregations belonging to the former Reformed Churches in the Netherlands have the legal right to secede from the PKN without losing its property and church during a transition period of 10 years. Seven congregations have so far decided to form the Continued Reformed Churches in the Netherlands. They disagree with the pluralism of the merged church which maintains, as they see it, contradicting Calvinist and Lutheran confessions. This group also considers same-sex marriages and female clergy unbiblical. Chart of splits and mergers of the Dutch Reformed churches ==Involvement in the Middle East== In a meeting of eight Jewish and eight Protestant Dutch leaders in Israel in May 2011, a statement of cooperation was issued, indicating, for the most part, that the Protestant Church recognizes the issues involved with the Palestinian Christians and that this is sometimes at odds with support for the State of Israel, but standing up for the rights of the Palestinians does not detract from the emphasis on the safety of the State of Israel and vice versa.	[ "Lutheran World Federation", "Reformed Congregations in the Netherlands (unconnected)", "Apostles' Creed", "Reformed Association in the Protestant Church in the Netherlands", "Christian Bible", "Synod of Emden", "Conference of European Churches", "1834 Dutch Reformed Church split", "1886 Dutch Reformed Church split", "Lutheranism", "Dutch Reformed Churches", "Heidelberg Catechism", "Athanasian Creed", "Catechism", "Remonstrants", "Bible Belt (Netherlands)", "Christian denomination", "Christianity", "Christian Church", "History of religion in the Netherlands", "Belgic Confession", "Continued Reformed Churches in the Netherlands", "Protestant", "non-theist", "Friesland", "Dutch Reformed Church", "Nicene Creed", "United church", "Reformed Churches in the Netherlands", "Session (Presbyterianism)", "Synod", "Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Monarchy of the Netherlands", "World Council of Churches", "Luther's Large Catechism", "Congregationalist polity", "Canons of Dordt", "Rotterdam", "United and uniting churches", "State of Israel", "Amsterdam", "Netherlands Reformed Churches", "Augsburg Confession", "Christ myth theory", "Klaas Hendrikse", "Protestantism", "Palestine", "Presbyterian polity", "Elder (Christianity)", "deacon", "Israel", "Ordination of women", "Communion of Protestant Churches in Europe", "Theological Declaration of Barmen", "Restored Reformed Church", "Netherlands", "Groningen (province)", "Christian Reformed Churches", "Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Liberated)", "Palestinian Christians", "creed", "Leuenberg Agreement", "Religion in the Netherlands", "Protestant Church in the Netherlands", "Reformed Congregations", "Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Restored)", "World Communion of Reformed Churches", "Blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches", "Calvinism", "holy communion", "Reformed Congregations in the Netherlands", "Catholic Church in the Netherlands", "Synod of Dort", "Judaism" ]
8,660	Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)	The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) is a mainline Protestant Christian denomination in the United States and Canada. The denomination started with the Restoration Movement during the Second Great Awakening, first existing during the 19th century as a loose association of churches working toward Christian unity. These slowly formed quasi-denominational structures through missionary societies, regional associations, and an international convention. In 1968, the Disciples of Christ officially adopted a denominational structure. At that time, a group of churches left in order to remain nondenominational. The denomination is referred to by several versions of its full name, including "Disciples of Christ", "Disciples", "Christian Church", "CC(DOC)", and "DOC". The Christian Church was a charter participant in the formation of the World Council of Churches (WCC) and of the Federal Council of Churches (now the National Council of Churches), and it continues to be engaged in ecumenical conversations. The Disciples' local churches are congregationally governed. In 2025, Pew Research Center published the Religious Landscape Survey, estimating that 0.3% of the US adult population, or 780,000 people, self-identified as adherents of the Disciples of Christ. In 2008 there were 679,563 members in 3,714 congregations in the United States and Canada. By 2015, this number had declined to a baptized membership of 497,423 in 3,267 congregations, of whom about 306,905 were active members, while approximately 177,000 attended Sunday services each week. In 2018, the denomination reported 380,248 members with 124,437 people in average worship attendance. By 2022, membership had dropped to 277,864 members, 89,894 of whom attended worship on average. ==History== The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) traces its roots to the Stone-Campbell Movement on the American frontier. The Movement is so named because it started as two distinct but similar movements rising from the Presbyterian Church, each without knowledge of the other, during the Second Great Awakening in the early 19th century. The first of these two groups, led by Barton W. Stone, began at Cane Ridge, Bourbon County, Kentucky. The group called themselves simply Christians. The second began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia (now West Virginia), led by Thomas Campbell and his son, Alexander Campbell. Because the founders wanted to abandon all denominational labels, they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus that they found in the Bible. ===Stone=== In 1801, the Cane Ridge Revival in Kentucky planted the seed for a movement in Kentucky and the Ohio River Valley to disassociate from denominationalism. In 1803 Stone and others withdrew from the Kentucky Presbytery and formed the Springfield Presbytery. The defining event of the Stone wing of the movement was the publication of the Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery, at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, in 1804. "The Last Will" is a brief document in which Stone and five others announced their withdrawal from Presbyterianism and their intention to be solely part of the body of Christ. The writers appealed for the unity of all who follow Jesus, suggested the value of congregational self-governance, and lifted the Bible as the source for understanding the will of God. They denounced the use of the Westminster Confession of Faith as divisive. Soon, they adopted the name "Christian" to identify their group. Thus, the remnants of the Springfield Presbytery became the Christian Church. It is estimated that the Christian Church numbered about 12,000 by 1830. ===Campbells=== Independently of Stone, Thomas Campbell published the Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington, (Pennsylvania) in 1809. In The Declaration and Address, he set forth some of his convictions about the church of Jesus Christ, emphasizing Christian unity and the restoration of the New Testament church. He organized the Christian Association of Washington, not as a church but as an association of persons seeking to grow in faith. On May 4, 1811, however, the Christian Association constituted itself as a congregationally governed church. With the building it then constructed at Brush Run, it became known as Brush Run Church. When their study of the New Testament led the reformers to begin to practice baptism by immersion, the nearby Redstone Baptist Association invited Brush Run Church to join with them for the purpose of fellowship. The reformers agreed provided that they would be "allowed to preach and to teach whatever they learned from the Scriptures." Thus began a sojourn for the reformers among the Baptists within the Redstone Baptist Association (1815–1824). While the reformers and the Baptists shared the same beliefs in baptism by immersion and congregational polity, it was soon clear that the reformers were not traditional Baptists. Within the Redstone Association, the differences became intolerable to some of the Baptist leaders, when Alexander Campbell began publishing a journal, The Christian Baptist, promoting reform. Campbell anticipated the conflict and moved his membership to a congregation of the Mahoning Baptist Association in 1824. In 1827, the Mahoning Association appointed reformer Walter Scott as an Evangelist. Through Scott's efforts, the Mahoning Association grew rapidly. In 1828, Thomas Campbell visited several of the congregations formed by Scott and heard him preach. The elder Campbell realized that Scott was bringing an important new dimension to the movement with his approach to evangelism. Several Baptist associations began disassociating from congregations that refused to subscribe to the Philadelphia Confession. The Mahoning Association came under attack. In 1830, the Mahoning Baptist Association disbanded. Alexander ceased publication of The Christian Baptist. In January 1831, he began publication of the Millennial Harbinger. ===1832 merger=== The two groups united at High Street Meeting House, Lexington, Kentucky, with a handshake between Barton W. Stone and "Raccoon" John Smith, on Saturday, December 31, 1831. Smith had been chosen by those present to speak on behalf of the followers of the Campbells. While contemporaneous accounts are clear that the handshake took place on Saturday, some historians have changed the date of the merger to Sunday, January 1, 1832. The 1832 date has become generally accepted. The actual difference is about 20 hours. Two representatives of those assembled were appointed to carry the news of the union to all the churches: John Rogers for the Christians and "Raccoon" John Smith for the reformers. Despite some challenges, the merger succeeded. With the merger, there was the challenge of what to call the new movement. Clearly, finding a Biblical, non-sectarian name was important. Stone wanted to continue to use the name "Christians". Alexander Campbell insisted upon "Disciples of Christ". Walter Scott and Thomas Campbell sided with Stone, but the younger Campbell had strong reasons and would not yield. As a result, both names were used. ===National Conventions=== In 1849, the first National Convention was held at Cincinnati, Ohio. Alexander Campbell had concerns that holding conventions would lead the movement into divisive denominationalism. He did not attend the gathering. Among its actions, the convention elected Alexander Campbell its President and created the American Christian Missionary Society (ACMS). The formation of a missionary society set the stage for further "co-operative" efforts. By the end of the century, the Foreign Christian Missionary Society and the Christian Women's Board of Missions were also engaged in missionary activities. Forming the ACMS did not reflect a consensus of the entire movement. Sponsorship of missionary activities became a divisive issue. In the succeeding decades, for some congregations and their leaders, co-operative work through missionary societies and the adoption of instrumental music in church worship was straying too far from their conception of the early church. After the American Civil War, the schism grew. While there was no disagreement over the need for evangelism, many believed that missionary societies were not authorized by scripture and would compromise the autonomy of local congregations. This became one important factor leading to the separation of the Churches of Christ from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). In a respectful way, both men routinely published the contributions of others whose positions were radically different from their own. Following Campbell's death in 1866, journals continued to keep the discussion and conversation alive. Between 1870 and 1900, two journals emerged as the most prominent. The Christian Standard was edited and published by Isaac Errett of Cincinnati. The Christian Evangelist was edited and published by J. H. Garrison from St. Louis. The two men enjoyed a friendly rivalry, and kept the dialog going within the movement. A third journal became part of the conversation with the publication in 1884 of The Christian Oracle, later to become The Christian Century, with an interdenominational appeal. In 1914, Garrison's Christian Publishing company was purchased by R. A. Long, who then established a non-profit corporation, "The Christian Board of Publication" as the Brotherhood publishing house. ===First Division=== In 1906, the U.S. Religious Census listed Churches of Christ for the first time as a group that was separate and distinct from the Disciples of Christ. However, the division had been growing for years, with published reports as early as 1883. The most obvious distinction between the two groups was the Churches of Christ rejecting the use of musical instruments in worship. The controversy over musical instruments began in 1860, when some congregations introduced organs, traditionally associated with wealthier, denominational churches. More basic were the underlying approaches to Biblical interpretation. The Churches of Christ permitted only those practices found in accounts of New Testament worship. They could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship. The Disciples, by contrast, considered permissible any practices that the New Testament did not expressly forbid. While music and the approach to missionary work were the most visible issues, there were also some deeper ones. The process that led to the separation had begun prior to the American Civil War. === The Brotherhood === In the early 20th century, a central point of conflict for the remaining Christian Churches was cooperative missionary efforts, both nationally and internationally. Several missionary societies had already been established, and the congregations that contributed to these societies and attended the national convention became known as "cooperative" and began referring to the larger grouping of these congregations as "the Brotherhood". In 1917 the National Convention became the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ) with the incorporation of Canadian Disciples. In 1920, three separate missionary societies merged into the United Christian Missionary Society in 1920, which undertook missions work both in the "homeland" and abroad. Over the next fifty years, the UCMS was the largest agency of the Brotherhood. The National Benevolent Association was also established during the early 20th century as a social services ministry providing assistance to orphans, the elderly and the disabled. The congregations that did not participate were known as "independents". Until the cooperative churches underwent the process of restructure in the 1960s, the cooperatives and independents coexisted together under the same identity, but were following different paths by the 1940s, with the independents forming the North American Christian Convention in 1947. While issues of ecclesiology were at the forefront of the growing division, theological issues also divided the two groups, with the cooperative churches largely adopting the new methods of Biblical analysis developed in the late 19th century. ===Restructure=== Following World War II, it became obvious that the organizations that had been developed in previous decades no longer effectively met the needs of the postwar era. After a number of discussions throughout the 1950s, the 1960 International Convention of Christian Churches adopted a process to "restructure" the entire organization. The Commission on Restructure, chaired by Granville T. Walker, held its first meeting on October 30 & November 1, 1962. In 1968, the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ) adopted the commission's proposed Provisional Design of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Soon The Provisional Design became The Design. The Brotherhood's adoption of The Design made the earlier split between the cooperative and independent churches official. Under The Design, all churches in the 1968 yearbook of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ) were automatically recognized as part of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). In the years that followed, many of the Independent Christian Church Congregations requested formal withdrawal from the yearbook. Many of those congregations were already part of the North American Christian Convention; this group would become known as the Christian churches and churches of Christ and became the third primary group of the Stone-Campbell Movement. ==Beliefs and practices== As a congregational denomination, each Disciples congregation determines the nature of its worship, study, Christian service, and witness to the world. Through belief in the priesthood of all believers, Disciples also practice freedom of interpretation among its members, with only baptism and confession of Christ as Lord required. ===Doctrine and interpretation=== Early members of the Stone-Campbell Movement adopted the slogan "In essentials, Unity; In non-essentials, Liberty; and in all things, Charity." For modern disciples the one essential is the acceptance of Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior, and obedience to him in baptism. There is no requirement to give assent to any other statement of belief or creed, or any official interpretation of the Bible. Hierarchical doctrine was traditionally rejected by Disciples as human-made and divisive, and subsequently, freedom of belief and scriptural interpretation allows many Disciples to question or even deny beliefs common in doctrinal churches such as the Incarnation, the Trinity, and the Atonement. Beyond the essential commitment to follow Jesus, there is a tremendous freedom of belief and interpretation. As the basic teachings of Jesus are studied and applied to life, there is the freedom to interpret Jesus' teachings in different ways, and there is a wide diversity among Disciples in what individuals and congregations believe. It is not uncommon to find individuals who seemingly hold diametrically opposed beliefs within the same congregation affirming one another's journeys of faith as sisters and brothers in Christ. in 1968, Disciples have celebrated a sense of unity in reading the preamble to the Design publicly. ===Worship and Communion=== Most congregations sing hymns, read from the Old and New Testaments, hear the word of God proclaimed through sermon or other medium and extend an invitation to become Christ's Disciples. Most Disciple congregations practice weekly celebrations of the Lord's Supper, often referred to by Disciples as Communion, as an integral part of worship. Through the observance of Communion, individuals are invited to acknowledge their faults and sins, to remember the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, to remember their baptism, and to give thanks for God's redeeming love. Because Disciples believe that the invitation to the table comes from Jesus Christ, Communion is open to all who confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, regardless of their denominational affiliation. ===Baptism=== Most Disciple congregations practice believer's baptism in the form of immersion, believing it to be the form used in the New Testament. The experiences of yielding to Christ in being buried with him in the waters of baptism and rising to a new life have profound meaning for the church. While most congregations exclusively practice baptism by immersion, Disciples also accept other forms of baptism including infant baptism. ===Ecumenical efforts=== The Disciples celebrate their oneness with all who seek God through Jesus Christ, throughout time and regardless of location. In local communities, congregations share with churches of other denominations in joint worship and in community Christian service. Ecumenical cooperation and collaboration with other Christian Communions has long been practiced by the Regions. At the General Church level, the Christian Unity and Interfaith Ministries Unity (CUIM) coordinates the ecumenical and interfaith activities of the church. The Disciples continues to relate to the National Council of Churches and Canadian Council of Churches, both of which it was a founding member. It shares in the dialog and in the theological endeavors of the World Council of Churches. The Disciples has been a full participant in the Consultation on Church Union since it began in the 1960s. It continues to support those ongoing conversations which have taken on the title Churches Uniting in Christ. The Disciples have two full communion partners: the United Church of Christ, since 1989, and the United Church of Canada, since 2019. These three denominations all share mutual full communion with each other. CUIM describes these partnerships as the proclamation of "mutual recognition of their sacraments and ordained ministry". Ordained Disciple ministers are able to directly serve in the United Church of Christ without having to seek additional qualifications. Additionally, the Disciples combined their overseas ministries with the United Church of Christ in 1996. Known as Global Ministries, it is a common agency of both denominations with a joint staff and is a continuance of decades of cooperative work in global missions. While the Disciples of Christ and United Church of Canada have entered full communion, the recentness of the agreement means that the provisions for mutual recognition of clergy are not yet finalized and adopted. ===Ordained ministry=== The Disciples believe in the priesthood of all believers, in that all people baptized are called to minister to others with diverse spiritual gifts. The Disciples view their Order of Ministry as a specific subset of all believers who are called with spiritual gifts specifically suited for pastoral ministry. Congregations use different terms to refer to persons in the Order of Ministry including Pastor and Reverend but most call them Ministers, including the denomination's governing documents. Congregations sponsor members seeking ordination or commissioning as a Minister, and Regional Ministries organize committees to oversee the process. Ordination can be achieved by obtaining a Master of Divinity from a theological institution, which does not have to be an institution associated with the Disciples. Ordination can also be achieved through an "Apprentice" track which has candidates shadow ordained ministers. Finally, Ministers can be Commissioned, a shorter process for seminary students and those seeking short-term ministry in a Region. Regional requirements for ministry vary. Ordination is made official through a service which includes members of the church, clergy, and Regional Minister laying their hands on the candidate as the ordaining act. Ecumenical representatives are often included to emphasize the Disciples' desire for Christian unity. A General Commission on the Order of Ministry exists to interpret and review definitions of ministry, give oversight to Regions and congregations, provide other support, and maintain the standing of Regional Ministers and Ministers of General (National) Ministries. === Abortion === Members of the Disciples of Christ have many different opinions on abortion. This would be a prime example of "Resolve to Love, Agree to Differ, Unite to Serve, Break Bread Together". === LGBTQ inclusion === In 1977, the General Assembly of the denomination debated resolutions about homosexuality for the first time; a resolution condemning the "homosexual lifestyle" was defeated by the Assembly and a resolution to ban gay people from the ordained ministry was referred to the General Minister and President for further study. At the next General Assembly two years later, the Assembly approved a resolution that declared "The ordination of persons who engage in homosexual practices is not in accord with God's will", but concurrently declared that "The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) intends to continue the current pattern of assigning responsibility to the regions with respect to the nurture, certification, and ordination of ministers." In 2011, the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) stated that "Disciples do not have a formal policy on same-sex marriage. Different congregations have the autonomy to discern on issues such as this one." In 2013, the Disciples of Christ voted in favor of a resolution affirming all members regardless of sexual orientation. After same-sex marriage was legalized in the US, the denomination reiterated that it leaves "all decisions of policy on same-sex marriage to local congregations". In 2019, the General Assembly passed a resolution specifically affirming that transgender and gender non-conforming people are welcome in the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Disciples LGBTQ+ Alliance provides resources to congregations that want to be certified as "Open and Affirming" to show that they are accepting of all gender identities and sexual orientations. The Alliance was founded as the Gay, Lesbian, and Affirming Disciples Alliance (GLAD) during the 1979 General Assembly. ==Structure== The structure of the Disciples is unique among Mainline Protestant churches. The Design, the governing document of the denomination, describes three "expressions" of the church: congregational, regional, and general. Each of these expressions are "characterized by its integrity, self-governance, authority, rights, and responsibilities." In relating to each other, they work in covenant and not authority to support the ministry and work of the church. In Disciples congregations, the priesthood of all believers finds its expression in worship and Christian service. Congregations elect and ordain lay persons as Elders to share in duties of congregational ministry with the staff ministers, including visiting the sick and administering communion to them, providing spiritual guidance for the congregation, and presiding over Communion during worship, either with or without the staff ministers. ===Regional Ministries=== Regional churches consist of all Disciples in a given area, usually a state or group of states. As of 2023, the denomination has 31 regions, including the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) in Canada which has a dual identity as a region in the binational church and a national denomination in its own right. Regions meet in a Regional Assembly every two to three years to conduct business. Each Region calls a Regional Minister to serve as its primary pastor and chief executive; most regions also have Associate Regional Ministers and other staff to serve specific aspects of its ministries. Canada calls its regional minister a "national pastor". Regions are analogous to the middle judicatories of other denominations, and Regional Ministers are analogous to Bishops. As with all parts of the Disciples, Regions do not have authority to control congregations and congregations are not required to use regional programming, including the search and call system. ===General Ministries=== The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) at the "General Church" level consists of a number of self-governing agencies, which focus upon specific Christian witnesses to the world. The church agencies report to the General Assembly, which meets biennially in odd-numbered years and is an assembly of representatives selected by congregations and ordained ministers with standing in the denomination. The General Minister and President (GMP) is the lead pastor for the denomination and the chief executive officer of the legal corporation. Following the covenantal understanding of the denomination, the GMP does not have direct executive power over the General Ministries, regions, or congregations. The GMP is elected to a six-year term by the General Assembly, with the option for a second term. Her presidency followed the presidency of Sharon E. Watkins, the first woman to lead a mainline denomination as their chief executive. The General Ministries are: Office of the General Minister and President: executive office for the denomination and includes communications, fundraising for the denominational mission fund, Week of Compassion, and anti-racist/pro-reconciliation efforts Central Pastoral Office for Hispanic Ministries-Obra Hispana: promotes, undergirds, and coordinates work of Disciples Hispanic Ministries and Spanish speaking and bilingual congregations Christian Board of Publication/Chalice Press: denominational publishing house Christian Church Foundation: provides assistance on giving and endowments Christian Unity and Interfaith Ministry (formerly the Council on Christian Unity): ecumenical and interfaith engagement and dialogue Disciples Church Extension Fund: support for congregational finances, new church ministry, and congregational renewal Disciples Home Missions: provides support for congregational and local ministries including education and faith formation, church vocations, environmental justice, immigration and refugee ministries, families and children, youth, young adults, men's and women's ministries, and volunteering. Disciples of Christ Historical Society: maintains archives for the denomination and the larger Stone-Campbell Movement Division of Overseas Ministries-Global Ministries: global mission and volunteer work in joint partnership with the United Church of Christ Higher Education and Leadership Ministries: works with higher education partners and theological education partners and provides leadership development National Benevolent Association: partners with and connects independent health and social service ministries to Disciples and each other National Convocation: historical association of Black Disciple congregations that merged with the White Disciples in 1968, now continues as an association connecting and supporting black members and congregations North American Pacific/Asian Disciples: association of Pacific and Asian-American Disciples members and congregations Pension Fund of the Christian Church: provides pensions and investment/savings products to clergy and lay employees of Stone-Campbell/Restoration Movement churches and organizations. One highly popular and respected General Agency program is Week of Compassion, named for the special offering to fund the program when it began in the 1950s. Week of Compassion is the disaster relief and Third World development agency. It works closely with Church World Service and church-related organizations in countries around the world where disasters strike, providing emergency aid. for the first two decades of the 21st century. Together the denomination is well on the way to achieving its four foci: Seeking racial justice, which it describes as becoming a pro-reconciling/anti-racist church. Forming 1,000 new congregations across the United States and Canada by 2020. Seeking God's transformation of 1,000 existing Congregations in ways that will renew their witness. Working to nurture leadership for newly formed and transformed congregations. ==Membership trends== The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) has experienced a very significant loss of membership since the middle of the 20th century. Membership peaked in 1958 at just under 2 million. In 1993, membership dropped below 1 million. In 2009, the denomination reported 658,869 members in 3,691 congregations. The states with the largest absolute number of adherents were Missouri, Texas, Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio. In 2017, membership had declined to 450,425 members. ==Affiliated academic institutions== From the very beginnings of the movement, Disciples have founded institutions of higher learning. Alexander Campbell taught young leaders and founded Bethany College. The movement established similar schools, especially in the years following the American Civil War. Because intellectual and religious freedom are important values for the Disciples of Christ, the colleges, universities, and seminaries founded by its congregations do not seek to indoctrinate students or faculty with a sectarian point of view. In the 21st century, the relationship between the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) and its affiliated universities is the purview of Higher Education and Leadership Ministries (HELM), an agency of the General Church. ===Universities and colleges=== Barton College – Wilson, North Carolina Bethany College – Bethany, West Virginia Chapman University – Orange, California Columbia College – Columbia, Missouri Culver-Stockton College – Canton, Missouri Drury University – Springfield, Missouri Eureka College – Eureka, Illinois Hiram College – Hiram, Ohio Jarvis Christian College – Hawkins, Texas University of Lynchburg – Lynchburg, Virginia Midway University – Midway, Kentucky Texas Christian University – Fort Worth, Texas Tougaloo College – Tougaloo, Mississippi Transylvania University – Lexington, Kentucky William Woods University – Fulton, Missouri ===Seminaries and theological institutions=== The Disciples have four seminaries and divinity schools directly affiliated with the denomination. These institutions have an ecumenical student body, a reflection of the Disciples' focus on church unity. They are: Brite Divinity School – Fort Worth, Texas Christian Theological Seminary – Indianapolis, Indiana Lexington Theological Seminary – Lexington, Kentucky Phillips Theological Seminary – Tulsa, Oklahoma The Disciples have three additional institutions that provide supplementary education and community living for ecumenical theological institutions. They are: Disciples Divinity House of the University of Chicago, affiliated with the University of Chicago Divinity School – Chicago, Illinois Disciples Divinity House at Vanderbilt, affiliated with the Vanderbilt Divinity School – Nashville, Tennessee Disciples Seminary Foundation, affiliated with Claremont School of Theology, Iliff School of Theology, Pacific School of Religion, and San Francisco Theological Seminary – Claremont, California ==Ecumenical relations== The Disciples of Christ maintains ecumenical relations with the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity. It is also affiliated with other ecumenical organizations such as Churches Uniting in Christ, Christian Churches Together, the National Council of Churches and the World Council of Churches. It maintains Ordained Ministerial Partner Standing with the United Church of Christ, which means that clergy ordained in the Disciples of Christ may also serve in the United Church of Christ. Since 2019, it has been a full Communion partner and had an agreement for mutual recognition of ministerial credentials with the United Church of Canada. It is affiliated with the Disciples Ecumenical Consultative Council and the World Communion of Reformed Churches. ==Prominent members== Jesse Moren Bader, evangelist William Barber II, Disciples pastor and President of North Carolina NAACP T. Garrott Benjamin, Jr., bishop, civil rights activist, and Senior Pastor Emeritus of Light of the World Christian Church, a Disciples church located in Indianapolis, Indiana, where he faithfully served for 43 years. Andy Beshear, current Governor of Kentucky Edgar Cayce, American mystic Fred Craddock, professor and preacher Elmira J. Dickinson, American missionary and advocate for temperance J. William Fulbright, U.S. Senator from Arkansas James A. Garfield, 20th President of the United States, ordained Disciples minister, Principal (President) of Western Reserve Eclectic Institute (now named Hiram College) in Hiram, Ohio Murry Hammond, singer Grey DeLisle, voice actress Dean Hess, US Air Force Pilot Ben Hogan, professional golfer, tied for fourth all-time with nine career professional major championships Archie Ijames, assistant pastor of Jim Jones' Peoples Temple. Jan Jensen (basketball), current head coach, Iowa Women's Basketball. Lyndon Baines Johnson, 36th President of the United States Jim Jones, cult leader, who was ordained as a Disciples minister before the denomination was organized in 1968; at that time requirements for ordination varied greatly in different regions and congregations. Two investigations were undertaken in 1974 and 1977 by the denomination that did not find any wrongdoings. No rules or precedent existed for the Disciples for removing ministers, and the Disciples responded to the Jonestown mass killings with significant changes for ministerial ethics and the process to remove ministers from the list of ordained. Marinda Lemert (1811–1891), religious writer who argued for the ordination of women Frances McDormand, actress; winner of the Triple Crown of Acting James Clark McReynolds, United States Supreme Court Justice (1914–1941) Harold Bell Wright, early 20th century author; pastor at churches in the association prior to becoming an author. The author is best known for the novel The Shepherd of the Hills, and is the first fiction author to sell 1 million copies. John Muir, Scottish founder of the environmental movement. Raised in the church, but later left it. R. Janae Pitts-Murdock, Senior Pastor of Light of the World Christian Church, a Disciples church, located in Indianapolis, Indiana. She is the first female pastor in the ministry's 158-year (2024) history Francis Gary Powers, American CIA U-2 spy plane pilot shot down while flying a reconnaissance mission in Soviet Union airspace Betsy Price, former mayor of Fort Worth, Texas (2011–2021), the 16th most populous city in the United States Ronald Reagan, 40th President of the United States, baptized into the Disciples as a youth, and graduated from the Disciples' Eureka College, but a member of Bel Air Presbyterian Church in his later years. He married Nancy at The Little Brown Church in Studio City, California, a Disciples Church. Susanna Carson Rijnhart, Tibetan explorer, missionary Gene Robinson, raised in a Disciples church, later joined the Episcopal Church in the United States of America and became the first openly gay priest to be consecrated as a bishop in a major Christian denomination believing in the historic episcopate Colonel Harlan Sanders, founder of Kentucky Fried Chicken Tom Selleck, actor John Stamos, actor Preston Taylor, African American minister, businessperson and philanthropist; founder of the National Christian Missionary Convention William Thomas Jr., actor Marion Tinsley, considered the all-time greatest human checkers player Jessie Trout, Canadian missionary in Japan, author, Japanese-American internment camp worker, co-founder of the Christian Women's Fellowship (1950) and the International Christian Women's Fellowship (1953) Emily Harvie Thomas Tubman, businesswoman and philanthropist from Augusta, Georgia, early supporter of the Restoration Movement and correspondent of Alexander Campbell. She financed the construction of many Christian churches in the United States and donated to several Disciples-affiliated colleges. Roger Williams (U.S. politician), Congressman representing Texas' 25th District in the U.S. House of Representatives. Former Secretary of State of Texas (2004–2007) John Wooden, legendary UCLA basketball coach, raised in a Disciples Church in Martinsville, Indiana Bruce Zager, former justice, Iowa Supreme Court Mary Steenburgen, Academy award-winning actress. Andy Beasher, Current Kentucky Governor	[ "Susanna Carson Rijnhart", "United Church of Canada", "Middle judicatory", "Christian Association of Washington", "Jesse Moren Bader", "Studio City, Los Angeles", "Columbia College (Columbia, Missouri)", "World Convention of Churches of Christ", "Walter Scott (clergyman)", "Hiram College", "Jarvis Christian College", "Ben Hogan", "Marinda Lemert", "Kentucky", "John Smith (Restoration Movement)", "Episcopal Church in the United States of America", "James Clark McReynolds", "mainline Protestant", "Preston Taylor", "San Francisco Theological Seminary", "National City Christian Church", "Transylvania University", "Roger Williams (Texas politician)", "Nancy Reagan", "Murry Hammond", "Barton Stone", "Texas Christian University", "Mahoning Baptist Association", "Tom Selleck", "American Christian Missionary Society", "Andy Beshear", "Marco Antonio de Dominis", "Declaration and Address", "Church World Service", "Disciples Seminary Foundation", "Jim Jones", "abortion", "Association of Religion Data Archives", "United States Senate", "Emily Harvie Thomas Tubman", "World Communion of Reformed Churches", "Churches Uniting in Christ", "Immersion baptism", "DisciplesWorld", "J. William Fulbright", "Brush Run Church", "Colonel Sanders", "University of Lynchburg", "James A. Garfield", "Marion Tinsley", "Phillips Theological Seminary", "Disciples Ecumenical Consultative Council", "chalice", "open communion", "New religious movement", "Jan Jensen (basketball)", "Augusta, Georgia", "Teresa Hord Owens", "Isaac Errett", "Grey DeLisle", "Canada", "John Muir", "John Wooden", "Springfield Presbytery", "Iliff School of Theology", "Thomas Campbell (minister)", "Indiana", "open Communion", "Bible", "Pacific School of Religion", "Bel Air Presbyterian Church", "United States", "New Testament", "Bourbon County, Kentucky", "Ohio River", "R. Janae Pitts-Murdock", "Churches of Christ", "Jessie Trout", "Elmira J. Dickinson", "Westminster Confession of Faith", "William Woods University", "Regulative principle of worship", "The Christian Century", "believer's baptism", "Harold Bell Wright", "Normative principle of worship", "University of Chicago Divinity School", "Thomas Campbell (Restoration movement)", "United Church of Christ", "Master of Divinity", "baptism", "Millennial Harbinger", "Betsy Price", "Bruce Zager", "Christian Churches Together", "Cane Ridge Revival", "Mainline Protestant", "Culver-Stockton College", "Archie Ijames", "Fred Craddock", "Robert A. Long", "Bethany College (West Virginia)", "Jesus Christ", "Barton College", "Midway University", "Walter Scott (Clergyman)", "Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) in Canada", "Brite Divinity School", "Protestant", "Indianapolis", "William Barber II", "Lyndon Baines Johnson", "Edgar Cayce", "World Council of Churches", "Congregationalist polity", "Pew Research Center", "Presbyterianism", "Andrew the Apostle", "Lexington Theological Seminary", "Vanderbilt Divinity School", "Mary Steenburgen", "Arkansas", "Frances McDormand", "Second Great Awakening", "Alexander Campbell (minister)", "infant baptism", "William Thomas Jr.", "Christian Messenger", "North American Christian Convention", "National Council of Churches", "Thomas Campbell (clergyman)", "World War II", "Disciples Divinity House at Vanderbilt", "First Christian Church (disambiguation)", "Cane Ridge, Kentucky", "Eureka College", "Triple Crown of Acting", "Martinsville, Indiana", "Christian Theological Seminary", "Kentucky Fried Chicken", "Disciples of Christ Historical Society", "Christian churches and churches of Christ", "John Stamos", "Philadelphia Confession", "Canadian Council of Churches", "Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity", "Francis Gary Powers", "Andy Beasher", "T. Garrott Benjamin, Jr.", "Sharon E. Watkins", "Dean Hess", "The Shepherd of the Hills (novel)", "Gene Robinson", "Disciples Divinity House", "Lexington, Kentucky", "Full communion", "Foreign Christian Missionary Society", "Christian Standard", "Christian Baptist", "Barton W. Stone", "St Andrew", "Restoration Movement", "Chapman University", "Ronald Reagan", "American Civil War", "Alexander Campbell (clergyman)", "evangelism", "Saltire", "denominationalism", "Tougaloo College", "Claremont School of Theology", "priesthood of all believers", "Drury University", "Fort Worth, Texas" ]
8,662	David Rice Atchison	David Rice Atchison (August 11, 1807January 26, 1886) was a mid-19th-century Democratic United States Senator from Missouri. Atchison served as a major general in the Missouri State Militia in 1838 during Missouri's Mormon War and as a Confederate brigadier general during the American Civil War under Major General Sterling Price in the Missouri Home Guard. Some of Atchison's associates claimed that for 24 hours—Sunday, March 4, 1849, through noon on Monday—he may have been acting president of the United States. This belief, however, is dismissed by most scholars. Atchison, owner of many slaves and a plantation, was a prominent pro-slavery activist and Border Ruffian leader, deeply involved with violence against abolitionists and other free-staters during the "Bleeding Kansas" events that preceded admission of the state to the Union. ==Early life== Atchison was born to William Atchison and his wife in Frogtown (later Kirklevington), which is now part of Lexington, Kentucky. He was educated at Transylvania University in Lexington. Classmates included five future Democratic senators (Solomon Downs of Louisiana, Jesse Bright of Indiana, George Wallace Jones of Iowa, Edward Hannegan of Indiana, and Jefferson Davis of Mississippi). Atchison completed law studies and was admitted to the Kentucky bar in 1829. ==Missouri lawyer and politician== In 1830, he moved to Liberty in Clay County in western Missouri, Atchison represented Smith in land disputes with non-Mormon settlers in Caldwell County The two became fast friends and spent many leisure time hours playing cards, going to horse races, hunting, fishing, and attending social functions and political events. Atchison, already a member of the Liberty Blues, a volunteer militia in Missouri, got Doniphan to join. Atchison was elected to the Missouri House of Representatives in 1834. He worked hard for the Platte Purchase, which required Native American tribes to cede land to the United States and extended the northwestern boundary of Missouri to the Missouri River in 1837. When early disputes broke out into the Mormon War of 1838, Atchison was appointed a major general in the state militia. He took part in suppressing violence by both sides. Active in the Democratic Party, Atchison was re-elected to the Missouri State House of Representatives in 1838. In 1841, he was appointed a circuit court judge for the six-county area of the Platte Purchase. In 1843, he was named a county commissioner in Platte County, where he then lived. ==Senate career== In October 1843, He also was responsible for presiding over the Senate when the vice president was absent. At 38, he was a young man with low seniority in the Senate after two years to gain such a position. In 1849, Atchison stepped down as president pro tempore in favor of William R. King. While Southerners supported the idea of settling in Kansas, few migrated there. Most free-soilers preferred Kansas to Nebraska. Furthermore, anti-slavery activists throughout the North came to view Kansas as a battleground and formed societies to encourage free-soil settlers to go to Kansas, to ensure there would be enough voters in both Kansas and Nebraska to approve their entry as free states. It appeared as if the Kansas Territorial legislature to be elected in March 1855 would be controlled by free-soilers and ban slavery. Atchison and his supporters viewed this as a breach of faith. An angry Atchison called on pro-slavery Missourians to uphold slavery by force and "to kill every God-damned abolitionist in the district" if necessary. He recruited an immense mob of heavily armed Missourians, the infamous "Border Ruffians". On election day, March 30, 1855, Atchison led 5,000 Border Ruffians into Kansas. They seized control of all polling places at gunpoint, cast tens of thousands of fraudulent votes for pro-slavery candidates, and elected a pro-slavery legislature. Two days later, Atchison gave his own speech, totally unaware that he had been exposed on the Senate floor in such a fashion. Atchison's speech was to the Texas men he had just met, hired, and paid for, Atchison reveals in his speech, by "authorities in Washington". They are about to invade Lawrence, Kansas. Atchison makes the men promise to kill and "draw blood," and boasts of his flag, which was red in color for "Southern Rights" and the color of blood. They would press "to blood" the spread of slavery into Kansas. He revealed in this speech that the immediate goal of the invasion was to stop the newspaper in Lawrence from publishing anti-slavery material. Atchison's men had made it a crime to publish anti-slavery newspapers in Kansas. Atchison made it clear the men were to kill and draw blood, told the men they would be "well paid," and encouraged them to plunder from the homes that they invaded. That was after the hundreds of dozens of tortures and killings that Sumner had detailed in his Crimes Against Kansas speech. In other words, things were about to get much worse since Atchison had his hired men from Texas. Historians, constitutional scholars, and biographers dismiss the claim. They point out that Atchison's Senate term had also ended on March 4.}} ==Death== Atchison died on January 26, 1886, at his home near Gower, Missouri at the age of 78. He was buried at Greenlawn Cemetery in Plattsburg, Missouri. His grave marker reads "President of the United States for One Day." ==Legacy== Atchison, Kansas county seat of Atchison County, Kansas. The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad utilized the town name. Atchison County, Missouri Atchison Township, Clinton County, Missouri Atchison Township, Nodaway County, Missouri USS Atchison County (LST-60) ship In 1991, Atchison was inducted into the Hall of Famous Missourians, and a bronze bust depicting him is on permanent display in the rotunda of the Missouri State Capitol. The Atchison County Historical Museum, in Atchison, Kansas, includes an exhibit titled the "World's Smallest Presidential Library". A historical marker designating the approximate site of Atchison's birth is located along Highway 1974 in the Landsdowne neighborhood of Lexington, Kentucky.	[ "Brigadier general", "U.S.-Mexican War", "Jesse Bright", "Battle of Liberty", "Abolitionism in the United States", "List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)", "Nebraska", "ePodunk", "president pro tempore of the United States Senate", "Transylvania University", "Confederate States of America", "Stephen A. Douglas", "Border Ruffian", "Missouri House of Representatives", "Sterling Price", "Plattsburg, Missouri", "militia", "Mormon War (1838)", "Jefferson Davis", "United States Senate", "United States presidential inauguration", "Atchison, Kansas", "Catiline", "Claiborne Jackson", "Andrew Reeder", "Battle of Pea Ridge", "Second Catilinarian conspiracy", "Ambrose Hundley Sevier", "Thomas Hart Benton (senator)", "Atchison County Historical Museum", "historical marker", "Vice President of the United States", "General officer", "Action at Blue Mills Landing", "bar association", "Solomon Downs", "Indiana", "Kansas–Nebraska Act", "Caldwell County, Missouri", "acting president of the United States", "List of United States senators from Missouri", "James M. McPherson", "Missouri", "Battle Cry of Freedom (book)", "Presidential Succession Act", "1838 Mormon War", "Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad", "USS Atchison County (LST-60)", "Platte County, Missouri", "Zachary Taylor", "Missouri Circuit Courts", "New Mexico", "Gower, Missouri", "organized territory", "Kansas", "Millard Fillmore", "Atchison Township, Nodaway County, Missouri", "Lawrence, Kansas", "George M. Dallas", "Lewis Cass", "Acting President of the United States", "Missouri State Capitol", "Liberty, Missouri", "United States presidential line of succession", "James S. Green", "Lansdowne, Lexington", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Henry S. Geyer", "Missouri State Guard", "James K. Polk", "United States Democratic Party", "Platte Purchase", "Union (American Civil War)", "president-elect of the United States", "interregnum", "Major general (United States)", "Battle of Crooked River", "Missouri River", "Arkansas", "Oath of office of the President of the United States", "Slavery in the United States", "first transcontinental railroad", "President pro tempore of the United States Senate", "Louisiana", "Daviess County, Missouri", "St. Louis, Missouri", "plantation", "county commissioner", "Bleeding Kansas", "Clay County, Missouri", "Atchison County, Kansas", "Mississippi", "Illinois", "Presiding Officer of the United States Senate", "Atchison County, Missouri", "New Orleans, Louisiana", "popular sovereignty", "Willie Person Mangum", "Kentucky Route 1974", "Free-Stater (Kansas)", "Atchison Township, Clinton County, Missouri", "Franklin Pierce", "Lexington, Kentucky", "Edward Hannegan", "William R. King", "Confederate government of Missouri", "Trans-Mississippi", "Alexander William Doniphan", "Latter Day Saint Movement", "Utah", "Joseph Smith", "Missouri Volunteer Militia", "Presidential Library", "American Civil War", "George Wallace Jones", "Inauguration of Zachary Taylor", "Lewis F. Linn", "Louisville, Kentucky", "Whig Party (United States)", "Hall of Famous Missourians", "Missouri Compromise", "Iowa" ]
8,663	Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit	Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit FRS (; ; 24 May 1686 – 16 September 1736) was a physicist, inventor, and scientific instrument maker, born in Poland to a family of German extraction. Fahrenheit invented thermometers accurate and consistent enough to allow the comparison of temperature measurements between different observers using different instruments. Fahrenheit is also credited with inventing mercury-in-glass thermometers more accurate and superior to spirit-filled thermometers at the time. The popularity of his thermometers led to the widespread adoption of his Fahrenheit scale attached to his instruments. == Biography == === Early life === Fahrenheit was born in Gdańsk (Danzig), then in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Fahrenheits were a German Hanse merchant family who had lived in several Hanseatic cities. Fahrenheit's great-grandfather had lived in Rostock, and research suggests that the Fahrenheit family originated in Hildesheim. Daniel's grandfather moved from Kneiphof in Königsberg (then in the Duchy of Prussia) to Gdańsk and settled there as a merchant in 1650. His son, Daniel Fahrenheit (the father of Daniel Gabriel), married Concordia Schumann, the daughter of a well-known Gdańsk business family. Daniel was the eldest of the five Fahrenheit children (two sons, three daughters) who survived childhood. His sister, Virginia Elisabeth Fahrenheit, married Benjamin Krüger and was the mother of Benjamin Ephraim Krüger, a clergyman and playwright. As a young adult, Fahrenheit "showed a particular desire for studying," and was scheduled to enroll in the Danzig Gymnasium. Fahrenheit, along with two brothers and sisters, was placed under guardianship. In 1702, Fahrenheit's guardians enrolled him in a bookkeeping course and sent him to a four-year merchant trade apprenticeship in Amsterdam. In 1708, Fahrenheit met with the mayor of Copenhagen and astronomer, Ole Rømer, and was introduced to Rømer's temperature scale and his methods for making thermometers. Rømer told Fahrenheit that demand for accurate thermometers was high. Perhaps not coincidentally, Fahrenheit's arrest warrant was dropped around the time of his meeting with Rømer. In that year, he published five papers in Latin for the Royal Society's scientific journal, Philosophical Transactions, on various topics. In his second paper, "Experimenta et observationes de congelatione aquæ in vacuo factæ", he provides a description of his thermometers and the reference points he used for calibrating them. For two centuries, this document was the only description of Fahrenheit's process for making thermometers. == Fahrenheit scale == According to Fahrenheit's 1724 article, he determined his scale by reference to three fixed points of temperature. The lowest temperature was achieved by preparing a frigorific mixture of ice, water, and a salt ("ammonium chloride or even sea salt"), and waiting for the eutectic system to reach equilibrium temperature. The thermometer then was placed into the mixture and the liquid in the thermometer allowed to descend to its lowest point. The thermometer's reading there was taken as . The second reference point was selected as the reading of the thermometer when it was placed in still water when ice was just forming on the surface. This was assigned as . The third calibration point, taken as , was selected as the thermometer's reading when the instrument was placed under the arm or in the mouth. Fahrenheit came up with the idea that mercury boils around 300 degrees on this temperature scale. Work by others showed that water boils about 180 degrees above its freezing point. The Fahrenheit scale later was redefined to make the freezing-to-boiling interval exactly 180 degrees, a convenient value as 180 is a highly composite number, meaning that it is evenly divisible into many fractions. It is because of the scale's redefinition that normal mean body temperature today is taken as 98.6 degrees, whereas it was 96 degrees on Fahrenheit's original scale. The Fahrenheit scale was the primary temperature standard for climatic, industrial and medical purposes in English-speaking countries until the 1970s, presently mostly replaced by the Celsius scale long used in the rest of the world, apart from the United States, where temperatures and weather reports are still broadcast in Fahrenheit.	[ "Kloosterkerk, The Hague", "Latin", "Fahrenheit hydrometer", "Dutch Republic", "destitute", "Anders Celsius", "Rostock", "Kneiphof", "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society", "Holy Roman Empire", "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth", "Physics", "thermometry", "ice", "Germans", "Lord Kelvin", "Hanse", "Celsius", "Old Style and New Style dates", "Ole Rømer", "States of Holland and West Friesland", "equilibrium temperature", "The Hague", "inventor", "Carl Linnaeus", "Fahrenheit scale", "Hanseatic League", "Christian Wolff (philosopher)", "Alcohol thermometer", "heliostat", "Fahrenheit", "ammonium chloride", "Hildesheim", "Amsterdam", "Fellow of the Royal Society", "Live Science", "Gdańsk", "temperature scale", "Precision thermometry", "physicist", "Mercury-in-glass thermometer", "Academic Gymnasium Danzig", "frigorific mixture", "Rømer scale", "scientific instrument", "patent", "Leibniz", "highly composite number", "Het Plein", "Herman Boerhaave", "Königsberg", "mercury-in-glass thermometer", "perpetual motion machine", "Duchy of Prussia", "Ernst Cohen", "areometer", "eutectic system", "notary", "List of people from Gdańsk", "temperature" ]
8,664	Freescale DragonBall	Motorola/Freescale Semiconductor's DragonBall, or MC68328, is a microcontroller design based on the famous 68000 core, but implemented as an all-in-one low-power system for handheld computer use. It is supported by μClinux. It was designed by Motorola in Hong Kong and released in 1995. The DragonBall's major design win was in numerous devices running the Palm OS platform. However, from Palm OS 5 onwards their use was superseded by ARM-based processors from Texas Instruments and Intel. The processor is capable of speeds of up to 16.58 MHz and can run up to 2.7 MIPS (million instructions per second), for the base 68328 and DragonBall EZ (MC68EZ328) model. It was extended to 33 MHz, 5.4 MIPS for the DragonBall VZ (MC68VZ328) model, and 66 MHz, 10.8 MIPS for the DragonBall Super VZ (MC68SZ328). It is a 32-bit processor with 32-bit internal and external address bus (24-bit external address bus for EZ and VZ variants) and 32-bit data bus (8/16-bit external data bus). It has many built-in functions, like a color and grayscale display controller, PC speaker sound, serial port with UART and IRDA support, UART bootstrap, real time clock, is able to directly access DRAM, Flash ROM, mask ROM, and has built-in support for touch screens. The more recent DragonBall MX series microcontrollers, later renamed the Freescale i.MX (MC9328MX/MCIMX) series, are intended for similar application to the earlier DragonBall devices but are based on an ARM processor core instead of a 68000 core.	[ "i.MX", "List of Palm OS devices", "handheld computer", "Texas Instruments", "ARM architecture", "PC speaker", "Instructions per second", "Intel", "μClinux", "Hong Kong", "MHz", "Motorola 68k", "microcontroller", "Motorola", "Freescale Semiconductor", "Palm OS" ]
8,667	Double-slit experiment	In modern physics, the double-slit experiment demonstrates that light and matter can exhibit behavior of both classical particles and classical waves. This type of experiment was first performed by Thomas Young in 1801, as a demonstration of the wave behavior of visible light. In 1927, Davisson and Germer and, independently, George Paget Thomson and his research student Alexander Reid demonstrated that electrons show the same behavior, which was later extended to atoms and molecules. or Young's slits. The experiment belongs to a general class of "double path" experiments, in which a wave is split into two separate waves (the wave is typically made of many photons and better referred to as a wave front, not to be confused with the wave properties of the individual photon) that later combine into a single wave. Changes in the path-lengths of both waves result in a phase shift, creating an interference pattern. Another version is the Mach–Zehnder interferometer, which splits the beam with a beam splitter. In the basic version of this experiment, a coherent light source, such as a laser beam, illuminates a plate pierced by two parallel slits, and the light passing through the slits is observed on a screen behind the plate. The wave nature of light causes the light waves passing through the two slits to interfere, producing bright and dark bands on the screen – a result that would not be expected if light consisted of classical particles. However, the light is always found to be absorbed at the screen at discrete points, as individual particles (not waves); the interference pattern appears via the varying density of these particle hits on the screen. Furthermore, versions of the experiment that include detectors at the slits find that each detected photon passes through one slit (as would a classical particle), and not through both slits (as would a wave). However, such experiments demonstrate that particles do not form the interference pattern if one detects which slit they pass through. These results demonstrate the principle of wave–particle duality. Other atomic-scale entities, such as electrons, are found to exhibit the same behavior when fired towards a double slit. The double-slit experiment (and its variations) has become a classic for its clarity in expressing the central puzzles of quantum mechanics. Richard Feynman called it "a phenomenon which is impossible […] to explain in any classical way, and which has in it the heart of quantum mechanics. In reality, it contains the only mystery [of quantum mechanics]." (See the bottom photograph to the right.) When Thomas Young (1773–1829) first demonstrated this phenomenon, it indicated that light consists of waves, as the distribution of brightness can be explained by the alternately additive and subtractive interference of wavefronts. He also proposed (as a thought experiment) that if detectors were placed before each slit, the interference pattern would disappear. The Englert–Greenberger duality relation provides a detailed treatment of the mathematics of double-slit interference in the context of quantum mechanics. A low-intensity double-slit experiment was first performed by G. I. Taylor in 1909, by reducing the level of incident light until photon emission/absorption events were mostly non-overlapping. A slit interference experiment was not performed with anything other than light until 1961, when Claus Jönsson of the University of Tübingen performed it with coherent electron beams and multiple slits. In 1974, the Italian physicists Pier Giorgio Merli, Gian Franco Missiroli, and Giulio Pozzi performed a related experiment using single electrons from a coherent source and a biprism beam splitter, showing the statistical nature of the buildup of the interference pattern, as predicted by quantum theory. In 2002, the single-electron version of the experiment was voted "the most beautiful experiment" by readers of Physics World. Since that time a number of related experiments have been published, with a little controversy. In 2012, Stefano Frabboni and co-workers sent single electrons onto nanofabricated slits (about 100 nm wide) and, by detecting the transmitted electrons with a single-electron detector, they could show the build-up of a double-slit interference pattern. Many related experiments involving the coherent interference have been performed; they are the basis of modern electron diffraction, microscopy and high resolution imaging. In 2018, single particle interference was demonstrated for antimatter in the Positron Laboratory (L-NESS, Politecnico di Milano) of Rafael Ferragut in Como (Italy), by a group led by Marco Giammarchi. ==Variations of the experiment== ===Interference from individual particles=== An important version of this experiment involves single particle detection. Illuminating the double-slit with a low intensity results in single particles being detected as white dots on the screen. Remarkably, however, an interference pattern emerges when these particles are allowed to build up one by one (see the image below). This demonstrates the wave–particle duality, which states that all matter exhibits both wave and particle properties: The particle is measured as a single pulse at a single position, while the modulus squared of the wave describes the probability of detecting the particle at a specific place on the screen giving a statistical interference pattern. This phenomenon has been shown to occur with photons, electrons, atoms, and even some molecules: with buckminsterfullerene () in 2001, with 2 molecules of 430 atoms ( and ) in 2011, and with molecules of up to 2000 atoms in 2019. In addition to interference patterns built up from single particles, up to 4 entangled photons can also show interference patterns. ===Mach-Zehnder interferometer=== The Mach–Zehnder interferometer can be seen as a simplified version of the double-slit experiment. Instead of propagating through free space after the two slits, and hitting any position in an extended screen, in the interferometer the photons can only propagate via two paths, and hit two discrete photodetectors. This makes it possible to describe it via simple linear algebra in dimension 2, rather than differential equations. A photon emitted by the laser hits the first beam splitter and is then in a superposition between the two possible paths. In the second beam splitter these paths interfere, causing the photon to hit the photodetector on the right with probability one, and the photodetector on the bottom with probability zero. Blocking one of the paths, or equivalently detecting the presence of a photon on a path eliminates interference between the paths: both photodetectors will be hit with probability 1/2. This indicates that after the first beam splitter the photon does not take one path or another, but rather exists in a quantum superposition of the two paths. ==="Which-way" experiments and the principle of complementarity=== A well-known thought experiment predicts that if particle detectors are positioned at the slits, showing through which slit a photon goes, the interference pattern will disappear. Despite the importance of this thought experiment in the history of quantum mechanics (for example, see the discussion on Einstein's version of this experiment), technically feasible realizations of this experiment were not proposed until the 1970s. (Naive implementations of the textbook thought experiment are not possible because photons cannot be detected without absorbing the photon.) Currently, multiple experiments have been performed illustrating various aspects of complementarity. An experiment performed in 1987 produced results that demonstrated that partial information could be obtained regarding which path a particle had taken without destroying the interference altogether. This "wave-particle trade-off" takes the form of an inequality relating the visibility of the interference pattern and the distinguishability of the which-way paths. ===Delayed choice and quantum eraser variations=== Wheeler's delayed-choice experiments demonstrate that extracting "which path" information after a particle passes through the slits can seem to retroactively alter its previous behavior at the slits. Quantum eraser experiments demonstrate that wave behavior can be restored by erasing or otherwise making permanently unavailable the "which path" information. A simple do-it-at-home illustration of the quantum eraser phenomenon was given in an article in Scientific American. If one sets polarizers before each slit with their axes orthogonal to each other, the interference pattern will be eliminated. The polarizers can be considered as introducing which-path information to each beam. Introducing a third polarizer in front of the detector with an axis of 45° relative to the other polarizers "erases" this information, allowing the interference pattern to reappear. This can also be accounted for by considering the light to be a classical wave, ===Weak measurement=== In a highly publicized experiment in 2012, researchers claimed to have identified the path each particle had taken without any adverse effects at all on the interference pattern generated by the particles. In order to do this, they used a setup such that particles coming to the screen were not from a point-like source, but from a source with two intensity maxima. However, commentators such as Svensson have pointed out that there is in fact no conflict between the weak measurements performed in this variant of the double-slit experiment and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Weak measurement followed by post-selection did not allow simultaneous position and momentum measurements for each individual particle, but rather allowed measurement of the average trajectory of the particles that arrived at different positions. In other words, the experimenters were creating a statistical map of the full trajectory landscape. It was shown experimentally in 1972 that in a double-slit system where only one slit was open at any time, interference was nonetheless observed provided the path difference was such that the detected photon could have come from either slit. The experimental conditions were such that the photon density in the system was much less than 1. In 1991, Carnal and Mlynek performed the classic Young's double slit experiment with metastable helium atoms passing through micrometer-scale slits in gold foil. In 1999, a quantum interference experiment (using a diffraction grating, rather than two slits) was successfully performed with buckyball molecules (each of which comprises 60 carbon atoms). A buckyball is large enough (diameter about 0.7 nm, nearly half a million times larger than a proton) to be seen in an electron microscope. In 2002, an electron field emission source was used to demonstrate the double-slit experiment. In this experiment, a coherent electron wave was emitted from two closely located emission sites on the needle apex, which acted as double slits, splitting the wave into two coherent electron waves in a vacuum. The interference pattern between the two electron waves could then be observed. In 2017, researchers performed the double-slit experiment using light-induced field electron emitters. With this technique, emission sites can be optically selected on a scale of ten nanometers. By selectively deactivating (closing) one of the two emissions (slits), researchers were able to show that the interference pattern disappeared. In 2005, E. R. Eliel presented an experimental and theoretical study of the optical transmission of a thin metal screen perforated by two subwavelength slits, separated by many optical wavelengths. The total intensity of the far-field double-slit pattern is shown to be reduced or enhanced as a function of the wavelength of the incident light beam. In 2012, researchers at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln performed the double-slit experiment with electrons as described by Richard Feynman, using new instruments that allowed control of the transmission of the two slits and the monitoring of single-electron detection events. Electrons were fired by an electron gun and passed through one or two slits of 62 nm wide × 4 μm tall. In 2013, a quantum interference experiment (using diffraction gratings, rather than two slits) was successfully performed with molecules that each comprised 810 atoms (whose total mass was over 10,000 atomic mass units). The record was raised to 2000 atoms (25,000 amu) in 2019. A silicone oil droplet, bouncing along the surface of a liquid, self-propels via resonant interactions with its own wave field. The droplet gently sloshes the liquid with every bounce. At the same time, ripples from past bounces affect its course. The droplet's interaction with its own ripples, which form what is known as a pilot wave, causes it to exhibit behaviors previously thought to be peculiar to elementary particles – including behaviors customarily taken as evidence that elementary particles are spread through space like waves, without any specific location, until they are measured. Behaviors mimicked via this hydrodynamic pilot-wave system include quantum single particle diffraction, tunneling, quantized orbits, orbital level splitting, spin, and multimodal statistics. It is also possible to infer uncertainty relations and exclusion principles. Videos are available illustrating various features of this system. (See the External links.) However, more complicated systems that involve two or more particles in superposition are not amenable to such a simple, classically intuitive explanation. Accordingly, no hydrodynamic analog of entanglement has been developed. ==== Double-slit experiment on time ==== In 2023, an experiment was reported recreating an interference pattern in time by shining a pump laser pulse at a screen coated in indium tin oxide (ITO) which would alter the properties of the electrons within the material due to the Kerr effect, changing it from transparent to reflective for around 200 femtoseconds long where a subsequent probe laser beam hitting the ITO screen would then see this temporary change in optical properties as a slit in time and two of them as a double slit with a phase difference adding up destructively or constructively on each frequency component resulting in an interference pattern. Similar results have been obtained classically on water waves. \begin{align} I(\theta) &\propto \cos^2 \left [{\frac {\pi d \sin \theta}{\lambda}}\right]~\mathrm{sinc}^2 \left [ \frac {\pi b \sin \theta}{\lambda} \right] \end{align} where the sinc function is defined as sinc(x) = sin(x)/x for x ≠ 0, and sinc(0) = 1. This is illustrated in the figure above, where the first pattern is the diffraction pattern of a single slit, given by the function in this equation, and the second figure shows the combined intensity of the light diffracted from the two slits, where the function represents the fine structure, and the coarser structure represents diffraction by the individual slits as described by the function. Similar calculations for the near field can be made by applying the Fresnel diffraction equation, which implies that as the plane of observation gets closer to the plane in which the slits are located, the diffraction patterns associated with each slit decrease in size, so that the area in which interference occurs is reduced, and may vanish altogether when there is no overlap in the two diffracted patterns. ==Path-integral formulation== The double-slit experiment can illustrate the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics provided by Feynman. The path integral formulation replaces the classical notion of a single, unique trajectory for a system, with a sum over all possible trajectories. The trajectories are added together by using functional integration. Each path is considered equally likely, and thus contributes the same amount. However, the phase of this contribution at any given point along the path is determined by the action along the path: A_{\text{path}}(x,y,z,t) = e^{i S(x,y,z,t)} All these contributions are then added together, and the magnitude of the final result is squared, to get the probability distribution for the position of a particle: p(x,y,z,t) \propto \left\vert \int_{\text{all paths}} e^{i S(x,y,z,t)} \right\vert ^2 As is always the case when calculating probability, the results must then be normalized by imposing: \iiint_{\text{all space}}p(x,y,z,t)\,dV = 1 The probability distribution of the outcome is the normalized square of the norm of the superposition, over all paths from the point of origin to the final point, of waves propagating proportionally to the action along each path. The differences in the cumulative action along the different paths (and thus the relative phases of the contributions) produces the interference pattern observed by the double-slit experiment. Feynman stressed that his formulation is merely a mathematical description, not an attempt to describe a real process that we can measure. ==Interpretations of the experiment== Like the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment, the double-slit experiment is often used to highlight the differences and similarities between the various interpretations of quantum mechanics. ===Standard quantum physics=== The standard interpretation of the double slit experiment is that the pattern is a wave phenomenon, representing interference between two probability amplitudes, one for each slit. Low intensity experiments demonstrate that the pattern is filled in one particle detection at a time. Any change to the apparatus designed to detect a particle at a particular slit alters the probability amplitudes and the interference disappears. ===Complementarity=== Niels Bohr interpreted quantum experiments like the double-slit experiment using the concept of complementarity. In Bohr's view quantum systems are not classical, but measurements can only give classical results. Certain pairs of classical properties will never be observed in a quantum system simultaneously: the interference pattern of waves in the double slit experiment will disappear if particles are detected at the slits. Modern quantitative versions of the concept allow for a continuous tradeoff between the visibility of the interference fringes and the probability of particle detection at a slit. ===Copenhagen interpretation=== The Copenhagen interpretation is a collection of views about the meaning of quantum mechanics, stemming from the work of Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and others. The term "Copenhagen interpretation" was apparently coined by Heisenberg during the 1950s to refer to ideas developed in the 1925–1927 period, glossing over his disagreements with Bohr. Consequently, there is no definitive historical statement of what the interpretation entails. Features common across versions of the Copenhagen interpretation include the idea that quantum mechanics is intrinsically indeterministic, with probabilities calculated using the Born rule, and some form of complementarity principle. Moreover, the act of "observing" or "measuring" an object is irreversible, and no truth can be attributed to an object, except according to the results of its measurement. In the Copenhagen interpretation, complementarity means a particular experiment can demonstrate particle behavior (passing through a definite slit) or wave behavior (interference), but not both at the same time. In a Copenhagen-type view, the question of which slit a particle travels through has no meaning when there is no detector. ===Relational interpretation=== According to the relational interpretation of quantum mechanics, first proposed by Carlo Rovelli, observations such as those in the double-slit experiment result specifically from the interaction between the observer (measuring device) and the object being observed (physically interacted with), not any absolute property possessed by the object. In the case of an electron, if it is initially "observed" at a particular slit, then the observer–particle (photon–electron) interaction includes information about the electron's position. This partially constrains the particle's eventual location at the screen. If it is "observed" (measured with a photon) not at a particular slit but rather at the screen, then there is no "which path" information as part of the interaction, so the electron's "observed" position on the screen is determined strictly by its probability function. This makes the resulting pattern on the screen the same as if each individual electron had passed through both slits. ===Many-worlds interpretation=== As with Copenhagen, there are multiple variants of the many-worlds interpretation. The unifying theme is that physical reality is identified with a wavefunction, and this wavefunction always evolves unitarily, i.e., following the Schrödinger equation with no collapses. Consequently, there are many parallel universes, which only interact with each other through interference. David Deutsch argues that the way to understand the double-slit experiment is that in each universe the particle travels through a specific slit, but its motion is affected by interference with particles in other universes, and this interference creates the observable fringes. David Wallace, another advocate of the many-worlds interpretation, writes that in the familiar setup of the double-slit experiment the two paths are not sufficiently separated for a description in terms of parallel universes to make sense. ===De Broglie–Bohm theory=== An alternative to the standard understanding of quantum mechanics, the De Broglie–Bohm theory states that particles also have precise locations at all times, and that their velocities are defined by the wave-function. So while a single particle will travel through one particular slit in the double-slit experiment, the so-called "pilot wave" that influences it will travel through both. The two slit de Broglie-Bohm trajectories were first calculated by Chris Dewdney while working with Chris Philippidis and Basil Hiley at Birkbeck College (London). The de Broglie-Bohm theory produces the same statistical results as standard quantum mechanics, but dispenses with many of its conceptual difficulties by adding complexity through an ad hoc quantum potential to guide the particles. While the model is in many ways similar to Schrödinger equation, it is known to fail for relativistic cases and does not account for features such as particle creation or annihilation in quantum field theory. Many authors such as nobel laureates Werner Heisenberg, Sir Anthony James Leggett and Sir Roger Penrose have criticized it for not adding anything new. More complex variants of this type of approach have appeared, for instance the three wave hypothesis of Ryszard Horodecki as well as other complicated combinations of de Broglie and Compton waves. To date there is no evidence that these are useful.	[ "Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment", "wave propagation", "Elitzur–Vaidman bomb tester", "functional integration", "diffraction pattern", "Normalizing constant", "beam splitter", "classical physics", "Proportionality (mathematics)", "N-slit interferometer", "Wave", "Quantum entanglement", "Ryszard Horodecki", "corpuscular theory of light", "phase (waves)", "Richard Feynman", "Photon polarization", "pilot wave", "Como", "many-worlds interpretation", "Niels Bohr", "interference (wave propagation)", "Diffraction from slits", "interference pattern", "wave theory of light", "University of Tübingen", "action (physics)", "David Deutsch", "electrons", "Physical Review", "complementarity (physics)", "weak measurement", "Born rule", "Isaac Newton", "far field", "Observer (quantum physics)", "magnitude (mathematics)", "Walter Lewin", "Schrödinger's cat", "amplitude", "Indeterminism", "Fresnel diffraction", "Werner Heisenberg", "Particle", "Hydrodynamic quantum analogs", "Classical mechanics", "atomic mass units", "Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society", "Roger Penrose", "classical mechanics", "Fraunhofer diffraction", "near and far field", "wave–particle duality", "photoelectric effect", "Claus Jönsson", "length", "Heisenberg uncertainty principle", "Schrödinger equation", "Metastability", "Diffraction", "modern physics", "Complementarity (physics)", "Quantum eraser", "The Feynman Lectures on Physics", "Giulio Pozzi", "photon", "Intensity (physics)", "interpretations of quantum mechanics", "wave", "Bell System Technical Journal", "Mach–Zehnder interferometer", "buckminsterfullerene", "Englert–Greenberger duality relation", "Delayed-choice quantum eraser", "Copenhagen interpretation", "Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics", "Christiaan Huygens", "Carlo Rovelli", "Dual-polarization interferometry", "Wave–particle duality relation", "wavelength", "Indium tin oxide", "quantum field theory", "Italy", "Kerr effect", "Pilot wave theory", "Bohr–Einstein debates", "Nanometre", "Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics", "George Paget Thomson", "Measurement problem", "Anthony James Leggett", "Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods", "Probability amplitude", "Charles Sanders Peirce", "Aharonov-Bohm effect", "Interference (wave propagation)", "Politecnico di Milano", "Physics World", "probability", "Quantum coherence", "Phase (waves)", "counterfactual definiteness", "Davisson–Germer experiment", "Superposition principle", "sinc function", "superposition principle", "Quantum mechanics", "Huygens–Fresnel principle", "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "University of Nebraska–Lincoln", "laser", "Physical Review Letters", "Coherence (physics)", "Square (algebra)", "Thomas Young (scientist)", "quantum mechanics", "thought experiment", "Young's interference experiment", "De Broglie–Bohm theory", "wavefront", "molecule", "Geoffrey Ingram Taylor", "Matter wave", "pump laser", "Interference (optics)", "Relational quantum mechanics", "phase shift", "path integral formulation", "Max Born", "electron microscope" ]
8,668	Dan Bricklin	Daniel Singer Bricklin (born July 16, 1951) is an American businessman and engineer who is the co-creator, with Bob Frankston, of VisiCalc, the first spreadsheet program. He also founded Software Garden, Inc., of which he is currently president, and Trellix, which he left in 2004. He currently serves as the chief technology officer of Alpha Software. His book, Bricklin on Technology, was published by Wiley in May 2009. For his work with VisiCalc, Bricklin is often referred to as "the father of the Spreadsheet". He was one of six people spotlighted when the Computer was denoted "Machine of the Year" by Time magazine in 1982. ==Early life and education== Bricklin was born in Philadelphia, where he attended Akiba Hebrew Academy. He began his college as a mathematics major, but soon switched to computer science. He earned a Bachelor of Science in electrical engineering and computer science from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1973, where he was a resident of Bexley Hall. until 1976, when he began working for FasFax, a cash register manufacturer. In 1977, he returned to education, and was awarded a Master of Business Administration from Harvard University in 1979. ==Career== ===Software Arts=== In 1979, Bricklin and Frankston founded Software Arts, Inc., and began selling VisiCalc, via a separate company named VisiCorp. Along with Frankston, Bricklin started writing versions of the program for the Tandy TRS-80, Commodore PET and the Atari 800. Soon after its launch, VisiCalc became a fast seller at $100. and Spotlight, a desktop organizer for the IBM Personal Computer." Bricklin was awarded the Grace Murray Hopper Award in 1981 for VisiCalc. Bricklin could not patent VisiCalc, since software inventions were not eligible for patent protection at the time. Bricklin was chairman of Software Arts until 1985, the year that Software Arts was acquired by Lotus. Slate corporation, and developed At Hand, a pen-based spreadsheet. was released in November 1994. === Corporation=== In 1995 Bricklin founded Trellix Corporation, named for Trellix Site Builder. Trellix was bought by Interland (now Web.com) in 2003, and Bricklin became Interland's chief technology officer until early 2004. In 2003, Bricklin was given the Wharton Infosys Business Transformation Award for being a technology change leader. He was recognized for having used information technology in an industry-transforming way. He has received an Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Newbury College. He also became a member of the National Academy of Engineering. In 2004, he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum "for advancing the utility of personal computers by developing the VisiCalc electronic spreadsheet." Bricklin: appeared in the 1996 documentary Triumph of the Nerds, as well as the 2005 documentary Aardvark'd: 12 Weeks with Geeks, in both cases discussing the development of VisiCalc. introduced the term "friend-to-friend networking" on August 11, 2000. also introduced the term cornucopia of the commons about the same time.	[ "Pennsylvania", "Triumph of the Nerds", "Alpha Software", "Boston Computer Society", "VisiCalc", "Computer History Museum", "pen-based", "Phoenix, Arizona", "wikiCalc", "Time (magazine)", "Computer", "Harvard University", "electrical engineering", "Imdb.com", "National Academy of Engineering", "WPS-8", "Tragedy of the commons", "spreadsheet", "computer science", "Spreadsheet", "Akiba Hebrew Academy", "friend-to-friend", "Master of Business Administration", "TK/Solver", "iPad", "chief technology officer", "Web.com", "Bachelor of Science", "Apple II", "List of MIT dormitories", "The New York Times", "VisiCorp", "IEEE Computer Society", "Trellix (1995–2004)", "Grace Murray Hopper Award", "List of people considered father or mother of a field", "Bob Frankston", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "Philadelphia", "TechStars", "Association for Computing Machinery", "Aardvark'd: 12 Weeks with Geeks", "Lotus Development Corporation", "mathematics" ]
8,674	DECT	Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) is a cordless telephony standard maintained by ETSI. It originated in Europe, where it is the common standard, replacing earlier standards, such as CT1 and CT2. Since the DECT-2020 standard onwards, it also includes IoT communication. Beyond Europe, it has been adopted by Australia and most countries in Asia and South America. North American adoption was delayed by United States radio-frequency regulations. This forced development of a variation of DECT called DECT 6.0, using a slightly different frequency range, which makes these units incompatible with systems intended for use in other areas, even from the same manufacturer. DECT has almost completely replaced other standards in most countries where it is used, with the exception of North America. DECT was originally intended for fast roaming between networked base stations, and the first DECT product was Net3 wireless LAN. However, its most popular application is single-cell cordless phones connected to traditional analog telephone, primarily in home and small-office systems, though gateways with multi-cell DECT and/or DECT repeaters are also available in many private branch exchange (PBX) systems for medium and large businesses, produced by Panasonic, Mitel, Gigaset, Ascom, Cisco, Grandstream, Snom, Spectralink, and RTX. DECT can also be used for purposes other than cordless phones, such as baby monitors, wireless microphones and industrial sensors. The ULE Alliance's DECT ULE and its "HAN FUN" protocol are variants tailored for home security, automation, and the internet of things (IoT). The DECT standard includes the generic access profile (GAP), a common interoperability profile for simple telephone capabilities, which most manufacturers implement. GAP-conformance enables DECT handsets and bases from different manufacturers to interoperate at the most basic level of functionality, that of making and receiving calls. Japan uses its own DECT variant, J-DECT, which is supported by the DECT forum. The New Generation DECT (NG-DECT) standard, marketed as CAT-iq by the DECT Forum, provides a common set of advanced capabilities for handsets and base stations. CAT-iq allows interchangeability across IP-DECT base stations and handsets from different manufacturers, while maintaining backward compatibility with GAP equipment. It also requires mandatory support for wideband audio. DECT-2020 New Radio, marketed as NR+ (New Radio plus), is a 5G data transmission protocol which meets ITU-R IMT-2020 requirements for ultra-reliable low-latency and massive machine-type communications, and can co-exist with earlier DECT devices. ==Standards history== The DECT standard was developed by ETSI in several phases, the first of which took place between 1988 and 1992 when the first round of standards were published. These were the ETS 300-175 series in nine parts defining the air interface, and ETS 300-176 defining how the units should be type approved. A technical report, ETR-178, was also published to explain the standard. Subsequent standards were developed and published by ETSI to cover interoperability profiles and standards for testing. Named Digital European Cordless Telephone at its launch by CEPT in November 1987; its name was soon changed to Digital European Cordless Telecommunications, following a suggestion by Enrico Tosato of Italy, to reflect its broader range of application including data services. In 1995, due to its more global usage, the name was changed from European to Enhanced. DECT is recognized by the ITU as fulfilling the IMT-2000 requirements and thus qualifies as a 3G system. Within the IMT-2000 group of technologies, DECT is referred to as IMT-2000 Frequency Time (IMT-FT). DECT was developed by ETSI but has since been adopted by many countries all over the World. The original DECT frequency band (1880–1900 MHz) is used in all countries in Europe. Outside Europe, it is used in most of Asia, Australia and South America. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission in 2005 changed channelization and licensing costs in a nearby band (1920–1930 MHz, or 1.9 GHz), known as Unlicensed Personal Communications Services (UPCS), allowing DECT devices to be sold in the U.S. with only minimal changes. These channels are reserved exclusively for voice communication applications and therefore are less likely to experience interference from other wireless devices such as baby monitors and wireless networks. The New Generation DECT (NG-DECT) standard was first published in 2007; it was developed by ETSI with guidance from the Home Gateway Initiative through the DECT Forum to support IP-DECT functions in home gateway/IP-PBX equipment. The ETSI TS 102 527 series comes in five parts and covers wideband audio and mandatory interoperability features between handsets and base stations. They were preceded by an explanatory technical report, ETSI TR 102 570. The DECT Forum maintains the CAT-iq trademark and certification program; CAT-iq wideband voice profile 1.0 and interoperability profiles 2.0/2.1 are based on the relevant parts of ETSI TS 102 527. The DECT Ultra Low Energy (DECT ULE) standard was announced in January 2011 and the first commercial products were launched later that year by Dialog Semiconductor. The standard was created to enable home automation, security, healthcare and energy monitoring applications that are battery powered. Like DECT, DECT ULE standard uses the 1.9 GHz band, and so suffers less interference than Zigbee, Bluetooth, or Wi-Fi from microwave ovens, which all operate in the unlicensed 2.4 GHz ISM band. DECT ULE uses a simple star network topology, so many devices in the home are connected to a single control unit. A new low-complexity audio codec, LC3plus, has been added as an option to the 2019 revision of the DECT standard. This codec is designed for high-quality voice and music applications such as wireless speakers, headphones, headsets, and microphones. LC3plus supports scalable 16-bit narrowband, wideband, super wideband, fullband, and 24-bit high-resolution fullband and ultra-band coding, with sample rates of 8, 16, 24, 32, 48 and 96 kHz and audio bandwidth of up to 48 kHz. DECT-2020 New Radio protocol was published in July 2020; it defines a new physical interface based on cyclic prefix orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (CP-OFDM) capable of up to 1.2Gbit/s transfer rate with QAM-1024 modulation. The updated standard supports multi-antenna MIMO and beamforming, FEC channel coding, and hybrid automatic repeat request. There are 17 radio channel frequencies in the range from 450MHz up to 5,875MHz, and channel bandwidths of 1,728, 3,456, or 6,912kHz. Direct communication between end devices is possible with a mesh network topology. In October 2021, DECT-2020 NR was approved for the IMT-2020 standard, for use in Massive Machine Type Communications (MMTC) industry automation, Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications (URLLC), and professional wireless audio applications with point-to-point or multicast communications; the proposal was fast-tracked by ITU-R following real-world evaluations. The new protocol will be marketed as NR+ (New Radio plus) by the DECT Forum. OpenD is an open-source framework designed to provide a complete software implementation of DECT ULE protocols on reference hardware from Dialog Semiconductor and DSP Group; the project is maintained by the DECT forum. ==Application== The DECT standard originally envisaged three major areas of application: The service was promoted for only a few months and, having peaked at 142,000 subscribers, was shut down in 2001. DECT has been used for wireless local loop as a substitute for copper pairs in the "last mile" in countries such as India and South Africa. By using directional antennas and sacrificing some traffic capacity, cell coverage could extend to over . One example is the corDECT standard. The first data application for DECT was Net3 wireless LAN system by Olivetti, launched in 1993 and discontinued in 1995. A precursor to Wi-Fi, Net3 was a micro-cellular data-only network with fast roaming between base stations and 520 kbit/s transmission rates. Data applications such as electronic cash terminals, traffic lights, and remote door openers also exist, but have been eclipsed by Wi-Fi, 3G and 4G which compete with DECT for both voice and data. ==Characteristics== The DECT standard specifies a means for a portable phone or "Portable Part" to access a fixed telephone network via radio. Base station or "Fixed Part" is used to terminate the radio link and provide access to a fixed line. A gateway is then used to connect calls to the fixed network, such as public switched telephone network (telephone jack), office PBX, ISDN, or VoIP over Ethernet connection. Typical abilities of a domestic DECT Generic Access Profile (GAP) system include multiple handsets to one base station and one phone line socket. This allows several cordless telephones to be placed around the house, all operating from the same telephone line. Additional handsets have a battery charger station that does not plug into the telephone system. Handsets can in many cases be used as intercoms, communicating between each other, and sometimes as walkie-talkies, intercommunicating without telephone line connection. DECT operates in the 1880–1900 MHz band and defines ten frequency channels from 1881.792 MHz to 1897.344 MHz with a band gap of 1728 kHz. DECT operates as a multicarrier frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) and time-division multiple access (TDMA) system. This means that the radio spectrum is divided into physical carriers in two dimensions: frequency and time. FDMA access provides up to 10 frequency channels, and TDMA access provides 24 time slots per every frame of 10ms. DECT uses time-division duplex (TDD), which means that down- and uplink use the same frequency but different time slots. Thus a base station provides 12 duplex speech channels in each frame, with each time slot occupying any available channel thus 10 × 12 = 120 carriers are available, each carrying 32 kbit/s. DECT also provides frequency-hopping spread spectrum over TDMA/TDD structure for ISM band applications. If frequency-hopping is avoided, each base station can provide up to 120 channels in the DECT spectrum before frequency reuse. Each timeslot can be assigned to a different channel in order to exploit advantages of frequency hopping and to avoid interference from other users in asynchronous fashion. DECT allows interference-free wireless operation to around outdoors. Indoor performance is reduced when interior spaces are constrained by walls. DECT performs with fidelity in common congested domestic radio traffic situations. It is generally immune to interference from other DECT systems, Wi-Fi networks, video senders, Bluetooth technology, baby monitors and other wireless devices. ===Technical properties=== ETSI standards documentation ETSI EN 300 175 parts 1–8 (DECT), ETSI EN 300 444 (GAP) and ETSI TS 102 527 parts 1–5 (NG-DECT) prescribe the following technical properties: Audio codec: mandatory: 32kbit/s G.726 ADPCM (narrow band), 64kbit/s G.722 sub-band ADPCM (wideband) optional: 64kbit/s G.711 μ-law/A-law PCM (narrow band), 32kbit/s G.729.1 (wideband), 32kbit/s MPEG-4 ER AAC-LD (wideband), 64kbit/s MPEG-4 ER AAC-LD (super-wideband) Frequency: the DECT physical layer specifies RF carriers for the frequency ranges 1880 MHz to 1980 MHz and 2010 MHz to 2025 MHz, as well as 902 MHz to 928 MHz and 2400 MHz to 2483,5 MHz ISM band with frequency-hopping for the U.S. market. The most common spectrum allocation is 1880 MHz to 1900 MHz; outside Europe, 1900 MHz to 1920 MHz and 1910 MHz to 1930 MHz spectrum is available in several countries. in Europe, as well as South Africa, Asia, Hong Kong, Australia, and New Zealand in Korea in Taiwan (J-DECT) in Japan in China (until 2003) in Brazil in Latin America (DECT 6.0) in the United States and Canada Carriers (1.728 MHz spacing): 10 channels in Europe and Latin America 8 channels in Taiwan 5 channels in the US, Brazil, Japan 3 channels in Korea Time slots: 2 × 12 (up and down stream) Channel allocation: dynamic Average transmission power: 10 mW (250 mW peak) in Europe & Japan, 4 mW (100 mW peak) in the US === Physical layer === The DECT physical layer uses FDMA/TDMA access with TDD. Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK) modulation is used: the binary one is coded with a frequency increase by 288 kHz, and the binary zero with frequency decrease of 288 kHz. With high quality connections, 2-, 4- or 8-level differential PSK modulation (DBPSK, DQPSK or D8PSK), which is similar to QAM-2, QAM-4 and QAM-8, can be used to transmit 1, 2, or 3 bits per each symbol. QAM-16 and QAM-64 modulations with 4 and 6 bits per symbol can be used for user data (B-field) only, with resulting transmission speeds of up to 5,068Mbit/s. DECT provides dynamic channel selection and assignment; the choice of transmission frequency and time slot is always made by the mobile terminal. In case of interference in the selected frequency channel, the mobile terminal (possibly from suggestion by the base station) can initiate either intracell handover, selecting another channel/transmitter on the same base, or intercell handover, selecting a different base station altogether. For this purpose, DECT devices scan all idle channels at regular 30s intervals to generate a received signal strength indication (RSSI) list. When a new channel is required, the mobile terminal (PP) or base station (FP) selects a channel with the minimum interference from the RSSI list. The maximum allowed power for portable equipment as well as base stations is 250 mW. A portable device radiates an average of about 10 mW during a call as it is only using one of 24 time slots to transmit. In Europe, the power limit was expressed as effective radiated power (ERP), rather than the more commonly used equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP), permitting the use of high-gain directional antennas to produce much higher EIRP and hence long ranges. ===Data link control layer=== The DECT media access control layer controls the physical layer and provides connection oriented, connectionless and broadcast services to the higher layers. The DECT data link layer uses Link Access Protocol Control (LAPC), a specially designed variant of the ISDN data link protocol called LAPD. They are based on HDLC. GFSK modulation uses a bit rate of 1152 kbit/s, with a frame of 10ms (11520bits) which contains 24 time slots. Each slots contains 480 bits, some of which are reserved for physical packets and the rest is guard space. Slots 0–11 are always used for downlink (FP to PP) and slots 12–23 are used for uplink (PP to FP). There are several combinations of slots and corresponding types of physical packets with GFSK modulation: Basic packet (P32) 420 or 424 bits "full slot", used for normal speech transmission. User data (B-field) contains 320 bits. Low-capacity packet (P00) 96 bits at the beginning of the time slot ("short slot"). This packet only contains 64-bit header (A-field) used as a dummy bearer to broadcast base station identification when idle. Variable capacity packet (P00j) 100 + j or 104 + j bits, either two half-slots (0 ≤ j ≤ 136) or "long slot" (137 ≤ j ≤ 856). User data (B-field) contains j bits. P64 (j = 640), P67 (j = 672) "long slot", used by NG-DECT/CAT-iq wideband voice and data. High-capacity packet (P80) 900 or 904 bits, "double slot". This packet uses two time slots and always begins in an even time slot. The B-field is increased to 800 bits.. The 420/424 bits of a GFSK basic packet (P32) contain the following fields: 32 bits synchronization code (S-field): constant bit string AAAAE98AH for FP transmission, 55551675H for PP transmission 388 bits data (D-field), including 64 bits header (A-field): control traffic in logical channels C, M, N, P, and Q 320 bits user data (B-field): DECT payload, i.e. voice data 4 bits error-checking (X-field): CRC of the B-field 4 bits collision detection/channel quality (Z-field): optional, contains a copy of the X-field The resulting full data rate is 32 kbit/s, available in both directions. ===Network layer=== The DECT network layer always contains the following protocol entities: Call Control (CC) Mobility Management (MM) Optionally it may also contain others: Call Independent Supplementary Services (CISS) Connection Oriented Message Service (COMS) Connectionless Message Service (CLMS) All these communicate through a Link Control Entity (LCE). The call control protocol is derived from ISDN DSS1, which is a Q.931-derived protocol. Many DECT-specific changes have been made. The mobility management protocol includes the management of identities, authentication, location updating, on-air subscription and key allocation. It includes many elements similar to the GSM protocol, but also includes elements unique to DECT. Unlike the GSM protocol, the DECT network specifications do not define cross-linkages between the operation of the entities (for example, Mobility Management and Call Control). The architecture presumes that such linkages will be designed into the interworking unit that connects the DECT access network to whatever mobility-enabled fixed network is involved. By keeping the entities separate, the handset is capable of responding to any combination of entity traffic, and this creates great flexibility in fixed network design without breaking full interoperability. DECT GAP is an interoperability profile for DECT. The intent is that two different products from different manufacturers that both conform not only to the DECT standard, but also to the GAP profile defined within the DECT standard, are able to interoperate for basic calling. The DECT standard includes full testing suites for GAP, and GAP products on the market from different manufacturers are in practice interoperable for the basic functions. ===Security=== The DECT media access control layer includes authentication of handsets to the base station using the DECT Standard Authentication Algorithm (DSAA). When registering the handset on the base, both record a shared 128-bit Unique Authentication Key (UAK). The base can request authentication by sending two random numbers to the handset, which calculates the response using the shared 128-bit key. The handset can also request authentication by sending a 64-bit random number to the base, which chooses a second random number, calculates the response using the shared key, and sends it back with the second random number. The standard also provides encryption services with the DECT Standard Cipher (DSC). The encryption is fairly weak, using a 35-bit initialization vector and encrypting the voice stream with 64-bit encryption. While most of the DECT standard is publicly available, the part describing the DECT Standard Cipher was only available under a non-disclosure agreement to the phones' manufacturers from ETSI. The properties of the DECT protocol make it hard to intercept a frame, modify it and send it later again, as DECT frames are based on time-division multiplexing and need to be transmitted at a specific point in time. After an unverified report of a successful attack in 2002, members of the deDECTed.org project actually did reverse engineer the DECT Standard Cipher in 2008, and as of 2010 there has been a viable attack on it that can recover the key. In 2012, an improved authentication algorithm, the DECT Standard Authentication Algorithm 2 (DSAA2), and improved version of the encryption algorithm, the DECT Standard Cipher 2 (DSC2), both based on AES 128-bit encryption, were included as optional in the NG-DECT/CAT-iq suite. DECT Forum also launched the DECT Security certification program which mandates the use of previously optional security features in the GAP profile, such as early encryption and base authentication. ===Profiles=== Various access profiles have been defined in the DECT standard: Public Access Profile (PAP) (deprecated) Generic Access Profile (GAP) ETSI EN 300 444 Cordless Terminal Mobility (CTM) Access Profile (CAP) ETSI EN 300 824 Data access profiles DECT Packet Radio System (DPRS) ETSI EN 301 649 DECT Multimedia Access Profile (DMAP) DECT Evolution and Audio Solution (DA14495) Multimedia in the Local Loop Access Profile (MRAP) Open Data Access Profile (ODAP) Radio in the Local Loop (RLL) Access Profile (RAP) ETSI ETS 300 765 Interworking profiles (IWP) DECT/ISDN Interworking Profile (IIP) ETSI EN 300 434 DECT/GSM Interworking Profile (GIP) ETSI EN 301 242 DECT/UMTS Interworking Profile (UIP) ETSI TS 101 863 == Additional specifications == === DECT 6.0 === DECT 6.0 is a North American marketing term for DECT devices manufactured for the United States and Canada operating at 1.9 GHz. The "6.0" does not equate to a spectrum band; it was decided the term DECT 1.9 might have confused customers who equate larger numbers (such as the 2.4 and 5.8 in existing 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz cordless telephones) with later products. The term was coined by Rick Krupka, marketing director at Siemens and the DECT USA Working Group / Siemens ICM. In North America, DECT suffers from deficiencies in comparison to DECT elsewhere, since the UPCS band (1920–1930 MHz) is not free from heavy interference. Bandwidth is half as wide as that used in Europe (1880–1900 MHz), the 4 mW average transmission power reduces range compared to the 10 mW permitted in Europe, and the commonplace lack of GAP compatibility among US vendors binds customers to a single vendor. Before 1.9 GHz band was approved by the FCC in 2005, DECT could only operate in unlicensed 2.4 GHz and 900 MHz Region 2 ISM bands; some users of Uniden WDECT 2.4 GHz phones reported interoperability issues with Wi-Fi equipment. North-American products may not be used in Europe, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Africa, as they cause and suffer from interference with the local cellular networks. Use of such products is prohibited by European Telecommunications Authorities, PTA, Telecommunications Regulatory Commission of Sri Lanka and the Independent Communication Authority of South Africa. European DECT products may not be used in the United States and Canada, as they likewise cause and suffer from interference with American and Canadian cellular networks, and use is prohibited by the Federal Communications Commission and Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada. DECT 8.0 HD is a marketing designation for North American DECT devices certified with CAT-iq 2.0 "Multi Line" profile. === NG-DECT/CAT-iq === Cordless Advanced Technology—internet and quality (CAT-iq) is a certification program maintained by the DECT Forum. It is based on New Generation DECT (NG-DECT) series of standards from ETSI. NG-DECT/CAT-iq contains features that expand the generic GAP profile with mandatory support for high quality wideband voice, enhanced security, calling party identification, multiple lines, parallel calls, and similar functions to facilitate VoIP calls through SIP and H.323 protocols. There are several CAT-iq profiles which define supported voice features: CAT-iq 1.0 "HD Voice" (ETSI TS 102 527-1): wideband audio, calling party line and name identification (CLIP/CNAP) CAT-iq 2.0 "Multi Line" (ETSI TS 102 527-3): multiple lines, line name, call waiting, call transfer, phonebook, call list, DTMF tones, headset, settings CAT-iq 2.1 "Green" (ETSI TS 102 527-5): 3-party conference, call intrusion, caller blocking (CLIR), answering machine control, SMS, power-management CAT-iq Data light data services, software upgrade over the air (SUOTA) (ETSI TS 102 527-4) CAT-iq IOT Smart Home connectivity (IOT) with DECT Ultra Low Energy (ETSI TS 102 939) CAT-iq allows any DECT handset to communicate with a DECT base from a different vendor, providing full interoperability. CAT-iq 2.0/2.1 feature set is designed to support IP-DECT base stations found in office IP-PBX and home gateways. === DECT-2020 === DECT-2020, also called NR+, is a new radio standard by ETSI for the DECT bands worldwide. The standard was designed to meet a subset of the ITU IMT-2020 5G requirements that are applicable to IOT and Industrial internet of things. DECT-2020 is compliant with the requirements for Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communications URLLC and massive Machine Type Communication (mMTC) of IMT-2020. DECT-2020 NR has new capabilities compared to DECT and DECT Evolution: Better multipath operation (OFDM Cyclic Prefix) Better radio sensitivity (OFDM and Turbocodes) Better resistance to radio interference (co-channel interference rejection) Better bandwidth utilization Mesh deployment The DECT-2020 standard has been designed to co-exist in the DECT radio band with existing DECT deployments. It uses the same Time Division slot timing and Frequency Division center frequencies and uses pre-transmit scanning to minimize co-channel interference. ==DECT for data networks== Other interoperability profiles exist in the DECT suite of standards, and in particular the DPRS (DECT Packet Radio Services) bring together a number of prior interoperability profiles for the use of DECT as a wireless LAN and wireless internet access service. With good range (up to indoors and using directional antennae outdoors), dedicated spectrum, high interference immunity, open interoperability and data speeds of around 500 kbit/s, DECT appeared at one time to be a superior alternative to Wi-Fi. The protocol capabilities built into the DECT networking protocol standards were particularly good at supporting fast roaming in the public space, between hotspots operated by competing but connected providers. The first DECT product to reach the market, Olivetti's Net3, was a wireless LAN, and German firms Dosch & Amand and Hoeft & Wessel built niche businesses on the supply of data transmission systems based on DECT. However, the timing of the availability of DECT, in the mid-1990s, was too early to find wide application for wireless data outside niche industrial applications. Whilst contemporary providers of Wi-Fi struggled with the same issues, providers of DECT retreated to the more immediately lucrative market for cordless telephones. A key weakness was also the inaccessibility of the U.S. market, due to FCC spectrum restrictions at that time. By the time mass applications for wireless Internet had emerged, and the U.S. had opened up to DECT, well into the new century, the industry had moved far ahead in terms of performance and DECT's time as a technically competitive wireless data transport had passed. ==Health and safety== DECT uses UHF radio, similar to mobile phones, baby monitors, Wi-Fi, and other cordless telephone technologies. In North America, the 4 mW average transmission power reduces range compared to the 10 mW permitted in Europe. The UK Health Protection Agency (HPA) claims that due to a mobile phone's adaptive power ability, a European DECT cordless phone's radiation could actually exceed the radiation of a mobile phone. A European DECT cordless phone's radiation has an average output power of 10 mW but is in the form of 100 bursts per second of 250 mW, a strength comparable to some mobile phones. Most studies have been unable to demonstrate any link to health effects, or have been inconclusive. Electromagnetic fields may have an effect on protein expression in laboratory settings but have not yet been demonstrated to have clinically significant effects in real-world settings. The World Health Organization has issued a statement on medical effects of mobile phones which acknowledges that the longer term effects (over several decades) require further research.	[ "Grandstream", "CT1", "IMT-2000", "MIMO", "time-division multiple access", "UMTS", "OFDM", "initialization vector", "physical layer", "Wideband Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications", "Europe", "home gateway", "DSS1", "Telecom Italia", "Advanced Encryption Standard", "Gateway (telecommunications)", "generic access profile", "Microcell", "DECT Ultra Low Energy", "Wireless local loop", "MPEG-4 Part 3", "SC-FDMA", "media access control", "GSM Interworking Profile", "wireless microphone", "Cordless telephony", "Session Initiation Protocol", "VoIP", "Electromagnetic field", "UPCS band", "CAT-iq", "equivalent isotropically radiated power", "cyclic prefix", "LC3 (codec)", "Ascom (company)", "wideband audio", "Ultra high frequency", "2.4 GHz", "wireless network", "Net3", "Generic access profile", "portable phone", "key size", "United States", "H.323", "radio spectrum", "Uniden", "automatic repeat request", "channel coding", "4G", "ISDN", "G.711", "base station", "Base station", "wireless local loop", "Q.931", "business telephone system", "GHz", "CorDECT", "connection oriented", "public switched telephone network", "3G", "G.729.1", "ISM band", "Cyclic Prefix", "internet of things", "Pakistan Telecommunication Authority", "HDLC", "encryption", "broadcasting", "Federal Communications Commission", "walkie-talkie", "beamforming", "Zigbee", "corDECT", "ITU", "man-in-the-middle attack", "data link layer", "Internet of things", "effective radiated power", "CT2", "Unlicensed Personal Communications Services", "IP-PBX", "multipath", "World Health Organization", "home automation", "Asia", "OFDMA", "Wi-Fi", "ETSI", "IMT-2020", "Gigaset", "G.726", "multicast", "Health Protection Agency", "ULE Alliance", "G.722", "plain old telephone service", "QAM", "Mitel", "intercom", "5G", "Hoeft & Wessel", "Australia", "Integrated Services Digital Network", "Snom", "frequency-hopping spread spectrum", "South America", "network layer", "Gaussian frequency-shift keying", "non-disclosure agreement", "URLLC", "European Telecommunications Standards Institute", "frequency-division multiple access", "Industrial internet of things", "baby monitor", "Dialog Semiconductor", "cordless telephone", "mesh network", "Business telephone system", "Dosch & Amand", "DSP Group", "Home Gateway Initiative", "video sender", "Bluetooth", "Polycom", "Panasonic", "Cisco", "wireless audio", "IP-DECT", "connectionless", "Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada", "time-division duplex" ]
8,676	Dhyana	Dhyana may refer to: ==Meditative practices in Indian religions== Dhyana in Buddhism (Pāli: jhāna) Dhyana in Hinduism Jain Dhyāna, see Jain meditation ==Other== Dhyana, a work by British composer John Tavener (1944–2013) Dhyana (MaYaN album), 2018 Hygon Dhyana, a x86 compatible microprocessor Vidya Pradeep, also Dhyana, Indian actress	[ "Dhyana in Hinduism", "Dhyan", "Dhyana (MaYaN album)", "Jain meditation", "John Tavener", "Zen (disambiguation)", "Hygon Dhyana", "Vidya Pradeep", "Dhyana in Buddhism", "Chan (disambiguation)" ]
8,677	December 30	==Events== === Pre-1600 === 534 – The second and final edition of the Code of Justinian comes into effect in the Byzantine Empire. 999 – Battle of Glenmama: The combined forces of Munster and Meath under king Brian Boru inflict a crushing defeat on the allied armies of Leinster and Dublin near Lyons Hill in Ireland. 1066 – Granada massacre: A Muslim mob storms the royal palace in Granada, crucifies Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacres most of the Jewish population of the city. 1419 – Hundred Years' War: Battle of La Rochelle. 1460 – Wars of the Roses: Lancastrians kill the 3rd Duke of York and win the Battle of Wakefield. ===1601–1900=== 1641 – Reapers' War: Louis XIII of France swears the Catalan constitutions, being appointed Count of Barcelona and thus establishing the personal union of the Principality of Catalonia with the Kingdom of France. 1702 – Queen Anne's War: James Moore, Governor of the Province of Carolina, abandons the Siege of St. Augustine. 1813 – War of 1812: British soldiers burn Buffalo, New York. 1816 – The Treaty of St. Louis between the United States and the united Ottawa, Ojibwa, and Potawatomi Indian tribes is proclaimed. 1825 – The Treaty of St. Louis between the United States and the Shawnee Nation is proclaimed. 1853 – Gadsden Purchase: The United States buys land from Mexico to facilitate railroad building in the Southwest. 1890 – Following the Wounded Knee Massacre, the United States Army and Lakota warriors face off in the Drexel Mission Fight. 1896 – Filipino patriot and reform advocate José Rizal is executed by a Spanish firing squad in Manila. 1896 – Canadian ice hockey player Ernie McLea scores the first hat-trick in Stanley Cup play, and the Cup-winning goal as the Montreal Victorias defeat the Winnipeg Victorias 6–5. 1897 – The British Colony of Natal annexes Zululand. ===1901–present=== 1902 – The Discovery Expedition under Robert Falcon Scott attained a Farthest South at 82°17′S in Antarctica. 1903 – A fire at the Iroquois Theater in Chicago, Illinois kills at least 605. 1905 – Former Idaho Governor Frank Steunenberg is assassinated at the front gate of his home in Caldwell. 1906 – The All-India Muslim League is founded in Dacca, East Bengal, British India (later Dhaka, Bangladesh). 1916 – Russian mystic and advisor to the Tsar Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin is murdered by a loyalist group led by Prince Felix Yusupov. His frozen, partially-trussed body was discovered in a Petrograd river three days later. 1916 – The last coronation in Hungary is performed for King Charles IV and Queen Zita. 1922 – The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) is formed. 1927 – The Ginza Line, the first subway line in Asia, opens in Tokyo, Japan. 1935 – The Italian Air Force bombs a Swedish Red Cross hospital during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. 1936 – The Flint sit-down strike hits General Motors. 1943 – Subhas Chandra Bose raises the flag of Indian independence at Port Blair. 1944 – King George II of Greece declares a regency, leaving the throne vacant. 1947 – Cold War: King Michael I of Romania is forced to abdicate by the Soviet Union-backed Communist government of Romania. 1952 – An RAF Avro Lancaster bomber crashes in Luqa, Malta after an engine failure, killing three crew members and a civilian on the ground. 1954 – The Finnish National Bureau of Investigation is established to consolidate criminal investigation and intelligence into a single agency. 1958 – The Guatemalan Air Force sinks several Mexican fishing boats alleged to have breached maritime borders, killing three and sparking international tension. 1967 – Aeroflot Flight L-51 crashes near Liepāja International Airport in Liepāja, Latvia, killing 43. 1972 – Vietnam War: Operation Linebacker II ends. 1987 – Stella Sigcau, Prime minister of the South African Bantustan of Transkei, is ousted from power in a bloodless military coup led by General Bantu Holomisa. 1993 – Israel establishes diplomatic relations with Vatican City and also upgrades to full diplomatic relations with Ireland. 1996 – Proposed budget cuts by Benjamin Netanyahu spark protests from 250,000 workers who shut down services across Israel. 1997 – In the worst incident in Algeria's insurgency, the Wilaya of Relizane massacres, 400 people from four villages are killed. 2000 – Rizal Day bombings: A series of bombs explode in various places in Metro Manila, Philippines within a period of a few hours, killing 22 and injuring about a hundred. 2004 – A fire in the República Cromagnon nightclub in Buenos Aires, Argentina, kills 194. 2005 – Tropical Storm Zeta forms in the open Atlantic Ocean, tying the record for the latest tropical cyclone ever to form in the North Atlantic basin. 2006 – Madrid–Barajas Airport is bombed. 2006 – The Indonesian passenger ferry sinks in a storm, resulting in at least 400 deaths. 2006 – Former President of Iraq Saddam Hussein is executed. 2009 – A segment of the Lanzhou–Zhengzhou–Changsha pipeline ruptures in Shaanxi, China, and approximately of diesel oil flows down the Wei River before finally reaching the Yellow River. 2009 – A suicide bomber kills nine people at Forward Operating Base Chapman, a key facility of the Central Intelligence Agency in Afghanistan. 2013 – More than 100 people are killed when anti-government forces attack key buildings in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 2020 – A large explosion at the airport in the southern Yemeni city of Aden kills at least 22 people and wounds 50. ==Births== === Pre–1600 === AD 39 – Titus, Roman emperor (probable; d. 81) 159 – Empress Dowager Bian, second wife of Cao Cao, mother of Cao Wei's first emperor, Cao Pi (d. 230) 1204 – Abû 'Uthmân Sa'îd ibn Hakam al Qurashi, ruler of Minorca (d. 1282) 1371 – Vasily I of Moscow (d. 1425) 1490 – Ebussuud Efendi, Ottoman lawyer and jurist (d. 1574) 1548 – David Pareus, German theologian (d. 1622) 1578 – Ulrik of Denmark, Danish prince-bishop (d. 1624) ===1601–1900=== 1642 – Vincenzo da Filicaja, Italian poet (d. 1707) 1673 – Ahmed III, Ottoman sultan (d. 1736) 1678 – William Croft, English organist and composer (d. 1727) 1722 – Charles Yorke, English lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (d. 1770) 1724 – Louis-Jean-François Lagrenée, French painter and educator (d. 1805) 1757 – Sebastián Kindelán y O'Regan, colonial governor of East Florida, Santo Domingo and Cuba (d. 1826) 1760 – Charles Sapinaud de La Rairie, French general (d. 1829) 1792 – Sylvester Jordan, German lawyer and politician (d. 1861) 1819 – Theodor Fontane, German author and poet (d. 1898) 1819 – John W. Geary, American lawyer and politician, 16th Governor of Pennsylvania (d. 1873) 1825 – Samuel Newitt Wood, American lawyer and politician (d. 1891) 1842 – Osman Hamdi Bey, Ottoman administrator, intellectual, art expert and painter (d. 1910) 1849 – John Milne, English seismologist and geologist (d. 1913) 1851 – Asa Griggs Candler, American businessman and politician, 44th Mayor of Atlanta (d. 1929) 1853 – André Messager, French pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1929) 1857 – Sylvio Lazzari, French-Austrian composer (d. 1944) 1865 – Rudyard Kipling, Indian-English author and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1936) 1869 – Stephen Leacock, English-Canadian political scientist and author (d. 1944) 1869 – Ōzutsu Man'emon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 18th Yokozuna (d. 1918) 1873 – Al Smith, American lawyer and politician, 42nd Governor of New York (d. 1944) 1878 – William Aberhart, Canadian evangelist and politician, seventh Premier of Alberta (d. 1943) 1879 – Ramana Maharshi, Indian guru and philosopher (d. 1950) 1883 – Archer Baldwin, American-English farmer and politician (d. 1966) 1883 – Lester Patrick, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1960) 1884 – Hideki Tōjō, Japanese general and politician, 40th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1948) 1886 – Austin Osman Spare, English artist and occultist (d. 1956) 1887 – William Kolehmainen, Finnish-American runner and coach (d. 1967) 1887 – K. M. Munshi, Indian politician, writer and educationist, founder of Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (d. 1971) 1890 – Adolfo Ruiz Cortines, Mexican soldier and politician, 47th President of Mexico (d. 1973) 1897 – Alfredo Bracchi, Italian songwriter and screenwriter (d. 1976) 1899 – Helge Ingstad, Norwegian explorer, lawyer, and politician, 2nd Governor of Svalbard (d. 2001) ===1901–present=== 1904 – Dmitry Kabalevsky, Russian composer and academic (d. 1987) 1905 – Daniil Kharms, Russian poet, author, and playwright (d. 1942) 1906 – Alziro Bergonzo, Italian architect and painter (d. 1997) 1906 – Carol Reed, English director and producer (d. 1976) 1910 – Paul Bowles, American composer and author (d. 1999) 1911 – Jeanette Nolan, American actress (d. 1998) 1913 – Lucio Agostini, Italian-Canadian conductor and composer (d. 1996) 1913 – Elyne Mitchell, Australian author (d. 2002) 1914 – Bert Parks, American actor, singer, television personality, and beauty pageant host (d. 1992) 1917 – Seymour Melman, American engineer and author (d. 2004) 1919 – Dick Spooner, English cricketer (d. 1997) 1919 – David Willcocks, English organist, composer, and conductor (d. 2015) 1921 – Rashid Karami, Lebanese lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Lebanon (d. 1987) 1922 – Jane Langton, American author and illustrator (d. 2018) 1923 – Prakash Vir Shastri, Indian academic and politician (d. 1977) 1924 – Yvonne Brill, Canadian-American propulsion engineer (d. 2013) 1925 – Ian MacNaughton, Scottish actor, producer, and director (d. 2002) 1926 – Stan Tracey, English pianist and composer (d. 2013) 1927 – Jan Kubíček, Czech painter and sculptor (d. 2013) 1928 – Bo Diddley, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2008) 1929 – Rosalinde Hurley, English physician, microbiologist, and academic (d. 2004) 1930 – Roy Yorke Calne, English surgeon and academic (d. 2024) 1930 – Elmira Minita Gordon, Belizean educator, 1st Governor-General of Belize (d. 2021) 1930 – Red Rhodes, American pedal steel guitarist (d. 1995) 1930 – Tu Youyou, Chinese chemist and pharmacist, Nobel Prize laureate 1931 – Skeeter Davis, American singer-songwriter (d. 2004) 1931 – John T. Houghton, Welsh physicist and author (d. 2020) 1931 – Frank Torre, American baseball player and manager (d. 2014) 1933 – Timité Bassori, Ivorian filmmaker, actor, and writer 1934 – John N. Bahcall, American astrophysicist and astronomer, co-developed the Hubble Space Telescope (d. 2005) 1934 – Joseph Bologna, American actor, director, playwright and screenwriter (d. 2017) 1934 – Barry Briggs, New Zealand motorcycle racer and sportscaster 1934 – Joseph P. Hoar, American general (d. 2022) 1934 – Tony Serra, American criminal defense and civil rights attorney, political activist and tax resister 1934 – Del Shannon, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1990) 1934 – Russ Tamblyn, American actor 1935 – Omar Bongo, Gabonese lieutenant and politician, President of Gabon (d. 2009) 1935 – Sandy Koufax, American baseball player and sportscaster 1935 – Jack Riley, American actor (d. 2016) 1937 – Gordon Banks, English footballer and manager (d. 2019) 1937 – John Hartford, American singer-songwriter and fiddler (d. 2001) 1937 – Jim Marshall, American football player 1937 – Paul Stookey, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1949 – Jim Flaherty, Canadian lawyer and politician, 37th Canadian Minister of Finance (d. 2014) 1950 – Timothy Mo, Chinese-English author 1950 – Lewis Shiner, American journalist and author 1950 – Bjarne Stroustrup, Danish computer scientist, created the C++ programming language 1950 – Martti Vainio, Finnish runner 1951 – Doug Allder, English footballer and coach 1951 – Chris Jasper, American musician, singer-songwriter, and producer (d. 2025) 1951 – Nick Rose, English runner 1952 – June Anderson, American soprano and actress 1953 – Daniel T. Barry, American engineer and astronaut 1953 – Dana Key, American singer, guitarist, and producer (d. 2010) 1953 – Graham Vick, English director and producer (d. 2021) 1953 – Meredith Vieira, American journalist and game show host 1958 – Pedro Costa, Portuguese director, screenwriter, and cinematographer 1958 – Steven Smith, American engineer and astronaut 1959 – Antonio Pappano, English pianist and conductor 1959 – Kåre Thomsen, Norwegian guitarist and graphic designer 1959 – Tracey Ullman, English-American actress, singer, director, and screenwriter 1959 – Josée Verner, Canadian politician, 8th Canadian Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs 1960 – Richard M. Durbin, English biologist and academic 1961 – Douglas Coupland, German-Canadian author and playwright 1961 – Bill English, New Zealand farmer and politician, 39th Prime Minister of New Zealand 1961 – Sean Hannity, American radio and television host 1963 – Milan Šrejber, Czech tennis player 1964 – Almir Kayumov, Russian footballer and referee (d. 2013) 1964 – Sylvie Moreau, Canadian actress and screenwriter 1964 – George Newbern, American actor 1969 – Kersti Kaljulaid, President of Estonia 1969 – Michelle McGann, American golfer 1969 – Meredith Monroe, American actress 1975 – Scott Chipperfield, Australian footballer 1975 – Tiger Woods, American golfer 1976 – Kastro, American rapper 1976 – Patrick Kerney, American football player 1976 – A. J. Pierzynski, American baseball player and sportscaster 1977 – Laila Ali, American boxer and actress 1977 – Glory Alozie, Nigerian-Spanish sprinter and hurdler 1977 – Grant Balfour, Australian baseball player 1977 – Saša Ilić, Serbian footballer 1977 – Kenyon Martin, American basketball player 1977 – Lucy Punch, English actress 1984 – LeBron James, American basketball player, producer and businessman 1985 – Lars Boom, Dutch cyclist 1985 – Bryson Goodwin, Australian rugby league player 1985 – Anna Wood, American actress 1989 – Tyler Anderson, American baseball player 1989 – Yoon Bo-ra, South Korean singer, rapper and actress 1989 – Ryan Sheckler, American skateboarder and entrepreneur 1989 – Kateřina Vaňková, Czech tennis player 1990 – Bruno Henrique, Brazilian footballer 1990 – Joe Root, English cricketer 1990 – C. J. Wilcox, American basketball player 1991 – Camila Giorgi, Italian tennis player 1992 – Ryan Tunnicliffe, English footballer 1992 – Carson Wentz, American football player 1995 – Igor Shesterkin, Russian hockey goaltender 1995 – Ollie Watkins, English footballer 1995 – V, South Korean singer ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== 274 – Pope Felix I 717 – Egwin of Evesham, bishop of Worcester 903 – Tian Jun, Chinese warlord (b. 858) 925 – Wang Shenzhi, founder of Min (b. 862) 1115 – Theodoric II, Duke of Lorraine 1331 – Bernard Gui, inquisitor (b. 1261 or 1262) 1435 – Bonne of Berry, Regent of Savoy (b. 1362) 1436 – Louis III, Elector Palatine (b. 1378) 1460 – Edmund, Earl of Rutland, Irish politician, Lord Chancellor of Ireland (b. 1443) 1460 – Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York (b. 1411) 1525 – Jakob Fugger, German banker and businessman (b. 1459) 1572 – Galeazzo Alessi, Italian architect, designed the Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli (b. 1512) 1573 – Giovanni Battista Giraldi, Italian author and poet (b. 1504) 1591 – Pope Innocent IX (b. 1519) ===1601–1900=== 1606 – Heinrich Bünting, German priest and cartographer (b. 1545) 1621 – Job of Manyava, Ukrainian monk and saint (b. 1550) 1640 – John Francis Regis, French priest and saint (b. 1597) 1643 – Giovanni Baglione, Italian painter and historian of art (b. 1566) 1644 – Jan Baptist van Helmont, Flemish chemist, physiologist, and physician (b. 1577) 1662 – Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria (b. 1628) 1769 – Nicholas Taaffe, 6th Viscount Taaffe, Irish-Austrian soldier and courtier (b. 1685) 1777 – Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria (b. 1727) 1788 – Francesco Zuccarelli, Italian painter and academic (b. 1702) 1803 – Francis Lewis, Welsh-American merchant and politician (b. 1713) 1879 – Manuel de Araújo Porto-Alegre, Baron of Santo Ângelo, Brazilian poet and painter (b. 1806) 1885 – Martha Darley Mutrie, British painter (b. 1824) 1896 – José Rizal, Filipino ophthalmologist, journalist, and author (b. 1861) ===1901–present=== 1906 – Josephine Butler, English feminist and social reformer (b. 1828) 1908 – Thomas-Alfred Bernier, Canadian journalist, lawyer, and politician (b. 1844) 1916 – Grigori Rasputin, Russian mystic (b. 1869) 1928 – Jean Collas, French rugby player and tug of war competitor (b. 1874) 1937 – Hans Niels Andersen, Danish businessman, founded the East Asiatic Company (b. 1852) 1940 – Childe Wills, American engineer (b. 1878) 1941 – El Lissitzky, Russian photographer and architect (b. 1890) 1944 – Romain Rolland, French author and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1866) 1945 – Song Jin-woo, South Korean journalist and politician (b. 1889) 1947 – Han van Meegeren, Dutch painter (b. 1889) 1947 – Alfred North Whitehead, English-American mathematician and philosopher (b. 1861) 1954 – Archduke Eugen of Austria (b. 1863) 1955 – Rex Ingamells, Australian poet and author (b. 1913) 1967 – Vincent Massey, Canadian lawyer and politician, 18th Governor General of Canada (b. 1887) 1968 – Trygve Lie, Norwegian journalist and politician, first Secretary-General of the United Nations (b. 1896) 1970 – Sonny Liston, American boxer (b. 1932) 1971 – Jo Cals, Dutch lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b. 1914) 1971 – Vikram Sarabhai, Indian physicist and academic (b. 1919) 1979 – Richard Rodgers, American playwright and composer (b. 1902) 1982 – Alberto Vargas, Peruvian-American painter and illustrator (b. 1896) 1983 – Violette Cordery, English race car driver (b. 1900) 1986 – Era Bell Thompson, American journalist (b. 1905) 1988 – Yuli Daniel, Russian author and poet (b. 1925) 1988 – Isamu Noguchi, American sculptor and landscaper (b. 1904) 1990 – Raghuvir Sahay, Indian author, poet, and critic (b. 1929) 1992 – Romeo Muller, American actor, screenwriter, for screenplays like the 1964, Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer (TV special) (b. 1928) 1993 – İhsan Sabri Çağlayangil, Turkish lawyer and politician, 20th Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1908) 1993 – Irving "Swifty" Lazar, American talent agent (b. 1907) 1993 – Giuseppe Occhialini, Italian-French physicist and academic (b. 1907) 1994 – Dmitri Ivanenko, Ukrainian-Russian physicist and academic (b. 1904) 1995 – Ralph Flanagan, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1914) 1995 – Doris Grau, American voice actor and script supervisor (b. 1924) 1996 – Lew Ayres, American actor (b. 1908) 1997 – Shinichi Hoshi, Japanese author and illustrator (b. 1926) 1998 – Sam Muchnick, American wrestling promoter, co-founded the National Wrestling Alliance (b. 1905) 1999 – Joff Ellen, Australian comedian and actor (b. 1915) 1999 – Fritz Leonhardt, German engineer, co-designed the Cologne Rodenkirchen Bridge and Fernsehturm Stuttgart (b. 1909) 1999 – Des Renford, Australian swimmer (b. 1927) 1999 – Sarah Knauss, American supercentenarian (b. 1880) 2000 – Julius J. Epstein, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1909) 2002 – Mary Brian, American actress (b. 1906) 2002 – Eleanor J. Gibson, American psychologist and academic (b. 1910) 2002 – Mary Wesley, English author (b. 1912) 2003 – John Gregory Dunne, American novelist, screenwriter, and critic (b. 1932) 2004 – Artie Shaw, American clarinet player, composer, and bandleader (b. 1910) 2005 – Eddie Barlow, South African cricketer and coach (b. 1940) 2005 – Rona Jaffe, American novelist (b. 1932) 2006 – Saddam Hussein, Iraqi general and politician, fifth President of Iraq (b. 1937) 2006 – Terry Peck, Falkland Islander police officer and spy (b. 1938) 2006 – Michel Plasse, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1948) 2009 – Rowland S. Howard, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1959) 2009 – Abdurrahman Wahid, Indonesian journalist and politician, fourth President of Indonesia (b. 1940) 2010 – Bobby Farrell, Dutch dancer and performer from Aruba (b. 1949) 2011 – Ronald Searle, English-French cartoonist (b. 1920) 2012 – Philip Coppens, Belgian-American journalist and author (b. 1971) 2012 – Beate Sirota Gordon, Austrian-American director and producer (b. 1923) 2012 – Rita Levi-Montalcini, Italian neurologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1909) 2012 – Carl Woese, American microbiologist and biophysicist (b. 1928) 2012 – Dennis Ferguson, Australian sex offender (b. 1948) 2013 – Kinnaird R. McKee, American admiral (b. 1929) 2013 – José María Maguregui, Spanish footballer and manager (b. 1934) 2013 – Eiichi Ohtaki, Japanese singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1948) 2013 – Johnny Orr, American basketball player and coach (b. 1927) 2013 – Paul Sally, American mathematician and academic (b. 1933) 2014 – Terry Becker, American actor, director, and producer (b. 1921) 2014 – Jim Galloway, Scottish-Canadian clarinet player and saxophonist (b. 1936) 2014 – Luise Rainer, German-born American-British actress (b. 1910) 2015 – Doug Atkins, American football player (b. 1930) 2015 – Howard Davis, Jr., American boxer and trainer (b. 1956) 2015 – Mangesh Padgaonkar, Indian poet, playwright, and translator (b. 1929) 2015 – Howard Pawley, Canadian lawyer and politician, 18th Premier of Manitoba (b. 1934) 2017 – Erica Garner, American civil rights activist (b. 1990) 2020 – Dawn Wells, American actress, (b. 1938) 2022 – Barbara Walters, American journalist, producer, and author (b. 1929) 2023 – Bryan Ansell, British role-playing and wargame designer (b. 1955) 2023 – Tom Wilkinson, English actor (b. 1948) 2023 – Aki Yashiro, Japanese singer (b. 1950) ==Holidays and observances== Christian feast day: Abraham the Writer Anysia of Salonika Egwin of Evesham Frances Joseph-Gaudet (Episcopal Church) Liberius of Ravenna Pope Felix I Ralph of Vaucelles Roger of Cannae December 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Day of the Declaration of Slovakia as an Independent Ecclesiastic Province (Slovakia) Rizal Day (Philippines) The fifth day of Kwanzaa (United States) The sixth of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)	[ "Execution of Saddam Hussein", "1940", "1921", "Dmitri Ivanenko", "Kevin Systrom", "1573", "1722", "Bobby Farrell", "Almir Kayumov", "1886", "social reform", "André Messager", "1982", "Meredith Monroe", "Kwanzaa", "Kingdom of Dublin", "The Plain Dealer", "1816", "Jeff Lynne", "Sonny Liston", "1899", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Guinness World Records", "Kinshasa", "Nick Symmonds", "Heinrich Bünting", "Suetonius", "1066 Granada massacre", "Battle of Glenmama", "Dolo hospital airstrike", "Diesel fuel", "Ben Johnson (Canadian sprinter)", "hat-trick", "Felix Pappalardi", "1910", "1788", "Ollie Watkins", "Alfred North Whitehead", "Abdurrahman Wahid", "Kingdom of France", "Execution by firing squad", "Randall Azofeifa", "República Cromañón nightclub fire", "Afghanistan", "1644", "Kingdom of Meath", "President of Indonesia", "Governor of Svalbard", "Southwestern United States", "Rita Levi-Montalcini", "2015", "Liepāja International Airport", "Ron Wolf", "1924", "December 2013 Kinshasa attacks", "1792", "Potawatomi", "Calendar of saints", "Jakub Nakládal", "1819", "East Bengal", "Frank Torre", "1879", "National Hockey League", "Mayor of Atlanta", "Chris Jasper", "Suzy Bogguss", "1964", "Era Bell Thompson", "June Anderson", "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer (TV special)", "Prime Minister of New Zealand", "Macmillan Publishers", "Egwin of Evesham", "National Bureau of Investigation (Finland)", "Roy Yorke Calne", "Steve Mix", "Charlie Nicholas", "José María Maguregui", "2020", "1640", "Beate Sirota Gordon", "Jean Collas", "Lord Chancellor", "Thomas-Alfred Bernier", "Jan Kubíček", "Timité Bassori", "1777", "William Aberhart", "Bert Parks", "Queen Anne's War", "Mexico-Guatemala conflict", "Alziro Bergonzo", "Michelle McGann", "Tu Youyou", "Leinster", "1928", "Captaincy General of Santo Domingo", "Joseph P. Hoar", "Guy Edwards", "1981", "Austin Osman Spare", "Carl Woese", "Osman Hamdi Bey", "1946", "Giuseppe Occhialini", "1813", "Paul Keegan (footballer, born 1972)", "1887", "1950", "1435", "Louis III, Elector Palatine", "Tom Wilkinson", "Berti Vogts", "Matt Lauer", "Aeroflot Flight L-51", "Michael Grimm (musician)", "Manuel de Araújo Porto-Alegre, Baron of Santo Ângelo", "Ernie McLea", "1204", "United States Secretary of State", "1979", "Del Shannon", "Mangesh Padgaonkar", "Governor-General of Belize", "Discovery Expedition", "1994", "Treaty of St. Louis (1816)", "Aden", "personal union", "Antarctica", "Lucy Punch", "1906", "1972", "1916", "Abû 'Uthmân Sa'îd ibn Hakam al Qurashi", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "Joseph Bologna", "Feminism", "1943", "Raoul (founder of Vaucelles Abbey)", "Felix Yusupov", "1954", "criminal investigation", "Stella Sigcau", "Crucifixion", "Jim Flaherty", "1115", "Associated Press", "1606", "Prakash Vir Shastri", "List of Ministers of Foreign Affairs (Turkey)", "Jay Kay", "Glenda Adams", "Alfredo Bracchi", "Camila Giorgi", "Lanzhou–Zhengzhou–Changsha pipeline", "Mary Wesley", "Yellow River", "Winnipeg Victorias", "1851", "Secretary-General of the United Nations", "1621", "Operation Linebacker II", "Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria", "Sister Bliss", "Rex Ingamells", "Ryan Sheckler", "Charles Sapinaud de La Rairie", "1977", "Theodoric II, Duke of Lorraine", "Lloyd Kaufman", "U.S. Central Command", "Kåre Thomsen", "1947", "Mary Brian", "Governor of Pennsylvania", "screenplays", "screenwriter", "Timothy Mo", "List of Nobel laureates", "1922", "Lakota people", "Sylvester Jordan", "Patti Smith", "Sean Hannity", "Glory Alozie", "Trowbridge", "Domenico Criscito", "The New York Times", "Gadsden Purchase", "1931", "John Gregory Dunne", "1992", "C. S. Lee", "2013", "AD 534", "1066", "Hubble Space Telescope", "Bill English", "Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan", "Lucio Agostini", "1953", "Cao Pi", "coronation of the Hungarian monarch", "1933", "Ian MacNaughton", "Rowland S. Howard", "John N. Bahcall", "Patrick Kerney", "Steven Smith (astronaut)", "1825", "tug of war", "Galeazzo Alessi", "1951", "Ryan Tunnicliffe", "Des Renford", "1935", "President of Mexico", "1970", "2009", "Bonne of Berry", "1883", "1985", "Lord Chancellor of Ireland", "Second Italo-Abyssinian War", "2010", "CBS Sports", "Los Angeles Times", "Yoon Bo-ra", "New York City", "Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli", "717", "Patricia Kalember", "HarperCollins", "Dita Indah Sari", "Jane Langton", "1990", "Soviet Union", "Romeo Muller", "Samuel Newitt Wood", "Frank Steunenberg", "Gary Chartier", "Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York", "Doug Allder", "Childe Wills", "Jakob Fugger", "1961", "1926", "Heidi Fleiss", "1966", "Makuuchi", "Forward Operating Base Chapman", "Eiichi Ohtaki", "2023", "Jason Behr", "Job of Manyava", "Saša Ilić (footballer, born 1977)", "Robert Falcon Scott", "Camp Chapman attack", "1938", "Reapers' War", "CNN", "1999", "1925", "lawyer", "Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium", "1978", "159", "National Wrestling Alliance", "1869", "Sarah Knauss", "Count of Barcelona", "Maureen Flannigan", "Dhaka", "Carl Ouellet", "Doug Atkins", "Jan Baptist van Helmont", "1965", "Jed Johnson (designer)", "1987", "Rosalinde Hurley", "Emmanuel Clérico", "Omar Bongo", "Howard Pawley", "1919", "1939", "Josée Verner", "Kersti Kaljulaid", "Jim Marshall (defensive end)", "Dhaka, Bangladesh", "2002", "Bryan Burk", "Douglas Coupland", "1987 Transkei coup d'état", "Idaho", "Cao Cao", "David Willcocks", "Rizal Day bombings", "Erica Garner", "1993", "Anna Wood (actress)", "Albano Mucci", "Abraham the Writer", "Tobias Kurbjuweit", "Louis-Jean-François Lagrenée", "2003", "Ingus Baušķenieks", "1976", "Francis Lewis", "Han van Meegeren", "1853", "Hideki Tōjō", "Vladimir Bukovsky", "George II of Greece", "Titus", "2012", "Louis XIII", "Alberto Vargas", "Luqa", "Ebussuud Efendi", "Kastro (Outlawz)", "Buenos Aires", "On the Life of the Caesars", "Paul Bowles", "Bjarne Stroustrup", "Sylvie Moreau", "Devin Brown", "Hans Niels Andersen", "1989", "Archduke Eugen of Austria", "2000", "1927", "Vincenzo da Filicaja", "1967", "Yuli Daniel", "Governor of New York", "Paul Stookey", "Remembrance days in Slovakia", "James Moore Sr.", "Lester Patrick", "1769", "1971", "1904", "Iroquois Theatre fire", "1952", "Nick Rose (runner)", "Roger of Cannae", "Cologne Rodenkirchen Bridge", "Kenyon Martin", "Province of Carolina", "Minister of Finance (Canada)", "Terry Peck", "İhsan Sabri Çağlayangil", "Daniel Amokachi", "1984", "Bennett Miller", "1643", "Rizal Day", "Matt Ulrich", "Liepāja", "Barry Greenstein", "Dave England", "Mike Pompeo", "Manila", "1923", "Paola Pigni", "National Basketball Association", "1937", "1913", "1996", "Wounded Knee Massacre", "Jack Riley (actor)", "1963", "Sam Muchnick", "1578", "Tyrese Gibson", "Holy See", "Ato Boldon", "Elmira Minita Gordon", "1975", "Violette Cordery", "Principality of Catalonia", "Ellie Goulding", "Josephine Butler", "1958", "Avro Lancaster", "1952 Luqa Avro Lancaster crash", "Carol Reed", "Ronald Searle", "Carson Wentz", "Eleanor J. Gibson", "S. Jithesh", "tax resistance", "East Florida", "1941", "Cold War", "Milan Šrejber", "Phillips Idowu", "Richard M. Durbin", "Odawa", "1908", "Michael I of Romania", "President of Iraq", "Tony Serra", "Fred Ward", "Wang Shenzhi", "Francesco Zuccarelli", "Tokyo Metro Ginza Line", "1702", "Bantustan", "Theodor Fontane", "903", "Johnny Orr (basketball, born 1927)", "1949", "Shawnee", "United States Army", "Artie Shaw", "1969", "Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin", "1842", "1934", "Charles Yorke", "Kazuyuki Toda", "Eliza Dushku", "Isamu Noguchi", "Daniil Kharms", "Ahmed III", "John Milne", "Terry Becker", "Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria", "D. J. Mbenga", "Archer Baldwin", "Tiger Woods", "December 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "Bantu Holomisa", "1885", "Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs and Youth (Canada)", "James Kahn", "1957", "Oxford University Press", "925", "AllMusic", "diplomatic recognition", "1757", "vizier", "Edmund, Earl of Rutland", "1678", "Criminal intelligence", "Irving Paul Lazar", "Hundred Years' War (1415–53)", "Saddam Hussein", "Rona Jaffe", "1849", "José Rizal", "Martha Darley Mutrie", "Sandra Glover", "Lewis Shiner", "Janko Prunk", "Jerry Coyne", "Giovanni Battista Giraldi", "1548", "Elyne Mitchell", "Kateřina Vaňková", "Nobel Prize in Literature", "David Pareus", "Grant Balfour", "1591", "2004", "Howard Davis, Jr.", "Dennis Ferguson", "El Lissitzky", "Graham Vick", "2022", "Vasily I of Moscow", "Seymour Melman", "1929", "John T. Houghton", "Adolfo Ruiz Cortines", "Cao Wei", "Concetta Tomei", "Pope Innocent IX", "Montreal Victorias", "Gordon Banks", "1572", "Richard Rodgers", "Philip Coppens (author)", "Rudyard Kipling", "Rob Scuderi", "The Japan News", "Lew Ayres", "AD 999", "1896", "Chicago", "Michel Plasse", "1995", "Red Rhodes", "Meredith Vieira", "Bruno Henrique (footballer, born 1990)", "Trygve Lie", "Farthest South", "Andra Day", "Zita of Bourbon-Parma", "Barry Briggs", "Major League Baseball", "Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)", "Robert Quine", "1884", "Battle of Buffalo", "1942", "1903", "George Newbern", "Guatemalan Air Force", "Women's Tennis Association", "Sebastián Kindelán y O'Regan", "William Kolehmainen", "Prime Minister of Lebanon", "1642", "1760", "ice hockey", "1673", "1873", "Caldwell, Idaho", "William J. Fallon", "Alison McGovern", "Bryan Ansell", "AD 39", "Bryson Goodwin", "Western Christianity", "David Bedford (athlete)", "2006", "Zbigniew Robert Promiński", "Adam Dale", "Mel Renfro", "1865", "James Burrows", "Vikram Sarabhai", "Paul Sally", "1905", "Gianni Zuiverloon", "Metro Manila", "1998", "Granada", "1917", "1983", "Anysia of Salonika", "1878", "1890", "Giovanni Baglione", "Igor Shesterkin", "1986", "Eddie Barlow", "Rashid Karami", "civil rights", "Islam", "Jeff Ward (actor)", "Battle of La Rochelle (1419)", "Ulrik of Denmark (1578–1624)", "1641", "Fritz Leonhardt", "Davy Jones (musician)", "Shaanxi", "Jo Cals", "UPI", "Ōzutsu Man'emon", "Martti Vainio", "Philippines", "Joseph Hilbe", "Wilaya of Relizane massacres of 30 December 1997", "Antonio Pappano", "Ricardo (footballer, born 1971)", "John W. Geary", "rapid transit", "Ojibwe", "V (singer)", "1897", "C++", "Prime Minister of Japan", "Twelve Days of Christmas", "Zulu Kingdom", "Vincent Massey", "1955", "2020 Aden airport attack", "Lyons Hill", "Romania", "2005", "Julius J. Epstein", "Johnny Rogers", "War of 1812", "Drexel Mission Fight", "1956", "Dmitry Kabalevsky", "Caity Lotz", "Kristin Kreuk", "274", "Tropical Storm Zeta (2005)", "Kinnaird R. McKee", "Grigori Rasputin", "Aruba", "Brian Boru", "MLB Advanced Media", "Fernsehturm Stuttgart", "Toomas Savi", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "1991", "Eddie Edwards (wrestler)", "1930", "Premier of Manitoba", "Alexandro Alves do Nascimento", "1460", "2014", "1968", "Algeria", "Sylvio Lazzari", "Siege of St. Augustine (1702)", "Michael Rodríguez (footballer)", "Tracey Ullman", "Glenn Robbins", "Rail transport", "Battle of Wakefield", "1902", "Anglican Diocese of Worcester", "Slovakia", "William Croft", "Cédric Carrasso", "1724", "Scott Chipperfield", "1936", "1973", "Sheryl Lee Ralph", "1331", "Barbara Walters", "tropical cyclone", "Clive Bunker", "Daniel Sunjata", "Ali Al-Habsi", "2006 Madrid-Barajas Airport bombing", "Subhas Chandra Bose", "Romain Rolland", "Doris Grau", "List of heads of state of Gabon", "1944", "Jews", "Ramana Maharshi", "1997", "1371", "Empress Dowager Bian", "Min (Ten Kingdoms)", "Wei River", "1419", "Variety (magazine)", "Aki Yashiro", "Madrid–Barajas Airport", "Dawn Wells", "Oxford", "East Asiatic Company", "All-India Muslim League", "Colony of Natal", "Jeanette Nolan", "Luise Rainer", "Bernard Gui", "1911", "Joff Ellen", "Pope Felix I", "Frances Joseph-Gaudet", "Benjamin Netanyahu", "President of Estonia", "Daniel T. Barry", "Sandy Koufax", "LeBron James", "Joe Root", "Raghuvir Sahay", "Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi", "1960", "1948", "Yellow River oil spill", "A. J. Pierzynski", "Troma Entertainment", "Laila Ali", "John Francis Regis", "Code of Justinian", "Song Jin-woo (journalist)", "1662", "Wars of the Roses", "Yvonne Brill", "Liberius of Ravenna", "Chandler Burr", "1490", "Treaty of St. Louis (1825)", "Michael Nesmith", "1945", "1857", "Port Blair", "Skeeter Davis", "Stephen Leacock", "Dawan Landry", "2017", "1525", "Dick Spooner", "1980", "Treaty on the Creation of the USSR", "Times of Malta", "Prime Minister of the Netherlands", "1974", "Lars Boom", "Helge Ingstad", "Tyler Anderson", "1988", "Jim Galloway", "Stanley Cup", "Instagram", "Governor General of Canada", "1436", "Nicholas Taaffe, 6th Viscount Taaffe", "Shinichi Hoshi", "Dana Key", "Premier of Alberta", "2011", "Munster", "C. J. Wilcox", "Pedro Costa", "1959", "Asa Griggs Candler", "1914", "Russ Tamblyn", "Tian Jun", "John Hartford", "Charles I of Austria", "Stan Tracey", "Ralph Flanagan", "Flint sit-down strike", "Bo Diddley", "Catalan constitutions", "Al Smith", "1803" ]
8,678	Donn	In Irish mythology, Donn ("the dark one", from ) is an ancestor of the Gaels and is believed to have been a god of the dead. Donn is said to dwell in Tech Duinn (the "house of Donn" or "house of the dark one"), where the souls of the dead gather. He may have originally been an aspect of the Dagda. Folklore about Donn survived into the modern era in parts of Ireland, in which he is said to be a phantom horseman riding a white horse. ==Early literary sources== A 9th-century poem says that Donn's dying wish was that all his descendants would gather at Donn's house or Tech Duinn (modern Irish Teach Duinn) after death: "To me, to my house, you shall all come after your deaths". In their translation of Acallam na Senórach, Ann Dooley and Harry Roe commented that "to go to the House of Donn in Irish tradition means to die". Tech Duinn may have been thought of as a place where the souls of the dead gathered before travelling to their final destination in the otherworld, or before being reincarnated. In the literature, Tech Duinn is said to lie at or beyond the western edge of Ireland. In Ireland there was a belief that the souls of the dead departed westwards over the sea with the setting sun. In the tale Togail Bruidne Dá Derga ("The Destruction of Dá Derga's Hostel"), king Conaire Mór meets his death in Bruiden Dá Derga (the "great hall or hostel of the red god"). On his way to the hostel, Conaire meets three red men riding red horses from the otherworld. They foretell his doom and tell him "we ride the horses of Donn ... although we are alive, we are dead". Dáithí Ó hÓgáin notes similarities between the two and suggests that Donn was originally an epithet of the Dagda. Donn is the father of Diarmuid Ua Duibhne, whom he gave in fosterage to the god of youth, Aengus mac Óg, to raise. ==Modern sources== Folklore about Donn survived into the early modern era. In County Limerick, a Donn Fírinne was said to dwell in the sacred hill of Cnoc Fírinne (Knockfeerina or Knockfierna), and folklore told of people being brought into the hill to be with Donn when they died. He was said to appear as a phantom horseman riding a white horse. He was also associated with the weather: thunder and lightning meant that Donn Fírinne was riding his horse through the sky, and if clouds were over the hill it meant that he was gathering them together to make rain. This imagery may have been influenced by the lore of Odin and his horse Sleipnir from the Norse settlers in Limerick. Donn Fírinne was also said to appear and warn anyone who interfered with his hill. On the west coast of County Clare there was a Donn na Duimhche or Donn Dumhach ("Donn of the dunes"), who "was also often encountered as a night-horseman". In later folklore, the name 'Donn' came to mean an 'otherworld lord' in general. In modern Irish donn is the most common word for the colour brown, and by extension can also mean "sturdy (like) wood". This is one possible etymology of the English colour "dun" (greyish brown).	[ "Diarmuid Ua Duibhne", "Aengus", "dolmen", "Lebor Gabála Érenn", "Conaire Mór", "Dôn", "Éber Donn", "brown", "Reincarnation", "Irish mythology", "Fráech", "List of death deities", "Irish language", "Togail Bruidne Dá Derga", "Dindsenchas", "Hy-Brasil", "County Clare", "Ann Dooley", "Celtic Otherworld", "Edward Gwynn", "Tuatha Dé Danann", "Limerick", "Beara Peninsula", "Amergin Glúingel", "Ériu", "Julius Caesar", "Norse–Gaels", "Odin", "Bull Rock", "early modern period", "Danu (Irish goddess)", "County Limerick", "Sleipnir", "Gaulish Dis Pater", "underworld", "Acallam na Senórach", "Gaels", "fosterage", "the Dagda", "Gauls", "Milesians (Irish)", "eponymous" ]
8,681	Data compression ratio	Data compression ratio, also known as compression power, is a measurement of the relative reduction in size of data representation produced by a data compression algorithm. It is typically expressed as the division of uncompressed size by compressed size. ==Definition== Data compression ratio is defined as the ratio between the uncompressed size and compressed size: {\rm Compression\;Ratio} = \frac{\rm Uncompressed\;Size}{\rm Compressed\;Size} Thus, a representation that compresses a file's storage size from 10 MB to 2 MB has a compression ratio of 10/2 = 5, often notated as an explicit ratio, 5:1 (read "five" to "one"), or as an implicit ratio, 5/1. This formulation applies equally for compression, where the uncompressed size is that of the original; and for decompression, where the uncompressed size is that of the reproduction. Sometimes the space saving is given instead, which is defined as the reduction in size relative to the uncompressed size: {\rm Space\;Saving} = 1 - \frac{\rm Compressed\;Size}{\rm Uncompressed\;Size} Thus, a representation that compresses the storage size of a file from 10 MB to 2 MB yields a space saving of 1 - 2/10 = 0.8, often notated as a percentage, 80%. For signals of indefinite size, such as streaming audio and video, the compression ratio is defined in terms of uncompressed and compressed data rates instead of data sizes: {\rm Compression\;Ratio} = \frac{\rm Uncompressed\;Data\;Rate}{\rm Compressed\;Data\;Rate} and instead of space saving, one speaks of data-rate saving, which is defined as the data-rate reduction relative to the uncompressed data rate: {\rm Data\;Rate\;Saving} = 1 - \frac{\rm Compressed\;Data\;Rate}{\rm Uncompressed\;Data\;Rate} For example, uncompressed songs in CD format have a data rate of 16 bits/channel x 2 channels x 44.1 kHz ≅ 1.4 Mbit/s, whereas AAC files on an iPod are typically compressed to 128 kbit/s, yielding a compression ratio of 10.9, for a data-rate saving of 0.91, or 91%. When the uncompressed data rate is known, the compression ratio can be inferred from the compressed data rate. ==Lossless vs. Lossy== Lossless compression of digitized data such as video, digitized film, and audio preserves all the information, but it does not generally achieve compression ratio much better than 2:1 because of the intrinsic entropy of the data. Compression algorithms which provide higher ratios either incur very large overheads or work only for specific data sequences (e.g. compressing a file with mostly zeros). In contrast, lossy compression (e.g. JPEG for images, or MP3 and Opus for audio) can achieve much higher compression ratios at the cost of a decrease in quality, such as Bluetooth audio streaming, as visual or audio compression artifacts from loss of important information are introduced. A compression ratio of at least 50:1 is needed to get 1080i video into a 20 Mbit/s MPEG transport stream. ==Uses== The data compression ratio can serve as a measure of the complexity of a data set or signal. In particular it is used to approximate the algorithmic complexity. It is also used to see how much of a file is able to be compressed without increasing its original size.	[ "1080i", "complexity", "lossy compression", "streaming audio", "Sony", "MP3", "Lossless compression", "information entropy", "algorithmic information theory", "Bit rate", "MPEG transport stream", "Advanced Audio Coding", "Morgan Kaufmann Publishers", "Opus (audio format)", "JPEG" ]
8,683	Disc jockey	A disc jockey, more commonly abbreviated as DJ, is a person who plays recorded music for an audience. Types of DJs include radio DJs (who host programs on music radio stations), club DJs (who work at nightclubs or music festivals), mobile DJs (who are hired to work at public and private events such as weddings, parties, or festivals), and turntablists (who use record players, usually turntables, to manipulate sounds on phonograph records). Originally, the "disc" in "disc jockey" referred to shellac and later vinyl records, but nowadays DJ is used as an all-encompassing term to also describe persons who mix music from other recording media such as cassettes, CDs or digital audio files on a CDJ, controller, or even a laptop. DJs may adopt the title "DJ" in front of their real names, adopted pseudonyms, or stage names. DJs commonly use audio equipment that can play at least two sources of recorded music simultaneously. This enables them to blend tracks together to create transitions between recordings and develop unique mixes of songs. This can involve aligning the beats of the music sources so their rhythms and tempos do not clash when played together and enable a smooth transition from one song to another. DJs often use specialized DJ mixers, small audio mixers with crossfader and cue functions to blend or transition from one song to another. Mixers are also used to pre-listen to sources of recorded music in headphones and adjust upcoming tracks to mix with currently playing music. DJ software can be used with a DJ controller device to mix audio files on a computer instead of a console mixer. DJs may also use a microphone to speak to the audience; effects units such as reverb to create sound effects and electronic musical instruments such as drum machines and synthesizers. ==List of popular DJs== Some of the most popular DJs are Skrillex, David Guetta, Porter Robinson, deadmau5, Avicii, Calvin Harris, Martin Garrix, Marshmello, Zedd, Eric Prydz, DJ Snake, R3HAB, Timmy Trumpet, Tiësto, Steve Aoki, Diplo, Nicky Romero, Lost Frequencies, and Daft Punk. ==Etymology== The term "disc jockey" was ostensibly coined by radio gossip commentator Walter Winchell in 1935 to describe the radio work of Martin Block. The phrase first appeared in print in a 1941 Variety magazine. Originally, the word "disc" in "disc jockey" referred to phonograph or gramophone records and was used to describe radio personalities who introduced them on the air. ==Role== "DJ" is used as an all-encompassing term to describe someone who mixes recorded music from any source, including vinyl records, cassettes, CDs, or digital audio files stored on USB stick or laptop. DJs typically perform for a live audience in a nightclub or dance club or a TV, radio broadcast audience, or an online radio audience. DJs also create mixes, remixes and tracks that are recorded for later sale and distribution. In hip hop music, DJs may create beats, using percussion breaks, basslines and other musical content sampled from pre-existing records. In hip hop, rappers and MCs use these beats to rap over. Some DJs adopt the title "DJ" as part of their names (e.g., DJ Jazzy Jeff, DJ Qbert, DJ Shadow and DJ Yoda). Professional DJs often specialize in a specific genre of music, such as techno, house or hip hop music. DJs typically have extensive knowledge about the music they specialize in. Many DJs are avid music collectors of vintage, rare or obscure tracks and records. ==Types== ===Club DJs=== Club DJs, commonly referred to as DJs in general, play music at musical events, such as parties at music venues or bars, clubs, music festivals, corporate and private events. Typically, club DJs mix music recordings from two or more sources using different mixing techniques to produce a non-stopping flow of music. Mixing began with hip hop in the 1970s and would subsequently expand to other genres in especially (but not exclusively) dance music. One key technique used for seamlessly transitioning from one song to another is beatmatching. A DJ who mostly plays and mixes one specific music genre is often given the title of that genre; for example, a DJ who plays hip hop music is called a hip hop DJ, a DJ who plays house music is a house DJ, a DJ who plays techno is called a techno DJ, and so on. The quality of a DJ performance (often called a DJ mix or DJ set) consists of two main features: technical skills, or how well the DJ can operate the equipment and produce smooth transitions between two or more recordings and a playlist; and the ability of a DJ to select the most suitable recordings, also known as "reading the crowd". ===Hip hop DJs=== DJ Kool Herc, Grandmaster Flash, and Afrika Bambaataa were members of a block party at South Bronx from 1973 onwards. Kool Herc played records such as James Brown's "Give It Up or Turnit a Loose", Jimmy Castor's "It's Just Begun", Booker T. & the M.G.'s' "Melting Pot", Incredible Bongo Band's "Bongo Rock" and "Apache", and UK rock band Babe Ruth's "The Mexican". With Bronx clubs struggling with street gangs, uptown DJs catering to an older disco crowd with different aspirations, and commercial radio also catering to a demographic distinct from teenagers in the Bronx, Herc's parties had a ready-made audience. DJ Kool Herc developed the style that was the blueprint for hip hop music. Herc used the record to focus on a short, heavily percussive part in it: the "break". Since this part of the record was the one the dancers liked best, Herc isolated the break and prolonged it by changing between two record players. As one record reached the end of the break, he cued a second record back to the beginning of the break, which allowed him to extend a relatively short section of music into a "five-minute loop of fury". This innovation had its roots in what Herc called "The Merry-Go-Round", a technique by which the DJ switched from break to break at the height of the party. This technique is specifically called "The Merry-Go-Round" because according to Herc, it takes one "back and forth with no slack." ===Radio DJs=== Radio DJs or radio personalities introduce and play music broadcasts on AM, FM, digital or Internet radio stations. ===Dancehall/reggae deejays=== In Jamaican music, a deejay (DJ) is a reggae or dancehall musician who sings and "toasts" (recites poetry) to an instrumental riddim. Deejays are not to be confused with DJs from other music genres like hip hop, where they select and play music. Dancehall/reggae DJs who select riddims to play are called selectors. Deejays whose style is nearer to singing are sometimes called singjays. The term deejay originated in the 1960s and 1970s when performers such as U-Roy and King Stitt toasted over the instrumental (dub music) versions of popular records. These versions were often released on the flip side to the song's 45 record. This gave the deejays the chance to create on-the-fly lyrics to the music. Big Youth, and I-Roy were famous deejays in Jamaica. ===Turntablists=== Turntablists, also called battle DJs, use turntables and DJ mixer to manipulate recorded sounds to produce new music. In essence, they use DJ equipment as a musical instrument. Perhaps the best-known turntablist technique is scratching. Turntablists often participate in DJ contests like DMC World DJ Championships and Red Bull 3Style. === Residents === A resident DJ performs at a venue on a regular basis or permanently. They would perform regularly (typically under an agreement) in a particular discotheque, a particular club, a particular event, or a particular broadcasting station. Residents have a decisive influence on the club or a series of events. Per agreement with the management or company, the DJ would have to perform under agreed times and dates. Typically, DJs perform as residents for two or three times in a week, for example, on Friday and Saturday. DJs who make a steady income from a venue are also considered resident DJs. Examples for resident DJs are: Alfredo Fiorito, Richie Hawtin, Sven Väth – Amnesia, Ibiza, Spain Martin Garrix – Hï Ibiza, Ibiza, Spain Larry Levan – Paradise Garage, New York City, US David Mancuso – The Loft, New York City Tiësto, Deadmau5, Calvin Harris – Hakkasan, Las Vegas, US Kaskade – Encore Beach Club, Las Vegas, US Ben Klock, Marcel Dettmann, Tama Sumo – Berghain, Berlin, Germany Fish Go Deep – Cork, Ireland Djsky – Ghana, West Africa Tale of Us – Hï Ibiza, Ibiza, Spain Claptone – Pacha, Ibiza, Spain ===Other types=== Bedroom DJs – A non-professional DJ who mixes music in their room as a hobby, rather than on radio or in a music venue such as a bar or a nightclub. Bedroom DJs are normally motivated by a desire to hone their skills and have fun with friends. Many professional DJs start out as bedroom DJs but not all bedroom DJs want to become professional–some are content being hobbyists. Most bedroom DJs generally have small set-ups of basic equipment. They might be learning how to DJ on a laptop or have a controller. Mobile DJs – DJs with their own portable audio sound systems who specialize in performing at gatherings such as block parties, street fairs, taverns, weddings, birthdays, school and corporate events. Mobile DJs may also offer lighting packages and video systems. DJanes – a term describing women DJs used in countries such as Germany that employ grammatical gender in their languages Celebrity DJs – widely known celebrities performing as DJs. == Women DJs == In Western popular music, even though there are relatively few women DJs and turntablists, women musicians have achieved great success in singing and songwriting roles, however, they are given much less representation than men DJs. Part of this may stem from a generally low percentage of women in audio technology-related jobs. A 2013 Sound on Sound article by Rosina Ncube stated that there are "... few women in record production and sound engineering." Ncube states that "[n]inety-five percent of music producers are male, and although there are women producers achieving great things in music, they are less well-known than their counterparts." In 2010, Rebekah Farrugia said "the male-centricity of electronic dance music (EDM) culture" contributes to "a marginalisation of women in these [EDM] spaces." While turntablism and broader DJ practices should not be conflated, Katz suggests use or lack of use of the turntable broadly by women across genres and disciplines is impacted upon by what he defines as "male technophilia".}} Lucy Green has focused on gender in relation to musical performers and creators, and specifically on educational frameworks as they relate to both. She suggests that women's alienation from "areas that have a strong technological tendency such as DJing, sound engineering and producing" are "not necessarily about their dislike of these instruments but relates to the interrupting effect of their dominantly masculine delineations". Despite this, women and girls do increasingly engage in turntable and DJ practices, individually and collectively, and "carve out spaces for themselves in EDM and DJ Culture". Two years later, another article brings out a list with world-famous women DJs including Nastia, tINY, Nora En Pure, Anja Schneider, Peggy Gou, Maya Jane Coles, and Eli & Fur. American DJ The Blessed Madonna has been called "one of the world's most exciting turntablists". Her stage name is a tribute to her mother's favorite Catholic saint, Black Madonna. In 2018, The Blessed Madonna played herself as an in-residence DJ for the video game Grand Theft Auto Online, as part of the After Hours DLC. There are various projects dedicated to the promotion and support of these practices such as Female DJs London. Some artists and collectives go beyond these practices to be more gender inclusive. For example, Discwoman, a New York-based collective and booking agency, describe themselves as "representing and showcasing cis women, trans women and genderqueer talent." In Japan, Bushiroad created a franchise focusing on all-women DJ units called D4DJ. In recent years, a growing number of female DJs from the Middle East, including Turkish-Iranian artist AIDAZ, have entered the international scene by combining traditional sounds with electronic performance. ==Equipment== DJs use equipment that enables them to play multiple sources of recorded music and mix them to create seamless transitions and unique arrangements of songs. An important tool for DJs is the specialized DJ mixer, a small audio mixer with a crossfader and cue functions. The crossfader enables the DJ to blend or transition from one song to another. The cue knobs or switches allow the DJ to "listen" to a source of recorded music in headphones before playing it for the live club or broadcast audience. Previewing the music in headphones helps the DJ pick the next track they want to play, cue up the track to the desired starting location, and align the two tracks' beats in traditional situations where auto-sync technology is not being used. This process ensures that the selected song will mix well with the currently playing music. DJs may align the beats of the music sources so their rhythms do not clash when they are played together to help create a smooth transition from one song to another. Other equipment may include a microphone, effects units such as reverb, and electronic musical instruments such as drum machines and synthesizers. As music technology has progressed, DJs have adopted different types of equipment to play and mix music, all of which are still commonly used. Traditionally, DJs used two turntables plugged into a DJ mixer to mix music on vinyl records. As compact discs became popular media for publishing music, specialized high-quality CD players known as CDJs were developed for DJs. CDJs can take the place of turntables or be used together with turntables. Many CDJs can now play digital music files from USB flash drives or SD cards in addition to CDs. With the spread of portable laptops, tablets, and smartphone computers, DJs began using software together with specialized sound cards and DJ controller hardware. DJ software can be used in conjunction with a hardware DJ mixer or be used instead of a hardware mixer. ===Turntables=== Turntables allow DJs to play vinyl records. By adjusting the playback speed of the turntable, either by adjusting the speed knob or by manipulating the platter (e.g., by slowing down the platter by putting a finger gently along the side), DJs can match the tempos of different records so their rhythms can be played together at the same time without clashing or make a smooth, seamless transition from one song to another. This technique is known as beatmatching. DJs typically replace the rubber mat on turntables that keep the record moving in sync with the turntable with a slipmat that facilitates manipulating the playback of the record by hand. With the slipmat, the DJ can stop or slow down the record while the turntable is still spinning. Direct-drive turntables are the type preferred by DJs. Belt-drive turntables are less expensive, but they are not suitable for turntablism and DJing, because the belt-drive motor can be damaged by this type of manipulation. Some DJs, most commonly those who play hip hop music, go beyond merely mixing records and use turntables as musical instruments for scratching, beat juggling, and other turntablism techniques. ===CDJs/media players=== CDJs / media players are high-quality digital media players made for DJing. They often have large jog wheels and pitch controls to allow DJs to manipulate the playback of digital files for beatmatching similar to how DJs manipulate vinyl records on turntables. CDJs often have features such as loops and waveform displays similar to DJ software. Originally designed to play music from compact discs, they now can play digital music files stored on USB flash drives and SD cards. Some CDJs can also connect to a computer running DJ software to act as a DJ controller. Modern media players have the ability to stream music from online music providers such as Beatport, Beatsource, Tidal and SoundCloud GO. ===DJ mixers=== DJ mixers are small audio mixing consoles specialized for DJing. Most DJ mixers have far fewer channels than a mixer used by a record producer or audio engineer; whereas standard live sound mixers in small venues have 12 to 24 channels, and standard recording studio mixers have even more (as many as 72 on large boards), basic DJ mixers may have only two channels. While DJ mixers have many of the same features found on larger mixers (faders, equalization knobs, gain knobs, effects units, etc.), DJ mixers have a feature that is usually only found on DJ mixers: the crossfader. The crossfader is a type of fader that is mounted horizontally. DJs used the crossfader to mix two or more sound sources. The midpoint of the crossfader's travel is a 50/50 mix of the two channels (on a two-channel mixer). The far left side of the crossfader provides only the channel A sound source. The far right side provides only the channel B sound source (e.g., record player number 2). Positions in between the two extremes provide different mixes of the two channels. Some DJs use a computer with DJ software and a DJ controller instead of an analog DJ mixer to mix music, although DJ software can be used in conjunction with a hardware DJ mixer. ===Headphones=== DJs generally use higher-quality headphones than those designed for music consumers. DJ headphones have other properties useful for DJs, such as designs that acoustically isolate the sounds of the headphones from the outside environment (hard shell headphones), flexible headbands and pivot joints to allow DJs to listen to one side of the headphones while turning the other headphone away (so they can monitor the mix in the club), and replaceable cables. Replaceable cables enable DJs to buy new cables if a cable becomes frayed, worn, or damaged, or if a cable is accidentally cut. Closed-back headphones are highly recommended for DJs to block outside noise as the environment of DJ usually tends to be very noisy. Standard headphones have a 3.5mm jack but DJ equipment usually requires ¼ inch jack. Most specialized DJ Headphones have an adapter to switch between a 3.5mm jack and ¼ inch jack. Detachable coiled cables are perfect for DJ Headphones. ===Software=== DJs have changed their equipment as new technologies are introduced. The earliest DJs in pop music, in 1970s discos, used record turntables, vinyl records and audio consoles. In the 1970s, DJs would have to lug heavy direct-drive turntables and crates of records to clubs and shows. In the 1980s, many DJs transitioned to compact cassettes. In the 1990s and 2000s, many DJs switched to using digital audio such as CDs and MP3 files. As technological advances made it practical to store large collections of digital music files on a laptop computer, DJ software was developed so DJs could use a laptop as a source of music instead of transporting CDs or vinyl records to gigs. Unlike most music player software designed for regular consumers, DJ software can play at least two audio files simultaneously, display the waveforms of the files on screen and enable the DJ to listen to either source. The waveforms allow the DJ to see what is coming next in the music and how the playback of different files is aligned. The software analyzes music files to identify their tempo and where the beats are. The analyzed information can be used by the DJ to help manually beatmatch like with vinyl records or the software can automatically synchronize the beats. Digital signal processing algorithms in software allow DJs to adjust the tempo of recordings independently of their pitch (and musical key, a feature known as "keylock". Some software analyzes the loudness of the music for automatic normalization with ReplayGain and detects the musical key. Additionally, DJ software can store cue points, set loops, and apply effects. As tablet computers and smartphones became widespread, DJ software was written to run on these devices in addition to laptops. DJ software requires specialized hardware in addition to a computer to fully take advantage of its features. The consumer-grade, regular sound card integrated into most computer motherboards can only output two channels (one stereo pair). However, DJs need to be able to output at least four channels (two stereo pairs, thus Left and Right for input 1 and Left and Right for input 2), either unmixed signals to send to a DJ mixer or the main output plus a headphone output. Additionally, DJ sound cards output higher-quality signals than the sound cards built into consumer-grade computer motherboards. ===Timecode=== Special vinyl records (or CDs/digital files played with CDJs) can be used with DJ software to play digital music files with DJ software as if they were pressed onto vinyl, allowing turntablism techniques to be used with digital files. These vinyl records do not have music recordings pressed onto them. Instead, they are pressed with a special signal, referred to as "timecode", to control DJ software. The DJ software interprets changes in the playback speed, direction, and position of the timecode signal and manipulates the digital files it is playing in the same way that the turntable manipulates the timecode record. This requires a specialized DJ sound card with at least 4 channels (2 stereo pairs) of inputs and outputs. With this setup, the DJ software typically outputs unmixed signals from the music files to an external hardware DJ mixer. Some DJ mixers have integrated USB sound cards that allow DJ software to connect directly to the mixer without requiring a separate sound card. ===DJ controllers=== A DJ software can be used to mix audio files on the computer instead of a separate hardware mixer. When mixing on a computer, DJs often use a DJ controller device that mimics the layout of two turntables plus a DJ mixer to control the software rather than the computer keyboard & touchpad on a laptop, or the touchscreen on a tablet computer or smartphone. Many DJ controllers have an integrated sound card with 4 output channels (2 stereo pairs) that allow the DJ to use headphones to preview music before playing it on the main output. ===Other equipment=== A microphone, so that the DJ can introduce songs and speak to the audience over the sound system. Electronic effects units such as delay, reverb, octave, equalizer, chorus, etc. Multi-stylus head shells, which allow a DJ to play different grooves of the same record at the same time. Samplers, sequencers, electronic musical keyboards (synthesizers), effects pedals (effects unit) or drum machines. PA system or sound reinforcement system (power amplifiers and speaker enclosures), typically including subwoofer cabinets for deep bass (or, if a DJ is broadcasting and/or recording a set, broadcasting equipment or recording gear) Monitor speakers, for listening to the "house mix" that is playing over the main speakers ==Techniques== Several techniques are used by DJs as a means to better mix and blend recorded music. These techniques primarily include the cueing, equalization and audio mixing of two or more sound sources. The complexity and frequency of special techniques depend largely on the setting in which a DJ is working. Radio DJs are less likely to focus on advanced music-mixing procedures than club DJs, who rely on a smooth transition between songs using a range of techniques. However, some radio DJs are experienced club DJs, so they use the same sophisticated mixing techniques. Club DJ turntable techniques include beatmatching, phrasing and slip-cueing to preserve energy on a dance floor. Turntablism embodies the art of cutting, beat juggling, scratching, needle drops, phase shifting, back spinning and more to perform the transitions and overdubs of samples in a more creative manner (although turntablism is often considered a use of the turntable as a musical instrument rather than a tool for blending recorded music). Professional DJs may use harmonic mixing to choose songs that are in compatible musical keys. Other techniques include chopping, screwing and looping. Recent advances in technology in both DJ hardware and software can provide assisted or automatic completion of some traditional DJ techniques and skills. Examples include phrasing and beatmatching, which can be partially or completely automated by using DJ software that performs automatic synchronization of sound recordings, a feature commonly labelled "sync". Most DJ mixers now include a beat counter which analyzes the tempo of an incoming sound source and displays its tempo in beats per minute (BPM), which may assist with beatmatching analog sound sources. In the past, being a DJ has largely been a self-taught craft but with the complexities of new technologies and the convergence with music production methods, there are a growing number of schools and organizations that offer instruction on the techniques. ===Miming=== In DJ culture, miming refers to the practice of DJ's pantomiming the actions of live-mixing a set on stage while a pre-recorded mix plays over the sound system. Miming mixing in a live performance is considered to be controversial within DJ culture. Some within the DJ community say that miming is increasingly used as a technique by celebrity model DJs who may lack mixing skills, but can draw big crowds to a venue. During a DJ tour for the release of the French group Justice's A Cross the Universe in November 2008, controversy arose when a photograph of Augé DJing with an unplugged Akai MPD24 surfaced. The photograph sparked accusations that Justice's live sets were faked. Augé has since said that the equipment was unplugged very briefly before being reattached and the band put a three-photo set of the incident on their MySpace page. After a 2013 Disclosure concert, the duo was criticized for pretending to live mix to a playback of a pre-recorded track. Disclosure's Guy Lawrence said they did not deliberately intend to mislead their audience, and cited miming by other DJs such as David Guetta. ==History== Playing recorded music for dancing and parties rose with the mass marketing of home phonographs in the late 19th century. British radio disc jockey Jimmy Savile hosted his first live dance party in 1943 using a single turntable and a makeshift sound system. Four years later, Savile began using two turntables welded together to form a single DJ console. In 1947, the Whisky à Gogo opened in Paris as the first discotheque. In 1959, one of the first discos in Germany, the Scotch Club, opened in Aachen and visiting journalist Klaus Quirini (later DJ Heinrich) made comments, conducted audience games, and announced songs while playing records. The first song he played was the hit Ein Schiff wird kommen by Lale Andersen. In the 1960s, Rudy Bozak began making the first DJ mixers, mixing consoles specialized for DJing. In the late 1960s to early 1970s Jamaican sound system culture, producer and sound system operator (DJ), (Jamaican) King Tubby and producer Lee "Scratch" Perry were pioneers of the genre known as dub music. They experimented with tape-based composition; emphasized repetitive rhythmic structures (often stripped of their harmonic elements); electronically manipulated spatiality; sonically manipulated pre-recorded musical materials from mass media; The first direct-drive turntable was invented by engineer Shuichi Obata at Matsushita (now Panasonic), based in Osaka, Japan. It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests. In 1969, Matsushita released it as the SP-10, and the first in their influential Technics series of turntables. The SL-1200 had a rapid start and its durable direct drive enabled DJs to manipulate the platter, as with scratching techniques. Hip hop DJs began using the Technics SL-1200s as musical instruments to manipulate records with turntablism techniques such as scratching and beat juggling rather than merely mixing records. These techniques were developed in the 1970s by DJ Kool Herc, Grand Wizard Theodore, and Afrika Bambaataa, as they experimented with Technics direct-drive decks, finding that the motor would continue to spin at the correct RPM even if the DJ wiggled the record back and forth on the platter. The Roland TB-303, a bass synthesizer released in 1981, had a similar impact on electronic dance music genres such as techno and house music, In 1982, the Compact Disc (CD) format was released, popularizing digital audio. In 1998, the first MP3 digital audio player, the Eiger Labs MPMan F10, was introduced. In January of that same year at the BeOS Developer Conference, N2IT demonstrated FinalScratch, the first digital DJ system to allow DJs control of MP3 files through special time-coded vinyl records or CDs. While it would take some time for this novel concept to catch on with the "die-hard Vinyl DJs", this would become the first step in the Digital DJ revolution. Manufacturers joined with computer DJing pioneers to offer professional endorsements, the first being Professor Jam (a.k.a. William P. Rader), who went on to develop the industry's first dedicated computer DJ convention and learning program, the "CPS (Computerized Performance System) DJ Summit", to help spread the word about the advantages of this emerging technology. In 2001, Pioneer DJ began producing the CDJ-1000 CD player, making the use of digital music recordings with traditional DJ techniques practical for the first time. As the 2000s progressed, laptop computers became more powerful and affordable. DJ software, specialized DJ sound cards, and DJ controllers were developed for DJs to use laptops as a source of music rather than turntables or CDJs. In the 2010s, like laptops before them, tablet computers and smartphones became more powerful & affordable. DJ software was written to run on these more portable devices instead of laptops, although laptops remain the more common type of computer for DJing. ==Health concerns== The risk of DJs working in nightclubs with loud music includes noise-induced hearing loss and tinnitus. Nightclubs constantly exceed safe levels of noise exposure with average sound levels ranging from 93.2 to 109.7 dB. Constant music exposure creates temporary and permanent auditory dysfunction for professional DJs with average levels at 96 dB being above the recommended level, at which ear protection is mandatory for industry. Three-quarters of DJs have tinnitus and are at risk of tenosynovitis in the wrists and other limbs. Tenosynovitis results from staying in the same position over multiple gigs for scratching motion and cueing, this would be related to a repetitive strain injury. Gigs can last 4–5 hours in the nightlife and hospitality industry, as a result, there are potential complications of prolonged standing which include slouching, varicose veins, cardiovascular disorders, joint compression, and muscle fatigue. This is common for other staff to experience as well including bartenders and security staff for example. ==In film== Berlin Calling – a German film about fictional DJ and producer Ickarus (Paul Kalkbrenner), who is struggling with drug abuse Speaking in Code – an American documentary film about techno artists Modeselektor, Wighnomy Brothers, Philip Sherburne, Monolake and David Day Kvadrat – a French and Russian documentary film about the realities of techno DJing, using the example of DJ Andrey Pushkarev It's All Gone Pete Tong – a fictional mockumentary British movie about Frankie Wilde, a DJ who gradually becomes deaf due to drug abuse and an unhealthy lifestyle We Are Your Friends – an American fiction film about a college DJ trying to make it in the DJing scene with "one hit song", starring Zac Efron Scratch – a documentary about the hip-hop DJ and the 2000-era turntablist movement Tonkatsu DJ Agetarou – a Japanese anime, originally a manga, about a fictional character named Agetarou who aspires to be a DJ master with the help of his friends and mentor, Big Master Fry. 24 Hour Party People – about the UK music scene from the late 1970s to the "Madchester" scene of the late 1980s and early 1990s. Human Traffic – about early UK rave counter-culture featuring music and performances by celebrated DJs Fatboy Slim, CJ Bolland, Carl Cox, and Mad Doctor X. Turn Up Charlie – a 2019 series about a struggling DJ, played by Idris Elba, who is also a bachelor trying to make it again after a one-hit back in the 1990s Spin - a 2021 Disney Channel Original Movie about an Indian-American teen who gets he love for DJ'ing from Max, an English Transfer Student Avicii: True Stories – a documentary film about Avicii, a Swedish producer and DJ who was popular in the early to mid 2010s	[ "Zedd", "reverb", "MAGMA festival", "Technics SL-1200", "synchronization", "Record collecting", "audio mixing", "Zac Efron", "grammatical gender", "Hearing protection device", "I-Roy", "D4DJ", "Rudy Bozak", "Turntable", "Hip hop", "Timmy Trumpet", "Billboard (magazine)", "riddim", "PA system", "music radio", "Magda (DJ)", "Disclosure (duo)", "nightlife", "Steve Aoki", "Kaskade", "Tape music", "singjay", "Black Madonna", "complications of prolonged standing", "discotheque", "Grand Theft Auto Online", "Digital DJ licensing", "Calvin Harris", "Foldback (sound engineering)", "sound reinforcement system", "List of club DJs", "technophilia", "Justice (band)", "Sampling (music)", "Jimmy Savile", "belt-drive turntable", "Digital signal processing", "Paul Kalkbrenner", "dub music", "Human Traffic", "Snare drum", "Music sequencer", "David Mancuso", "Nicky Romero", "BeOS", "Philip Sherburne", "Nervo (DJs)", "mockumentary", "Bongo Rock", "Djsky", "Sundance Film Festival", "Amnesia (nightclub)", "Avicii", "Hakkasan", "beatmatch", "loud music", "subwoofer", "Idris Elba", "Porter Robinson", "Fish Go Deep", "Tonkatsu DJ Agetarou", "Roland Corporation", "pitch control", "Compact disc", "popular music", "AM broadcasting", "Claptone", "beats per minute", "musical instrument", "Random House", "Panasonic", "We Are Your Friends (film)", "music festival", "Wesleyan University Press", "Women in music", "best practice", "microphone", "Marshmello", "Marcel Dettmann", "Yellow Magic Orchestra", "The Mexican (song)", "vinyl records", "Drum machine", "Reverb.com", "Tiësto", "It's Just Begun", "Monika Kruse", "Neil Kulkarni", "turntable", "electronic dance music", "Break (music)", "Lee \"Scratch\" Perry", "Tama Sumo", "King Tubby", "speaker enclosure", "B.Traits", "DJ Jazzy Jeff", "crossfader", "tablet computer", "tinnitus", "Lale Andersen", "Bass drum", "noise-induced hearing loss", "Martin Garrix", "Peggy Gou", "Melting Pot (Booker T album)", "Sven Väth", "24 Hour Party People", "consumer electronics", "Audio console", "MP3", "Robert Hood", "Ben Klock", "harmonic mixing", "Lost Frequencies", "DJ mix", "Miss Kittin", "Hannah Wants", "Celebrity", "compact cassette", "Wighnomy Brothers", "The Seattle Times", "scratching", "Give It Up or Turnit a Loose", "CDJ", "DJ Snake", "bass synthesizer", "touchpad", "DJ Shadow", "mobile DJs", "The Guardian", "Miming in instrumental performance", "Las Vegas", "Mixxx", "Radio personality", "Secure Digital", "VJ (media personality)", "techno", "Discwoman", "Digital radio", "direct-drive turntable", "Roland TR-808", "DJ Kool Herc", "hospitality industry", "rapping", "phrasing (DJ)", "media player (software)", "Sampler (musical instrument)", "Skrillex", "Needle drop (DJing)", "808 (film)", "sound card", "Ellen Allien", "electronic musical instrument", "Kvadrat (film)", "Osaka", "beatmatching", "Chopped and screwed", "Richie Hawtin", "smartphone", "Ibiza", "It's All Gone Pete Tong", "hip hop", "Monolake", "beat juggling", "Walter Winchell", "octave", "DJ controller", "Rolling Stone", "tempo", "Eli & Fur", "hip hop music", "Deadmau5", "phonograph", "TR-909", "Boys' Life", "South China Morning Post", "Mac OS X", "Alfredo Fiorito", "Party", "David Guetta", "phonograph record", "Wired (magazine)", "Chopping (sampling technique)", "Oxford University Press", "Afrika Bambaataa", "Gain (electronics)", "Grand Wizard Theodore", "Scotch Club", "Big Youth", "Downloadable content", "mixing console", "Maya Jane Coles", "Spin (2021 film)", "digital audio file", "turntablism", "sampling (music)", "audio mixing (recorded music)", "USB flash drive", "deadmau5", "slipmat", "nightclub", "Toasting (Jamaican music)", "Diplo", "Nicole Moudaber", "drum machine", "Cambridge University Press", "Roland TB-303", "DJ Qbert", "Turn Up Charlie", "King Stitt", "Scratch (2001 film)", "Nightclub", "Internet radio", "Turntablism", "Sound system (Jamaican)", "Ruth Oldenziel", "Live PA", "reggae", "Modeselektor", "phase shifting", "List of music software", "sound engineering", "audio console", "digital audio", "Akai", "Stage lighting", "Larry Levan", "Pacha Group", "DJ Yoda", "FM broadcasting", "45 record", "Grandmaster Flash", "Nora En Pure", "waveform", "cue (audio)", "CD player", "Martin Block", "Direct-drive turntable", "repetitive strain injury", "Cue (audio)", "U-Roy", "crossfader (audio engineering)", "R3HAB", "Berlin Calling", "key (music)", "remix", "Booker T. & the M.G.'s", "audio engineer", "synthesizer", "Phonograph record", "Birmingham", "metronome", "bassline", "Technics (brand)", "Revolutions per minute", "slip-cueing", "headphones", "Nina Kraviz", "USB", "Spelling of disc", "pitch (music)", "computer keyboard", "Portable media player", "DJ mixer", "power amplifier", "DMC World DJ Championships", "touchscreen", "Eric Prydz", "Mobile DJ", "Bushiroad", "dancehall", "Hï Ibiza", "Variety (magazine)", "house music", "The Loft (New York City)", "effects unit", "Phonograph", "Music producer", "rhythm", "Equalization (audio)", "Annie Mac", "back spinning", "Speaking in Code", "Hal Leonard Corporation", "Loop (music)", "Music of Jamaica", "Pioneer DJ", "Aachen", "Apache (instrumental)", "shellac", "chorus effect", "The Black Madonna", "Avicii: True Stories", "Tale of Us", "tenosynovitis", "Sound on Sound", "Daft Punk", "Paradise Garage", "Sound reinforcement system", "Berghain", "ReplayGain", "online radio", "Madchester", "Delay (audio effect)" ]
8,687	Detroit	{{Infobox settlement \| name = Detroit \| settlement_type = City \| image_skyline = \| image_flag = Flag of Detroit.svg \| flag_size = 110px \| image_seal = Seal of Detroit (B&W).svg \| seal_size = 90px \| image_blank_emblem = Logo of Detroit, Michigan.svg \| blank_emblem_type = Logo \| blank_emblem_size = 100 \| blank_emblem_alt = \| blank_emblem_link = The Spirit of Detroit \| etymology = (strait) \| nicknames = The Motor City, Motown, and others \| motto = (Latin: We Hope For Better Things; It Shall Rise From the Ashes) \| image_map = \| map_caption = Interactive map of Detroit \| pushpin_map = Michigan#USA \| pushpin_relief = yes \| pushpin_label = Detroit \| coordinates = \| coordinates_footnotes = \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = \| subdivision_type1 = State \| subdivision_name1 = \| subdivision_type2 = County \| subdivision_name2 = Wayne \| established_title = Founded(Fort Detroit) \| established_date = \| established_title1 = Incorporated \| established_date1 = \| established_title2 = Founded by \| established_date2 = Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac (1658–1730) & Alphonse de Tonty (1659–1727) \| named_for = Detroit River \| government_footnotes = \| government_type = Strong Mayor \| governing_body = Detroit City Council \| leader_title = Mayor \| leader_name = Mike Duggan (I) \| leader_title1 = Clerk \| leader_name1 = Janice Winfrey \| leader_title2 = City council \| leader_name2 = \| unit_pref = Imperial \| area_footnotes = \| area_total_sq_mi = 142.89 \| area_total_km2 = 370.09 \| area_land_sq_mi = 138.73 \| area_land_km2 = 359.31 \| area_water_sq_mi = 4.16 \| area_water_km2 = 10.78 \| area_urban_km2 = 3,327.7 \| area_urban_sq_mi = 1,284.8 \| area_metro_km2 = 10,071 \| area_metro_sq_mi = 3,888.4 \| elevation_ft = 656 \| elevation_footnotes = \| population_as_of = 2020 \| population_est = 633218 \| pop_est_as_of = 2023 \| pop_est_footnotes = \| population_metro = 4365205 (US: 14th) \| population_density_sq_mi = 4606.84 \| population_density_km2 = 1778.71 \| population_urban = 3,776,890 (US: 12th) \| population_urban_footnotes = \| population_density_urban_km2 = 1,135.0 \| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 2,939.6 \| population_demonym = Detroiter \| demographics_type2 = GDP \| demographics2_footnotes = \| demographics2_title1 = Metro \| demographics2_info1 = $331.333 billion (2023) \| population_note = \| timezone = EST \| utc_offset = −5 \| timezone_DST = EDT \| utc_offset_DST = −4 \| postal_code_type = ZIP Codes \| postal_code = \| area_code = 313 \| blank_name = FIPS code \| blank_info = 26-22000 \| blank1_name = GNIS feature ID \| blank1_info = 1617959 is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Michigan. It is situated on the bank of the Detroit River across from Windsor, Ontario. It had a population of 639,111 at the 2020 census, making it the 26th-most populous city in the United States and the largest U.S. city on the Canada–United States border. The Metro Detroit area, home to 4.3 million people, is the second-largest in the Midwest after the Chicago metropolitan area and the 14th-largest in the United States. The seat of Wayne County, Detroit is a significant cultural center known for its contributions to music, art, architecture and design, in addition to its historical automotive and industrial background. In 1701, Royal French explorers Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac and Alphonse de Tonty founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit. During the late 19th and early 20th century, it became an important industrial hub at the center of the Great Lakes region. The city's population rose to be the fourth-largest in the nation by 1920, with the expansion of the automotive industry in the early 20th century. One of its main features, the Detroit River, became the busiest commercial hub in the world. In the mid-20th century, Detroit entered a state of urban decay which has continued to the present, as a result of industrial restructuring, the loss of jobs in the auto industry, and rapid suburbanization. Since reaching a peak of 1.85 million at the 1950 census, Detroit's population has declined by more than 65 percent. Detroit is a port on the Detroit River, one of the four major straits that connect the Great Lakes system to the St. Lawrence Seaway. The city anchors the third-largest regional economy in the Midwest and the 16th-largest in the United States. It is also best known as the center of the U.S. automotive industry, and the "Big Three" auto manufacturers—General Motors, Ford, and Stellantis North America (Chrysler)—are all headquartered in Metro Detroit. It houses the Detroit Metropolitan Airport, one of the most important hub airports in the United States. Detroit and its neighboring Canadian city Windsor constitute the second-busiest international crossing in North America, after San Diego–Tijuana. Detroit's culture is marked with diversity, having both local and international influences. Detroit gave rise to the music genres of Motown and techno, and also played an important role in the development of jazz, hip-hop, rock, and punk. A globally unique stock of architectural monuments and historic places was the result of the city's rapid growth in its boom years. Since the 2000s, conservation efforts have managed to save many architectural pieces and achieve several large-scale revitalizations, including the restoration of several historic theaters and entertainment venues, high-rise renovations, new sports stadiums, and a riverfront revitalization project. Detroit is an increasingly popular tourist destination which caters to about 16 million visitors per year. In 2015, Detroit was given a name called "City of Design" by UNESCO, the first and only U.S. city to receive that designation. ==History== ===Toponymy=== Detroit is named after the Detroit River, connecting Lake Huron with Lake Erie. The name comes from the French language word meaning as the city was situated on a narrow north–south passage of water linking the two lakes. The river was known as in the French language, which means . In the historical context, the strait included the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, and the Detroit River. ===Indigenous settlement=== Paleo-Indians inhabited areas near Detroit as early as 11,000 years ago including the culture referred to as the Mound Builders. By the 17th century, the region was inhabited by Huron, Odawa, Potawatomi, and Iroquois peoples. The area is known by the Anishinaabe people as Waawiiyaataanong, translating to 'where the water curves around'. The first Europeans did not penetrate into the region and reach the straits of Detroit until French missionaries and traders worked their way around the Iroquois League, with whom they were at war in the 1630s. The Huron and Neutral people held the north side of Lake Erie until the 1650s, when the Iroquois pushed them and the Erie people away from the lake and its beaver-rich feeder streams in the Beaver Wars of 1649–1655. after Louis Phélypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain (1643–1727), the Secretary of State of the Navy under King Louis XIV (1638–1715, reigned 1643–1715) in the Royal government in Paris. Sainte-Anne-de-Détroit was founded on July 26 and is the second-oldest continuously operating Roman Catholic parish in the United States. France offered free land to colonists to attract families further west into the Great Lakes region interior of the North American continent to Detroit; when it eventually reached a population of about 800 by 1765, after the colonial conflict of the French and Indian War (1753–1763), (Seven Years' War in Europe), it became the largest European settlement between the important towns of Montreal and New Orleans, both also French settlements, in the former colonies of New France and La Louisiane (further south on the Mississippi River, on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico), respectively. The region's then colonial economy was based on the lucrative fur trade, in which numerous Native American peoples had important roles as trappers and traders. ===British rule=== During the French and Indian War (1753–63)—the North American front of the Seven Years' War in Europe between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of France—British troops gained control of the settlement a few years into the conflict in 1760 and shortened its name to Detroit. Several regional Native American tribes, such as the Potowatomi, Ojibwe and Huron, launched Pontiac's War (1763–1766), and laid siege in 1763 to Fort Detroit along the Detroit River in the Great Lakes but failed to capture it. In defeat, France ceded its territory in North America of New France and south of the lakes east of the Mississippi to the Appalachian Mountains to Britain following the war. When Great Britain evicted France from its colonial possessions in New France (Canada) in the peace terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1763, it also removed one barrier to American colonists migrating west across the mountains. British negotiations with the Iroquois would both prove critical and lead to the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which limited settlements South of and below the Great Lakes and west of the Alleghenies / Appalachians. Many colonists and pioneers in the Thirteen Colonies along the East Coast, resented and then simply defied this restraint, later becoming supporters of the rebellious American Revolution. By 1773, after the addition of increasing numbers of the Anglo-American settlers, the population of Detroit and Fort Detroit, was edging up to 1,400 (doubled in the previous decade). During the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), the indigenous and loyalist raids of 1778 and the resultant 1779 decisive Sullivan Expedition reopened the Ohio Country (north of the Ohio River and west of the mountains) to even more westward emigration, which began almost immediately to get away from the eastern warfare. By 1778, its population had doubled again, reaching 2,144 and it was the third-largest town in what was known then as the Province of Quebec since the British takeover of former French colonial possessions in North America in 1763. After the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) and the establishment and recognition of the United States as an independent country, the Great Britain ceded Detroit and other territories in the interior region of the continent, south of the Great Lakes and west of the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River under the peace of the terms of the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The new Northwest Territories established the southern border with Great Britain's remaining colonial provinces in British North America and became provinces of Upper Canada and Lower Canada. However, the disputed border area remained under British control with several military forts and trading posts for another decade, and its forces did not fully withdraw until 1796, following the negotiations and ratification of the subsequent Jay Treaty of 1794 between the British and Americans. By the turn of the 19th century, white American settlers began pouring westwards across the Appalachians and through the Great Lakes. ====Legacy==== Today the municipal flag of Detroit reflects its both its French and English colonial heritage. Descendants of the earliest French and French-Canadian settlers formed a cohesive community, who gradually were superseded as the dominant population after more Anglo-American settlers arrived in the early 19th century with American westward migration. Living along the shores of Lake St. Clair and south to Monroe and downriver suburbs, the ethnic French Canadians of Detroit, also known as Muskrat French in reference to the fur trade, remain a subculture in the region up into the 21st century. ===Post-revolutionary period and 19th century=== The Great Detroit Fire of 1805 destroyed most of the city's wooden buildings, leaving only a stone fort, a river warehouse, and brick chimneys from former homes. Despite the extensive damage, none of Detroit's 600 residents perished. The aftermath of the fire left a lasting legacy on the city's heritage. Father Gabriel Richard coined the city motto, "Speramus Meliora; Resurget Cineribus," as he surveyed the ruins. The city seal, designed in 1827, directly depicted the fire by showing two women, one grieving the destruction while the other gestures toward a new city rising from the ashes. The seal forms the center of Detroit's flag. From 1805 to 1847, Detroit served as the capital city of the Michigan Territory and later became its first state capital in January 1837 after Michigan's admission to the Union. During the War of 1812, Detroit became a focal point of conflict. U.S. Army commander William Hull surrendered Fort Detroit without a fight, underestimating the number of British forces. Later, the U.S. attempted to retake the fort and town during the Battle of Frenchtown in January 1813, a significant victory for the British. The battle is commemorated at the River Raisin National Battlefield Park near Monroe, Michigan. Detroit was eventually recaptured later that year. Detroit was officially incorporated as a city in 1815, and its urban design was influenced by the grand boulevards of Washington, D.C. In 1817, he founded the Catholepistemiad, later evolving into the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Detroit's growth continued as a center of education and culture for the Michigan Territory. Before the American Civil War, Detroit's position along the Canada-U.S. border made it a vital stop on the Underground Railroad. Thousands of enslaved African Americans escaped to Canada via the city. Notable activists like George DeBaptiste, William Lambert, and Laura Smith Haviland played key roles in assisting refugees. Detroit's contributions to the Union effort were also significant, with many residents volunteering to fight. The city's 24th Michigan Infantry Regiment, part of the famous Iron Brigade, suffered heavy casualties at the Battle of Gettysburg. The city's tensions over race, in tandem with national concerns over the draft, led to the Detroit race riot of 1863, leaving some dead and over 200 Black residents homeless. This prompted the establishment of a full-time police force in 1865. In the late 19th century, Detroit grew as a hub for industry, particularly shipping and manufacturing. The city's wealth, driven by industrial magnates, led to the construction of opulent Gilded Age mansions along the grand avenues designed by Woodward. Detroit earned the nickname "Paris of the West" for its architectural beauty. ===Early 20th century and World War II=== In 1903, Henry Ford founded the Ford Motor Company. Alongside automotive pioneers William C. Durant, the Dodge brothers, James and William Packard, and Walter Chrysler, they established the Big Three automakers, solidifying Detroit's status as the world's automotive capital by the early 20th century. In 1907, the Detroit River carried 67 million tons of shipping commerce, surpassing both London and New York City in volume. This earned the river the title "the Greatest Commercial Artery on Earth." During prohibition in the United States (1920–1933), the Detroit River became a major route for smuggling illegal alcohol from Canada. The demographic shifts caused by industrialization led to significant racial tensions in Detroit. The Great Migration brought African Americans from the South, while many southern and eastern European immigrants also moved to the city. Competition for jobs and housing fueled tensions between different ethnic and racial groups. This period saw the rise of the Ku Klux Klan in Detroit, which became a powerful force in the city during the 1920s, targeting Black, Catholic, and Jewish communities. Even after the Klan's decline, the Black Legion, a secret vigilante group, continued to spread fear in the 1930s. In the 1940s the world's "first urban depressed freeway" ever built, the Davison, was constructed. Systemic racial discrimination remained prevalent in Detroit, with restrictive housing covenants and violence against Black neighborhoods like Black Bottom and Paradise Valley. The city's racial tensions boiled over during the 1943 Detroit race riot. Sparked by a protest at the Packard plant, the riot resulted in 34 deaths, 433 injuries, and widespread property damage. During World War II, the government encouraged retooling of the automobile industry in support of the Allied powers, leading to Detroit's key role in the American Arsenal of Democracy. Jobs expanded so rapidly due to the defense buildup in World War II that 400,000 people migrated to the city from 1941 to 1943, including 50,000 blacks in the second wave of the Great Migration, and 350,000 whites, many of them from the South. Whites, including ethnic Europeans, feared black competition for jobs and scarce housing. The federal government prohibited discrimination in defense work, but when in June 1943 Packard promoted three black people to work next to whites on its assembly lines, 25,000 white workers walked off the job. ===Late 20th century, racial tension and decline=== Industrial mergers in the 1950s, especially in the automobile sector, increased oligopoly in the American auto industry. Detroit saw the consolidation of companies like Packard and Hudson, which eventually disappeared. At its peak in the 1950 census, Detroit was the fifth-largest U.S. city, with a population of 1.85 million. In 1950, the city held about one-third of the state's population. Over the next 60 years, the city's population declined to less than 10 percent of the state's population. The sprawling metropolitan area grew to contain more than half of Michigan's population during the same time period. As in other major American cities in the postwar era, urban planning and infrastructure changes also impacted Detroit's racial dynamics. The construction of highways and freeways in the postwar era displaced many Black communities, including historically significant neighborhoods like Black Bottom and Paradise Valley. These areas, vital for Black businesses and culture, were demolished for urban renewal projects, exacerbating the displacement of low-income residents with little consideration for the community impact. This change, alongside the rise of suburbanization and the relocation of industries to the outskirts, favored car-dependent, low-density development. By the 21st century, Detroit's sprawling metro area had developed into one of the most spread-out job markets in the U.S., contributing to a decline in Detroit's population and eroding its tax base as jobs moved beyond the reach of urban low-income workers. The Detroit Walk to Freedom civil rights march occurred in June 1963. Martin Luther King Jr. gave a major speech that foreshadowed his "I Have a Dream" speech in Washington, D.C., two months later. While the civil rights movement gained significant federal civil rights laws in 1964 and 1965, longstanding inequities resulted in confrontations between the police and inner-city black youth who wanted change. Longstanding tensions in Detroit culminated in the Twelfth Street riot in July 1967. Governor George W. Romney ordered the Michigan National Guard into Detroit, and President Lyndon B. Johnson sent in U.S. Army troops. The result was 43 dead, 467 injured, over 7,200 arrests, and more than 2,000 buildings destroyed, mostly in black residential and business areas. Thousands of small businesses closed permanently or relocated to safer neighborhoods. The affected district lay in ruins for decades. According to the Chicago Tribune, it was the 3rd most costly riot in the United States. In 1970, the NAACP filed a lawsuit against Michigan state officials, including Governor William Milliken, alleging de facto segregation in Detroit's public schools. The lawsuit argued that although schools were not legally segregated, policies in Detroit and surrounding counties maintained racial segregation through housing practices, as school demographics mirrored segregated neighborhoods. The District Court ruled in favor of the NAACP, but in the landmark 1974 Milliken v. Bradley decision, the U.S. Supreme Court limited the scope of desegregation, ruling that suburban areas could not be forced to aid in Detroit's school desegregation. Amid these challenges, Detroit elected Coleman Young as its first Black mayor in 1973. Young focused on increasing racial diversity in city services and improving Detroit's transportation system, although regional tensions with suburban leaders persisted. In 1976, a federal grant for a regional rapid transit system failed due to conflicts over planning, leaving Detroit to develop its own Detroit People Mover system. The city's struggles were exacerbated by the 1973 and 1979 oil crises, which hurt the auto industry and led to layoffs and plant closures, further diminishing the city's tax base. Despite efforts to revitalize the city, such as the opening of the Renaissance Center in 1977, downtown Detroit continued to lose businesses to suburban areas. Middle-class flight, high unemployment, and increased crime worsened the city's conditions, with abandoned buildings and neighborhoods further contributing to its decline. Young's focus on downtown development was criticized as insufficient in addressing the broader social and economic challenges faced by the city's residents. In 1993, Young retired as Detroit's longest-serving mayor and was succeeded by Dennis Archer. Archer prioritized downtown development, easing tensions with its suburban neighbors. A referendum to allow casino gambling in the city passed in 1996; several temporary casino facilities opened in 1999, and permanent downtown casinos with hotels opened in 2007–08. ===21st century=== Campus Martius, a downtown park reconfiguration, opened in 2004 and was cited as one of the best public spaces in the U.S. The first phase of the International Riverfront redevelopment was completed in 2001 for Detroit's 300th-anniversary celebration. In 2008, Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick resigned after felony convictions, and in 2013 was sentenced to 28 years in prison. His actions cost the city an estimated $20 million. In 2011, about half of Detroit's 305,000 property owners failed to pay their taxes, leaving approximately $246 million (~$ in ) uncollected. Michigan took control of Detroit's government after the city faced a $327 million deficit and over $14 billion in debt. Governor Rick Snyder declared a financial emergency in March 2013, and the city was relying on bond money to stay afloat, with unpaid days off for workers. Underfunded services and failed turnaround efforts led to the appointment of an emergency manager. In June 2013, Detroit defaulted on $2.5 billion in debt, and on July 18, it became the largest U.S. city to file for bankruptcy. Detroit exited bankruptcy in December 2014, cutting $7 billion in debt and investing $1.7 billion in services. The Detroit Institute of Arts, holding over 60,000 artworks worth billions, became a private organization to help fund the city's recovery after legal battles. Post-bankruptcy, efforts to improve city services included replacing non-functional street lights with 65,000 LED lights, making Detroit the largest U.S. city with all LED street lighting by 2016. Neighborhood revitalization continued, with volunteer renovation projects and urban gardening movements. In 2011, the Port Authority Passenger Terminal opened, with the riverwalk connecting Hart Plaza to the Renaissance Center. One symbol of the city's decades-long decline, the Michigan Central Station, was long vacant. The city renovated it with new windows, elevators and facilities, completing the work in December 2015. In 2018, Ford Motor Company purchased the building and plans to use it for mobility testing with a potential return of train service. Several other landmark buildings have been privately renovated and adapted as condominiums, hotels, offices, or for cultural uses. Detroit was mentioned as a city of renaissance and has reversed many of the trends of the prior decades. The city has seen a rise in gentrification in some neighborhoods. In downtown, for example, the construction of Little Caesars Arena brought with it high class shops and restaurants along Woodward Avenue. Office tower and condominium construction has led to an influx of wealthy families but also a displacement of long-time residents and culture. Areas outside of downtown and other recently revived areas have an average household income of about 25% less than the gentrified areas, a gap that is continuing to grow. ==Geography== ===Metropolitan area=== Detroit is the center of a three-county urban area (with a population of 3,734,090 within an area of according to the 2010 United States census), six-county metropolitan statistical area (population of 5,322,219 in an area of as of the 2010 census), and a nine-county Combined Statistical Area (population of 5.3 million within ). ===Topography=== According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. Detroit is the principal city in Metro Detroit and Southeast Michigan. It is situated in the Midwestern United States and the Great Lakes region. The Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge is the only international wildlife preserve in North America and is uniquely located in the heart of a major metropolitan area. The refuge includes islands, coastal wetlands, marshes, shoals, and waterfront lands along of the Detroit River and western Lake Erie shoreline. The city slopes gently from the northwest to southeast on a till plain composed largely of glacial and lake clay. The most notable topographical feature in the city is the Detroit Moraine, a broad clay ridge on which the older portions of Detroit and Windsor are located, rising approximately above the river at its highest point. The highest elevation in the city is directly north of Gorham Playground on the northwest side approximately three blocks south of 8 Mile Road, at a height of . Detroit's lowest elevation is along the Detroit River, at a surface height of . Belle Isle Park is a island park in the Detroit River, between Detroit and Windsor, Ontario. It is connected to the mainland by the MacArthur Bridge. Belle Isle Park contains such attractions as the James Scott Memorial Fountain, the Belle Isle Conservatory, the Detroit Yacht Club on an adjacent island, a half-mile (800 m) beach, a golf course, a nature center, monuments, and gardens. Both the Detroit and Windsor skylines can be viewed at the island's Sunset Point. Three road systems cross the city: the original French template, with avenues radiating from the waterfront, and true north–south roads based on the Northwest Ordinance township system. The city is north of Windsor, Ontario. Detroit is the only major city along the Canada–U.S. border in which one travels south to cross into Canada. Detroit has four border crossings: the Ambassador Bridge and the Detroit–Windsor tunnel provide motor vehicle thoroughfares, with the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel providing railroad access to and from Canada. The fourth border crossing is the Detroit–Windsor Truck Ferry, near the Windsor Salt Mine and Zug Island. Near Zug Island, the southwest part of the city was developed over a salt mine that is below the surface. The Detroit salt mine run by the Detroit Salt Company has over of roads within. === Cityscape === ==== Architecture ==== Detroit's waterfront showcases a variety of architectural styles, with the postmodern Neo-Gothic spires of Ally Detroit Center paying homage to the city's Art Deco skyscrapers. Together with the Renaissance Center, these buildings form a distinctive and recognizable skyline. Examples of the Art Deco style include the Guardian Building and Penobscot Building downtown, as well as the Fisher Building and Cadillac Place in New Center. Prominent cultural landmarks from the early 20th century include the Fox Theatre, Detroit Opera House, and Detroit Institute of Arts. While Downtown Detroit and New Center feature high-rise buildings, much of Detroit consists of low-rise structures and single-family homes. Residential high-rises are concentrated in upscale neighborhoods such as the East Riverfront, extending toward Grosse Pointe, and Palmer Park. The University Commons-Palmer Park district anchors historic areas including Palmer Woods, Sherwood Forest, and the University District near the University of Detroit Mercy. 42 significant structures in the city are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Pre-World War II neighborhoods exhibit architectural styles of the era, with working-class areas featuring wood-frame and brick houses, while middle- and upper-class neighborhoods such as Brush Park, Woodbridge, Indian Village, Palmer Woods, and Boston-Edison contain larger, more ornate homes and mansions. Multi-million dollar restorations and new developments have revitalized neighborhoods such as West Canfield and Brush Park. The city has one of the United States' largest surviving collections of late 19th- and early 20th-century buildings. ====Neighborhoods==== Detroit has a variety of neighborhood types. The revitalized Downtown, Midtown, Corktown, New Center areas feature many historic buildings and are high density, while further out, particularly in the northeast and on the fringes, high vacancy levels are problematic, for which a number of solutions have been proposed. In 2007, Downtown Detroit was recognized as the best city neighborhood in which to retire among the United States' largest metro areas by CNNMoney editors. Lafayette Park is a revitalized neighborhood on the city's east side, part of the Ludwig Mies van der Rohe residential district. The development was originally called the Gratiot Park. Planned by Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig Hilberseimer and Alfred Caldwell it includes a landscaped, park with no through traffic, in which these and other low-rise apartment buildings are situated. Southwest Detroit has experienced a thriving economy in recent years, as evidenced by new housing, increased business openings and the recently opened Mexicantown International Welcome Center. The city has numerous neighborhoods consisting of vacant properties resulting in low inhabited density in those areas, stretching city services and infrastructure. These neighborhoods are concentrated in the northeast and on the city's fringes. The survey also reported that most (86%) of the city's homes are in good condition with a minority (9%) in fair condition needing only minor repairs. To deal with vacancy issues, the city has begun demolishing the derelict houses, razing 3,000 of the total 10,000 in 2010, but the resulting low density creates a strain on the city's infrastructure. To remedy this, a number of solutions have been proposed including resident relocation from more sparsely populated neighborhoods and converting unused space to urban agricultural use, including Hantz Woodlands, though the city expects to be in the planning stages for up to another two years. Public funding and private investment have been made with promises to rehabilitate neighborhoods. In April 2008, the city announced a $300 million (~$ in ) stimulus plan to create jobs and revitalize neighborhoods, financed by city bonds and paid for by earmarking about 15% of the wagering tax. Additionally, the city has cleared a section of land for large-scale neighborhood construction, which the city is calling the Far Eastside Plan. In 2011, Mayor Dave Bing announced a plan to categorize neighborhoods by their needs and prioritize the most needed services for those neighborhoods. === Parks === Detroit Parks & Recreation maintains 308 public parks, totaling 4,950 (2,003 ha) acres or about 5.6% of the city's land area. Belle Isle Park, Detroit's largest and most visited park is the largest city-owned island park in the U.S., covering 982 acres (397 ha). Grand Circus, the city's first municipal park, opened in 1847. In the early 20th century, the city enlisted landscape architect Augustus Woodward to conceive a framework for Detroit's modern parks system. Augustus Woodward's plan for the city imagined grand boulevards, spacious and elegant common parks, and an orderly, hub-and-spoke city layout. The Detroit International Riverfront features a 3.5-mile promenade with parks, residential buildings, and commercial areas, extending from Hart Plaza to Belle Isle Park. This area includes Tri-Centennial State Park and Harbor, Michigan's first urban state park. Plans for the riverfront's second phase will extend the promenade to the Ambassador Bridge, stimulating residential redevelopment along the riverfront. Detroit's major parks also include River Rouge, Palmer, and Chene Park, contributing to the city's green space and outdoor recreation. The Huron-Clinton Metropolitan Authority was created in 1940 by the citizens of Southeast Michigan to serve as a regional park system the park system includes 13 parks totaling more than 24,000 acres (97 km2) arranged along the Huron River and Clinton River forming a partial ring around the Detroit metro area. ===Climate=== Detroit and the rest of southeastern Michigan have a hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfa) which is influenced by the Great Lakes like other places in the state; the city and close-in suburbs are part of USDA Hardiness zone 6b, while the more distant northern and western suburbs generally are included in zone 6a. Winters are cold, with moderate snowfall and temperatures not rising above freezing on an average 44 days annually, while dropping to or below on an average 4.4 days a year; summers are warm to hot with temperatures exceeding on 12 days. ==Demographics== {{US Census population \| 1820 = 1422 \| 1830 = 2222 \| 1840 = 9102 \| 1850 = 21019 \| 1860 = 45619 \| 1870 = 79577 \| 1880 = 116340 \| 1890 = 205876 \| 1900 = 285704 \| 1910 = 465766 \| 1920 = 993678 \| 1930 = 1568662 \| 1940 = 1623452 \| 1950 = 1849568 \| 1960 = 1670144 \| 1970 = 1511482 \| 1980 = 1203368 \| 1990 = 1027974 \| 2000 = 951270 \| 2010 = 713777 \| 2020 = 639111 \| estyear = 2023 \| estimate = 633218 \| align-fn = center \| estref = \| footnote = U.S. Decennial Census2010–2020 Of the large shrinking cities in the US, Detroit has had the most dramatic decline in the population of the past 70 years (down 1,210,457) and the second-largest percentage decline (down 65.4%). In 1950, Detroit was the fourth-largest city in the US behind New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia. While the drop in Detroit's population has been ongoing since 1950, the most dramatic period was the significant 25% decline between the 2000 and 2010 census. while 24% claim no religious affiliation. Other religions collectively make up about 8% of the population. ===Income and employment=== The loss of industrial and working-class jobs in the city has resulted in high rates of poverty and associated problems. From 2000 to 2009, the city's estimated median household income fell from $29,526 to $26,098. , the mean income of Detroit is below the overall U.S. average by several thousand dollars. Of every three Detroit residents, one lives in poverty. Luke Bergmann, author of Getting Ghost: Two Young Lives and the Struggle for the Soul of an American City, said in 2010, "Detroit is now one of the poorest big cities in the country". In the 2018 American Community Survey, median household income in the city was $31,283, compared with the median for Michigan of $56,697. The median income for a family was $36,842, well below the state median of $72,036. 33.4% of families had income at or below the federally defined poverty level. Out of the total population, 47.3% of those under the age of 18 and 21.0% of those 65 and older had income at or below the federally defined poverty line. ===Race and ethnicity=== Beginning with the rise of the automobile industry, Detroit's population increased more than sixfold during the first half of the 20th century as an influx of European, Middle Eastern (Lebanese, Assyrian), and Southern migrants brought their families to the city. With this economic boom following World War I, the African American population grew from a mere 6,000 in 1910 to more than 120,000 by 1930. Perhaps one of the most overt examples of neighborhood discrimination occurred in 1925 when African American physician Ossian Sweet found his home surrounded by an angry mob of his hostile white neighbors violently protesting his new move into a traditionally white neighborhood. Sweet and ten of his family members and friends were put on trial for murder as one of the mob members throwing rocks at the newly purchased house was shot and killed by someone firing out of a second-floor window. Detroit has a relatively large Mexican-American population. In the early 20th century, thousands of Mexicans came to Detroit to work in agricultural, automotive, and steel jobs. During the Mexican Repatriation of the 1930s many Mexicans in Detroit were willingly repatriated or forced to repatriate. By the 1940s much of the Mexican community began to settle what is now Mexicantown. Immigration from Jalisco significantly increased the Latino population in the 1990s. By 2010 Detroit had 48,679 Hispanics, including 36,452 Mexicans: a 70% increase from 1990. Per the 2023 American Community Survey five-year estimates, the Mexican American population was 35,273 comprising over 75% of the Latino population with Puerto Ricans as the next largest group at 5,887. After World War II, many people from Appalachia also settled in Detroit. Appalachians formed communities and their children acquired southern accents. Many Lithuanians also settled in Detroit during the World War II era, especially on the city's Southwest side in the West Vernor area, where the renovated Lithuanian Hall reopened in 2006. While African Americans in 2020 comprised 13.5% of Michigan's population, they made up nearly 77.2% of Detroit's population. The next largest population groups were non-Hispanic whites, at 10.1%, and Hispanics, at 8.0%. According to the 2010 census, segregation in Detroit decreased in absolute and relative terms and in the first decade of the 21st century, about two-thirds of the total black population in the metropolitan area resided within the city limits of Detroit. The number of integrated neighborhoods increased from 100 in 2000 to 204 in 2010. After being ranked the most segregated metropolitan area in the United States in 2000, Detroit was ranked fourth most-segregated in 2010. A 2011 op-ed in The New York Times attributed the decreased segregation rating to the overall exodus from the city, cautioning that these areas may soon become more segregated. There are four areas of Detroit with significant Asian and Asian American populations. Northeast Detroit has a large population of Hmong with a smaller group of Lao people. A portion of Detroit next to eastern Hamtramck includes Bangladeshi Americans, Indian Americans, and Pakistani Americans; nearly all of the Bangladeshi population in Detroit lives in that area. The area north of downtown has transient Asian national origin residents who are university students or hospital workers. Few of them have permanent residency after schooling ends. They are mostly Chinese and Indian but the population also includes Filipinos, Koreans, and Pakistanis. In Southwest and western Detroit there are smaller, scattered Asian communities. === Crime === Detroit has gained notoriety for its high amount of crime, having struggled with it for decades. The number of homicides in 1974 was 714. The homicide rate in 2022 was the third highest in the nation at 50.0 per 100,000. Downtown typically has lower crime than national and state averages. According to a 2007 analysis, Detroit officials note about 65 to 70 percent of homicides in the city were drug related, with the rate of unsolved murders roughly 70%. violent crime in Detroit has not declined as much as the national average from 2007 to 2011. The violent crime rate is one of the highest in the United States. "Neighborhoodscout.com" reported a crime rate of 62.18 per 1,000 residents for property crimes, and 16.73 per 1,000 for violent crimes (compared to national figures of 32 per 1,000 for property crimes and 5 per 1,000 for violent crime in 2008). In 2012, crime in the city was among the reasons for more expensive car insurance. Areas of the city adjacent to the Detroit River are also patrolled by the United States Border Patrol. ==Economy== Several major corporations are based in the city, including three Fortune 500 companies. The most heavily represented sectors are manufacturing (particularly automotive), finance, technology, and health care. The most significant companies based in Detroit include General Motors, Rocket Mortgage, Ally Financial, Compuware, Shinola, American Axle, Little Caesars, DTE Energy, Lowe Campbell Ewald, Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan, and Rossetti Architects. About 80,500 people work in downtown Detroit, comprising one-fifth of the city's employment base. Aside from the numerous Detroit-based companies listed above, downtown contains large offices for Comerica, Chrysler, Fifth Third Bank, HP Enterprise, Deloitte, PricewaterhouseCoopers, KPMG, and Ernst & Young. Ford Motor Company is in the adjacent city of Dearborn. Thousands more employees work in Midtown, north of the central business district. Midtown's anchors are the city's largest single employer Detroit Medical Center, Wayne State University, and the Henry Ford Health System in New Center. Midtown is also home to watchmaker Shinola and an array of small and startup companies. New Center bases TechTown, a research and business incubator hub that is part of the Wayne State University system. Like downtown, Corktown Is experiencing growth with the new Ford Corktown Campus under development. Many downtown employers are relatively new, as there has been a marked trend of companies moving from satellite suburbs into the downtown core. Compuware completed its world headquarters in downtown in 2003. OnStar, Blue Cross Blue Shield, and HP Enterprise Services are at the Renaissance Center. PricewaterhouseCoopers Plaza offices are adjacent to Ford Field, and Ernst & Young completed its office building at One Kennedy Square in 2006. Perhaps most prominently, in 2010, Quicken Loans, one of the largest mortgage lenders, relocated its world headquarters and 4,000 employees to downtown Detroit, consolidating its suburban offices. In July 2012, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office opened its Elijah J. McCoy Satellite Office in the Rivertown/Warehouse District as its first location outside Washington, D.C.'s metropolitan area. In April 2014, the United States Department of Labor reported the city's unemployment rate at 14.5%. The city of Detroit and other public–private partnerships have attempted to catalyze the region's growth by facilitating the building and historical rehabilitation of residential high-rises in the downtown, creating a zone that offers many business tax incentives, creating recreational spaces such as the Detroit RiverWalk, Campus Martius Park, Dequindre Cut Greenway, and Green Alleys in Midtown. The city has cleared sections of land while retaining some historically significant vacant buildings to spur redevelopment; even though it has struggled with finances, the city issued bonds in 2008 to provide funding for ongoing work to demolish blighted properties. Despite the city's recent financial issues, many developers remain unfazed by Detroit's problems. Midtown is one of the most successful areas within Detroit to have a residential occupancy rate of 96%. Numerous developments have been recently completed or are in various stages of construction. These include the $82 million reconstruction of downtown's David Whitney Building (now an Aloft Hotel and luxury residences), the Woodward Garden Block Development in Midtown, the residential conversion of the David Broderick Tower in downtown, the rehabilitation of the Book Cadillac Hotel (now a Westin and luxury condos) and Fort Shelby Hotel (now Doubletree) also in downtown, and various smaller projects. A study in 2007 found out that Downtown's new residents are predominantly young professionals (57% are ages 25 to 34, 45% have bachelor's degrees, and 34% have a master's or professional degree), Construction activity, particularly rehabilitation of historic downtown buildings, has increased markedly. As of 2014, the number of vacant downtown buildings has dropped from nearly 50 to around 13. In 2013 Meijer, a midwestern retail chain, opened its first supercenter store in Detroit; this was a $20 million, 190,000-square-foot store in the northern portion of the city and it also is the centerpiece of a new $72 million shopping center named Gateway Marketplace. In 2015 Meijer opened its second supercenter store in the city. In 2019 JPMorgan Chase announced plans to invest $50 million more in affordable housing, job training, and entrepreneurship by the end of 2022, growing its investment to $200 million. ==Arts and culture== In the central portions of Detroit, the population of young professionals, artists, and other transplants is growing and retail is expanding. This dynamic is luring additional new residents, and former residents returning from other cities, to the city's Downtown along with the revitalized Midtown and New Center areas. A desire to be closer to the urban scene has attracted some young professionals to reside in inner ring suburbs such as Ferndale and Royal Oak. The proximity to Windsor provides for views and nightlife, along with Ontario's minimum drinking age of 19. A 2011 study by Walk Score recognized Detroit for its above average walkability among large U.S. cities. About two-thirds of suburban residents occasionally dine and attend cultural events or take in professional games in the city. ===Nicknames=== Known as the world's automotive center, "Detroit" is a metonym for that industry. It is an important source of popular music legacies celebrated by the city's two familiar nicknames, the Motor City and Motown. Other nicknames arose in the 20th century, including City of Champions, beginning in the 1930s for its successes in individual and team sport; The D; Hockeytown (a trademark owned by the Detroit Red Wings); Rock City (after the Kiss song "Detroit Rock City"); and The 313 (its telephone area code). The metropolitan area has many nationally prominent live music venues. Concerts hosted by Live Nation perform throughout the Detroit area. The theater venue circuit is the United States' second largest and hosts Broadway performances. The city has a rich musical heritage and has contributed to many genres over the decades. Other prominent Motor City R&B stars in the 1950s and early 1960s were Nolan Strong, Andre Williams, and Nathaniel Mayer—who all scored local and national hits on the Fortune Records label. According to Smokey Robinson, Strong was a primary influence on his voice as a teenager. The Fortune label, a family-operated label on Third Avenue, was owned by the husband-and-wife team of Jack Brown and Devora Brown. Fortune—which also released country, gospel and rockabilly LPs and 45s—laid the groundwork for Motown, which became Detroit's most legendary record label. Berry Gordy, Jr. founded Motown Records, which rose to prominence during the 1960s and early 1970s with acts such as Stevie Wonder, the Temptations, the Four Tops, Smokey Robinson & the Miracles, Diana Ross & the Supremes, the Jackson 5, Martha and the Vandellas, the Spinners, Gladys Knight & the Pips, the Marvelettes, the Elgins, the Monitors, the Velvelettes, and Marvin Gaye. Artists were backed by in-house vocalists the Andantes and the Funk Brothers. "The Motown sound" played an important role in the crossover appeal with popular music, since it was the first African American–owned record label to primarily feature African-American artists. Gordy moved Motown to Los Angeles in 1972 to pursue film production, but the company has since returned to Detroit. Aretha Franklin, another Detroit R&B star, carried the Motown sound; however, she did not record with Berry's Motown label. The city also lends its name to an early and pioneering genre of electronic dance music, "Detroit techno". Featuring science fiction imagery and robotic themes, its futuristic style was greatly influenced by the geography of Detroit's urban decline and its industrial past. Prominent Detroit techno artists include Juan Atkins, Derrick May, Kevin Saunderson, and Jeff Mills. The Detroit Electronic Music Festival, now known as Movement, occurs annually in late May on Memorial Day Weekend, and takes place in Hart Plaza. ===Performing arts=== Major theaters in Detroit include the Fox Theatre (5,174 seats), Music Hall Center for the Performing Arts (1,770 seats), the Gem Theatre (451 seats), Masonic Temple Theatre (4,404 seats), the Detroit Opera House (2,765 seats), the Fisher Theatre (2,089 seats), The Fillmore Detroit (2,200 seats), Saint Andrew's Hall, the Majestic Theater, and Orchestra Hall (2,286 seats), which hosts the renowned Detroit Symphony Orchestra. The Nederlander Organization, the largest controller of Broadway productions in New York City, originated with the purchase of the Detroit Opera House in 1922 by the Nederlander family. Motown Motion Picture Studios with produces movies in Detroit and the surrounding area based at the Pontiac Centerpoint Business Campus for a film industry expected to employ over 4,000 people in the metro area. ===Tourism=== Detroit is home to the world's first destination marketing organization, the Detroit Metro Convention and Visitor's Bureau, also known as Visit Detroit. Founded in 1896, the organization now operates at 211 West Fort Street as Visit Detroit. Because of its unique culture, distinctive architecture, and revitalization and urban renewal efforts in the 21st century, Detroit has enjoyed increased prominence as a tourist destination in recent years. The New York Times listed Detroit as the ninth-best destination in its list of 52 Places to Go in 2017, while travel guide publisher Lonely Planet named Detroit the second-best city in the world to visit in 2018. Time named Detroit as one of the 50 World's Greatest Places of 2022 to explore. Many of the area's prominent museums are in the historic cultural center neighborhood around Wayne State University and the College for Creative Studies. These museums include the Detroit Institute of Arts, the Detroit Historical Museum, Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, the Detroit Science Center, as well as the main branch of the Detroit Public Library. Other cultural highlights include Motown Historical Museum, the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant museum, the Pewabic Pottery studio and school, the Tuskegee Airmen Museum, Fort Wayne, the Dossin Great Lakes Museum, the Museum of Contemporary Art Detroit, the Contemporary Art Institute of Detroit, and the Belle Isle Conservatory. In 2010, the G.R. N'Namdi Gallery opened in a complex in Midtown. Important history of America and the Detroit area are exhibited at The Henry Ford in Dearborn, the United States' largest indoor-outdoor museum complex. The Detroit Historical Society provides information about tours of area churches, skyscrapers, and mansions. Inside Detroit hosts tours, educational programming, and a downtown welcome center. Other sites of interest are the Detroit Zoo in Royal Oak, the Cranbrook Art Museum in Bloomfield Hills, the Anna Scripps Whitcomb Conservatory on Belle Isle, and Walter P. Chrysler Museum in Auburn Hills. On Saturdays, about 45,000 people shop there. The annual Detroit Festival of the Arts in Midtown draws about 350,000 people. Annual summer events include the Electronic Music Festival, International Jazz Festival, the Woodward Dream Cruise, the African World Festival, the country music Hoedown, Noel Night, and Dally in the Alley. Within downtown, Campus Martius Park hosts large events, including the annual Motown Winter Blast. As the world's traditional automotive center, the city hosts the North American International Auto Show. Held since 1924, America's Thanksgiving Parade is one of the nation's largest. River Days, a five-day summer festival on the International Riverfront lead up to the Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival fireworks, which draw super sized-crowds ranging from hundreds of thousands to over three million people. An important civic sculpture is The Spirit of Detroit by Marshall Fredericks at the Coleman Young Municipal Center. The image is often used as a symbol of Detroit, and the statue is occasionally dressed in sports jerseys to celebrate when a Detroit team is doing well. A memorial to Joe Louis is located at the intersection of Jefferson and Woodward Avenues. The sculpture, commissioned by Sports Illustrated and executed by Robert Graham, is a long arm with a fist suspended by a pyramidal framework. ==Sports== Detroit is one of four U.S. cities that have venues within the city representing the four major sports in North America. Detroit is the only city to have its four major sports teams play within its downtown district. Venues include: Comerica Park (home of MLB's Detroit Tigers), Ford Field (home of the NFL's Detroit Lions), and Little Caesars Arena (home of the NHL's Detroit Red Wings and the NBA's Detroit Pistons). Detroit has won titles in all four of the major professional sports leagues. The Tigers have won four World Series titles (1935, 1945, 1968, and 1984). The Red Wings have won 11 Stanley Cups (1935–36, 1936–37, 1942–43, 1949–50, 1951–52, 1953–54, 1954–55, 1996–97, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2007–08) (the most by an American NHL franchise). The Lions have won 4 NFL titles (1935, 1952, 1953, 1957). The Pistons have won three NBA titles (1989, 1990, 2004). In college sports, Detroit's central location within the Mid-American Conference (MAC) has made it a frequent site for the league's championship events. While the MAC Basketball Tournament moved permanently to Cleveland starting in 2000, the MAC Football Championship Game has been played at Ford Field since 2004 and annually attracts 25,000 to 30,000 fans. The University of Detroit Mercy has an NCAA Division I program, and Wayne State University has both NCAA Division I and II programs. The NCAA football GameAbove Sports Bowl (formerly, Quick Lane Bowl) is held at Ford Field each December. The city hosted the 2005 MLB All-Star Game, Super Bowl XL in 2006, the 2006 and 2012 World Series, WrestleMania 23 in 2007, and the NCAA Final Four in April 2009. The Detroit Indy Grand Prix is held in Belle Isle Park. In 2007, open-wheel racing returned to Belle Isle with both Indy Racing League and American Le Mans Series Racing. From 1982 to 1988, Detroit held the Detroit Grand Prix, at the Detroit street circuit. In 1932, Eddie "The Midnight Express" Tolan from Detroit won the 100- and 200-meter races and two gold medals at the 1932 Summer Olympics. Joe Louis won the heavyweight championship of the world in 1937. Detroit has made the most bids to host the Summer Olympics without ever being awarded the games, with seven unsuccessful bids for the 1944, 1952, 1956, 1960, 1964, 1968, and 1972 summer games. ==Government== The city is governed pursuant to the home rule Charter of the City of Detroit. The government is run by a mayor, the nine-member Detroit City Council, the eleven-member Board of Police Commissioners, and a clerk. All of these officers are elected on a nonpartisan ballot, with the exception of four of the police commissioners, who are appointed by the mayor. Detroit has a "strong mayoral" system, with the mayor approving departmental appointments. The council approves budgets, but the mayor is not obligated to adhere to any earmarking. The city clerk supervises elections and is formally charged with the maintenance of municipal records. City ordinances and substantially large contracts must be approved by the council. The Detroit City Code is the codification of Detroit's local ordinances. Presently three Community Advisory Councils advise City Council representatives. Residents of each of Detroit's seven districts have the option of electing Community Advisory Councils. The city clerk supervises elections and is formally charged with the maintenance of municipal records. Municipal elections for mayor, city council and city clerk are held at four-year intervals, in the year after presidential elections. Detroit's courts are state-administered and elections are nonpartisan. The Probate Court for Wayne County is in the Coleman A. Young Municipal Center in downtown. The Circuit Court is across Gratiot Avenue in the Frank Murphy Hall of Justice. The city is home to the Thirty-Sixth District Court, as well as the First District of the Michigan Court of Appeals and the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan. The city provides law enforcement through the Detroit Police Department and emergency services through the Detroit Fire Department. ===Politics=== Beginning with its incorporation in 1802, Detroit has had a total of 74 mayors. Detroit's last mayor from the Republican Party was Louis Miriani, who served from 1957 to 1962. In 1973, the city elected its first black mayor, Coleman Young. Despite development efforts, his combative style during his five terms in office was not well received by many suburban residents. Mayor Dennis Archer, a former Michigan Supreme Court Justice, refocused the city's attention on redevelopment with a plan to permit three casinos downtown. By 2008, three major casino resort hotels established operations in the city. In 2000, the city requested an investigation by the United States Justice Department into the Detroit Police Department which was concluded in 2003 over allegations regarding its use of force and civil rights violations. The city proceeded with a major reorganization of the Detroit Police Department. In 2013, felony bribery charges were brought against seven building inspectors. In 2016, further corruption charges were brought against 12 principals, a former school superintendent and supply vendor for a $12 million (~$ in ) kickback scheme. However, law professor Peter Henning argues Detroit's corruption is not unusual for a city its size, especially when compared with Chicago. Detroit is sometimes referred to as a sanctuary city because it has "anti-profiling ordinances that generally prohibit local police from asking about the immigration status of people who are not suspected of any crime". The city in recent years has been a stronghold for the Democratic Party, with around 90% of votes in the city going to incumbent vice president, Kamala Harris, the Democratic candidate in the 2024 Presidential election. ==Education== ===Colleges and universities=== Detroit is home to several institutions of higher learning, including Wayne State University and the University of Detroit Mercy. Grand Valley State University's Detroit Center hosts workshops, seminars, professional development, and other large gatherings. Sacred Heart Major Seminary, founded in 1919, is affiliated with Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum in Rome and offers pontifical degrees as well as civil undergraduate and graduate degrees. Other institutions in the city include the College for Creative Studies and Wayne County Community College. In June 2009, the Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine which is based in East Lansing opened a satellite campus at the Detroit Medical Center. ===Primary and secondary schools=== many K-12 students in Detroit frequently change schools, with some children having been enrolled in seven schools before finishing their K-12 careers. There is a concentration of senior high schools and charter schools in the downtown area, which had wealthier residents and more gentrification relative to other parts of Detroit: Downtown, northwest Detroit, and northeast Detroit have 1,894, 3,742, and 6,018 students of high school age, respectively, while they have 11, three, and two high schools, respectively. because of the lack of public transportation and the lack of school bus services, many Detroit families have to rely on themselves to transport children to school. there are about as many students in charter schools as there are in district schools. DPS continues to have the majority of the special education pupils. In addition, some Detroit students, as of 2016, attend public schools in other municipalities. State officials report a 68% graduation rate for Detroit's public schools adjusted for those who change schools. Traditional public and charter school students in the city have performed poorly on standardized tests. and 2011, while Detroit traditional public schools scored a record low on national tests, the publicly funded charter schools did even worse than the traditional public schools. there were 30,000 excess openings in Detroit traditional public and charter schools, bearing in mind the number of K-12-aged children in the city. In 2016, Kate Zernike of The New York Times stated school performance did not improve despite the proliferation of charters, describing the situation as "lots of choice, with no good choice". Nearly half of Detroit's adults are functionally illiterate. Detroit is served by various private schools, as well as parochial Roman Catholic schools operated by the Archdiocese of Detroit. there are four Catholic grade schools and three Catholic high schools in the City of Detroit, with all of them in the city's west side. The Archdiocese of Detroit lists a number of primary and secondary schools in the metro area as Catholic education has emigrated to the suburbs. Of the three Catholic high schools, two are operated by the Society of Jesus and the third is co-sponsored by the Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary and the Congregation of St. Basil. ==Media== The Detroit Free Press and The Detroit News are the major daily newspapers, both broadsheet publications published together under a joint operating agreement called the Detroit Media Partnership. Media philanthropy includes the Detroit Free Press high school journalism program and the Old Newsboys' Goodfellow Fund of Detroit. In March 2009, the two newspapers reduced home delivery to three days per week, print reduced newsstand issues of the papers on non-delivery days and focus resources on Internet-based news delivery. The Metro Times, founded in 1980, is a weekly publication, covering news, arts & entertainment. Founded in 1935 and based in Detroit, the Michigan Chronicle is one of the oldest and most respected African-American weekly newspapers in America, covering politics, entertainment, sports and community events. The Detroit television market is the 11th largest in the United States; according to estimates that do not include audiences in large areas of Ontario (Windsor and its surrounding area on broadcast and cable TV, as well as several other cable markets in Ontario, such as Ottawa) which receive and watch Detroit television stations. though this ranking does not take into account Canadian audiences. ==Infrastructure== ===Health systems=== There are over a dozen major hospitals, which include the Detroit Medical Center (DMC), Henry Ford Health System, St. John Health System, and the John D. Dingell VA Medical Center. DMC, a regional Level I trauma center, consists of Detroit Receiving Hospital and University Health Center, Children's Hospital of Michigan, Harper University Hospital, Hutzel Women's Hospital, Kresge Eye Institute, Rehabilitation Institute of Michigan, Sinai-Grace Hospital, and the Karmanos Cancer Institute. DMC has more than 2,000 licensed beds and 3,000 affiliated physicians. It is the largest private employer in the city. The center is staffed by physicians from the Wayne State University School of Medicine, the largest single-campus medical school in the United States and the fourth largest medical school overall. Vanguard has agreed to assume all debts and pension obligations. In 2012, two major construction projects were begun in New Center. The Henry Ford Health System started the first phase of a $500 million, 300-acre revitalization project, with the construction of a new $30 million, 275,000-square-foot, Medical Distribution Center for Cardinal Health, Inc. and Wayne State University started construction on a new $93 million, 207,000-square-foot, Integrative Biosciences Center (IBio). As many as 500 researchers and staff will work out of the IBio Center. ===Transportation=== With its proximity to Canada and its facilities, ports, major highways, rail connections and international airports, Detroit is an important transportation hub. The city has three international border crossings, the Ambassador Bridge, Detroit–Windsor Tunnel and Michigan Central Railway Tunnel, linking Detroit to Windsor. The Ambassador Bridge is the single busiest border crossing in North America, carrying 27% of the total trade between the U.S. and Canada. In 2015 Canadian Transport Minister Lisa Raitt announced Canada agreed to pay the entire cost to build a $250 million U.S. Customs plaza adjacent to the planned new Detroit–Windsor bridge, now the Gordie Howe International Bridge. Canada had already planned to pay for 95% of the bridge, which will cost $2.1 billion and is expected to open in 2024. "This allows Canada and Michigan to move the project forward immediately to its next steps which include further design work and property acquisition on the U.S. side of the border", Raitt said issued after she spoke in the House of Commons. ====Transit systems==== Mass transit in the region is provided by bus services. The Detroit Department of Transportation provides service within city limits up to the outer edges of the city. From there, the Suburban Mobility Authority for Regional Transportation (SMART) provides service to the suburbs and the city regionally with local routes and SMART's FAST service. FAST is a new service provided by SMART which offers limited stops along major corridors throughout the Detroit metropolitan area connecting the suburbs to downtown. The new high-frequency service travels along three of Detroit's busiest corridors, Gratiot, Woodward, and Michigan, and only stops at designated FAST stops. Cross border service between the downtown areas of Windsor and Detroit is provided by Transit Windsor via the Tunnel Bus. An elevated rail system known as the People Mover, completed in 1987, provides daily service around a loop downtown. The QLINE serves as a link between the People Mover and the Amtrak station via Woodward Avenue. The Ann Arbor–Detroit Regional Rail line will extend from New Center, connecting to Ann Arbor via Dearborn, Wayne, and Ypsilanti when it is opened. The Regional Transit Authority (RTA) was established by an act of the Michigan legislature in 2012 to oversee and coordinate all existing regional mass transit operations, and to develop new transit services in the region. The RTA's first project was the introduction of RelfeX, a limited-stop, cross-county bus service connecting downtown and midtown Detroit with Oakland county via Woodward avenue. Amtrak provides service to Detroit, operating its Wolverine service between Chicago and Pontiac. The Amtrak station is in New Center north of downtown. Intercity bus service is offered at the Detroit Bus Station. Greyhound Lines, Flixbus, Indian Trails, and Barons Bus Lines connect Detroit with numerous cities across the Midwest. ====Car ownership==== The city of Detroit has a higher than average percentage of households without a car. In 2016, 24.7% of Detroit households lacked a car, much higher than the national average of 8.7%. Detroit averaged 1.15 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8. ====Freight railroads==== Freight railroad operations in the city of Detroit are provided by Canadian National Railway, Canadian Pacific Railway, Conrail Shared Assets, CSX Transportation and Norfolk Southern Railway, each of which have local yards within the city. Detroit is also served by the Delray Connecting Railroad and Detroit Connecting Railroad shortlines. ====Airports==== Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport (DTW), the principal airport serving Detroit, is in nearby Romulus. DTW is a primary hub for Delta Air Lines (following its acquisition of Northwest Airlines), and a secondary hub for Spirit Airlines. The airport is connected to Downtown Detroit by the Suburban Mobility Authority for Regional Transportation (SMART) FAST Michigan route. Coleman A. Young International Airport (DET), previously called Detroit City Airport, is on Detroit's northeast side; the airport now maintains only charter service and general aviation. Willow Run Airport, in western Wayne County near Ypsilanti, is a general aviation and cargo airport. ====Freeways==== Metro Detroit has an extensive toll-free network of freeways administered by the Michigan Department of Transportation. Four major Interstate Highways surround the city. Detroit is connected via I-75 and I-96 to Kings Highway 401 and to major Southern Ontario cities such as London, Ontario and the Greater Toronto Area. I-75 (Chrysler and Fisher freeways) is the region's main north–south route, serving Flint, Pontiac, Troy, and Detroit, before continuing south (as the Detroit–Toledo and Seaway Freeways) to serve many of the communities along the shore of Lake Erie. I-94 (Edsel Ford Freeway) runs east–west through Detroit and serves Ann Arbor to the west (where it continues to Chicago) and Port Huron to the northeast. The stretch of the I-94 freeway from Ypsilanti to Detroit was one of America's earlier limited-access highways. Henry Ford built it to link the factories at Willow Run and Dearborn during World War II. A portion was known as the Willow Run Expressway. The I-96 freeway runs northwest–southeast through Livingston, Oakland and Wayne counties and (as the Jeffries Freeway through Wayne County) has its eastern terminus in downtown Detroit. The ZIP Code is used exclusively for the J. W. Westcott II, which makes it the only floating ZIP Code in the United States. It has a land-based office at 12 24th Street, just south of the Ambassador Bridge. The J.W. Westcott Company was established in 1874 by Captain John Ward Westcott as a maritime reporting agency to inform other vessels about port conditions, and the J. W. Westcott II vessel began service in 1949 and is still in operation today. ==Notable people== ==Sister cities== Detroit's sister cities include the following: Chongqing, China Dubai, United Arab Emirates Kitwe, Zambia Huế, Vietnam Minsk, Belarus Nassau, Bahamas Toyota, Japan Turin, Italy	[ "Ford Model T", "Mass transit", "Shinola (retail company)", "Milliken v. Bradley", "Seven Years' War", "Joe Louis", "The Detroit News", "Jim Crow laws", "Woodward Avenue", "Occupational safety and health", "Nederlander Organization", "One Campus Martius", "Auburn Hills, Michigan", "Bloomfield Hills, Michigan", "Canadian Pacific Railway", "George DeBaptiste", "George W. Romney", "Beaver Wars", "James Ward Packard", "Postmodern architecture", "Midwestern United States", "Campus Martius station", "Detroit–Windsor tunnel", "Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas", "Canada–United States border", "Detroit Institute of Arts", "Grand Circus Park Historic District", "Detroit Lions", "1950 United States census", "Architecture of metropolitan Detroit", "school district", "1998 Stanley Cup Finals", "Thirteen Colonies", "till plain", "Metropolitan statistical area", "automotive industry", "The Michigan Daily", "8 Mile (film)", "Wayne State University School of Medicine", "Detroit Historical Museum", "The Mining Journal", "Roman Catholic", "Kingdom of France", "Sponge (band)", "St. Lawrence River", "Dearborn Heights, Michigan", "Design Cities (UNESCO)", "NFL draft", "Kingdom of Great Britain", "the Marvelettes", "Great Lakes", "Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac", "Mayor–council government", "Michigan History (magazine)", "National Weather Service", "Children's Hospital of Michigan", "Louis Miriani", "Potawatomi", "2012 World Series", "conservation-restoration of cultural heritage", "Glenn Frey", "East Jefferson Avenue Residential TR", "Rocket Mortgage", "Anna Scripps Whitcomb Conservatory", "Great Fire of 1805", "National Hockey League", "List of U.S. place names of French origin", "Arsenal of Democracy", "1935 NFL Championship Game", "Ally Financial", "Wayne County Community College", "Iroquois", "Ossian Sweet", "Walk Score", "Catholepistemiad", "St. Clair River", "Corktown, Detroit", "New France", "Detroit Connecting Railroad", "NCAA Division I", "Dodge", "Stevie Wonder", "Wayne County, MI", "Paleo-Indians", "Cleveland", "Pacific Islander Americans", "Palmer Woods", "Michigan", "Midwest", "1994 North American cold wave", "Indy Racing League", "St. Mary Roman Catholic Church (Detroit)", "St. Lawrence Seaway", "Bangladeshi Americans", "gentrification", "William Beaumont Hospital", "David Whitney Building", "The Amboy Dukes (band)", "Fisher Theatre", "Ontario Highway 401", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Flint, Michigan", "Sports Illustrated", "Delray, Detroit", "Donald Byrd", "limited-stop", "1997 Stanley Cup Finals", "Harper Woods, Michigan", "Quebec", "United Auto Workers", "Architectural Digest", "Detroit River", "Kid Rock", "Level I trauma center", "Michigan Court of Appeals", "John Lee Hooker", "NAACP", "Grosse Pointe Woods, Michigan", "Pew Research Center", "1952 NFL Championship Game", "Live Nation Entertainment", "Appalachians", "ZIP Code", "the Jackson 5", "Secretary of State of the Navy (France)", "Federal government of the United States", "Wayne County Building", "DTE Energy", "Conrail Shared Assets", "Music of Detroit", "Martin Luther King Jr.", "List of counties in Michigan", "Fred Durhal III", "Functional illiteracy", "Maccabees Building", "West Canfield Historic District", "1967 Detroit riot", "Financial emergency in Michigan", "Suzi Quatro", "Mayor of Detroit", "flag of Detroit", "Alfred Caldwell", "Delta blues", "Detroit Tigers", "Dally in the Alley", "Associated Press", "the Andantes", "2008 Stanley Cup Finals", "codification (law)", "1956 Summer Olympics", "Stellantis", "Martha and the Vandellas", "radio market", "Eastpointe, Michigan", "North American fur trade", "Walter Chrysler", "Condominium (living space)", "Monroe, Michigan", "Detroit station", "Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit", "Belle Isle Park", "Mound Builders", "Lyndon B. Johnson", "Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge", "Detroit Department of Transportation", "Clinton River", "Native Americans in the United States", "Detroit Walk to Freedom", "Mexican American", "Delta Air Lines", "University of Detroit Mercy", "Chene Park", "Grosse Pointe Farms, Michigan", "CSX Transportation", "Renaissance Center", "Berry Gordy, Jr.", "Northwest Territories", "Irreligion", "sanctuary city", "1964 Summer Olympics", "Fort Detroit", "Sullivan Expedition", "Chrysler", "Metro Times", "The New York Times", "J Dilla", "Detroit Zoo", "Jeff Mills", "French and Indian War", "New Orleans", "Windsor, Ontario", "Detroit Symphony Orchestra", "American League", "Motown Motion Picture Studios", "USS Detroit", "Big Three (automobile manufacturers)", "1955 Stanley Cup Finals", "Detroit International Jazz Festival", "Troy, Michigan", "List of United States cities by population", "Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport", "Kentucky", "Hockeytown", "home rule", "211 West Fort Street", "1957 NFL Championship Game", "GameAbove Sports Bowl", "county seat", "Anglo-Americans", "List of Registered Historic Places in Detroit, Michigan", "Muskrat French", "Tourism in metropolitan Detroit", "Little Caesars Arena", "Shinola Detroit", "Penobscot Building", "Romulus, Michigan", "Sister city", "Geographic Names Information System", "MacArthur Bridge (Detroit)", "Mid-American Conference", "United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan", "Mary D. Waters", "Los Angeles Times", "Detroit–Windsor", "National Public Radio", "Municipal clerk", "D12", "Interstate 94 in Michigan", "William Hull", "Diana Ross & the Supremes", "electronic dance music", "University District, Detroit", "Transit Windsor", "Kitwe", "Hispanic and Latino Americans", "prohibition in the United States", "Detroit Electronic Music Festival", "UNESCO", "Interstate 275 (Michigan)", "Majestic Theater (Detroit, Michigan)", "The Spirit of Detroit", "Kamala Harris", "Fort Shelby Hotel", "redlining", "Coleman Young II", "charter schools", "Campus Martius Park", "automotive industry in the United States", "Ferndale, Michigan", "Detroit Pistons", "Erie people", "the Jazz Messengers", "Michigan Central Railway Tunnel", "metropolitan statistical area", "streetcar", "Detroit News", "public–private partnership", "Hardiness zone", "2020 United States census", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Jalisco", "Roads and freeways in metropolitan Detroit", "Detroit jazz", "Iron Brigade", "Nolan Strong", "general aviation", "Detroit blues", "1968 Summer Olympics", "Henry Ford Health System", "Tuskegee Airmen", "Detroit City Council", "Robert Graham (sculptor)", "Greyhound Lines", "Crain's Detroit Business", "Detroit Bus Station", "Michigan Central Station", "Lafayette Park, Detroit", "Lincoln Park, Michigan", "Province of Quebec (1763–91)", "strait", "Eastern Daylight Time", "San Diego–Tijuana", "Delray Connecting Railroad", "Negative Approach", "Planning and development in Detroit", "regional park", "Ally Detroit Center", "Huron–Clinton Metroparks", "broadsheet", "Danny Brown (rapper)", "QLine", "Greater Toronto Area", "wildlife preserve", "Melvindale, Michigan", "Multiracial Americans", "White American", "Deloitte", "Art Blakey", "Royal Oak, Michigan", "Marvin Gaye", "Ohio Country", "Ottawa", "List of municipalities in Michigan", "Detroit International Riverfront", "Dequindre Cut", "1953 NFL Championship Game", "Monument to Joe Louis", "1943 Stanley Cup Finals", "Hart Plaza", "Detroit Grand Prix", "Eminem", "Interstate 696", "techno", "Gulf of Mexico", "Huron River (Michigan)", "the Meatmen", "Brush Park", "U.S. Census Bureau", "Mitch Ryder", "Anishinaabe", "Performing arts in Detroit", "Hour Detroit", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit", "The Monitors (American band)", "Detroit Metropolitan Airport", "Mexicantown, Detroit", "Pakistani Americans", "American Revolutionary War", "Detroit Free Press", "The Henry Ford", "Detroit Board of Police Commissioners", "Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans", "University of Michigan Health System", "Cadillac Square", "the Necros", "Huế", "International Brotherhood of Teamsters", "JPMorgan Chase", "Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History", "Pepper Adams", "Motown", "Denaun Porter", "Saint Andrew's Hall", "Augustus B. Woodward", "Karmanos Cancer Institute", "Meijer", "Gem Theatre (Detroit)", "Cardinal Health, Inc.", "Eight-hour day", "Zug Island", "National Football League", "Southern Ontario", "St. John Health", "The Atlantic", "Contemporary Art Institute of Detroit", "National Basketball Association", "Native Hawaiian", "Open Library", "Black Bottom, Detroit", "Wayne County, Michigan", "Little Caesars", "Ann Arbor, Michigan", "Black Legion (political movement)", "Keyworth Stadium", "Comerica", "Toyota, Aichi", "Coleman A. Young Municipal Center", "List of mayors of Detroit", "HP Enterprise Services", "William Lambert (abolitionist)", "Köppen climate classification", "Comerica Park", "Missionary", "Museum of Contemporary Art Detroit", "Amtrak", "shrinking cities", "Underground Railroad", "Smokey Robinson", "Hutzel Women's Hospital", "Gabriel Richard", "Ford Motor Company", "Midtown Detroit", "OnStar", "KPMG", "hip hop music", "Mies van der Rohe", "Alleghenies", "Odawa", "Republican Party (United States)", "Ambassador Bridge", "Motown (music style)", "James Scott Memorial Fountain", "British North America", "Northwest Ordinance", "Lake Huron", "2000 United States census", "Detroit Cultural Center", "Cathedral of the Most Blessed Sacrament", "NCAA Division II", "Hmong Americans", "Pontiac, Michigan", "1932 Summer Olympics", "Pontiac's War", "1943 Detroit race riot", "General Motors", "Nassau, Bahamas", "American Revolution", "East Coast of the United States", "Metonymy", "Gilded Age", "Aretha Franklin", "St. Joseph Roman Catholic Church, Detroit", "The Fillmore Detroit", "Downtown Detroit", "Race and ethnicity in the United States census", "Turin", "Ultraviolet index", "Ludwig Mies van der Rohe", "2013–14 North American cold wave", "David Broderick Tower", "Sacred Heart Major Seminary", "Redford, Michigan", "Woodward Dream Cruise", "Palmer Park Apartment Building Historic District", "Royce da 5'9\"", "MLB All-Star Game", "Chongqing", "Cadillac Place", "Louis XIV", "Huron people", "Lake Erie", "Boston-Edison Historic District", "Detroit Science Center", "Harper's Magazine", "Willow Run Airport", "North American International Auto Show", "Hamtramck, Michigan", "Forbes", "urban decay", "Detroit Indy Grand Prix", "Fox Theatre (Detroit)", "New Center, Detroit", "North End, Detroit", "Detroit City FC", "Osborn, Detroit", "Smokey Robinson & the Miracles", "River Rouge, Michigan", "2024 United States presidential election", "Thunderstorms", "Spirit Airlines", "Music Hall Center for the Performing Arts", "Detroit techno", "Protestant", "Nathaniel Mayer", "Detroit Opera House", "Chicago metropolitan area", "Upper Canada", "Ernst & Young", "Ku Klux Klan", "humid continental climate", "Oak Park, Michigan", "CKLW", "Federal Information Processing Standards", "Book Cadillac Hotel", "Battle of Gettysburg", "Indian Village, Detroit", "Mississippi River", "Dennis Archer", "Mexican Repatriation", "Broadway theatre", "Regional Transit Authority of Southeast Michigan", "Electric Six", "24th Michigan Infantry Regiment", "Hudson Motor Company", "Big Sean", "Packard Automotive Plant", "East Lansing, Michigan", "MV American Courage", "Quicken Loans", "Fifth Third Bank", "Derrick May (musician)", "Detroit Rock City", "National Independent Soccer Association", "Major League Baseball", "Dearborn, Michigan", "Minsk", "List of United States urban areas", "1944 Summer Olympics", "Walter P. Reuther Library", "London, Ontario", "joint operating agreement", "Time (magazine)", "I Have a Dream", "Grosse Pointe Park, Michigan", "Bob Seger", "Michigan Territory", "Interstate 75 in Michigan", "Warren, Michigan", "Nicknames of Detroit", "the Funk Brothers", "Alaska Native", "1952 Summer Olympics", "Michigan Department of Transportation", "Summer 2012 North American heat wave", "United States Justice Department", "Dubai", "hardcore punk rock", "Battle of Frenchtown", "The Chronicle of Philanthropy", "Royal Proclamation of 1763", "Michigan Chronicle", "Indian Americans", "destination marketing organization", "Henry Ford Hospital", "Ypsilanti, Michigan", "American Civil War", "1952 Stanley Cup Finals", "Detroit race riot of 1863", "Lake St. Clair", "Art Deco", "1937 Stanley Cup Finals", "Gothic Revival architecture", "National Register of Historic Places listings in Detroit", "Canadian National Railway", "Lowe Campbell Ewald", "Appalachian Mountains", "African American", "Detroit Theatre District", "Hazel Park, Michigan", "Montreal", "civil rights movement", "Canada (New France)", "Belle Isle Conservatory", "Appalachia", "Ecorse, Michigan", "Sinai-Grace Hospital", "1960 Summer Olympics", "Bricktown, Detroit", "Airline hub", "William Milliken", "Rare Earth (band)", "Detroit bankruptcy", "Ted Nugent", "M-8 (Michigan highway)", "List of tallest buildings in Detroit", "Jay Treaty", "Alice Cooper", "Juan Atkins", "Great Migration (African American)", "PricewaterhouseCoopers", "Detroit Public Library", "beaver", "2002 Stanley Cup Finals", "rapid transit", "Wayne State University", "the Four Tops", "Louis Phélypeaux, Marquis of Phélypeaux", "Ojibwe", "Super Bowl XL", "Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan", "River Raisin National Battlefield Park", "Hantz Woodlands", "Walter Reuther", "Woodbridge, Detroit", "Jimmy Hoffa", "Louisiana (New France)", "the Velvelettes", "Final Four (college basketball)", "American Axle", "2010 United States census", "Kwame Kilpatrick", "War of 1812", "Greektown, Detroit", "Mike Duggan", "Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary", "QLINE", "Ludwig Hilberseimer", "Detroit street circuit", "USL Championship", "Aloft Hotel", "Hitsville U.S.A.", "Independent politician", "WrestleMania 23", "Lower Woodward Avenue Historic District", "Rick Snyder", "Fisher Building", "Ohio River", "1936 Stanley Cup Finals", "Gladys Knight & the Pips", "Lonely Planet", "Lebanese Americans", "Cranbrook Art Museum", "American Le Mans Series", "Detroit Fire Department", "CNNMoney", "West Vernor-Junction Historic District", "Interstate 375 (Michigan)", "Tri-Centennial State Park", "River Rouge Park", "Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival", "Dave Bing", "Ford Piquette Avenue Plant", "U.S. Route 12 in Michigan", "siege of Fort Detroit", "Guardian Building", "Detroit Public Schools", "the Temptations", "Vanguard Health Systems", "Henry Ford", "Michigan National Guard", "Wayne, Michigan", "Eastern Market, Detroit", "Stateside Puerto Ricans", "Detroit Police Department", "Grosse Pointe", "Great Lakes region", "the Dirtbombs", "Treaty of Paris (1783)", "Assyrian Americans", "Harper University Hospital", "William Doud Packard", "List of North American cities by population", "the Von Bondies", "American Federation of Labor", "1954 Stanley Cup Finals", "Detroit–Windsor Truck Ferry", "Detroit Media Partnership", "Kate Zernike", "Area code 313", "Flixbus", "Griswold Street", "Andre Williams (musician)", "the Elgins", "Detroit Yacht Club", "Detroit People Mover", "Detroit Masonic Temple", "1950 Stanley Cup Finals", "French Canadian", "Grand Valley State University", "United States Border Patrol", "Rehabilitation Institute of Michigan", "Alphonse de Tonty", "Detroit–Windsor Tunnel", "white flight", "Berry Gordy", "garage rock", "Coleman A. Young International Airport", "Gordie Howe International Bridge", "Fortune Records", "the White Stripes", "Compuware", "Sherwood Forest, Detroit", "Suburban Mobility Authority for Regional Transportation", "University of Michigan Press", "Highland Park, Michigan", "the Hard Lessons", "Racial segregation in the United States", "Orchestra Hall (Detroit)", "Allies of World War II", "Lower Canada", "Coleman Young", "Marshall Fredericks", "University of Michigan", "Detroit City", "Congregation of St. Basil", "HuffPost", "Urban sprawl", "Automotive industry in the United States", "World War II", "Barons Bus Lines", "Laura Smith Haviland", "Largest cities in the United States by population by decade", "Combined Statistical Area", "the Stooges", "NCAA", "Ford Field", "Neutral Confederacy", "elevated railway", "Pewabic Pottery", "William C. Durant", "Latin", "J. W. Westcott II", "Laotian Americans", "Sweetest Heart of Mary Roman Catholic Church", "Ann Arbor–Detroit Regional Rail", "Detroit salt mine", "local ordinance", "the Detroit Cobras", "Southeast Michigan", "Non-Hispanic or Latino whites", "American Community Survey", "Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine", "Rossetti Architects", "Norfolk Southern Railway", "Grosse Pointe, Michigan", "Interstate 96", "College for Creative Studies", "Kevin Saunderson", "MC5", "Stanley Cup", "Detroit Medical Center", "The Spinners (American group)", "1972 Summer Olympics", "Asian Americans", "Eastern Time Zone", "Wolverine (Amtrak train)", "Reuters", "Fort Wayne (Detroit)", "M-102 (Michigan highway)", "Indian Trails", "Asian American", "Southfield, Michigan", "United States Department of Labor", "Royal Oak Charter Township, Michigan", "Metro Detroit", "United States Census Bureau", "One Kennedy Square", "Culture of Detroit", "Kiss (band)", "Treaty of Paris (1763)", "Brightmoor, Detroit", "Motown Records", "Household income in the United States", "Detroit Red Wings" ]
8,688	Deccan Traps	The Deccan Traps are a large igneous province of west-central India (17–24°N, 73–74°E). They are one of the largest volcanic features on Earth, taking the form of a large shield volcano. They consist of many layers of solidified flood basalt that together are more than about thick, cover an area of about , and have a volume of about . Originally, the Deccan Traps may have covered about , with a correspondingly larger original volume. This volume overlies the Archean age Indian Shield, which is likely the lithology the province passed through during eruption. The province is commonly divided into four subprovinces: the main Deccan, the Malwa Plateau, the Mandla Lobe, and the Saurashtran Plateau. The eruptions occurred over a 600–800,000 year time period between around 66.3 to 65.6 million years ago, spanning the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary. While some authors have suggested that the eruptions were the primary cause of the Cretaceous–Paleogene mass extinction event, which dates to around 66.05 million years ago, this has been strongly disputed, with many authors suggesting that the Chicxulub impact was the primary cause of the extinction. While some scholars suggest that the eruptions may have been a contributing factor in the extinctions, others suggest that the role of the Deccan Traps in the extinction were negligible or even partially negated the effects of the impact. ==Etymology== The term trap has been used in geology since 1785–1795 for such rock formations. It is derived from the Swedish word for stairs () and refers to the step-like hills forming the landscape of the region. The name Deccan has Sanskrit origins meaning "southern". Determining the exact age for Deccan rock is difficult due to a number of limitations, one being that the transition between eruption events may have lasted only a few thousand years and the resolution of dating methods is not sufficient to pinpoint these events. In this way, determining the rate of magma emplacement is also difficult to constrain. The original area covered by the lava flows is estimated to have been as large as , approximately half the size of modern India. The Deccan Traps region was reduced to its current size by erosion and plate tectonics; the present area of directly observable lava flows is around . The Deccan Traps are segmented into three stratigraphic units: the Upper, Middle, and Lower traps. While it was previously interpreted that these groups represented their own key points in the sequence of events in Deccan extrusion, it is now more widely accepted that these horizons relate more closely to paleotopography and distance from the eruption site. Because of its magnitude, some scientists (notably Gerta Keller) have speculated that the gases released during the formation of the Deccan Traps played a major role in the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event (also known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary or K–T extinction). It has been theorized that sudden cooling due to sulfurous volcanic gases released by the formation of the traps and toxic gas emissions may have contributed significantly to the K–Pg mass extinction. However, the current consensus among the scientific community is that the extinction was primarily triggered by the Chicxulub impact event in North America, which would have produced a sunlight-blocking dust cloud that killed much of the plant life and reduced global temperature (this cooling is called an impact winter). A 2014 study suggested the extinction may have been caused by both the volcanism and the impact event. This was followed by a similar study in 2015, both of which consider the hypothesis that the impact exacerbated or induced the Deccan volcanism, since the events occurred approximately at antipodes. A 2020 study questioned the idea that the Deccan Traps were a contributory factor at all, suggesting that the Deccan Traps eruptions may have even partially negated the climatic change induced by the impact. A 2024 study of glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether levels in fossilized peat found that the Deccan Traps caused long-term warming of around 3°C over the course of the final 100,000 years of the Maastrichtian, as well as about 5°C drop in temperature for less than 10,000 years around 30,000 years prior to the K-Pg boundary (coinciding with the peak of the Poladpur eruptive phase), but by the time of the K-Pg boundary, global temperatures had returned to previous levels. This suggests that the Deccan Traps were not the primary cause of extinction. Major mineral constituents are olivine, pyroxenes, and plagioclase, as well as certain Fe-Ti-rich oxides. These magmas are 3He/4He ratios of the main pulse of the eruption are often seen in magmas with mantle plume origin. The area of long-term eruption (the hotspot), known as the Réunion hotspot, is suspected of both causing the Deccan Traps eruption and opening the rift that separated the Mascarene Plateau from India. Regional crustal thinning supports the theory of this rifting event and likely encouraged the rise of the plume in this area. Data continues to emerge that supports the plume model. The motion of the Indian tectonic plate and the eruptive history of the Deccan traps show strong correlations. Based on data from marine magnetic profiles, a pulse of unusually rapid plate motion began at the same time as the first pulse of Deccan flood basalts, which is dated at 67 million years ago. The spreading rate rapidly increased and reached a maximum at the same time as the peak basaltic eruptions. The spreading rate then dropped off, with the decrease occurring around 63 million years ago, by which time the main phase of Deccan volcanism ended. This correlation is seen as driven by plume dynamics. The motions of the Indian and African plates have also been shown to be coupled, the common element being the position of these plates relative to the location of the Réunion plume head. The onset of accelerated motion of India coincides with a large slowing of the rate of counterclockwise rotation of Africa. The close correlations between the plate motions suggest that they were both driven by the force of the Réunion plume. The combination of the asteroid impact and the resulting increase in eruptive volume may have been responsible for the mass extinctions that occurred at the time that separates the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods, known as the K–Pg boundary. However this proposal has been questioned by other authors, who describe the suggestion as being "convenient interpretations based on superficial and cursory observations." ===Shiva crater=== A geological structure that exists in the sea floor off the west coast of India has been suggested as a possible impact crater, in this context called the Shiva crater. It was also dated approximately 66 million years ago, potentially matching the Deccan traps. The researchers claiming that this feature is an impact crater suggest that the impact may have been the triggering event for the Deccan Traps as well as contributing to the acceleration of the Indian plate in the early Paleogene. However, the current consensus in the Earth science community is that this feature is unlikely to be an actual impact crater.	[ "Climate variability and change", "tholeiitic basalt", "Mascarene Plateau", "geology", "plagioclase", "Magnesium oxide", "lithology", "Chicxulub impact", "amber", "Mascarene Islands", "faulting", "Eocene", "Kachchh", "Emeishan Traps", "Geologic time scale", "University of Kansas", "Paleogene", "impact winter", "pyroxene", "Intertrappean Beds", "seiche", "Sankar Chatterjee", "African Plate", "mantle plume", "Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary", "rock formation", "pyroxenite", "Gravity anomaly", "crustal thinning", "Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event", "iridium", "Seafloor spreading", "Titanium", "olivine", "Krishna Godavari Basin", "flood basalt", "Tanis (fossil site)", "nephelinite", "K–Pg boundary", "glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether", "Shiva crater", "Siberian Traps", "Iron", "Stratigraphy", "Indian Ocean", "India", "lamprophyre", "Fissure vent", "Mohorovičić discontinuity", "hotspot (geology)", "lava flow", "xenolith", "sulfur dioxide", "erosion", "Bowman, North Dakota", "Trap rock", "gabbro", "Malwa", "Lameta Formation", "Indian Shield", "tektite", "shield volcano", "Matheran", "Olivine", "Myobatrachidae", "Réunion", "volcanic gas", "Volcano", "calcite", "Réunion hotspot", "Western Ghats", "Late Devonian extinction", "Verneshot", "alkali basalt", "Gerta Keller", "Oxyglossus", "Geology of India", "Infratrappean Beds", "Columbia River Basalt Group", "List of flood basalt provinces", "argon–argon dating", "Indobatrachus", "Chicxulub crater", "lherzolite", "Cretaceous", "tsunami", "dike (geology)", "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences", "carbonatite", "rift", "vug", "large igneous province", "antipodes", "Archean", "molluscs", "fossil", "Maastrichtian", "List of volcanoes in India", "Helium-4", "Helium-3" ]
8,690	Don't ask, don't tell	"Don't ask, don't tell" (DADT) was the official United States policy on military service of homosexual people. Instituted during the Clinton administration, the policy was issued under Department of Defense Directive 1304.26 on December 21, 1993, and was in effect from February 28, 1994, until September 20, 2011. The policy prohibited military personnel from discriminating against or harassing closeted homosexual or bisexual service members or applicants, while barring openly gay, lesbian, or bisexual persons from military service. This relaxation of legal restrictions on service by gays and lesbians in the armed forces was mandated by Public Law 103–160 (Title 10 of the United States Code §654), which was signed November 30, 1993. The policy prohibited people who "demonstrate a propensity or intent to engage in homosexual acts" from serving in the armed forces of the United States, because their presence "would create an unacceptable risk to the high standards of morale, good order and discipline, and unit cohesion that are the essence of military capability". The act prohibited any non-heterosexual person from disclosing their sexual orientation or from speaking about any same-sex relationships, including marriages or other familial attributes, while serving in the United States armed forces. The act specified that service members who disclose that they are homosexual or engage in homosexual conduct should be separated (discharged) except when a service member's conduct was "for the purpose of avoiding or terminating military service" or when it "would not be in the best interest of the armed forces". Since DADT ended in 2011, persons who are openly homosexual and bisexual have been able to serve. The "don't ask" section of the DADT policy specified that superiors should not initiate an investigation of a service member's orientation without witnessing disallowed behaviors. However, evidence of homosexual behavior deemed credible could be used to initiate an investigation. Unauthorized investigations and harassment of suspected servicemen and women led to an expansion of the policy to "don't ask, don't tell, don't pursue, don't harass". Beginning in the early 2000s, several legal challenges to DADT were filed, and legislation to repeal DADT was enacted in December 2010, specifying that the policy would remain in place until the President, the Secretary of Defense, and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff certified that repeal would not harm military readiness, followed by a 60-day waiting period. A July 6, 2011, ruling from a federal appeals court barred further enforcement of the U.S. military's ban on openly gay service members. President Barack Obama, Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta, and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Mike Mullen sent that certification to Congress on July 22, 2011, which set the end of DADT to September 20, 2011. Even with DADT repealed, the legal definition of marriage as being one man and one woman under the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) meant that, although same-sex partners could get married, their marriage was not recognized by the federal government. This barred partners from access to the same benefits afforded to heterosexual couples such as base access, health care, and United States military pay, including family separation allowance and Basic Allowance for Housing with dependents. The Department of Defense attempted to allow some of the benefits that were not restricted by DOMA, but the Supreme Court decision in United States v. Windsor (2013) made these efforts unnecessary. ==Background== Engaging in homosexual activity had been grounds for discharge from the American military since the Revolutionary War. Policies based on sexual orientation appeared as the United States prepared to enter World War II. When the military added psychiatric screening to its induction process, it included homosexuality as a disqualifying trait, then seen as a form of psychopathology. When the army issued revised mobilization regulations in 1942, it distinguished "homosexual" recruits from "normal" recruits for the first time. Before the buildup to the war, gay service members were court-martialed, imprisoned, and dishonorably discharged; but in wartime, commanding officers found it difficult to convene court-martial boards of commissioned officers and the administrative blue discharge became the military's standard method for handling gay and lesbian personnel. In 1944, a new policy directive decreed that homosexuals were to be committed to military hospitals, examined by psychiatrists, and discharged under Regulation 615–360, section 8. In 1947, blue discharges were discontinued and two new classifications were created: "general" and "undesirable". Under such a system, a serviceman or woman found to be gay but who had not committed any sexual acts while in service would tend to receive an undesirable discharge. Those found guilty of engaging in sexual conduct were usually dishonorably discharged. A 1957 U.S. Navy study known as the Crittenden Report dismissed the charge that homosexuals constitute a security risk, but nonetheless did not advocate for an end to anti-gay discrimination in the navy on the basis that "The service should not move ahead of civilian society nor attempt to set substantially different standards in attitude or action with respect to homosexual offenders." It remained secret until 1976. Fannie Mae Clackum was the first service member to successfully appeal such a discharge, winning eight years of back pay from the US Court of Claims in 1960. From the 1950s through the Vietnam War, some notable gay service members avoided discharges despite pre-screening efforts, and when personnel shortages occurred, homosexuals were allowed to serve. The gay and lesbian rights movement in the 1970s and 1980s raised the issue by publicizing several noteworthy dismissals of gay service members. Air Force TSgt Leonard Matlovich, the first service member to purposely out himself to challenge the ban, appeared on the cover of Time in 1975. In 1982 the Department of Defense issued a policy stating that, "Homosexuality is incompatible with military service." It cited the military's need "to maintain discipline, good order, and morale" and "to prevent breaches of security". In 1988, in response to a campaign against lesbians at the Marines' Parris Island Depot, activists launched the Gay and Lesbian Military Freedom Project (MFP) to advocate for an end to the exclusion of gays and lesbians from the armed forces. In 1989, reports commissioned by the Personnel Security Research and Education Center (PERSEREC), an arm of the Pentagon, were discovered in the process of Joseph Steffan's lawsuit fighting his forced resignation from the U.S. Naval Academy. One report said that "having a same-gender or an opposite-gender orientation is unrelated to job performance in the same way as is being left- or right-handed." Other lawsuits fighting discharges highlighted the service record of service members like Tracy Thorne and Margarethe (Grethe) Cammermeyer. The MFP began lobbying Congress in 1990, and in 1991 Senator Brock Adams (D-Washington) and Rep. Barbara Boxer introduced the Military Freedom Act, legislation to end the ban completely. Adams and Rep. Pat Schroeder (D-Colorado) re-introduced it the next year. In July 1991, Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney, in the context of the outing of his press aide Pete Williams, dismissed the idea that gays posed a security risk as "a bit of an old chestnut" in testimony before the House Budget Committee. In response to his comment, several major newspapers endorsed ending the ban, including USA Today, the Los Angeles Times, and the Detroit Free Press. In June 1992, the General Accounting Office released a report that members of Congress had requested two years earlier estimating the costs associated with the ban on gays and lesbians in the military at $27 million annually. During the 1992 U.S. presidential election campaign, the civil rights of gays and lesbians, particularly their open service in the military, attracted some press attention, and all candidates for the Democratic presidential nomination supported ending the ban on military service by gays and lesbians, but the Republicans did not make a political issue of that position. In an August cover letter to all his senior officers, General Carl Mundy Jr., Commandant of the Marine Corps, praised a position paper authored by a Marine Corps chaplain that said that "In the unique, intensely close environment of the military, homosexual conduct can threaten the lives, including the physical (e.g. AIDS) and psychological well-being of others". Mundy called it "extremely insightful" and said it offered "a sound basis for discussion of the issue". The murder of gay U.S. Navy petty officer Allen R. Schindler Jr. on October 27, 1992 brought calls from advocates for allowing open service by gays and lesbians in the US military, and requested prompt action from the incoming Clinton administration. ==Origin== The policy was introduced as a compromise measure in 1993 by President Bill Clinton who campaigned in 1992 on the promise to allow all citizens to serve in the military regardless of sexual orientation. Commander Craig Quigley, a Navy spokesman, expressed the opposition of many in the military at the time when he said, "Homosexuals are notoriously promiscuous" and that in shared shower situations, heterosexuals would have an "uncomfortable feeling of someone watching". During the 1993 policy debate, the National Defense Research Institute prepared a study for the Office of the Secretary of Defense published as Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy: Options and Assessment. It concluded that "circumstances could exist under which the ban on homosexuals could be lifted with little or no adverse consequences for recruitment and retention" if the policy were implemented with care, principally because many factors contribute to individual enlistment and re-enlistment decisions. On May 5, 1993, Gregory M. Herek, associate research psychologist at the University of California at Davis and an authority on public attitudes toward lesbians and gay men, testified before the House Armed Services Committee on behalf of several professional associations. He stated, "The research data show that there is nothing about lesbians and gay men that makes them inherently unfit for military service, and there is nothing about heterosexuals that makes them inherently unable to work and live with gay people in close quarters." Herek added, "The assumption that heterosexuals cannot overcome their prejudices toward gay people is a mistaken one." In Congress, Democratic Senator Sam Nunn of Georgia and Chair of the Senate Armed Services Committee led the contingent that favored maintaining the absolute ban on gays. Reformers were led by Democratic Congressman Barney Frank of Massachusetts, who favored modification (but ultimately voted for the defense authorization bill with the gay ban language), and 1964 Republican presidential nominee Barry Goldwater, a former Senator and a retired Major General, who argued on behalf of allowing service by open gays and lesbians but was not allowed to appear before the Committee by Nunn. In a June 1993 Washington Post opinion piece, Goldwater wrote: "You don't have to be straight to shoot straight". The White House was also reportedly upset when LGBT activist David Mixner openly described Nunn as an "old-fashioned bigot" for opposing Clinton's plan to lift the ban on gays in the military. Congress rushed to enact the existing gay ban policy into federal law, outflanking Clinton's planned repeal effort. Clinton called for legislation to overturn the ban, but encountered intense opposition from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, members of Congress, and portions of the public. DADT emerged as a compromise policy. Congress included text in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1994 (passed in 1993) requiring the military to abide by regulations essentially identical to the 1982 absolute ban policy. issued Defense Directive 1304.26, which directed that military applicants were not to be asked about their sexual orientation. it was legal policy (10 U.S.C. § 654) that homosexuality was incompatible with military service and that persons who engaged in homosexual acts or stated that they are homosexual or bisexual were to be discharged. The Uniform Code of Military Justice, passed by Congress in 1950 and signed by President Harry S Truman, established the policies and procedures for discharging service members. The full name of the policy at the time was "Don't Ask, Don't Tell, Don't Pursue". The "Don't Ask" provision mandated that military or appointed officials not ask about or require members to reveal their sexual orientation. The "Don't Tell" stated that a member may be discharged for claiming to be a homosexual or bisexual or making a statement indicating a tendency towards or intent to engage in homosexual activities. The "Don't Pursue" established what was minimally required for an investigation to be initiated. A "Don't Harass" provision was added to the policy later. It ensured that the military would not allow harassment or violence against service members for any reason. ==Court challenges== DADT was upheld by five federal Courts of Appeal. The Supreme Court, in Rumsfeld v. Forum for Academic and Institutional Rights, Inc. (2006), unanimously held that the federal government could constitutionally withhold funding from universities, no matter what their nondiscrimination policies might be, for refusing to give military recruiters access to school resources. An association of law schools had argued that allowing military recruiting at their institutions compromised their ability to exercise their free speech rights in opposition to discrimination based on sexual orientation as represented by DADT. ===McVeigh v. Cohen=== In January 1998, Senior Chief Petty Officer Timothy R. McVeigh won a preliminary injunction from a U.S. district court that prevented his discharge from the U.S. Navy for "homosexual conduct" after 17 years of service. His lawsuit did not challenge the DADT policy but asked the court to hold the military accountable for adhering to the policy's particulars. The Navy had investigated McVeigh's sexual orientation based on his AOL email account name and user profile. District Judge Stanley Sporkin ruled in McVeigh v. Cohen that the Navy had violated its own DADT guidelines: "Suggestions of sexual orientation in a private, anonymous email account did not give the Navy a sufficient reason to investigate to determine whether to commence discharge proceedings." He called the Navy's investigation "a search and destroy mission" against McVeigh. The case also attracted attention because a navy paralegal had misrepresented himself when querying AOL for information about McVeigh's account. Frank Rich linked the two issues: "McVeigh is as clear-cut a victim of a witch hunt as could be imagined, and that witch hunt could expand exponentially if the military wants to add on-line fishing to its invasion of service members' privacy." AOL apologized to McVeigh and paid him damages. McVeigh reached a settlement with the Navy that paid his legal expenses and allowed him to retire with full benefits in July. The New York Times called Sporkin's ruling "a victory for gay rights, with implications for the millions of people who use computer on-line services". ===Witt v. Department of the Air Force=== In April 2006, Margaret Witt, a major in the United States Air Force who was being investigated for homosexuality, filed suit in the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington seeking declaratory and injunctive relief on the grounds that DADT violates substantive due process, the Equal Protection Clause, and procedural due process. In July 2007 the Secretary of the Air Force ordered her honorable discharge. Dismissed by the district court, the case was heard on appeal, and the Ninth Circuit issued its ruling on May 21, 2008. Its decision in Witt v. Department of the Air Force reinstated Witt's substantive-due-process and procedural-due-process claims and affirmed the dismissal of her Equal Protection claim. The Ninth Circuit, analyzing the Supreme Court decision in Lawrence v. Texas (2003), determined that DADT had to be subjected to heightened scrutiny, meaning that there must be an "important" governmental interest at issue, that DADT must "significantly" further the governmental interest, and that there can be no less intrusive way for the government to advance that interest. The Obama administration declined to appeal, allowing a May 3, 2009, deadline to pass, leaving Witt as binding on the entire Ninth Circuit, and returning the case to the District Court. On September 24, 2010, District Judge Ronald B. Leighton ruled that Witt's constitutional rights had been violated by her discharge and that she must be reinstated to the Air Force. The government filed an appeal with the Ninth Circuit on November 23, but did not attempt to have the trial court's ruling stayed pending the outcome. In a settlement announced on May 10, 2011, the Air Force agreed to drop its appeal and remove Witt's discharge from her military record. She will retire with full benefits. ===Log Cabin Republicans v. United States of America=== In 2010, a lawsuit filed in 2004 by the Log Cabin Republicans (LCR), the nation's largest Republican gay organization, went to trial. Challenging the constitutionality of DADT, the plaintiffs stated that the policy violates the rights of gay military members to free speech, due process and open association. The government argued that DADT was necessary to advance a legitimate governmental interest. Plaintiffs introduced statements by President Barack Obama, from prepared remarks, that DADT "doesn't contribute to our national security", "weakens our national security", and that reversal is "essential for our national security". According to plaintiffs, these statements alone satisfied their burden of proof on the due process claims. On September 9, 2010, Judge Virginia A. Phillips ruled in Log Cabin Republicans v. United States of America that the ban on service by openly gay service members was an unconstitutional violation of the First and Fifth Amendments. On October 12, 2010, she granted an immediate worldwide injunction prohibiting the Department of Defense from enforcing the "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy and ordered the military to suspend and discontinue any investigation or discharge, separation, or other proceedings based on it. The Department of Justice appealed her decision and requested a stay of her injunction, which Phillips denied but which the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals granted on October 20 and stayed pending appeal on November 1. The U.S. Supreme Court refused to overrule the stay. District Court neither anticipated questions of constitutional law nor formulated a rule broader than is required by the facts. The constitutional issues regarding DADT are well-defined, and the District Court focused specifically on the relevant inquiry of whether the statute impermissibly infringed upon substantive due process rights with regard to a protected area of individual liberty. Engaging in a careful and detailed review of the facts presented to it at trial, the District Court concluded that the Government put forward no persuasive evidence to demonstrate that the statute is a valid exercise of congressional authority to legislate in the realm of protected liberty interests. See Log Cabin, 716 F. Supp. 2d at 923. Hypothetical questions were neither presented nor answered in reaching this decision. On October 19, 2010, military recruiters were told they could accept openly gay applicants. On October 20, 2010, Lt. Dan Choi, an openly gay man honorably discharged under DADT, re-enlisted in the U.S. Army. Following the passage of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010, the Justice Department asked the Ninth Circuit to suspend LCR's suit in light of the legislative repeal. LCR opposed the request, noting that gay personnel were still subject to discharge. On January 28, 2011, the Court denied the Justice Department's request. The Obama administration responded by requesting that the policy be allowed to stay in place while they completed the process of assuring that its end would not impact combat readiness. On March 28, the LCR filed a brief asking that the court deny the administration's request. In 2011, while waiting for certification, several service members were discharged under DADT at their own insistence, until July 6 when a three-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals re-instated Judge Phillips' injunction barring further enforcement of the U.S. military's ban on openly gay service members. On July 11, the appeals court asked the DOJ to inform the court if it intended to proceed with its appeal. On July 14, the Justice Department filed a motion "to avoid short-circuiting the repeal process established by Congress during the final stages of the implementation of the repeal". and warning of "significant immediate harms on the government". On July 15, the Ninth Circuit restored most of the DADT policy, ==Debate== Following the July 1999 murder of Army Pfc. Barry Winchell, apparently motivated by anti-gay bias, President Clinton issued an executive order modifying the Uniform Code of Military Justice to permit evidence of a hate crime to be admitted during the sentencing phase of a trial. In December, Secretary of Defense William Cohen ordered a review of DADT to determine if the policy's anti-gay harassment component was being observed. When that review found anti-gay sentiments were widely expressed and tolerated in the military, the DOD adopted a new anti-harassment policy in July 2000, though its effectiveness was disputed. Later that month, retired General Carl E. Mundy Jr. defended the implementation of DADT against what he called the "politicization" of the issue by both Clintons. He cited discharge statistics for the Marines for the past five years that showed 75% were based on "voluntary admission of homosexuality" and 49% occurred during the first six months of service, when new recruits were most likely to reevaluate their decision to enlist. He also argued against any change in the policy, writing in The New York Times: "Conduct that is widely rejected by a majority of Americans can undermine the trust that is essential to creating and maintaining the sense of unity that is critical to the success of a military organization operating under the very different and difficult demands of combat." The conviction of Winchell's murderer, according to The New York Times, "galvanized opposition" to DADT, an issue that had "largely vanished from public debate". Opponents of the policy focused on punishing harassment in the military rather than the policy itself, which Senator Chuck Hagel defended on December 25: "The U.S. armed forces aren't some social experiment." The principal candidates for the Democratic presidential nomination in 2000, Al Gore and Bill Bradley, both endorsed military service by open gays and lesbians, provoking opposition from high-ranking retired military officers, notably the recently retired commandant of the Marine Corps, General Charles C. Krulak. He and others objected to Gore's statement that he would use support for ending DADT as a "litmus test" when considering candidates for the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The 2000 Democratic Party platform was silent on the issue, while the Republican Party platform that year said: "We affirm that homosexuality is incompatible with military service." Following the election of George W. Bush in 2000, observers expected him to avoid any changes to DADT, since his nominee for Secretary of State Colin Powell had participated in its creation. In February 2004, members of the British Armed Forces, Lt Rolf Kurth and Lt Cdr Craig Jones, along with Aaron Belkin, Director of the Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military met with members of Congress and spoke at the National Defense University. They spoke about their experience of the current situation in the UK. The UK lifted the ban on gay members serving in their forces in 2000. In July 2004, the American Psychological Association issued a statement that DADT "discriminates on the basis of sexual orientation" and that "Empirical evidence fails to show that sexual orientation is germane to any aspect of military effectiveness including unit cohesion, morale, recruitment and retention." It said that the U.S. military's track record overcoming past racial and gender discrimination demonstrated its ability to integrate groups previously excluded. The Republican Party platform that year reiterated its support for the policy—"We affirm traditional military culture, and we affirm that homosexuality is incompatible with military service."—while the Democratic Party maintained its silence. In February 2005, the Government Accountability Office released estimates of the cost of DADT. It reported at least $95.4 million in recruiting costs and at least $95.1 million for training replacements for the 9,488 troops discharged from 1994 through 2003, while noting that the true figures might be higher. In September, as part of its campaign to demonstrate that the military allowed open homosexuals to serve when its workforce requirements were greatest, the Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military (now the Palm Center) reported that army regulations allowed the active-duty deployment of Army Reservists and National Guard troops who claim to be or who are accused of being gay. A U.S. Army Forces Command spokesperson said the regulation was intended to prevent Reservists and National Guard members from pretending to be gay to escape combat. Advocates of ending DADT repeatedly publicized discharges of highly trained gay and lesbian personnel, especially those in positions with critical shortages, including fifty-nine Arabic speakers and nine Persian speakers. Elaine Donnelly, president of the Center for Military Readiness, later argued that the military's failure to ask about sexual orientation at recruitment was the cause of the discharges: [Y]ou could reduce this number to zero or near zero if the Department of Defense dropped Don't Ask, Don't Tell. ... We should not be training people who are not eligible to be in the Armed Forces." In February 2006, a University of California Blue Ribbon Commission that included Lawrence Korb, a former assistant defense secretary during the Reagan administration, William Perry, Secretary of Defense in the Clinton administration, and professors from the United States Military Academy released their assessment of the GAO's analysis of the cost of DADT released a year earlier. The commission report stated that the GAO did not take into account the value the military lost from the departures. They said that that total cost was closer to $363 million, including $14.3 million for "separation travel" following a service member's discharge, $17.8 million for training officers, $252.4 million for training enlistees, and $79.3 million in recruiting costs. Donnelly of the Center for Military Readiness stated in September: "I think the people involved here do not have the best interests of the military at heart. They never have. They are promoting an agenda to normalize homosexuality in America using the military as a battering ram to promote that broader agenda." She said that "pro-homosexual activists ... are creating media events all over the country and even internationally." In 2006, a speaking tour of gay former service members, organized by SLDN, Log Cabin Republicans, and Meehan, visited 18 colleges and universities. Patrick Guerriero, executive director of Log Cabin, thought the repeal movement was gaining "new traction" but "Ultimately", said, "we think it's going to take a Republican with strong military credentials to make a shift in the policy." Elaine Donnelly called such efforts "a big P.R. campaign" and said that "The law is there to protect good order and discipline in the military, and it's not going to change." Retired Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General John Shalikashvili and former Senator and Secretary of Defense William Cohen opposed the policy in January 2007: "I now believe that if gay men and lesbians served openly in the United States military, they would not undermine the efficacy of the armed forces" Shalikashvili wrote. "Our military has been stretched thin by our deployments in the Middle East, and we must welcome the service of any American who is willing and able to do the job." Shalikashvili cited the recent "Zogby poll of more than 500 service members returning from Afghanistan and Iraq, three-quarters of whom said they were comfortable interacting with gay people. The debate took a different turn in March when General Peter Pace, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, told the editorial board of the Chicago Tribune he supported DADT because "homosexual acts between two individuals are immoral and ... we should not condone immoral acts." His remarks became, according to the Tribune, "a huge news story on radio, television and the Internet during the day and showed how sensitive the Pentagon's policy has become." Senator John Warner, who backed DADT, said "I respectfully, but strongly, disagree with the chairman's view that homosexuality is immoral", and Pace expressed regret for expressing his personal views and said that DADT "does not make a judgment about the morality of individual acts." Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney, then in the early stages of his campaign for the 2008 Republican presidential nomination, defended DADT: That summer, after U.S. Senator Larry Craig was arrested for lewd conduct in a men's restroom, conservative commentator Michael Medved argued that any liberalization of DADT would "compromise restroom integrity and security". He wrote: "The national shudder of discomfort and queasiness associated with any introduction of homosexual eroticism into public men's rooms should make us more determined than ever to resist the injection of those lurid attitudes into the even more explosive situation of the U.S. military." In November 2007, 28 retired generals and admirals urged Congress to repeal the policy, citing evidence that 65,000 gay men and women were serving in the armed forces and that there were over a million gay veterans. On November 17, 2008, 104 retired generals and admirals signed a similar statement. In 2008, former U.S. Senator Sam Nunn, who previously stalled efforts to lift the ban on gays serving in military when he was Chairman of the Senate Armed Forces Committee, hinted a shift from his previous political views by endorsing a new Pentagon study to examine the issue of homosexuals serving openly in the military, stating "I think [when] 15 years go by on any personnel policy, it's appropriate to take another look at it—see how it's working, ask the hard questions, hear from the military. Start with a Pentagon study." On May 4, 2008, while Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Mike Mullen addressed the graduating cadets at West Point, a cadet asked what would happen if the next administration were supportive of legislation allowing gays to serve openly. Mullen responded, "Congress, and not the military, is responsible for DADT." Previously, during his Senate confirmation hearing in 2007, Mullen told lawmakers, "I really think it is for the American people to come forward, really through this body, to both debate that policy and make changes, if that's appropriate." He went on to say, "I'd love to have Congress make its own decisions" with respect to considering repeal. In May 2009, when a committee of military law experts at the Palm Center, an anti-DADT research institute, concluded that the President could issue an Executive Order to suspend homosexual conduct discharges, Obama rejected that option and said he wanted Congress to change the law. On July 5, 2009, Colin Powell told CNN that the policy was "correct for the time" but that "sixteen years have now gone by, and I think a lot has changed with respect to attitudes within our country, and therefore I think this is a policy and a law that should be reviewed." Interviewed for the same broadcast, Mullen said the policy would continue to be implemented until the law was repealed, and that his advice was to "move in a measured way. ... At a time when we're fighting two conflicts there is a great deal of pressure on our forces and their families." In September, Joint Force Quarterly published an article by an Air Force colonel that disputed the argument that unit cohesion is compromised by the presence of openly gay personnel. In October 2009, the Commission on Military Justice, known as the Cox Commission, repeated its 2001 recommendation that Article 125 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice, which bans sodomy, be repealed, noting that "most acts of consensual sodomy committed by consenting military personnel are not prosecuted, creating a perception that prosecution of this sexual behavior is arbitrary." In January 2010, the White House and congressional officials started work on repealing the ban by inserting language into the 2011 defense authorization bill. During Obama's State of the Union Address on January 27, 2010, he said that he would work with Congress and the military to enact a repeal of the gay ban law and for the first time set a timetable for repeal. At a February 2, 2010, congressional hearing, Senator John McCain read from a letter signed by "over one thousand former general and flag officers". It said: "We firmly believe that this law, which Congress passed to protect good order, discipline and morale in the unique environment of the armed forces, deserves continued support." The signature campaign had been organized by Elaine Donnelly of the Center for Military Readiness, a longtime supporter of a traditional all-male and all-heterosexual military. Servicemembers United, a veterans group opposed to DADT, issued a report critical of the letter's legitimacy. They said that among those signing the letter were officers who had no knowledge of their inclusion or who had refused to be included, and even one instance of a general's widow who signed her husband's name to the letter though he had died before the survey was published. The average age of the officers whose names were listed as signing the letter was 74, the oldest was 98, and Servicemembers United noted that "only a small fraction of these officers have even served in the military during the 'Don't Ask, Don't Tell' period, much less in the 21st century military." The Center for American Progress issued a report in March 2010 that said a smooth implementation of an end to DADT required eight specified changes to the military's internal regulations. On March 25, 2010, Defense Secretary Gates announced new rules mandating that only flag officers could initiate discharge proceedings and imposing more stringent rules of evidence on discharge proceedings. ==Repeal== The underlying justifications for DADT had been subjected to increasing suspicion and outright rejection by the early 21st century. Mounting evidence obtained from the integration efforts of foreign militaries, surveys of U.S. military personnel, and studies conducted by the DoD gave credence to the view that the presence of open homosexuals within the military would not be detrimental at all to the armed forces. A DoD study conducted at the behest of Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in 2010 supports this most. The DoD working group conducting the study considered the impact that lifting the ban would have on unit cohesion and effectiveness, good order and discipline, and military morale. The study included a survey that revealed significant differences between respondents who believed they had served with homosexual troops and those who did not believe they had. In analyzing such data, the DoD working group concluded that it was actually generalized perceptions of homosexual troops that led to the perceived unrest that would occur without DADT. Ultimately, the study deemed the overall risk to military effectiveness of lifting the ban to be low. Citing the ability of the armed forces to adjust to the previous integration of African-Americans and women, the DoD study asserted that the United States military could adjust as had it before in history without an impending serious effect. In March 2005, Rep. Martin T. Meehan introduced the Military Readiness Enhancement Act in the House. It aimed "to amend title 10, United States Code, to enhance the readiness of the Armed Forces by replacing the current policy concerning homosexuality in the Armed Forces, referred to as 'Don't ask, don't tell,' with a policy of nondiscrimination on the basis of sexual orientation". As of 2006, it had 105 Democrats and 4 Republicans as co-sponsors. He introduced the bill again in 2007 and 2009. During the 2008 U.S. presidential election campaign, Senator Barack Obama advocated a full repeal of the laws barring gays and lesbians from serving in the military. Nineteen days after his election, Obama's advisers announced that plans to repeal the policy might be delayed until 2010, because Obama "first wants to confer with the Joint Chiefs of Staff and his new political appointees at the Pentagon to reach a consensus, and then present legislation to Congress". As president he advocated a policy change to allow gay personnel to serve openly in the armed forces, stating that the U.S. government has spent millions of dollars replacing troops expelled from the military, including language experts fluent in Arabic, because of DADT. On the eve of the National Equality March in Washington, D.C., October 10, 2009, Obama stated in a speech before the Human Rights Campaign that he would end the ban, but he offered no timetable. Obama said in his 2010 State of the Union Address: "This year, I will work with Congress and our military to finally repeal the law that denies gay Americans the right to serve the country they love because of who they are." This statement was quickly followed up by Defense Secretary Robert Gates and Joint Chiefs chairman Michael Mullen voicing their support for a repeal of DADT. ===Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010=== Democrats in both houses of Congress first attempted to end DADT by amending the Defense Authorization Act. On May 27, 2010, on a 234–194 vote, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the Murphy amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011. It provided for repeal of the DADT policy and created a process for lifting the policy, including a U.S. Department of Defense study and certification by key officials that the change in policy would not harm military readiness followed by a waiting period of 60 days. The amended defense bill passed the House on May 28, 2010. On September 21, 2010, John McCain led a successful filibuster against on the Defense Authorization Act, in which 56 Senators voted to end debate, four short of the 60 votes required. Some advocates for repeal, including the Palm Center, OutServe, and Knights Out, opposed any attempt to block the passage of NDAA if it failed to include DADT repeal language. The Human Rights Campaign, the Center for American Progress, Servicemembers United and SLDN refused to concede that possibility. The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) filed a lawsuit, Collins v. United States, against the Department of Defense in November 2010 seeking full compensation for those discharged under the policy. On November 30, 2010, the Joint Chiefs of Staff released the "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" Comprehensive Review Working Group (CRWG) report authored by Jeh C. Johnson, General Counsel of the Department of Defense, and Army General Carter F. Ham. It outlined a path to the implementation of repeal of DADT. The report indicated that there was a low risk of service disruptions due to repealing the ban, provided time was provided for proper implementation and training. It included the results of a survey of 115,000 active-duty and reserve service members. Across all service branches, 30 percent thought that integrating gays into the military would have negative consequences. In the Marine Corps and combat specialties, the percentage with that negative assessment ranged from 40 to 60 percent. The CRWG also said that 69 percent of all those surveyed believed they had already worked with a gay or lesbian and of those, 92 percent reported that the impact of that person's presence was positive or neutral. The Family Research Council's president, Tony Perkins, interpreted the CRWG data differently, writing that it "reveals that 40 percent of Marines and 25 percent of the Army could leave". Gates encouraged Congress to act quickly to repeal the law so that the military could carefully adjust rather than face a court decision requiring it to lift the policy immediately. The heads of the Marine Corps, Army, and Navy all advised against immediate repeal and expressed varied views on its eventual repeal. Oliver North, writing in National Review the next week, said that Gates' testimony showed "a deeply misguided commitment to political correctness". He interpreted the CRWG's data as indicating a high risk that large numbers of resignations would follow the repeal of DADT. Service members, especially combat troops, he wrote, "deserve better than to be treated like lab rats in Mr. Obama's radical social experiment". On December 9, 2010, another filibuster prevented debate on the Defense Authorization Act. In response to that vote, Senators Joe Lieberman and Susan Collins introduced a bill that included the policy-related portions of the Defense Authorization Act that they considered more likely to pass as a stand-alone bill. It passed the House on a vote of 250 to 175 on December 15, 2010. On December 18, 2010, the Senate voted to end debate on its version of the bill by a cloture vote of 63–33. The final Senate vote was held later that same day, with the measure passing by a vote of 65–31. U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates released a statement following the vote indicating that the planning for implementation of a policy repeal would begin right away and would continue until Gates certified that conditions were met for orderly repeal of the policy. President Obama signed the repeal into law on December 22, 2010. Representative Duncan D. Hunter announced plans in January 2011 to introduce a bill designed to delay the end of DADT. His proposed legislation required all of the chiefs of the armed services to submit the certification at the time required only of the President, Defense Secretary and Joint Chiefs chairman. In April, Perkins of the Family Research Council argued that the Pentagon was misrepresenting its own survey data and that hearings by the House Armed Services Committee, now under Republican control, could persuade Obama to withhold certification. Congressional efforts to prevent the change in policy from going into effect continued into May and June 2011. On January 29, 2011, Pentagon officials stated that the training process to prepare troops for the end of DADT would begin in February and would proceed quickly, though they suggested that it might not be completed in 2011. On the same day, the DOD announced it would not offer any additional compensation to service members who had been discharged under DADT, who received half of the separation pay other honorably discharged service members received. In May 2011, the U.S. Army reprimanded three colonels for performing a skit in March 2011 at a function at Yongsan Garrison, South Korea, that mocked the repeal. In May 2011, revelations that an April Navy memo relating to its DADT training guidelines contemplated allowing same-sex weddings in base chapels and allowing chaplains to officiate if they so chose resulted in a letter of protest from 63 Republican congressman, citing the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) as controlling the use of federal property. Tony Perkins of the Family Research Council said the guidelines "make it even more uncomfortable for men and women of faith to perform their duties". A Pentagon spokesperson replied that DOMA "does not limit the type of religious ceremonies a chaplain may perform in a chapel on a military installation", and a Navy spokesperson said that "A chaplain can conduct a same-sex ceremony if it is in the tenets of his faith". A few days later the Navy rescinded its earlier instructions "pending additional legal and policy review and interdepartmental coordination". While waiting for certification, several service members were discharged at their own insistence Anticipating the lifting of DADT, some active duty service members wearing civilian clothes marched in San Diego's gay pride parade on July 16. The DOD noted that participation "does not constitute a declaration of sexual orientation". President Obama, Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta, and Admiral Mike Mullen, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, sent the certification required by the Repeal Act to Congress on July 22, 2011, setting the end of DADT for September 20, 2011. A Pentagon spokesman said that service members discharged under DADT would be able to re-apply to rejoin the military then. At the end of August 2011, the DOD approved the distribution of the magazine produced by OutServe, an organization of gay and lesbian service members, at Army and Air Force base exchanges beginning with the September 20 issue, coinciding with the end of DADT. On September 20, Air Force officials announced that 22 Air Force Instructions were "updated as a result of the repeal of DADT". On September 30, 2011, the Department of Defense modified regulations to reflect the repeal by deleting "homosexual conduct" as a ground for administrative separation. ===Day of repeal and aftermath=== On the eve of repeal, US Air Force 1st Lt. Josh Seefried, one of the founders of OutServe, an organization of LGBT troops, revealed his identity after two years of hiding behind a pseudonym. Senior Airman Randy Phillips, after conducting a social media campaign seeking encouragement coming out and already out to his military co-workers, came out to his father on the evening of September 19. His video of their conversation made him, in one journalist's estimation, "the poster boy for the DADT repeal". The moment the repeal took effect at midnight on September 19, US Navy Lt. Gary C. Ross married his same-sex partner of eleven and a half years, Dan Swezy, making them the first same-sex military couple to legally marry in the United States. Retired Rear Adm. Alan M. Steinman became the highest-ranking person to come out immediately following the end of DADT. HBO produced a World of Wonder documentary, The Strange History of Don't Ask, Don't Tell, and premiered it on September 20. Variety called it "an unapologetic piece of liberal advocacy" and "a testament to what formidable opponents ignorance and prejudice can be". Discharge proceedings on the grounds of homosexuality, some begun years earlier, came to an end. In the weeks that followed, a series of firsts attracted press attention to the impact of the repeal. The Marine Corps were the first branch of the armed services to recruit from the LGBTQ community. Reservist Jeremy Johnson became the first person discharged under DADT to re-enlist. Jase Daniels became the first to return to active duty, re-joining the Navy as a third class petty officer. On December 2, Air Force intelligence officer Ginger Wallace became the first open LGBT service member to have a same-sex partner participate in the "pinning-on" ceremony that marked her promotion to colonel. On December 23, after 80 days at sea, US Navy Petty Officer 2nd Class Marissa Gaeta won the right to the traditional "first kiss" upon returning to port and shared it with her same-sex partner. On January 20, 2012, U.S. service members deployed to Bagram, Afghanistan, produced a video in support of the It Gets Better Project, which aims to support LGBT at-risk youth. Widespread news coverage continued even months after the repeal date, when a photograph of Marine Sgt. Brandon Morgan kissing his partner at a February 22, 2012, homecoming celebration on Marine Corps Base Hawaii went viral. When asked for a comment, a spokesperson for the Marine Corps said: "It's your typical homecoming photo." On September 30, 2011, Under Secretary of Defense Clifford Stanley announced the DOD's policy that military chaplains are allowed to perform same-sex marriages "on or off a military installation" where local law permits them. His memo noted that "a chaplain is not required to participate in or officiate a private ceremony if doing so would be in variance with the tenets of his or her religion" and "a military chaplain's participation in a private ceremony does not constitute an endorsement of the ceremony by DoD". Some religious groups announced that their chaplains would not participate in such weddings, including an organization of evangelical Protestants, the Chaplain Alliance for Religious Liberty and Roman Catholics led by Archbishop Timothy Broglio of the Archdiocese for the Military Services, USA. In late October 2011, speaking at the Air Force Academy, Colonel Gary Packard, leader of the team that drafted the DOD's repeal implementation plan, said: "The best quote I've heard so far is, 'Well, some people's Facebook status changed, but that was about it. In late November, discussing the repeal of DADT and its implementation, Marine General James F. Amos said "I'm very pleased with how it has gone" and called it a "non-event". He said his earlier public opposition was appropriate based on ongoing combat operations and the negative assessment of the policy given by 56% of combat troops under his command in the Department of Defense's November 2010 survey. A Defense Department spokesperson said implementation of repeal occurred without incident and added: "We attribute this success to our comprehensive pre-repeal training program, combined with the continued close monitoring and enforcement of standards by our military leaders at all levels." In December 2011, Congress considered two DADT-related amendments in the course of work on the National Defense Authorization Act for 2012. The Senate approved 97–3, an amendment removing the prohibition on sodomy found in Article 125 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice as recommended by the Comprehensive Review Working Group (CRWG) a year earlier. The House approved an amendment banning same-sex marriages from being performed at military bases or by military employees, including chaplains and other employees of the military when "acting in an official capacity". Neither amendment appeared in the final legislation. Marking the first anniversary of the passage of the Repeal Act, television news networks reported no incidents in the three months since DADT ended. One aired video of a social gathering for gay service members at a base in Afghanistan. Another reported on the experience of lesbian and gay troops, including some rejection after coming out to colleagues. The Palm Center, a think tank that studies issues of sexuality and the military, released a study in September 2012 that found no negative consequences, nor any effect on military effectiveness from DADT repeal. This study began six months following repeal and concluded at the one year mark. The study included surveys of 553 generals and admirals who had opposed repeal, experts who supported DADT, and more than 60 heterosexual, gay, lesbian and bisexual active duty service personnel. On January 7, 2013, the ACLU reached a settlement with the federal government in Collins v. United States. It provided for the payment of full separation pay to service members discharged under DADT since November 10, 2004, who had previously been granted only half that. ==2012 presidential campaign issue== Several candidates for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination called for the restoration of DADT, including Michele Bachmann, Rick Perry, and Rick Santorum. Newt Gingrich called for an extensive review of DADT's repeal. Ron Paul, having voted for the Repeal Act, maintained his support for allowing military service by open homosexuals. Herman Cain called the issue "a distraction" and opposed reinstating DADT. Mitt Romney said that the winding down of military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan obviated his opposition to the repeal and said he was not proposing any change to policy. On September 22, 2011, the audience at a Republican candidates' debate booed a U.S. soldier posted in Iraq who asked a question via video about the repeal of DADT, and none of the candidates acknowledged or responded to the crowd's behavior. Two days later, Obama commented on the incident while addressing a dinner of the Human Rights Campaign: "You want to be commander in chief? You can start by standing up for the men and women who wear the uniform of the United States, even when it's not politically convenient". In June 2012, Rep. Howard McKeon, Republican chair of the House Armed Services Committee, said he considered the repeal of DADT a settled issue, and that if Romney became president he would not advocate its reinstatement, though others in his party might. ==2021 benefits restoration== In September 2021, on the 10th anniversary of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell repeal, President Joe Biden announced that the Veterans Administration would start providing benefits for service members who received other-than-honorable discharges (before DADT was enacted and while it was in effect) because of their sexual orientation. In 2024, more than 800 veterans who had been previously dishonorably discharged under DADT had their cases reviewed and discharge papers automatically updated to honorable discharge status. With this review, nearly all of the 13,500 people who were dishonorably discharged under DADT now have an honorable discharge and as a result, can access benefits for veterans. ==Views of the policy== ===Public opinion=== In 1993, Time reported that 44% of those polled supported openly gay service members, and in 1994, a CNN poll indicated 53% of Americans believed gays and lesbians should be permitted to serve openly. According to a December 2010 Washington Post–ABC News poll, 77% of Americans said gays and lesbians who publicly disclose their sexual orientation should be able to serve in the military. That number showed little change from polls over the previous two years, but represented the highest level of support in a Post-ABC poll. The support also cut across partisan and ideological lines, with majorities of Democrats (86%), Republicans (74%), independents (74%), liberals (92%), conservatives (67%), white evangelical Protestants (70%) and non-religious (84%) in favor of homosexuals serving openly. A November 2010 survey by the Pew Research Center found that 58% of the U.S. public favored allowing gays and lesbians to serve openly in the military, while less than half as many (27%) were opposed. According to a November 2010 CNN/Opinion Research Corporation poll, 72% of adult Americans favored permitting people who are openly gay or lesbian to serve in the military, while 23% opposed it. "The main difference between the CNN poll and the Pew poll is in the number of respondents who told pollsters that they didn't have an opinion on this topic – 16 percent in the Pew poll compared to only five percent in the CNN survey", said CNN Polling Director Keating Holland. "The two polls report virtually the same number who say they oppose gays serving openly in the military, which suggests that there are some people who favor that change in policy but for some reason were reluctant to admit that to the Pew interviewers. That happens occasionally on topics where moral issues and equal-treatment issues intersect." A February 2010 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute national poll showed 57% of American voters favored gays serving openly, compared to 36% opposed, while 66% said not allowing openly gay personnel to serve is discrimination, compared to 31% who did not see it as discrimination. A CBS News/New York Times national poll done at the same time showed 58% of Americans favored gays serving openly, compared to 28% opposed. ===Chaplains and religious groups=== Chaplain groups and religious organizations took various positions on DADT. Some felt that the policy needed to be withdrawn to make the military more inclusive. The Southern Baptist Convention battled the repeal of DADT, warning that their endorsements for chaplains might be withdrawn if the repeal took place. They took the position that allowing gay men and women to serve in the military without restriction would have a negative impact on the ability of chaplains who think homosexuality is a sin to speak freely regarding their religious beliefs. The Roman Catholic Church called for the retention of the policy, but had no plans to withdraw its priests from serving as military chaplains. Sixty-five retired chaplains signed a letter opposing repeal, stating that repeal would make it impossible for chaplains whose faith teaches that same-sex behavior is immoral to minister to military service members. Other religious organizations and agencies called the repeal of the policy a "non-event" or "non-issue" for chaplains, saying that chaplains have always supported military service personnel, whether or not they agree with all their actions or beliefs. ==Discharges under DADT== After the policy was introduced in 1993, the military discharged over 13,000 troops from the military under DADT. The number of discharges per fiscal year under DADT dropped sharply after the September 11 attacks and remained comparatively low through to the repeal. Discharges exceeded 600 every year until 2009. US Navy 110317-N-5469W-016 Rear Adm. Vic Guillory, commander of U.S. Naval Forces Southern Command and U.S. 4th Fleet, kicks off the Don't Ask, Don.jpg\|Rear Adm. Vic Guillory, commander of U.S. Naval Forces Southern Command and U.S. 4th Fleet leads DADT repeal training for Tier 2 command leadership at Naval Station Mayport, March 17, 2011 US Navy 110406-N-YS896-005 Naval Special Warfare Command personnel watch Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) Adm. Gary Roughead during Don't Ask, Don't.jpg\|Naval Special Warfare Command personnel watching Chief of Naval Operations Adm. Gary Roughead during DADT repeal training, April 6, 2011 US Navy 110505-N-UB993-004 Capt. Joel A. Roos conducts Don't Ask Don't Tell (DADT) Repeal training for enlisted, officer and civilian staff of Nava.jpg\|DADT Repeal training for enlisted, officer and civilian staff at Naval Medical Center San Diego, May 5, 2011 ==State-based gay and lesbian military veteran laws== In November 2019, both Rhode Island and New York State signed into law and implemented restoring military benefits to gay and lesbian military veterans. It is estimated that approximately 100,000 individuals were discharged between the beginning of World War II and the repeal of the Don't Ask Don't Tell policy in September 2011.	[ "Carl E. 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8,691	Divination	Divination () is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic ritual or practice. Using various methods throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a should proceed by reading signs, events, or omens, or through alleged contact or interaction with supernatural agencies such as spirits, gods, god-like-beings or the "will of the universe". Divination can be seen as an attempt to organize what appears to be random so that it provides insight into a problem or issue at hand. Some instruments or practices of divination include Tarot-card reading, rune casting, tea-leaf reading, automatic writing, water scrying, and psychedelics like psilocybin mushrooms and DMT. If a distinction is made between divination and fortune-telling, divination has a more formal or ritualistic element and often contains a more social character, usually in a religious context, as seen in traditional African medicine. Fortune-telling, on the other hand, is a more everyday practice for personal purposes. Particular divination methods vary by culture and religion. In its functional relation to magic in general, divination can have a preliminary and investigative role: the diagnosis or prognosis achieved through divination is both temporarily and logically related to the manipulative, protective or alleviative function of magic rituals. In divination one finds the cause of an ailment or a potential danger, in magic one subsequently acts upon this knowledge. Divination has long attracted criticism. In the modern era, it has been dismissed by the scientific community and by skeptics as being superstitious; experiments do not support the idea that divination techniques can actually predict the future more reliably or precisely than would be possible without it. In antiquity, divination came under attack from philosophers such as the Academic skeptic Cicero in De Divinatione (1st century BCE) and the Pyrrhonist Sextus Empiricus in Against the Astrologers (2nd century CE). The satirist Lucian ( 125 – after 180) devoted an essay to Alexander the false prophet. ==History== ===Antiquity=== The eternal fire at Nymphaion in southern Illyria (present-day Albania) also functioned as an oracle. The forms of divination practiced in this natural fire sanctuary with peculiar physical properties were widely known to the ancient Greek and Roman authors. The Oracle of Amun at the Siwa Oasis was made famous when Alexander the Great visited it after conquering Egypt from Persia in 332 BC. or can be interpreted as categorically forbidding divination. But some biblical practices, such as Urim and Thummim, casting lots and prayer, are considered to be divination. Trevan G. Hatch disputes these comparisons because divination did not consult the "one true God" and manipulated the divine for the diviner's self-interest. One of the earliest known divination artifacts, a book called the Sortes Sanctorum, is believed to be of Christian roots, and utilizes dice to provide insight into the future. Uri Gabbay states that divination was associated with sacrificial rituals in the ancient Near East, including Mesopotamia and Israel. Extispicy was a common example, where diviners would pray to their god(s) before vivisecting a sacrificial animal. Their abominal organs would reveal a divine message, which aligned with cardiocentric views of the mind. ====Oracles and Greek divination==== Both oracles and seers in ancient Greece practiced divination. Oracles were the conduits for the gods on earth; their prophecies were understood to be the will of the gods verbatim. Because of the high demand for oracle consultations and the oracles’ limited work schedule, they were not the main source of divination for the ancient Greeks. That role fell to the seers (). Seers were not in direct contact with the gods; instead, they were interpreters of signs provided by the gods. Seers used many methods to explicate the will of the gods including extispicy, ornithomancy, etc. They were more numerous than the oracles and did not keep a limited schedule; thus, they were highly valued by all Greeks, not just those with the capacity to travel to Delphi or other such distant sites. The disadvantage of seers was that only direct yes-or-no questions could be answered. Oracles could answer more generalized questions, and seers often had to perform several sacrifices in order to get the most consistent answer. For example, if a general wanted to know if the omens were proper for him to advance on the enemy, he would ask his seer both that question and if it were better for him to remain on the defensive. If the seer gave consistent answers, the advice was considered valid. During battle, generals would frequently ask seers at both the campground (a process called the hiera) and at the battlefield (called the sphagia). The hiera entailed the seer slaughtering a sheep and examining its liver for answers regarding a more generic question; the sphagia involved killing a young female goat by slitting its throat and noting the animal's last movements and blood flow. The battlefield sacrifice only occurred when two armies prepared for battle against each other. Neither force would advance until the seer revealed appropriate omens. Because the seers had such power over influential individuals in ancient Greece, many were skeptical of the accuracy and honesty of the seers. The degree to which seers were honest depends entirely on the individual seers. Despite the doubt surrounding individual seers, the craft as a whole was well regarded and trusted by the Greeks, and the Stoics accounted for the validity of divination in their physics. ===Middle Ages and Early Modern period=== The divination method of casting lots (Cleromancy) was used by the remaining eleven disciples of Jesus in to select a replacement for Judas Iscariot. Therefore, divination was arguably an accepted practice in the early church. However, divination became viewed as a pagan practice by Christian emperors during ancient Rome. In 692 the Quinisext Council, also known as the "Council in Trullo" in the Eastern Orthodox Church, passed canons to eliminate pagan and divination practices. Fortune-telling and other forms of divination were widespread through the Middle Ages. In the constitution of 1572 and public regulations of 1661 of the Electorate of Saxony, capital punishment was used on those predicting the future. Laws forbidding divination practice continue to this day. The Waldensians sect were accused of practicing divination. Småland is famous for Årsgång, a practice which occurred until the early 19th century in some parts of Småland. Generally occurring on Christmas and New Year's Eve, it is a practice in which one would fast and keep themselves away from light in a room until midnight to then complete a set of complex events to interpret symbols encountered throughout the journey to foresee the coming year. In Islam, astrology (‘ilm ahkam al-nujum), the most widespread divinatory science, is the study of how celestial entities could be applied to the daily lives of people on earth. It is important to emphasize the practical nature of divinatory sciences because people from all socioeconomic levels and pedigrees sought the advice of astrologers to make important decisions in their lives. Astronomy was made a distinct science by intellectuals who did not agree with the former, although distinction may not have been made in daily practice, where astrology was technically outlawed and only tolerated if it was employed in public. Astrologers, trained as scientists and astronomers, were able to interpret the celestial forces that ruled the "sub-lunar" to predict a variety of information from lunar phases and drought to times of prayer and the foundation of cities. The courtly sanction and elite patronage of Muslim rulers benefited astrologers’ intellectual statures. The “science of the sand” (‘ilm al-raml), otherwise translated as geomancy, is “based on the interpretation of figures traced on sand or other surface known as geomantic figures.” It is a good example of Islamic divination at a popular level. The core principle that meaning derives from a unique occupied position is identical to the core principle of astrology. Like astronomy, geomancy used deduction and computation to uncover significant prophecies as opposed to omens (‘ilm al-fa’l), which were process of “reading” visible random events to decipher the invisible realities from which they originated. It was upheld by prophetic tradition and relied almost exclusively on text, specifically the Qur’an (which carried a table for guidance) and poetry, as a development of bibliomancy. One example for this is this Qur'an from Gwalior, India, which includes a set of instructions to use the Qur’an as a divinatory text. It is the earliest known example of its kind. The practice culminated in the appearance of the illustrated “Books of Omens” (Falnama) in the early 16th century, an embodiment of the apocalyptic fears as the end of the millennium in the Islamic calendar approached. Dream interpretation, or oneiromancy (‘ilm ta’bir al-ru’ya), is more specific to Islam than other divinatory science, largely because of the Qur’an’s emphasis on the predictive dreams of Abraham, Yusuf, and Muhammad. The important delineation within the practice lies between “incoherent dreams” and “sound dreams,” which were “a part of prophecy” or heavenly message. Dream interpretation was always tied to Islamic religious texts, providing a moral compass to those seeking advice. The practitioner needed to be skilled enough to apply the individual dream to general precedent while appraising the singular circumstances. The power of text held significant weight in the "science of letters" (‘ilm al-huruf), the foundational principle being "God created the world through His speech." The science began with the concept of language, specifically Arabic, as the expression of "the essence of what it signifies." Once the believer understood this, while remaining obedient to God’s will, they could uncover the essence and divine truth of the objects inscribed with Arabic like amulets and talismans through the study of the letters of the Qur’an with alphanumeric computations. In Islamic practice in Senegal and Gambia, just like many other West African countries, diviners and religious leaders and healers were interchangeable because Islam was closely related with esoteric practices (like divination), which were responsible for the regional spread of Islam. As scholars learned esoteric sciences, they joined local non-Islamic aristocratic courts, who quickly aligned divination and amulets with the "proof of the power of Islamic religion." So strong was the idea of esoteric knowledge in West African Islam, diviners and magicians uneducated in Islamic texts and Arabic bore the same titles as those who did. From the beginning of Islam, there "was (and is) still a vigorous debate about whether or not such [divinatory] practices were actually permissible under Islam,” with some scholars like Abu-Hamid al Ghazili (d. 1111) objecting to the science of divination because he believed it bore too much similarity to pagan practices of invoking spiritual entities that were not God. Other scholars justified esoteric sciences by comparing a practitioner to "a physician trying to heal the sick with the help of the same natural principles." ===Mesoamerica=== Divination was a central component of ancient Mesoamerican religious life. Many Aztec gods, including central creator gods, were described as diviners and were closely associated with sorcery. Tezcatlipoca is the patron of sorcerers and practitioners of magic. His name means "smoking mirror," a reference to a device used for divinatory scrying. In the Mayan Popol Vuh, the creator gods Xmucane and Xpiacoc perform divinatory hand casting during the creation of people. The Aztec Codex Borbonicus shows the original human couple, Oxomoco and Cipactonal, engaged in divining with kernels of maize. This primordial pair is associated with the ritual calendar, and the Aztecs considered them to be the first diviners. Every civilization that developed in pre-Columbian Mexico, from the Olmecs to the Aztecs, practiced divination in daily life, both public and private. Scrying through the use of reflective water surfaces, mirrors, or the casting of lots were among the most widespread forms of divinatory practice. Visions derived from hallucinogens were another important form of divination, and are still widely used among contemporary diviners of Mexico. Among the more common hallucinogenic plants used in divination are morning glory, jimson weed, and peyote. ==Contemporary divination in Asia== ===India and Nepal=== Theyyam or "theiyam" in Malayalam is the process by which a devotee invites a Hindu god or goddess to use his or her body as a medium or channel and answer other devotees' questions. The same is called "arulvaakku" or "arulvaak" in Tamil, another south Indian language - Adhiparasakthi Siddhar Peetam is famous for arulvakku in Tamil Nadu. The people in and around Mangalore in Karnataka call the same, Buta Kola, "paathri" or "darshin"; in other parts of Karnataka, it is known by various names such as, "prashnaavali", "vaagdaana", "asei", "aashirvachana", and so on. In Nepal it is known as, "Devta ka dhaamee" or "jhaakri". In English, the closest translation for these is, "oracle." The Dalai Lama, who lives in exile in northern India, still consults an oracle known as the Nechung Oracle, which is considered the official state oracle of the government of Tibet. The Dalai Lama has according to centuries-old custom, consulted the Nechung Oracle during the new year festivities of Losar. ===Japan=== Although Japan retains a history of traditional and local methods of divination, such as onmyōdō, contemporary divination in Japan, called uranai, derives from outside sources. Contemporary methods of divination in Japan include both Western and Chinese astrology, geomancy or feng shui, tarot cards, I Ching (Book of Changes) divination, and physiognomy (methods of reading the body to identify traits). In Japan, divination methods include Futomani from the Shinto tradition. ====Personality types==== Personality typing as a form of divination has been prevalent in Japan since the 1980s. Various methods exist for divining personality type. Each attempt to reveal glimpses of an individual's destiny, productive and inhibiting traits, future parenting techniques, and compatibility in marriage. Personality type is increasingly important for young Japanese, who consider personality the driving factor of compatibility, given the ongoing marriage drought and birth rate decline in Japan. An import to Japan, Chinese zodiac signs based on the birth year in 12 year cycles (rat, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, cock, dog, and boar) are frequently combined with other forms of divination, such as so-called 'celestial types' based on the planets (Saturn, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Mercury, or Uranus). Personality can also be divined using cardinal directions, the four elements (water, earth, fire, air), and yin-yang. Names can also lend important personality information under name classification which asserts that names bearing certain Japanese vowel sounds (a, i, u, e, o) share common characteristics. Numerology, which utilizes methods of divining 'birth numbers' from significant numbers such as birth date, may also reveal character traits of individuals. Individuals can also assess their own and others' personalities according to physical characteristics. Blood type remains a popular form of divination from physiology. Stemming from Western influences, body reading or ninsou, determines personality traits based on body measurements. The face is the most commonly analyzed feature, with eye size, pupil shape, mouth shape, and eyebrow shape representing the most important traits. An upturned mouth may be cheerful, and a triangle eyebrow may indicate that someone is strong-willed. Methods of assessment in daily life may include self-taken measurements or quizzes. As such, magazines targeted at women in their early-to-mid twenties feature the highest concentration of personality assessment guides. There are approximately 144 different women's magazines, known as nihon zashi koukoku kyoukai, published in Japan aimed at this audience. ====Japanese tarot==== The adaptation of the Western divination method of tarot cards into Japanese culture presents a particularly unique example of contemporary divination as this adaptation mingles with Japan's robust visual culture. Japanese tarot cards are created by professional artists, advertisers, and fans of tarot. One tarot card collector claimed to have accumulated more than 1,500 Japan-made decks of tarot cards. Japanese tarot cards fall into diverse categories such as: Inspiration Tarot (); I-Ching Tarot (); Spiritual Tarot (); Western Tarot (); and Eastern Tarot (). The images on tarot cards may come from images from Japanese popular culture, such as characters from manga and anime including Hello Kitty, or may feature cultural symbols. Tarot cards may adapt the images of Japanese historical figures, such as high priestess Himiko (170–248CE) or imperial court wizard Abe no Seimei (921–1005CE). Still others may feature images of cultural displacement, such as English knights, pentagrams, the Jewish Torah, or invented glyphs. The introduction of such cards began by the 1930s and reached prominence 1970s. Japanese tarot cards were originally created by men, often based on the Rider-Waite-Smith tarot published by the Rider Company in London in 1909. Since, the practice of Japanese tarot has become overwhelmingly feminine and intertwined with kawaii culture. Referring to the cuteness of tarot cards, Japanese model Kuromiya Niina was quoted as saying "because the images are cute, even holding them is enjoyable." While these differences exist, Japanese tarot cards function similarly to their Western counterparts. Cards are shuffled and cut into piles then used to forecast the future, for spiritual reflection, or as a tool for self-understanding. ===Taiwan=== A common act of divination in Taiwan is called the Poe. “The Poe” translated to English means “moon boards”. It consists of two wood or bamboo blocks cut into the shape of a crescent moon. The one edge is rounded while the other is flat; the two are mirror images. Both crescents are held out in one's palms and while kneeling, they are raised to the forehead level. Once in this position, the blocks are dropped and the future can be understood depending on their landing. If both fall flat side up or both fall rounded side up, that can be taken as a failure of the deity to agree. If the blocks land one rounded and one flat, the deity indicates "Yes", or positive. “Laughing poe” is when rounded sides land down and they rock before coming to a standstill. “Negative poe” is when the flat sides fall downward and abruptly stop; this indicates "No". When there is a positive fall, it is called “Sacred poe”, although the negative falls are not usually taken seriously. As the blocks are being dropped the question is said in a murmur, and if the answer is yes, the blocks are dropped again. To make sure the answer is definitely a yes, the blocks must fall in a “yes” position three times in a row. A more serious type of divination is the Kiō-á. There is a small wooden chair, and around the sides of the chair are small pieces of wood that can move up and down in their sockets, this causes a clicking sounds when the chair is moved in any way. Two men hold this chair by its legs before an altar, while the incense is being burned, and the deity is invited to descend onto the chair. It is seen that it is in the chair by an onset of motion. Eventually, the chair crashes onto a table prepared with wood chips and burlap. The characters on the table are then traced and these are said to be written by the deity who possessed the chair, these characters are then interpreted for the devotees. ==Contemporary divination in Africa== Divination is widespread throughout Africa. Among many examples it is one of the central tenets of Serer religion in Senegal. Only those who have been initiated as Saltigues (the Serer high priests and priestesses) can divine the future. These are the "hereditary rain priests" ==Divination of demons== In his work entitled On the divination of demons, saint Augustine of Hippo affirms that, most of the times, demons simply predict what they do in the future. However, they also possess a divinatory power essentially deriving from the greater acuity of the senses of their aerial bodies and the experience accumulated during their long lives. This allows them to interpret divine signs of the times in the in the natural world that humans are unable to grasp and to foretell future events, even those that are not immediate. Furthermore, they can cause illnesses and fantastic visions in people in both a sleeping and waking state. The accuracy of the predictions clashes with their evil and deceptive nature, and with God's higher plans that are only known and holy angels can divert and override the signs caught by demons in the natural world.	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Vernant", "glyph", "Aztecs", "Shaobing Song", "Buta Kola", "prayer", "Freer Gallery of Art", "hallucinogens", "Blood type", "religion", "Årsgång", "Methods of divination", "jimson weed", "African divination", "Brill Publishers", "Fortune telling", "methods of divination", "morning glory", "nggàm", "Tibet", "Qimen Dunjia", "Mesoamerican", "Pyrrhonism", "The Gambia", "Alexander the Great", "Shinto", "pre-Columbian Mexico", "Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world", "Codex Borbonicus", "feng shui", "Franz Steiner Verlag", "Astrology", "Adhiparasakthi Siddhar Peetam", "Prophecy", "Hinduism", "Tarot", "physiognomy", "lunar phase", "Dalai Lama", "I Ching divination", "Geomancy", "talisman", "Runic magic", "Abe no Seimei", "Metropolitan Museum of Art", "scientific community", "Michael Loewe", "supernatural", "Oxford University Press", "kawaii", "Mirrors in Mesoamerican culture", "emperor", "Losar", "Popol Vuh", "pentagram", "Theyyam", "Tamil Nadu", "Classical element", "Stoic physics", "Sandobele", "St. Martin's Press", "Tarot card reading", "demon", "Éditions du Seuil", "William Montgomery Watt", "Chinese fortune telling", "Yin and yang", "E. E. Evans-Pritchard", "Michael Shermer", "ornithomancy", "Tamil language", "scrying", "Numerology", "Alisa LaGamma", "Oxomoco", "Google Books", "Illyria", "England", "I Ching", "Vision (spirituality)", "Carmen Blacker", "geomantic figures", "oneiromancy", "Himiko", "Tui bei tu", "Safavid dynasty", "David Carrasco", "Kingdom of Sine", "Maya mythology", "Olmecs", "Albania", "Fortune-telling", "omen", "Hello Kitty", "superstition", "Quran", "Senegal", "Tezcatlipoca", "battle", "anime", "Cleromancy", "Oxford", "Magic (supernatural)", "ritual", "universe", "psychedelics", "Lucian", "Urim and Thummim", "Cipactonal", "occult", "Waldensians", "traditional African medicine", "Birthrate decline", "fortune-telling", "Delphi", "The British Museum", "automatic writing", "Muhammad", "Judas Iscariot", "Arabic", "DMT", "Oracle", "oracle", "extispicy", "peyote", "Serer religion", "campground", "Falnama", "Jiaobei", "chicken", "Sextus Empiricus", "Tengenjutsu (fortune telling)", "Shambhala Publications", "Islamic calendar", "Muslims", "Siwa Oasis", "Magic (paranormal)", "Karnataka", "Alioune Sarr", "Nepal", "Dream interpretation", "Småland", "Mangalore", "Cicero", "Cardiocentric hypothesis", "Nymphaion (fire sanctuary)", "amulet", "Quinisext Council", "Futomani", "bibliomancy", "Ashmolean Museum", "creator deity", "Academic skepticism", "Alternative medicine", "Torah", "Chinese zodiac", "Poe divination", "Serer people", "Random House", "Academia.edu", "Aztec religion", "Japan", "Malayalam", "Rider–Waite Tarot", "List of occult terms", "'Ilm al-Huruf", "De Divinatione", "Middle Ages", "Abraham" ]
8,693	Diets of Nuremberg	The Diets of Nuremberg, also called the Imperial Diets of Nuremberg, took place at different times between the Middle Ages and the 17th century. The first Diet of Nuremberg, in 1211, elected the future emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen as German king. At the Diet of 1356 the Emperor Charles IV issued the Golden Bull of 1356, which required each Holy Roman Emperor to summon the first Imperial Diet after his election at Nuremberg. Apart from that, a number of other diets were held there. Important to Protestantism were the Diets of 1522 ("First Diet of Nuremberg"), 1524 ("Second Diet of Nuremberg") and 1532 ("Third Diet of Nuremberg"). ==The 1522 Diet of Nuremberg== This Diet has become known mostly for the reaction of the papacy to the decision made on Luther at the Diet of Worms the previous year. The new pope, Adrian VI, sent his nuncio Francesco Chieregati to the Diet, to insist both that the Edict of Worms be executed and that action be taken promptly against Luther. This demand, however, was coupled with a promise of thorough reform in the Roman hierarchy, frankly admitting the partial guilt of the Vatican in the decline of the Church. In the recess drafted on 9 February 1523, however, the German princes rejected this appeal. Using Adrian's admissions, they declared that they could not have it appear 'as though they wished to oppress evangelical truth and assist unchristian and evil abuses.' ==The 1524 Diet of Nuremberg== This Diet generally took the same line as the previous one. The Estates reiterated their decision from the previous Diet. The Cardinal-legate, Campeggio, who was present, showed his disgust at the behaviour of the Estates. On 18 April, the Estates decided to call 'a general gathering of the German nation', to meet at Speyer the following year and to decide what would be done until the meeting of the general council of the Church which they demanded. This resulted in the Diet of Speyer (1526), which in turn was followed by the Diet of Speyer (1529). The latter included the Protestation at Speyer.	[ "Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Martin Luther", "Adrian VI", "Karl Brandi", "Protestation at Speyer", "Holy Roman Emperor", "Diet of Worms", "Francesco Chieregati", "Speyer", "Edict of Worms", "Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor", "Golden Bull of 1356", "Protestantism", "Diet of Speyer (1526)", "Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)", "Diet of Speyer (1529)", "Nuremberg", "Middle Ages", "Diet (assembly)" ]
8,695	Dr. Strangelove	{{Infobox film \| name = Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb \| image = Dr. Strangelove poster.jpg \| caption = Theatrical release poster by Tomi Ungerer \| director = Stanley Kubrick \| producer = Stanley Kubrick \| screenplay = \| based_on = (pseudonym of Peter George) \| starring = \| music = Laurie Johnson \| cinematography = Gilbert Taylor \| editing = Anthony Harvey \| studio = Hawk Films \| distributor = Columbia Pictures \| released = \| runtime = 94 minutes \| country = \| language = English \| budget = $1.8 million \| gross = $9.2 million (2022) The film received four Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Actor for Sellers. The film was also nominated for seven BAFTA Film Awards, winning Best Film From Any Source, Best British Film, and Best Art Direction (Black and White), and it also won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. == Plot == United States Air Force Brigadier General Jack D. Ripper, the commander of Burpelson Air Force Base, orders his executive officer, Group Captain Lionel Mandrake (an exchange officer from the Royal Air Force), to put the base on alert (condition red, the most intense lockdown status), confiscate all privately owned radios from base personnel and issue "Wing Attack Plan R" to the planes of the 843rd Bomb Wing. At the time of issuance of said order, the planes, flying B-52 bombers armed with thermonuclear bombs, are on airborne alert two hours from their targets inside the Soviet Union. The aircraft commence attack flights on the USSR and set their radios to allow communications only through their CRM 114 discriminators, which are designed to accept only communications preceded by a secret three-letter code known only to General Ripper. Happening upon a radio that had been missed earlier and hearing regular civilian broadcasting, Mandrake realizes that no attack order has been issued by the Pentagon and tries to stop Ripper, who locks them both in his office. Ripper tells Mandrake that he believes the Soviets have been fluoridating American water supplies to pollute the "precious bodily fluids" of Americans. Mandrake realizes Ripper has gone completely mad. In the War Room at the Pentagon, General Buck Turgidson briefs President Merkin Muffley and other officers about how "Plan R" enables a senior officer to launch a retaliatory nuclear attack on the Soviets if all of his superior officers have been killed in a first strike on the United States. Trying every CRM code combination to issue a recall order would require two days, so Muffley orders the U.S. Army to storm the base and arrest General Ripper. Turgidson, noting the slim odds of recalling the planes in time, then proposes that Muffley not only let the attack proceed but send reinforcements. Muffley rejects Turgidson's recommendation and instead brings Soviet ambassador Alexei de Sadeski into the War Room to telephone Soviet Premier Dimitri Kissov. Muffley warns the premier of the impending attack and offers to reveal the targets, flight plans, and defensive systems of the bombers so that the Soviets can protect themselves. After a heated discussion with Kissov, the ambassador informs President Muffley that the Soviet Union created a doomsday machine as a nuclear deterrent; it consists of many buried cobalt bombs, which are set to detonate automatically should any nuclear attack strike the country. The resulting nuclear fallout would render the Earth's surface uninhabitable for 93 years. The device cannot be deactivated, as it is programmed to explode if any such attempt is made. The president's German scientific adviser, the paraplegic former Nazi Dr. Strangelove, points out that such a doomsday machine would only have been an effective deterrent if everyone knew about it; de Sadeski replies that Kissov had planned to reveal its existence to the world the following week at the Party Congress. When the U.S. Army troops gain control of Burpelson, General Ripper commits suicide. Mandrake deduces Ripper's CRM code from doodles on his desk blotter and relays it to the Pentagon. Using the code, Strategic Air Command successfully recalls all of the bombers except for one, commanded by Major T. J. "King" Kong. Because its radio equipment was damaged by a Soviet SAM, it is unable to receive or send communications. To conserve fuel, Kong flies below radar and switches targets, thus preventing Soviet air radar from detecting and intercepting their plane. Because the Soviet missile also damaged the bomb bay doors, Kong enters the bay and repairs the electrical wiring. When he is successful, the bomb drops with him straddling it. Kong joyously hoots and waves his cowboy hat as he rides the falling bomb to his death. In the War Room, Dr. Strangelove recommends that the President gather several hundred thousand people to live in deep underground mines where the radiation will not penetrate. Worried that the Soviets will do the same, Turgidson warns about a "mineshaft gap" while de Sadeski secretly photographs the War Room. Dr. Strangelove prepares to announce his plan for that when he suddenly stands up out of his wheelchair and exclaims, "Mein Führer, I can walk!" The movie ends with a montage of explosions set to "We'll Meet Again" signifying the activation of the doomsday device. == Cast == Peter Sellers as: Group Captain Lionel Mandrake, a British RAF exchange officer Merkin Muffley, the President of the United States Dr. Strangelove (né Merkwürdigliebe), the wheelchair-bound nuclear war expert and former Nazi, who has alien hand syndrome George C. Scott as General Buck Turgidson, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Sterling Hayden as Brigadier General Jack D. Ripper, paranoid commander of Burpelson Air Force Base, which is part of the Strategic Air Command. Keenan Wynn as Colonel "Bat" Guano, the Army officer who finds Mandrake and Ripper Jack Creley as Mr. Staines, National Security Adviser Slim Pickens as Major T. J. "King" Kong, the B-52 bomber's commander and pilot Peter Bull as Soviet Ambassador Alexei de Sadeski James Earl Jones as First Lieutenant Lothar Zogg, the B-52's bombardier (film debut) Tracy Reed as Miss Scott, General Turgidson's secretary and mistress, the film's only female character. She also appears as "Miss Foreign Affairs", the Playboy Playmate in Playboy June 1962 issue, which Major Kong is shown perusing at one point. Shane Rimmer as Capt. Ace Owens, the co-pilot of the B-52 === Peter Sellers's roles === Columbia Pictures agreed to finance the film if Peter Sellers played at least four major roles. The condition stemmed from the studio's opinion that much of the success of Kubrick's previous film Lolita (1962) was based on Sellers's performance, in which his single character assumes several identities. Sellers also played three roles in The Mouse That Roared (1959). Kubrick accepted the demand, later saying that "such crass and grotesque stipulations are the sine qua non of the motion-picture business." Sellers had been expected to play Air Force Major T. J. "King" Kong, the B-52 aircraft commander. Sellers was reluctant; he felt his workload was too heavy and worried he would not properly portray the character's Texan accent. Kubrick pleaded with him, and he asked the screenwriter Terry Southern (who had been raised in Texas) to record a tape with Kong's lines spoken in his accent; Sellers then practiced using Southern's tapes. After the start of shooting in the aircraft, Sellers sprained his ankle and could no longer work in the cramped aircraft mockup. Sellers improvised much of his dialogue, with Kubrick incorporating the ad-libs into the written screenplay, a practice known as retroscripting. ==== Group Captain Lionel Mandrake ==== According to film critic Alexander Walker, the author of biographies of both Sellers and Kubrick, the role of Group Captain Lionel Mandrake was the easiest of the three for Sellers to play, since he was aided by his experience of mimicking his superiors while serving in the RAF during World War II. He serves as President Muffley's scientific adviser in the War Room. When General Turgidson wonders aloud to Mr. Staines (Jack Creley), what kind of name "Strangelove" is, possibly a "Kraut name", Staines responds that Strangelove's original German surname was Merkwürdigliebe ("strange love" in German) and that "he changed it when he became a citizen". Strangelove accidentally addresses the president as Mein Führer twice in the film. Dr. Strangelove did not appear in the book Red Alert. The character is an amalgamation of RAND Corporation strategist Herman Kahn, rocket scientist Wernher von Braun (a central figure in Nazi Germany's rocket development program recruited to the US after the war), and Edward Teller, the "father of the hydrogen bomb". Rumors claimed the character was based on Henry Kissinger, but Kubrick and Sellers denied this; Sellers said: "Strangelove was never modeled after Kissinger—that's a popular misconception. It was always Wernher von Braun." Furthermore, Henry Kissinger points out in his memoirs that at the time of the writing of Dr. Strangelove, he was a little-known academic. The wheelchair-using Strangelove furthers a Kubrick trope of the menacing, seated antagonist, first depicted in Lolita through the character Dr. Zaempf. Strangelove's accent was influenced by that of Austrian-American photographer Weegee, who worked for Kubrick as a special photographic effects consultant. According to Alexander Walker, Sellers improvised Dr. Strangelove's lapse into the Nazi salute, borrowing one of Kubrick's black leather gloves for the uncontrollable hand that makes the gesture. Dr. Strangelove apparently has alien hand syndrome. Kubrick wore the gloves on the set to avoid being burned when handling hot lights, and Sellers, recognizing the potential connection to Lang's work, found them to be menacing. Dan Blocker of the Bonanza western television series was also approached to play the part, but according to Southern, Blocker's agent rejected the script as being "too pinko". Kubrick then recruited Pickens, whom he knew from his brief involvement in a Marlon Brando western film project that was eventually filmed as One-Eyed Jacks. Kubrick's biographer John Baxter explained, in the documentary Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove: Pickens, who had previously played only supporting and character roles, said that his appearance as Maj. Kong greatly improved his career. He later commented, "After Dr. Strangelove, my salary jumped five times, and assistant directors started saying 'Hey, Slim' instead of 'Hey, you'." === George C. Scott as General Buck Turgidson === George C. Scott played the role of General Buck Turgidson, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In this capacity General Turgidson was the nation's highest-ranking military officer and the principal military adviser to the president and the National Security Council. He is seen during most of the movie advising President Muffley on the best steps to take in order to stop the fleet of B-52 Stratofortresses that was deployed by Brigadier General Jack D. Ripper to drop nuclear bombs on Soviet soil. According to James Earl Jones, Kubrick tricked Scott into playing the role of Gen. Turgidson in a much more outlandish manner than Scott was comfortable doing. According to Jones, Kubrick talked Scott into doing absurd "practice" takes, which Kubrick told Scott would never be used, as a way to warm up for the "real" takes. According to Jones, Kubrick used these takes in the final film, rather than the more restrained ones, allegedly causing Scott to swear never to work with Kubrick again. During the filming, Kubrick and Scott had different opinions regarding certain scenes, but Kubrick obtained Scott's compliance largely by beating him at chess, which they played frequently on the set. == Production == === Novel and screenplay === Stanley Kubrick started with nothing but a vague idea to make a thriller about a nuclear accident that built on the widespread Cold War fear for survival. While doing research, Kubrick gradually became aware of the subtle and paradoxical "balance of terror" between nuclear powers. At Kubrick's request, Alastair Buchan (the head of the Institute for Strategic Studies) recommended the thriller novel Red Alert by Peter George. Kubrick was impressed with the book, which had also been praised by game theorist and future Nobel Prize in Economics winner Thomas Schelling in an article written for the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists and reprinted in The Observer, and immediately bought the film rights. In 2006, Schelling wrote that conversations between Kubrick, Schelling, and George in late 1960 about a treatment of Red Alert updated with intercontinental missiles eventually led to the making of the film. In collaboration with George, Kubrick started writing a screenplay based on the book. While writing the screenplay, they benefited from some brief consultations with Schelling and later, Herman Kahn. In following the tone of the book, Kubrick originally intended to film the story as a serious drama. However, he began to see comedy inherent in the idea of mutual assured destruction as he wrote the first draft. He later said: The title of the film satirically references Carnegie's How to Stop Worrying and Start Living. Among the other titles that Kubrick initially considered were Dr. Doomsday or: How to Start World War III Without Even Trying, Dr. Strangelove's Secret Uses of Uranus, and Wonderful Bomb. After deciding to make the film a black comedy, Kubrick brought in Terry Southern as a co-writer in late 1962. The choice was influenced by reading Southern's comic novel The Magic Christian, which Kubrick had received as a gift from Peter Sellers, and which itself became a Sellers film in 1969. Southern made important contributions to the film, but his role led to a rift between Kubrick and Peter George; after Life magazine published a photo-essay on Southern in August 1964 which implied that Southern had been the script's principal author—a misperception neither Kubrick nor Southern did much to dispel— George wrote a letter to the magazine, published in its September 1964 issue, in which he pointed out that he had both written the film's source novel and collaborated on various incarnations of the script over a period of ten months, whereas "Southern was briefly employed ... to do some additional rewriting for Kubrick and myself and fittingly received a screenplay credit in behind Mr. Kubrick and myself." === Sets and filming === Dr. Strangelove was filmed at Shepperton Studios, near London, as Sellers was in the middle of a divorce at the time and unable to leave England. For the War Room, Ken Adam first designed a two-level set which Kubrick initially liked, only to decide later that it was not what he wanted. Adam next began work on the design that was used in the film, an expressionist set that was compared with The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari and Fritz Lang's Metropolis. It was an enormous concrete room ( long and wide, with a -high ceiling) Kubrick asked Adam to build the set ceiling in concrete to force the director of photography to use only the on-set lights from the circle of lamps. Moreover, each lamp in the circle of lights was carefully placed and tested until Kubrick was happy with the result. Lacking cooperation from the Pentagon in the making of the film, the set designers reconstructed the aircraft cockpit to the best of their ability by comparing the cockpit of a B-29 Superfortress and a single photograph of the cockpit of a B-52 and relating this to the geometry of the B-52's fuselage. The B-52 was state-of-the-art in the 1960s, and its cockpit was off-limits to the film crew. When some United States Air Force personnel were invited to view the reconstructed B-52 cockpit, they said that "it was absolutely correct, even to the little black box which was the CRM." Home movie footage included in Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove on the 2001 Special Edition DVD release of the film shows clips of the B-17 with a cursive "Dr. Strangelove" painted over the rear entry hatch on the right side of the fuselage. In 1967, some of the flying footage from Dr. Strangelove was re-used in The Beatles' television film Magical Mystery Tour. As told by editor Roy Benson in the BBC radio documentary Celluloid Beatles, the production team of Magical Mystery Tour lacked footage to cover the sequence for the song "Flying". Benson had access to the aerial footage filmed for the B-52 sequences of Dr. Strangelove, which was stored at Shepperton Studios. The use of the footage prompted Kubrick to call Benson to complain. === Fail Safe === Red Alert author Peter George collaborated on the screenplay with Kubrick and satirist Terry Southern. Red Alert was more solemn than its film version, and it did not include the character Dr. Strangelove, though the main plot and technical elements were quite similar. A novelization of the actual film, rather than a reprint of the original novel, was published by Peter George, based on an early draft in which the narrative is bookended by the account of aliens, who, having arrived at a desolated Earth, try to piece together what has happened. It was reissued in October 2015 by Candy Jar Books, featuring never-before-published material on Strangelove's early career. During the filming of Dr. Strangelove, Stanley Kubrick learned that Fail Safe, a film with a similar theme, was being produced. Although Fail Safe was to be an ultrarealistic thriller, Kubrick feared that its plot resemblance would damage his film's box office potential, especially if it were released first. Indeed, the novel Fail-Safe (on which the film is based) is so similar to Red Alert that Peter George sued on charges of plagiarism and settled out of court. What worried Kubrick the most was that Fail Safe boasted the acclaimed director Sidney Lumet and the first-rate dramatic actors Henry Fonda as the American president and Walter Matthau as the adviser to the Pentagon, Professor Groeteschele. Kubrick decided to throw a legal wrench into Fail Safes production gears. Lumet recalled in the documentary Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove: "We started casting. Fonda was already set ... which of course meant a big commitment in terms of money. I was set, Walter [Bernstein, the screenwriter] was set ... And suddenly, this lawsuit arrived, filed by Stanley Kubrick and Columbia Pictures." Kubrick argued that Fail Safes own source novel Fail-Safe (1962) had been plagiarized from Peter George's Red Alert, to which Kubrick owned creative rights. He pointed out unmistakable similarities in intentions between the characters Groeteschele and Strangelove. The plan worked, and the suit was settled out of court, with the agreement that Columbia Pictures, which had financed and was distributing Strangelove, also buy Fail Safe, which had been an independently financed production. Kubrick insisted that the studio release his movie first, and Fail Safe opened eight months after Dr. Strangelove, to critical acclaim but mediocre ticket sales. === Ending === The end of the film shows Dr. Strangelove exclaiming, "Mein Führer, I can walk!" before cutting to footage of nuclear explosions, with Vera Lynn and her audience singing "We'll Meet Again". This footage comes from nuclear tests such as shot "Baker" of Operation Crossroads at Bikini Atoll, the Trinity test, a test from Operation Sandstone and the hydrogen bomb tests from Operation Redwing and Operation Ivy. In some shots, old warships (such as the German heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen), which were used as targets, are plainly visible. In others, the smoke trails of rockets used to create a calibration backdrop can be seen. Goon Show writer and friend of Sellers Spike Milligan was credited with suggesting Vera Lynn's song for the ending. === Original ending === It was originally planned for the film to end with a scene that depicted everyone in the War Room involved in a pie fight. Accounts vary as to why the pie fight was cut. In a 1969 interview, Kubrick said, "I decided it was farce and not consistent with the satiric tone of the rest of the film." Critic Alexander Walker observed that "the cream pies were flying around so thickly that people lost definition, and you couldn't really say whom you were looking at." During post-production, one line by Slim Pickens, "a fella could have a pretty good weekend in Dallas with all that stuff", was dubbed to change "Dallas" to "Vegas", since Dallas was where Kennedy was killed. The original reference to Dallas survives in the English audio of the French-subtitled version of the film. The assassination also serves as another possible reason that the pie-fight scene was cut. In the scene, after Muffley takes a pie in the face, General Turgidson exclaims: "Gentlemen! Our gallant young president has been struck down in his prime!" Editor Anthony Harvey stated that the scene "would have stayed, except that Columbia Pictures were horrified, and thought it would offend the president's family." Kubrick and others have said that the scene had already been cut before preview night because it was inconsistent with the rest of the film. === Re-release in 1994 === In 1994, the film was re-released. While the 1964 release used a 1.85:1 aspect ratio, the new print was in the slightly squarer 1.66:1 (5:3) ratio that Kubrick had originally intended. == Themes == === Satirizing the Cold War === Dr. Strangelove ridicules nuclear war planning. It mocks numerous contemporary Cold War attitudes such as the "missile gap" but it primarily directs its satire on the theory of mutually assured destruction (MAD), in which each side is supposed to be deterred from a nuclear war by the prospect of a universal cataclysm regardless of who "won". Military strategist and former physicist Herman Kahn, in the book On Thermonuclear War (1960), used the theoretical example of a "doomsday machine" to illustrate the limitations of MAD. The concept of such a machine is consistent with MAD doctrine when it is logically pursued to its conclusion. It thus worried Kahn that the military might like the idea of a doomsday machine and build one. Kahn, a leading critic of MAD and the Eisenhower administration's doctrine of massive retaliation upon the slightest provocation by the USSR, considered MAD to be foolish bravado, and urged the United States to instead plan for proportionality, and thus even a limited nuclear war. With this reasoning, Kahn became one of the architects of the flexible response doctrine which, while superficially resembling MAD, allowed for the possibility of responding to a limited nuclear strike with a proportional, or calibrated, return of fire (see Conflict escalation). Kahn educated Kubrick on the concept of the semi-realistic "cobalt-thorium G" doomsday machine, and then Kubrick used the concept for the film. Kahn in his writings and talks would often come across as cold and calculating, for example, with his use of the term "megadeaths" and in his willingness to estimate how many human lives the United States could lose and still rebuild economically. Kahn's dispassionate attitude towards millions of deaths is reflected in Turgidson's remark to the president about the outcome of a preemptive nuclear war: "Mr. President, I'm not saying we wouldn't get our hair mussed. But I do say no more than ten to twenty million killed, tops, uh, depending on the breaks." Turgidson has a binder that is labelled "World Targets in Megadeaths", a term coined in 1953 by Kahn and popularized in his 1960 book On Thermonuclear War. The fallout-shelter-network proposal mentioned in the film, with its inherently high radiation protection characteristics, has similarities and contrasts to that of the real Swiss civil defense network. Switzerland has an overcapacity of nuclear fallout shelters for the country's population size, and by law, new homes must still be built with a fallout shelter. If the US did that, it would violate the spirit of MAD and, according to MAD adherents, allegedly destabilize the situation because the US could launch a first strike and its population would largely survive a retaliatory second strike (see MAD § Theory). To rebut early 1960s novels and Hollywood films like Fail-Safe and Dr. Strangelove, which raised questions about US control over nuclear weapons, the Air Force produced a documentary film, SAC Command Post, to demonstrate its responsiveness to presidential command and its tight control over nuclear weapons. However, later academic research into declassified documents showed that U.S. military commanders had been given presidentially authorized pre-delegation for the use of nuclear weapons during the early Cold War, showing that this aspect of the film's plot was plausible. The characters of Buck Turgidson and Jack D. Ripper both satirize the real-life Gen. Curtis LeMay of the Strategic Air Command. === Sexual themes === In the months following the film's release, director Stanley Kubrick received a fan letter from Legrace G. Benson of the Department of History of Art at Cornell University interpreting the film as being sexually layered. The director wrote back to Benson and confirmed the interpretation, "Seriously, you are the first one who seems to have noticed the sexual framework from intromission (the planes going in) to the last spasm (Kong's ride down and detonation at target)." == Release == The film was a popular success, earning US$4,420,000 in rentals in North America during its initial theatrical release. == Reception == === Critical response === Dr. Strangelove is Kubrick's highest-rated film on Rotten Tomatoes, holding a 98% approval rating based on 96 reviews, with an average rating of 9.1/10. The site's summary states that "Stanley Kubrick's brilliant Cold War satire remains as funny and razor-sharp today [2014] as it was in 1964." The film also holds a score of 97 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 32 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". The film is ranked number 7 in the All-Time High Scores chart of Metacritic's Video/DVD section. It was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. Dr. Strangelove is on Roger Ebert's list of The Great Movies, and he described it as "arguably the best political satire of the century". One of the most celebrated of all film comedies, in 1998, Time Out conducted a reader's poll and Dr. Strangelove was voted the 47th greatest film of all time. Entertainment Weekly voted it at No. 14 on their list of 100 Greatest Movies of All Time. in 2002, it was ranked as the 5th best film in Sight & Sound poll of best films. John Patterson of The Guardian wrote, "There had been nothing in comedy like Dr Strangelove ever before. All the gods before whom the America of the stolid, paranoid 50s had genuflected—the Bomb, the Pentagon, the National Security State, the President himself, Texan masculinity and the alleged Commie menace of water-fluoridation—went into the wood-chipper and never got the same respect ever again." It is also listed as number 26 on Empire's 500 Greatest Movies of All Time, and in 2010 it was listed by Time magazine as one of the 100 best films since the publication's inception in 1923. The Writers Guild of America ranked its screenplay the 12th best ever written. In 2000, readers of Total Film magazine voted it the 24th greatest comedic film of all time. The film ranked 42nd in the BBC's 2015 list of the 100 greatest American films. The film was selected as the 2nd best comedy of all time in a poll of 253 film critics from 52 countries conducted by the BBC in 2017. The February 2020 issue of New York Magazine lists Dr. Strangelove as among "The Best Movies That Lost Best Picture at the Oscars." In 2024, filmmaker Michael Mann cited it as one of his favorite films of all time. === Studio response === Columbia Pictures' early reaction to Dr. Strangelove was anything but enthusiastic. In "Notes From The War Room", in the summer 1994 issue of Grand Street magazine, co-screenwriter Terry Southern recalled that, as production neared the end, "It was about this time that word began to reach us, reflecting concern as to the nature of the film in production. Was it anti-American? Or just anti-military? And the jackpot question: Was it, in fact, anti-American to whatever extent it was anti-military?" Southern recalled how Kubrick grew concerned about seeming apathy and distancing by studio heads Abe Schneider and Mo Rothman, and by Columbia's characterization of the film as "just a zany, novelty flick which did not reflect the views of the corporation in any way." \| Best Picture \|rowspan=2\| Stanley Kubrick \| \|- \| Best Director \| \|- \| Best Actor \| Peter Sellers \| \|- \| Best Adapted Screenplay \| Stanley Kubrick, Peter George and Terry Southern \| \|- ! scope="row" rowspan="7"\| BAFTA Awards \| Best Film From Any Source \| Stanley Kubrick \| \|- \| Best British Film \| Stanley Kubrick \| \|- \| Best British Screenplay \| Stanley Kubrick, Peter George, and Terry Southern \| \|- \| Best British Actor \| Peter Sellers \| \|- \| Best Foreign Actor \| Sterling Hayden \| \|- \| Best Art Direction (Black and White) \| Ken Adam \| \|- \| UN Award \| \| \|- ! scope="row" \| Writers Guild of America Awards \| Best Written American Comedy \| \| \|- ! scope="row" \| Hugo Awards \| Best Dramatic Presentation \| \| \|- ! scope="row" \| Belgian Film Critics Association \| Grand Prix \| \| \|- ! scope="row" rowspan=3\| New York Film Critics Circle \| Best Film \| \| \|- \| Best Director \| Stanley Kubrick \| \|- \| Best Screenplay \| Stanley Kubrick, Peter George, and Terry Southern \| \|- ! scope="row" \|Silver Ribbon \| Best Foreign Director \| Stanley Kubrick \| \|- \|} The film ranked No. 32 on TV Guides list of the 50 Greatest Movies on TV (and Video). American Film Institute included the film as #26 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies, #3 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs, #64 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes ("Gentlemen, you can't fight in here! This is the War Room!") and #39 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition). == Canceled sequel == In 1995, Kubrick enlisted Terry Southern to script a sequel titled Son of Strangelove. Kubrick had Terry Gilliam in mind to direct. The script was never completed, but index cards laying out the story's basic structure were found among Southern's papers after he died in October 1995. It was set largely in underground bunkers, where Dr. Strangelove had taken refuge with a group of women. In 2013, Gilliam commented, "I was told after Kubrick died—by someone who had been dealing with him—that he had been interested in trying to do another Strangelove with me directing. I never knew about that until after he died but I would have loved to." == Stage adaptation == On July 14, 2023, it was announced that a stage adaptation of the film would be produced, co-adapted by Armando Iannucci and Sean Foley and starring Steve Coogan. It premiered in London's West End at the Noel Coward Theatre in October 2024. It is the first stage adaptation of Kubrick's works.	[ "Stanley Kubrick Archive", "Operation Paperclip", "Penelope Dudley-Ward", "Nazi salute", "Shane Rimmer", "Operation Redwing", "alien hand syndrome", "David Bromwich", "Curtis LeMay", "How to Stop Worrying and Start Living", "The Mouse That Roared (film)", "Washington, D.C.", "black comedy", "United States Air Force", "Brigadier general (United States)", "Fritz Lang", "Rotten Tomatoes", "the Pentagon", "Belgian Film Critics Association", "Operation Ivy", "New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director", "Homer", "Silver Ribbon", "Major (United States)", "Soviet Premier", "Try a Little Tenderness", "Writers Guild of America, West", "nuclear war", "Peter Bull", "German cruiser Prinz Eugen", "James Earl Jones", "Writers Guild of America Awards", "National Film Registry", "game theorist", "Jack Creley", "Anthony Harvey", "Mutual assured destruction", "The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari", "Cold War", "Herman Kahn", "Filmsite.org", "Spike Milligan", "National Security Advisor (United 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assured destruction", "Tracy Reed (English actress)", "TV Guide", "Tomi Ungerer", "Special Atomic Demolition Munition", "Bikini Atoll", "Lolita (1962 film)", "ad-libs", "Joint Chiefs of Staff", "B-52", "Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation", "Pre-emptive nuclear strike", "AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs", "CRM 114 (fictional device)", "Walter Matthau", "farce", "proportionality (law)", "Peter Sellers", "First Lieutenant", "sine qua non", "balance of terror", "Nobel Prize in Economics", "Cobalt bomb", "bodily fluids", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists", "Roger Ebert", "Twitch Film", "BBC Radio 4", "List of fictional presidents of the United States (K-M)", "Doomsday device", "Brigadier General (United States)", "General (United States)", "concrete", "missile gap", "AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies", "Foreign Affairs", "Time Out (magazine)", "Joint War Room", "massive retaliation", "Vera Lynn", "brigadier general", "political satire", "British Film Institute", "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress", "common cold", "Life (magazine)", "Wheeler Winston Dixon", "President of the United States", "retroscripting", "Cornell University", "Edward Teller", "Sexual intercourse", "RAF", "Grand Street (magazine)", "Vegas", "Playboy", "West End theatre", "Eisenhower administration", "Keenan Wynn", "radiation protection", "Adlai Stevenson II", "black-and-white", "Sterling Hayden", "Military of Switzerland", "Memphis Belle (film)", "Thriller (genre)", "Operation Crossroads", "AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)", "Weegee", "Magical Mystery Tour (film)", "chess", "Adolf Hitler", "paranoid", "Slim Pickens", "1952 United States presidential election", "New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Picture", "baize", "Steve Coogan", "Variety (magazine)", "Fail Safe (1964 film)", "Trope (literature)", "18th British Academy Film Awards", "pie fight", "List of cult films", "cobalt bomb", "Terry-Thomas", "expressionist", "Bonanza", "AMC (TV channel)", "Politics in fiction", "Fred Astaire", "Library of Congress", "mistress (lover)", "On Thermonuclear War", "The Guardian", "New York Magazine", "thermonuclear bomb", "London", "Metadata", "Entertainment Weekly", "surface-to-air missile", "Columbia Pictures", "Armando Iannucci", "satire (film and television)", "World War II", "Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "Shepperton Studios", "James Bond in film", "Hugo Awards", "1964 New York Film Critics Circle Awards", "nuclear deterrent", "BAFTA Award for Outstanding British Film", "American Film Institute", "Bombardier (aircrew)", "When Johnny Comes Marching Home", "Fail-Safe (novel)", "Nazi Party", "Laurie Johnson", "Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay", "United States National Security Council", "Thomas Schelling", "Conflict escalation", "The Life and Death of Peter Sellers", "AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes", "BAFTA Award for Best Film", "Illinois", "Dr. No (film)", "The Magic Christian (novel)", "List of films considered the best", "United States Department of Defense", "Kraut", "George C. Scott", "RAND Corporation", "B-29 Superfortress", "Henry Fonda", "Gilbert Taylor", "Wernher von Braun", "Time (magazine)", "The Great Movies", "1956 United States presidential election", "Noël Coward Theatre", "Ken Adam", "Group Captain", "Dan Blocker", "37th Academy Awards", "Trinity test", "Operation Sandstone", "Douglas Bader", "Cuban Missile Crisis", "Henry Kissinger", "pinko", "Nazi", "Institute for Strategic Studies", "The Observer", "Academy Award for Best Actor", "Playboy Playmate", "We'll Meet Again", "assassination of John F. Kennedy", "Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff", "The Beatles", "Goon Show", "character actor", "mutually assured destruction", "Terry Gilliam", "Hawk Films", "List of ambassadors of Russia to the United States", "Colonel (United States)", "nuclear fallout", "Fandango Media", "Stanley Kubrick", "Rotwang", "Metacritic", "prosthetic", "Total Film", "Michael Mann", "Nuclear warfare", "mad scientist", "Royal Air Force", "Marlon Brando", "novelization", "BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role", "Sidney Lumet", "exchange officer", "Sean Foley (director)", "Red Alert (novel)", "The Cincinnati Enquirer", "wheelchair", "B-52 bomber", "Grand Prix (Belgian Film Critics Association)" ]
8,697	DNA ligase	DNA ligase is a type of enzyme that facilitates the joining of DNA strands together by catalyzing the formation of a phosphodiester bond. It plays a role in repairing single-strand breaks in duplex DNA in living organisms, but some forms (such as DNA ligase IV) may specifically repair double-strand breaks (i.e. a break in both complementary strands of DNA). Single-strand breaks are repaired by DNA ligase using the complementary strand of the double helix as a template, with DNA ligase creating the final phosphodiester bond to fully repair the DNA. DNA ligase is used in both DNA repair and DNA replication (see Mammalian ligases). In addition, DNA ligase has extensive use in molecular biology laboratories for recombinant DNA experiments (see Research applications). Purified DNA ligase is used in gene cloning to join DNA molecules together to form recombinant DNA. == Enzymatic mechanism == The mechanism of DNA ligase is to form two covalent phosphodiester bonds between 3' hydroxyl ends of one nucleotide ("acceptor"), with the 5' phosphate end of another ("donor"). Two ATP molecules are consumed for each phosphodiester bond formed. AMP is required for the ligase reaction, which proceeds in four steps: Reorganization of activity site such as nicks in DNA segments or Okazaki fragments etc. Adenylylation (addition of AMP) of a lysine residue in the active center of the enzyme, pyrophosphate is released; Transfer of the AMP to the 5' phosphate of the so-called donor, formation of a pyrophosphate bond; Formation of a phosphodiester bond between the 5' phosphate of the donor and the 3' hydroxyl of the acceptor. Ligase will also work with blunt ends, although higher enzyme concentrations and different reaction conditions are required. == Types == === E. coli === The E. coli DNA ligase is encoded by the lig gene. DNA ligase in E. coli, as well as most prokaryotes, uses energy gained by cleaving nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) to create the phosphodiester bond. === T4 === The DNA ligase from bacteriophage T4 (a bacteriophage that infects Escherichia coli bacteria). The T4 ligase is the most-commonly used in laboratory research. It can ligate either cohesive or blunt ends of DNA, oligonucleotides, as well as RNA and RNA-DNA hybrids, but not single-stranded nucleic acids. It can also ligate blunt-ended DNA with much greater efficiency than E. coli DNA ligase. Unlike E. coli DNA ligase, T4 DNA ligase cannot utilize NAD and it has an absolute requirement for ATP as a cofactor. Some engineering has been done to improve the in vitro activity of T4 DNA ligase; one successful approach, for example, tested T4 DNA ligase fused to several alternative DNA binding proteins and found that the constructs with either p50 or NF-kB as fusion partners were over 160% more active in blunt-end ligations for cloning purposes than wild type T4 DNA ligase. A typical reaction for inserting a fragment into a plasmid vector would use about 0.01 (sticky ends) to 1 (blunt ends) units of ligase. The optimal incubation temperature for T4 DNA ligase is 37 °C, a temperature at which T4 enzymes are most active. However, it is not uncommon to setup ligation reactions at 16 °C, a trade-off temperature at which the ligase is active as well as one that is suitable for base-pairing of sticky ends. Bacteriophage T4 ligase mutants have increased sensitivity to both UV irradiation and the alkylating agent methyl methanesulfonate indicating that DNA ligase is employed in the repair of the DNA damages caused by these agents. === Mammalian === In mammals, there are four specific types of ligase. DNA ligase 1: ligates the nascent DNA of the lagging strand after the Ribonuclease H has removed the RNA primer from the Okazaki fragments. DNA ligase 3: complexes with DNA repair protein XRCC1 to aid in sealing DNA during the process of nucleotide excision repair and recombinant fragments. Of the all known mammalian DNA ligases, only ligase 3 has been found to be present in mitochondria. DNA ligase 4: complexes with XRCC4. It catalyzes the final step in the non-homologous end joining DNA double-strand break repair pathway. It is also required for V(D)J recombination, the process that generates diversity in immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor loci during immune system development. DNA ligase 2: A purification artifact resulting from proteolytic degradation of DNA ligase 3. Initially, it has been recognized as another DNA ligase and it is the reason for the unusual nomenclature of DNA ligases. DNA ligase from eukaryotes and some microbes uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP) rather than NAD. ===Thermostable=== Derived from a thermophilic bacterium, the enzyme is stable and active at much higher temperatures than conventional DNA ligases. Its half-life is 48 hours at 65 °C and greater than 1 hour at 95 °C. Ampligase DNA Ligase has been shown to be active for at least 500 thermal cycles (94 °C/80 °C) or 16 hours of cycling.10 This exceptional thermostability permits extremely high hybridization stringency and ligation specificity. ==Measurement of activity== There are at least three different units used to measure the activity of DNA ligase: Weiss unit - the amount of ligase that catalyzes the exchange of 1 nmole of 32P from inorganic pyrophosphate to ATP in 20 minutes at 37°C. This is the one most commonly used. Modrich-Lehman unit - this is rarely used, and one unit is defined as the amount of enzyme required to convert 100 nmoles of d(A-T)n to an exonuclease-III resistant form in 30 minutes under standard conditions. Many commercial suppliers of ligases use an arbitrary unit based on the ability of ligase to ligate cohesive ends. These units are often more subjective than quantitative and lack precision. == Research applications == DNA ligases have become indispensable tools in modern molecular biology research for generating recombinant DNA sequences. For example, DNA ligases are used with restriction enzymes to insert DNA fragments, often genes, into plasmids. Controlling the optimal temperature is a vital aspect of performing efficient recombination experiments involving the ligation of cohesive-ended fragments. Most experiments use T4 DNA Ligase (isolated from bacteriophage T4), which is most active at 37 °C. However, for optimal ligation efficiency with cohesive-ended fragments ("sticky ends"), the optimal enzyme temperature needs to be balanced with the melting temperature Tm of the sticky ends being ligated, the homologous pairing of the sticky ends will not be stable because the high temperature disrupts hydrogen bonding. A ligation reaction is most efficient when the sticky ends are already stably annealed, and disruption of the annealing ends would therefore result in low ligation efficiency. The shorter the overhang, the lower the Tm. Since blunt-ended DNA fragments have no cohesive ends to anneal, the melting temperature is not a factor to consider within the normal temperature range of the ligation reaction. The limiting factor in blunt end ligation is not the activity of the ligase but rather the number of alignments between DNA fragment ends that occur. The most efficient ligation temperature for blunt-ended DNA would therefore be the temperature at which the greatest number of alignments can occur. The majority of blunt-ended ligations are carried out at 14-25 °C overnight. The absence of stably annealed ends also means that the ligation efficiency is lowered, requiring a higher ligase concentration to be used. == History == The first DNA ligase was purified and characterized in 1967 by the Gellert, Lehman, Richardson, and Hurwitz laboratories. It was first purified and characterized by Weiss and Richardson using a six-step chromatographic-fractionation process beginning with elimination of cell debris and addition of streptomycin, followed by several Diethylaminoethyl (DEAE)-cellulose column washes and a final phosphocellulose fractionation. The final extract contained 10% of the activity initially recorded in the E. coli media; along the process it was discovered that ATP and Mg++ were necessary to optimize the reaction. The common commercially available DNA ligases were originally discovered in bacteriophage T4, E. coli and other bacteria. == Disorders == Genetic deficiencies in human DNA ligases have been associated with clinical syndromes marked by immunodeficiency, radiation sensitivity, and developmental abnormalities, A list of prevalent diseases caused by lack of or malfunctioning of DNA ligase is as follows. === Xeroderma pigmentosum === Xeroderma pigmentosum, which is commonly known as XP, is an inherited condition characterized by an extreme sensitivity to ultraviolet (UV) rays from sunlight. This condition mostly affects the eyes and areas of skin exposed to the sun. Some affected individuals also have problems involving the nervous system. === Ataxia-telangiectasia === Mutations in the ATM gene cause ataxia–telangiectasia. The ATM gene provides instructions for making a protein that helps control cell division and is involved in DNA repair. This protein plays an important role in the normal development and activity of several body systems, including the nervous system and immune system. The ATM protein assists cells in recognizing damaged or broken DNA strands and coordinates DNA repair by activating enzymes that fix the broken strands. Efficient repair of damaged DNA strands helps maintain the stability of the cell's genetic information. Affected children typically develop difficulty walking, problems with balance and hand coordination, involuntary jerking movements (chorea), muscle twitches (myoclonus), and disturbances in nerve function (neuropathy). The movement problems typically cause people to require wheelchair assistance by adolescence. People with this disorder also have slurred speech and trouble moving their eyes to look side-to-side (oculomotor apraxia). === Fanconi Anemia === Fanconi anemia (FA) is a rare, inherited blood disorder that leads to bone marrow failure. FA prevents bone marrow from making enough new blood cells for the body to work normally. FA also can cause the bone marrow to make many faulty blood cells. This can lead to serious health problems, such as leukemia. === Bloom syndrome === Bloom syndrome results in skin that is sensitive to sun exposure, and usually the development of a butterfly-shaped patch of reddened skin across the nose and cheeks. A skin rash can also appear on other areas that are typically exposed to the sun, such as the back of the hands and the forearms. Small clusters of enlarged blood vessels (telangiectases) often appear in the rash; telangiectases can also occur in the eyes. Other skin features include patches of skin that are lighter or darker than the surrounding areas (hypopigmentation or hyperpigmentation respectively). These patches appear on areas of the skin that are not exposed to the sun, and their development is not related to the rashes. == As a drug target == In recent studies, human DNA ligase I was used in Computer-aided drug design to identify DNA ligase inhibitors as possible therapeutic agents to treat cancer. Since excessive cell growth is a hallmark of cancer development, targeted chemotherapy that disrupts the functioning of DNA ligase can impede adjuvant cancer forms. Furthermore, it has been shown that DNA ligases can be broadly divided into two categories, namely, ATP- and NAD+-dependent. Previous research has shown that although NAD+-dependent DNA ligases have been discovered in sporadic cellular or viral niches outside the bacterial domain of life, there is no instance in which a NAD+-dependent ligase is present in a eukaryotic organism. The presence solely in non-eukaryotic organisms, unique substrate specificity, and distinctive domain structure of NAD+ dependent compared with ATP-dependent human DNA ligases together make NAD+-dependent ligases ideal targets for the development of new antibacterial drugs.	[ "cohesive end", "Homologous chromosome", "Computer-aided drug design", "molecular biology", "Lagging strand", "ataxia–telangiectasia", "DNA end", "adenosine triphosphate", "LIG4", "bacteriophage T4", "5' end", "DNA repair", "LIG4 syndrome", "plasmid", "phosphodiester bond", "mutant", "DNA", "LIG3", "LIG1", "Sticky and blunt ends", "nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide", "immunoglobulin", "nucleotide", "recombinant DNA", "lysine", "NF-kB", "eukaryotes", "Enterobacteria phage T4", "DNA melting", "ultraviolet", "RNase H", "Eukaryote", "V(D)J recombination", "polyethylene glycol", "phosphodiester bonds", "covalent", "Escherichia virus T4", "Xeroderma pigmentosum", "Bloom syndrome", "Complementarity (molecular biology)", "pyrophosphate", "DNA damage (naturally occurring)", "Sequencing by ligation", "DNA replication", "protein", "restriction enzyme", "Escherichia coli", "XRCC1", "DNA ligase 4", "non-homologous end joining", "immune system", "methyl methanesulfonate", "T-cell receptor", "genes", "hydrogen bonding", "Fanconi anemia", "protein complex", "DNA ligase 3", "DNA polymerase", "3' end", "bacteria", "Okazaki fragment", "bacteriophage", "XRCC4", "leukemia", "DNA ligase 1" ]