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7,306	ColecoVision	ColecoVision is a second-generation home video-game console developed by Coleco and launched in North America in August 1982. It was released a year later in Europe by CBS Electronics as the CBS ColecoVision. The console offered a closer experience to more powerful arcade video games compared to competitors such as the Atari 2600 and Intellivision. The initial catalog of twelve games on ROM cartridge included the first home version of Nintendo's Donkey Kong as the pack-in game. Approximately 136 games were published between 1982 and 1984, including Sega's Zaxxon and some ports of lesser known arcade games that found a larger audience on the console, such as Lady Bug, Cosmic Avenger, and Venture. Coleco released a series of hardware add-ons and special controllers to expand the capabilities of the console. "Expansion Module #1" allowed the system to play Atari 2600 cartridges. A later module converted ColecoVision into the Adam home computer. ColecoVision was discontinued in 1985 when Coleco withdrew from the video game market. Coleco had already contemplated shifting focus to their Cabbage Patch Kids success after the costly failure of their Adam computer. == Development == Coleco entered the video game market in 1976 during the dedicated-game home console period with their line of Telstar consoles. When that market became oversaturated over the next few years, the company nearly went bankrupt, but found a successful product through handheld electronic games, with products that beat out those of the current market leader, Mattel. The company also developed a line of miniaturized tabletop arcade video games with licensed rights from arcade game makers including Sega, Bally, Midway, and Nintendo. Coleco was able to survive on sales of their electronic games through to 1982, but that market itself began to wane, and Coleco president Arnold Greenberg was still interested in producing a home video game console. According to Eric Bromley, who led the engineering for the ColecoVision, Greenberg had wanted to get into the programmable home console market with arcade-quality games, but the cost of components had been a limiting factor. As early as 1979, Bromley had drawn out specifications for a system using a Texas Instruments video and a General Instrument audio chip, but could not get the go-ahead due to the cost of RAM. Around 1981, Bromley saw an article in The Wall Street Journal that asserted the price of RAM had fallen and, after working the cost numbers, Bromley found the system cost fell within their cost margins. Within ten minutes of reporting this to Greenberg, they had established the working name "ColecoVision" for the console as they began a more thorough design, which the marketing department never was able to surpass. Coleco recognized that licensed conversion of arcade games had worked for Atari in selling the Atari VCS, so they had approached Nintendo around 1981 for potential access to their arcade titles. Bromley described a tense set of meetings with Nintendo's president Hiroshi Yamauchi under typical Japanese customs where he sought to negotiate for game rights, though Yamauchi only offered seemingly obscure titles. After a meal with Yamauchi during one day, Bromley excused himself to the restroom and happened upon one of the first Donkey Kong cabinets, which had yet to be released to Western countries. Knowing this game would likely be a hit, Bromley arranged a meeting the following day with Yamauchi and requested the exclusive rights to Donkey Kong; Yamauchi offered them if only they could provide upfront by that day and gave them per unit sold. Greenberg agreed, though as in Japanese custom, Bromley did not have a formal contract from Nintendo on his return. By the time of that year's Consumer Electronics Show, which Yamauchi was attending, Bromley found out from Yamauchi's daughter and translator that he had apparently given the rights to Atari. With Yamauchi's daughter's help, Bromley was able to commit Yamauchi to sign a formal contract to affirm the rights to Coleco. == Release== The ColecoVision was released in August 1982. By Christmas 1982, Coleco had sold more than 500,000 units, in part on the strength of Donkey Kong as the bundled game. ColecoVision's main competitor was the less commercially successful Atari 5200. Sales quickly passed 1 million in early 1983. The ColecoVision was distributed by CBS Electronics outside of North America and was branded the CBS ColecoVision. In Europe, the console was released in July 1983, nearly one year after the North American release. Sega Enterprises attempted a Japanese version of the console, but it was retooled into the SG-1000 before release. By the beginning of 1984, quarterly sales of the ColecoVision had dramatically decreased. In January 1985, Coleco discontinued the Adam, which was a home computer expansion for ColecoVision. By mid-1985, Coleco planned to withdraw from the video game market, and the ColecoVision was officially discontinued by October. Total sales are uncertain, but were ultimately in excess of 2 million consoles, with the console continuing to sell modestly up until its discontinuation. In 1983, Spectravideo announced the SV-603 ColecoVision Video Game Adapter for its SV-318 computer. The company stated that the $70 product allowed users to "enjoy the entire library of exciting ColecoVision video-game cartridges". == Hardware == ColecoVision is based around the Zilog Z80 CPU and a variant of the Texas Instruments TMS9918 video chip that was introduced in 1979. On NTSC ColecoVision consoles, all first-party cartridges and most third-party software titles feature a 12.7 second pause before presenting the game select screen. CBS Electronics reduced this pause in the BIOS to 3.3 seconds for their PAL and SECAM ColecoVision consoles. === Expansion Modules and accessories === From its introduction, Coleco touted the ColecoVision's hardware expandability by highlighting the Expansion Module Interface on the front of the unit. These hardware expansion modules and accessories were sold separately. ==== Atari 2600 expansion ==== Expansion Module #1 made the ColecoVision compatible with Atari 2600 cartridges and controllers. ==== Driving controller ==== Expansion Module #2 is a driving controller (steering wheel / gas pedal) that comes packaged with the cartridge Turbo. The gas pedal is merely a simple on/off switch. Although Coleco called the driving controller an expansion module, it actually plugs into the controller port, not the Expansion Module Interface. The driving controller is also compatible with the cartridges Destructor, Bump 'n' Jump, Pitstop, and The Dukes of Hazzard. ==== Adam computer expansion ==== Expansion Module #3 converts the ColecoVision into the Adam computer, complete with keyboard, digital data pack (DDP) cassette drive, 64 KB RAM, and printer. ==== Roller Controller ==== The Roller Controller is a trackball that comes packaged with the cartridge Slither, a conversion of the arcade game. The roller controller uses a special power connector that is not compatible with Expansion Module #3 (the Adam computer). Coleco mailed an adapter to owners of both units who complained. The other cartridge programmed to use the roller controller is Victory. A joystick mode switch on the roller controller allows it to be used with all cartridges including WarGames, Omega Race, and Atarisoft's Centipede. ==== Super Action Controller ==== The Super Action Controller Set, available in September 1983, is a set of two handheld joystick controllers that comes packaged with the cartridge Super Action Baseball. Each controller has a ball-top joystick, four finger triggered action buttons, a 12-button numeric keypad, and a "speed roller". The cartridges Super Action Football, Rocky Super Action Boxing, and a conversion of the arcade game Front Line are also designed to be used with the Super Action Controller. ==== Unreleased ==== Expansion Module #3 was originally the Super Game Module. It was advertised for an August 1983 release but was ultimately cancelled and replaced with the Adam computer expansion. The Super Game Module added a tape drive known as the Exatron Stringy Floppy with 128 KB capacity, and the additional RAM, said to be 30 KB, to load and execute programs from tape. Games could be distributed on tiny tapes, called wafers, and be much larger than the 16 KB or 32 KB ROM cartridges of the day. Super Donkey Kong, with all screens and animations, Super Donkey Kong Jr, and Super Smurf Rescue were demonstrated with the Super Game Module. The Adam computer expansion with its 256 KB tape drive and 64 KB RAM fulfilled the specifications promised by the Super Game Module. == Games == == Legacy == Masayuki Uemura, head of Famicom development, stated that the ColecoVision set the bar that influenced how he approached the creation of the Famicom. During the creation of the Nintendo Entertainment System, Takao Sawano, chief manager of the project, brought a ColecoVision home to his family, who were impressed by the system's capability to produce smooth graphics, which contrasted with the flickering commonly seen on Atari 2600 games. In 1986, Bit Corporation produced a ColecoVision clone called the Dina, which was sold in the United States by Telegames as the Telegames Personal Arcade. IGN named the ColecoVision their 12th-best video-game console out of their list of 25, citing "its incredible accuracy in bringing current-generation arcade hits home". In 1996, the first homebrew ColecoVision game was released: a Tetris clone titled Kevtris. In 1997, Telegames released Personal Arcade Vol. 1, a collection of ColecoVision games for Microsoft Windows, and a 1998 follow-up, Colecovision Hits Volume One. In 2012, Opcode Games released their own Super Game Module expansion, which increases RAM from 1 KB to 32 KB and adds four additional sound channels. This expansion brings the ColecoVision close to the MSX architecture standard, allowing MSX software to be more easily ported. In 2014, AtGames began producing the ColecoVision Flashback console that includes 60 games, but not the original pack-in game, Donkey Kong.	[ "handheld electronic game", "WarGames (video game)", "Texas Instruments", "Youngstown Vindicator", "home video game console", "Atari, Inc.", "Pitstop (video game)", "RAM", "The Dukes of Hazzard (video game)", "Zaxxon", "Coleco Adam", "Spectravideo", "Omega Race", "Exatron Stringy Floppy", "Atari 5200", "Rocky", "Intellivision", "Microsoft Windows", "pack-in game", "arcade video game", "CBS Electronics", "TMS9918", "Los Angeles Times", "Bump 'n' Jump", "Nintendo Life", "Tetris", "Texas Instruments SN76489", "Arnold Greenberg (Coleco)", "General Instrument", "The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon--The Story Behind the Craze That Touched Our Lives and Changed the World", "Coleco Telstar series", "Front Line (video game)", "Dina (console)", "Cabbage Patch Kids", "Lady Bug (video game)", "Cash Box", "SECAM", "Coleco", "Coleco Gemini", "Zilog Z80", "trackball", "Turbo (video game)", "SG-1000", "Television Interface Adaptor", "BIOS", "Nintendo", "Bit Corporation", "Hiroshi Yamauchi", "Centipede (video game)", "Bally Manufacturing", "Masayuki Uemura", "Donkey Kong (1981 video game)", "Mattel", "video RAM", "Atari 2600", "IGN", "Home video game console", "Random-access memory", "The Wall Street Journal", "Famicom", "Scratchpad memory", "ROM cartridge", "NTSC", "Nintendo Entertainment System", "Homebrew (video games)", "Second generation of video game consoles", "Sega", "Venture (video game)", "Consumer Electronics Show", "reverse-engineered", "SV-318", "MSX", "North America", "Cosmic Avenger", "Midway Games", "PAL", "steering wheel" ]
7,309	Coleco Telstar series	The Coleco Telstar brand is a series of dedicated first-generation home video game consoles produced, released and marketed by Coleco from 1976 to 1978. Starting with Coleco Telstar Pong clone based video game console on General Instrument's AY-3-8500 chip in 1976, there were 14 consoles released in the Coleco Telstar series. About one million units of the first model called Coleco Telstar were sold. Coleco sold over 1 million units at the price of $50 in 1976. Coleco was unaffected by a chip shortage that year as their early orders meant it was entirely supplied. The large product lineup and the impending fading out of the Pong machines led Coleco to face near-bankruptcy in 1980. ==Model comparison==	[ "video game console", "SN76499N", "Video (magazine)", "Texas Instruments", "home video game console", "1977 in video gaming", "nine-volt battery", "road racing", "Serve (tennis)", "MOS Technology", "joystick", "AC adapter", "skeet shooting", "AY-3-8512", "First generation of video game consoles", "target shooting", "1980 in video gaming", "Wayne State University Press", "1976 in video gaming", "Dedicated console", "American handball", "ice hockey", "tennis", "jai alai", "Next Generation (magazine)", "AY-3-8500", "Coleco Telstar Marksman", "Fast draw", "home video game consoles", "Pack-in game", "ColecoVision", "Coleco", "Kee Games", "AY-3-8510", "Coleco Telstar Arcade", "Pong", "paddle (game controller)", "AY-3-8700", "1978 in video gaming", "Tank (video game)", "light gun", "MPS 7600", "C battery", "General Instrument", "pinball", "Colt .45 Peacemaker", "Imagine Media", "brand", "MPS-7600" ]
7,310	Conventional warfare	Conventional warfare is a form of warfare conducted by using conventional weapons and battlefield tactics between two or more states in open confrontation. The forces on each side are well-defined and fight by using weapons that target primarily the opponent's military. It is normally fought by using conventional weapons, not chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons. The general purpose of conventional warfare is to weaken or destroy the opponent's military, which negates its ability to engage in conventional warfare. In forcing capitulation, however, one or both sides may eventually resort to unconventional warfare tactics. Within the statist paradigm, only the state and its appointed representatives may bear arms and enter into war. In fact, war then became understood only as a conflict between sovereign states. Monarchs strengthened that idea and gave it the force of law. Any noble had been allowed to start a war, but European monarchs had to consolidate military power in response to the Napoleonic Wars. ===Clausewitzian paradigm=== Prussia was one of the countries that tried to amass military power. Carl von Clausewitz, one of Prussia's officers, wrote On War, a work rooted solely in the world of the state. All other forms of intrastate conflict, such as rebellion, are not accounted for because in theoretical terms, he could not account for warfare before the state. However, near the end of his life, he grew increasingly aware of the importance of non-state military actors, as is revealed in his conceptions of "the people in arms", which he noted arose from the same social and political sources as traditional interstate warfare. Practices such as raiding or blood feuds were then labeled criminal activities and stripped of legitimacy. That war paradigm reflected the view of most of the modernized world in the early 21st century, as is verified by examination of the conventional armies of the time: large, high-maintenance, and technologically advanced armies designed to compete against similarly designed forces. Clausewitz also forwarded the issue of casus belli. Wars had been fought for social, religious, or even cultural reasons, and Clausewitz taught that war is merely "a continuation of politics by other means." It is a rational calculation in which states fight for their interests (whether they are economic, security-related, or otherwise) once normal discourse has broken down. ===Prevalence=== Most modern wars have been conducted using conventional means. Confirmed use of biological warfare by a nation state has not occurred since 1945, and chemical warfare has been used only a few times (the latest known confrontation in which it was utilized being the Syrian Civil War). Nuclear warfare has only occurred once: the American bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. ===Since World War II=== The state and Clausewitzian principles peaked in the World Wars, during the 20th century, but they also laid the groundwork for their dilapidation from nuclear proliferation. During the Cold War, the superpowers sought to avoid open conflict between their respective forces, as both sides recognized that such a clash could very easily escalate and quickly involve nuclear weapons. Instead, the superpowers fought each other through their involvement in proxy wars, military buildups, and diplomatic standoffs. Thus, no two nuclear powers have yet fought a conventional war directly except for two brief skirmishes between China and Soviet Union in the 1969 Sino-Soviet conflict and between India and Pakistan in the 1999 Kargil War. However, conventional wars have been fought since 1945 between countries without nuclear weapons, such as the Iran–Iraq War and Eritrean–Ethiopian War, or between a nuclear state and a weaker non-nuclear state, like the Gulf War and Russo-Ukrainian War.	[ "Low-intensity conflict", "nuclear weapon", "weapon", "Napoleonic Wars", "Prussia", "Eritrean–Ethiopian War", "rebellion", "proxy war", "Gulf War", "World Wars", "legitimacy (political)", "Temporal power of the Holy See", "unconventional warfare", "Syrian Civil War", "Kargil War", "Monarch", "On War", "United States", "Hiroshima", "Europe", "feud", "biological agent", "Sino-Soviet conflict (1969)", "Unconventional warfare", "nuclear powers", "divine right of kings", "Cold War", "sovereign state", "Iran–Iraq War", "Russo-Ukrainian War", "conventional weapon", "Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki", "Empire of Japan", "casus belli", "nuclear proliferation", "India", "law", "biological warfare", "Nagasaki", "battlefield tactics", "chemical weapon", "capitulation (surrender)", "World War II", "Nuclear warfare", "superpowers", "Plato", "Guerrilla warfare", "nobility", "Treaty of Westphalia", "Carl von Clausewitz", "Asymmetric warfare", "proxy wars", "Psychological warfare", "Roman Catholic Church", "raid (military)", "warfare", "chemical warfare", "radiological warfare", "Pakistan" ]
7,312	Chauvinism	Chauvinism ( ) is the unreasonable belief in the superiority or dominance of one's own group or people, who are seen as strong and virtuous, while others are considered weak, unworthy, or inferior. The Encyclopaedia Britannica describes it as a form of "excessive and unreasonable" patriotism and nationalism, a fervent faith in national excellence and glory. In American English, the word, since 1940s, has also come to be used in as a shorthand for male chauvinism, a trend reflected in Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, which, as of 2018, began its first example of use of the term chauvinism with "an attitude of superiority toward members of the opposite sex". ==As nationalism== According to legend, French soldier Nicolas Chauvin was badly wounded in the Napoleonic Wars and received a meager pension for his injuries. After Napoleon abdicated, Chauvin maintained his fanatical Bonapartist belief in the messianic mission of Imperial France, despite the unpopularity of this view under the Bourbon Restoration. His single-minded devotion to his cause, despite neglect by his faction and harassment by its enemies, started the use of the term. This French quality finds its parallel in the English-language term jingoism, which has retained the meaning of chauvinism strictly in its original sense; that is, an attitude of belligerent nationalism. In 1945, political theorist Hannah Arendt described the concept thus: In this sense, chauvinism is irrational, in that no one can claim their nation or ethnic group to be inherently superior to another. As David Aberbach remarks, "There is nothing in modern Hebrew literature, however devoted to the cause of Jewish sovereignty, remotely comparable to the super-chauvinistic Hassgesang ('Hate Song for England')..." Despite chauvinism's irrational roots, at the time, it was explicitly seen as almost obligatory for any German patriot. As Walther Rathenau commented just prior to the outbreak of the war, "Whoever loves his Fatherland may and should be something of a chauvinist." Lissauer's poem was exceedingly popular, to the extent that it was praised by the Kaiser himself, and Lissauer's slogan "" was used as a daily greeting. However, whilst some German Jews did take the opportunity of the war to demonstrate their patriotism, Lissauer was an extremist, and in contrast many other German Jews disagreed with Lissauer and the way that mainstream opinion had shifted. The Christianity-centric imagery used to document the by authors such as Walter Flex alienated Jewish soldiers. Whereas Lissauer attempted to sign up as a soldier (but was rejected as unfit) as soon as war broke out, then penned the poem, and in the words of Stefan Zweig considered everything published by the German newspapers and army to be "gospel truth" and Edward Grey to be "the worst criminal". The last lines of the poem read: We love as one, we hate as one, We have one foe and one alone — ENGLAND! ==Male chauvinism== Male chauvinism is the belief that men are superior to women. The closely related terms are male supremacy, male oppression, and patriarchy. It becomes an insult in the male chauvinist pig variation. === History === While the first variation of the English term chauvinism, "literary chauvinism", appeared in 1888, the growing popularity of variations is attributed to the American Communist Party that stressed the "white chauvinism" and "male chauvinism" in the early 1930s ("white chauvinism" dates back to the "Resolution on the Negro Question" of 1930). At this time the brief term "chauvinism" frequently was used to designate the white chauvinism. The term "male sex chauvinism" appeared in the New York Times (NYT) in 1934, while the form "male chauvinism" is first documented in the 1935 Clifford Odets play Till the Day I Die to reflect a pattern of patronizingly claiming the superiority of males, "You and your male chauvinism!". Outside the Communist party, the term was very rarely used for the next 30 years (about one mention in NYT every three years). At the same time, the "male chauvinism" term was regularly used in the Communist press in the US, where the "chauvinism" now standing for both white chauvinism and male chauvinism. The party sanctions against male chauvinists were employed, but were less severe than the ones against white chauvinists. The second coming of the male chauvinist term in 1969 is associated with the women's liberation movement. This time it became widespread (130 articles in NYT used the term in 1972 alone). "Male chauvinist pig" quickly followed in 1970 and, useful for teasing and impossible for the target to interpret is as a joke, it turned out easier for activists to adopt, becoming a vogue word or even an early meme (the rate of its spread can be compared to that of "groovy"). By the early 1990s 63% of Chicago women acknowledged calling someone a "male chauvinist pig". 58% of the women who did not self-identify as feminists, and did 56% of conservatives among them, 60% of non-voters, and 51% of African Americans. For comparison, much fewer women at the time used the word "sexist". The phrase was spreading through both everyday talk and the mass media. ===In the workplace=== The balance of the workforce changed during World War II. As men entered or were conscripted into the military to fight in the war, women started replacing them. After the war ended, men returned home to find jobs in the workplace now occupied by women, which "threatened the self-esteem many men derive from their dominance over women in the family, the economy, and society at large." Consequently, male chauvinism was on the rise, according to Cynthia B. Lloyd. Lloyd and Michael Korda have argued that as they integrated back into the workforce, men returned to predominate, holding positions of power while women worked as their secretaries, usually typing dictations and answering telephone calls. This division of labor was understood and expected, and women typically felt unable to challenge their position or male superiors, argue Korda and Lloyd. ===Causes=== Chauvinist assumptions are seen by some as a bias in the TAT psychological personality test. Through cross-examinations, the TAT exhibits a tendency toward chauvinistic stimuli for its questions and has the "potential for unfavorable clinical evaluation" for women. An often cited study done in 1976 by Sherwyn Woods, "Some Dynamics of Male Chauvinism", attempts to find the underlying causes of male chauvinism. Adam Jukes argues that a reason for male chauvinism is masculinity itself:For the vast majority of people all over the world, the mother is a primary carer...There's an asymmetry in the development of boys and girls. Infant boys have to learn how to be masculine. Girls don't. Masculinity is not in a state of crisis. Masculinity is a crisis. I don't believe misogyny is innate, but I believe it's inescapable because of the development of masculinity. ==Female chauvinism== Female chauvinism is the belief that women are superior to men. Second-wave feminist Betty Friedan observed that "...the assumption that women have any moral or spiritual superiority as a class is [...] female chauvinism." Ariel Levy used the term in her book Female Chauvinist Pigs, in which she argues that many young women in the United States and beyond are replicating male chauvinism and older misogynist stereotypes.	[ "Ernst Lissauer", "misogyny", "Nicolas Chauvin", "stereotype", "Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon", "Napoleonic Wars", "Glossary of the Weimar Republic", "Mother", "Great Russian chauvinism", "Chauvinism", "non-voters", "White supremacy", "Sexism", "Female Chauvinist Pigs", "Blind nationalism", "Walther Rathenau", "Walter Flex", "Encyclopaedia Britannica", "New York Times", "feminists", "masculinity", "patriarchy", "jingoism", "Till the Day I Die", "Partisan (political)", "women's liberation movement", "workforce", "Thematic Apperception Test", "decompensation", "patriotism", "Planetary chauvinism", "groovy", "First French Empire", "meme", "teasing", "nationalism", "American exceptionalism", "Moral hazard", "Identity politics", "men", "male supremacy", "German Jew", "Michael Korda", "Ariel Levy (writer)", "self-esteem", "Betty Friedan", "World War 1", "women", "Napoleon", "Bonapartism", "Social chauvinism", "Hannah Arendt", "World War II", "White nationalism", "Gott strafe England", "sexist", "Welfare chauvinism", "vogue word", "psychoanalytic", "misogynist", "Stefan Zweig", "Communist Party USA", "Merriam-Webster's Dictionary", "Carbon chauvinism", "Supremacism", "Bourbon Restoration in France", "Han chauvinism", "Clifford Odets" ]
7,316	Hypothetical types of biochemistry	Several forms of biochemistry are agreed to be scientifically viable but are not proven to exist at this time. The kinds of living organisms currently known on Earth all use carbon compounds for basic structural and metabolic functions, water as a solvent, and DNA or RNA to define and control their form. If life exists on other planets or moons it may be chemically similar, though it is also possible that there are organisms with quite different chemistries for instance, involving other classes of carbon compounds, compounds of another element, or another solvent in place of water. The possibility of life-forms being based on "alternative" biochemistries is the topic of an ongoing scientific discussion, informed by what is known about extraterrestrial environments and about the chemical behaviour of various elements and compounds. It is of interest in synthetic biology and is also a common subject in science fiction. The element silicon has been much discussed as a hypothetical alternative to carbon. Silicon is in the same group as carbon on the periodic table and, like carbon, it is tetravalent. Hypothetical alternatives to water include ammonia, which, like water, is a polar molecule, and cosmically abundant; and non-polar hydrocarbon solvents such as methane and ethane, which are known to exist in liquid form on the surface of Titan. ==Overview of hypothetical types of biochemistry== == Shadow biosphere == A shadow biosphere is a hypothetical microbial biosphere of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life. Although life on Earth is relatively well-studied, the shadow biosphere may still remain unnoticed because the exploration of the microbial world targets primarily the biochemistry of the macro-organisms. == Alternative-chirality biomolecules == Perhaps the least unusual alternative biochemistry would be one with differing chirality of its biomolecules. In known Earth-based life, amino acids are almost universally of the form and sugars are of the form. Molecules using amino acids or sugars may be possible; molecules of such a chirality, however, would be incompatible with organisms using the opposing chirality molecules. Amino acids whose chirality is opposite to the norm are found on Earth, and these substances are generally thought to result from decay of organisms of normal chirality. However, physicist Paul Davies speculates that some of them might be products of "anti-chiral" life. It is questionable, however, whether such a biochemistry would be truly alien. Although it would certainly be an alternative stereochemistry, molecules that are overwhelmingly found in one enantiomer throughout the vast majority of organisms can nonetheless often be found in another enantiomer in different (often basal) organisms such as in comparisons between members of Archaea and other domains, making it an open topic whether an alternative stereochemistry is truly novel. == Non-carbon-based biochemistries == On Earth, all known living things have a carbon-based structure and system. Scientists have speculated about the pros and cons of using elements other than carbon to form the molecular structures necessary for life, but no one has proposed a theory employing such atoms to form all the necessary structures. However, as Carl Sagan argued, it is very difficult to be certain whether a statement that applies to all life on Earth will turn out to apply to all life throughout the universe. Sagan used the term "carbon chauvinism" for such an assumption. He regarded silicon and germanium as conceivable alternatives to carbon Norman Horowitz devised the experiments to determine whether life might exist on Mars that were carried out by the Viking Lander of 1976, the first U.S. mission to successfully land a probe on the surface of Mars. Horowitz argued that the great versatility of the carbon atom makes it the element most likely to provide solutions, even exotic solutions, to the problems of survival on other planets. He considered that there was only a remote possibility that non-carbon life forms could exist with genetic information systems capable of self-replication and the ability to evolve and adapt. === Silicon biochemistry === The silicon atom has been much discussed as the basis for an alternative biochemical system, because silicon has many chemical similarities to carbon and is in the same group of the periodic table. Like carbon, silicon can create molecules that are sufficiently large to carry biological information. However, silicon has several drawbacks as a carbon alternative. Carbon is ten times more cosmically abundant than silicon, and its chemistry appears naturally more complex. Even though Earth and other terrestrial planets are exceptionally silicon-rich and carbon-poor (silicon is roughly 925 times more abundant in Earth's crust than carbon), terrestrial life bases itself on carbon. It may eschew silicon because silicon compounds are less varied, unstable in the presence of water, or block the flow of heat. Relative to carbon, silicon has a much larger atomic radius, and forms much weaker covalent bonds to atoms — except oxygen and fluorine, with which it forms very strong bonds. Alternatively, the weak bonds in silicon compounds may help maintain a rapid pace of life at cryogenic temperatures. Polysilanols, the silicon homologues to sugars, are among the few compounds soluble in liquid nitrogen. All known silicon macromolecules are artificial polymers, and so "monotonous compared with the combinatorial universe of organic macromolecules". Although not observed in nature, carbon–silicon bonds have been added to biochemistry under directed evolution (artificial selection): a cytochrome c protein from Rhodothermus marinus has been engineered to catalyze new carbon–silicon bonds between hydrosilanes and diazo compounds. === Other exotic element-based biochemistries === Boranes are dangerously explosive in Earth's atmosphere, but would be more stable in a reducing atmosphere. However, boron's low cosmic abundance makes it less likely as a base for life than carbon. Various metals, together with oxygen, can form very complex and thermally stable structures rivaling those of organic compounds; the heteropoly acids are one such family. Some metal oxides are also similar to carbon in their ability to form both nanotube structures and diamond-like crystals (such as cubic zirconia). Titanium, aluminium, magnesium, and iron are all more abundant in the Earth's crust than carbon. Metal-oxide-based life could therefore be a possibility under certain conditions, including those (such as high temperatures) at which carbon-based life would be unlikely. The Cronin group at Glasgow University reported self-assembly of tungsten polyoxometalates into cell-like spheres. By modifying their metal oxide content, the spheres can acquire holes that act as porous membrane, selectively allowing chemicals in and out of the sphere according to size. Sulfur-reducing bacteria can utilize elemental sulfur instead of oxygen, reducing sulfur to hydrogen sulfide.) == Arsenic as an alternative to phosphorus == While arsenic, which is chemically similar to phosphorus, is poisonous for most life forms on Earth, it is incorporated into the biochemistry of some organisms. Some marine algae incorporate arsenic into complex organic molecules such as arsenosugars and arsenobetaines. Fungi and bacteria can produce volatile methylated arsenic compounds. Arsenate reduction and arsenite oxidation have been observed in microbes (Chrysiogenes arsenatis). Additionally, some prokaryotes can use arsenate as a terminal electron acceptor during anaerobic growth and some can utilize arsenite as an electron donor to generate energy. It has been speculated that the earliest life forms on Earth may have used arsenic biochemistry in place of phosphorus in the structure of their DNA. A common objection to this scenario is that arsenate esters are so much less stable to hydrolysis than corresponding phosphate esters that arsenic is poorly suited for this function. The authors of a 2010 geomicrobiology study, supported in part by NASA, have postulated that a bacterium, named GFAJ-1, collected in the sediments of Mono Lake in eastern California, can employ such 'arsenic DNA' when cultured without phosphorus. They proposed that the bacterium may employ high levels of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate or other means to reduce the effective concentration of water and stabilize its arsenate esters. Science writer Carl Zimmer contacted several scientists for an assessment: "I reached out to a dozen experts ... Almost unanimously, they think the NASA scientists have failed to make their case". Other authors were unable to reproduce their results and showed that the study had issues with phosphate contamination, suggesting that the low amounts present could sustain extremophile lifeforms. Alternatively, it was suggested that GFAJ-1 cells grow by recycling phosphate from degraded ribosomes, rather than by replacing it with arsenate. == Non-water solvents == In addition to carbon compounds, all currently known terrestrial life also requires water as a solvent. This has led to discussions about whether water is the only liquid capable of filling that role. The idea that an extraterrestrial life-form might be based on a solvent other than water has been taken seriously in recent scientific literature by the biochemist Steven Benner, and by the astrobiological committee chaired by John A. Baross. Solvents discussed by the Baross committee include ammonia, sulfuric acid, formamide, hydrocarbons, Water as a solvent limits the forms biochemistry can take. For example, Steven Benner, proposes the polyelectrolyte theory of the gene that claims that for a genetic biopolymer such as, DNA, to function in water, it requires repeated ionic charges. If water is not required for life, these limits on genetic biopolymers are removed. Carl Sagan once described himself as both a carbon chauvinist and a water chauvinist; however, on another occasion he said that he was a carbon chauvinist but "not that much of a water chauvinist". He speculated on hydrocarbons, and ammonia For instance, water ice has a high albedo, Numerous chemical reactions are possible in an ammonia solution, and liquid ammonia has chemical similarities with water. Ammonia can dissolve most organic molecules at least as well as water does and, in addition, it is capable of dissolving many elemental metals. Haldane made the point that various common water-related organic compounds have ammonia-related analogs; for instance the ammonia-related amine group (−NH2) is analogous to the water-related hydroxyl group (−OH). Ammonia is also flammable in oxygen and could not exist sustainably in an environment suitable for aerobic metabolism. A biosphere based on ammonia would likely exist at temperatures or air pressures that are extremely unusual in relation to life on Earth. Life on Earth usually exists between the melting point and boiling point of water, at a pressure designated as normal pressure, between . When also held to normal pressure, ammonia's melting and boiling points are and respectively. Because chemical reactions generally proceed more slowly at lower temperatures, ammonia-based life existing in this set of conditions might metabolize more slowly and evolve more slowly than life on Earth. === Methane and other hydrocarbons === Methane (CH4) is a simple hydrocarbon: that is, a compound of two of the most common elements in the cosmos: hydrogen and carbon. It has a cosmic abundance comparable with ammonia. Water is a stronger solvent than the hydrocarbons, enabling easier transport of substances in a cell. However, water is also more chemically reactive and can break down large organic molecules through hydrolysis. Possible evidence for this form of life on Titan was identified in 2010 by Darrell Strobel of Johns Hopkins University; a greater abundance of molecular hydrogen in the upper atmospheric layers of Titan compared to the lower layers, arguing for a downward diffusion at a rate of roughly 1025 molecules per second and disappearance of hydrogen near Titan's surface. As Strobel noted, his findings were in line with the effects Chris McKay had predicted if methanogenic life-forms were present. The same year, another study showed low levels of acetylene on Titan's surface, which were interpreted by Chris McKay as consistent with the hypothesis of organisms reducing acetylene to methane. He noted that even a non-biological catalyst effective at 95 K would in itself be a startling discovery. An analysis of data obtained using the Atacama Large Millimeter / submillimeter Array (ALMA), completed in 2017, confirmed substantial amounts of acrylonitrile in Titan's atmosphere. Later studies questioned whether acrylonitrile would be able to self-assemble into azotosomes. === Hydrogen fluoride === Hydrogen fluoride (HF), like water, is a polar molecule, and due to its polarity it can dissolve many ionic compounds. At atmospheric pressure, its melting point is , and its boiling point is ; the difference between the two is a little more than 100 K. HF also makes hydrogen bonds with its neighbor molecules, as do water and ammonia. It has been considered as a possible solvent for life by scientists such as Peter Sneath and Carl Sagan. However, hydrogen fluoride is cosmically rare, unlike water, ammonia, and methane. === Hydrogen sulfide === Hydrogen sulfide is the closest chemical analog to water, but is less polar and is a weaker inorganic solvent. Hydrogen sulfide is quite plentiful on Jupiter's moon Io and may be in liquid form a short distance below the surface; astrobiologist Dirk Schulze-Makuch has suggested it as a possible solvent for life there. On a planet with hydrogen sulfide oceans, the source of the hydrogen sulfide could come from volcanoes, in which case it could be mixed in with a bit of hydrogen fluoride, which could help dissolve minerals. Hydrogen sulfide life might use a mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide as their carbon source. They might produce and live on sulfur monoxide, which is analogous to oxygen (O2). Hydrogen sulfide, like hydrogen cyanide and ammonia, suffers from the small temperature range where it is liquid, though that, like that of hydrogen cyanide and ammonia, increases with increasing pressure. === Silicon dioxide and silicates === Silicon dioxide, also known as silica and quartz, is very abundant in the universe and has a large temperature range where it is liquid. However, its melting point is , so it would be impossible to make organic compounds in that temperature, because all of them would decompose. Silicates are similar to silicon dioxide and some have lower melting points than silica. Feinberg and Shapiro have suggested that molten silicate rock could serve as a liquid medium for organisms with a chemistry based on silicon, oxygen, and other elements such as aluminium. === Other solvents or cosolvents === Other solvents sometimes proposed: Supercritical fluids: supercritical carbon dioxide and supercritical hydrogen. Simple hydrogen compounds: hydrogen chloride. More complex compounds: sulfuric acid, Sulfuric acid in liquid form is strongly polar. It remains liquid at higher temperatures than water, its liquid range being 10 °C to 337 °C at a pressure of 1 atm, although above 300 °C it slowly decomposes. Sulfuric acid is known to be abundant in the clouds of Venus, in the form of aerosol droplets. In a biochemistry that used sulfuric acid as a solvent, the alkene group (C=C), with two carbon atoms joined by a double bond, could function analogously to the carbonyl group (C=O) in water-based biochemistry. A 61.2% (by mass) mix of water and hydrogen peroxide has a freezing point of −56.5 °C and tends to super-cool rather than crystallize. It is also hygroscopic, an advantage in a water-scarce environment. Supercritical carbon dioxide has been proposed as a candidate for alternative biochemistry due to its ability to selectively dissolve organic compounds and assist the functioning of enzymes and because "super-Earth"- or "super-Venus"-type planets with dense high-pressure atmospheres may be common. These studies indicate that blue plants would be unlikely; however yellow or red plants may be relatively common. Thus, it would be biochemically possible to sustain life in environments that are only periodically consistent with life as we know it. For example, frogs in cold climates can survive for extended periods of time with most of their body water in a frozen state, Either type of frog would appear biochemically inactive (i.e. not living) during dormant periods to anyone lacking a sensitive means of detecting low levels of metabolism. === Alanine world and hypothetical alternatives === The genetic code may have evolved during the transition from the RNA world to a protein world. The Alanine World Hypothesis postulates that the evolution of the genetic code (the so-called GC phase) started with only four basic amino acids: alanine, glycine, proline and ornithine (now arginine). The evolution of the genetic code ended with 20 proteinogenic amino acids. From a chemical point of view, most of them are Alanine-derivatives particularly suitable for the construction of α-helices and β-sheets basic secondary structural elements of modern proteins. Direct evidence of this is an experimental procedure in molecular biology known as alanine scanning. A hypothetical "Proline World" would create a possible alternative life with the genetic code based on the proline chemical scaffold as the protein backbone. Similarly, a "Glycine World" and "Ornithine World" are also conceivable, but nature has chosen none of them. Evolution of life with Proline, Glycine, or Ornithine as the basic structure for protein-like polymers (foldamers) would lead to parallel biological worlds. They would have morphologically radically different body plans and genetics from the living organisms of the known biosphere. == Nonplanetary life == === Dusty plasma-based === In 2007, Vadim N. Tsytovich and colleagues proposed that lifelike behaviors could be exhibited by dust particles suspended in a plasma, under conditions that might exist in space. Computer models showed that, when the dust became charged, the particles could self-organize into microscopic helical structures, and the authors offer "a rough sketch of a possible model of...helical grain structure reproduction". === Cosmic necklace-based === In 2020, Luis A. Anchordoqu and Eugene M. Chudnovsky of the City University of New York hypothesized that cosmic necklace-based life composed of magnetic monopoles connected by cosmic strings could evolve inside stars. This would be achieved by a stretching of cosmic strings due to the star's intense gravity, thus allowing it to take on more complex forms and potentially form structures similar to the RNA and DNA structures found within carbon-based life. As such, it is theoretically possible that such beings could eventually become intelligent and construct a civilization using the power generated by the star's nuclear fusion. Because such use would use up part of the star's energy output, the luminosity would also fall. For this reason, it is thought that such life might exist inside stars observed to be cooling faster or dimmer than current cosmological models predict. === Life on a neutron star === Frank Drake suggested in 1973 that intelligent life could inhabit neutron stars. Physical models in 1973 implied that Drake's creatures would be microscopic. == Scientists who have published on this topic == Scientists who have considered possible alternatives to carbon-water biochemistry include: J. B. S. Haldane (1892–1964), a geneticist noted for his work on abiogenesis. Isaac Asimov (1920–1992), biochemist and science fiction writer. Fred Hoyle (1915–2001), astronomer and science fiction writer. Norman Horowitz (1915–2005), Caltech geneticist who devised the first experiments carried out to detect life on Mars. Peter Sneath (1923–2011), microbiologist, author of the book Planets and Life. Carl Sagan (1934–1996), astronomer, John Baross (born 1940), oceanographer and astrobiologist, who chaired a committee of scientists under the United States National Research Council that published a report on life's limiting conditions in 2007.	[ "Life origination beyond planets", "planet", "carbon", "molecular biology", "Shadow biosphere", "prokaryote", "nucleophile", "hydrophobic", "heteropoly acid", "Ammonia", "arsenic biochemistry", "sulfuric acid", "hydrogen bonds", "Io (moon)", "neutron star", "Earliest known life forms", "microbe", "Activity (chemistry)", "Abundance of the chemical elements", "Alanine", "hydrofluoric acid", "Science Advances", "supercritical carbon dioxide", "adamantogen", "polymer", "multiple bond", "Hydrogen chalcogenide", "heat of vaporization", "Robert Freitas", "Carbon chauvinism", "alanine scanning", "natural satellite", "liquid ammonia", "RNA", "chemical polarity", "salt", "Gerald Feinberg", "eschew", "microbes", "GFAJ-1", "amine", "Xeno nucleic acid", "albedo", "Iron–sulfur world hypothesis", "nitrogen", "Planetary habitability", "liquid phase", "metabolism", "iron", "Rhodothermus marinus", "Norman Horowitz", "sulfur monoxide", "Atmosphere (unit)", "Paul Davies", "Carl Zimmer", "phosphorus", "formamide", "University of California, Berkeley", "Supercritical fluid", "acetylene", "hygroscopic", "Isaac Asimov", "terrestrial planet", "Isoguanine", "bacteria", "fluorine", "Isocytosine", "Chemical element", "Steven Benner", "Locked nucleic acid", "science fiction theme", "Mono Lake", "Left-handed protein", "germanium", "Protein secondary structure", "nuclear radiation", "arsenobetaine", "Threose nucleic acid", "Alpha helix", "Fungi", "foldamer", "silicon", "Sulfur", "proteinogenic amino acid", "abiogenesis", "Fred Hoyle", "Extraterrestrial life", "solvent", "microbial rhodopsin", "Sulfur-reducing bacteria", "Astrobiology", "biochemistry", "Polyhydroxybutyrate", "Ionic charge", "Gram-positive bacteria", "arabinose", "biochemist", "John Baross", "alkene", "Dusty plasma", "biosphere", "Cassini–Huygens", "DNA", "Titan (moon)", "Arsenic", "Saturn", "Wired (magazine)", "United States National Research Council", "Titanium", "directed evolution", "abundance of elements in Earth's crust", "Arrhenius base", "George C. Pimentel", "cryogenic", "diazo", "methanol", "cyclohexene", "organism", "chemical property", "ice age", "1-Methylcytosine", "macromolecular template", "protein", "Peter Sneath", "Axel Firsoff", "liquid nitrogen", "Slate (magazine)", "life", "enantiomer", "glycine", "hydrogen fluoride", "Current Opinion in Chemical Biology", "6-Amino-5-nitropyridin-2-one", "heat capacity", "Glycol nucleic acid", "catalyst", "Jonathan Lunine", "cytochrome c", "RNA world", "Arsenate", "arsenic", "J. B. S. Haldane", "Johns Hopkins University", "synthetic biology", "aerobic metabolism", "hydrogen chloride", "boiling point", "Hachimoji DNA", "Archaea", "oxygen", "hydrocarbon", "periodic table", "Macromolecule", "metal amides", "Epimerase and racemase", "methane", "redox", "sodium chloride", "arginine", "California", "threose", "Protein primary structure", "sugar", "Ganymede (moon)", "hibernation", "SETI", "polyelectrolyte theory of the gene", "biopolymer", "Non-cellular life", "ethane", "titanium", "alkane", "Carl Sagan", "ornithine", "acrylonitrile", "atmospheric pressure", "life on Mars", "carbon chauvinism", "Purple Earth hypothesis", "covalent bond", "palladium", "liquid hydrogen", "Plasma (physics)", "Europa (moon)", "Organophosphate", "proline", "aerosol", "amino acid", "habitability zone", "body plan", "Viking 1", "genetics", "Reducing atmosphere", "phospholipid bilayer", "spore", "Astrobiology (journal)", "cosmic string", "Hydrogen sulfide", "genetic code", "Non-proteinogenic amino acids", "lipids", "arsenosugar", "supercritical fluid", "aluminium", "silica", "ammonia", "ammonium", "skeleton", "City University of New York", "nitric acid", "hydroxyl", "Extremophile", "Silanes", "Hydrogen fluoride", "Venus", "carbon chauvinist", "Abiogenesis", "Frank Drake", "geomicrobiology", "Basal (phylogenetics)", "atmosphere of Venus", "Nexus for Exoplanet System Science", "atomic radius", "tetravalent", "hydrogen sulfide", "cell membrane", "Organoboron chemistry", "Organosilicon", "stereochemistry", "magnesium", "polyoxometalate", "imine", "biogenic silica", "Graham Cairns-Smith", "hydronium", "methanogenic", "water", "Boron", "Methane", "life on Titan", "retinal", "alanine", "reducing atmosphere", "peptide bonds", "hydrogen peroxide", "Chrysiogenes arsenatis", "coordination number", "California Institute of Technology", "Christopher McKay (planetary scientist)", "Space.com", "J. B. S. Haldane", "Arsenic biochemistry", "hydrolysis", "Silicon dioxide", "Silicone", "Robert Shapiro (chemist)", "paraffin wax", "Nucleic acid analogues", "Domain (biology)", "Carbon-based life", "Boranes", "super-cool", "Earth", "marine algae", "Enceladus", "hydroxide", "normal pressure", "interstellar medium", "Dirk Schulze-Makuch", "cubic zirconia", "Beta sheet", "chirality", "Mirror life", "hydrogen cyanide", "diatom", "surface tension", "glycol", "New Mexico State University", "Acid–base reaction" ]
7,322	Creation myth	A creation myth or cosmogonic myth is a type of cosmogony, a symbolic narrative of how the world began and how people first came to inhabit it. While in popular usage the term myth often refers to false or fanciful stories, members of cultures often ascribe varying degrees of truth to their creation myths. In the society in which it is told, a creation myth is usually regarded as conveying profound truthsmetaphorically, symbolically, historically, or literally. They are commonly, although not always, considered cosmogonical mythsthat is, they describe the ordering of the cosmos from a state of chaos or amorphousness. Creation myths often share several features. They often are considered sacred accounts and can be found in nearly all known religious traditions. They are all stories with a plot and characters who are either deities, human-like figures, or animals, who often speak and transform easily. They are often set in a dim and nonspecific past that historian of religion Mircea Eliade termed in illo tempore ('at that time'). Creation myths address questions deeply meaningful to the society that shares them, revealing their central worldview and the framework for the self-identity of the culture and individual in a universal context. Creation myths develop in oral traditions and therefore typically have multiple versions; ==Definitions== Creation myth definitions from modern references: A "symbolic narrative of the beginning of the world as understood in a particular tradition and community. Creation myths are of central importance for the valuation of the world, for the orientation of humans in the universe, and for the basic patterns of life and culture." "Creation myths tell us how things began. All cultures have creation myths; they are our primary myths, the first stage in what might be called the psychic life of the species. As cultures, we identify ourselves through the collective dreams we call creation myths, or cosmogonies. ... Creation myths explain in metaphorical terms our sense of who we are in the context of the world, and in so doing they reveal our real priorities, as well as our real prejudices. Our images of creation say a great deal about who we are." A "philosophical and theological elaboration of the primal myth of creation within a religious community. The term myth here refers to the imaginative expression in narrative form of what is experienced or apprehended as basic reality ... The term creation refers to the beginning of things, whether by the will and act of a transcendent being, by emanation from some ultimate source, or in any other way." Religion professor Mircea Eliade defined the word myth in terms of creation: Myth narrates a sacred history; it relates an event that took place in primordial Time, the fabled time of the "beginnings." In other words, myth tells how, through the deeds of Supernatural Beings, a reality came into existence, be it the whole of reality, the Cosmos, or only a fragment of reality – an island, a species of plant, a particular kind of human behavior, an institution. ==Meaning and function== Creation myths have been around since ancient history and have served important societal roles. Over 100 "distinct" ones have been discovered. All creation myths are in one sense etiological because they attempt to explain how the world formed and where humanity came from. Ethnologists and anthropologists who study origin myths say that in the modern context theologians try to discern humanity's meaning from revealed truths and scientists investigate cosmology with the tools of empiricism and rationality, but creation myths define human reality in very different terms. In the past, historians of religion and other students of myth thought of such stories as forms of primitive or early-stage science or religion and analyzed them in a literal or logical sense. Today, however, they are seen as symbolic narratives which must be understood in terms of their own cultural context. Charles Long writes: "The beings referred to in the myth – gods, animals, plants – are forms of power grasped existentially. The myths should not be understood as attempts to work out a rational explanation of deity." While creation myths are not literal explications, they do serve to define an orientation of humanity in the world in terms of a birth story. They provide the basis of a worldview that reaffirms and guides how people relate to the natural world, to any assumed spiritual world, and to each other. A creation myth acts as a cornerstone for distinguishing primary reality from relative reality, the origin and nature of being from non-being. In this sense cosmogonic myths serve as a philosophy of life – but one expressed and conveyed through symbol rather than through systematic reason. And in this sense they go beyond etiological myths (which explain specific features in religious rites, natural phenomena, or cultural life). Creation myths also help to orient human beings in the world, giving them a sense of their place in the world and the regard that they must have for humans and nature.}} ==Classification== Mythologists have applied various schemes to classify creation myths found throughout human cultures. Eliade and his colleague Charles Long developed a classification based on some common motifs that reappear in stories the world over. The classification identifies five basic types: Creation ex nihilo in which the creation is through the thought, word, dream, or bodily secretions of a divine being. Earth-diver creation in which a diver, usually a bird or amphibian sent by a creator, plunges to the seabed through a primordial ocean to bring up sand or mud which develops into a terrestrial world. Emergence myths in which progenitors pass through a series of worlds and metamorphoses until reaching the present world. Creation by the dismemberment of a primordial being. Creation by the splitting or ordering of a primordial unity such as the cracking of a cosmic egg or a bringing order from chaos. Marta Weigle further developed and refined this typology to highlight nine themes, adding elements such as deus faber, a creation crafted by a deity, creation from the work of two creators working together or against each other, creation from sacrifice and creation from division/conjugation, accretion/conjunction, or secretion. In most of these stories, the world is brought into being by the speech, dream, breath, or pure thought of a creator but creation ex nihilo may also take place through a creator's bodily secretions. The literal translation of the phrase ex nihilo is "from nothing" but in many creation myths the line is blurred whether the creative act would be better classified as a creation ex nihilo or creation from chaos. In ex nihilo creation myths, the potential and the substance of creation springs from within the creator. Such a creator may or may not be existing in physical surroundings such as darkness or water, but does not create the world from them, whereas in creation from chaos the substance used for creation is pre-existing within the unformed void. ===Creation from chaos=== In creation from chaos myths, there is nothing initially but a formless, shapeless expanse. In these stories the word "chaos" means "disorder", and this formless expanse, which is also sometimes called a void or an abyss, contains the material with which the created world will be made. Chaos may be described as having the consistency of vapor or water, dimensionless, and sometimes salty or muddy. These myths associate chaos with evil and oblivion, in contrast to "order" (cosmos) which is the good. The act of creation is the bringing of order from disorder, and in many of these cultures it is believed that at some point the forces preserving order and form will weaken and the world will once again be engulfed into the abyss. One example is the Genesis creation narrative from the first chapter of the Book of Genesis. ===World parent=== There are two types of world parent myths, both describing a separation or splitting of a primeval entity, the world parent or parents. One form describes the primeval state as an eternal union of two parents, and the creation takes place when the two are pulled apart. The two parents are commonly identified as Sky (usually male) and Earth (usually female), who were so tightly bound to each other in the primeval state that no offspring could emerge. These myths often depict creation as the result of a sexual union and serve as genealogical record of the deities born from it. In the second form of world parent myths, creation itself springs from dismembered parts of the body of the primeval being. Often, in these stories, the limbs, hair, blood, bones, or organs of the primeval being are somehow severed or sacrificed to transform into sky, earth, animal or plant life, and other worldly features. These myths tend to emphasize creative forces as animistic in nature rather than sexual, and depict the sacred as the elemental and integral component of the natural world. One example of this is the Norse creation myth described in "Völuspá", the first poem in the Poetic Edda, and in Gylfaginning. ===Emergence=== In emergence myths, humanity emerges from another world into the one they currently inhabit. The previous world is often considered the womb of the earth mother, and the process of emergence is likened to the act of giving birth. The role of midwife is usually played by a female deity, like the spider woman of several mythologies of Indigenous peoples in the Americas. Male characters rarely figure into these stories, and scholars often consider them in counterpoint to male-oriented creation myths, like those of the ex nihilo variety. Emergence myths commonly describe the creation of people and/or supernatural beings as a staged ascent or metamorphosis from nascent forms through a series of subterranean worlds to arrive at their current place and form. Often the passage from one world or stage to the next is impelled by inner forces, a process of germination or gestation from earlier, embryonic forms. The genre is most commonly found in Native American cultures where the myths frequently link the final emergence of people from a hole opening to the underworld to stories about their subsequent migrations and eventual settlement in their current homelands. ===Earth-diver=== The earth-diver is a common character in various traditional creation myths. In these stories a supreme being usually sends an animal (most often a type of bird, but also crustaceans, insects, and fish in some narratives) into the primal waters to find bits of sand or mud with which to build habitable land. Some scholars interpret these myths psychologically while others interpret them cosmogonically. In both cases emphasis is placed on beginnings emanating from the depths. ====Motif distribution==== According to Gudmund Hatt and Tristram P. Coffin, Earth-diver myths are common in Native American folklore, among the following populations: Shoshone, Meskwaki, Blackfoot, Chipewyan, Newettee, Yokuts of California, Mandan, Hidatsa, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Ojibwe, Yuchi, and Cherokee. American anthropologist Gladys Reichard located the distribution of the motif across "all parts of North America", save for "the extreme north, northeast, and southwest". In a 1977 study, anthropologist Victor Barnouw surmised that the earth-diver motif appeared in "hunting-gathering societies", mainly among northerly groups such as the Hare, Dogrib, Kaska, Beaver, Carrier, Chipewyan, Sarsi, Cree, and Montagnais. Similar tales are also found among the Chukchi and Yukaghir, the Tatars, and many Finno-Ugric traditions, as well as among the Buryat and the Samoyed. In addition, the earth-diver motif also exists in narratives from Eastern Europe, namely Romani, Romanian, Slavic (namely, Bulgarian, Polish, Ukrainian, and Belarusian), and Lithuanian mythological traditions. The pattern of distribution of these stories suggest they have a common origin in the eastern Asiatic coastal region, spreading as peoples migrated west into Siberia and east to the North American continent. However, there are examples of this mytheme found well outside of this boreal distribution pattern, for example the West African Yoruba creation myth of Ọbatala and Oduduwa. ====Native American narrative==== Characteristic of many Native American myths, earth-diver creation stories begin as beings and potential forms linger asleep or suspended in the primordial realm. The earth-diver is among the first of them to awaken and lay the necessary groundwork by building suitable lands where the coming creation will be able to live. In many cases, these stories will describe a series of failed attempts to make land before the solution is found. Among the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the earth-diver cosmogony is attested in Iroquois mythology: a female sky deity falls from the heavens, and certain animals, the beaver, the otter, the duck, and the muskrat dive in the waters to fetch mud to construct an island. In a similar story from the Seneca, people lived in a sky realm. One day, the chief's daughter was afflicted with a mysterious illness, and the only cure recommended for her (revealed in a dream) was to lie beside a tree and to have it be dug up. The people do so, but a man complains that the tree was their livelihood, and kicks the girl through the hole. She ends up falling from the sky to a world of only water, but is rescued by waterfowl. A turtle offers to bear her on its shell, but asked where would be a definitive dwelling place for her. They decide to create land, and the toad dives into the depths of the primal sea to get pieces of soil. The toad puts it on the turtle's back, which grows larger with every deposit of soil. In another version from the Wyandot, the Wyandot lived in heaven. The daughter of the Big Chief (or Mighty Ruler) was sick, so the medicine man recommends that they dig up the wild apple tree that stands next to the Lodge of the Mighty Ruler, because the remedy is to be found on its roots. However, as the tree has been dug out, the ground begins to sink away, and the treetops catch and carry down the sick daughter with it. As the girl falls from the skies, two swans rescue her on their backs. The birds decide to summon all the Swimmers and the Water Tribes. Many volunteer to dive into the Great Water to fetch bits of earth from the bottom of the sea, but only the toad (female, in the story) is the one successful.	[ "Vladimir Napolskikh", "rationality", "Siberia", "Rupert Glasgow", "Theism", "Harriet Maxwell Converse", "The Garden of Earthly Delights", "wikt:literal", "Wyandot people", "Tsuutʼina Nation", "literal and figurative language", "David Adams Leeming", "Beaver people", "Nahwitti (trading site)", "culture", "history of religion", "Lakshmi", "beaver", "muskrat", "ancient history", "chaos (cosmogony)", "Ojibwe", "Chukchi people", "Earth-diver", "Cheyenne", "religion", "toad", "New York City", "cosmology", "character (arts)", "David Christian (historian)", "Pueblo people", "cosmic ocean", "cosmogony", "Rig Veda", "Chipewyan", "Cherokee", "relativism", "Tao", "Creator deity", "Recorded Books", "society", "mytheme", "Book of Genesis", "creatio ex nihilo", "meaning of life", "Völuspá", "Buryats", "Earth goddess", "Mythologist", "truth (religious)", "Yukaghir", "Nelumbo nucifera", "protoscience", "Hinduism", "primitive culture", "Vishnu", "Blackfoot Confederacy", "abyss (religion)", "symbol", "Seneca people", "Jewish Museum (New York)", "Ananta Shesha", "symbolic anthropology", "Walters Art Museum", "anthropologists", "oral tradition", "Rangi and Papa", "god", "Genesis creation narrative", "Ancestral Puebloans", "Mesa Verde National Park", "Motif (literature)", "duck", "sipapu", "Charles H. Long", "Young Earth creationism", "Hidatsa", "being", "dwarfism", "animism", "Anthropology of religion", "deus faber", "explication", "Yuchi", "Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology", "Maya maize god", "Evolutionary origin of religion", "Marcu Beza", "Native American mythology", "narrative", "Tristram P. Coffin", "worldview", "cosmos", "Gylfaginning", "empiricism", "hunter-gatherer", "etiological", "Xirang", "astral plane", "Oduduwa", "Big Bang", "Ceremonial pole", "Origin of death", "origin of religion", "Yokuts", "Sky father", "Religious cosmology", "East Asia", "Ọbatala", "medicine man", "religious symbolism", "Poetic Edda", "otter", "Arapaho", "Shoshone", "Creatio ex nihilo", "Gladys Reichard", "Ethnologists", "plot (narrative)", "metamorphosis", "Innu people", "sacred", "Hare people", "etiological myth", "Daodejing", "Dogrib", "Slavic creation myth", "Maya religion", "metaphor", "Romani people", "Origin myth", "Meskwaki", "Abiogenesis", "Mother goddess", "Earth Mother", "Marta Weigle", "world egg", "deity", "Creationism", "nature", "Kaska", "ancient Egypt", "Norse mythology", "historicism", "Yoruba culture", "myth", "embryo", "revelation", "Mandan", "God", "Stith Thompson", "Iroquois mythology", "Cambridge, England", "Finno-Ugric mythologies", "Tatars", "commons:File:Mayan - Dwarf Figurine - Walters 20092036 - View A.jpg", "Torah", "Hopi mythology", "DK (publisher)", "waterfowl", "Mircea Eliade", "Gudmund Hatt", "North America", "Carrier people", "triptych", "Chinese creation myths", "Deva (Hinduism)", "Maimonides", "Cree" ]
7,324	Crucifix	A crucifix (from the Latin meaning '(one) fixed to a cross') is a cross with an image of Jesus on it, as distinct from a bare cross. The representation of Jesus himself on the cross is referred to in English as the (Latin for 'body'). The crucifix emphasizes Jesus' sacrifice, including his death by crucifixion, which Christians believe brought about the redemption of mankind. Most crucifixes portray Jesus on a Latin cross, rather than a Tau cross or a Coptic cross. The crucifix is a principal symbol for many groups of Christians, and one of the most common forms of the Crucifixion in the arts. It is especially important in the Catholic Church, and is also used in the Lutheran Churches, Anglican Churches, Eastern Orthodox Church, and in most Oriental Orthodox Churches (except the Armenian Church and Syriac Church). The symbol is less common in churches of other Protestant denominations, and in the Assyrian Church of the East and Armenian Apostolic Church, which prefer to use a cross without the figure of Jesus (the ). Roman Catholics and Lutherans see the crucifix as the perfect fulfillment of that inferred by the serpent created by Moses in Numbers 21:8—9, called the Nehushtan. It was promised that those sinners who looked upon the Nehushtan would be healed. The section of Numbers about the Nehushtan is one of the readings on Exaltation of the Cross that occurs on September 14 in the Roman Catholic Church. It is paired with John 3:14–15 as the gospel reading. Taken together, these readings explain the striking front and center position of a large crucifix normally fixed above or behind a Catholic altar. Western crucifixes usually have a three-dimensional , but in Eastern Orthodoxy Jesus' body is normally painted on the cross, or in low relief. Strictly speaking, to be a crucifix, the cross must be three-dimensional, but this distinction is not always observed. An entire painting of the crucifixion of Jesus including a landscape background and other figures is not a crucifix either. Large crucifixes high across the central axis of a church are known by the Old English term rood. By the Late Middle Ages these were a near-universal feature of Western churches, but they are now very rare. Modern Roman Catholic churches and many Lutheran churches often have a crucifix above the altar on the wall; for the celebration of Mass, the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church requires that "on or close to the altar there is to be a cross with a figure of Christ crucified". == Description == The standard, four-pointed Latin crucifix (used in the Catholic and Lutheran traditions) consists of an upright post or and a single crosspiece to which the sufferer's arms were nailed. There may also be a short projecting nameplate, showing the letters INRI (Greek: INBI). The Russian Orthodox crucifix usually has an additional third crossbar, to which the feet are nailed, and which is angled upward toward the penitent thief Saint Dismas (to the viewer's left) and downward toward the impenitent thief Gestas (to the viewer's right). The corpus of Eastern crucifixes is normally a two-dimensional or low relief icon that shows Jesus as already dead, his face peaceful and somber. They are rarely three-dimensional figures as in the Western tradition, although these may be found where Western influences are strong, but are more typically icons painted on a piece of wood shaped to include the double-barred cross and perhaps the edge of Christ's hips and halo, and no background. More sculptural small crucifixes in metal relief are also used in Orthodoxy (see gallery examples), including as pectoral crosses and blessing crosses. Western crucifixes may show Christ dead or alive, the presence of the spear wound in his ribs traditionally indicating that he is dead. In either case his face very often shows his suffering. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition he has normally been shown as dead since around the end of the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm. Eastern crucifixes have Jesus' two feet nailed side by side, rather than crossed one above the other, as Western crucifixes have shown them since around the 13th century. The crown of thorns is also generally absent in Eastern crucifixes, since the emphasis is not on Christ's suffering, but on his triumph over sin and death. The S-shaped position of Jesus' body on the cross is a Byzantine innovation of the late 10th century, though also found in the German Gero Cross of the same date. Probably more from Byzantine influence, it spread elsewhere in the West, especially to Italy, by the Romanesque period, though it was more usual in painting than sculpted crucifixes. It was in Italy that the emphasis was put on Jesus' suffering and realistic details, during a process of general humanization of Christ favored by the Franciscan order. During the 13th century the suffering Italian model () triumphed over the traditional Byzantine one () anywhere in Europe also due to the works of artists such as Giunta Pisano and Cimabue. Since the Renaissance the "S"-shape is generally much less pronounced. Eastern Christian blessing crosses will often have the Crucifixion depicted on one side, and the Resurrection on the other, illustrating Eastern Orthodox theology's understanding of the Crucifixion and Resurrection as two intimately related aspects of the same act of salvation. Another, symbolic, depiction shows a triumphant Christ (), clothed in robes, rather than stripped as for his execution, with arms raised, appearing to rise up from the cross, sometimes accompanied by "rays of light", or an aureole encircling his body. He may be robed as a prophet, crowned as a king, and vested in a stole as Great High Priest. On some crucifixes a skull and crossbones are shown below the corpus, referring to Golgotha (Calvary), the site at which Jesus was crucified, which the Gospels say means in Hebrew "the place of the skull." Medieval tradition held that it was the burial-place of Adam and Eve, and that the cross of Christ was raised directly over Adam's skull, so many crucifixes manufactured in Catholic countries still show the skull and crossbones below the corpus. Very large crucifixes have been built, the largest being the Cross in the Woods in Michigan, with a high statue. == Usage == In the early Church, many Christians hung a cross on the eastern wall of their house in order to indicate the eastward direction of prayer. Prayer in front of a crucifix, which is seen as a sacramental, is often part of devotion for Christians, especially those worshipping in a church, also privately. The person may sit, stand, or kneel in front of the crucifix, sometimes looking at it in contemplation, or merely in front of it with head bowed or eyes closed. During the Middle Ages small crucifixes, generally hung on a wall, became normal in the personal cells or living quarters first of monks, then all clergy, followed by the homes of the laity, spreading down from the top of society as these became cheap enough for the average person to afford. Most towns had a large crucifix erected as a monument, or some other shrine at the crossroads of the town. Building on the ancient custom, many Catholics, Lutherans and Anglicans hang a crucifix inside their homes and also use the crucifix as a focal point of a home altar. The wealthy erected proprietary chapels as they could afford to do this. Catholic (both Eastern and Western), Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Lutheran, and Anglican Christians generally use the crucifix in public religious services. They believe use of the crucifix is in keeping with the statement by Paul the Apostle in 1 Corinthians: "we preach Christ crucified, a stumbling block to Jews and folly to Gentiles, but to those who are called, both Jews and Greeks, Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God". In the West, altar crosses and processional crosses began to be crucifixes in the 11th century, which became general around the 14th century, as they became cheaper. The Roman Rite requires that "either on the altar or near it, there is to be a cross, with the figure of Christ crucified upon it, a cross clearly visible to the assembled people. It is desirable that such a cross should remain near the altar even outside of liturgical celebrations, so as to call to mind for the faithful the saving Passion of the Lord." The requirement of the altar cross was also mentioned in pre-1970 editions of the Roman Missal, though not in the original 1570 Roman Missal of Pope Pius V. The Rite of Funerals says that the Gospel Book, the Bible, or a cross (which will generally be in crucifix form) may be placed on the coffin for a Requiem Mass, but a second standing cross is not to be placed near the coffin if the altar cross can be easily seen from the body of the church. Eastern Christian liturgical processions called crucessions include a cross or crucifix at their head. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the crucifix is often placed above the iconostasis in the church. In the Russian Orthodox Church a large crucifix ("Golgotha") is placed behind the Holy Table (altar). During Matins of Good Friday, a large crucifix is taken in procession to the center of the church, where it is venerated by the faithful. Sometimes the soma () is removable and is taken off the crucifix at Vespers that evening during the Gospel lesson describing the Descent from the Cross. The empty cross may then remain in the centre of the church until the Paschal vigil (local practices vary). The blessing cross which the priest uses to bless the faithful at the dismissal will often have the crucifix on one side and an icon of the Resurrection of Jesus on the other, the side with the Resurrection being used on Sundays and during Paschaltide, and the crucifix on other days. Modern anti-Christians have used an inverted (upside-down) crucifix when showing disdain for Jesus Christ or the Catholic Church which believes in his divinity. According to Christian tradition, Saint Peter was martyred by being crucified upside-down. ==Controversies== === Protestant Reformation === In the Moravian Church, Nicolaus Zinzendorf had an experience in which he believed he encountered Jesus. The Lutheran Churches retained the use of the crucifix, "justifying their continued use of medieval crucifixes with the same arguments employed since the Middle Ages, as is evident from the example of the altar of the Holy Cross in the Cistercian church of Doberan." Martin Luther did not object to them, and this was among his differences with Andreas Karlstadt as early as 1525. At the time of the Reformation, Luther retained the crucifix in the Lutheran Church and they remain the center of worship in Lutheran parishes across Europe. In the United States, however, Lutheranism came under the influence of Calvinism, and the plain cross came to be used in some churches, though many Lutheran churches continue to use the crucifix. In contrast to the practice of the Catholic Church, Moravian Church and Lutheran Churches, the early Reformed Churches rejected the use of the crucifix, and indeed the unadorned cross, along with other traditional religious imagery, as idolatrous. Calvin, considered to be the father of the Reformed Church, was strongly opposed to both cross and crucifix. In England (where Anglican Christianity is the dominant faith), the Royal Chapels of Elizabeth I were most unusual among local churches in retaining crucifixes, following the Queen's conservative tastes. These disappeared under her successor, James I, and their brief re-appearance in the early 1620s when James' heir was seeking a Spanish marriage was the subject of rumour and close observation by both Catholics and Protestants; when the match fell through they disappeared. === Modern === In 2005, a mother accused her daughter's school in Derby, England, of discriminating against Christians after the teenager was suspended for refusing to take off a crucifix necklace. In 2008, a chapel in a prison in England replaced its crucifix and static altar with a cross and portable altar when it was renovated as a multi-faith chapel. Right-wing media reported that the crucifix had been removed "in case it offends Muslims". In 2008 in Spain, a local judge ordered crucifixes removed from public schools to settle a decades-old dispute over whether crucifixes should be displayed in public buildings in a non-confessional state. On 18 March 2011, the European Court of Human Rights ruled in the Lautsi v. Italy case, that the requirement in Italian law that crucifixes be displayed in classrooms of state schools does not violate the European Convention on Human Rights. Crucifixes are common in most other Italian official buildings, including courts of law. On 24 March 2011, the Constitutional Court of Peru ruled that the presence of crucifixes in courts of law does not violate the secular nature of the state. == Gallery == Image:Gerokreuz full 20050903.jpg\|The Gero Cross. Image:Small crucifix.jpg\|A handheld crucifix Image:Baux-de-provence-eglise-st-vincent-crucifix.jpg\|A crucifix in a church, with votive candles. File:Orth Kreuz.gif\|Russian Orthodox crucifix, brass File:Распятие 01.jpg\|Russian Orthodox crucifix, 19th - early 20th century File:Crucifixion icon orthodox cathedral vilnius.JPG\|Orthodox crucifix with the Virgin Mary on the left and the Apostle John on the right in Vilnius, Lithuania File:Crucifix, ca. 1795-1862, 02.257.2427.jpg\|Crucifix, –1862, Brooklyn Museum File:Immeldorf Kirche 2467.jpg\|Processional crucifix with the portrait of Martin Luther at Saint George's Lutheran church in Immeldorf, Lichtenau File:Naantalin kirkko sisältä, Naantali, 25.7.2010.JPG\|A triumph crucifix at Naantali Church in Naantali, Finland File:Gereja Santa, Jakarta.jpg\|A large crucifix at Gereja Santa, Jakarta, Indonesia File:S95CrucifixCourtroomNuremberg.jpg\|A post–World War II crucifix in a courtroom in Nuremberg, Germany File:Garden of the Anglican Shrine - geograph.org.uk - 791188.jpg\|A crucifix overlooks a fountain at the Anglican Shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham File:Pulpit of Canterbury Cathedral 08.JPG\|Pulpit crucifix at Canterbury Cathedral File:Christ Church Cathedral altar.jpg\|Altar of Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford File:2022 Herderkirche Innen 6.jpg\|Altar panel of the Church of St. Peter and Paul in Weimar depicts the Crucifixion of Jesus with Lucas Cranach the Elder and Martin Luther standing on the right File:21-26-082-church.jpg\|Crucifix at the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist File:Montafon 037 Gortipohl Kirche fcm.jpg\|Crucifixion group at Catholic parish church of St. Nikolaus in Montafon, Austria File:Galluzzo, Certosa di Firenze, Chiesa di San Lorenzo 002.JPG\|Crucifix at the Carthusian monastery in Galluzzo, Italy File:Catedral de Petrópolis (3783874460).jpg\|Tomb with effigies of Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and his wife Teresa Cristina in front of an altar crucifix in the Cathedral of Petrópolis, Brazil. The cross is made of black granite from Tijuca forest.	[ "crucifix necklace", "Crucifer", "INRI", "Catholic Church", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Titulus (inscription)", "Mechelen", "Golgotha", "Processional cross", "prison", "Crucifix Decrees", "Gertrud Schiller", "Apostle John", "martyr", "Naantali", "Lautsi v. Italy", "Giunta Pisano", "Derby", "Virgin Mary", "Feast of the Cross", "Cloisters Cross", "Eastern Catholicism", "1 Corinthians", "Lutheran church", "Aramaic", "Prime Minister of Brazil", "Pedro II of Brazil", "prophet", "low relief", "Gero Cross", "Anti-Christian sentiment", "altar cross", "proprietary chapel", "Crucifixion in the arts", "James VI and I", "Five Holy Wounds", "Oriental Orthodoxy", "Late Middle Ages", "Latin cross", "Andreas Karlstadt", "Cimabue", "Gestas", "Jesus in Christianity", "Coptic cross", "Anglican Shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham", "Matins", "Germany", "Paschaltide", "direction of prayer", "Divinity of Jesus", "Jakarta", "Redemption (theology)", "St. Peter und Paul, Weimar", "Christian symbolism", "Papal ferula", "Requiem Mass", "Anglican", "Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford", "Christians", "Halo (religious iconography)", "Paul the Apostle", "Martin Luther", "Christian tradition", "Pope Pius V", "Master of the Blue Crucifixes", "Saint Peter", "Eastern Orthodox", "Armenian Apostolic Church", "Numbers 21", "St Mary-le-Bow", "Protestantism", "Oriental Orthodox", "Vespers", "Cathedral of Petrópolis", "altar", "Oberwiesenthal", "king", "Romanesque art", "relief", "Russian Orthodox Church", "Eve", "Holy Table", "Anglicanism", "crown (headgear)", "Lutheran", "Paschal vigil", "European Court of Human Rights", "Eastern Orthodox theology", "Galluzzo", "Reformed Church", "Jan van Wavere", "Good Friday", "Lichtenau, Bavaria", "Gospel", "Gereja Santa", "Lutheranism", "Latin Church", "Tijuca forest", "Jesus Christ", "Christian denomination", "Stole (vestment)", "Catholic", "Descent from the Cross", "rood", "benediction", "Cross of Tau", "Cross of St. Peter", "Byzantine Iconoclasm", "St. Mary's Church, Gdańsk", "crucession", "Lithuania", "home altar", "wood", "Christian cross", "Canterbury Cathedral", "Crucifixion of Jesus", "Rosary", "Jesus, King of the Jews", "Vilnius", "Italy", "Franciscan", "Indonesia", "early Church", "Byzantine art", "Russian Orthodox", "Constitutional Court of Peru", "Elizabeth I", "Jesus", "Roman Rite", "Nicolaus Zinzendorf", "Protestant Reformation", "Rood", "Moravian Church", "icon", "Philip Melanchthon", "World War II", "John Calvin", "Resurrection of Jesus", "Old English", "Montafon", "laity", "All Saints' Church, Wittenberg", "Sacramentals", "processional cross", "Latin", "Carthusian", "Assyrian Church of the East", "Nehushtan", "iconostasis", "Adam", "Passion of Jesus", "law court", "Tripalium", "European Convention on Human Rights", "crown of thorns", "Mass in the Catholic Church", "halo (religious iconography)", "Cathedral of St. John the Baptist (Savannah, Georgia)", "Holy Face of Lucca", "Cross necklace", "pectoral cross", "Finland", "Brooklyn Museum", "Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament", "votive", "Austria", "crucifixion", "priest", "Saint Dismas", "Aramaic of Jesus", "Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies", "Calvary", "crucifixion of Jesus", "blessing cross", "Roman Missal", "Weimar", "Lucas Cranach the Elder", "Cross in the Woods" ]
7,327	Copernican principle	In physical cosmology, the Copernican principle states that humans are not privileged observers of the universe, that observations from the Earth are representative of observations from the average position in the universe. Named for Copernican heliocentrism, it is a working assumption that arises from a modified cosmological extension of Copernicus' argument of a moving Earth. == Origin and implications == Hermann Bondi named the principle after Copernicus in the mid-20th century, although the principle itself dates back to the 16th–17th century paradigm shift away from the Ptolemaic system, which placed Earth at the center of the universe. Copernicus proposed that the motion of the planets could be explained by reference to an assumption that the Sun is centrally located and stationary in contrast to the geocentrism. He argued that the apparent retrograde motion of the planets is an illusion caused by Earth's movement around the Sun, which the Copernican model placed at the centre of the universe. Copernicus himself was mainly motivated by technical dissatisfaction with the earlier system and not by support for any mediocrity principle. Although the Copernican heliocentric model is often described as "demoting" Earth from its central role it had in the Ptolemaic geocentric model, it was successors to Copernicus, notably the 16th century Giordano Bruno, who adopted this new perspective. The Earth's central position had been interpreted as being in the "lowest and filthiest parts". Instead, as Galileo said, the Earth is part of the "dance of the stars" rather than the "sump where the universe's filth and ephemera collect". In the late 20th Century, Carl Sagan asked, "Who are we? We find that we live on an insignificant planet of a humdrum star lost in a galaxy tucked away in some forgotten corner of a universe in which there are far more galaxies than people." While the Copernican principle is derived from the negation of past assumptions, such as geocentrism, heliocentrism, or galactocentrism which state that humans are at the center of the universe, the Copernican principle is stronger than acentrism, which merely states that humans are not at the center of the universe. The Copernican principle assumes acentrism and also states that human observers or observations from Earth are representative of observations from the average position in the universe. Michael Rowan-Robinson emphasizes the Copernican principle as the threshold test for modern thought, asserting that: "It is evident that in the post-Copernican era of human history, no well-informed and rational person can imagine that the Earth occupies a unique position in the universe." Most modern cosmology is based on the assumption that the cosmological principle is almost, but not exactly, true on the largest scales. The Copernican principle represents the irreducible philosophical assumption needed to justify this, when combined with the observations. If one assumes the Copernican principle and observes that the universe appears isotropic or the same in all directions from the vantage point of Earth, then one can infer that the universe is generally homogeneous or the same everywhere (at any given time) and is also isotropic about any given point. These two conditions make up the cosmological principle. However, recent evidence from galaxy clusters, quasars, and type Ia supernovae suggests that isotropy is violated on large scales. Furthermore, various large-scale structures have been discovered, such as the Clowes–Campusano LQG, the Sloan Great Wall, U1.11, the Huge-LQG, the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall,, the the Giant Arc,, and the Local Hole all of which indicate that homogeneity might be violated. On scales comparable to the radius of the observable universe, we see systematic changes with distance from Earth. For instance, at greater distances, galaxies contain more young stars and are less clustered, and quasars appear more numerous. If the Copernican principle is assumed, then it follows that this is evidence for the evolution of the universe with time: this distant light has taken most of the age of the universe to reach Earth and shows the universe when it was young. The most distant light of all, cosmic microwave background radiation, is isotropic to at least one part in a thousand. Bondi and Thomas Gold used the Copernican principle to argue for the perfect cosmological principle which maintains that the universe is also homogeneous in time, and is the basis for the steady-state cosmology. However, this strongly conflicts with the evidence for cosmological evolution mentioned earlier: the universe has progressed from extremely different conditions at the Big Bang, and will continue to progress toward extremely different conditions, particularly under the rising influence of dark energy, apparently toward the Big Freeze or Big Rip. Since the 1990s the term has been used (interchangeably with "the Copernicus method") for J. Richard Gott's Bayesian-inference-based prediction of duration of ongoing events, a generalized version of the Doomsday argument. ==Tests of the principle== The Copernican principle has never been proven, and in the most general sense cannot be proven, but it is implicit in many modern theories of physics. Cosmological models are often derived with reference to the cosmological principle, slightly more general than the Copernican principle, and many tests of these models can be considered tests of the Copernican principle. ===Historical=== Before the term Copernican principle was even coined, past assumptions, such as geocentrism, heliocentrism, and galactocentrism, which state that Earth, the Solar System, or the Milky Way respectively were located at the center of the universe, were shown to be false. The Copernican Revolution dethroned Earth to just one of many planets orbiting the Sun. Proper motion was mentioned by Halley. William Herschel found that the Solar System is moving through space within our disk-shaped Milky Way galaxy. Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way galaxy is just one of many galaxies in the universe. Examination of the galaxy's position and motion in the universe led to the Big Bang theory and the whole of modern cosmology. ===Modern tests=== Recent and planned tests relevant to the cosmological and Copernican principles include: time drift of cosmological redshifts; modelling the local gravitational potential using reflection of cosmic microwave background (CMB) photons; the redshift dependence of the luminosity of supernovae; the kinetic Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect in relation to dark energy; cosmic neutrino background; the integrated Sachs–Wolfe effect; testing the isotropy and homogeneity of the CMB; observation of the KBC Void – some authors claim it violates the cosmological principle and thus the Copernican principle, while others claim that it is consistent with them. ==Physics without the principle== The standard model of cosmology, the Lambda-CDM model, assumes the Copernican principle and the more general cosmological principle. Some cosmologists and theoretical physicists have created models without the cosmological or Copernican principles to constrain the values of observational results, to address specific known issues in the Lambda-CDM model, and to propose tests to distinguish between current models and other possible models. A prominent example in this context is inhomogeneous cosmology, to model the observed accelerating universe and cosmological constant. Instead of using the current accepted idea of dark energy, inhomogeneous-cosmology models propose that the universe is much more inhomogeneous than currently assumed — for example, that we are in an extremely large low-density void. To match observations we would have to be very close to the centre of this void, immediately contradicting the Copernican principle. While the Big Bang model in cosmology is sometimes said to derive from the Copernican principle in conjunction with redshift observations, the Big Bang model can still be assumed to be valid in absence of the Copernican principle, because the cosmic microwave background, primordial gas clouds, and the structure, evolution, and distribution of galaxies all provide evidence, independent of the Copernican principle, in favor of the Big Bang. However, the key tenets of the Big Bang model, such as the expansion of the universe, become assumptions themselves akin to the Copernican principle, rather than derived from the Copernican principle and observations.	[ "paradigm shift", "Copernican Revolution", "Hubble Bubble (astronomy)", "J. Richard Gott", "mediocrity principle", "cosmological constant", "The Principle", "galaxy cluster", "Harvard University Press", "dark energy", "Hermann Bondi", "William Herschel", "Void (astronomy)", "cosmic neutrino background", "supernovae", "cosmology", "Scientific American", "Homogeneity and heterogeneity", "Sun", "Lambda-CDM model", "cosmic microwave background", "Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect", "apparent retrograde motion", "Galaxy formation and evolution", "Particle chauvinism", "Michael Rowan-Robinson", "Sachs–Wolfe effect", "Oxford University Press", "heliocentrism", "Proper motion", "perfect cosmological principle", "type Ia supernova", "Structure formation", "quasars", "steady-state cosmology", "U1.11", "galactocentrism", "Bayesian inference", "Nicolaus Copernicus", "Homogeneity (physics)", "physical cosmology", "Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society", "the Giant Arc", "Giordano Bruno", "accelerating universe", "Isotropy", "KBC Void", "Rare Earth hypothesis", "Anthropic principle", "redshift", "Local Hole", "Thomas Gold", "Big Bang", "Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae", "cosmological principle", "Copernican heliocentrism", "universe", "Clowes–Campusano LQG", "galaxies", "P symmetry", "Cambridge University Press", "Mediocrity principle", "Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall", "Edwin Hubble", "geocentrism", "Doomsday argument", "Ptolemaic system", "inhomogeneous cosmology", "Axis of evil (cosmology)", "Cosmological principle", "Geocentric model", "Sloan Great Wall", "Galaxy filament", "Big Freeze", "Big Rip", "quasar", "cosmic microwave background radiation", "galactic supercluster", "Milky Way", "Earth", "parsec", "Huge-LQG", "Absolute time and space" ]
7,329	Cyprinidae	Cyprinidae is a family of freshwater fish commonly called the carp or minnow family, including the carps, the true minnows, and their relatives the barbs and barbels, among others. Cyprinidae is the largest and most diverse fish family, and the largest vertebrate animal family overall, with about 1,780 species divided into 166 valid genera. Cyprinids range from about in size to the giant barb (Catlocarpio siamensis). By genus and species count, the family makes up more than two-thirds of the ostariophysian order Cypriniformes. The family name is derived from the Greek word ( 'carp'). ==Biology and ecology== Cyprinids are stomachless, or agastric, fish with toothless jaws. Even so, food can be effectively chewed by the gill rakers of the specialized last gill bow. These pharyngeal teeth allow the fish to make chewing motions against a chewing plate formed by a bony process of the skull. The pharyngeal teeth are unique to each species and are used to identify species. Strong pharyngeal teeth allow fish such as the common carp and ide to eat hard baits such as snails and bivalves. Hearing is a well-developed sense in the cyprinids since they have the Weberian organ, three specialized vertebral processes that transfer motion of the gas bladder to the inner ear. The vertebral processes of the Weberian organ also permit a cyprinid to detect changes in motion of the gas bladder due to atmospheric conditions or depth changes. The cyprinids are considered physostomes because the pneumatic duct is retained in adult stages and the fish are able to gulp air to fill the gas bladder, or they can dispose of excess gas to the gut. Cyprinids are native to North America, Africa, and Eurasia. The largest known cyprinid is the giant barb (Catlocarpio siamensis), which may grow up to in length and in weight. The largest North American species is the Colorado pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus lucius), which can reach up to in length. Conversely, many species are smaller than . The smallest known fish is Paedocypris progenetica, reaching at the longest. All fish in this family are egg-layers and most do not guard their eggs; however, a few species build nests and/or guard the eggs. The bitterlings of subfamily Acheilognathinae are notable for depositing their eggs in bivalve molluscs, where the young develop until able to fend for themselves. Cyprinids contain the only known example of androgenesis in a vertebrate, in the Squalius alburnoides allopolyploid complex. Most cyprinids feed mainly on invertebrates and vegetation, probably due to the lack of teeth and stomach; however, some species, like the asp, are predators that specialize in fish. Many species, such as the ide and the common rudd, prey on small fish when individuals become large enough. Even small species, such as the moderlieschen, are opportunistic predators that will eat larvae of the common frog in artificial circumstances. Some cyprinids, such as the grass carp, are specialized herbivores; others, such as the common nase, eat algae and biofilms, while others, such as the black carp, specialize in snails, and some, such as the silver carp, are specialized filter feeders. For this reason, cyprinids are often introduced as a management tool to control various factors in the aquatic environment, such as aquatic vegetation and diseases transmitted by snails. Unlike most fish species, cyprinids generally increase in abundance in eutrophic lakes. Here, they contribute towards positive feedback as they are efficient at eating the zooplankton that would otherwise graze on the algae, reducing its abundance. ==Relationship with humans== === Food === Cyprinids are highly important food fish; they are fished and farmed across Eurasia. In land-locked countries in particular, cyprinids are often the major species of fish eaten because they make the largest part of biomass in most water types except for fast-flowing rivers. In Eastern Europe, they are often prepared with traditional methods such as drying and salting. The prevalence of inexpensive frozen fish products made this less important now than it was in earlier times. Nonetheless, in certain places, they remain popular for food, as well as recreational fishing, for ornamental use, and have been deliberately stocked in ponds and lakes for centuries for this reason. === Sport === Cyprinids are popular for angling especially for match fishing (due to their dominance in biomass and numbers) and fishing for common carp because of its size and strength. === As pest control === Several cyprinids have been introduced to waters outside their natural ranges to provide food, sport, or biological control for some pest species. The common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) are the most important of these, for example in Florida. === As a pest species === Carp in particular can stir up sediment, reducing the clarity of the water and making plant growth difficult. In America and Australia, such as the Asian carp in the Mississippi Basin, they have become invasive species that compete with native fishes or disrupt the environment. Cyprinus carpio is a major pest species in Australia impacting freshwater environments, amenity, and the agricultural economy, devastating biodiversity by decimating native fish populations where they first became established as a major pest in the wild in the 1960s. In the major river system of eastern Australia, the Murray-Darling Basin, they constitute 80–90 per cent of fish biomass. In 2016 the federal government announced A$15.2 million to fund the National Carp Control Plan to investigate using Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (carp virus) as a biological control agent while minimising impacts on industry and environment should a carp virus release go ahead. Despite initial, favourable assessment, in 2020 this plan was found to be unlikely to work due to the high fecundity of the fish. === Aquarium fish === Numerous cyprinids have become popular and important within the aquarium and fishpond hobbies, most famously the goldfish, which was bred in China from the Prussian carp (Carassius (auratus) gibelio). First imported into Europe around 1728, it was originally much-fancied by the Chinese nobility as early as 1150AD and, after it arrived there in 1502, also in Japan. In addition to the goldfish, the common carp was bred in Japan into the colorful ornamental variety known as koi — or more accurately , as simply means "common carp" in Japanese — from the 18th century until today. Other popular aquarium cyprinids include danionins, rasborines and true barbs. Larger species are bred by the thousands in outdoor ponds, particularly in Southeast Asia, and trade in these aquarium fishes is of considerable commercial importance. The small rasborines and danionines are perhaps only rivalled by characids (tetras) and poecilid livebearers in their popularity for community aquaria. Some of the most popular cyprinids among aquarists, other than goldfish and koi, include the cherry barb, Harlequin rasbora, pearl danios, rainbow sharks, tiger barbs, and the White Cloud Mountain minnow. One particular species of these small and undemanding danionines is the zebrafish (Danio rerio). It has become the standard model species for studying developmental genetics of vertebrates, in particular fish. === Threatened families === Habitat destruction and other causes have reduced the wild stocks of several cyprinids to dangerously low levels; some are already entirely extinct. In particular, the cyprinids of the subfamily Leuciscinae from southwestern North America have been severely affected by pollution and unsustainable water use in the early to mid-20th century. The majority of globally extinct cypriniform species in fact belong to the leuciscinid cyprinids from the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. ==Systematics== The massive diversity of cyprinids has so far made it difficult to resolve their phylogeny in sufficient detail to make assignment to subfamilies more than tentative in many cases. Some distinct lineages obviously exist – for example, the Cultrinae and Leuciscinae, regardless of their exact delimitation, are rather close relatives and stand apart from Cyprininaebut the overall systematics and taxonomy of the Cyprinidae remain a subject of considerable debate. A large number of genera are incertae sedis, too equivocal in their traits and/or too little-studied to permit assignment to a particular subfamily with any certainty. Part of the solution seems that the delicate rasborines are the core group, consisting of minor lineages that have not shifted far from their evolutionary niche, or have coevolved for millions of years. These are among the most basal lineages of living cyprinids. Other "rasborines" are apparently distributed across the diverse lineages of the family. The tench (Tinca tinca), a significant food species farmed in western Eurasia in large numbers, is unusual. It is most often grouped with the Leuciscinae, but even when these were rather loosely circumscribed, it always stood apart. A cladistic analysis of DNA sequence data of the S7 ribosomal protein intron1 supports the view that it is distinct enough to constitute a monotypic subfamily. It also suggests it may be closer to the small East Asian Aphyocypris, Hemigrammocypris, and Yaoshanicus. They would have diverged roughly at the same time from cyprinids of east-central Asia, perhaps as a result of the Alpide orogeny that vastly changed the topography of that region in the late Paleogene, when their divergence presumably occurred. The subfamilies Acheilognathinae, Gobioninae, and Leuciscinae are monophyletic. ==Subfamilies and genera== Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes sets out the subfamilies and genera within the family Cyprinidae as follows: Subfamily Acrossocheilinae L. Yang et al, 2015 Acrossocheilus Oshima, 1919 Folifer H. W. Wu, 1977 Onychostoma Günther, 1896 Subfamily Barbinae Bleeker, 1859 Aulopyge Heckel, 1841 Barbus Daudin, 1805 Caecocypris Banister & Bunni, 1980 Capoeta Valenciennes, 1842 Cyprinion Heckel, 1843 Kantaka Hora, 1942 Luciobarbus Heckel, 1843 Paracapoeta Turan, Kaya, Aksu, Bektaş, 2022 Scaphiodonichthys Vinciguerra, 1890 Schizocypris Regan, 1914 Semiplotus Bleeker, 1860 Subfamily Cyprininae Rafinesque, 1815 Aaptosyax Rainboth, 1991 Albulichthys Bleeker, 1860 Amblyrhynchichthys Bleeker, 1860 Balantiocheilos Bleeker, 1860 Carassioides Oshima, 1926 Carassius Jarocki, 1822 Cosmochilus Sauvage, 1878 Cyclocheilichthys Bleeker, 1859 Cyclocheilos Bleeker, 1859 Cyprinus Linnaeus, 1758 Discherodontus Rainboth, 1989 Eirmotus Schultz, 1959 Hypsibarbus Rainboth, 1996 Kalimantania Bănărescu, 1980 Laocypris Kottelat, 2000 Luciocyprinus Vaillant, 1904 Mystacoleucus Günther, 1868 Neobarynotus Bănărescu, 1980 Parasikukia Doi, 2000 Paraspinibarbus X.-L. Chu & Kottelat, 1989 Parator H. W. Wu, G. R. Yang, P. Q. Yue & H. J. Huang, 1963 Poropuntius H. M. Smith, 1931 Procypris S.-Y. Lin, 1933 Pseudosinocyclocheilus C.-G. Zhang & Y.-H. Zhao, 2016 Puntioplites H. M. Smith, 1929 Rohteichthys Bleeker, 1860 Sawbwa Annandale, 1918 Scaphognathops H.M. Smith, 1945 Sikukia H. M. Smith, 1931 Sinocyclocheilus P.-W. Fang, 1936 Troglocyclocheilus Kottelat & Bréhier, 1999 Typhlobarbus X.-L. Chu & W.-R. Chen, 1982 Subfamily Labeoninae Bleeker, 1859 Ageneiogarra Garman, 1912 Altigena Burton, 1934 Bangana Hamilton, 1822 Barbichthys Bleeker, 1860 Ceratogarra Kottelat, 2020 Cirrhinus Oken, 1817 Cophecheilus Y. Zhu, E. Zhang, M. Zhang & Y. Q. Han, 2011 Crossocheilus Kuhl & van Hasselt, 1823 Decorus Zheng, Chen & Yang, 2019 Diplocheilichthys Bleeker, 1859 Discocheilus E. Zhang, 1997 Discogobio S. Y. Lin, 1931 Epalzeorhynchos Bleeker, 1855 Fivepearlus C.-Q. Li, H. Yang, W. Li & H. Chen 2017 Garra Hamilton, 1822 Garroides V. H. Nguyễn & T.H. N. Vu, 2014 Guigarra Z.-B. Wang, X.-Y. Chen & L.-P. Zheng 2022 Gymnostomus Heckel, 1843 Henicorhynchus H. M. Smith, 1945 Hongshuia E. Zhang, X. Qiang & J. H. Lan, 2008 Incisilabeo Fowler, 1937 Labeo Cuvier, 1816 Labiobarbus van Hasselt, 1823 Lanlabeo M. Yao, Y. He & Z.-G. Peng, 2018 Linichthys E. Zhang & Fang, 2005 Lobocheilos Bleeker, 1854 Longanalus W. X. Li, 2006 Mekongina Fowler, 1937 Osteochilus Günther, 1868 Paracrossochilus Popta, 1904 Parapsilorhynchus Hora, 1921 Paraqianlabeo H.-T. Zhao, Sullivan, Y.-G. Zhang & Z.-G. Peng 2014 Parasinilabeo H. W. Wu, 1939 Placocheilus H.-W. Wu, 1977 Prolixicheilus L.-P. Zheng, X.-Y. Chen & J.-X. Yang, 2016 Protolabeo L. An, B. S. Liu, Y. H. Zhao & C. G. Zhang, 2010 Pseudocrossocheilus E. Zhang & J.-X. Chen, 1997 Pseudogyrinocheilus P.-W. Fang, 1933 Pseudoplacocheilus X. Li, W. Zhou, C. Sun & X. Yun, 2024 Ptychidio Myers, 1930 Qianlabeo E. Zhang & Yi-Yu Chen, 2004 Rectoris S.-Y. Lin, 1935 Schismatorhynchos Bleeker, 1855 Semilabeo Peters, 1881 Sinigarra E. Zhang & W. Zhou, 2012 Sinilabeo Rendahl, 1933 Sinocrossocheilus H.-W. Wu, 1977 Speolabeo Kottelat, 2017 Stenorynchoacrum Y. F. Huang, J. X. Yang & X. Y. Chen, 2014 Supradiscus X. Li, W. Zhou, C. Sun & X. Yun, 2024 Tariqilabeo Mirza & Saboohi, 1990 Thynnichthys Bleeker, 1859 Vinagarra V. H. Nguyễn & T. A. Bùi, 2009 Zuojiangia L.-P. Zheng, Y. He, J. X. Yang & L.B. Wu 2018 Subfamily Probarbinae L. Yang et al, 2015 Catlocarpio Boulenger, 1898 Probarbus Sauvage, 1880 Subfamily Schizopygopsinae Mirza, 1991 Oxygymnocypris W. H. Tsao, 1964 Ptychobarbus Steindachner, 1866 Schizopygopsis Steindachner, 1866 Subfamily Schizothoracinae McClelland, 1842 Aspiorhynchus Kessler, 1879 Diptychus Steindachner, 1866 Percocypris Y. T. Chu, 1935 Schizopyge Heckel, 1847 Schizothorax Heckel, 1838 Subfamily Smiliogastrinae Bleeker, 1863 Amatolacypris Skelton, Swartz & Vreven, 2018 Barbodes Bleeker, 1859 Barboides Brüning, 1929 Bhava Sudasinghe, Rüber & Meegaskumbura, 2023 Caecobarbus Boulenger, 1921 Chagunius H.M. Smith, 1938 Cheilobarbus A. Smith 1841 Clypeobarbus Fowler, 1936 Coptostomabarbus David & Poll 1937 Dawkinsia Pethiyagoda, Meegaskumbura & Maduwage, 2012 Desmopuntius Kottelat, 2013 Eechathalakenda Menon, 1999 Enteromius Cope, 1867 Gymnodiptychus Herzenstein, 1892 Haludaria Pethiyagoda, 2013 Hampala Kuhl & van Hasselt, 1823 Namaquacypris Skelton, Swartz & Vreven, 2018 Oliotius Kottelat, 2013 Oreichthys H. M. Smith, 1933 Osteobrama Heckel, 1843 Pethia Pethiyagoda, Meegaskumbura & Maduwage, 2012 Plesiopuntius Sudasinghe, Rüber & Meegaskumbura, 2023 Prolabeo Norman, 1932 Prolabeops Schultz, 1941 Pseudobarbus A. Smith, 1841 Puntigrus Kottelat, 2013 Puntius Hamilton, 1822 Rohanella Sudasinghe, Rüber & Meegaskumbura, 2023 Rohtee Sykes 1839 Sedercypris Skelton, Swartz & Vreven, 2018 Striuntius Kottelat, 2013 Systomus McClelland, 1838 Waikhomia Katwate, Kumkar, Raghavan & Dahanukar, 2020 Xenobarbus Norman, 1923 Subfamily Spinibarbinae Yang et al, 2015 Spinibarbichthys Oshima, 1926 Spinibarbus Oshima, 1919 Subfamily Torinae Karaman, 1971 Acapoeta Cockerell, 1910 Arabibarbus Borkenhagen, 2014 Atlantor Borkenhagen & Freyhof, 2023 Carasobarbus Karaman, 1971 Hypselobarbus Bleeker, 1860 Labeobarbus Rüppell, 1835 Lepidopygopsis B. S. Raj 1941 Mesopotamichthys Karaman, 1971 Naziritor Mirza & Javed, 1985 Neolissochilus Rainboth, 1985 Osteochilichthys Hora, 1942 Pterocapoeta Günther, 1902 Sanagia Holly, 1926 Tor Gray, 1834 With such a large and diverse family the taxonomy and phylogenies are always being worked on so alternative classifications are being created as new information is discovered, for example: \| }}	[ "Sanagia", "Canna Maria Louise Popta", "Sedercypris", "Paraspinibarbus", "Lore Rose David", "cyprinus carpio", "Phoxinini", "frozen food", "Wu Hsien-Wen", "Rohanella", "Emmanuel J. Vreven", "Chedrini", "Carl Linnaeus", "Tanichthys", "coevolution", "Henicorhynchus", "Eocene", "Danionini", "Sundadanionini", "Cypridinidae", "Davut Turan", "Georges Cuvier", "Africa", "Petru Mihai Bănărescu", "Labeobarbus", "Labeonini", "incertae sedis", "Maurice Burton", "Longanalus", "Leptobarbus", "systematics", "Mohammad R. Mirza", "biodiversity", "Min Yao", "Qiang Xie", "John P. Sullivan (ichthyologist)", "Weberian organ", "Rasborini", "Rohtee", "Haludaria", "Osteochilus", "vertebrate", "İsmail Aksu", "Coptostomabarbus", "Qianlabeo", "Parapsilorhynchini", "Amblyrhynchichthys", "Lorenz Oken", "Li Chunquing", "Bangana", "François Marie Daudin", "Heinrich Kuhl", "Lukas Rüber", "Zhang Ming (biologist)", "Paul H. Skelton", "extinct", "Atsushi Doi", "Smiliogastrinae", "Vinagarra", "carp", "Barbus", "ide (fish)", "Chu Yuan-Ting", "Tanichthyinae", "Lepidopygopsis", "Schizocypris", "Caecobarbus", "typical carp", "Sarcocheilichthyini", "Scaphognathops", "Chen Yi-Yu", "Eurasia", "Acapoeta", "paraphyletic", "Placocheilus", "Sinigarra", "Karl Kessler", "Kalana Maduwage", "Wilhelm Peters", "Franck Bréhier", "Schizopyge", "Scaphiodonichthys", "gas bladder", "Paraqianlabeo", "Maurice Kottelat", "Puntigrus", "Harlequin rasbora", "cladistic", "Plagiopterini", "Poropuntius", "Thynnichthys", "Theodore D. A. Cockerell", "Holocene", "minnow", "Solomon Herzenstein", "Australia", "Poeciliidae", "Hongshuia", "ostariophysi", "Japanese language", "Schizopygopsinae", "Hiranya Sudasinghe", "Acrossocheilus", "Acrossocheilini", "Kai Borkenhagen", "Murray–Darling basin", "ecological niche", "Lan-Ping Zheng", "Hemibarbus", "Spinibarbinae", "Laviniini", "Probarbus", "Leptobarbinae", "Jun-Xing Yang", "Onychostoma", "Lin Shu-Yen", "Henry Weed Fowler", "topography", "Atlantor", "Zhao Ya-Hui", "Hypophthalmichthyinae", "Sinilabeo", "Cyprididae", "Cheilobarbus", "invasive species", "Carasobarbus", "Hypophthalmichthyini", "Squalidus", "invertebrates", "Barbini (fish)", "Franz Steindachner", "Chagunius", "cherry barb", "Opsariichthyini", "Yue Pei-Qi", "Xu Li (ichthyologist)", "Oreichthys", "biomass", "Cirrhinus", "Oxygastrini", "Neobarynotus", "skull", "zooplankton", "Johan Conrad van Hasselt", "T.H. N. Vu", "genera", "Prolabeops", "Incisilabeo behri", "Rasbora", "Barbichthys", "Bùi Thế Anh", "Pseudobarbus", "Zhang Chun-Guang", "Amatolacypris", "W. H. Tsao", "Cosmochilus", "Eirmotus", "Han Yao-Quan", "Achille Valenciennes", "Leuciscinae", "freshwater fish", "Walter J. Rainboth", "Schizothoracinae", "B. Sundara Raj", "Pseudocrossocheilus", "Leonard Peter Schultz", "Wei Zhou", "barb (fish)", "White Cloud Mountain minnow", "Pseudogyrinocheilus", "Psilorhynchus", "Tench", "androgenesis", "Tincinae", "Kantaka barb", "Tariqilabeo", "Discogobio", "Folifer", "Psilorhynchidae", "Cultrinae", "Henri Émile Sauvage", "physostome", "Acrossocheilinae", "Huang Hong-Jin", "Lun-Biao Wu", "East Asia", "Squaliobarbini", "Pterocapoeta", "10th edition of Systema Naturae", "giant barb", "Gymnodiptychus", "Mangar (fish)", "Hai-Tao Zhao", "Tor (fish)", "Zhang E", "Neelesh Dahanukar", "Troglocyclocheilus", "Arabibarbus", "Discocheilus", "Xin-Luo Chu", "George S. Myers", "rainbow shark", "zebrafish", "Hampala", "Catlocarpio", "Altigena", "Labiobarbus", "Smallest organisms", "Schizothorax", "Dawkinsia", "Unmesh Katwate", "Southeast Asia", "pharyngeal teeth", "Hemigrammocypris", "Zuo-Gang Peng", "intron", "Prolabeo", "silver carp", "sediment", "Eechathalakenda", "Taxonomy (biology)", "vegetation", "Xenocypris", "Huang Yan-Fei", "Osteobrama", "Parapsilorhynchus", "Striuntius", "Supradiscus", "Xing Yun (ichthyologist)", "North America", "Japan", "Leuciscini", "Cyprininae", "large-headed carp", "fishing", "Xiao-Yong Chen", "Mystacoleucus", "Yang Hongfu", "Zhi-Bang Wang", "Labeo", "Constantine Samuel Rafinesque", "black carp", "Lin Shu-yen", "Florida", "Oviparity", "Chen Hongyu (ichthyologist)", "Mesopotamichthys", "Alpide orogeny", "Guigarra", "Prolixicheilus", "Johann Jakob Heckel", "subfamilies", "Crossocheilus", "Xenobarbus", "Li Weixan", "barbel (fish)", "aquarists", "Luciocyprinus", "Decorus", "Protolabeo", "Stanko Karaman", "Cyclocheilichthys", "Spinibarbini", "Barbinae", "Balantiocheilos", "Typhlobarbus", "pearl danio", "Speolabeo", "Pseudosinocyclocheilus", "Rectoris", "Ptychidio", "Cophecheilus", "Rajeev Raghavan", "monotypic", "land-locked", "Francis Buchanan-Hamilton", "Garra", "fish farming", "gill raker", "Cypriniformes", "Christian Brüning", "Danioninae", "Decio Vinciguerra", "Greenstripe barb", "Process (anatomy)", "Asian carp", "Habitat destruction", "Masamitsu Ōshima", "Lanlabeo", "M. R. Mirza", "Carassius", "You He", "Puntius", "Rohan Pethiyagoda", "Luciobarbus", "Schizopygopsis", "subfamily", "Namaquacypris", "tench", "Colorado pikeminnow", "Pethia", "Puntioplites", "characid", "Yang Gan-Rong", "Rohteichthys", "Cyprinid herpesvirus 3", "Hialmar Rendahl", "Edward Drinker Cope", "Pieter Bleeker", "Systomus", "Schizothoracini", "Discherodontus", "Sunder Lal Hora", "Leuciscidae", "Paedocypridini", "California Academy of Sciences", "Stenorynchoacrum", "M. N. Javed", "Squaliobarbinae", "Gobionini", "Caecocypris", "Chao Sun (ichthyologist)", "Probarbinae", "Sinocrossocheilus", "Nguyễn Văn Hảo", "List of fish families", "Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes", "Albert Günther", "eutrophic", "John Edward Gray", "John Roxborough Norman", "Paracapoeta", "Cyclocheilos", "koi", "ribosomal protein", "Acheilognathinae", "Pseudoplacocheilus", "Barboides", "snails", "Hugh McCormick Smith", "Lan Jia-Hu", "Léon Vaillant", "DNA sequence", "Naziritor", "Cyprinus", "Sikukia", "Capoeta", "Diplocheilichthys", "moderlieschen", "Rohteichthyini", "Waikhomia", "common nase", "Maximillian Holly", "Semiplotus", "Fivepearlus", "golden mahseer", "Parasinilabeo", "Zhu Yu (ichthyologist)", "Procypris", "An Li", "Eduard Rüppell", "Liu Bai-Song", "allopolyploid", "Linichthys", "Sinocyclocheilus", "Laocypris", "tiger barb", "Kalimantania", "Zuojiangia", "Desmopuntius", "Parator (fish)", "pneumatic duct", "goldfish", "Fang Fang Kullander", "Hypselobarbus", "Paleogene", "Aulopyge", "Osteochilichthys", "Prussian carp", "biofilm", "Yao-Guang Zhang", "Yusuf Bektaş", "Aspiorhynchus", "Parasikukia", "Ceratogarra", "Samuel Garman", "Garrini", "Ernst R. Swartz", "Gobioninae", "danionin", "bivalves", "Garroides", "common frog", "Neolissochilus", "grass carp", "Carassioides", "Asp (fish)", "Percocypris", "Community aquarium", "Mollusca", "match fishing", "Ambat Gopalan Kutty Menon", "Pogonichthyini", "Ptychobarbus", "Diptychus", "Jörg Freyhof", "Andrew Smith (zoologist)", "Labeoninae", "Lobocheilos", "Mississippi Basin", "Family (biology)", "filter feeders", "Ageneiogarra", "model species", "Squalius alburnoides", "Xenocyprinae", "phylogeny", "Aphyocypris", "Pradeep Kumkar", "Nelson Annandale", "Xenocypridini", "pollution", "Keith Edward Banister", "John McClelland (doctor)", "Schizopygopsini", "Feliks Paweł Jarocki", "Max Poll", "common carp", "M. K. Bunni", "Sawbwa barb", "Spinibarbus", "Cyprinion", "Cüneyt Kaya", "common rudd", "Cyprinini", "Semilabeo", "Clypeobarbus", "genus", "Gymnostomus", "Oxygymnocypris stewartii", "sensu stricto", "Madhava Meegaskumbura", "Hypsibarbus", "Peng-Weng Fang", "Torinae", "fishkeeping", "Enteromius", "Paedocypris progenetica", "George Albert Boulenger", "pest (organism)", "Yaoshanicus", "Epalzeorhynchos", "Schismatorhynchos", "Plesiopuntius", "William Henry Sykes", "Oliotius", "Paracrossochilus", "Albulichthys", "Aaptosyax", "Mekongina", "recreational fishing", "Barbodes", "Spinibarbichthys" ]
7,330	Complementary DNA	In genetics, complementary DNA (cDNA) is DNA that was reverse transcribed (via reverse transcriptase) from an RNA (e.g., messenger RNA or microRNA). cDNA exists in both single-stranded and double-stranded forms and in both natural and engineered forms. In engineered forms, it often is a copy (replicate) of the naturally occurring DNA from any particular organism's natural genome; the organism's own mRNA was naturally transcribed from its DNA, and the cDNA is reverse transcribed from the mRNA, yielding a duplicate of the original DNA. Engineered cDNA is often used to express a specific protein in a cell that does not normally express that protein (i.e., heterologous expression), or to sequence or quantify mRNA molecules using DNA based methods (qPCR, RNA-seq). cDNA that codes for a specific protein can be transferred to a recipient cell for expression as part of recombinant DNA, often bacterial or yeast expression systems. cDNA is also generated to analyze transcriptomic profiles in bulk tissue, single cells, or single nuclei in assays such as microarrays, qPCR, and RNA-seq. In natural forms, cDNA is produced by retroviruses (such as HIV-1, HIV-2, simian immunodeficiency virus, etc.) and then integrated into the host's genome, where it creates a provirus. The term cDNA is also used, typically in a bioinformatics context, to refer to an mRNA transcript's sequence, expressed as DNA bases (deoxy-GCAT) rather than RNA bases (GCAU). Patentability of cDNA was a subject of a 2013 US Supreme Court decision in Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc. As a compromise, the Court declared, that exons-only cDNA is patent-eligible, whereas isolated sequences of naturally occurring DNA comprising introns are not. == Synthesis == RNA serves as a template for cDNA synthesis. In cellular life, cDNA is generated by viruses and retrotransposons for integration of RNA into target genomic DNA. In molecular biology, RNA is purified from source material after genomic DNA, proteins and other cellular components are removed. cDNA is then synthesized through in vitro reverse transcription. === RNA purification === RNA is transcribed from genomic DNA in host cells and is extracted by first lysing cells then purifying RNA utilizing widely used methods such as phenol-chloroform, silica column, and bead-based RNA extraction methods. Extraction methods vary depending on the source material. For example, extracting RNA from plant tissue requires additional reagents, such as polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), to remove phenolic compounds, carbohydrates, and other compounds that will otherwise render RNA unusable. To remove DNA and proteins, enzymes such as DNase and Proteinase K are used for degradation. Importantly, RNA integrity is maintained by inactivating RNases with chaotropic agents such as guanidinium isothiocyanate, sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), phenol or chloroform. Total RNA is then separated from other cellular components and precipitated with alcohol. Various commercial kits exist for simple and rapid RNA extractions for specific applications. Additional bead-based methods can be used to isolate specific sub-types of RNA (e.g. mRNA and microRNA) based on size or unique RNA regions. === Reverse transcription === ==== First-strand synthesis ==== Using a reverse transcriptase enzyme and purified RNA templates, one strand of cDNA is produced (first-strand cDNA synthesis). The M-MLV reverse transcriptase from the Moloney murine leukemia virus is commonly used due to its reduced RNase H activity suited for transcription of longer RNAs. The AMV reverse transcriptase from the avian myeloblastosis virus may also be used for RNA templates with strong secondary structures (i.e. high melting temperature). cDNA is commonly generated from mRNA for gene expression analyses such as RT-qPCR and RNA-seq. mRNA is selectively reverse transcribed using oligo-dT primers that are the reverse complement of the poly-adenylated tail on the 3' end of all mRNA. The oligo-dT primer anneals to the poly-adenylated tail of the mRNA to serve as a binding site for the reverse transcriptase to begin reverse transcription. An optimized mixture of oligo-dT and random hexamer primers increases the chance of obtaining full-length cDNA while reducing 5' or 3' bias. Ribosomal RNA may also be depleted to enrich both mRNA and non-poly-adenylated transcripts such as some non-coding RNA. ==== Second-strand synthesis ==== The result of first-strand syntheses, RNA-DNA hybrids, can be processed through multiple second-strand synthesis methods or processed directly in downstream assays. An early method known as hairpin-primed synthesis relied on hairpin formation on the 3' end of the first-strand cDNA to prime second-strand synthesis. However, priming is random and hairpin hydrolysis leads to loss of information. The Gubler and Hoffman Procedure uses E. Coli RNase H to nick mRNA that is replaced with E. Coli DNA Polymerase I and sealed with E. Coli DNA Ligase. An optimization of this procedure relies on low RNase H activity of M-MLV to nick mRNA with remaining RNA later removed by adding RNase H after DNA Polymerase translation of the second-strand cDNA. This prevents lost sequence information at the 5' end of the mRNA. ==Applications== Complementary DNA is often used in gene cloning or as gene probes or in the creation of a cDNA library. When scientists transfer a gene from one cell into another cell in order to express the new genetic material as a protein in the recipient cell, the cDNA will be added to the recipient (rather than the entire gene), because the DNA for an entire gene may include DNA that does not code for the protein or that interrupts the coding sequence of the protein (e.g., introns). Partial sequences of cDNAs are often obtained as expressed sequence tags. With amplification of DNA sequences via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) now commonplace, one will typically conduct reverse transcription as an initial step, followed by PCR to obtain an exact sequence of cDNA for intra-cellular expression. This is achieved by designing sequence-specific DNA primers that hybridize to the 5' and 3' ends of a cDNA region coding for a protein. Once amplified, the sequence can be cut at each end with nucleases and inserted into one of many small circular DNA sequences known as expression vectors. Such vectors allow for self-replication, inside the cells, and potentially integration in the host DNA. They typically also contain a strong promoter to drive transcription of the target cDNA into mRNA, which is then translated into protein. cDNA is also used to study gene expression via methods such as RNA-seq or RT-qPCR. For sequencing, RNA must be fragmented due to sequencing platform size limitations. Additionally, second-strand synthesized cDNA must be ligated with adapters that allow cDNA fragments to be PCR amplified and bind to sequencing flow cells. Gene-specific analysis methods commonly use microarrays and RT-qPCR to quantify cDNA levels via fluorometric and other methods. On 13 June 2013, the United States Supreme Court ruled in the case of Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics that while naturally occurring genes cannot be patented, cDNA is patent-eligible because it does not occur naturally. ==Viruses and retrotransposons== Some viruses also use cDNA to turn their viral RNA into mRNA (viral RNA → cDNA → mRNA). The mRNA is used to make viral proteins to take over the host cell. An example of this first step from viral RNA to cDNA can be seen in the HIV cycle of infection. Here, the host cell membrane becomes attached to the virus' lipid envelope which allows the viral capsid with two copies of viral genome RNA to enter the host. The cDNA copy is then made through reverse transcription of the viral RNA, a process facilitated by the chaperone CypA and a viral capsid associated reverse transcriptase. cDNA is also generated by retrotransposons in eukaryotic genomes. Retrotransposons are mobile genetic elements that move themselves within, and sometimes between, genomes via RNA intermediates. This mechanism is shared with viruses with the exclusion of the generation of infectious particles.	[ "polymerase chain reaction", "messenger RNA", "microRNA", "clone (genetics)", "gene probe", "exons", "cDNA library", "DNA polymerase I", "retrovirus", "simian immunodeficiency virus", "DNA ligase", "DNA", "HIV-2", "recombinant DNA", "Messenger RNA", "intron", "RNA", "retrotransposon", "RNA-Seq", "Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics", "microarray", "Ribosomal RNA", "in vitro", "transcriptome", "HIV-1", "Lysis", "gene expression", "bioinformatics", "US Supreme Court", "Reverse transcriptase", "reverse transcriptase", "protein", "genetics", "random hexamer", "United States Supreme Court", "patent", "The New York Times", "RNA extraction", "ssDNA", "Real-time polymerase chain reaction", "Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc.", "Polyadenylation", "Ribonuclease H", "provirus", "non-coding RNA", "genomic DNA", "heterologous", "introns", "Thymine", "expressed sequence tag" ]
7,331	Cellular digital packet data	Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) is an obsolete wide-area mobile data service which used unused bandwidth normally used by Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) mobile phones between 800 and 900 MHz to transfer data. Speeds up to 19.2 kbit/s were possible, though real world speeds seldom reached higher than 9.6 kbit/s. The service was discontinued in conjunction with the retirement of the parent AMPS service; it has been functionally replaced by faster services such as 1xRTT, Evolution-Data Optimized, and UMTS/High Speed Packet Access (HSPA). Developed in the early 1990s, CDPD was large on the horizon as a future technology. However, it had difficulty competing against existing slower but less expensive Mobitex and DataTAC systems, and never quite gained widespread acceptance before newer, faster standards such as General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) became dominant. CDPD had very limited consumer products. AT&T Wireless first sold the technology in the United States under the PocketNet brand. It was one of the first products of wireless web service. Digital Ocean, Inc. an original equipment manufacturer licensee of the Apple Newton, sold the Seahorse product, which integrated the Newton handheld computer, an AMPS/CDPD handset/modem along with a web browser in 1996, winning the CTIA's hardware product of the year award as a smartphone, arguably the world's first. A company named OmniSky provided service for Palm V devices. OmniSky then filed for bankruptcy in 2001 then was picked up by EarthLink Wireless. The technician that developed the tech support for all of the wireless technology was a man by the name of Myron Feasel he was brought from company to company ending up at Palm. Sierra Wireless sold PCMCIA devices and Airlink sold a serial modem. Both of these were used by police and fire departments for dispatch. Wireless later sold CDPD under the Wireless Internet brand (not to be confused with Wireless Internet Express, their brand for GPRS/EDGE data). PocketNet was generally considered a failure with competition from 2G services such as Sprint's Wireless Web. AT&T Wireless sold four PocketNet Phone models to the public: the Samsung Duette and the Mitsubishi MobileAccess-120 were AMPS/CDPD PocketNet phones introduced in October 1997; and two IS-136/CDPD Digital PocketNet phones, the Mitsubishi T-250 and the Ericsson R289LX. Despite its limited success as a consumer offering, CDPD was adopted in a number of enterprise and government networks. It was particularly popular as a first-generation wireless data solution for telemetry devices (machine to machine communications) and for public safety mobile data terminals. In 2004, major carriers in the United States announced plans to shut down CDPD service. In July 2005, the AT&T Wireless and Cingular Wireless CDPD networks were shut down. ==CDPD Network and system== Primary elements of a CDPD network are: 1. End systems: physical & logical end systems that exchange information 2. Intermediate systems: CDPD infrastructure elements that store, forward & route the information There are 2 kinds of End systems 1. Mobile end system: subscriber unit to access CDPD network over a wireless interface 2. Fixed end system: common host/server that is connected to the CDPD backbone and providing access to specific application and data There are 2 kinds of Intermediate systems 1. Generic intermediate system: simple router with no knowledge of mobility issues 2. mobile data intermediate system: specialized intermediate system that routes data based on its knowledge of the current location of Mobile end system. It is a set of hardware and software functions that provide switching, accounting, registration, authentication, encryption, and so on. The design of CDPD was based on several design objectives that are often repeated in designing overlay networks or new networks. A lot of emphasis was laid on open architectures and reusing as much of the existing RF infrastructure as possible. The design goal of CDPD included location independence and independence fro, service provider, so that coverage could be maximized; application transparency and multiprotocol support, interoperability between products from multiple vendors.	[ "1xRTT", "EV-DO", "DataTac", "telemetry", "Apple Newton", "EarthLink Wireless", "UMTS", "Palm V", "GPRS", "AT&T Wireless", "United States", "Advanced Mobile Phone System", "OmniSky", "Mobitex", "original equipment manufacturer", "Digital Ocean", "mobile phone", "Cingular Wireless", "kbit/s", "Bandwidth (signal processing)", "High Speed Packet Access", "MHz" ]
7,333	Chimera	Chimera, Chimaera, or Chimaira (Greek for "she-goat") originally referred to: Chimera (mythology), a fire-breathing monster of ancient Lycia said to combine parts from multiple animals Mount Chimaera, a fire-spewing region of Lycia or Cilicia typically considered the inspiration for the myth Chimera, chimera, chimère, Chimaira, etc. may also refer to: ==Biology== Chimaera, various cartilaginous fishes of the order Chimaeriformes Chimaera (genus), the eponymous genus of the order Chimaeriformes Chimera (EST), a single cDNA sequence originating from two transcripts Chimera (genetics), a single organism with cells from two different zygotes Chimera (virus), with genetic material from other organisms Chimeric protein or fusion protein Chimera (paleontology), a fossil made with parts from different animals Chimera Project, a Soviet biological weapons program ==Media== ===Fictional entities=== Chimera (Fullmetal Alchemist), characters Chimera (Marvel Comics), the name of different characters from Marvel Comics Chimera (DC Comics), the name of different characters from DC Comics Chimera (Dungeons & Dragons), a magical beast Chimera Anima, a name grouping of animals in the anime Tokyo Mew Mew The Chimera, an alien race in Resistance Chimera ants, a group of deadly and invasive mutant bugs in the anime and manga series Hunter × Hunter ===Films=== Chimera (1968 film), Italian musicarello Chimera (2001 film), Italian romance Chimère (film), France, 1989 Chimères (film), 2013 Chimera Strain, a 2018 Indian-American film La Chimera, a 2023 romantic drama ===Gaming=== Chimaera (magazine), a British zine dedicated to postal board games, 1975–1983 Chimera (video game), a 1985 adventure Chimera (larp convention), Auckland, New Zealand Chimera Entertainment, a game developer, Munich, Germany ===Literature=== The Chimeras, 1854 sonnets by Gérard de Nerval Chimaira, a 2001 novel by Valerio Massimo Manfredi Chimera (Barth novel) (1972) Chimera (CrossGen), a 2003 comic book series Chimaera (novel), by Ian Irvine, 2004 Chimera (novel series), by Baku Yumemakura, Japan Chimera (short story), by Lee Youngdo Chimera (2015), novel in Mira Grant's Parasitology trilogy ===Music=== ====Groups or artists==== Chimaira, an American heavy metal band from Cleveland, Ohio Chimera (Irish band), a musical group Chimera (Russian band), an underground musical band Mike Dred or Chimera (born 1967), techno musician ====Albums==== Chimaira (album), 2005 Chimera (Andromeda album) (2006) Chimera (Aria album) (2001) Chimera (Delerium album), 2003, by Delerium Chimera (Erik Friedlander album) (1995) Chimera (Mayhem album) (2004) Chimeras (album), 2003, by John Zorn Chimera, by The Cost, 2002 Chimera, by Duncan Mackay, 1974 Chimera, by Bill Nelson, 1983 鵺-chimera-, a 2016 EP by Girugamesh Chimera, a 2009 EP by Chris Pureka Chimera, a 2014 EP by Marié Digby ====Songs==== "Chimeres I, II and III", 2007 compositions by Fred Momotenko "Chimera", by Duncan Sheik, Daylight (Duncan Sheik album) "Chimaera", by Bad Religion from Generator,1992 "Chimera", by the Tea Party from Triptych, 1999 "Chimeras", by Tim Hecker from Harmony in Ultraviolet "Chimera", by Bonham from Mad Hatter "The Chimera", by the Smashing Pumpkins from Oceania, 2012 "Chimera", by Polyphia from album Remember That You Will Die, 2022 ===Television=== Chimera (British TV series), 1991 "Chimera" (NCIS), an episode "Chimera" Star Trek: Deep Space Nine), 1999 "Chimera" (Stargate SG-1), an episode "Chimera" (The X-Files), an episode Chimera (South Korean TV series), 2021 ==People== Jason Chimera (born 1979), NHL ice hockey player Chimaera, a ring name of Ricardo Rodriguez (wrestler) (b. 1986), wrestler ==Computing== Chimera (software library) Camino (web browser) or Chimera UCSF Chimera, software to visualize molecules Chimera Linux, a Linux distribution ==Other uses== Chimaera (town), ancient Himarë, Albania Chimaera Mountains, an ancient Ceraunian Range, Albania Chimera (spacecraft), a space exploration mission proposal Chimera (architecture), or grotesque TVR Chimaera, a car Chimera (roller coaster), La Feria Chapultepec Mágico, Mexico City 623 Chimaera, a main-belt asteroid	[ "Chimera (EST)", "Resistance (video game series)", "Quimera International Festival", "The Chimeras", "TVR Chimaera", "Chimera (roller coaster)", "Chimera Strain", "Duncan Mackay (musician)", "Chimera (The X-Files)", "Chimères (film)", "Chimera (NCIS)", "Harmony in Ultraviolet", "Marié Digby discography", "Chimaera (town)", "Camino (web browser)", "Oceania (The Smashing Pumpkins album)", "Chimera (Aria album)", "Chimera (CrossGen)", "Chimera (video game)", "Chimera (spacecraft)", "Chimera (2001 film)", "Daylight (Duncan Sheik album)", "La chimera", "Triptych (The Tea Party album)", "Chimera (1968 film)", "Chimera (novel series)", "Chimaira", "The Cost (band)", "Mike Dred", "Chimera (Fullmetal Alchemist)", "Chimera (Dungeons & Dragons)", "Mount Chimaera", "Generator (Bad Religion album)", "UCSF Chimera", "Chimera (short story)", "Chimera Entertainment", "Chimera (Mayhem album)", "Soviet biological weapons program", "Chimera (architecture)", "Chimera (Andromeda album)", "Chimera (Barth novel)", "Chimera Anima", "Chimera (Stargate SG-1)", "she-goat", "Mad Hatter (album)", "Chimera (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine)", "Chimera (Irish band)", "Chimaera (genus)", "623 Chimaera", "Bill Nelson (musician)", "Chimera ants", "Chimera (Russian band)", "Jason Chimera", "Chimera (Marvel Comics)", "Chimera (mythology)", "Girugamesh", "Chimaera Mountains", "Chimera (virus)", "Chimera (paleontology)", "Chimera (genetics)", "Chimaera", "Fred Momotenko", "Remember That You Will Die", "Chimera (Delerium album)", "Chimera Linux", "Chimera (Erik Friedlander album)", "Chimaira (album)", "Ancient Greek language", "Chimeras (album)", "Chris Pureka", "Chimaera (novel)", "Chimère (film)", "Chimera (larp convention)", "Chimera (British TV series)", "Mira Grant", "Valerio Massimo Manfredi", "Chimera (South Korean TV series)", "Chimeric protein", "Ricardo Rodriguez (wrestler)", "Chimera (DC Comics)", "Chimaera (magazine)", "Chimera (software library)" ]
7,335	Creature of statute	A creature of statute (also known as creature of the state) is a legal entity, such as a corporation, created by statute. Creatures of statute may include municipalities and other artificial legal entities or relationships. Thus, when a statute in some fashion requires the formation of a corporate body—often for governmental purposes—such bodies when formed are known as "creatures of statute." The same concept is also expressed with the phrase "creature of the state." The importance of a corporate body, regardless of its exact function, when such a body is a creature of statute is that its active functions can only be within the scope detailed by the statute which created that corporation. Thereby, the creature of statute is the tangible manifestation of the functions or work described by a given statute. The jurisdiction of a body that is a creature of statute is also therefore limited to the functional scope written into the laws that created that body. Unlike most (private) corporate bodies, creatures of statute cannot expand their business interests into other diverse areas.	[ "United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority", "Public Authority", "corporation", "Statutory authority", "Companies Act 1985", "Regulatory agency", "Quango", "Municipality", "Competition regulator", "statute", "Independent agencies of the United States government", "statutory corporation" ]
7,339	General Conference on Weights and Measures	The General Conference on Weights and Measures (abbreviated CGPM from the ) The CGPM meets in Paris, usually once every four years. The 25th meeting of the CGPM took place from 18 to 20 November 2014, the 26th meeting of the CGPM took place in Versailles from 13 to 16 November 2018, and the 27th meeting of the CGPM took place from 15 to 18 November 2022. == Establishment == On 20 May 1875 an international treaty known as the Convention du Mètre (Metre Convention) was signed by 17 states. This treaty established an international organisation, the Bureau international des poids et mesures (BIPM), which has two governing organs: Conférence générale des poids et mesures (CGPM), a plenary meeting of official delegates of member states which is the supreme authority for all actions; Comité international des poids et mesures (CIPM), consisting of elected scientists and metrologists, which prepares and executes the decisions of the CGPM and is responsible for the supervision of the organisation. The organization has a permanent laboratory and secretariat function (sometimes referred to as the Headquarters), the activities of which include the establishment of the basic standards and scales of the principal physical quantities and maintenance of the international prototype standards. The CGPM acts on behalf of the governments of its members. In so doing, it elects members to the CIPM, receives reports from the CIPM which it passes on to the governments and national laboratories on member states, examines and where appropriate approves proposals from the CIPM in respect of changes to the International System of Units (SI), approves the budget for the BIPM (over €13 million in 2018) and it decides all major issues concerning the organization and development of the BIPM. The structure is analogous to that of a stock corporation. The BIPM is the organisation, the CGPM is the general meeting of the shareholders, the CIPM is the board of directors appointed by the CGPM, and the staff at the site in Saint-Cloud perform the day-to-day work. === Membership criteria === The CGPM recognises two classes of membership – full membership for those states that wish to participate in the activities of the BIPM and associate membership for those countries or economies that only wish to participate in the CIPM MRA program. Associate members have observer status at the CGPM. Since all formal liaison between the convention organisations and national governments is handled by the member state's ambassador to France, it is implicit that member states must have diplomatic relations with France, though during both world wars, nations that were at war with France retained their membership of the CGPM. CGPM meetings are chaired by the Président de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris. Of the twenty countries that attended the Conference of the Metre in 1875, representatives of seventeen signed the convention on 20 May 1875. In April 1884, H. J. Chaney, Warden of Standards in London unofficially contacted the BIPM inquiring whether the BIPM would calibrate some metre standards that had been manufactured in the United Kingdom. Broch, director of the BIPM replied that he was not authorised to perform any such calibrations for non-member states. On 17 September 1884, the British Government signed the convention on behalf of the United Kingdom. This number grew to 21 in 1900, 32 in 1950, and 49 in 2001. , there are 64 Member States and 37 Associate States and Economies of the General Conference (with year of partnership in parentheses): ==== Member states ==== Argentina (1877) Australia (1947) Austria (1875) Belarus (2020) Belgium (1875) Brazil (1921) Bulgaria (1911) Canada (1907) Chile (1908) China (1977) Colombia (2012) Costa Rica (2022) Croatia (2008) Czech Republic (1922) Denmark (1875) Ecuador (2019) Egypt (1962) Estonia (2021) Finland (1913) France (1875) Germany (1875) Greece (2001) Hungary (1925) India (1880) Indonesia (1960) Iran (1975) Iraq (2013) Ireland (1925) Israel (1985) Italy (1875) Japan (1885) Kazakhstan (2008) Kenya (2010) Lithuania (2015) Malaysia (2001) Mexico (1890) Montenegro (2018) Morocco (2019) Netherlands (1929) New Zealand (1991) Norway (1875) Pakistan (1973) Poland (1925) Portugal (1876) Romania (1884) Russia (1875) Saudi Arabia (2011) Serbia (2001) Singapore (1994) Slovakia (1922) Ukraine (2018) United Arab Emirates (2015) United Kingdom (1884) United States (1878) Uruguay (1908) ===== Former members ===== Cameroon (1970–2012) Dominican Republic (1954–2015) North Korea (1982–2012) Peru (1875–1956) Venezuela (1879–1907, 1960–2018) ==	[ "Boltzmann constant", "kilogram", "Norway", "tera-", "Paraguay", "sievert", "exa-", "France", "Hong Kong", "Qatar", "Saint Lucia", "Kenya", "Zambia", "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Singapore", "Sudan", "Ohm (unit)", "International Organization of Legal Metrology", "Ottoman Empire", "International Union of Pure and Applied Physics", "Length", "Moldova", "Poland", "Radiometry", "Denmark", "lux", "general meeting", "caesium", "Uzbekistan", "DUT1", "Russian Empire", "Bulgaria", "Philippines", "Metrology", "Namibia", "Cameroon", "Biology", "Thermometry", "Metre Convention", "Dominica", "Israel", "quecto-", "Netherlands", "Brazil", "Atmosphere (unit)", "International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry", "Mexico", "metre", "metrologist", "von Klitzing constant", "Greece", "International Bureau of Weights and Measures", "Amount of substance", "board of directors", "Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements", "Chemistry", "Romania", "Union between Sweden and Norway", "radian", "Mauritius", "Tunisia", "joule", "Germany", "Spain", "Saudi Arabia", "Belgium", "henry (unit)", "2019 revision of the SI", "National Institute of Standards and Technology", "Sri Lanka", "Argentina", "Estonia", "ampere", "Kazakhstan", "Oman", "steradian", "Canada", "Ukraine", "BIPM", "Mass", "French Academy of Sciences", "Portugal", "Serbia", "yocto-", "New Zealand", "standard gravity", "United States", "volt", "Avogadro constant", "Cambodia", "Saint-Cloud", "Bureau International des Poids et Mesures", "Saint Vincent and the Grenadines", "bar (unit)", "kelvin", "Hungary", "Oxford University Press", "Morocco", "International System of Units", "Slovenia", "Frequency", "Zimbabwe", "Time", "units of measurement", "tesla (unit)", "Chile", "Vietnam", "Physical quantity", "metric system", "SI base unit", "Turkey", "Ghana", "stock corporation", "Czech Republic", "India", "Slovakia", "nano-", "Ultrasound", "Empire of Brazil", "giga-", "United Kingdom", "Egypt", "coulomb", "mole (unit)", "Saint Kitts and Nevis", "wikt:secretariat", "Latvia", "gray (unit)", "North Macedonia", "Bolivia", "Trinidad and Tobago", "quetta-", "South Korea", "History of the metre", "becquerel", "farad", "Azerbaijan", "Platinum–iridium alloy", "German Empire", "ronna-", "French Third Republic", "Croatia", "Barbados", "zepto-", "Belize", "stere", "Système International d'Unités", "North Korea", "Albania", "Kingdom of Portugal", "Acoustics", "Josephson constant", "Lithuania", "Magnetism", "Panama", "intergovernmental organization", "Bangladesh", "lumen (unit)", "Carat (unit)", "Tanzania", "China", "Ionizing Radiation", "Photometry (optics)", "National Metrology Institute", "Mongolia", "peta-", "Jamaica", "siemens (unit)", "Indonesia", "Italy", "SI supplementary unit", "Montenegro", "Outline of the metric system", "Bureau international des poids et mesures", "Developing country", "Malta", "Ole Jacob Broch", "invar", "Vibration", "Pavillon de Breteuil", "Ethiopia", "katal", "International Organization for Standardization", "Syria", "Austria-Hungary", "femto-", "economic union", "SI prefix", "New SI definitions", "Kingdom of Italy", "Switzerland", "candela", "Belarus", "International system of units", "Thailand", "Standard (metrology)", "United Arab Emirates", "Electricity", "ronto-", "Russia", "Iraq", "Czechoslovakia", "Dominican Republic", "micro-", "weber (unit)", "Sweden and Norway", "Costa Rica", "South Africa", "Guyana", "Pascal (unit)", "Mutual recognition agreement", "Caribbean Community", "atto-", "yotta-", "Celsius", "Australia", "Hauts-de-Seine", "International Commission on Illumination", "Georgia (country)", "hertz", "International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation", "elementary charge", "pico-", "Malaysia", "Suriname", "Grenada", "Finland", "Iran", "Colombia", "Uruguay", "Peru", "Ecuador", "Cuba", "international prototype of the metre", "zetta-", "National Conference on Weights and Measures", "newton (unit)", "Seconds pendulum", "Chinese Taipei", "Austria", "Sweden", "Spain under the Restoration", "Planck constant", "Seychelles", "Venezuela", "mega-", "international prototype of the kilogram", "litre", "Johnson Matthey", "Ireland", "Antigua and Barbuda", "Japan", "Long and short scales", "Luxembourg", "Botswana", "International Astronomical Union", "watt", "Kuwait", "Pakistan", "leap second" ]
7,341	Cowboy Bebop	is a 1998 Japanese neo-noir space Western anime television series that aired on TV Tokyo and Wowow from 1998 to 1999. It was created and animated by Sunrise, led by a production team of director Shinichirō Watanabe, screenwriter Keiko Nobumoto, character designer Toshihiro Kawamoto, mechanical designer Kimitoshi Yamane, and composer Yoko Kanno, who are collectively billed as Hajime Yatate. The series, which ran for twenty-six episodes (dubbed "sessions"), is set in the year 2071, and follows the lives of a traveling bounty-hunting crew aboard a spaceship, the Bebop. Although it incorporates a wide variety of genres, the series draws most heavily from science fiction, Western, and noir films. Its most prominent themes are existential boredom, loneliness, and the inability to escape one's past. The series was dubbed into English by Animaze and ZRO Limit Productions, and was originally licensed in North America by Bandai Entertainment (and is now licensed by Crunchyroll) and in Britain by Beez Entertainment (now by Anime Limited); Madman Entertainment owns the license in Australia and New Zealand. In 2001, it became the first anime title to be broadcast on Adult Swim. Cowboy Bebop has been hailed as one of the best animated television series of all time. It was a critical and commercial success both in Japanese and international markets, most notably in the United States. It garnered several major anime and science-fiction awards upon its release, and received acclaim from critics and audiences for its style, characters, story, voice acting, animation, and soundtrack. The English dub was particularly lauded and is regarded as one of the best anime English dubs. Credited with helping to introduce anime to a new wave of Western viewers in the early 2000s, Cowboy Bebop has also been called a gateway series. ==Plot== In the year 2071, roughly fifty years after an accident with a hyperspace gateway that made Earth almost uninhabitable, humanity has colonized most of the rocky planets and moons of the Solar System. Amid a rising crime rate, the Inter Solar System Police (ISSP) set up a legalized contract system, in which registered bounty hunters (also referred to as "Cowboys") chase criminals and bring them in alive in return for a reward. The series' protagonists are bounty hunters working from the spaceship Bebop. The original crew is Spike Spiegel, an exiled former hitman of the criminal Red Dragon Syndicate, and Jet Black, a former ISSP officer. They are later joined by Faye Valentine, an amnesiac con artist; Edward Wong, an eccentric child, skilled in hacking; and Ein, a genetically engineered Pembroke Welsh Corgi with human-like intelligence. Throughout the series, the team gets involved in disastrous mishaps leaving them without money, while often confronting faces and events from their pasts: One reviewer described it as "space opera meets noir, meets comedy, meets cyberpunk". It has also been called a "genre-busting space Western". The musical style was emphasized in many of the episode titles. Multiple philosophical themes are explored using the characters, including existentialism, existential boredom, loneliness, and the effect of the past on the protagonists. Other concepts referenced include environmentalism and capitalism. The series also makes specific references to or pastiches multiple films, including the works of John Woo and Bruce Lee, Midnight Run, 2001: A Space Odyssey, and Alien. The series also includes extensive references and elements from science fiction, bearing strong similarities to the cyberpunk fiction of William Gibson. Each character, from the main cast to supporting characters, were designed to be outlaws unable to fit into society. Kawamoto designed the characters so they were easily distinguished from one another. From the perspective of Brian Camp and Julie Davis, the main characters resemble the main characters of the anime series Lupin III, if only superficially, given their more troubled pasts and more complex personalities. The show focuses on the character of Spike Spiegel (voiced by Kōichi Yamadera), an iconic space cowboy with green hair and often seen wearing a blue suit, with the overall theme of the series being Spike's past and its karmic effect on him. Spike and Jet were designed to be opposites, with Spike being thin and wearing smart attire, while Jet was bulky and wore more casual clothing. ==Production== Cowboy Bebop was developed by animation studio Sunrise and created by Hajime Yatate, the well-known pseudonym for the collective contributions of Sunrise's animation staff. The leader of the series' creative team was director Shinichirō Watanabe, most notable at the time for directing Macross Plus and Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory. Other leading members of Sunrise's creative team were screenwriter Keiko Nobumoto, character designer Toshihiro Kawamoto, mechanical art designer Kimitoshi Yamane, composer Yoko Kanno, and producers Masahiko Minami and Yoshiyuki Takei. Most of them had previously worked together, in addition to having credits on other popular anime titles. Nobumoto had scripted Macross Plus, Kawamoto had designed the characters for Gundam, and Kanno had composed the music for Macross Plus and The Vision of Escaflowne. Yamane had not worked with Watanabe yet, but his credits in anime included Bubblegum Crisis and The Vision of Escaflowne. Minami joined the project as he wanted to do something different from his previous work on mecha anime. ===Concept=== Cowboy Bebop was Watanabe's first project as solo director, as he had been co-director in his previous works. His main inspiration for Cowboy Bebop was the first series of the anime Lupin III, a crime drama focusing on the exploits of the series' titular character. While the original dialogue of the series was kept clean to avoid any profanities, its level of sophistication was made appropriate to adults in a criminal environment. The comical episodes were harder for the team to write than the serious ones, and though several events in them seemed random, they were carefully planned in advance. The atmospheres of the planets and the ethnic groups in Cowboy Bebop mostly originated from Watanabe's ideas, with some collaboration from set designers Isamu Imakake, Shoji Kawamori, and Dai Satō. The animation staff established the particular planet atmospheres early in the production of the series before working on the ethnic groups. It was Watanabe who wanted to have several groups of ethnic diversity appear in the series. Mars was the planet most often used in Cowboy Bebop storylines, with Satoshi Toba, the cultural and setting producer, explaining that the other planets "were unexpectedly difficult to use". He stated that each planet in the series had unique features, and the producers had to take into account the characteristics of each planet in the story. For the final episode, Toba explained that it was not possible for the staff to have the dramatic rooftop scene occur on Venus, so the staff "ended up normally falling back to Mars". In creating the backstory, Watanabe envisioned a world that was "multinational rather than stateless". In spite of certain American influences in the series, he stipulated that the country had been destroyed decades prior to the story, later saying the notion of the United States as the center of the world repelled him. The guns on the show were chosen by Watanabe, and in discussion with set designer Isamu Imakake and mechanical designer Kimitoshi Yamane. Setting producer Satoshi Toba said, "They talked about how they didn't want common guns, because that wouldn't be very interesting, and so they decided on these guns." ===Music=== The music for Cowboy Bebop was composed by Yoko Kanno and comprises genres including jazz, western and jazz. According to Kanno, the music was one of the first aspects to begin production, before most of the characters, story, or animation had been finalized. The Cowboy Bebop music has been released across seven soundtrack albums, two singles and EPs, and two compilations through label Victor Entertainment. ==Distribution== ===Broadcast=== Cowboy Bebop debuted on TV Tokyo, one of the main broadcasters of anime in Japan, airing from April 3 until June 26, 1998. Due to its 6:00 p.m. timeslot and depictions of graphic violence, the show's first run only included episodes 2, 3, 7 to 15, 18 and a special. Later that year, the series was shown in its entirety from October 23 until April 24, 1999, on satellite network Wowow. The full series has also been broadcast across Japan by anime television network Animax, which has also aired the series via its respective networks across Southeast Asia, South Asia and East Asia. The first non-Asian country to air Cowboy Bebop was Italy. There, it was first aired on October 21, 1999, on MTV, where it inaugurated the 9:00–10:30 p.m. Anime Night programming block. In the United States, Cowboy Bebop was one of the programs shown when Cartoon Network's late night block Adult Swim debuted on September 2, 2001, being the first anime shown on the block that night at midnight ET. During its original run on Adult Swim, episodes 6, 8, and 22 were skipped due to their violent themes in wake of the September 11 attacks. By the third run of the series, all these episodes had premiered for the first time. Cowboy Bebop was successful enough to be broadcast repeatedly for four years. It has been run at least once every year since 2007, and HD remasters of the show began broadcasting in 2015. In the United Kingdom, it was first broadcast in 2002 on the adult-oriented channel CNX. From November 6, 2007, it was repeated on AnimeCentral until the channel's closure in August 2008. In Australia, Cowboy Bebop was first broadcast on pay television in 2002 on Adult Swim, and on free-to-air-TV on ABC2 (the national digital public television channel) on January 2, 2007. It has been repeated several times, most recently starting in 2008. Cowboy Bebop: The Movie also aired on February 23, 2009, on SBS (a hybrid-funded Australian public broadcasting television network). In Canada, Cowboy Bebop was first broadcast on December 24, 2006, on Razer. In Latin America, the series was first broadcast on pay-TV in 2001 on Locomotion. It aired again on January 9, 2016, on I.Sat. ===Home media=== Cowboy Bebop has been released in four separate editions in North America. The first release was sold in VHS format either as a box set or as seven individual tapes. The tapes were sold through Anime Village, a division of Bandai. In the late 1990s, Manga Entertainment purchased the rights to Cowboy Bebop with plans to release the English-dubbed PAL version on VHS; however, this was never realized. The second release was sold in 2000 individually, and featured uncut versions of the original 26 episodes. In 2001, these DVDs were collected in the special edition Perfect Sessions which included the first 6 DVDs, the first Cowboy Bebop soundtrack, and a collector's box. At the time of release, the art box from the Perfect Sessions was made available for purchase on The Right Stuff International as a solo item for collectors who already owned the series. The third release, The Best Sessions, was sold in 2002 and featured what Bandai considered to be the best 6 episodes of the series remastered in Dolby Digital 5.1 and DTS surround sound. The fourth release, Cowboy Bebop Remix, was also distributed on 6 discs and included the original 26 uncut episodes, with sound remastered in Dolby Digital 5.1 and video remastered under the supervision of Shinichirō Watanabe. This release also included various extras that were not present in the original release. Cowboy Bebop Remix was itself collected as the Cowboy Bebop Remix: The Complete Collection in 2008. In December 2012, newly founded distributor Anime Limited announced via Facebook and Twitter that they had acquired the home video license for the United Kingdom. Part 1 of the Blu-ray collection was released on July 29, 2013, while Part 2 was released on October 14. The standard DVD Complete Collection was originally meant to be released on September 23, 2013, with Part 2 of the Blu-ray release but due to mastering and manufacturing errors, the Complete Collection was delayed until November 27. Following the closure of Bandai Entertainment in 2012, Funimation and Sunrise had announced that they rescued Cowboy Bebop, along with a handful of other former Bandai Entertainment properties, for home video and digital release. Funimation released the series on Blu-ray and DVD on December 16, 2014. The series was released in four separate editions: standard DVD, standard Blu-ray, an Amazon.com exclusive Blu-ray/DVD combo, and a Funimation.com exclusive Blu-ray/DVD combo. Crunchyroll released a limited edition Blu-ray box set on April 4, 2023, for its 25th anniversary. ===Streaming=== Netflix acquired the streaming rights to the original anime, with all 26 episodes available worldwide as of October 21, 2021. Though, as of October 21, 2023, the show is unavailable in the United States and Canada. The series is available on Hulu and Funimation in the United States. On March 1, 2022, the anime became available on Crunchyroll to consolidate both Funimation and Wakanim into the service. ==Related media== ===Manga=== Two Cowboy Bebop manga series adaptations have been released, both published by Kadokawa Shoten and serialized in Asuka Fantasy DX. The first manga series, titled Cowboy Bebop: Shooting Star and illustrated by Cain Kuga, was serialized from October issue 1997, before the anime series' release, to July issue 1998. It was collected into two volumes in 1998, the first one in May and the second one in September. The second manga series, simply titled Cowboy Bebop and illustrated by , was serialized from November issue 1998 to March issue 2000. Both manga series were licensed by Tokyopop for release in North America. ===Video games=== A Cowboy Bebop video game, developed and published by Bandai, was released in Japan for the PlayStation on May 14, 1998. A PlayStation 2 video game, Cowboy Bebop: Tsuioku no Serenade, was released in Japan on August 25, 2005, and an English version had been set for release in North America. However, in January 2007, IGN reported that the release had likely been cancelled, speculating that it did not survive Bandai's merger with Namco to Bandai Namco Games. In 2022, Cowboy Bebop made its debut in the Bandai Namco crossover game Super Robot Wars T, which is traditionally focused on turn-based mecha combat. In 2024, skins based on Cowboy Bebop characters were added to Blizzard Entertainment's first-person shooter Overwatch 2. In 2025, skins based on Cowboy Bebop characters Spike Spiegel and Faye Valentine were added to Epic Games' Fortnite Battle Royale. ===Film=== An anime film titled , known in English as Cowboy Bebop: The Movie, was released in Japan in September 2001 and in the United States in August 2002. On July 22, 2008, If published an article on its website regarding a rumor of a live-action Cowboy Bebop movie in development by 20th Century Fox. Producer Erwin Stoff said that the film's development was in the early stages, and that they had "just signed it". Keanu Reeves was to play the role of Spike Spiegel. Variety confirmed on January 15, 2009, that production company Sunrise Animation would be "closely involved with the development of the English-language project". The site also confirmed Kenji Uchida, Shinichirō Watanabe and series writer Keiko Nobumoto as associate producers, series producer Masahiko Minami as a production consultant, and Peter Craig as screenwriter. This was lauded by various sources as a promising move for the potential quality of the film. At the time it was slated to release in 2011, but problems with the budget delayed its production. The submitted script was sent back for rewrite to reduce the cost and little has been heard about it since an interview with producer Joshua Long on October 15, 2010; the project currently languishes in development hell. On October 25, 2014, series director Watanabe was asked about the live-action film at the MCM London Comic Con. He stated: "I'm afraid I don't know what they're thinking in Hollywood. Apparently the project hasn't come to a stop but I don't know how it's going to progress from here on. I hear that there are a lot of 'Hollywood' problems." ===Live-action series=== In 2017, it was announced that an American live-action adaptation of the series was being developed by Tomorrow Studios, a partnership between Marty Adelstein and ITV Studios, with executive production by Sunrise Inc. Christopher Yost was to write the series, and Netflix announced that it would distribute it. On April 4, 2019, Variety reported that John Cho, Mustafa Shakir, Daniella Pineda and Alex Hassell had been cast. Production was shut down in October 2019 due to a knee injury sustained by Cho, setting production back by more than six months. On April 17, 2020, it was revealed that the episodes would be an hour long. On May 19, 2020, Adelstein revealed that there were three finished episodes and that they had shot at least six episodes before Cho's knee injury. In the same interview it was revealed that the director of the anime series, Shinichirō Watanabe, had been hired as a creative consultant. Production in New Zealand resumed on September 30, 2020, following a COVID-19 lockdown in the country. The series was released on November 19, 2021, to mixed reviews. On December 9, 2021, it was announced that it would not be renewed for a second season, with Netflix cancelling it entirely. ===Other media=== An official side story titled Cowboy Bebop: UT tells the story of Ural and Victoria Terpsichore (V.T. from the session "Heavy Metal Queen") when they were bounty-hunters. The story was available in its own official site, however the website was closed and is currently available at the site mirror. A deck-building board game, Cowboy Bebop: Space Serenade, was released in 2019. ==Reception== ===Critical reception=== Cowboy Bebop received unanimous acclaim, beginning at the time of its initial broadcast. Beginning in 1998, Japanese critic Keith Rhee highlighted the series as a standout in an otherwise "run-of-the-mill" season, praising its overall production values, and singling out Kanno's soundtrack as "a much-welcome change from all the sugary J-pop tunes of most anime features". Rhee also highlighted the show's Japanese "all-star cast", In 1999, Australian magazine Hyper reviewed the anime and rated it 9.5 out of 10. Anime News Networks Mike Crandol gave the series an 'A+' rating for the dubbed version, and an 'A' rating for the subbed version. He characterized the series as "one of the most popular and respected anime titles in history", before adding that it was "a unique television show which skillfully transcends all kinds of genres". Crandol praised its characters as "some of the most endearing characters to ever grace an anime", and commended the voice acting, especially the "flawless English cast". He also complimented the series' "movie-quality" animation, "sophisticated" writing, and its "incredible" musical score. Crandol hailed Cowboy Bebop as a "landmark" anime "that will be remembered long after many others have been forgotten", and went on to call it "one of the greatest anime titles ever". Additionally, Michael Toole of Anime News Network named Cowboy Bebop as one of the most important anime of the 1990s. T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews gave the entire series a perfect score of 5 out of 5 stars, with reviewer Christina Carpenter believing Cowboy Bebop as "one of the best [anime]" and touting it as a masterpiece that "puts most anime...and Hollywood, to shame". She described it as a "very stylish, beautifully crafted series that deserves much more attention than it gets". Carpenter praised the animation as "a rarity and a marvel to behold" and that it was "beyond superb", and the plot and characterization as having "a sophistication and subtlety that is practically one-of-a-kind". She also praised the soundtrack, and hailed the opening theme as one of the best intro pieces she had ever heard. Carpenter went to say that Bebop was a "must-have for any serious collector of Japanese animation". In his article "Asteroid Blues: The Lasting Legacy of Cowboy Bebop", The Atlantic writer Alex Suskind states, "On paper, Cowboy Bebop, the legendary cult anime series from Shinichirō Watanabe, reads like something John Wayne, Elmore Leonard, and Philip K. Dick came up with during a wild, all-night whiskey bender." He goes on to write, "The response from critics and fans may have sounded hyperbolic—the word 'masterpiece' was thrown around a great deal—but the praise was justified. First-time solo director Watanabe had created a gorgeous tale of morality, romance, and violence–a dark look at the lives of outlaws that's shot like an independent film." In January 2015, television writer Kyle Mills of DVD Talk awarded the series five stars upon review. He stated, "Regardless of the medium, be it live action television, film, or animation, Cowboy Bebop is simply one of the finest examples of storytelling ever created." In his review, he describes the finale as "one of the best in television history", referring to it as a "widely revered" ending that "still sparks fan conversation, resonating with viewers 15 years on". He closes by writing, "Cowboy Bebop ends with a bang." In his 2018 review of the series, Paste critic John Maher wrote, "It feels like a magnum opus produced at the pinnacle of a long career despite being, almost unbelievably, Watanabe's first series as a director. It is a masterwork that should justly rank among the best works of television of all time." It was also placed at #1 on the publication's list of the "50 Best Anime Series of All Time". On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 100% based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Blending a head-spinning array of genres and references, Cowboy Bebop is an anime television classic that must be experienced." In an April 2019 interview with Diego Molano, creator of Victor & Valentino, he said that Cowboy Bebop was the first anime he "obsessed over", as he spent time tracking down VHS tapes of the show in high school. He also argued that this series showed him "how cinematic and emotional animation can be". ===Accolades=== In the 1999 Anime Grand Prix awards for the anime of 1998, Cowboy Bebop won two first place awards: Spike Spiegel was awarded the best male character; and Megumi Hayashibara was awarded the best voice actor for her role as Faye Valentine. Cowboy Bebop also received rankings in other categories: the series itself was awarded the second best anime series; Faye Valentine and Ed were ranked the fifth and ninth best female characters respectively; "Tank!" and "The Real Folk Blues" were ranked the third and fifteenth best songs respectively; and "Ballad of Fallen Angels", "Speak Like a Child", "Jamming with Edward" and "Mish-Mash Blues" were ranked the second, eighth, eighteenth and 20th best episodes respectively. In the 2000 Anime Grand Prix awards for the anime of 1999, Cowboy Bebop won the same two first place awards again: best male character for Spike Spiegel; and best voice actor for Megumi Hayashibara. Other rankings the series received are: second best anime series; sixth best female character for Faye Valentine; seventh and twelfth best song for "Tank!" and "Blue" respectively; and third and seventeenth best episode for "The Real Folk Blues (Part 2)" and "Hard Luck Woman" respectively. In the 2000 Seiun Awards, Cowboy Bebop was awarded for Best Media of the Year. A 2004 poll in Newtype USA, the US edition of the Japanese magazine Newtype, asked its readers to vote the "Top 25 Anime Titles of All Time"; Cowboy Bebop ranked second on the list (after Neon Genesis Evangelion), placing it as one of the most socially relevant and influential anime series ever created. During that same year, Cinefantastique listed the anime as one of the "10 Essential Animations", citing the series' "gleeful mix of noir-style, culture-hopping inclusiveness and music". In 2007, the American Anime magazine Anime Insider listed the "50 Best Anime Ever" by compiling lists of industry regulars and magazine staff, and ranked Cowboy Bebop as the #1 anime of all time. In 2012, Madman Entertainment compiled the votes of fans online for "The Top 20 Madman Anime Titles" and ranked Cowboy Bebop at seventh. Cowboy Bebop has been featured in several lists published by IGN. In the 2009 "Top 100 Animated TV Series" list, Cowboy Bebop, labelled as "a very original – and arguably one of the best – anime", was placed fourteenth, making it the second highest ranking anime on the list (after Evangelion) and one of the most influential series of the 1990s. In 2011, Bebop was ranked 29th in the "Top 50 Sci-Fi TV Shows" list, once again being the second highest ranking anime on the list (after Evangelion). In 2006, Cowboy Bebops soundtrack was ranked first in "Top Ten Anime Themes and Soundtracks of All-Time" list, with the series being commented as "one of the best anime ever and certainly is tops when it comes to music." Spike Spiegel was ranked fourth place in the "Top 25 Anime Characters of All Time" article. IGN Movies also placed Cowboy Bebop in their list of "10 Cartoon Adaptations We'd Like to See". ===Analysis=== The series has been subject to study and analysis since its debut, with the main focus being on its style and mixture of genres. Miguel Douglas, describing the series style in a review, said that "the series distinctly establishes itself outside the realm of conventional Japanese animation and instead chooses to forge its own path. With a setting within the realm of science fiction, the series wisely offers a world that seems entirely realistic considering our present time. Free from many of the elements that accompany science fiction in general—whether that be space aliens, giant robots, or laser guns—the series delegates itself towards presenting a world that is quite similar to our own albeit showcasing some technological advances." Daryl Surat of Otaku USA, commenting on the series' appeal, said that it was "that rare breed of science-fiction: 'accessible'. Unlike many anime titles, viewers weren't expected to have knowledge of Japanese culture—character names, signs, and the like were primarily in English to begin with—or have seen any other anime series prior." Michelle Onley Pirkle, in her book Science Fiction Film, Television, and Adaptation: Across the Screens, said that "Cowboy Bebop is taking a new take on genre, not by creating unique images and sounds, but by playing 'freely' with, 'remixing', or adapting the images and sounds of other familiar genres in a dynamic way." Robert Baigent, writing for the Graduate Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies, said that the series' appeal likely stemmed from the trend in anime to emulate Western fiction. American film director, screenwriter, and producer Rian Johnson has cited Cowboy Bebop as a visual influence on his films, most notably Brick. Ender's Game writer Orson Scott Card also praised the series. He states that the series is "better than most sci-fi films out there". He goes on to say that he "found this series brilliant, but what held me was a combination of strong relationship-based storytelling, a moody visual style that never got old and really smart dialogue". In a more recent interview from 2006 with The Daily Texan, Watanabe was asked if there would ever be more Cowboy Bebop. Watanabe's answer was "someday...maybe, someday". In May 2020, composer Mason Lieberman partnered with Sunrise and Funimation to produce an official Cowboy Bebop charity track for COVID-19 relief. This track was released on vinyl and featured the return of original series composer Yōko Kanno, original recording band The Seatbelts, and a collection of forty other special musical guests. ==Explanatory notes==	[ "Adult Swim (Australian TV programming block)", "con artist", "Cowboy Bebop (2021 TV series)", "Christopher Yost", "Shōjo manga", "Brick (film)", "Hong Kong", "environmentalism", "Madman Entertainment", "Cartoon Network", "Hulu", "comedy", "creative consultant", "Rotten Tomatoes", "Vicious (Cowboy Bebop)", "Bandai Visual", "Overwatch 2", "Eine bebop", "cyberpunk", "Fortnite Battle Royale", "Genetic engineering", "Central (TV channel)", "Peter Craig", "Channel 4", "Midnight Run", "Dai Satō", "Crunchyroll", "Sci Fi Channel (Australia)", "Netflix", "Giant Bomb", "The Onion", "Wowow", "Mars", "Los Angeles Times", "New York City", "jazz", "Lupin the Third", "Super Robot Wars T", "Showcase TV", "Toshihiro Kawamoto", "Penske Media Corporation", "existential", "Anime Limited", "Lupin III", "loneliness", "Anime Grand Prix", "Culver City, California", "Toyetic", "celestial objects", "MOS:A&M", "PopMatters", "Cinema of the United States", "Deadline Hollywood", "Western film", "Terrestrial planet", "DVD Talk", "Extraterrestrial life", "Anime", "September 11 attacks", "Tokyopop", "All the Anime", "Crunchyroll LLC", "John Wayne", "Anime Classics Zettai!", "Blizzard Entertainment", "CNX (TV channel)", "Masahiko Minami", "Megumi Hayashibara", "ITV Studios", "Anime News Network", "film noir", "If (magazine)", "Animaze", "Animax (South Asia)", "Newtype", "review aggregator", "Vice (magazine)", "The A.V. Club", "Austin, Texas", "The Vision of Escaflowne", "COVID-19", "Syfy Wire", "Namco", "Daniella Pineda", "2001: A Space Odyssey (film)", "Shinichirō Watanabe", "Calabasas, California", "Hyper (magazine)", "robot", "laser gun", "Rian Johnson", "Wizard Entertainment", "Toonami", "coup d'état", "Solar System", "ABC2", "John Woo", "existentialism", "port city", "Routledge", "Julia (Cowboy Bebop)", "Kōichi Yamadera", "Philip K. Dick", "Culture of Japan", "Animax (Southeast Asia)", "AnimeCentral", "Shoji Kawamori", "Dolby Digital", "Anime Insider", "Isamu Imakake", "Erwin Stoff", "Funimation", "Victor & Valentino", "COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand", "space Western", "Spike Spiegel", "development hell", "Ganymede (moon)", "Cowboy Bebop: Tsuioku no Serenade", "Kimitoshi Yamane", "Seatbelts (band)", "JVCKenwood Victor Entertainment", "The Daily Texan", "Neon Genesis Evangelion", "Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory", "Orson Scott Card", "TeleAsia Filipino", "Twitter", "Film noir", "Monthly Asuka Fantasy DX", "Viceland", "anime", "Western music (North America)", "Variety (magazine)", "IGN", "Bruce Lee", "Bubblegum Crisis", "Otaku USA", "Lupin III (character)", "Hajime Yatate", "genre", "20th Century Fox", "Ender's Game", "Hollywood Reporter", "Tensai Okamura", "Elmore Leonard", "Asuka Fantasy DX", "Locomotion (TV channel)", "Cinefantastique", "blues", "Hero (TV channel)", "PlayStation 2", "Seiun Award", "Space Western", "Special Broadcasting Service", "DTS (sound system)", "science fiction", "I.Sat", "Sunrise (company)", "Keanu Reeves", "Poker Alice", "Keiko Nobumoto", "Razer (Canada TV)", "Cowboy Bebop: The Movie", "Animation World Network", "MTV2 (Canada)", "GMA Network", "American frontier", "Adult Swim", "Beez Entertainment", "Facebook", "Bandai Namco Games", "MCM Comic Con London", "Bandai", "TV5 (Philippines)", "Animax (Australia)", "Yoko Kanno", "Mustafa Shakir", "AnimeLab", "Edward (Cowboy Bebop)", "Unshō Ishizuka", "Lupin the 3rd Part I", "Venus", "capitalism", "TX Network", "Paste (magazine)", "Macross Plus", "Australia", "PlayStation (console)", "Japan Expo", "Deck-building game", "J-pop", "Kamikaze (Razer)", "moon", "Marty Adelstein", "boredom", "Atlantic Media", "Bounty hunter", "Aoi Tada", "Toonami (British and Irish TV channel)", "Wizard (magazine)", "Pembroke Welsh Corgi", "Neo-noir", "Bandai Entertainment", "space opera", "Eastern Time Zone", "Manga Entertainment", "Amazon (company)", "colonized", "Epic Games", "Animage", "Darker than Black", "Jet Black (Cowboy Bebop)", "MTV (Italian TV channel)", "Animax", "Kadokawa Shoten", "TV Tokyo", "Wakanim", "Glossary of video game terms", "Sony Pictures Home Entertainment", "Faye Valentine", "Star Trek", "Stone Bridge Press", "Alien (film)", "Dubbing (filmmaking)", "Animation Magazine", "Polygon (website)", "John Cho", "North America", "neo-noir", "Pulp magazine", "William Gibson", "Alex Hassell", "Crunchyroll Store Australia", "Western (genre)", "The Atlantic", "Cowboy Bebop (PlayStation game)", "The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction", "Voice acting in Japan" ]
7,342	Clement of Alexandria	Titus Flavius Clemens, also known as Clement of Alexandria (; – ), was a Christian theologian and philosopher who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Among his pupils were Origen and Alexander of Jerusalem. A convert to Christianity, he was an educated man who was familiar with classical Greek philosophy and literature. As his three major works demonstrate, Clement was influenced by Hellenistic philosophy to a greater extent than any other Christian thinker of his time, and in particular, by Plato and the Stoics. His secret works, which exist only in fragments, suggest that he was familiar with pre-Christian Jewish esotericism and Gnosticism as well. In one of his works he argued that Greek philosophy had its origin among non-Greeks, claiming that both Plato and Pythagoras were taught by Egyptian scholars. Clement is usually regarded as a Church Father. He is venerated as a saint in Coptic Christianity, Eastern Catholicism, Ethiopian Christianity, and Anglicanism. He was revered in Western Catholicism until 1586, when his name was removed from the Roman Martyrology by Pope Sixtus V on the advice of Baronius. The Eastern Orthodox Church officially stopped any veneration of Clement of Alexandria in the 10th century. Nonetheless, he is still sometimes referred to as "Saint Clement of Alexandria" by both Eastern Orthodox and Catholic authors. == Biography == Neither Clement's birthdate or birthplace is known with any degree of certainty. It is speculated that he was born sometime around 150 AD. According to Epiphanius of Salamis, he was born in Athens, but there is also a tradition of an Alexandrian birth. His parents were pagans and Clement was a convert to Christianity. In the Protrepticus he displays an extensive knowledge of Greek religion and mystery religions, which could have arisen only from the practice of his family's religion. In around 180 AD, Clement reached Alexandria, where he met Pantaenus, who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Eusebius suggests that Pantaenus was the head of the school, but controversy exists about whether the institutions of the school were formalized in this way before the time of Origen. Clement studied under Pantaenus, and was ordained to the priesthood by Pope Julian before 189. Otherwise, virtually nothing is known of Clement's personal life in Alexandria. He may have been married, a conjecture supported by his writings. During the Severian persecution of 202–203, Clement left Alexandria. In 211, Alexander of Jerusalem wrote a letter commending him to the Church of Antioch, which may imply that Clement was living in Cappadocia or Jerusalem at that time. He died at an unknown location. ==Theological works== ===Trilogy=== Three of Clement's major works have survived in full and they are collectively referred to as a trilogy: The Protrepticus (Exhortation) – written The Paedagogus (Tutor) – written After a short philosophical discussion, it opens with a history of Greek religion in seven stages. Clement suggests that at first, humans mistakenly believed the Sun, the Moon, and other heavenly bodies to be deities. The next developmental stage was the worship of the products of agriculture, from which he contends the cults of Demeter and Dionysus arose. Following Plato, Clement is critical of all forms of visual art, suggesting that artworks are but illusions and "deadly toys". Clement is supportive of women playing an active role in the leadership of the church and he provides a list of women he considers inspirational, which includes both Biblical and Classical Greek figures. It has been suggested that Clement's progressive views on gender as set out in the Paedagogus were influenced by Gnosticism, While prohibiting drunkenness, he promotes the drinking of alcohol in moderation following 1 Timothy 5:23. contending that Jesus would not have contradicted the precept to "Honour thy Father and thy Mother", one of the Ten Commandments. Clement concludes that asceticism will only be rewarded if the motivation is Christian in nature, and thus the asceticism of non-Christians such as the gymnosophists is pointless. Clement begins the fourth book with a belated explanation of the disorganized nature of the work, and gives a brief description of his aims for the remaining three or four books. The fourth book focuses on martyrdom. While all good Christians should be unafraid of death, Clement condemns those who actively seek out a martyr's death, arguing that they do not have sufficient respect for God's gift of life. He is ambivalent about whether any believing Christians can become martyrs by virtue of the manner of their death, or whether martyrdom is reserved for those who have lived exceptional lives. Marcionites cannot become martyrs, because they do not believe in the divinity of God the Father, so their sufferings are in vain. There is then a digression to the subject of theological epistemology. According to Clement, there is no way of empirically testing the existence of God the Father, because the Logos has revelatory, not analysable meaning, although Christ was an object of the senses. God had no beginning, and is the universal first principle. The fifth book returns to the subject of faith. Clement argues that truth, justice, and goodness can be seen only by the mind, not the eye; faith is a way of accessing the unseeable. He stresses that knowledge of God can only be achieved through faith once one's moral faults have been corrected. This parallels Clement's earlier insistence that martyrdom can only be achieved by those who practice their faith in Christ through good deeds, not those who simply profess their faith. God transcends matter entirely, and thus the materialist cannot truly come to know God. Although Christ was God incarnate, it is spiritual, not physical comprehension of him that is important.) is the true religion and states they should be an example of what a true Christian is, even saying they are "holy and pious" and "worships the true God in a manner worthy of him". Clement then gives a description of the nature of Christ, and that of the true Christian, who aims to be as similar as possible to both the Father and the Son. Clement then criticizes the simplistic anthropomorphism of most ancient religions, quoting Xenophanes' famous description of African, Thracian, and Egyptian deities. He indicates that the Greek deities may also have had their origins in the personification of material objects: Ares representing iron, and Dionysus wine. Prayer, and the relationship between love and knowledge are then discussed. Corinthians 13:8 seems to contradict the characterization of the true Christian as one who knows; but to Clement knowledge vanishes only in that it is subsumed by the universal love expressed by the Christian in reverence for the Creator. Following Socrates, he argues that vice arises from a state of ignorance, not from intention. The Christian is a "laborer in God's vineyard", responsible both for one's own path to salvation and that of one's neighbor. The work ends with an extended passage against the contemporary divisions and heresies within the church. ===Other works=== Besides the great trilogy, Clement's only other extant work is the treatise Salvation for the Rich, also known as Who is the Rich Man who is Saved? written c. 203 AD Having begun with a scathing criticism of the corrupting effects of money and misguided servile attitudes toward the wealthy, Clement discusses the implications of Mark 10:25. According to the Eclogae Propheticae, every thousand years every member of each order moves up a degree, and thus humans can become angels. Even the protoctists can be elevated, although their new position in the hierarchy is not clearly defined. In the same work, Eusebius cites Alexander of Jerusalem (180–251) lauding “the holy Clement, who was both my master and benefactor,” describing him as one of the “blessed fathers who have trod the path before us,” while Eusebius himself is quoted as calling him “an incomparable master of Christian philosophy.” Jerome (342–420) calls Clement “the most learned of men,” recording that his writings are “full of eloquence and learning, both in sacred Scripture and in secular literature.” The aforementioned Alexander of Jerusalem is quoted by Jerome praising “the blessed presbyter Clement, a man illustrious and approved.” According to Theodoret (393–450), “he surpassed all others, and was a holy man.” Likewise, Cyril of Alexandria (376–444) says Clement was “a man admirably learned and skillful, and one that searched to the depths all the learning of the Greeks, with an exactness rarely attained before.” Maximus the Confessor (580–662) refers to him reverentially as “the great Clement.” More recently, scholars have acknowledged Clement's primacy and importance in various respects. He has been called “the first Christian scholar” (Shelley), “the first systematic teacher of Christian doctrine” (Patrick), “the first great teacher of philosophical Christianity” (Hatch), “the first self-conscious theologian and ethicist” (Backhouse), “the first great Christian teacher in Alexandria” (Needham), “the founder of Christian philosophical theology” (Bray), “the true creator of ecclesiastical theology” (DeFaye), “the first major commentator on the Bible” (Bray), “the founder of Christian literature” (ANF), “the great founder of the Alexandrian School” (Coxe), a “pioneer of Christian scholarship” (ACCS), “an intellectual giant in the early church” (Kruger), “that man of genius who introduced Christianity to itself, as reflected in the burnished mirror of his intellect” (Coxe), and “the most inquisitive and independent spirit that has perhaps ever appeared in the Church” (DeFaye). Stylistically, it has been noted that “his writings shine with a happy, peaceful, optimistic spirit; reading them can be a remarkably uplifting experience” (Needham). “He loves God’s creation and sees it as good; he gives us a warm, joyous picture of life; he is richly human, sane, and moderate” (Ferguson). Additionally, Clement's works “are a storehouse of curious ancient lore—a museum of the fossil remains of the beauties and monstrosities of the world of pagan antiquity, during all the epochs and phases of its history” (Wilson). “His prodigious erudition was unsurpassed even by that of Origen” (Cayre). “I do not know where we shall look for a purer or a truer man than this Clemens of Alexandria; he seems to me one of the old fathers whom we should all have reverenced most as a teacher, and loved best as a friend” (Maurice). Nonetheless, there have been a few detracting voices. Photios I of Constantinople writes polemically against Clement's theology in the Bibliotheca, although he also is appreciative of Clement's learning and the literary merits of his work. In particular, he is highly critical of the Hypotyposes, a work of biblical exegesis of which only a few fragments have survived. Photios compared Clement's treatise, which, like his other works, was highly syncretic, featuring ideas of Hellenistic, Jewish, and Gnostic origin, unfavorably against the prevailing orthodoxy of the 9th century. Amongst the particular ideas Photios deemed heretical were: The belief that matter and thought are eternal, and thus did not originate from God, contradicting the doctrine of Creatio ex nihilo. The belief in cosmic cycles predating the creation of the world, following Heraclitus, which is extra-Biblical in origin. The belief that Christ, as Logos, was in some sense created, contrary to John 1, but following Philo. Ambivalence toward docetism, the heretical doctrine that Christ's earthly body was an illusion. The belief that Eve was created from Adam's sperm after he ejaculated during the night The belief that Genesis 6:2 implies that angels indulged in sexual intercourse with human women. The belief in reincarnation, i.e., the transmigration of souls. However, it is not clear that these are accurate representations of Clement's actual beliefs, since his extant writings appear to be mostly in line with what would come to be considered orthodox Christian theology. It has been suggested that Photios may have misunderstood Clement to be speaking for himself when he was often quoting from Gnostics and other sects without agreeing with their teachings. As one of the earliest of the Church fathers whose works have survived, he is the subject of a significant amount of recent academic work, focusing on, among other things, his exegesis of scripture, his Logos-theology and pneumatology, his belief in apokatastasis, the relationship between his thought and non-Christian philosophy, and his influence on Origen. === Veneration === Up until the 17th century Clement was venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church. His name was to be found in the martyrologies, and his feast fell on the fourth of December, but when the Roman Martyrology was revised by Pope Clement VIII his name was dropped from the calendar on the advice of Cardinal Baronius. Benedict XIV maintained this decision of his predecessor on the grounds that Clement's life was little known, that he had never obtained public cultus in the Church, and that some of his doctrines were, if not erroneous, at least suspect. Although Clement is not widely venerated in Eastern Christianity, the Prologue of Ohrid repeatedly refers to him as a saint, as do various Orthodox authorities including the Greek Metropolitan Kallinikos of Edessa. The Coptic tradition considers Clement a saint. Saint Clement Coptic Orthodox Christian Academy in Nashville, Tennessee, is specifically named after him. Clement is commemorated in Anglicanism. == Theology == === Gnosis === Clement taught that faith was the basis of salvation; he also believed that faith was the basis of gnosiswhich to him meant spiritual and mystical knowledge. Clement of Alexandria appropriated the word gnosis from the Gnostics (whom he opposed) but reinterpreted the word in a more Christian manner. === Philosophy === Clement suggested that philosophy was a preparatory discipline to the Greek world preceding its wide acceptance of Christianity and often sought to harmonize insights of Greek philosophy with biblical teaching. He defined philosophy as "the desire for true being and the studies which lead to it." Clement has been described as "the founder of what was to become the great tradition of Christian philosophical theology." He was a forerunner to some of the later views of Augustine, such as just war theory and the theory of the two cities. as one of the first Christian universalists; he espoused a belief in the eventual salvation of every person (though not with the level of systematic clarity of his disciple Origen). Clement believed divine punishment to be corrective and remedial rather than merely retributive or destructive. He writes, "[God] destroys no one but gives salvation to all." "He bestows salvation on all mankind." "He indeed saves all universally—some as converted by punishments, others by voluntary submission with dignity of honor—that to Him every knee shall bow, both of beings in heaven, and on earth, and under the earth; that is, angels, and men, and souls departed this life." "God's punishments are saving and disciplinary, leading to conversion; choosing rather the repentance than the death of a sinner." "I will grant that He punishes the disobedient, for punishment is for the good and advantage of him who is punished, for it is the correction of a refractory subject." "For all things are arranged with a view to the salvation of the universe by the Lord of the universe, both generally and particularly." === Education === For Clement, disciplining the body would help the Christian discipline the soul; he gave detailed instructions on proper Christian conduct, decorum, and relationships in the second and third books of The Instructor. According to Clement, once the passions are subject to the authority of the Word (or reason), the Christian can embark on an advanced course of philosophical study and contemplation. Clement adopted a position that gave rise to a whole stream of later Christian thought: true philosophy and authentic human knowledge have their origin in the Logos, which is the unique source of all truth. He accepts the conception of παιδεία as he conducts the wisdom taught by the Logos through education in the sacred letters: on the one hand, the Greek παιδεία prepares the mind of the Christian to distinguish and defend the truth, and, on the other, the liberal arts help the new Christian to direct all his efforts towards the truly useful of each particular discipline, geometry, music, grammar and philosophy. Notably (considering the time period), Clement seemed to advocate for the equality of women and men in the area of education, at least within the context of Christian spirituality and ethics. He wrote, "Let us recognize, too, that both men and women practice the same sort of virtue; surely, if there is but one God for both, then there is but one Educator for both." === Economics === Clement opposed a literal interpretation of the command "sell what you have and give to the poor," and argued that the Bible does not command every person to renounce all property, and that wealth can be used either for good or evil. Clement assumed a double creation, one of an invisible world and the second being material creation. He believed that formless matter existed before the creation of the world, being influenced by Plato. Clement tried to interpret Genesis 6 in harmony with the Book of Enoch. === Others === The first person in church history to introduce a view of an invisible and a visible church is Clement of Alexandria. Because Clement saw the Protoevangelium of James as canonical, it could imply he believed in the perpetual virginity of Mary, though some have argued that he does not seem to believe in the sinlessness of Mary. Clement of Alexandria interprets "Fire of Wisdom" which prevades the soul as by a baptism. Clement of Alexandria used the word "symbol" to define the Eucharist, and interpreted John 6 to be an allegory about faith, however his views on real presence are disputed. Clement of Alexandria was apparently an amillennialist. == Works == ===Editions=== Sylburg, Friedrich (ed.) (1592). Clementis Alexandrini Opera Quae Extant. Heidelberg: ex typographeio Hieronymi Commelini. Heinsius, Daniel (ed.) (1616). Clementis Alexandrini Opera Graece et Latine Quae Extant. Leiden: excudit Ioannes Patius academiae typographus. Potter, John (ed.) (1715). Clementis Alexandrini Opera, 2 vols. Oxonii: e theatro Sheldoniano. Vol. 1. Cohortatio ad gentes. Paedagogus. Stromatum I-IV. Vol. 2. Stromatum V-VIII. Quis dives salvetur. Excerpta Theodoti. Prophetarum ecologiae. Fragmenta. Klotz, Reinhold (ed.) (1831–34). Titi Flaui Clementis Alexandrini Opera Omnia, 4 vols. Leipzig: E. B. Schwickert. Vol. 1. Ρrotrepticus. Paedagogus. Vol. 2. Stromatorum I-IV. Vol. 3. Stromatourm V-VIII. Quis dives salvetur. Vol. 4. Fragmenta. Scholia. Annotationes. Indices. Migne, J.-P. (ed.) (1857). Clementis Alexandrini Opera Quae Exstant Omnia, 2 toms. (= PG 8, 9) Paris: J.-P. Migne. Tom. 1. Cohortatio ad gentes. Paedagogus. Stromata I-IV. Tom. 2. Stromata V-VIII. Quis dives salvetur. Fragmenta. Dindorf, Wilhelm (ed.) (1869). Clementis Alexandrini Opera, 4 vols. Oxonni: e typographeo Clarendoniano. Vol. 1. Ρrotrepticus. Paedagogus. Vol. 2. Stromatum I-IV. Vol. 3. Stromatum V-VIII. Vol. 4. Annotationes. Interpretum. Barnard, P. Mourdant (ed.) (1897). Clement of Alexandria, Quis dives salvetur. Texts and Studies 5/2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. de:Otto Stählin (ed.) (1905–36). Clemens Alexandrinus, 4 bds. (= GCS 12, 15, 17, 39) Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs. Bd. 1. Ρrotrepticus und Paedagogus. Bd. 2. Stromata I-VI. Bd. 3. Stromata VII-VIII. Excerpta ex Theodoto. Eclogae prophetica. Quis dives salvetur. Fragmente. Bd. 4. Register. Marcovich, Miroslav and Jacobus C. M. van Winden (eds.) (2002). Clementis Alexandrini Paedagogus. Leiden: Brill. ===Translations=== Wilson, William (trans.) (1867). "The Writings of Clement of Alexandria". In Ante-Nicene Fathers, ed. A. Roberts, et al., 2:163–629. (Reprint 1905) New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Barnard, P. Mourdant (trans.) (1901). A Homily of Clement of Alexandria, Entitled: Who is the Rich Man that is being Saved? London: SPCK. Hort, F. J. A. and Joseph B. Mayor (eds. & trans.) (1902). Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies Book VII. London: Macmillan. Patrick, John (1914). Clement of Alexandria, 183-85. Edinburgh: Wm. Blackwood. (Exhortation to Endurance, or, To the Newly Baptized; cf. Butterworth 1919, 371 ff.) Butterworth, G. W. (ed. & trans.) (1919). Clement of Alexandria, Exhortation to the Greeks, Rich Man's Salvation, etc. (= LCL 92) Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Casey, Robert Pierce (ed. & trans.) (1936). The Excerpta ex Theodoto of Clement of Alexandria. Studies and Documents 1. London: Christophers. Oulton, J. E. L. and Henry Chadwick (trans.) (1954). Alexandrian Christianity, 40–165. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. (Miscellanies, Books III, VII) Wood, Simon P. (trans.) (1954). Clement of Alexandria, Christ the Educator. Fathers of the Church 23. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. Ferguson, John (trans.) (1991). Clement of Alexandria, Stromateis, Books 1–3. Fathers of the Church 85. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press.	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7,344	Cogito, ergo sum	The Latin , usually translated into English as "I think, therefore I am", is the "first principle" of René Descartes's philosophy. He originally published it in French as , in his 1637 Discourse on the Method, so as to reach a wider audience than Latin would have allowed. It later appeared in Latin in his Principles of Philosophy, and a similar phrase also featured prominently in his Meditations on First Philosophy. The dictum is also sometimes referred to as the cogito. As Descartes explained in a margin note, "we cannot doubt of our existence while we doubt." In the posthumously published The Search for Truth by Natural Light, he expressed this insight as ("I doubt, therefore I am — or what is the same — I think, therefore I am"). Antoine Léonard Thomas, in a 1765 essay in honor of Descartes presented it as ("I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am"). Descartes's statement became a fundamental element of Western philosophy, as it purported to provide a certain foundation for knowledge in the face of radical doubt. While other knowledge could be a figment of imagination, deception, or mistake, Descartes asserted that the very act of doubting one's own existence served—at minimum—as proof of the reality of one's own mind; there must be a thinking entity—in this case the self—for there to be a thought. One critique of the dictum, first suggested by Pierre Gassendi, is that it presupposes that there is an "I" which must be doing the thinking. According to this line of criticism, the most that Descartes was entitled to say was that "thinking is occurring", not that "I am thinking". == In Descartes's writings == Descartes first wrote the phrase in French in his 1637 Discourse on the Method. He referred to it in Latin without explicitly stating the familiar form of the phrase in his 1641 Meditations on First Philosophy. The earliest written record of the phrase in Latin is in his 1644 Principles of Philosophy, where, in a margin note (see below), he provides a clear explanation of his intent: "[W]e cannot doubt of our existence while we doubt". Fuller forms of the phrase are attributable to other authors. === Discourse on the Method === The phrase first appeared (in French) in Descartes's 1637 Discourse on the Method in the first paragraph of its fourth part: === Meditations on First Philosophy === In 1641, Descartes published (in Latin) Meditations on first philosophy in which he referred to the proposition, though not explicitly as "cogito, ergo sum" in Meditation II: }} === "" or ""? === Peter J. Markie notes: "Descartes stresses the first person in his premise twice in the Principles and once in his Reply to Mersenne. . . . . (AT VIII, 7; AT VIII, 8; AT VII, 140)" and adds "It is unlikely that Descartes would stress the first person in his premise, if he wanted us to read the premise as 'Thought is taking place' rather than 'I think.'" Gary Hatfield writes: "[I]n Latin the first-person voice need not be expressed through a separate pronoun, but may be included in the verb form; nonetheless, Descartes used the Latin first-person pronoun more than thirty times in the six Meditations." === Other forms === The proposition is sometimes given as . This form was penned by the French literary critic, Antoine Léonard Thomas, in an award-winning 1765 essay in praise of Descartes, where it appeared as "" ('Since I doubt, I think; since I think, I exist'). With rearrangement and compaction, the passage translates to "I doubt, therefore I think, therefore I am," or in Latin, "dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum." This has been referred to as "the expanded cogito." He wrote cogito, ergo sum, res cogitans and cogito, inquiro, dubito ergo sum as well as cogito, ergo sum (multiple times) in his 1652 De Scepticismo.}} == Translation == === "I am thinking" vs. "I think" === While the Latin cōgitō may be translated rather easily as "I think/ponder/visualize", does not indicate whether the verb form corresponds to the English simple present ("think") or progressive aspect ("is thinking"). Following John Lyons (1982), Vladimir Žegarac notes, "The temptation to use the simple present is said to arise from the lack of progressive forms in Latin and French, and from a misinterpretation of the meaning of cogito as habitual or generic" (cf. gnomic aspect). Also following Lyons, Ann Banfield writes, "In order for the statement on which Descartes's argument depends to represent certain knowledge,… its tense must be a true present—in English, a progressive,… not as 'I think' but as 'I am thinking, in conformity with the general translation of the Latin or French present tense in such nongeneric, nonstative contexts." Or in the words of Simon Blackburn, "Descartes's premise is not 'I think' in the sense of 'I ski', which can be true even if you are not at the moment skiing. It is supposed to be parallel to 'I am skiing'." The similar translation "I am thinking, therefore I exist" of Descartes's correspondence in French (", ") appears in The Philosophical Writings of Descartes by Cottingham et al. (1988). Fumitaka Suzuki writes "Taking consideration of Cartesian theory of continuous creation, which theory was developed especially in the Meditations and in the Principles, we would assure that 'I am thinking, therefore I am/exist' is the most appropriate English translation of 'ego cogito, ergo sum'." === "I exist" vs. "I am" === Alexis Deodato S. Itao notes that is "literally 'I think, therefore I am'." Others differ: 1) "[A] precise English translation will read as 'I am thinking, therefore I exist'; and 2) "[S]ince Descartes ... emphasized that existence is such an important 'notion,' a better translation is 'I am thinking, therefore I exist.'" === Punctuation === Descartes wrote this phrase as such only once, in the posthumously published lesser-known work noted above, The Search for Truth by Natural Light.}} but were a regular feature of scholastic Latin, the Latin Descartes "had learned in a Jesuit college at La Flèche.") Most modern reference works show it with a comma, but it is often presented without a comma in academic work and in popular usage. In Descartes's Principia Philosophiae, the proposition appears as ego cogito, ergo sum. == Interpretation == As put succinctly by Krauth (1872), "That cannot doubt which does not think, and that cannot think which does not exist. I doubt, I think, I exist." At the beginning of the second meditation, having reached what he considers to be the ultimate level of doubt—his argument from the existence of a deceiving god—Descartes examines his beliefs to see if any have survived the doubt. In his belief in his own existence, he finds that it is impossible to doubt that he exists. Even if there were a deceiving god (or an evil demon), one's belief in their own existence would be secure, for there is no way one could be deceived unless one existed in order to be deceived. There are three important notes to keep in mind here. First, he claims only the certainty of his own existence from the first-person point of view — he has not proved the existence of other minds at this point. This is something that has to be thought through by each of us for ourselves, as we follow the course of the meditations. Second, he does not say that his existence is necessary; he says that if he thinks, then necessarily he exists (see the instantiation principle). Third, this proposition "I am, I exist" is held true not based on a deduction (as mentioned above) or on empirical induction but on the clarity and self-evidence of the proposition. Descartes does not use this first certainty, the cogito, as a foundation upon which to build further knowledge; rather, it is the firm ground upon which he can stand as he works to discover further truths. As he puts it: According to many Descartes specialists, including Étienne Gilson, the goal of Descartes in establishing this first truth is to demonstrate the capacity of his criterion — the immediate clarity and distinctiveness of self-evident propositions — to establish true and justified propositions despite having adopted a method of generalized doubt. As a consequence of this demonstration, Descartes considers science and mathematics to be justified to the extent that their proposals are established on a similarly immediate clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence that presents itself to the mind. The originality of Descartes's thinking, therefore, is not so much in expressing the cogito—a feat accomplished by other predecessors, as we shall see—but on using the cogito as demonstrating the most fundamental epistemological principle, that science and mathematics are justified by relying on clarity, distinctiveness, and self-evidence. Baruch Spinoza in "Principia philosophiae cartesianae" at its Prolegomenon identified "cogito ergo sum" the "ego sum cogitans" (I am a thinking being) as the thinking substance with his ontological interpretation. == Predecessors == Although the idea expressed in cogito, ergo sum is widely attributed to Descartes, he was not the first to mention it. In the late sixth or early fifth century BC, Parmenides is quoted as saying "For to be aware and to be are the same". (Fragment B3) Plato spoke about the "knowledge of knowledge" (Greek: νόησις νοήσεως, nóesis noéseos) and Aristotle explains the idea in full length: The Cartesian statement was interpreted to be an Aristotelian syllogism where the premise that all thinkers are also beings is not made explicit. In the early fifth century AD, Augustine of Hippo in De Civitate Dei (book XI, 26) affirmed his certain knowledge of his own existence, and added: "So far as these truths are concerned, I do not at all fear the arguments of the Academics when they say, What if you are mistaken? For if I am mistaken, I exist." This formulation () is sometimes called the Augustinian . In 1640, Descartes wrote to thank Andreas Colvius (a friend of Descartes's mentor, Isaac Beeckman) for drawing his attention to Augustine: {{blockquote\|I am obliged to you for drawing my attention to the passage of St Augustine relevant to my I am thinking, therefore I exist. I went today to the library of this town to read it, and I do indeed find that he does use it to prove the certainty of our existence. He goes on to show that there is a certain likeness of the Trinity in us, in that we exist, we know that we exist, and we love the existence and the knowledge we have. I, on the other hand, use the argument to show that this I which is thinking is an immaterial substance with no bodily element. These are two very different things. In itself it is such a simple and natural thing to infer that one exists from the fact that one is doubting that it could have occurred to any writer. But I am very glad to find myself in agreement with St Augustine, if only to hush the little minds who have tried to find fault with the principle. The 8th century Hindu philosopher Adi Shankara wrote, in a similar fashion, that no one thinks 'I am not', arguing that one's existence cannot be doubted, as there must be someone there to doubt. Spanish philosopher Gómez Pereira in his 1554 work Antoniana Margarita, wrote "nosco me aliquid noscere, & quidquid noscit, est, ergo ego sum" ('I know that I know something, anyone who knows is, therefore I am'). == Critique == === Use of "I" === In Descartes, The Project of Pure Enquiry, English philosopher Bernard Williams provides a history and full evaluation of this issue. as noted by Saul Fisher, "points out that recognition that one has a set of thoughts does not imply that one is a particular thinker or another. …[T]he only claim that is indubitable here is the agent-independent claim that there is cognitive activity present." The objection, as presented by Georg Lichtenberg, is that rather than supposing an entity that is thinking, Descartes should have said: "thinking is occurring." That is, whatever the force of the cogito, Descartes draws too much from it; the existence of a thinking thing, the reference of the "I," is more than the cogito can justify. Friedrich Nietzsche criticized the phrase in that it presupposes that there is an "I", that there is such an activity as "thinking", and that "I" know what "thinking" is. He suggested a more appropriate phrase would be "it thinks" wherein the "it" could be an impersonal subject as in the sentence "It is raining." === Søren Kierkegaard === The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard called the phrase a tautology in his Concluding Unscientific Postscript. Here, the cogito has already assumed the "I"'s existence as that which thinks. For Kierkegaard, Descartes is merely "developing the content of a concept", namely that the "I", which already exists, thinks. As Kierkegaard argues, the proper logical flow of argument is that existence is already assumed or presupposed in order for thinking to occur, not that existence is concluded from that thinking. === Bernard Williams === Williams himself claimed that what we are dealing with when we talk of thought, or when we say "I am thinking," is something conceivable from a third-person perspective—namely objective "thought-events" in the former case, and an objective thinker in the latter. He argues, first, that it is impossible to make sense of "there is thinking" without relativizing it to something. However, this something cannot be Cartesian egos, because it is impossible to differentiate objectively between things just on the basis of the pure content of consciousness. The obvious problem is that, through introspection, or our experience of consciousness, we have no way of moving to conclude the existence of any third-personal fact, to conceive of which would require something above and beyond just the purely subjective contents of the mind. === Martin Heidegger === As a critic of Cartesian subjectivity, German philosopher Martin Heidegger sought to ground human subjectivity in death as that certainty which individualizes and authenticates our Being (Dasein). As he wrote in 1925 in History of the Concept of Time: === John Macmurray === The Scottish philosopher John Macmurray rejected the cogito outright in order to place action at the center of a philosophical system he entitled the Form of the Personal. "We must reject this, both as standpoint and as method. If this be philosophy, then philosophy is a bubble floating in an atmosphere of unreality." The reliance on thought creates an irreconcilable dualism between thought and action in which the unity of experience is lost, thus dissolving the integrity of our selves and destroying any connection with reality. In order to formulate a more adequate cogito, Macmurray proposes the substitution of "I do" for "I think," ultimately leading to a belief in God as an agent to whom all persons stand in relation. === Alfred North Whitehead === In Process and Reality, Whitehead wrote "Descartes in his own philosophy conceives the thinker as creating the occasional thought. The philosophy of organism inverts the order, and conceives the thought as a constituent operation in the creation of the occasional thinker. The thinker is the final end whereby there is the thought. In this inversion we have the final contrast between a philosophy of substance and a philosophy of organism." == In popular culture == In the short story, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, by Harlan Ellison, Gorrister, when asked what 'AM' means, says "At first it meant Allied Mastercomputer, and then it meant Adaptive Manipulator, and later on it developed sentience and linked itself up and they called it an Aggressive Menace, but by then it was too late, and finally called itself AM, emerging intelligence, and what it meant was I am ... cogito ergo sum ... I think, therefore I am." In the Japanese animated television series, Ergo Proxy, a computer virus that effects the autoreivs, the series' version of robots, known as the Cogito virus begins infecting the autoreivs, which is named such due to the fact that it makes the infected conscious, and experience emotions as a human would. In Monty Python's Bruces' Philosophers Song, one of the lyrics jokingly quotes Descarte's axiom as "I drink therefore I am." In the episode "Work Experience" of The Office, David Brent says, "We are the most efficient branch, cogito ergo sum, we'll be fine." In the video game Honkai: Star Rail, Dr. Ratio (real name Veritas Ratio), a playable character and, according to in-game lore, a philosopher, has a skill, named "Cogito, Ergo Sum".	[ "Brain in a vat", "Isaac Beeckman", "George Henry Lewes", "instantiation principle", "Monty Python", "Consciousness", "Humanity Books", "French language", "doubt", "Cartesian doubt", "Augustine of Hippo", "Bernard Williams", "John Macmurray", "Antoine Léonard Thomas", "Honkai: Star Rail", "Concluding Unscientific Postscript", "syllogism", "consciousness", "Nicomachean Ethics", "Tat Tvam Asi", "I Am that I Am", "Aristotle", "Avicenna", "Meditations on First Philosophy", "Floating man", "sentience", "Friedrich Nietzsche", "Vertiginous question", "Seventeen (American magazine)", "Western philosophy", "Greek language", "Marginalia", "Parmenides", "first principle", "wikt:unity", "Plato", "Billie Eilish", "Discourse on the Method", "logical truth", "John Lyons (linguist)", "Philosophical Fragments", "substance theory", "Georg Christoph Lichtenberg", "John Veitch (poet)", "Anime", "Gómez Pereira", "Ergo Proxy", "Tautology (logic)", "The Search for Truth by Natural Light", "Dummy pronoun", "ontology", "City of God (book)", "Archimedes", "Charles Porterfield Krauth", "simple present", "Work Experience (The Office)", "I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream", "Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)", "Bruces' Philosophers Song", "Dasein", "Therefore I Am (song)", "robot", "David Brent", "The Animal That Therefore I Am", "Gisbertus Voetius", "René Descartes", "Be, and it is", "being", "evil demon", "Ann Banfield", "Pearson Prentice Hall", "Adi Shankara", "short story", "self-awareness", "Étienne Gilson", "Principia philosophiae cartesianae", "certainty", "marginalia", "Epistemological skepticism", "Continuous and progressive aspects", "Cogito ergo sum", "Principles of Philosophy", "Marin Mersenne", "Hossein Nasr", "Pierre Gassendi", "wiktionary:paralogism", "Søren Kierkegaard", "Philosophy", "Objectivity (philosophy)", "epistemology", "Martin Heidegger", "Simon Blackburn", "dictum", "Modern French", "Cartesian Self", "Oliver Leaman", "Apperception", "The Office (British TV series)", "George Allen & Unwin Ltd", "self", "Latin", "Middle French", "existence", "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "self-consciousness", "computer virus", "Mind (journal)", "Meditations on first philosophy", "Victor Cousin", "thought experiment", "Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments", "Grammatical person", "Classical Latin", "Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan", "William Emmanuel Abraham", "Academic skepticism", "NME", "Enchiridion of Augustine", "emotion", "Baruch Spinoza", "Harlan Ellison", "Martin Schoock", "introspection", "gnomic aspect" ]
7,345	Carl Barks	Carl Barks (March 27, 1901 – August 25, 2000) was an American cartoonist, author, and painter. He is best known for his work in Disney comic books, as the writer and artist of the first Donald Duck stories and as the creator of Scrooge McDuck. He worked anonymously until late in his career; fans dubbed him "The Duck Man" and "The Good Duck Artist". In 1987, Barks was one of the three inaugural inductees of the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame. Barks worked for the Disney Studio and Western Publishing where he created Duckburg and many of its inhabitants, such as Scrooge McDuck (1947), Gladstone Gander (1948), the Beagle Boys (1951), The Junior Woodchucks (1951), Gyro Gearloose (1952), Cornelius Coot (1952), Flintheart Glomgold (1956), John D. Rockerduck (1961) and Magica De Spell (1961). He has been named by animation historian Leonard Maltin as "the most popular and widely read artist-writer in the world". Will Eisner called him "the Hans Christian Andersen of comic books." Beginning especially in the 1980s, Barks' artistic contributions would be a primary source for animated adaptations such as DuckTales and its 2017 remake. ==Biography== Barks was born near Merrill, Oregon, to William Barks and his wife, Arminta Johnson. He had an older brother named Clyde. His paternal grandparents were David Barks and his wife Ruth Shrum. Barks' maternal grandparents were Carl Johnson and his wife, Suzanna Massey, but little else is known about his ancestors. Barks was the descendant of Jacob Barks, who came to Missouri from North Carolina 1800. They lived in Marble Hill in Bollinger County. Jacob Barks' son Isaac was the father of the David Barks noted above. ===Childhood=== According to Barks's description of his childhood, he was a rather lonely child. His parents owned of land that served as their farm. The nearest neighbor lived away, but he was more an acquaintance to Barks's parents than a friend. The closest school was about away and Barks had to walk that distance every day. The rural area had few children, though, and Barks later remembered that his school had only about eight or ten students including him. He had high praise for the quality of the education he received in that small school. "Schools were good in those days," he used to say. The lessons lasted from nine o'clock in the morning to four o'clock in the afternoon and then he had to return to the farm. There he remembered not having anybody to talk to, as his parents were busy, and he had little in common with his brother. In 1908, William Barks (in an attempt to increase the family income) moved with his family to Midland, Oregon, some miles north of Merrill, to be closer to the new railway lines. He established a new stock-breeding farm and sold his produce to the local slaughterhouses. Nine-year-old Clyde and seven-year-old Carl worked long hours there. But Carl later remembered that the crowd which gathered at Midland's market place made a strong impression on him. This was expected, as he was not used to crowds up until then. According to Barks, his attention was mostly drawn to the cowboys that frequented the market with their revolvers, strange nicknames for each other and sense of humor. By 1911, they had been successful enough to move to Santa Rosa, California. There they started cultivating vegetables and set up some orchards. Unfortunately, the profits were not as high as William expected and they started having financial difficulties. William's anxiety over them was probably what caused his first nervous breakdown. As soon as William recovered, he made the decision to move back to Merrill. The year was 1913, and Barks was already 12 years old; but, due to the constant moving, he had not yet managed to complete grade school. He resumed his education at this point and finally managed to graduate in 1916. 1916 served as a turning point in Barks's life for various reasons. First, Arminta, his mother, died in this year. Second, his hearing problems, which had already appeared earlier, had at the time become severe enough for him to have difficulties listening to his teachers talking. His hearing would continue to get worse later, but at that point he had not yet acquired a hearing aid. Later in life, he couldn't do without one. Third, the closest high school to their farm was away and even if he did enroll in it, his bad hearing was likely to contribute to his learning problems. He had to decide to stop his school education, much to his disappointment. ===From job to job=== Barks started taking various jobs but had little success in such occupations as a farmer, woodcutter, turner, mule driver, cowboy and printer. From his jobs he learned, he later averred, how eccentric, stubborn and unpredictable men, animals and machines can be. At the same time he interacted with colleagues, fellow breadwinners who had satirical disposition towards even their worst troubles. Barks later declared that he was sure that if not for a little humor in their troubled lives, they would certainly go insane. It was an attitude towards life that Barks would adopt. Later he would say it was natural for him to satirize the secret yearnings and desires, the pompous style and the disappointments of his characters. According to Barks, this period of his life would later influence his best known fictional characters: Walt Disney's Donald Duck and his own Scrooge McDuck. Donald's drifting from job to job was reportedly inspired by Barks's own experiences. So was his usual lack of success. And even in those that he was successful this would be temporary, just until a mistake or chance event caused another failure, another disappointment for the frustrated duck. Barks also reported that this was another thing he was familiar with. Scrooge's main difference to Donald, according to Barks, was that he too had faced the same difficulties in his past but through intelligence, determination and hard work, he was able to overcome them. Or, as Scrooge himself would say to Huey, Dewey, and Louie: by being "tougher than the toughies and smarter than the smarties." In Barks's stories Scrooge would work to solve his many problems, even though the stories would often point out that his constant efforts seemed futile at the end. Through both characters Barks would often exhibit his rather sarcastic sense of humor. It seems that this difficult period for the artist helped shape many of his later views in life that were expressed through his characters. ===Professional artist=== At the same time Barks had started thinking about turning a hobby that he always enjoyed into a profession: that of drawing. Since his early childhood he spent his free time by drawing on any material he could find. He had attempted to improve his style by copying the drawings of his favorite comic strip artists from the newspapers where he could find them. As he later said, he wanted to create his own facial expressions, figures and comical situations in his drawings but wanted to study the master comic artists' use of the pen and their use of color and shading. Among his early favorites were Winsor McCay (mostly known for Little Nemo) and Frederick Burr Opper (mostly known for Happy Hooligan) but he would later study any style that managed to draw his attention. At age 16, he was mostly self-taught but at this point he decided to take some lessons through correspondence. He only followed the first four lessons and then had to stop because his working left him with little free time. But as he later said, the lessons proved very useful in improving his style. By December 1918, he left his father's home to attempt to find a job in San Francisco, California. He worked for a while in a small publishing house while attempting to sell his drawings to newspapers and other printed material with little success. ===First and second marriages=== While he continued drifting through various jobs, he met Pearl Turner (1904–1987). In 1921 they married and had two daughters: Peggy Barks (1923–1963) Dorothy Barks (1924–2014) In 1923 he returned to his paternal farm in Merrill in an attempt to return to the life of a farmer, but that ended soon. He continued searching for a job while attempting to sell his drawings. He soon managed to sell some of them to Judge magazine and then started having success submitting to the Minneapolis-based Calgary Eye-Opener, a racy men's cartoon magazine of the era. He was eventually hired as editor and scripted and drew most of the contents while continuing to sell occasional work to other magazines. His salary of $90 per month was considered respectable enough for the time. A facsimile of one of the racy magazines he did cartoons for in this period, Coo Coo #1, was published by Hamilton Comics in 1997. Meanwhile, he had his first divorce. He and Pearl were separated in 1929 and divorced in 1930. After he moved to Minneapolis, Minnesota, where Calgary-Eye-Opener had its offices, he met Clara Balken, who in 1938 became his second wife. ===Disney=== In November 1935, when he learned that Walt Disney was seeking more artists for his studio, Barks decided to apply. He was approved for a try-out which entailed a move to Los Angeles, California. He was one of two in his class of trainees who was hired. His starting salary was 20 dollars a week. He started at Disney Studios in 1935, more than a year after the debut of Donald Duck on June 9, 1934, in the short animated film The Wise Little Hen. Barks initially worked as an inbetweener. This involved being teamed and supervised by one of the head animators who did the key poses of character action (often known as extremes) for which the inbetweeners did the drawings between the extremes to create the illusion of movement. While an inbetweener, Barks submitted gag ideas for cartoon story lines being developed and showed such a knack for creating comical situations that by 1937 he was transferred to the story department. His first story sale was the climax of Modern Inventions, for a sequence where a robot barber chair gives Donald Duck a haircut on his bottom. In 1937, when Donald Duck became the star of his own series of cartoons instead of co-starring with Mickey Mouse and Goofy as previously, a new unit of storymen and animators was created devoted solely to this series. Though he originally just contributed gag ideas to some duck cartoons, by 1937 Barks was (principally with partner Jack Hannah) originating story ideas that were storyboarded and (if approved by Walt) put into production. He collaborated on such cartoons as Donald's Nephews (1938), Donald's Cousin Gus (1939), Mr. Duck Steps Out (1940), Timber (1941), The Vanishing Private (1942) and The Plastics Inventor (1944). ===The Good Duck Artist=== Unhappy at the emerging wartime working conditions at Disney, and bothered by ongoing sinus problems caused by the studio's air conditioning, Barks quit in 1942. Shortly before quitting, he moonlighted as a comic book artist, contributing half the artwork for a one-shot comic book (the other half of the art being done by story partner Jack Hannah) titled Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold. This 64-page story was adapted by Donald Duck comic strip writer Bob Karp from an unproduced feature, and published in October 1942 in Dell Comics Four Color Comics #9. It was the first Donald Duck story originally produced for an American comic book and also the first involving Donald and his nephews in a treasure hunting expedition, in this case for the treasure of Henry Morgan. Barks would later use the treasure hunting theme in many of his stories. This actually was not his first work in comics, as earlier the same year Barks along with Hannah and fellow storyman Nick George scripted Pluto Saves the Ship, which was among the first original Disney comic book stories published in the United States. After quitting the Disney Studio, Barks relocated to the Hemet/San Jacinto area in the semi-desert Inland Empire region east of Los Angeles where he hoped to start a chicken farm. When asked which of his stories was a favorite in several interviews Barks cited the ten-pager in Walt Disney's Comics and Stories #146 (Nov. 1952) in which Donald tells the story of the chain of unfortunate events that took place when he owned a chicken farm in a town which subsequently was renamed Omelet. Likely one reason it was a favorite is that it was inspired by Barks' own experiences in the poultry business. But to earn a living in the meantime he inquired whether Western Publishing, which had published Pirate Gold, had any need for artists for Donald Duck comic book stories. He was immediately assigned to illustrate the script for a ten-page Donald Duck story for the monthly Walt Disney's Comics and Stories. At the publisher's invitation he revised the storyline and the improvements impressed the editor sufficiently to invite Barks to try his hand at contributing both the script and the artwork of his follow-up story. This set the pattern for Barks' career in that (with rare exceptions) he provided art (pencil, inking, solid blacks and lettering) and scripting for his stories. The Victory Garden, that initial ten-page story published in April, 1943 was the first of about 500 stories featuring the Disney ducks Barks would produce for Western Publishing over the next three decades, well into his purported retirement. These can be mostly divided into three categories: One-page gag stories like "Coffee for Two" and "Sorry to be Safe". These one-pagers were usually printed in black and white (or black and white and red) on the inside front, inside back, and outside back covers. These stories focused on one joke. Ten-pagers, comedic Donald Duck stories that were the lead for the monthly flagship title Walt Disney's Comics and Stories, whose circulation peaked in the mid-1950s at 3 million copies sold a month. Humorous adventure stories, usually 24-32 pages in length. In the 1940s these were one-shots in the Four Color series (issued 4–6 times a year) that starred Donald and his nephews. Starting in the early 1950s (and through his retirement) Barks' longer stories were almost exclusively published in Uncle Scrooge's own quarterly title. Barks' artistic growth during his first decade in comics saw a transformation from rather rudimentary storytelling derived from his years as an animation artist and storyman into a virtuoso creator of complex narratives, notably in his longer adventure tales. According to critic Geoffrey Blum, the process that saw its beginnings in 1942's Pirate Gold first bore its full fruit in 1950's "Vacation Time", which he describes as "a visual primer for reading comics and understanding ... the form". He surrounded Donald Duck and nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie with a cast of eccentric and colorful characters, such as the aforementioned Scrooge McDuck, the wealthiest duck in the world; Gladstone Gander, Donald's obscenely lucky cousin; inventor Gyro Gearloose; the persistent Beagle Boys; the sorceress Magica De Spell; Scrooge's rivals Flintheart Glomgold and John D. Rockerduck; Daisy's nieces April, May and June; Donald's neighbor Jones, and The Junior Woodchucks organization. Barks's stories (whether humorous adventures or domestic comedies) often exhibited a wry, dark irony born of hard experience. The ten-pagers showcased Donald as everyman, struggling against the cruel bumps and bruises of everyday life with the nephews often acting as a Greek chorus commenting on the unfolding disasters Donald wrought upon himself. Yet while seemingly defeatist in tone, the humanity of the characters shines through in their persistence despite the obstacles. These stories found popularity not only among young children but adults as well. Despite the fact that Barks had done little traveling, his adventure stories often had the duck clan globe-trotting to the most remote or spectacular of places. This allowed Barks to indulge his penchant for elaborate backgrounds that hinted at his thwarted ambitions of doing realistic stories in the vein of Hal Foster's Prince Valiant. ===Third marriage=== As Barks blossomed creatively, his marriage to Clara deteriorated. This is the period referred to in Barks' famed quip that he could feel his creative juices flowing while the whiskey bottles hurled at him by a tipsy Clara flew by his head. They were divorced in 1951, his second and last divorce. In this period Barks dabbled in fine art, exhibiting paintings at local art shows. It was at one of these in 1952 he became acquainted with fellow exhibitor Margaret Wynnfred Williams (1917 – March 10, 1993), nicknamed Garé. She was an accomplished landscape artist, some of whose paintings are in the collection of the Leanin' Tree Museum of Western Art. During her lifetime, and to this day, note cards of her paintings are available from Leanin' Tree. Her nickname appears as a store name in the story "Christmas in Duckburg", featured on page 1 of Walt Disney's Christmas Parade #9, published in 1958. Soon after they met, she started assisting Barks, handling the solid blacks and lettering, both of which he had found onerous. They married in 1954 and the union lasted until her death. ===No longer anonymous=== People who worked for Disney (and its comic book licensees) generally did so in relative anonymity; stories would only carry Walt Disney's name and (sometimes) a short identification number. Prior to 1960 Barks' identity remained a mystery to his readers. However, many readers recognized Barks' work and drawing style and began to call him the Good Duck Artist, a label that stuck even after his true identity was discovered by fans in the late 1950s. Malcolm Willits was the first person to learn Barks's name and address, but two brothers named John and Bill Spicer became the first fans to contact Barks after independently discovering the same information. After Barks received a 1960 visit from the Spicer brothers and Ron Leonard, he was no longer anonymous, as word of his identity spread through the emerging network of comic book fandom fanzines and conventions. ===Later life=== Carl Barks retired in 1966, but was persuaded by editor Chase Craig to continue to script stories for Western. The last new comic book story drawn by Carl Barks was a Daisy Duck tale ("The Dainty Daredevil") published in Walt Disney Comics Digest issue 5 (Nov. 1968). When bibliographer Michael Barrier asked Barks why he drew it, Barks' vague recollection was no one was available and he was asked to do it as a favor by Craig. He wrote one Uncle Scrooge story, and three Donald Duck stories. From 1970 to 1974, Barks was the main writer for the Junior Woodchucks comic book (issues 6 through 25). The latter included environmental themes that Barks first explored in 1957 ["Land of the Pygmy Indians", Uncle Scrooge #18]. Barks also sold a few sketches to Western that were redrawn as covers. For a time the Barkses lived in Goleta, California, before returning to the Inland Empire by moving to Temecula. To make a little extra money beyond what his pension and scripting earnings brought in, Barks started doing oil paintings to sell at the local art shows where he and Garé exhibited. Subjects included humorous depictions of life on the farm and portraits of Native American princesses. These skillfully rendered paintings encouraged fan Glenn Bray to ask Barks if he could commission a painting of the ducks ("A Tall Ship and a Star to Steer Her By", taken from the cover of Walt Disney's Comics and Stories #108 by Barks). This prompted Barks to contact George Sherman at Disney's Publications Department to request permission to produce and sell oil paintings of scenes from his stories. In July 1971 Barks was granted a royalty-free license by Disney. When word spread that Barks was taking commissions from those interested in purchasing an oil of the ducks, much to his astonishment the response quickly outstripped what he reasonably could produce in the next few years. When Barks expressed dismay at coping with the backlog of orders he faced, fan/dealers Bruce Hamilton and Russ Cochran suggested Barks instead auction his paintings at conventions and via Cochran's catalog Graphic Gallery. By September 1974 Barks had discontinued taking commissions. At Boston's NewCon convention, in October 1975, the first Carl Barks oil painting auctioned at a comic book convention ("She Was Spangled and Flashy") sold for $2,500. Subsequent offerings saw an escalation in the prices realized. In 1976, Barks and Garé went to Boston for the NewCon show, their first comic convention appearance. Among the other attendees was famed Little Lulu comic book scripter John Stanley; despite both having worked for Western Publishing this was the first time they met. The highlight of the convention was the auctioning of what was to that time the largest duck oil painting Barks had done, "July Fourth in Duckburg", which included depictions of several prominent Barks fans and collectors. It sold for a then record high amount: $6,400. Soon thereafter a fan sold unauthorized prints of some of the Scrooge McDuck paintings, leading Disney to withdraw permission for further paintings. To meet demand for new work Barks embarked on a series of paintings of non-Disney ducks and fantasy subjects such as Beowulf and Xerxes. These were eventually collected in the limited-edition book Animal Quackers. As the result of efforts by Star Wars producer Gary Kurtz and screenwriter Edward Summer, Disney relented and, in 1981, allowed Barks to produce an oil painting called Wanderers of Wonderlands for a limited edition book entitled Uncle Scrooge McDuck: His Life and Times. The book collected 11 classic Barks stories of Uncle Scrooge colored by artist Peter Ledger along with a new Scrooge story by Barks done storybook style with watercolor illustrations, "Go Slowly, Sands of Time". After being turned down by every major publisher in New York City, Kurtz and Summer published the book through Celestial Arts, which Kurtz acquired partly for this purpose. The book went on to become the model for virtually every important collection of comic book stories. It was the first book of its kind ever reviewed in Time magazine and subsequently in Newsweek, and the first book review in Time with large color illustrations. In 1977 and 1982, Barks attended San Diego Comic-Con. As with his appearance in Boston, the response to his presence was overwhelming, with long lines of fans waiting to meet Barks and get his autograph. In 1981, Bruce Hamilton and Russ Cochran, two long-time Disney comics fans, decided to combine forces to bring greater recognition to the works of Carl Barks. Their first efforts went into establishing Another Rainbow Publishing, the banner under which they produced and issued the award-winning book The Fine Art of Walt Disney's Donald Duck by Carl Barks, a comprehensive collection of the Disney duck paintings of this artist and storyteller. Not long after, the company began producing fine art lithographs of many of these paintings, in strictly limited editions, all signed by Barks, who eventually produced many original works for the series. In 1983, Barks relocated one last time to Grants Pass, Oregon, near where he grew up, partly at the urging of friend and Broom Hilda artist Russell Myers, who lived in the area. The move also was motivated, Barks stated in another famous quip, by Temecula being too close to Disneyland and thus facilitating a growing torrent of drop-in visits by vacationing fans. In this period Barks made only one public appearance, at a comic book shop near Grants Pass. In 1983, Another Rainbow took up the daunting task of collecting the entire Disney comic book oeuvre of Barks—over 500 stories in all—in the ten-set, thirty-volume Carl Barks Library. These oversized hardbound volumes reproduced Barks' pages in pristine black and white line art, as close as possible to the way he would originally draw them, and included mountains of special features, articles, reminiscences, interviews, storyboards, critiques, and more than a few surprises. This monumental project was finally completed in mid-1990. In 1985, a new division was founded, Gladstone Publishing, which took up the then-dormant Disney comic book license. Gladstone introduced a new generation of Disney comic book readers to the storytelling of Barks, Paul Murry, and Floyd Gottfredson, as well as presenting the first works of modern Disney comics artists Don Rosa and William Van Horn. Seven years after Gladstone's founding, the Carl Barks Library was revived as the Carl Barks Library in Color, as full-color, high-quality squarebound comic albums (including the first-ever Carl Barks trading cards). From 1993 to 1998, Barks' career was managed by the "Carl Barks Studio" (Bill Grandey and Kathy Morby—they had sold Barks original art since 1979). This involved numerous art projects and activities, including a tour of 11 European countries in 1994, Iceland being the first foreign country he ever visited. Barks appeared at the first of many Disneyana conventions in 1993. Silk screen prints of paintings along with high-end art objects (such as original water colors, bronze figurines and ceramic tiles) were produced based on designs by Barks. During the summer of 1994 and until his death, Barks and his studio personally assigned Peter Reichelt, a museum exhibition producer from Mannheim, Germany, as his agent for Europe. Publisher "Edition 313" put out numerous lithographs. In 1997, tensions between Barks and the Studio eventually resulted in a lawsuit that was settled with an agreement that included the disbanding of the Studio. Barks never traveled to make another Disney appearance. He was represented by Ed Bergen, as he completed a final project. Gerry Tank and Jim Mitchell were to assist Barks in his final years. During his Carl Barks Studio years, Barks created two more stories: the script for the final Uncle Scrooge story "Horsing Around with History", which was first published in Denmark in 1994 with Bill Van Horn art. The outlines for Barks' final Donald Duck story "Somewhere in Nowhere", were first published in 1997, in Italy, with art by Pat Block. Austrian artist Gottfried Helnwein curated and organized the first solo museum-exhibition of Barks. Between 1994 and 1998 the retrospective was shown in ten European museums and seen by more than 400,000 visitors. At the same time in spring 1994, Reichelt and Ina Brockmann designed a special museum exhibition tour about Barks' life and work. Also represented for the first time at this exhibition were Disney artists Al Taliaferro and Floyd Gottfredson. Since 1995, more than 500,000 visitors have attended the shows in Europe. Reichelt also translated Michael Barrier's biography of Barks into German and published it in 1994. ===Final days and death=== Barks spent his final years in a new home in Grants Pass, Oregon, which he and Garé, who died in 1993, had built next door to their original home. In July 1999, he was diagnosed with chronic lymphocytic leukemia, a form of cancer arising from the white blood cells in the bone marrow, for which he received oral chemotherapy. However, as the disease progressed, causing him great discomfort, the ailing Barks decided to stop receiving treatment in June 2000. In spite of his terminal condition, Barks remained, according to caregiver Serene Hunicke, "funny up to the end". The year before, Barks had told the university professor Donald Ault: I have no apprehension, no fear of death. I do not believe in an afterlife. ... I think of death as total peace. You're beyond the clutches of all those who would crush you. On August 25, 2000, shortly after midnight, Carl Barks died quietly in his sleep at the age of 99. He was interred in Hillcrest Memorial Cemetery in Grants Pass, beside Garé's grave. ==Influence== "(A)n asteroid was named after the Duck Man in 1983 --- 2730 Barks, a carbonaceous C-type asteroid with a diameter of between 10 and 16 kilometers, an ordital period of six years and four months, and a rotation period of just over six hours." In a 1983 interview, Barks says that "Island in the Sky", a story about the Ducks traveling to the asteroid belt to find a place Uncle Scrooge can store his money, was his favorite story. Barks' Donald Duck stories were rated #7 on The Comics Journal list of 100 top comics; his Uncle Scrooge stories were rated #20. Steven Spielberg and George Lucas have acknowledged that the rolling-boulder booby trap in the opening scene of Raiders of the Lost Ark was inspired by the 1954 Carl Barks Uncle Scrooge adventure "The Seven Cities of Cibola" (Uncle Scrooge #7). Lucas and Spielberg have also said that some of Barks' stories about space travel and the depiction of aliens had an influence on them. Lucas wrote the foreword to the 1982 Uncle Scrooge McDuck: His Life and Times. In it he calls Barks' stories "cinematic" and "a priceless part of our literary heritage". The Walt Disney Treasures DVD set Chronological Donald, Volume 2 includes a salute to Barks. In Almere, Netherlands, a street was named after him: Carl Barksweg. The same neighborhood also includes a Donald Ducklaan and a Goofystraat. Japanese animator and cartoonist Osamu Tezuka, who created manga such as Astro Boy and Black Jack, was a fan of Barks' work. New Treasure Island, one of Tezuka's first works, was partly influenced by "Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold". A 1949 Donald Duck ten-pager features Donald raising a yacht from the ocean floor by filling it with ping pong balls. In December 1965 Karl Krøyer, a Dane, lifted the sunken freight vessel Al Kuwait in the Kuwait Harbor by filling the hull with 27 million tiny inflatable balls of polystyrene. Krøyer denies having been inspired by this Barks story. Some sources claim Krøyer was denied a Dutch patent registration (application number NL 6514306) for his invention on the grounds that the Barks story was a prior publication of the invention. Krøyer later successfully raised another ship off Greenland using the same method, and several other sunken vessels worldwide have since been raised by modified versions of this concept. The television show MythBusters also tested this method and was able to raise a small boat. Don Rosa, one of the most popular living Disney artists, and possibly the one who has been most keen on connecting the various stories into a coherent universe and chronology, considers (with few exceptions) all Barks' duck stories as canon, and all others as apocryphal. Rosa has said that a number of novelists and movie-makers cite Carl Barks as their 'major influence and inspiration'. Don Rosa created The Complete Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck based on Carl Barks references in Scrooge McDuck stories. When the news of Barks' passing was hardly covered by the press in America, "in Europe the sad news was flashed instantly across the airwaves and every newspaper — they realized the world had lost one of the most beloved, influential and well-known creators in international culture." Carl Barks drew an early Andy Panda comic book story published in New Funnies #76, 1943. It is one of his few stories to feature humans interacting with talking animal characters (another is Dangerous Disguise, Four Color #308, 1951. See List of fictional pandas.) The first image ever to be displayed on an Apple Macintosh was a scan of Carl Barks' Scrooge McDuck. The life story of Carl Barks, largely drawing upon his relationship with Disney and the phonetic similarity of his name to Karl Marx, serves as a loose inspiration to one of the subplots in The Last Song of Manuel Sendero by Ariel Dorfman.	[ "Daisy Duck", "Junior Woodchucks", "Sea Scouts (film)", "Home Defense", "white blood cell", "Russell Myers", "Editora Abril", "Mannheim", "Walt Disney Treasures", "John Stanley (comics)", "chemotherapy", "Bollinger County, Missouri", "Island in the Sky (comics)", "Duck family (Disney)", "IDW Publishing", "Sky Trooper", "Our Gang", "manga", "Inland Empire", "DuckTales (1987 TV series)", "prior art", "publishing house", "The Golden Helmet", "Grants Pass, Oregon", "San Francisco", "Put-Put Troubles", "Apocrypha (fiction)", "Steven Spielberg", "Apple Macintosh", "The Junior Woodchucks", "The Complete Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck", "Gladstone Publishing", "Peter Ledger", "database", "Walt Disney's Comics and Stories", "List of Donald Duck universe characters", "The Fabulous Philosopher's Stone", "Gottfried Helnwein", "Frederick Burr Opper", "Academy of Comic Book Arts", "Craig Yoe", "Sanoma", "Beagle Boys", "Window Cleaners", "National Cartoon Museum", "List of non-Disney comics by Carl Barks", "Mr. Duck Steps Out", "Star Wars (film)", "Fire Chief (film)", "talking animals in fiction", "Gladstone Gander", "Graphic Story Magazine", "Floyd Gottfredson", "Karl Krøyer", "Duckster", "Glittering Goldie", "2730 Barks", "Donald Ault", "Los Angeles", "The Victory Garden (comics)", "Old MacDonald Duck", "Black Jack (manga)", "chronic lymphocytic leukemia", "Don Rosa", "Broom Hilda", "Paul Murry", "Back to the Klondike", "Gary Kurtz", "North Carolina", "comic book convention", "Goleta, California", "San Diego Comic-Con", "Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold", "The Spirit of '43", "Barney Bear", "Greek chorus", "The Walt Disney Company", "The Old Castle's Secret", "Michael Barrier (historian)", "MythBusters", "cowboy", "Trombone Trouble", "Winsor McCay", "Happy Hooligan", "Flintheart Glomgold", "Walt Disney Treasures: Wave Five", "The Carl Barks Library", "Missouri", "Dell Comics", "Almere", "Only a Poor Old Man", "Uncle Scrooge", "Kirby Award", "List of Disney comics by Carl Barks", "cartoonist", "Al Taliaferro", "Basil Wolverton", "Henry Morgan", "Island in the Sky (cartoon)", "fandom", "bone marrow", "Donald Duck", "Egmont (media group)", "duck", "fanzine", "The Village Smithy", "Mickey Mouse", "Donald Duck in Old California!", "University Press of Mississippi", "Bill Spicer", "Osamu Tezuka", "Donald's Penguin", "George Lucas", "Donald's Cousin Gus", "Disney comics", "fictional universe", "A Financial Fable", "Astro Boy", "Chef Donald", "Huey, Dewey, and Louie", "Self Control (film)", "April, May and June", "Fantagraphics Books", "Donaldism", "Tralla La", "Celestial Arts", "Andy Panda", "Cornelius Coot", "Timber (1941 film)", "Inkpot Award", "The Carl Barks Library in Color", "The Old Army Game", "California", "Jack Hannah", "Leanin' Tree Museum of Western Art", "Little Lulu", "ping pong", "Another Rainbow", "polystyrene", "The Complete Carl Barks Disney Library", "Walt Disney Studios (division)", "The Comics Journal", "Flipism", "Donald Gets Drafted", "Ariel Dorfman", "Temecula, California", "animation historian", "comic strip", "John D. Rockerduck", "Hal Foster", "Prince Valiant", "Carl Barks Library", "San Jacinto, California", "Karl Marx", "A Christmas for Shacktown", "Maggie Thompson", "The Golden Fleecing", "Another Rainbow Publishing", "Italy", "Fantagraphics", "Bone Trouble", "List of fictional pandas", "The Last Song of Manuel Sendero", "Panini Comics", "The Egmont Group", "Donald's Vacation", "Flip Decision", "Modern Inventions", "Pluto Saves the Ship", "Oregon Cartoon Institute", "The Hockey Champ", "Donald's Snow Fight", "Lost in the Andes!", "Gyro Gearloose", "The Plastics Inventor", "Egmont Group", "Sheriff of Bullet Valley", "Sorry to be Safe", "Santa Rosa, California", "Magica De Spell", "Edward Summer", "Marble Hill, Missouri", "Western Publishing", "Early to Bed (1941 film)", "Inbetweening", "Donald's Better Self", "Coffee for Two", "Canon (fiction)", "The Vanishing Private", "Raiders of the Lost Ark", "Goofy", "Robert Crumb", "Bob Karp", "The Golden River (cartoon)", "Donald's Lucky Day", "List of Eisner Award winners", "Donald's Nephews", "Little Nemo", "Duckburg", "Walt Disney Comics Digest", "The Autograph Hound", "Hemet, California", "Time (magazine)", "Don Thompson (Comics Buyer's Guide)", "Scrooge McDuck", "comic book", "Minnesota", "Vacation Time (1950)", "Merrill, Oregon", "Minneapolis", "George Sherman (comics)", "Hans Christian Andersen", "Lambiek", "North of the Yukon (Disney comics)", "The Wise Little Hen", "Leonard Maltin", "Donald's Golf Game", "Disney Legends", "Walt Disney", "Donald Duck: Goin' Quackers", "Vacation Time", "Bellboy Donald", "Donald's Ostrich", "Christmas on Bear Mountain", "Land Beneath the Ground!", "The Carl Barks Collection", "Chase Craig", "Golden Eggs (film)", "Esterbrook", "Truant Officer Donald", "Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Award", "Good Scouts", "Will Eisner", "asteroid", "Newsweek", "Inducks", "Midland, Oregon", "DuckTales (2017 TV series)", "William Van Horn", "Donald Duck and the Mummy's Ring" ]
7,346	Centimetre–gram–second system of units	The centimetre–gram–second system of units (CGS or cgs) is a variant of the metric system based on the centimetre as the unit of length, the gram as the unit of mass, and the second as the unit of time. All CGS mechanical units are unambiguously derived from these three base units, but there are several different ways in which the CGS system was extended to cover electromagnetism. The CGS system has been largely supplanted by the MKS system based on the metre, kilogram, and second, which was in turn extended and replaced by the International System of Units (SI). In many fields of science and engineering, SI is the only system of units in use, but CGS is still prevalent in certain subfields. In measurements of purely mechanical systems (involving units of length, mass, force, energy, pressure, and so on), the differences between CGS and SI are straightforward: the unit-conversion factors are all powers of 10 as and . For example, the CGS unit of force is the dyne, which is defined as , so the SI unit of force, the newton (), is equal to . On the other hand, in measurements of electromagnetic phenomena (involving units of charge, electric and magnetic fields, voltage, and so on), converting between CGS and SI is less straightforward. Formulas for physical laws of electromagnetism (such as Maxwell's equations) take a form that depends on which system of units is being used, because the electromagnetic quantities are defined differently in SI and in CGS. Furthermore, within CGS, there are several plausible ways to define electromagnetic quantities, leading to different "sub-systems", including Gaussian units, "ESU", "EMU", and Heaviside–Lorentz units. Among these choices, Gaussian units are the most common today, and "CGS units" is often intended to refer to CGS-Gaussian units. == History == The CGS system goes back to a proposal in 1832 by the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss to base a system of absolute units on the three fundamental units of length, mass and time. Gauss chose the units of millimetre, milligram and second. In 1873, a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, including physicists James Clerk Maxwell and William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin recommended the general adoption of centimetre, gram and second as fundamental units, and to express all derived electromagnetic units in these fundamental units, using the prefix "C.G.S. unit of ...". The sizes of many CGS units turned out to be inconvenient for practical purposes. For example, many everyday objects are hundreds or thousands of centimetres long, such as humans, rooms and buildings. Thus the CGS system never gained wide use outside the field of science. Starting in the 1880s, and more significantly by the mid-20th century, CGS was gradually superseded internationally for scientific purposes by the MKS (metre–kilogram–second) system, which in turn developed into the modern SI standard. Since the international adoption of the MKS standard in the 1940s and the SI standard in the 1960s, the technical use of CGS units has gradually declined worldwide. CGS units have been deprecated in favor of SI units by NIST, as well as organizations such as the American Physical Society and the International Astronomical Union. SI units are predominantly used in engineering applications and physics education, while Gaussian CGS units are still commonly used in theoretical physics, describing microscopic systems, relativistic electrodynamics, and astrophysics. The units gram and centimetre remain useful as noncoherent units within the SI system, as with any other prefixed SI units. == Definition of CGS units in mechanics == In mechanics, the quantities in the CGS and SI systems are defined identically. The two systems differ only in the scale of the three base units (centimetre versus metre and gram versus kilogram, respectively), with the third unit (second) being the same in both systems. There is a direct correspondence between the base units of mechanics in CGS and SI. Since the formulae expressing the laws of mechanics are the same in both systems and since both systems are coherent, the definitions of all coherent derived units in terms of the base units are the same in both systems, and there is an unambiguous relationship between derived units: v = \frac{dx}{dt} (definition of velocity) F = m\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} (Newton's second law of motion) E = \int \vec{F}\cdot d\vec{x} (energy defined in terms of work) p = \frac{F}{L^2} (pressure defined as force per unit area) \eta = \tau/\frac{dv}{dx} (dynamic viscosity defined as shear stress per unit velocity gradient). Thus, for example, the CGS unit of pressure, barye, is related to the CGS base units of length, mass, and time in the same way as the SI unit of pressure, pascal, is related to the SI base units of length, mass, and time: 1 unit of pressure = 1 unit of force / (1 unit of length)2 = 1 unit of mass / (1 unit of length × (1 unit of time)2) 1 Ba = 1 g/(cm⋅s2) 1 Pa = 1 kg/(m⋅s2). Expressing a CGS derived unit in terms of the SI base units, or vice versa, requires combining the scale factors that relate the two systems: 1 Ba = 1 g/(cm⋅s2) = 10−3 kg / (10−2 m⋅s2) = 10−1 kg/(m⋅s2) = 10−1 Pa. === Definitions and conversion factors of CGS units in mechanics === == Derivation of CGS units in electromagnetism == === CGS approach to electromagnetic units === The conversion factors relating electromagnetic units in the CGS and SI systems are made more complex by the differences in the formulas expressing physical laws of electromagnetism as assumed by each system of units, specifically in the nature of the constants that appear in these formulas. This illustrates the fundamental difference in the ways the two systems are built: In SI, the unit of electric current, the ampere (A), was historically defined such that the magnetic force exerted by two infinitely long, thin, parallel wires 1 metre apart and carrying a current of 1 ampere is exactly . This definition results in all SI electromagnetic units being numerically consistent (subject to factors of some integer powers of 10) with those of the CGS-EMU system described in further sections. The ampere is a base unit of the SI system, with the same status as the metre, kilogram, and second. Thus the relationship in the definition of the ampere with the metre and newton is disregarded, and the ampere is not treated as dimensionally equivalent to any combination of other base units. As a result, electromagnetic laws in SI require an additional constant of proportionality (see Vacuum permeability) to relate electromagnetic units to kinematic units. (This constant of proportionality is derivable directly from the above definition of the ampere.) All other electric and magnetic units are derived from these four base units using the most basic common definitions: for example, electric charge q is defined as current I multiplied by time t, q = I \, t, resulting in the unit of electric charge, the coulomb (C), being defined as 1 C = 1 A⋅s. The CGS system variant avoids introducing new base quantities and units, and instead defines all electromagnetic quantities by expressing the physical laws that relate electromagnetic phenomena to mechanics with only dimensionless constants, and hence all units for these quantities are directly derived from the centimetre, gram, and second. In each of these systems the quantities called "charge" etc. may be a different quantity; they are distinguished here by a superscript. The corresponding quantities of each system are related through a proportionality constant. Maxwell's equations can be written in each of these systems as: === Electrostatic units (ESU) === In the electrostatic units variant of the CGS system, (CGS-ESU), charge is defined as the quantity that obeys a form of Coulomb's law without a multiplying constant (and current is then defined as charge per unit time): F={q^\text{ESU}_1 q^\text{ESU}_2 \over r^2} . The ESU unit of charge, franklin (Fr), also known as statcoulomb or esu charge, is therefore defined as follows: Therefore, in CGS-ESU, a franklin is equal to a centimetre times square root of dyne: \mathrm{1\,Fr = 1\,statcoulomb = 1\,esu\; charge = 1\,dyne^{1/2}{\cdot}cm=1\,g^{1/2}{\cdot}cm^{3/2}{\cdot}s^{-1}} . The unit of current is defined as: \mathrm{1\,Fr/s = 1\,statampere = 1\,esu\; current = 1\,dyne^{1/2}{\cdot}cm{\cdot}s^{-1}=1\,g^{1/2}{\cdot}cm^{3/2}{\cdot}s^{-2}} . In the CGS-ESU system, charge q is therefore has the dimension to M1/2L3/2T−1. Other units in the CGS-ESU system include the statampere (1 statC/s) and statvolt (1 erg/statC). In CGS-ESU, all electric and magnetic quantities are dimensionally expressible in terms of length, mass, and time, and none has an independent dimension. Such a system of units of electromagnetism, in which the dimensions of all electric and magnetic quantities are expressible in terms of the mechanical dimensions of mass, length, and time, is traditionally called an 'absolute system'.:3 ==== Unit symbols ==== All electromagnetic units in the CGS-ESU system that have not been given names of their own are named as the corresponding SI name with an attached prefix "stat" or with a separate abbreviation "esu", and similarly with the corresponding symbols. As well as the volt and ampere, the farad (capacitance), ohm (resistance), coulomb (electric charge), and henry (inductance) are consequently also used in the practical system and are the same as the SI units. The magnetic units are those of the emu system. The electrical units, other than the volt and ampere, are determined by the requirement that any equation involving only electrical and kinematical quantities that is valid in SI should also be valid in the system. For example, since electric field strength is voltage per unit length, its unit is the volt per centimetre, which is one hundred times the SI unit. The system is electrically rationalized and magnetically unrationalized; i.e., and , but the above formula for is invalid. A closely related system is the International System of Electric and Magnetic Units, which has a different unit of mass so that the formula for ′ is invalid. The unit of mass was chosen to remove powers of ten from contexts in which they were considered to be objectionable (e.g., and ). Inevitably, the powers of ten reappeared in other contexts, but the effect was to make the familiar joule and watt the units of work and power respectively. The ampere-turn system is constructed in a similar way by considering magnetomotive force and magnetic field strength to be electrical quantities and rationalizing the system by dividing the units of magnetic pole strength and magnetization by 4. The units of the first two quantities are the ampere and the ampere per centimetre respectively. The unit of magnetic permeability is that of the emu system, and the magnetic constitutive equations are and . Magnetic reluctance is given a hybrid unit to ensure the validity of Ohm's law for magnetic circuits. In all the practical systems ε0 = 8.8542 × 10−14 A⋅s/(V⋅cm), μ0 = 1 V⋅s/(A⋅cm), and c2 = 1/(4π × 10−9 ε0μ0). === Other variants === There were at various points in time about half a dozen systems of electromagnetic units in use, most based on the CGS system. These include the Gaussian units and the Heaviside–Lorentz units. == Electromagnetic units in various CGS systems == == Advantages and disadvantages == Lack of unique unit names leads to potential confusion: "15 emu" may mean either 15 abvolts, or 15 emu units of electric dipole moment, or 15 emu units of magnetic susceptibility, sometimes (but not always) per gram, or per mole. With its system of uniquely named units, the SI removes any confusion in usage: 1 ampere is a fixed value of a specified quantity, and so are 1 henry, 1 ohm, and 1 volt. In the CGS-Gaussian system, electric and magnetic fields have the same units, 40 is replaced by 1, and the only dimensional constant appearing in the Maxwell equations is c, the speed of light. The Heaviside–Lorentz system has these properties as well (with ε0 equaling 1). In SI, and other rationalized systems (for example, Heaviside–Lorentz), the unit of current was chosen such that electromagnetic equations concerning charged spheres contain 4, those concerning coils of current and straight wires contain 2 and those dealing with charged surfaces lack entirely, which was the most convenient choice for applications in electrical engineering and relates directly to the geometric symmetry of the system being described by the equation. Specialized unit systems are used to simplify formulas further than either SI or CGS do, by eliminating constants through a convention of normalizing quantities with respect to some system of natural units. For example, in particle physics a system is in use where every quantity is expressed by only one unit of energy, the electronvolt, with lengths, times, and so on all converted into units of energy by inserting factors of speed of light c and the reduced Planck constant ħ. This unit system is convenient for calculations in particle physics, but is impractical in other contexts.	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7,355	Christology	In Christianity, Christology is a branch of theology that concerns Jesus. Different denominations have different opinions on questions such as whether Jesus was human, divine, or both, and as a messiah what his role would be in the freeing of the Jewish people from foreign rulers or in the prophesied Kingdom of God, and in the salvation from what would otherwise be the consequences of sin. The earliest Christian writings gave several titles to Jesus, such as Son of Man, Son of God, Messiah, and , which were all derived from Hebrew scripture. These terms centered around two opposing themes, namely "Jesus as a preexistent figure who becomes human and then returns to God", versus adoptionism – that Jesus was human who was "adopted" by God at his baptism, crucifixion, or resurrection. though most scholars now argue that a high Christology existed prior to Paul. "Present work of Christ: work as mediator and Lord"; "Future work of Christ: work as coming judge and reigning king" The earliest Christian writings give several titles to Jesus, such as Son of Man, Son of God, Messiah, and Kyrios, which were all derived from Hebrew scripture. In contrast, the Antiochian school viewed Christ as a single, unified human person apart from his relationship to the divine. Alexandria: Logos assumes a general human nature; Antioch: Logos assumes a specific human being.}} ====Pre-existence==== The notion of pre-existence is deeply rooted in Jewish thought, and can be found in apocalyptic thought and among the rabbis of Paul's time, but Paul was most influenced by Jewish-Hellenistic wisdom literature, where Wisdom' is extolled as something existing before the world and already working in creation. According to Witherington, Paul "subscribed to the christological notion that Christ existed prior to taking on human flesh[,] founding the story of Christ[...] on the story of divine Wisdom". ====Kyrios==== The title Kyrios for Jesus is central to the development of New Testament Christology. Kyrios is also conjectured to be the Greek translation of Aramaic , which in everyday Aramaic usage was a very respectful form of polite address, which means more than just 'teacher' and was somewhat similar to 'rabbi'. While the term expressed the relationship between Jesus and his disciples during his life, the Greek Kyrios came to represent his lordship over the world. The early Christians placed Kyrios at the center of their understanding, and from that center attempted to understand the other issues related to the Christian mysteries. The question of the deity of Christ in the New Testament is inherently related to the Kyrios title of Jesus used in the early Christian writings and its implications for the absolute lordship of Jesus. In early Christian belief, the concept of Kyrios included the pre-existence of Christ, for they believed if Christ is one with God, he must have been united with God from the very beginning. ===Development of "low Christology" and "high Christology"=== Two fundamentally different Christologies developed in the early Church, namely a "low" or adoptionist Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation" Christology. The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship. The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology" is the belief "that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead", thereby raising him to "divine status". According to the "evolutionary model" or evolutionary theories, the Christological understanding of Jesus developed over time, as witnessed in the Gospels, with the earliest Christians believing that Jesus was a human who was exalted, or else adopted as God's Son, when he was resurrected. Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his pre-existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John.}} The other early Christology is "high Christology", which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father's will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come", Acts 9:26–28, 15:2). "What was common to the whole Christian movement derived from Jerusalem, not from Paul, and Paul himself derived the central message he preached from the Jerusalem apostles."}} According to the "New ", or the Early High Christology Club, John Hick, writing in 1993, mentioned changes in New Testament studies, citing "broad agreement" that scholars do not today support the view that Jesus claimed to be God, quoting as examples Michael Ramsey (1980), C. F. D. Moule (1977), James Dunn (1980), Brian Hebblethwaite (1985) and David Brown (1985). Larry Hurtado, who argues that the followers of Jesus within a very short period developed an exceedingly high level of devotional reverence to Jesus. According to Gerd Lüdemann, the broad consensus among modern New Testament scholars is that the proclamation of the divinity of Jesus was a development within the earliest Christian communities. ===New Testament writings=== The study of the various Christologies of the Apostolic Age is based on early Christian documents. ====Paul==== The oldest Christian sources are the writings of Paul. The central Christology of Paul conveys the notion of Christ's pre-existence and the identification of Christ as Kyrios. Both notions already existed before him in the early Christian communities, and Paul deepened them and used them for preaching in the Hellenistic communities. What exactly Paul believed about the nature of Jesus cannot be determined decisively. In Philippians 2, Paul states that Jesus was preexistent and came to Earth "by taking the form of a servant, being made in human likeness". This sounds like an incarnation Christology. In Romans 1:4, however, Paul states that Jesus "was declared with power to be the Son of God by his resurrection from the dead", which sounds like an adoptionistic Christology, where Jesus was a human being who was "adopted" after his death. Different views would be debated for centuries by Christians and finally settled on the idea that he was both fully human and fully divine by the middle of the 5th century in the Council of Ephesus. Paul's thoughts on Jesus' teachings, versus his nature and being, are more defined, in that Paul believed Jesus was sent as an atonement for the sins of everyone. The Pauline epistles use Kyrios to identify Jesus almost 230 times, and express the theme that the true mark of a Christian is the confession of Jesus as the true Lord. Paul viewed the superiority of the Christian revelation over all other divine manifestations as a consequence of the fact that Christ is the Son of God.}} later developed in the Gospel of John, elaborating the cosmic implications of Jesus' existence as the Son of God: "Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old has passed away; behold, the new has come." In the Epistle to the Colossians, which purports to be written by Paul (though this is disputed), relevant clams are made: "Through him God was pleased to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven"; "He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation". and as in John 21:25, the Gospels do not claim to be an exhaustive list of his works. Christologies that can be gleaned from the three synoptic Gospels generally emphasize the humanity of Jesus, his sayings, his parables, and his miracles. The Gospel of John provides a different perspective that focuses on his divinity. In the context of these verses, the Word made flesh is identical with the Word who was in the beginning with God, being exegetically equated with Jesus. ===First Council of Nicaea (325) and First Council of Constantinople (381)=== In 325, the First Council of Nicaea defined the persons of the Godhead and their relationship with one another, decisions which were ratified at the First Council of Constantinople in 381. The language used was that the one God exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); in particular, it was affirmed that the Son was homoousios (of the same being) as the Father. The Nicene Creed declared the full divinity and full humanity of Jesus. After the First Council of Nicaea in 325 the Logos and the second Person of the Trinity were being used interchangeably. ===First Council of Ephesus (431)=== In 431, the First Council of Ephesus was initially called to address the views of Nestorius on Mariology, but the problems soon extended to Christology, and schisms followed. The 431 council was called because in defense of his loyal priest Anastasius, Nestorius had denied the Theotokos title for Mary and later contradicted Proclus during a sermon in Constantinople. Pope Celestine I (who was already upset with Nestorius due to other matters) wrote about this to Cyril of Alexandria, who orchestrated the council. During the council, Nestorius defended his position by arguing there must be two persons of Christ, one human, the other divine, and Mary had given birth only to a human, hence could not be called the Theotokos, i.e. "the one who gives birth to God". The debate about the single or dual nature of Christ ensued in Ephesus. The First Council of Ephesus debated miaphysitism (two natures united as one after the hypostatic union) versus dyophysitism (coexisting natures after the hypostatic union) versus monophysitism (only one nature) versus Nestorianism (two hypostases). From the Christological viewpoint, the council adopted ('but being made one', ) – Council of Ephesus, Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius, i.e. 'one nature of the Word of God incarnate' (, ). In 451, the Council of Chalcedon affirmed dyophysitism. The Oriental Orthodox rejected this and subsequent councils and continued to consider themselves as miaphysite according to the faith put forth at the Councils of Nicaea and Ephesus. The council also confirmed the Theotokos title and excommunicated Nestorius. ===Council of Chalcedon (451)=== The 451 Council of Chalcedon was highly influential, and marked a key turning point in the christological debates. It is the last council which many Lutherans, Anglicans and other Protestants consider ecumenical. The Council of Chalcedon fully promulgated the Western dyophysite understanding put forth by Pope Leo I of Rome of the hypostatic union, the proposition that Christ has one human nature (physis) and one divine nature (physis), each distinct and complete, and united with neither confusion nor division. Most of the major branches of Western Christianity (Roman Catholicism, Anglicanism, Lutheranism, and Reformed), Church of the East, Eastern Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy subscribe to the Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while many branches of Oriental Orthodox Churches (Syrian Orthodoxy, Coptic Orthodoxy, Ethiopian Orthodoxy, and Armenian Apostolicism) reject it. Although the Chalcedonian Creed did not put an end to all christological debate, it did clarify the terms used and became a point of reference for many future Christologies. But it also broke apart the church of the Eastern Roman Empire in the fifth century, and unquestionably established the primacy of Rome in the East over those who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. This was reaffirmed in 519, when the Eastern Chalcedonians accepted the Formula of Hormisdas, anathematizing all of their own Eastern Chalcedonian hierarchy, who died out of communion with Rome from 482 to 519. ===Fifth–Seventh Ecumenical Council (553, 681, 787)=== The Second Council of Constantinople in 553 interpreted the decrees of Chalcedon, and further explained the relationship of the two natures of Jesus. It also condemned the alleged teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of the soul, and other topics. The Third Council of Constantinople in 681 declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites, with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will. The Second Council of Nicaea was called under the Empress Regent Irene of Athens in 787. It affirmed the veneration of icons while forbidding their worship. It is often referred to as "The Triumph of Orthodoxy". ==9th–11th century== ==Eastern Christianity== ==Western medieval Christology== The Franciscan piety of the 12th and 13th centuries led to "popular Christology". Systematic approaches by theologians, such as Thomas Aquinas, are called "scholastic Christology". In the 13th century, Thomas Aquinas provided the first systematic Christology that consistently resolved a number of the existing issues. In his Christology from above, Aquinas also championed the principle of perfection of Christ's human attributes. The Middle Ages also witnessed the emergence of the "tender image of Jesus" as a friend and a living source of love and comfort, rather than just the Kyrios image. ==Reformation== Article 10 of the Belgic Confession, a confessional standard of the Reformed faith, subscribes to Nicene orthodoxy regarding the deity of Christ. The article places emphasis on the eternal generation of the Son and the eternal divine nature of Christ as Creator.We believe that Jesus Christ, according to his divine nature, is the only begotten Son of God, begotten from eternity, not made nor created (for then He should be a creature), but co-essential and co-eternal with the Father, "the express image of His person, and the brightness of His glory" (), equal unto him in all things. He is the Son of God, not only from the time that He assumed our nature, but from all eternity, as these testimonies, when compared together, teach us. Moses says that God created the world; and John saith that "all things were made by that Word" (), which he calls God. And the apostle says that God made the worlds by His Son (); likewise, that "God created all things by Jesus Christ" (). Therefore, it must needs follow, that he who is called God, the Word, the Son, and Jesus Christ did exist at that time, when all things were created by him. Therefore, the prophet Micah says, "His goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting" (). And the apostle: "He has neither beginning of days, nor end of life" (). He therefore is that true, eternal, and almighty God, whom we invoke, worship and serve.John Calvin maintained there was no human element in the Person of Christ which could be separated from the Person of the Word. Calvin also emphasized the importance of the "Work of Christ" in any attempt at understanding the Person of Christ and cautioned against ignoring the works of Jesus during his ministry. ==Modern developments== ===Liberal Protestant theology=== The 19th century saw the rise of Liberal Protestant theology, which questioned the dogmatic foundations of Christianity, and approached the Bible with critical-historical tools. The divinity of Jesus became of less emphasis or importance, and was replaced with an focus on the ethical aspects of his teachings. ===Roman Catholicism=== Catholic theologian Karl Rahner sees the purpose of modern Christology as to formulate the Christian belief that "God became man and that God-made-man is the individual Jesus Christ" in a manner that this statement can be understood consistently, without the confusions of past debates and mythologies. Rahner pointed out the coincidence between the Person of Christ and the Word of God, referring to Mark 8:38 and Luke 9:26 which state whoever is ashamed of the words of Jesus is ashamed of the Lord himself. Hans von Balthasar argued the union of the human and divine natures of Christ was achieved not by the "absorption" of human attributes, but by their "assumption". Thus, in his view, the divine nature of Christ was not affected by the human attributes and remained forever divine. The same distinction is recorded in the Second Vatican Council's pastoral constitution, Gaudium et spes: "in Him, human nature was assumed, not absorbed". Pope Francis, in his 2024 encyclical letter Dilexit nos, refers to the "divinity and plenary humanity" of Jesus. ==Topics== ===Nativity and the Holy Name=== The Nativity of Jesus impacted the Christological issues about his person from the earliest days of Christianity. Luke's Christology centers on the dialectics of the dual natures of the earthly and heavenly manifestations of existence of the Christ, while Matthew's Christology focuses on the mission of Jesus and his role as the savior. The salvific emphasis of Matthew 1:21 later impacted the theological issues and the devotions to Holy Name of Jesus. Matthew 1:23 provides a key to the "Emmanuel Christology" of Matthew. Beginning with 1:23, the Gospel of Matthew shows a clear interest in identifying Jesus as "God with us" and in later developing the Emmanuel characterization of Jesus at key points throughout the rest of the Gospel. The name 'Emmanuel' does not appear elsewhere in the New Testament, but Matthew builds on it in Matthew 28:20 ("I am with you always, even unto the end of the world") to indicate Jesus will be with the faithful to the end of the age. According to Ulrich Luz, the Emmanuel motif brackets the entire Gospel of Matthew between 1:23 and 28:20, appearing explicitly and implicitly in several other passages. ===Crucifixion and resurrection=== The accounts of the crucifixion and subsequent resurrection of Jesus provides a rich background for christological analysis, from the canonical Gospels to the Pauline Epistles. A central element in the christology presented in the Acts of the Apostles is the affirmation of the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion happened "with the foreknowledge of God, according to a definite plan". In this view, as in Acts 2:23, the cross is not viewed as a scandal, for the crucifixion of Jesus "at the hands of the lawless" is viewed as the fulfilment of the plan of God. Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used in Galatians 6:12 may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the Gospels. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significant eschatological consequences, as in 1 Corinthians 2:8. In this view, not only is Mariology a logical and necessary consequence of Christology, but without it, Christology is incomplete, since the figure of Mary contributes to a fuller understanding of who Christ is and what he did. Protestants have criticized Mariology because many of its assertions lack any Biblical foundation. Strong Protestant reaction against Roman Catholic Marian devotion and teaching has been a significant issue for ecumenical dialogue. Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) expressed this sentiment about Roman Catholic Mariology when in two separate occasions he stated, "The appearance of a truly Marian awareness serves as the touchstone indicating whether or not the christological substance is fully present" and "It is necessary to go back to Mary, if we want to return to the truth about Jesus Christ."	[ "Jewish people", "Catholic Church", "Athens", "Eastern Roman Empire", "Son of God (Christianity)", "Second Council of Constantinople", "Son of God", "Origen", "First Council of Ephesus", "adoptionism", "Irene of Athens", "Great Church", "Donald Macleod (theologian)", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Leiden", "Zeitschrift für die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft", "Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger", "Eastern Catholic Churches", "soteriology", "docetism", "prosopon", "John A. T. Robinson", "Council of Ephesus", "Reginald H. Fuller", "Monothelitism", "Antiochian school", "Proclus", "eschatological", "Pneumatology", "Nicene Creed", "Gerd Lüdemann", "Syriac Orthodox Church", "Kyrios (Biblical term)", "Gnosticism", "Celestine I", "Richard Bauckham", "Transfiguration of Jesus", "Virgin Mary", "Angel of the Lord", "Edward Gibbon", "Free Inquiry", "Hypostatic union", "deposit of faith", "Chalcedonianism", "Divinization (Christian)", "Gospel of Matthew", "Forgiveness", "messiah", "Aramaic", "Reformed faith", "prophet", "Docetism", "evil", "Pre-existence of Christ", "Satan", "Christian views of sin", "Messiah", "Ignatius of Antioch", "Anselm of Canterbury", "James Dunn (theologian)", "Adoptionism", "cosmic Christ", "homoousios", "Harrowing of Hell", "HarperCollins", "Theotokos", "atonement", "encyclical letter", "dyophysitism", "Gaudium et spes", "first seven ecumenical councils", "Roman Catholics", "Kyrios", "Trinity", "Five Holy Wounds", "Brill Publishers", "Jesus in Christianity", "Authorship of the Pauline epistles", "Pauline epistles", "Gustaf Aulen", "Life of Jesus in the New Testament", "Eastern Orthodoxy", "Penal substitution", "Faustus Socinus", "Christianity in the 13th century", "Eusebius", "Eucharist", "Anglican", "Grant R. Osborne", "Universal resurrection", "Protestants", "Paul the Apostle", "Justin Martyr", "Brant Pitre", "Bishop of Woolwich", "Numen (journal)", "Parables of Jesus", "dyoprosopic", "Early Christianity", "New Testament", "Arianism", "Ransom theory of atonement", "Armenian Apostolic Church", "Chalcedonian Creed", "Nativity of Jesus", "Acts of the Apostles", "Ancient Greek", "Council of Chalcedon", "Ulrich Luz", "Session of Christ", "Catholic spirituality", "Gospel of John", "Christological argument", "Patristic era", "Meteora", "Christ", "Genesis creation narrative", "Oriental Orthodox", "heretical", "Reconciliation (theology)", "Scholastic Lutheran Christology", "Redeemer (Christianity)", "Church of the East", "Gerald O'Collins", "Ethiopian Orthodox", "Governmental theory of atonement", "Satisfaction theory of atonement", "original sin", "theophany", "Miaphysitism", "Honest to God", "Second Vatican Council", "Septuagint", "Rapture", "Elmer Towns", "Alexandrian school", "being", "Logos (Christianity)", "Anglicanism", "Lutheran", "Nestorianism", "Book of Hebrews", "Incarnation (Christianity)", "orthodoxy", "Larry Hurtado", "Roman Catholicism", "Reformed Church", "Kingdom of God (Christianity)", "Church Fathers", "Dilexit nos", "Old Testament", "Lutheranism", "Ecumenism", "Christological controversies", "Last Judgement", "Peter Abelard", "Heraclius", "Philippians 2", "Sacrifice", "Jesus Christ", "Christian soteriology", "Christianity", "sin", "cosmos", "First Council of Nicaea", "N. T. Wright", "Chalcedonian Definition", "Historical Jesus", "Miracles of Jesus", "Pope Hormisdas", "veneration", "Moral example theory", "Constantinople", "Belgic Confession", "Vittorio Messori", "miaphysitism", "Doubting Thomas", "Pope Francis", "God in Christianity", "hypostatic union", "Early Christians", "God the Father", "Crucifixion of Jesus", "First Council of Constantinople", "Original sin", "Incarnation", "Holy Name of Jesus", "Franciscan", "Christian messianic prophecies", "ministry of Jesus", "Mariology", "monoprosopic", "Martin Hengel", "ecumenical councils", "Pauline Epistles", "Genealogy of Jesus", "Vincent Taylor (theologian)", "Jesus", "Communio", "Modalism", "Karl Rahner", "Great Tribulation", "Thomas Aquinas", "Early centers of Christianity", "icon", "Tetragrammaton", "Monophysitism", "John Calvin", "Dyophysitism", "Calvinism", "Christian views of Jesus", "Proto-orthodox Christianity", "Salvation in Christianity", "Monothelites", "Religious perspectives on Jesus", "Coptic Orthodoxy", "Third Council of Constantinople", "physis", "Christophany", "monophysitism", "threefold office", "Kingship and Kingdom of God", "Godhead (Christianity)", "Sergius I of Constantinople", "resurrection of Jesus", "John Hick", "Son of Man", "rabbi", "Nestorius", "Nontrinitarians", "ransom", "Raphael", "synoptic Gospels", "Adam", "Apostle Paul", "Substitutionary atonement", "Eutychianism", "Oriental Orthodox Churches", "Christus Victor", "Perfection of Christ", "eternal generation of the Son", "C. F. D. Moule", "Epistle to the Colossians", "sociology of religion", "Ontology", "Monarchianism", "Areopagus sermon", "Pope Leo I", "Gustaf Aulén", "Catholic", "Prosopon", "Apostolic Age", "Liberal Protestant", "pre-existence of Christ", "Wolfhart Pannenberg", "Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament", "Paterology", "Hans Urs von Balthasar", "Second Coming of Christ", "Moral influence theory of atonement", "Pope Benedict XVI", "fall of man", "Pieter Soutman", "priest", "Oscar Cullmann", "Cyril of Alexandria", "Holy Trinity", "Christian theology", "Ebionism", "Abelard", "Ann Loades", "kingly office of Christ", "schism (religion)", "Second Council of Nicaea", "Wilhelm Bousset", "Recapitulation theory of atonement", "Middle Ages", "Michael Ramsey" ]
7,357	Complaint	In legal terminology, a complaint is any formal legal document that sets out the facts and legal reasons (see: cause of action) that the filing party or parties (the plaintiff(s)) believes are sufficient to support a claim against the party or parties against whom the claim is brought (the defendant(s)) that entitles the plaintiff(s) to a remedy (either money damages or injunctive relief). For example, the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FRCP) that govern civil litigation in United States courts provide that a civil action is commenced with the filing or service of a pleading called a complaint. Civil court rules in states that have incorporated the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure use the same term for the same pleading. In Civil Law, a "complaint" is the first formal action taken to officially begin a lawsuit. This written document contains the allegations against the defense, the specific laws violated, the facts that led to the dispute, and any demands made by the plaintiff to restore justice. In some jurisdictions, specific types of criminal cases may also be commenced by the filing of a complaint, also sometimes called a criminal complaint or felony complaint. Most criminal cases are prosecuted in the name of the governmental authority that promulgates criminal statutes and enforces the police power of the state with the goal of seeking criminal sanctions, such as the State (also sometimes called the People) or Crown (in Commonwealth realms). In the United States, the complaint is often associated with misdemeanor criminal charges presented by the prosecutor without the grand jury process. In most U.S. jurisdictions, the charging instrument presented to and authorized by a grand jury is referred to as an indictment. ==United States== Every U.S. state has some forms available on the web for most common complaints for lawyers and self-representing litigants; if a petitioner cannot find an appropriate form in their state, they often can modify a form from another state to fit his or her request. Several United States federal courts publish general guidelines for the petitioners and Civil Rights complaint forms. After the complaint has been filed with the court, it has to be properly served to the opposite parties, but usually petitioners are not allowed to serve the complaint personally. The court also can issue a summons – an official summary document which the plaintiff needs to have served together with the complaint. The defendants have limited time to respond, depending on the State or Federal rules. A defendant's failure to answer a complaint can result in a default judgment in favor of the petitioner. For example, in United States federal courts, any person who is at least 18 years old and not a party may serve a summons and complaint in a civil case. After the civil complaint has been served to the defendants, the plaintiff must, as soon as practicable initiate a conference between the parties to plan for the rest of the discovery process and then the parties should submit a proposed discovery plan to the judge within 14 days after the conference. In many U.S. jurisdictions, a complaint submitted to a court must be accompanied by a Case Information Statement, which sets forth specific key information about the case and the lawyers representing the parties. This allows the judge to make determinations about which deadlines to set for different phases of the case, as it moves through the court system. There are also freely accessible web search engines to assist parties in finding court decisions that can be cited in the complaint as an example or analogy to resolve similar questions of law. Google Scholar is the biggest database of full text state and federal courts decisions that can be accessed without charge. These web search engines often allow one to select specific state courts to search. Federal courts created the Public Access to Court Electronic Records (PACER) system to obtain case and docket information from the United States district courts, United States courts of appeals, and United States bankruptcy courts. === Filing and privacy === In addition to Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, many of the U.S. district courts have developed their own requirements included in Local Rules for filing with the Court. Local Rules can set up a limit on the number of pages, establish deadlines for motions and responses, explain whether it is acceptable to combine a motion petition with a response, specify if a judge needs an additional copy of the documents (called "judge's copy"), etc. If the filed motion does not comply with the Local Rules then the judge can choose to strike the motion completely, or order the party to re-file its motion, or grant a special exception to the Local Rules. According to Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FRCP) , sensitive text like Social Security number, Taxpayer Identification Number, birthday, bank accounts and children's names, should be redacted from the filings made with the court and accompanying exhibits, (exhibits normally do not need to be attached to the original complaint, but should be presented to Court after the discovery). The redacted text can be erased with black-out or white-out, and the page should have an indication that it was redacted - most often by stamping word "redacted" on the bottom. Alternately, the filing party may ask the court's permission to file some exhibits completely under seal. A minor's name of the petitions should be replaced with initials. In the case of Fox v. Vice, the U.S. Supreme Court held that reasonable attorneys' fees could be awarded to the defendant under 42 U.S.C. Sec. 1988, but only for costs that the defendant would not have incurred "but for the frivolous claims." Even when there is no actual trial or judgment, if there is only pre-trial motion practice such as motions to dismiss, attorney fee shifting still can be awarded under FRCP Rule 11 when the opposing party files a Motion for Sanctions and the court issue an order identifying the sanctioned conduct and the basis for the sanction. The losing party has a right to appeal any order for sanctions in the higher court. In the state courts, each party is generally responsible only for its own attorney fees, with certain exceptions. ==England and Wales== In 1883, the Rules of the Supreme Court replaced the term complaint with statement of claim. This was then replaced in 1998 with particulars of claim by the Civil Procedure Rules, which also replaced the word plaintiff with claimant as part of a drastic reform of English legal terminology. Thus, in England and Wales, a claimant now initiates a claim by filing a claim form (instead of a writ of summons), and either pleads particulars of claim on the claim form itself or as a separate document.	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Cryovac", "Staple (fastener)", "Docket (court)", "Sanitization (classified information)", "Initial Conference (Law)", "U.S. state", "cause of action", "United States bankruptcy court", "the United States", "Petition", "Social Security number", "Rules of the Supreme Court", "frivolous", "civil liberties", "criminal charge", "Federal Rules of Civil Procedure", "Filing (legal)", "Cause of action", "Margin (typography)", "sanctions (law)", "Motion to strike (court of law)", "Police power (United States constitutional law)", "Under seal (Law)", "default judgment", "lawyer", "Google Scholar", "Discovery (law)", "waiver", "font", "Commonwealth realm", "Administrative Office of the United States Courts", "birthday", "Taxpayer Identification Number", "Party (law)", "Civil Procedure Rules", "plaintiff", "Hole punch", "injunctive relief", "Case Information Statement", "summons", "Rubber stamp", "indictment", "Minor (law)", "Pleading", "Legal remedy", "defendant", "money damages" ]
7,362	Casimir III the Great	Casimir III the Great (; 30 April 1310 – 5 November 1370) reigned as the King of Poland from 1333 to 1370. He also later became King of Ruthenia in 1340, retaining the title throughout the Galicia–Volhynia Wars. He was the last Polish king from the Piast dynasty. Casimir inherited a kingdom weakened by war and under his rule it became relatively prosperous and wealthy. He reformed the Polish army and doubled the size of the kingdom. He reformed the judicial system and introduced several undying codified statutes, gaining the title "the Polish Justinian". Casimir built extensively and founded the Jagiellonian University (back then simply called the University of Krakow), the oldest Polish university and one of the oldest in the world. He also confirmed privileges and protections previously granted to Jews and encouraged them to settle in Poland in great numbers. Casimir left no legitimate sons. When he died in 1370 from an injury received while hunting, his nephew, King Louis I of Hungary, succeeded him as king of Poland in personal union with Hungary. ==The Great King== Casimir was born on 30 April 1310 in Kowal, Kuyavia, the third son of Ladislaus the Short and Jadwiga of Kalisz. He had two brothers who died in infancy and three sisters: Kunegunda, Elżbieta, and Jadwiga. He organized a meeting of kings in Kraków in 1364 at which he exhibited the wealth of the Polish kingdom. Casimir is the only king in Polish history to both receive and retain the title of "Great", as Bolesław I is more commonly known as "the Brave". === Reforms === Casimir ensured stability and great prospects for the future of the country. He established the Corona Regni Poloniae – the Crown of the Polish Kingdom, It was regarded as a rare distinction, since it was only the second university founded in Central Europe, after the Charles University in Prague. ===Succession=== In 1355, in Buda, Casimir designated his nephew Louis I of Hungary as his successor should he produce no male heir, just as his father had with Charles I of Hungary to gain help against Bohemia. In exchange Casimir gained a favourable Hungarian attitude, needed in disputes with the hostile Teutonic Order and the Kingdom of Bohemia. At the time Casimir was 45 years old, and so producing a son did not seem unreasonable. Casimir left no legal son, however, begetting five daughters instead. He tried to adopt his grandson, Casimir IV, Duke of Pomerania, in his last will. The child had been born to his eldest daughter, Elisabeth, Duchess of Pomerania, in 1351. This part of the testament was invalidated by Louis I of Hungary, however, who had traveled to Kraków quickly after Casimir died (in 1370) and bribed the nobles with future privileges. Casimir III also had a son-in-law, Louis VI of Bavaria, Margrave and Prince-elector of Brandenburg, who was considered a possible successor, but he was deemed ineligible as his wife, Casimir's daughter Cunigunde, had died in 1357 without issue. Thus King Louis I of Hungary became successor in Poland. Louis was proclaimed king upon Casimir's death in 1370, though Casimir's sister Elisabeth (Louis's mother) held much of the real power until her death in 1380. ==Society under the reign of Casimir== Casimir was facetiously named "the Peasants' King". He introduced the codes of law of Greater and Lesser Poland as an attempt to end the overwhelming superiority of the nobility. During his reign all three major classes — the nobility, priesthood, and bourgeoisie — were more or less counterbalanced, allowing Casimir to strengthen his monarchic position. He was known for siding with the weak when the law did not protect them from nobles and clergymen. He reportedly even supported a peasant whose house had been demolished by his own mistress, after she had ordered it to be pulled down because it disturbed her enjoyment of the beautiful landscape. His popularity with the peasants helped to rebuild the country, as part of the reconstruction program was funded by a land tax paid by the lower social class. Casimir's legendary Jewish mistress Esterka remains unconfirmed by direct historical evidence. ==Relationships and children== Casimir III was married four times: ===Aldona of Lithuania=== On 30 April or 16 October 1325, Casimir married Aldona of Lithuania, daughter of Grand Duke Gediminas of Lithuania and Jewna. They had: Elisabeth of Poland (ca. 1326–1361); married Duke Bogislaus V of Pomerania Cunigunde of Poland (1334–1357), married Louis VI the Roman, the son of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor Anna Aldona died on 26 May 1339. Casimir remained a widower for two years. ===Adelaide of Hesse=== On 29 September 1341, Casimir married his second wife, Adelaide of Hesse. She was a daughter of Henry II, Landgrave of Hesse, and Elizabeth of Meissen. They had no children. Casimir started living separately from Adelaide soon after the marriage. Their loveless marriage lasted until 1356, when he declared himself divorced. ===Christina Rokiczana=== After Casimir "divorced" Adelaide he married his mistress Christina Rokiczana, the widow of Miklusz Rokiczani, a wealthy merchant. Her own origins are unknown. Following the death of her first husband she had entered the court of Bohemia in Prague as a lady-in-waiting. Casimir brought her with him from Prague and convinced the abbot of the Benedictine abbey of Tyniec to marry them. The marriage was held in a secret ceremony but soon became known. Queen Adelaide renounced it as bigamous and returned to Hesse. Casimir continued living with Christine despite complaints by Pope Innocent VI on behalf of Queen Adelaide. This marriage lasted until 1363–64 when Casimir again declared himself divorced. They had no children. ===Hedwig of Żagań=== In about 1365, Casimir married his fourth wife Hedwig of Żagań. She was a daughter of Henry V of Iron, Duke of Żagań and Anna of Mazovia. They had three children: Anna of Poland, Countess of Celje (1366 – 9 June 1422); married firstly William of Celje; their only daughter was Anne of Celje, who married Jogaila of Lithuania when he was king of Poland (as Władysław II Jagiełło). Anna married secondly Ulrich, Duke of Teck; they had no children. Kunigunde of Poland (1367 – 1370) Jadwiga of Poland (1368 – ca. 1382) As Adelheid was still alive (and possibly Christina as well), the marriage to Hedwig was also considered bigamous. Because of this, the legitimacy of his three young daughters was disputed. Casimir managed to have Anna and Kunigunde legitimated by Pope Urban V on 5 December 1369. Jadwiga the younger was legitimated by Pope Gregory XI on 11 October 1371 (after Casimir's death). ==Title and style== Casimir's full title was: Casimir by the grace of God king of Poland and Rus' (Ruthenia), lord and heir of the land of Kraków, Sandomierz, Sieradz, Łęczyca, Kuyavia, Pomerania (Pomerelia). The title in Latin was: Kazimirus, Dei gratia rex Polonie et Russie, nec non Cracovie, Sandomirie, Siradie, Lancicie, Cuiavie, et Pomeranieque Terrarum et Ducatuum Dominus et Heres. ==Popular culture== === Film === Casimir III the Great is one of the main characters in Polish historical drama series Korona królów (The Crown of the Kings). He is played by Mateusz Król (season 1) and Andrzej Hausner (season 2). Casimir III the Great is mentioned in a speech by Amon Göth in the film Schindler's List. === Video games === Casimir features as a playable leader in the 2010 strategy game Civilization V, having been added in its 2013 expansion, Brave New World. Casimir also features as a ruler in the strategy game Crusader Kings II. Casimir also features as a ruler in a strategy game Age of History II. === Currency === Casimir is featured on the obverse of the 50 Polish złoty banknote, with his regalia on the reverse. ==Gallery== File:Kazimierz III Wielki (275138).jpg\|Casimir III the Great by Jan Matejko File:Löffler Casimir the Great.jpg\|Casimir the Great by Leopold Loeffler File:Krakow nagrobek Kazimierza W.jpg\|Casimir III's tomb at Wawel Cathedral File:AGAD Kazimierz Wielki, krol polski, zezwala Grzegorzowi, biskupowi ormianskiemu, na przebywanie we Lwowie.jpg\|Document issued by Casimir the Great granting the Armenian bishop Gregory (Գրիգոր) the right to stay and preach in Lviv, 1367 File:Pieczec panstwa polskiego (1334).jpg\|Royal seal, 1334	[ "Trail of the Eagle's Nests", "Catholic Church", "List of rulers of Halych and Volhynia", "Elisabeth of Poland (1326-1361)", "Bohemia", "Władysław I the Elbow-high", "Duke of Teck", "Casimir IV, Duke of Pomerania", "penalty of death", "Louis I of Hungary", "Poland", "History of Poland (966–1385)", "Sejm", "King of Ruthenia", "Ashkenazi", "Prague", "Silesia", "Amon Göth", "Ladislaus the Short", "Wiślica", "Pope Innocent VI", "Schindler's List", "criminal law", "Kowal (town)", "Union of Hungary and Poland", "Żagań", "Boleslaw-Yuri II of Galicia", "Buda", "Korona królów", "Kazimierz", "morganatic", "Wawel Cathedral", "Leopold Loeffler", "abbey", "Tyniec", "Ukraine", "Kingdom of Bohemia", "Yuri II Boleslav", "Crusader Kings II", "Poulaine", "Adelaide of Hesse", "Duchy of Brześć Kujawski", "Pomerelia", "University of Kraków", "banknote", "Jogaila", "Polygamy", "Christina Rokiczana", "Brandenburg", "Charles I of Hungary", "baptism", "Margrave", "Jews", "Boleslaus I of Poland", "Age of History II", "Christianity", "Justinian I", "Jan Matejko", "William, Count of Celje", "Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz", "Pope Urban V", "King of Poland", "Kuyavia", "Anne of Cilli", "Bogislaw V", "Elisabeth of Poland (1326–1361)", "Louis VI the Roman", "Kingdom of Rus'", "Hedwig of Sagan", "Jadwiga of Kalisz", "Henry II, Landgrave of Hesse", "Halych", "Esterka", "Bolesław V the Chaste", "List of universities in Poland", "Kraków", "Benedictine", "Armenian Catholic Church", "Jewna", "Jagiellonian University", "Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor", "Galicia–Volhynia Wars", "List of oldest universities in continuous operation", "Aldona of Lithuania", "Civil law (private law)", "Prince-elector", "Gediminas of Lithuania", "Łęczyca", "Piast dynasty", "House of Piast", "Kazimierz Dolny", "Henry V of Iron", "Treaty of Trentschin", "Civilization V", "Polish złoty", "Sieradz", "The New York Times", "Congress of Kraków", "Pope Gregory XI", "Sandomierz Voivodeship", "lady-in-waiting", "Anna of Poland, Countess of Celje", "Lviv", "List of Poles", "United Kingdom of Poland" ]
7,363	Complexity	Complexity characterizes the behavior of a system or model whose components interact in multiple ways and follow local rules, leading to non-linearity, randomness, collective dynamics, hierarchy, and emergence. The term is generally used to characterize something with many parts where those parts interact with each other in multiple ways, culminating in a higher order of emergence greater than the sum of its parts. The study of these complex linkages at various scales is the main goal of complex systems theory. The intuitive criterion of complexity can be formulated as follows: a system would be more complex if more parts could be distinguished, and if more connections between them existed. , a number of approaches to characterizing complexity have been used in science; Zayed et al. reflect many of these. Neil Johnson states that "even among scientists, there is no unique definition of complexity – and the scientific notion has traditionally been conveyed using particular examples..." Ultimately Johnson adopts the definition of "complexity science" as "the study of the phenomena which emerge from a collection of interacting objects". == Overview == Definitions of complexity often depend on the concept of a "system" – a set of parts or elements that have relationships among them differentiated from relationships with other elements outside the relational regime. Many definitions tend to postulate or assume that complexity expresses a condition of numerous elements in a system and numerous forms of relationships among the elements. However, what one sees as complex and what one sees as simple is relative and changes with time. Warren Weaver posited in 1948 two forms of complexity: disorganized complexity, and organized complexity. Phenomena of 'disorganized complexity' are treated using probability theory and statistical mechanics, while 'organized complexity' deals with phenomena that escape such approaches and confront "dealing simultaneously with a sizable number of factors which are interrelated into an organic whole". The approaches that embody concepts of systems, multiple elements, multiple relational regimes, and state spaces might be summarized as implying that complexity arises from the number of distinguishable relational regimes (and their associated state spaces) in a defined system. Some definitions relate to the algorithmic basis for the expression of a complex phenomenon or model or mathematical expression, as later set out herein. == Disorganized vs. organized == One of the problems in addressing complexity issues has been formalizing the intuitive conceptual distinction between the large number of variances in relationships extant in random collections, and the sometimes large, but smaller, number of relationships between elements in systems where constraints (related to correlation of otherwise independent elements) simultaneously reduce the variations from element independence and create distinguishable regimes of more-uniform, or correlated, relationships, or interactions. Weaver perceived and addressed this problem, in at least a preliminary way, in drawing a distinction between "disorganized complexity" and "organized complexity". In Weaver's view, disorganized complexity results from the particular system having a very large number of parts, say millions of parts, or many more. Though the interactions of the parts in a "disorganized complexity" situation can be seen as largely random, the properties of the system as a whole can be understood by using probability and statistical methods. A prime example of disorganized complexity is a gas in a container, with the gas molecules as the parts. Some would suggest that a system of disorganized complexity may be compared with the (relative) simplicity of planetary orbits – the latter can be predicted by applying Newton's laws of motion. Of course, most real-world systems, including planetary orbits, eventually become theoretically unpredictable even using Newtonian dynamics; as discovered by modern chaos theory. Organized complexity, in Weaver's view, resides in nothing else than the non-random, or correlated, interaction between the parts. These correlated relationships create a differentiated structure that can, as a system, interact with other systems. The coordinated system manifests properties not carried or dictated by individual parts. The organized aspect of this form of complexity with regard to other systems, rather than the subject system, can be said to "emerge," without any "guiding hand". The number of parts does not have to be very large for a particular system to have emergent properties. A system of organized complexity may be understood in its properties (behavior among the properties) through modeling and simulation, particularly modeling and simulation with computers. An example of organized complexity is a city neighborhood as a living mechanism, with the neighborhood people among the system's parts. == Sources and factors == There are generally rules which can be invoked to explain the origin of complexity in a given system. The source of disorganized complexity is the large number of parts in the system of interest, and the lack of correlation between elements in the system. In the case of self-organizing living systems, usefully organized complexity comes from beneficially mutated organisms being selected to survive by their environment for their differential reproductive ability or at least success over inanimate matter or less organized complex organisms. See e.g. Robert Ulanowicz's treatment of ecosystems. Complexity of an object or system is a relative property. For instance, for many functions (problems), such a computational complexity as time of computation is smaller when multitape Turing machines are used than when Turing machines with one tape are used. Random Access Machines allow one to even more decrease time complexity (Greenlaw and Hoover 1998: 226), while inductive Turing machines can decrease even the complexity class of a function, language or set (Burgin 2005). This shows that tools of activity can be an important factor of complexity. == Varied meanings == In several scientific fields, "complexity" has a precise meaning: In computational complexity theory, the amounts of resources required for the execution of algorithms is studied. The most popular types of computational complexity are the time complexity of a problem equal to the number of steps that it takes to solve an instance of the problem as a function of the size of the input (usually measured in bits), using the most efficient algorithm, and the space complexity of a problem equal to the volume of the memory used by the algorithm (e.g., cells of the tape) that it takes to solve an instance of the problem as a function of the size of the input (usually measured in bits), using the most efficient algorithm. This allows classification of computational problems by complexity class (such as P, NP, etc.). An axiomatic approach to computational complexity was developed by Manuel Blum. It allows one to deduce many properties of concrete computational complexity measures, such as time complexity or space complexity, from properties of axiomatically defined measures. In algorithmic information theory, the Kolmogorov complexity (also called descriptive complexity, algorithmic complexity or algorithmic entropy) of a string is the length of the shortest binary program that outputs that string. Minimum message length is a practical application of this approach. Different kinds of Kolmogorov complexity are studied: the uniform complexity, prefix complexity, monotone complexity, time-bounded Kolmogorov complexity, and space-bounded Kolmogorov complexity. An axiomatic approach to Kolmogorov complexity based on Blum axioms (Blum 1967) was introduced by Mark Burgin in the paper presented for publication by Andrey Kolmogorov. The axiomatic approach encompasses other approaches to Kolmogorov complexity. It is possible to treat different kinds of Kolmogorov complexity as particular cases of axiomatically defined generalized Kolmogorov complexity. Instead of proving similar theorems, such as the basic invariance theorem, for each particular measure, it is possible to easily deduce all such results from one corresponding theorem proved in the axiomatic setting. This is a general advantage of the axiomatic approach in mathematics. The axiomatic approach to Kolmogorov complexity was further developed in the book (Burgin 2005) and applied to software metrics (Burgin and Debnath, 2003; Debnath and Burgin, 2003). In information theory, information fluctuation complexity is the fluctuation of information about information entropy. It is derivable from fluctuations in the predominance of order and chaos in a dynamic system and has been used as a measure of complexity in many diverse fields. In information processing, complexity is a measure of the total number of properties transmitted by an object and detected by an observer. Such a collection of properties is often referred to as a state. In physical systems, complexity is a measure of the probability of the state vector of the system. This should not be confused with entropy; it is a distinct mathematical measure, one in which two distinct states are never conflated and considered equal, as is done for the notion of entropy in statistical mechanics. In dynamical systems, statistical complexity measures the size of the minimum program able to statistically reproduce the patterns (configurations) contained in the data set (sequence). While the algorithmic complexity implies a deterministic description of an object (it measures the information content of an individual sequence), the statistical complexity, like forecasting complexity, implies a statistical description, and refers to an ensemble of sequences generated by a certain source. Formally, the statistical complexity reconstructs a minimal model comprising the collection of all histories sharing a similar probabilistic future and measures the entropy of the probability distribution of the states within this model. It is a computable and observer-independent measure based only on the internal dynamics of the system and has been used in studies of emergence and self-organization. In mathematics, Krohn–Rhodes complexity is an important topic in the study of finite semigroups and automata. In network theory, complexity is the product of richness in the connections between components of a system, and defined by a very unequal distribution of certain measures (some elements being highly connected and some very few, see complex network). In software engineering, programming complexity is a measure of the interactions of the various elements of the software. This differs from the computational complexity described above in that it is a measure of the design of the software. Halstead complexity measures, cyclomatic complexity, time complexity, and parameterized complexity are closely linked concepts. In model theory, U-rank is a measure of the complexity of a complete type in the context of stable theories. In bioinformatics, linguistic sequence complexity is a measure of the vocabulary richness of a genetic text in gene sequences In statistical learning theory, the Vapnik–Chervonenkis dimension is a measure of the size (capacity, complexity, expressive power, richness, or flexibility) of a class of sets. In computational learning theory, Rademacher complexity is a measure of richness of a class of sets with respect to a probability distribution. In sociology, social complexity is a conceptual framework used in the analysis of society. In combinatorial game theory, measures of game complexity involve understanding game positions, possible outcomes, and computation required for various game scenarios. Other fields introduce less precisely defined notions of complexity: A complex adaptive system has some or all of the following attributes: This means that complex is the opposite of independent, while complicated is the opposite of simple. While this has led some fields to come up with specific definitions of complexity, there is a more recent movement to regroup observations from different fields to study complexity in itself, whether it appears in anthills, human brains or social systems. One such interdisciplinary group of fields is relational order theories. == Topics == === Behaviour === The behavior of a complex system is often said to be due to emergence and self-organization. Chaos theory has investigated the sensitivity of systems to variations in initial conditions as one cause of complex behaviour. ===Mechanisms === Recent developments in artificial life, evolutionary computation and genetic algorithms have led to an increasing emphasis on complexity and complex adaptive systems. === Simulations === In social science, the study on the emergence of macro-properties from the micro-properties, also known as macro-micro view in sociology. The topic is commonly recognized as social complexity that is often related to the use of computer simulation in social science, i.e. computational sociology. === Systems === Systems theory has long been concerned with the study of complex systems (in recent times, complexity theory and complex systems have also been used as names of the field). These systems are present in the research of a variety of disciplines, including biology, economics, social studies and technology. Recently, complexity has become a natural domain of interest of real-world socio-cognitive systems and emerging systemics research. Complex systems tend to be high-dimensional, non-linear, and difficult to model. In specific circumstances, they may exhibit low-dimensional behaviour. === Data === In information theory, algorithmic information theory is concerned with the complexity of strings of data. Complex strings are harder to compress. While intuition tells us that this may depend on the codec used to compress a string (a codec could be theoretically created in any arbitrary language, including one in which the very small command "X" could cause the computer to output a very complicated string like "18995316"), any two Turing-complete languages can be implemented in each other, meaning that the length of two encodings in different languages will vary by at most the length of the "translation" language – which will end up being negligible for sufficiently large data strings. These algorithmic measures of complexity tend to assign high values to random noise. However, under a certain understanding of complexity, arguably the most intuitive one, random noise is meaningless and so not complex at all. Information entropy is also sometimes used in information theory as indicative of complexity, but entropy is also high for randomness. In the case of complex systems, information fluctuation complexity was designed so as not to measure randomness as complex and has been useful in many applications. More recently, a complexity metric was developed for images that can avoid measuring noise as complex by using the minimum description length principle. ===Classification Problems=== There has also been interest in measuring the complexity of classification problems in supervised machine learning. This can be useful in meta-learning to determine for which data sets filtering (or removing suspected noisy instances from the training set) is the most beneficial and could be expanded to other areas. For binary classification, such measures can consider the overlaps in feature values from differing classes, the separability of the classes, and measures of geometry, topology, and density of manifolds. For non-binary classification problems, instance hardness is a bottom-up approach that first seeks to identify instances that are likely to be misclassified (assumed to be the most complex). The characteristics of such instances are then measured using supervised measures such as the number of disagreeing neighbors or the likelihood of the assigned class label given the input features. === In molecular recognition === A recent study based on molecular simulations and compliance constants describes molecular recognition as a phenomenon of organisation. Even for small molecules like carbohydrates, the recognition process can not be predicted or designed even assuming that each individual hydrogen bond's strength is exactly known. === The law of requisite complexity === Deriving from the law of requisite variety, Boisot and McKelvey formulated the ‘Law of Requisite Complexity’, that holds that, in order to be efficaciously adaptive, the internal complexity of a system must match the external complexity it confronts. === Positive, appropriate and negative complexity === The application in project management of the Law of Requisite Complexity, as proposed by Stefan Morcov, is the analysis of positive, appropriate and negative complexity. === In project management === Project complexity is the property of a project which makes it difficult to understand, foresee, and keep under control its overall behavior, even when given reasonably complete information about the project system. === In systems engineering === Maik Maurer considers complexity as a reality in engineering. He proposed a methodology for managing complexity in systems engineering : 1. Define the system. 2. Identify the type of complexity. 3. Determine the strategy. 4. Determine the method. 5. Model the system. 6. Implement the method. == Applications == Computational complexity theory is the study of the complexity of problems – that is, the difficulty of solving them. Problems can be classified by complexity class according to the time it takes for an algorithm – usually a computer program – to solve them as a function of the problem size. Some problems are difficult to solve, while others are easy. For example, some difficult problems need algorithms that take an exponential amount of time in terms of the size of the problem to solve. Take the travelling salesman problem, for example. It can be solved, as denoted in Big O notation, in time O(n^2 2^n) (where n is the size of the network to visit – the number of cities the travelling salesman must visit exactly once). As the size of the network of cities grows, the time needed to find the route grows (more than) exponentially. Even though a problem may be computationally solvable in principle, in actual practice it may not be that simple. These problems might require large amounts of time or an inordinate amount of space. Computational complexity may be approached from many different aspects. Computational complexity can be investigated on the basis of time, memory or other resources used to solve the problem. Time and space are two of the most important and popular considerations when problems of complexity are analyzed. There exist a certain class of problems that although they are solvable in principle they require so much time or space that it is not practical to attempt to solve them. These problems are called intractable. There is another form of complexity called hierarchical complexity. It is orthogonal to the forms of complexity discussed so far, which are called horizontal complexity. == Emerging applications in other fields == The concept of complexity is being increasingly used in the study of cosmology, big history, and cultural evolution with increasing granularity, as well as increasing quantification. === Application in cosmology === Eric Chaisson has advanced a cosmological complexity metric which he terms Energy Rate Density. This approach has been expanded in various works, most recently applied to measuring evolving complexity of nation-states and their growing cities.	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Johnson", "entropy (information theory)", "Robert Ulanowicz", "Arthur Winfree", "Physical Review E", "problem size", "signal noise", "science", "Axiomatic system", "computer program", "dimension", "Fractal", "Data processing", "computational sociology", "algorithm", "Volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity", "Manuel Blum", "Rademacher complexity", "conceptual framework", "automata theory", "entropy (statistical thermodynamics)", "feedback", "data", "Project management", "carbohydrates", "matter", "Process architecture", "Dynamical system", "evolutionary computation", "Cyclomatic complexity", "Project complexity", "artificial life", "Computational complexity theory", "Theorem", "computational complexity", "emergence", "Bit", "Digital morphogenesis", "Cultural Evolution", "time complexity", "technology", "Minimum message length", "parameterized complexity", "Reproduction", "statistical mechanics", "probability", "statistical learning theory", "systemics", "Novelty theory", "linguistic sequence complexity", "model theory", "Physical Review Letters", "probability theory", "information fluctuation complexity", "genetic algorithm", "social science", "NP (complexity)", "Names of large numbers", "Big History", "Molecular modelling", "Variety (cybernetics)", "state (computer science)", "Zero-Force Evolutionary Law", "Assembly theory", "Percolation theory", "model", "project management", "supervised learning", "simulation", "Warren Weaver", "network theory", "social complexity", "Self-organization", "Eric Chaisson", "Computational irreducibility", "Newton's laws of motion", "Nonlinear system", "binary classification", "Andrey Kolmogorov", "economics", "Game complexity", "Kolmogorov complexity", "U-rank", "Computational resource", "computer storage", "Random Access Machine", "computational learning theory", "Lissack, Michael R.", "anthill", "living systems", "forecasting complexity", "Model of hierarchical complexity", "mathematics", "Supervised learning" ]
7,366	Chastity	Chastity, also known as purity, is a virtue related to temperance. Someone who is chaste refrains from sexual activity that is considered immoral or from any sexual activity, according to their state of life. In some contexts, for example when making a vow of chastity, chastity means celibacy. ==Etymology== The words chaste and chastity stem from the Latin adjective ("cut off", "separated", "pure"). The words entered the English language around the middle of the 13th century. Chaste meant "virtuous", "pure from unlawful sexual intercourse" or (from the early 14th century on) as a noun, a virgin, while chastity meant "(sexual) purity". Thomas Aquinas links (chastity) to the Latin verb ("chastise, reprimand, correct"), with a reference to Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics: "Chastity takes its name from the fact that reason 'chastises' concupiscence, which, like a child, needs curbing, as the Philosopher states". == In Abrahamic religions == For many Jews, Christians, and Muslims, people should restrict their acts of a sexual nature to the context of marriage. For unmarried people, chastity is equivalent to sexual abstinence. Sexual acts outside of or apart from marriage, such as adultery, fornication, masturbation, and prostitution, are considered immoral due to lust. ===Christianity=== ====Traditions==== In many Christian traditions, chastity is synonymous with purity. The Catholic Church teaches that chastity involves, in the words of cardinal bishop Alfonso López Trujillo, "the successful integration of sexuality within the person and thus the inner unity of man in his bodily and spiritual being", which according to one's marital status requires either having no sexual relationship, or only having sexual relations with one's spouse. In Western Christian morality, chastity is placed opposite the deadly sin of lust, and is classified as one of seven virtues. The moderation of sexual desires is also required to be virtuous. Reason, will, and desire can harmoniously work together to do what is good. As an emblem of inward chastity, some Christians choose to wear a cord, girdle or a cincture of one of the several Confraternities of the Cord or a purity ring. The cord is worn as a symbol of chastity in honour of a chaste saint whom the bearer asks for intercession. The purity ring is worn before holy matrimony by those who marry or for the rest of their lives by those who stay single. ====Marital chastity==== In marriage, the spouses commit to a lifelong relationship that excludes sexual intimacy with other persons. A third form of chastity, often called "vidual chastity", is expected by the society for a period after the woman's husband dies. For example, Anglican Bishop Jeremy Taylor defined five rules in Holy Living (1650), including abstaining from marrying "so long as she is with child by her former husband" and "within the year of mourning". ====Celibacy==== In the Roman Catholic Church, members of the consecrated life vow or promise celibacy as one of the evangelical counsels. In 306, the Synod of Elvira proscribed clergy from marrying. This was unevenly enforced until the Second Lateran Council in 1139 when it found its way into canon law. Unmarried deacons promise celibacy to their local bishop when ordained. Eastern Catholic priests are permitted to marry, provided they do so before ordination and outside monastic life. ====Vows of chastity==== Vows of chastity can be taken either as part of an organised religious life (such as Roman Catholic Beguines and Beghards in the past) or on an individual basis: as a voluntary act of devotion, or as part of an ascetic lifestyle (often devoted to contemplation), or both. Some Protestant religious communities, such as the Bruderhof, take vows of chastity as part of the church membership process. ====Teaching by denomination==== =====Catholicism===== Chastity is a central and pivotal concept in Roman Catholic praxis. Roman Catholic teaching regards chastity as essential in maintaining and cultivating the unity of body with spirit and thus the integrity of the human being. It is also fundamental to the practise of the Catholic life because it involves an apprenticeship in self-mastery. By attaining mastery over one's passions, reason, will, and desire can harmoniously work together to do what is good. =====Lutheranism===== The theology of the body of the Lutheran Churches emphasizes the role of the Holy Spirit, who sanctified the bodies of Christians to be God's temple. Many Lutheran monks and Lutheran nuns practice celibacy, though in some Lutheran religious orders it is not compulsory. =====The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints===== In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints chastity is very important: Physical intimacy between husband and wife is a beautiful and sacred part of God's plan for His children. It is an expression of love within marriage and allows husband and wife to participate in the creation of life. God has commanded that this sacred power be expressed only between a man and a woman who are legally married. The law of chastity applies to both men and women. It includes strict abstinence from sexual relations before marriage and complete fidelity and loyalty to one's spouse after marriage. The law of chastity requires that sexual relations be reserved for marriage between a man and a woman. In addition to reserving sexual intimacy for marriage, we obey the law of chastity by controlling our thoughts, words, and actions. Jesus Christ taught, "Ye have heard that it was said by them of old time, Thou shalt not commit adultery: but I say unto you, That whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart" ()." Teachings of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints also include that sexual expression within marriage is an important dimension of spousal bonding apart from, but not necessarily avoiding, its procreative result. === Islam === ====Quran==== The most famous personal example of chastity in the Quran is the Virgin Mary (Mariam): Extramarital sex is forbidden. The Quran says: In a list of commendable deeds the Quran says: Because the sex desire is usually attained before a man is financially capable of marriage, the love to God and mindfulness of Him should be sufficient motive for chastity: ====Sharia (Law)==== Chastity is mandatory in Islam. Sex outside legitimacy is prohibited, for both men and women, whether married or unmarried. The injunctions and forbiddings in Islam apply equally to men and women. The legal punishment for adultery is equal for men and women. The prophet's prescription to the youth was: Chastity is an attitude and a way of life. In Islam it is both a personal and a social value. A Muslim society should not condone relations entailing or conducive to sexual license. Social patterns and practices calculated to inflame sexual desire are frowned upon by Islam, such incitements to immorality including permissive ideologies, titillating works of art, and the failure to inculcate sound moral principles in the young. At the heart of such a view of human sexuality lies the conviction that the notion of personal freedom should never be misconstrued as the freedom to flout God's laws by overstepping the bounds which, in his infinite wisdom, he has set upon the relations of the sexes. ===Baháʼí Faith=== Chastity is highly prized in the Baháʼí Faith. Similar to other Abrahamic religions, Baháʼí teachings call for the restriction of sexual activity to that between a wife and husband in Baháʼí marriage, and discourage members from using pornography or engaging in sexually explicit recreational activities. The concept of chastity is extended to include avoidance of alcohol and mind-altering drugs, profanity, and gaudy or immodest attire. == In Eastern religions == ===Hinduism=== Hinduism's view on premarital sex is rooted in its concept of or the stages of life. The first of these stages, known as , roughly translates as chastity. Celibacy and chastity are considered the appropriate behavior for both male and female students during this stage, which precedes the stage of the married householder (). and Hindu monks or are also celibate as part of their ascetic discipline. ===Sikhism=== In Sikhism, premarital or extramarital sex is strictly forbidden. However, it is encouraged to marry and live as a family unit to provide and nurture children for the perpetual benefit of creation (as opposed to or living as a monk, which was, and remains, a common spiritual practice in India). A Sikh is encouraged not to live as a recluse, beggar, monk, nun, celibate, or in any similar vein. === Jainism === The Jain ethical code contains the vow of (meaning "pure conduct"), which prescribes the expectations for Jains concerning sexual activity. is one of the five major and minor vows of Jainism, prescribing slightly different expectations for ascetics and laypeople, respectively. Complete celibacy is expected only of Jain ascetics (who are also referred to as monks and nuns). For laypeople, chastity is expected, with extramarital sex and adultery being prohibited. ===Buddhism=== The teachings of Buddhism include the Noble Eightfold Path, comprising a division called right action. Under the Five Precepts ethical code, and lay followers should abstain from sexual misconduct, while and monastics should practice strict chastity. === Taoism === The Five Precepts of the Taoist religion include "no sexual misconduct", which is interpreted as prohibiting extramarital sex for lay practitioners and marriage or sexual intercourse for monks and nuns. ==Government== In Iran, women are required to wear hijabs as part of that society's efforts to enforce chastity. In 2023 the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance announced a new bill titled the Protection of the Culture of Chastity and Hijab Law, expanding its former sections from 15 to 70.	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7,376	Cosmic microwave background	The cosmic microwave background (CMB, CMBR), or relic radiation, is microwave radiation that fills all space in the observable universe. With a standard optical telescope, the background space between stars and galaxies is almost completely dark. However, a sufficiently sensitive radio telescope detects a faint background glow that is almost uniform and is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object. This glow is strongest in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The accidental discovery of the CMB in 1965 by American radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson was the culmination of work initiated in the 1940s. The CMB is landmark evidence of the Big Bang theory for the origin of the universe. In the Big Bang cosmological models, during the earliest periods, the universe was filled with an opaque fog of dense, hot plasma of sub-atomic particles. As the universe expanded, this plasma cooled to the point where protons and electrons combined to form neutral atoms of mostly hydrogen. Unlike the plasma, these atoms could not scatter thermal radiation by Thomson scattering, and so the universe became transparent. Known as the recombination epoch, this decoupling event released photons to travel freely through space. However, the photons have grown less energetic due to the cosmological redshift associated with the expansion of the universe. The surface of last scattering refers to a shell at the right distance in space so photons are now received that were originally emitted at the time of decoupling. The CMB is not completely smooth and uniform, showing a faint anisotropy that can be mapped by sensitive detectors. Ground and space-based experiments such as COBE, WMAP and Planck have been used to measure these temperature inhomogeneities. The anisotropy structure is determined by various interactions of matter and photons up to the point of decoupling, which results in a characteristic lumpy pattern that varies with angular scale. The distribution of the anisotropy across the sky has frequency components that can be represented by a power spectrum displaying a sequence of peaks and valleys. The peak values of this spectrum hold important information about the physical properties of the early universe: the first peak determines the overall curvature of the universe, while the second and third peak detail the density of normal matter and so-called dark matter, respectively. Extracting fine details from the CMB data can be challenging, since the emission has undergone modification by foreground features such as galaxy clusters. ==Features== The cosmic microwave background radiation is an emission of uniform black body thermal energy coming from all directions. Intensity of the CMB is expressed in kelvin (K), the SI unit of temperature. The CMB has a thermal black body spectrum at a temperature of . Variations in intensity are expressed as variations in temperature. The blackbody temperature uniquely characterizes the intensity of the radiation at all wavelengths; a measured brightness temperature at any wavelength can be converted to a blackbody temperature. The radiation is isotropic to roughly one part in 25,000: the root mean square variations are just over 100 μK, after subtracting a dipole anisotropy from the Doppler shift of the background radiation. The latter is caused by the peculiar velocity of the Sun relative to the comoving cosmic rest frame as it moves at 369.82 ± 0.11 km/s towards the constellation Crater near its boundary with the constellation Leo The CMB dipole and aberration at higher multipoles have been measured, consistent with galactic motion. Despite the very small degree of anisotropy in the CMB, many aspects can be measured with high precision and such measurements are critical for cosmological theories. Other than the temperature and polarization anisotropy, the CMB frequency spectrum is expected to feature tiny departures from the black-body law known as spectral distortions. These are also at the focus of an active research effort with the hope of a first measurement within the forthcoming decades, as they contain a wealth of information about the primordial universe and the formation of structures at late time. The CMB contains the vast majority of photons in the universe by a factor of 400 to 1; the number density of photons in the CMB is one billion times (109) the number density of matter in the universe. Without the expansion of the universe to cause the cooling of the CMB, the night sky would shine as brightly as the Sun. The energy density of the CMB is , about 411 photons/cm3. ==History== ===Early speculations=== In 1931, Georges Lemaître speculated that remnants of the early universe may be observable as radiation, but his candidate was cosmic rays. they prepared for a paper by Alpher's PhD advisor George Gamow. Alpher and Herman were able to estimate the temperature of the cosmic microwave background to be 5 K. ===Discovery=== The CMB angular anisotropies are usually presented in terms of power per multipole. The map of temperature across the sky, T(\theta,\varphi), is written as coefficients of spherical harmonics, T(\theta,\varphi) = \sum_{\ell m} a_{\ell m} Y_{\ell m}(\theta,\varphi) where the a_{\ell m} term measures the strength of the angular oscillation in Y_{\ell m}(\theta,\varphi), and ℓ is the multipole number while m is the azimuthal number. The azimuthal variation is not significant and is removed by applying the angular correlation function, giving power spectrum term C_{\ell}\equiv \langle \|a_{\ell m}\|^2 \rangle. Increasing values of ℓ correspond to higher multipole moments of CMB, meaning more rapid variation with angle. ===CMBR monopole term (ℓ = 0)=== The monopole term, , is the constant isotropic mean temperature of the CMB, which fits the observation done by COBE FIRAS. The dipole moment does not encode any primordial information. From the CMB data, it is seen that the Sun appears to be moving at relative to the reference frame of the CMB (also called the CMB rest frame, or the frame of reference in which there is no motion through the CMB). The Local Group — the galaxy group that includes our own Milky Way galaxy — appears to be moving at in the direction of galactic longitude , . The most longstanding of these is the low-ℓ multipole controversy. Even in the COBE map, it was observed that the quadrupole (, spherical harmonic) has a low amplitude compared to the predictions of the Big Bang. In particular, the quadrupole and octupole () modes appear to have an unexplained alignment with each other and with both the ecliptic plane and equinoxes. A number of groups have suggested that this could be the signature of quantum corrections or new physics at the greatest observable scales; other groups suspect systematic errors in the data. Ultimately, due to the foregrounds and the cosmic variance problem, the greatest modes will never be as well measured as the small angular scale modes. The analyses were performed on two maps that have had the foregrounds removed as far as possible: the "internal linear combination" map of the WMAP collaboration and a similar map prepared by Max Tegmark and others. Later analyses have pointed out that these are the modes most susceptible to foreground contamination from synchrotron, dust, and bremsstrahlung emission, and from experimental uncertainty in the monopole and dipole. A full Bayesian analysis of the WMAP power spectrum demonstrates that the quadrupole prediction of Lambda-CDM cosmology is consistent with the data at the 10% level and that the observed octupole is not remarkable. Carefully accounting for the procedure used to remove the foregrounds from the full sky map further reduces the significance of the alignment by ~5%. Recent observations with the Planck telescope, which is very much more sensitive than WMAP and has a larger angular resolution, record the same anomaly, and so instrumental error (but not foreground contamination) appears to be ruled out. Coincidence is a possible explanation, chief scientist from WMAP, Charles L. Bennett suggested coincidence and human psychology were involved, "I do think there is a bit of a psychological effect; people want to find unusual things." Measurements of the density of quasars based on Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer data finds a dipole significantly different from the one extracted from the CMB anisotropy. This difference is conflict with the cosmological principle. ==Future evolution== Assuming the universe keeps expanding and it does not suffer a Big Crunch, a Big Rip, or another similar fate, the cosmic microwave background will continue redshifting until it will no longer be detectable, and will be superseded first by the one produced by starlight, and perhaps, later by the background radiation fields of processes that may take place in the far future of the universe such as proton decay, evaporation of black holes, and positronium decay. == Timeline of prediction, discovery and interpretation == ===Thermal (non-microwave background) temperature predictions=== 1896 – Charles Édouard Guillaume estimates the "radiation of the stars" to be 5–6 K. 1926 – Sir Arthur Eddington estimates the non-thermal radiation of starlight in the galaxy "... by the formula the effective temperature corresponding to this density is 3.18° absolute ... black body". 1930s – Cosmologist Erich Regener calculates that the non-thermal spectrum of cosmic rays in the galaxy has an effective temperature of 2.8 K. 1946 – George Gamow calculates a temperature of 50 K (assuming a 3-billion year old universe), commenting it "... is in reasonable agreement with the actual temperature of interstellar space", but does not mention background radiation. 1953 – Erwin Finlay-Freundlich in support of his tired light theory, derives a blackbody temperature for intergalactic space of 2.3 K and in the following year values of 1.9K and 6.0K. ===Microwave background radiation predictions and measurements=== 1941 – Andrew McKellar detected a "rotational" temperature of 2.3 K for the interstellar medium by comparing the population of CN doublet lines measured by W. S. Adams in a B star. 1948 – Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman estimate "the temperature in the universe" at 5 K. Although they do not specifically mention microwave background radiation, it may be inferred. 1953 – George Gamow estimates 7 K based on a model that does not rely on a free parameter 1955 – Émile Le Roux of the Nançay Radio Observatory, in a sky survey at λ = 33 cm, initially reported a near-isotropic background radiation of 3 kelvins, plus or minus 2; he did not recognize the cosmological significance 1957 – Tigran Shmaonov reports that "the absolute effective temperature of the radioemission background ... is 4±3 K". with radiation intensity was independent of either time or direction of observation. Although Shamonov did not recognize it at the time, it is now clear that Shmaonov did observe the cosmic microwave background at a wavelength of 3.2 cm 1964 – A. G. Doroshkevich and Igor Dmitrievich Novikov publish a brief paper suggesting microwave searches for the black-body radiation predicted by Gamow, Alpher, and Herman, where they name the CMB radiation phenomenon as detectable. 1964–65 – Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson measure the temperature to be approximately 3 K. Robert Dicke, James Peebles, P. G. Roll, and D. T. Wilkinson interpret this radiation as a signature of the Big Bang. 1966 – Rainer K. Sachs and Arthur M. Wolfe theoretically predict microwave background fluctuation amplitudes created by gravitational potential variations between observers and the last scattering surface (see Sachs–Wolfe effect). 1968 – Martin Rees and Dennis Sciama theoretically predict microwave background fluctuation amplitudes created by photons traversing time-dependent wells of potential. 1969 – R. A. Sunyaev and Yakov Zel'dovich study the inverse Compton scattering of microwave background photons by hot electrons (see Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect). 1983 – Researchers from the Cambridge Radio Astronomy Group and the Owens Valley Radio Observatory first detect the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect from clusters of galaxies. 1983 – RELIKT-1 Soviet CMB anisotropy experiment was launched. 1990 – FIRAS on the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite measures the black body form of the CMB spectrum with exquisite precision, and shows that the microwave background has a nearly perfect black-body spectrum with T = 2.73 K and thereby strongly constrains the density of the intergalactic medium. January 1992 – Scientists that analysed data from the RELIKT-1 report the discovery of anisotropy in the cosmic microwave background at the Moscow astrophysical seminar. 1992 – Scientists that analysed data from COBE DMR report the discovery of anisotropy in the cosmic microwave background. 1995 – The Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope performs the first high resolution observations of the cosmic microwave background. 1999 – First measurements of acoustic oscillations in the CMB anisotropy angular power spectrum from the MAT/TOCO, BOOMERANG, and Maxima Experiments. The BOOMERanG experiment makes higher quality maps at intermediate resolution, and confirms that the universe is "flat". 2002 – Polarization discovered by DASI. 2003 – E-mode polarization spectrum obtained by the CBI. The CBI and the Very Small Array produces yet higher quality maps at high resolution (covering small areas of the sky). 2003 – The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe spacecraft produces an even higher quality map at low and intermediate resolution of the whole sky (WMAP provides high-resolution data, but improves on the intermediate resolution maps from BOOMERanG). 2004 – E-mode polarization spectrum obtained by the CBI. 2004 – The Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver produces a higher quality map of the high resolution structure not mapped by WMAP. 2005 – The Arcminute Microkelvin Imager and the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich Array begin the first surveys for very high redshift clusters of galaxies using the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect. 2005 – Ralph A. Alpher is awarded the National Medal of Science for his groundbreaking work in nucleosynthesis and prediction that the universe expansion leaves behind background radiation, thus providing a model for the Big Bang theory. 2006 – The long-awaited three-year WMAP results are released, confirming previous analysis, correcting several points, and including polarization data. 2006 – Two of COBE's principal investigators, George Smoot and John Mather, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2006 for their work on precision measurement of the CMBR. 2006–2011 – Improved measurements from WMAP, new supernova surveys ESSENCE and SNLS, and baryon acoustic oscillations from SDSS and WiggleZ, continue to be consistent with the standard Lambda-CDM model. 2010 – The first all-sky map from the Planck telescope is released. 2013 – An improved all-sky map from the Planck telescope is released, improving the measurements of WMAP and extending them to much smaller scales. 2014 – On March 17, 2014, astrophysicists of the BICEP2 collaboration announced the detection of inflationary gravitational waves in the B-mode power spectrum, which if confirmed, would provide clear experimental evidence for the theory of inflation. However, on 19 June 2014, lowered confidence in confirming the cosmic inflation findings was reported. 2015 – On January 30, 2015, the same team of astronomers from BICEP2 withdrew the claim made on the previous year. Based on the combined data of BICEP2 and Planck, the European Space Agency announced that the signal can be entirely attributed to dust in the Milky Way. 2018 – The final data and maps from the Planck telescope is released, with improved measurements of the polarization on large scales. 2019 – Planck telescope analyses of their final 2018 data continue to be released. ==In popular culture== In the Stargate Universe TV series (2009–2011), an ancient spaceship, Destiny, was built to study patterns in the CMBR which is a sentient message left over from the beginning of time. In Wheelers, a novel (2000) by Ian Stewart & Jack Cohen, CMBR is explained as the encrypted transmissions of an ancient civilization. This allows the Jovian "blimps" to have a society older than the currently-observed age of the universe. In The Three-Body Problem, a 2008 novel by Liu Cixin, a probe from an alien civilization compromises instruments monitoring the CMBR in order to deceive a character into believing the civilization has the power to manipulate the CMBR itself. The 2017 issue of the Swiss 20 francs bill lists several astronomical objects with their distances – the CMB is mentioned with 430 · 1015 light-seconds. In the 2021 Marvel series WandaVision, a mysterious television broadcast is discovered within the Cosmic Microwave Background.	[ "interferometer", "Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver", "Nonillion", "root mean square", "Hubble's law", "Standard Cosmological Model", "angular correlation function", "Philip James Edwin Peebles", "Courier Dover Publications", "free streaming", "Rainer K. 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Bennett", "Cosmologist", "Arno Penzias", "Pribory I Tekhnika Experimenta", "Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope", "WandaVision", "redshift", "UC Berkeley", "dark matter", "gravitational wave", "George Gamow", "diffusion damping", "Archeops", "Big Bang", "Inflation (cosmology)", "University of Nottingham", "Ancient (Stargate)", "curl (mathematics)", "Cosmic dust", "Recombination (cosmology)", "Plasma (physics)", "steady state theory", "divergence", "cosmological principle", "Distribution (mathematics)", "fine-tuning (physics)", "Astrophysical Journal", "universe", "population III", "The Astrophysical Journal", "21 centimeter radiation", "AIP Conference Proceedings", "Project Echo", "Alan Guth", "Mobile Anisotropy Telescope", "cosmic string", "Cambridge University Press", "baryon", "reionization", "BICEP and Keck Array", "Cosmic Background Explorer", "early universe", "Liu Cixin", "dust", "RIA Novosti", "Bayesian analysis", "dipole", "optical telescope", "David Todd Wilkinson", "Basic Books", "WMAP", "metric expansion of space", "black body spectrum", "Martin Rees", "Hawking radiation", "Dicke radiometer", "Lambda CDM", "UCLA", "Thomson scattering", "Rashid Sunyaev", "Crawford Hill", "Science (journal)", "bolometer", "Ralph Alpher", "Planck (spacecraft)", "fluid", "Physical Review Letters", "University of Cambridge", "Cosmic microwave background spectral distortions", "The Astrophysical Journal Letters", "galactic longitude", "aberration of light", "Helge Kragh", "Dennis Sciama", "Nançay Radio Observatory", "proton", "inversely proportional", "astronomical object", "cosmic variance", "Adiabatic process", "Hayden Planetarium", "Bell Telephone Laboratories", "non-standard cosmology", "Cosmic microwave background radiation", "radio telescope", "cosmological redshift", "NASA", "Charles Édouard Guillaume", "Arcminute Microkelvin Imager", "Erich Regener", "Fine-tuning (physics)", "Cuba", "Big Rip", "inflaton", "curvature of the universe", "Ian Stewart (mathematician)", "Yakov Zel'dovich", "cosmological horizon", "curved space", "Georges Lemaître", "shape of the universe", "scientific theory", "The New York Times", "cosmic inflation", "Physics Reports", "bremsstrahlung", "RELIKT-1", "thermal energy", "Richard Tolman", "polarization (physics)", "Compton scattering", "Markov chain Monte Carlo", "Joseph Silk", "standard error of estimation", "Shape of the universe", "flat spacetime", "Big Crunch", "Opacity (optics)", "Physical Review D", "Doppler shift", "Andrew McKellar", "Owens Valley Radio Observatory", "Crater (constellation)", "sub-atomic particle", "Princeton University Press" ]
7,378	Comparative law	Comparative law is the study of differences and similarities between the law and legal systems of different countries. More specifically, it involves the study of the different legal systems (or "families") in existence around the world, including common law, civil law, socialist law, Canon law, Jewish Law, Islamic law, Hindu law, and Chinese law. It includes the description and analysis of foreign legal systems, even where no explicit comparison is undertaken. The importance of comparative law has increased enormously in the present age of internationalism and economic globalization. ==History== The origins of modern comparative law can be traced back to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1667 in his Latin-language book (New Methods of Studying and Teaching Jurisprudence). Chapter 7 (Presentation of Law as the Project for all Nations, Lands and Times) introduces the idea of classifying Legal Systems into several families. A few years later, Leibniz introduced an idea of Language families. Although every legal system is unique, comparative law through studies of their similarities and differences allows for classification of legal systems, wherein law families is the basic level of the classification. The main differences between law families are found in the source(s) of law, the role of court precedents, the origin and development of the legal system. Montesquieu is generally regarded as an early founding figure of comparative law. His comparative approach is obvious in the following excerpt from Chapter III of Book I of his masterpiece, De l'esprit des lois (1748; first translated by Thomas Nugent, 1750): Also, in Chapter XI (entitled 'How to compare two different Systems of Laws') of Book XXIX, discussing the French and English systems for punishment of false witnesses, he advises that "to determine which of those systems is most agreeable to reason, we must take them each as a whole and compare them in their entirety." Yet another place where Montesquieu's comparative approach is evident is the following, from Chapter XIII of Book XXIX: The modern founding figure of comparative and anthropological jurisprudence was Sir Henry Maine, a British jurist and legal historian. In his 1861 work Ancient Law: Its Connection with the Early History of Society, and Its Relation to Modern Ideas, he set out his views on the development of legal institutions in primitive societies and engaged in a comparative discussion of Eastern and Western legal traditions. This work placed comparative law in its historical context and was widely read and influential. The first university course on the subject was established at the University of Oxford in 1869, with Maine taking up the position of professor. Comparative law in the US was brought by a legal scholar fleeing persecution in Germany, Rudolf Schlesinger. Schlesinger eventually became professor of comparative law at Cornell Law School helping to spread the discipline throughout the US. ==Purpose== Comparative law is an academic discipline that involves the study of legal systems, including their constitutive elements and how they differ, and how their elements combine into a system. Several disciplines have developed as separate branches of comparative law, including comparative constitutional law, comparative administrative law, comparative civil law (in the sense of the law of torts, contracts, property and obligations), comparative commercial law (in the sense of business organisations and trade), and comparative criminal law. Studies of these specific areas may be viewed as micro- or macro-comparative legal analysis, i.e. detailed comparisons of two countries, or broad-ranging studies of several countries. Comparative civil law studies, for instance, show how the law of private relations is organised, interpreted and used in different systems or countries. The purposes of comparative law are: To attain a deeper knowledge of the legal systems in effect To perfect the legal systems in effect Possibly, to contribute to a unification of legal systems, of a smaller or larger scale (cf. for instance, the UNIDROIT initiative) ==Relationship with other legal subjects== Comparative law is different from general jurisprudence (i.e. legal theory) and from public and private international law. However, it helps inform all of these areas of normativity. For example, comparative law can help international legal institutions, such as those of the United Nations System, in analyzing the laws of different countries regarding their treaty obligations. Comparative law would be applicable to private international law when developing an approach to interpretation in a conflicts analysis. Comparative law may contribute to legal theory by creating categories and concepts of general application. Comparative law may also provide insights into the question of legal transplants, i.e. the transplanting of law and legal institutions from one system to another. The notion of legal transplants was coined by Alan Watson, one of the world's renowned legal scholars specializing in comparative law. Gunther Teubner expanded the notion of legal transplantation to include legal irritation: Rather than smoothly integrating into domestic legal systems, a foreign rule disrupts established norms and societal arrangements. This disruption sparks an evolution where the external rule's meaning is redefined and where significant transformations within the internal context are triggered. Lasse Schuldt added that irritation is not spontaneous, but requires institutional drivers. Also, the usefulness of comparative law for sociology of law and law and economics (and vice versa) is very large. The comparative study of the various legal systems may show how different legal regulations for the same problem function in practice. Conversely, sociology of law and law & economics may help comparative law answer questions, such as: How do regulations in different legal systems really function in the respective societies? Are legal rules comparable? How do the similarities and differences between legal systems get explained? ==Classifications of legal systems== ===David=== René David proposed the classification of legal systems, according to the different ideology inspiring each one, into five groups or families: Western laws, a group subdivided into the: Civil law subgroup (whose jurisprudence is based on post-classical Roman Law) Common law subgroup (originating in English law) Soviet Law Muslim Law Hindu Law Chinese Law Jewish Law Especially with respect to the aggregating by David of the Civil and Common laws into a single family, David argued that the antithesis between the Common law and Civil law systems, is of a technical rather than of an ideological nature. Of a different kind is, for instance, the antithesis between, say, Italian and American laws, and of a different kind than between the Soviet, Muslim, Hindu, or Chinese laws. According to David, the Civil law legal systems included those countries where legal science was formulated according to Roman law, whereas Common law countries are those dominated by judge-made law. The characteristics that he believed uniquely differentiate the Western legal family from the other four are: liberal democracy capitalist economy Christian religion ===Arminjon, Nolde, and Wolff=== Arminjon, Nolde, and Wolff believed that, for purposes of classifying the (then) contemporary legal systems of the world, it was required that those systems per se get studied, irrespective of external factors, such as geographical ones. They proposed the classification of legal system into seven groups, or so-called 'families', in particular the: French group, under which they also included the countries that codified their law either in 19th or in the first half of the 20th century, using the Napoleonic code civil of year 1804 as a model; this includes countries and jurisdictions such as Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Louisiana, various South American states such as Brazil, Quebec, Saint Lucia, the Ionian Islands, Egypt, and Lebanon German group Scandinavian group, comprising the laws of Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland English group, including, inter alia, England, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand Russian group Islamic group (used in the Muslim world) Hindu group ===Zweigert and Kötz=== Konrad Zweigert and Hein Kötz propose a different, multidimensional methodology for categorizing laws, i.e. for ordering families of laws. They maintain that, to determine such families, five criteria should be taken into account, in particular: the historical background, the characteristic way of thought, the different institutions, the recognized sources of law, and the dominant ideology. Using the aforementioned criteria, they classify the legal systems of the world into six families: Roman family German family Common law family Nordic family Family of the laws of the Far East (China and Japan) Religious family (Jewish, Muslim, and Hindu law) Up to the second German edition of their introduction to comparative law, Zweigert and Kötz also used to mention Soviet or socialist law as another family of laws. ===Glenn=== H. Patrick Glenn proposed the classification of legal systems places national laws in the broader context of major legal tradition: Chthonic (or indigenous) law Talmudic law Islamic law Hindu law Confucianism law Civil law Common law ==Professional associations== American Association of Law Libraries American Society of Comparative Law International Association of Judicial Independence and World Peace International Association of Procedural Law International Law Association ==Comparative law periodicals== American Journal of Comparative Law German Law Journal Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law The Journal of Comparative Law	[ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz", "Western culture", "Roman Law", "Law of obligations", "Saint Lucia", "economic globalization", "Annual Bulletin (Comparative Law Bureau)", "Napoleonic code", "private international law", "Rule according to higher law", "Lebanon", "socialist law", "International Law Association", "H. Patrick Glenn", "Comparative law wiki", "criminal law", "commercial law", "Henry Maine", "legal transplants", "Hindu law", "Western world", "sociology of law", "common law", "De l'esprit des lois", "Rudolf Schlesinger", "Alan Watson (legal scholar)", "English law", "public international law", "Muslim world", "law and economics", "Halakha", "legal anthropology", "Menski Werner", "Islamic law", "O Kahn-Freund", "List of national legal systems", "Canon law", "International Association of Judicial Independence and World Peace", "Comparative criminal justice", "American Society of Comparative Law", "H Collins", "law", "International Association of Procedural Law", "Law of Germany", "contract", "American Journal of Comparative Law", "jurisprudence", "Law of France", "Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law", "Civil law (legal system)", "United Nations System", "Quebec", "Ancient Law", "UNIDROIT", "Internationalism (politics)", "Cornell Law School", "Talmudic law", "University of Oxford", "Common law", "Friedrich Carl von Savigny", "Louisiana", "Roman law", "American Association of Law Libraries", "Legal system", "tort", "Montesquieu", "René David", "Hein Kötz", "Civil law (private law)", "Sharia", "Far East", "Rule of law", "Jewish Law", "Socialist law", "Law of the Soviet Union", "Property law", "German Law Journal", "constitutional law", "Gunther Teubner", "administrative law", "Chinese law", "Ionian Islands", "Companies law" ]
7,380	CD (disambiguation)	A CD or compact disc is a thin plastic silvery disc for audio recordings. CD or cd may also refer to: ==Science and technology== ===Astronomy and cosmology=== Cordoba Durchmusterung, a star catalog of the southern sky Cosmological decade or CÐ, a unit of time Type-cD galaxy, a galaxy morphology classification ===Biology, ecology, and medicine=== Coeliac disease, long term autoimmune disorder causing intolerance to gluten Conduct disorder, a psychological disorder Conservation Dependent or LR/cd, an IUCN category Cluster of differentiation, a protocol used for the identification of cell surface molecules on white blood cells Crohn's disease Chlordane Communicable disease ===Computing=== CD-ROM, compact disc technology applied for use in computer data cd (command), a shell command to change the current working directory continuous delivery, a software development design practice continuous deployment, a software development design practice collision detection, CSMA/CD ===Mathematics=== cd (elliptic function), one of Jacobi's elliptic functions ===Other uses in science and technology=== Cadmium, symbol Cd, a chemical element Candela or cd, a unit of light intensity -CD, the North American call sign suffix for Class A low-power television stations operating with digital signals Circular dichroism, a form of spectroscopy Critical Dimension, the minimum feature size that a projection system can print in photolithography Drag coefficient or cd, a dimensionless quantity used to quantify the drag of an object in a fluid Cluster decay, a rare mode of nuclear decay ==Businesses and organizations== ===Government, military, and political=== Canadian Forces' Decoration, by post-nominal letters Centre Democrats (Denmark), a Danish former political party Centre Democrats (Netherlands), a former political party of the Netherlands Centro Democratico, a political party in Italy Christian democracy, a political ideology Civil defense, an effort to protect the citizens of a state from military attack and natural disasters Community of Democracies, an intergovernmental organization of democracies and democratizing countries Conference on Disarmament, an international forum that negotiates multilateral arms control and disarmament agreements Corps Diplomatique, the collective body of foreign diplomats accredited to a particular country or body FBI Counterintelligence Division, the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation's division responsible for investigating espionage ===Other business and organizations=== Certificate of deposit, a bank account in the United States with a fixed maturity date České dráhy or ČD, a railway operator of the Czech Republic Commander of the Order of Distinction, a rank in the Jamaican Orders of Societies of Honour ==Places== Central District, Seattle, a district in Seattle Democratic Republic of the Congo, by ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code .cd, the Internet domain of the Democratic Republic of the Congo cd., abbreviation for caddesi, street, in Turkish ==Other uses== 400 (number), written CD in Roman numerals 205 (number), written CD in hexadecimal AD 400 (CD), a year of the Common Era C.D (Criminal or Devil), a psychological thriller movie "CD", a song by T2 (band) cd, for cord (unit) of volume of wood Geely CD, a coupe automobile made by Geely Automobile Cairo Damascus or Damascus Document, a text found among the Dead Sea Scrolls Committee Draft, a status in the International Organization for Standardization Companion dog (title), a title offered to dogs by the American Kennel Club for dog obedience Cross-dressing, the act of wearing clothing associated with the opposite sex Corendon Dutch Airlines (IATA code) Sega CD, also known as the Sega Mega-CD, a CD-ROM accessory and format for the Sega Genesis produced by Sega as part of the fourth generation of video game consoles Sonic CD, a 1993 platform game developed and published by Sega for the Sega CD Bitter CD, a luxury hatchback coupé Cúcuta Deportivo, a Colombian football club	[ "FBI Counterintelligence Division", "cord (unit)", "Bitter CD", "Cadmium", "Conference on Disarmament", "České dráhy", "caddesi", "T2 (band)", "Coeliac disease", "cd (elliptic function)", "Certificate of deposit", "Type-cD galaxy", "compact disc", "Drag coefficient", "Conduct disorder", "cd (command)", "Cúcuta Deportivo", "Sega CD", "CSMA/CD", "Corps Diplomatique", "Community of Democracies", "Communicable disease", "Crohn's disease", "Circular dichroism", "Photolithography", ".cd", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Chlordane", "Canadian Forces' Decoration", "C&D (disambiguation)", "Commander of the Order of Distinction", "Centre Democrats (Netherlands)", "Centre Democrats (Denmark)", "C.D (Criminal or Devil)", "Centro Democratico", "Conservation Dependent", "Cordoba Durchmusterung", "205 (number)", "CD-ROM", "Sonic CD", "Civil defense", "Companion dog (title)", "International Organization for Standardization", "Cross-dressing", "AD 400", "Corendon Dutch Airlines", "North American call sign", "Candela", "continuous delivery", "Christian democracy", "400 (number)", "Cluster decay", "Cosmological decade", "Central District, Seattle", "Cairo Damascus", "CDS (disambiguation)", "CeeDee (disambiguation)", "continuous deployment", "Geely CD", "Cluster of differentiation" ]
7,381	Cyberspace	Cyberspace is an interconnected digital environment. It is a type of virtual world popularized with the rise of the Internet. The term entered popular culture from science fiction and the arts but is now used by technology strategists, security professionals, governments, military and industry leaders and entrepreneurs to describe the domain of the global technology environment, commonly defined as standing for the global network of interdependent information technology infrastructures, telecommunications networks and computer processing systems. Others consider cyberspace to be just a notional environment in which communication over computer networks occurs. The word became popular in the 1990s when the use of the Internet, networking, and digital communication were all growing dramatically; the term cyberspace was able to represent the many new ideas and phenomena that were emerging. As a social experience, individuals can interact, exchange ideas, share information, provide social support, conduct business, direct actions, create artistic media, play games, engage in political discussion, and so on, using this global network. Cyberspace users are sometimes referred to as cybernauts. The term cyberspace has become a conventional means to describe anything associated with general computing, the Internet and the diverse Internet culture. The U.S. government recognizes the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures and cyber-physical systems operating across this medium as part of the US national critical infrastructure. Amongst individuals on cyberspace, there is believed to be a code of shared rules and ethics mutually beneficial for all to follow, referred to as cyberethics. Many view the right to privacy as most important to a functional code of cyberethics. Such moral responsibilities go hand in hand when working online with global networks, specifically when opinions are involved with online social experiences. According to Chip Morningstar and F. Randall Farmer, cyberspace is defined more by the social interactions involved rather than its technical implementation. In their view, the computational medium in cyberspace is an augmentation of the communication channel between real people; the core characteristic of cyberspace is that it offers an environment that consists of many participants with the ability to affect and influence each other. They derive this concept from the observation that people seek richness, complexity, and depth within a virtual world. ==Etymology== The term cyberspace first appeared in the visual arts in the late 1960s, when Danish artist Susanne Ussing (1940–1998) and her partner architect Carsten Hoff (b. 1934) constituted themselves as Atelier Cyberspace. Under this name the two made a series of installations and images entitled "sensory spaces" that were based on the principle of open systems adaptable to various influences, such as human movement and the behaviour of new materials. Atelier Cyberspace worked at a time when the Internet did not exist and computers were more or less off-limit to artists and creative engagement. In a 2015 interview with Scandinavian art magazine Kunstkritikk, Carsten Hoff recollects that although Atelier Cyberspace did try to implement computers, they had no interest in the virtual space as such: The term cyberspace first appeared in fiction in the 1980s in the work of cyberpunk science fiction author William Gibson, first in his 1982 short story "Burning Chrome" and later in his 1984 novel Neuromancer. In the next few years, the word became prominently identified with online computer networks. The portion of Neuromancer cited in this respect is usually the following: Now widely used, the term has since been criticized by Gibson, who commented on the origin of the term in the 2000 documentary No Maps for These Territories: ===Metaphorical=== Don Slater uses a metaphor to define cyberspace, describing the "sense of a social setting that exists purely within a space of representation and communication ... it exists entirely within a computer space, distributed across increasingly complex and fluid networks." The term cyberspace started to become a de facto synonym for the Internet, and later the World Wide Web, during the 1990s, especially in academic circles and activist communities. Author Bruce Sterling, who popularized this meaning, credits John Perry Barlow as the first to use it to refer to "the present-day nexus of computer and telecommunications networks". Barlow describes it thus in his essay to announce the formation of the Electronic Frontier Foundation (note the spatial metaphor) in June 1990: As Barlow and the EFF continued public education efforts to promote the idea of "digital rights", the term was increasingly used during the Internet boom of the late 1990s. ===Virtual environments=== Although in the present-day, loose use of the term cyberspace no longer implies or suggests immersion in a virtual reality, current technology allows the integration of a number of capabilities (sensors, signals, connections, transmissions, processors, and controllers) sufficient to generate a virtual interactive experience that is accessible regardless of a geographic location. It is for these reasons cyberspace has been described as the ultimate tax haven. In 1989, Autodesk, an American multinational corporation that focuses on 2D and 3D design software, developed a virtual design system called Cyberspace. ===Recent definitions of Cyberspace=== Although several definitions of cyberspace can be found both in scientific literature and in official governmental sources, there is no fully agreed official definition yet. According to F. D. Kramer ,there are 28 different definitions of the term cyberspace. The most recent draft definition is the following: The Joint Chiefs of Staff of the United States Department of Defense define cyberspace as one of five interdependent domains, the remaining four being land, air, maritime, and space. See United States Cyber Command ==Cyberspace as an Internet metaphor== While cyberspace should not be confused with the Internet, the term is often used to refer to objects and identities that exist largely within the communication network itself, so that a website, for example, might be metaphorically said to "exist in cyberspace". According to this interpretation, events taking place on the Internet are not happening in the locations where participants or servers are physically located, but "in cyberspace". The philosopher Michel Foucault used the term heterotopias to describe such spaces which are simultaneously physical and mental. Firstly, cyberspace describes the flow of digital data through the network of interconnected computers: it is at once not "real"since one could not spatially locate it as a tangible objectand clearly "real" in its effects. There have been several attempts to create a concise model about how cyberspace works since it is not a physical thing that can be looked at. Secondly, cyberspace is the site of computer-mediated communication (CMC), in which online relationships and alternative forms of online identity are enacted, raising important questions about the social psychology of Internet use, the relationship between "online" and "offline" forms of life and interaction, and the relationship between the "real" and the virtual. Cyberspace draws attention to remediation of culture through new media technologies: it is not just a communication tool, but a social destination, and is culturally significant in its own right. Finally, cyberspace can be seen as providing new opportunities to reshape society and culture through "hidden" identities, or it can be seen as borderless communication and culture. The "space" in cyberspace has more in common with the abstract, mathematical meanings of the term (see space) than physical space. It does not have the duality of positive and negative volume (while in physical space, for example, a room has the negative volume of usable space delineated by positive volume of walls, Internet users cannot enter the screen and explore the unknown part of the Internet as an extension of the space they are in), but spatial meaning can be attributed to the relationship between different pages (of books as well as web servers), considering the unturned pages to be somewhere "out there." The concept of cyberspace, therefore, refers not to the content being presented to the surfer, but rather to the possibility of surfing among different sites, with feedback loops between the user and the rest of the system creating the potential to always encounter something unknown or unexpected. Video games differ from text-based communication in that on-screen images are meant to be figures that actually occupy a space and the animation shows the movement of those figures. Images are supposed to form the positive volume that delineates the empty space. A game adopts the cyberspace metaphor by engaging more players in the game, and then figuratively representing them on the screen as avatars. Games do not have to stop at the avatar-player level, but current implementations aiming for more immersive playing space (i.e. Laser tag) take the form of augmented reality rather than cyberspace, fully immersive virtual realities remaining impractical. Although the more radical consequences of the global communication network predicted by some cyberspace proponents (i.e. the diminishing of state influence envisioned by John Perry Barlow) failed to materialize and the word lost some of its novelty appeal, it remains current . Some virtual communities explicitly refer to the concept of cyberspacefor example, Linden Lab calling their customers "Residents" of Second Lifewhile all such communities can be positioned "in cyberspace" for explanatory and comparative purposes (as did Sterling in The Hacker Crackdown, followed by many journalists), integrating the metaphor into a wider cyber-culture. The metaphor has been useful in helping a new generation of thought leaders to reason through new military strategies around the world, led largely by the US Department of Defense (DoD). The use of cyberspace as a metaphor has had its limits, however, especially in areas where the metaphor becomes confused with physical infrastructure. It has also been critiqued as being unhelpful for falsely employing a spatial metaphor to describe what is inherently a network. to distrust art as deceiving people into entering a world which was not real (see Aniconism). The artistic challenge was resurrected with increasing ambition as art became more and more realistic with the invention of photography, film (see Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat), and immersive computer simulations. ===Influenced by computers=== ====Philosophy==== American counterculture exponents like William S. Burroughs (whose literary influence on Gibson and cyberpunk in general is widely acknowledged) and Timothy Leary were among the first to extol the potential of computers and computer networks for individual empowerment. Some contemporary philosophers and scientists (e.g. David Deutsch in The Fabric of Reality) employ virtual reality in various thought experiments. For example, Philip Zhai in Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality connects cyberspace to the Platonic tradition: Note that this brain-in-a-vat argument conflates cyberspace with reality, while the more common descriptions of cyberspace contrast it with the "real world". ===Cyber-Geography=== The “Geography of Notopia” (Papadimitriou, 2006) theorizes about the complex interplay of cyber-cultures and the geographical space. This interplay has several philosophical and psychological facets (Papadimitriou, 2009). ====A New Communication Model==== The technological convergence of the mass media is the result of a long adaptation process of their communicative resources to the evolutionary changes of each historical moment. Thus, the new media became (plurally) an extension of the traditional media in cyberspace, allowing to the public access information in a wide range of digital devices. In other words, it is a cultural virtualization of human reality as a result of the migration from physical to virtual space (mediated by the ICTs), ruled by codes, signs and particular social relationships. Forwards, arise instant ways of communication, interaction and possible quick access to information, in which we are no longer mere senders, but also producers, reproducers, co-workers and providers. New technologies also help to "connect" people from different cultures outside the virtual space, which was unthinkable fifty years ago. In this giant relationships web, we mutually absorb each other's beliefs, customs, values, laws and habits, cultural legacies perpetuated by a physical-virtual dynamics in constant metamorphosis (ibidem). In this sense, Professor Doctor Marcelo Mendonça Teixeira created, in 2013, a new model of communication to the virtual universe, based in Claude Elwood Shannon (1948) article "A Mathematical Theory of Communication". ====Art==== Having originated among writers, the concept of cyberspace remains most popular in literature and film. Although artists working with other media have expressed interest in the concept, such as Roy Ascott, "cyberspace" in digital art is mostly used as a synonym for immersive virtual reality and remains more discussed than enacted. ====Computer crime==== Cyberspace also brings together every service and facility imaginable to expedite money laundering. One can purchase anonymous credit cards, bank accounts, encrypted global mobile telephones, and false passports. From there one can pay professional advisors to set up IBCs (International Business Corporations, or corporations with anonymous ownership) or similar structures in OFCs (Offshore Financial Centers). Such advisors are loath to ask any penetrating questions about the wealth and activities of their clients, since the average fees criminals pay them to launder their money can be as much as 20 percent. ====5-level model==== In 2010, a five-level model was designed in France. According to this model, cyberspace is composed of five layers based on information discoveries: 1) language, 2) writing, 3) printing, 4) Internet, 5) Etc., i.e. the rest, e.g. noosphere, artificial life, artificial intelligence, etc., etc. This original model links the world of information to telecommunication technologies.	[ "Susanne Ussing", "Descartes", "Bruce Sterling", "cyberpunk", "immersion (virtual reality)", "computer-mediated communication", "John Shirley", "Chip Morningstar", "Internet boom", "Heterotopia (space)", "David Koepsell", "Internet", "Linden Lab", "Richard Thieme", "David Deutsch", "No Maps for These Territories", "Sunni", "cyberculture", "Second Life", "Virtuality", "Albert Benschop", "reality", "Laser tag", "Zeuxis and Parrhasius", "Timothy Leary", "augmented reality", "Michael Wynne", "tax haven", "web server", "Joint Chiefs of Staff", "Christine Buci-Glucksmann", "Oxford University Press", "Simon & Schuster", "new media", "National Defense University Press", "Visual arts", "Hilary Putnam", "brain-in-a-vat", "noosphere", "critical infrastructure", "F. Randall Farmer", "Roy Ascott", "Web page", "brain in a vat", "Autodesk", "L'Arrivée d'un Train en Gare de la Ciotat", "Cyberculture", "Cyber–physical system", "John Perry Barlow", "evil demon", "telecommunications network", "Michel Foucault", "The Hacker Crackdown", "computer network", "space", "technological convergence", "immersive virtual reality", "feedback", "counterculture", "Burning Chrome", "digital art", "artificial life", "Academia", "digital rights", "Aniconism", "Oliver Grau", "right to privacy", "Douglas Rushkoff", "website", "cyberethics", "William S. Burroughs", "Shulkhan Arukh", "digital electronics", "Electronic Frontier Foundation", "IT infrastructure", "metaphor", "United States Department of Defense", "World Wide Web", "Video game", "virtual world", "Avatar (virtual reality)", "information technology", "Department of Homeland Security", "thought experiment", "computer", "Neuromancer", "virtual communities", "computing", "mass media", "Resident (Second Life)", "Trompe-l'œil", "Shoghi Effendi", "Great Dreaming", "William Gibson", "United States Cyber Command" ]
7,382	The Maritimes	The Maritimes, also called the Maritime provinces, is a region of Eastern Canada consisting of three provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. The Maritimes had a population of 1,899,324 in 2021, which makes up 5.1% of Canada's population. Together with Canada's easternmost province, Newfoundland and Labrador, the Maritime provinces make up the region of Atlantic Canada. Located along the Atlantic coast, various aquatic sub-basins are located in the Maritimes, such as the Gulf of Maine and Gulf of St. Lawrence. The region is located northeast of New England in the United States, south and southeast of Quebec's Gaspé Peninsula, and southwest of the island of Newfoundland. The notion of a Maritime Union has been proposed at various times in Canada's history; the first discussions in 1864 at the Charlottetown Conference contributed to Canadian Confederation. This movement formed the larger Dominion of Canada. The Mi'kmaq, Maliseet and Passamaquoddy people are indigenous to the Maritimes, while Acadian and British settlements date to the 17th century. ==Name== The word maritime is an adjective that means of the sea; from Latin "of the sea, near the sea", from "sea". Thus any land adjacent to the sea can be considered maritime. But the term Maritimes has historically been collectively applied to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, all of which border the Atlantic Ocean. ==History== The pre-history of the Canadian Maritimes begins after the northerly retreat of glaciers at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation over 10,000 years ago; human settlement by First Nations began in the Maritimes with Paleo-Indians during the Early Period, ending around 6,000 years ago. The Middle Period, starting 6,000 years ago, and ending 3,000 years ago, was dominated by rising sea levels from the melting glaciers in polar regions. This is when what is called the Laurentian tradition started among Archaic Indians, the term used for First Nations peoples of the time. Evidence of Archaic Indian burial mounds and other ceremonial sites existing in the Saint John River valley has been uncovered. The Late Period extended from 3,000 years ago until first contact with European settlers. This period was dominated by the organization of First Nations peoples into the Algonquian-speaking Abenaki Nation, which occupied territory largely in present-day interior Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, and the Mi'kmaq Nation, which inhabited all of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, eastern New Brunswick and the southern Gaspé. The primarily agrarian Maliseet Nation settled throughout the Saint John River and Allagash River valleys of present-day New Brunswick and Maine. The Passamaquoddy Nation inhabited the northwestern coastal regions of the present-day Bay of Fundy. The Mi'kmaq Nation is also believed to have crossed the present-day Cabot Strait at around this time to settle on the south coast of Newfoundland, but they were a minority compared to the Beothuk Nation. ===European contact=== After Newfoundland, the Maritimes were the second area in Canada to be settled by Europeans. There is evidence that Viking explorers discovered and settled in the Vinland region around 1000 AD, which is when the L'Anse aux Meadows settlement in Newfoundland and Labrador has been dated. They may have made further exploration into the present-day Maritimes and northeastern United States. Both Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot) and Giovanni da Verrazzano are reported to have sailed in or near Maritime waters during their voyages of discovery for England and France, respectively. Several Portuguese explorers / cartographers have also documented various parts of the Maritimes, namely Diogo Homem. However, it was French explorer Jacques Cartier who made the first detailed reconnaissance of the region for a European power and, in so doing, claimed the region for the King of France. Cartier was followed by nobleman Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons, who was accompanied by explorer / cartographer Samuel de Champlain in a 1604 expedition. During this they established the second permanent European settlement in what is now the United States and Canada, following Spain's settlement at St. Augustine in present-day Florida in the American South. Champlain's settlement at Saint Croix Island, later moved to Port Royal (Annapolis Royal), survived. By contrast, the ill-fated English settlement at Roanoke Colony off the southern American coast did not. The French settlement pre-dated the more successful English settlement at Jamestown in present-day Virginia by three years. Champlain was considered the founder of New France's province of Canada, which comprises much of the present-day lower St. Lawrence River valley in the province of Quebec. ===Acadia=== Champlain's success in the region, which came to be called , led to the fertile tidal marshes surrounding the southeastern and northeastern reaches of the Bay of Fundy being populated by French immigrants who called themselves . The Acadians eventually built small settlements throughout what is today mainland Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, as well as Île-Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island), Île-Royale (Cape Breton Island), and other shorelines of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in present-day Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec. Acadian settlements had primarily agrarian economies. Early examples of Acadian fishing settlements developed in southwestern Nova Scotia and in Île-Royale, as well as along the south and west coasts of Newfoundland, the Gaspé Peninsula, and the present-day Côte-Nord region of Quebec. Most Acadian fishing activities were overshadowed by the much larger seasonal European fishing fleets that were based out of Newfoundland and took advantage of proximity to the Grand Banks. The growing English colonies along the American seaboard to the south and various European wars between England and France during the 17th and 18th centuries brought Acadia to the centre of world-scale geopolitical forces. In 1613, Virginian raiders captured Port-Royal, and in 1621 France ceded Acadia to Scotland's Sir William Alexander, who renamed it Nova Scotia. By 1632, Acadia was returned from Scotland to France under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The Port Royale settlement was moved to the site of nearby present-day Annapolis Royal. More French immigrant settlers, primarily from the Brittany, Normandie, and Vienne regions of France, continued to populate the colony of Acadia during the latter part of the 17th and early part of the 18th centuries. Important settlements also began in the Beaubassin region of the present-day Isthmus of Chignecto, and in the Saint John River valley, as well as smaller communities on Île-Saint-Jean and Île-Royale. In 1654, raiders from New England attacked Acadian settlements on the Annapolis Basin. Acadians lived with uncertainty throughout the English constitutional crises under Oliver Cromwell, and it was not until the Treaty of Breda in 1667 that France's claim to the region was reaffirmed. Colonial administration by France throughout the history of Acadia was of low priority. France's priorities were in settling and strengthening its claim on the larger territory of New France and the exploration and settlement of interior North America and the Mississippi River valley. ====Colonial wars==== Over 74 years (1689–1763) there were six colonial wars, which involved continuous warfare between New England and Acadia (see the French and Indian Wars reflecting English and French tensions in Europe, as well as Father Rale's War (Dummer's War) and Father Le Loutre's War). Throughout these wars, New England was allied with the Iroquois Confederacy based around the southern Great Lakes and west of the Hudson River. Acadian settlers were allied with the Wabanaki Confederacy. In the first war, King William's War (the North American theatre of the Nine Years' War), natives from the Maritime region participated in numerous attacks with the French on the Acadia / New England border in southern Maine (e.g., Raid on Salmon Falls). New England retaliatory raids on Acadia, such as the Raid on Chignecto, were conducted by Benjamin Church. In the second war, Queen Anne's War (the North American theatre of the War of the Spanish Succession), the British conducted the Conquest of Acadia, while the region remained primarily in control of Maliseet militia, Acadia militia and Mi'kmaw militia. In 1719, to further protect strategic interests in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence River, France began the 20-year construction of a large fortress at Louisbourg on Île-Royale. Massachusetts was increasingly concerned over reports of the capabilities of this fortress, and of privateers staging out of its harbour to raid New England fishermen on the Grand Banks. In the fourth war, King George's War (the North American theatre of the War of the Austrian Succession), the British engaged successfully in the Siege of Louisbourg. The British returned control of Île-Royale to France with the fortress virtually intact three years later under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and the French reestablished their forces there. In 1749, to counter the rising threat of Louisbourg, Halifax was founded and the Royal Navy established a major naval base and citadel. The founding of Halifax sparked Father Le Loutre's War. During the sixth and final colonial war, the French and Indian War (the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War), the military conflicts in Nova Scotia continued. The British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. Over the next forty-five years, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this time period Acadians participated in various militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French Fortress of Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour. The British sought to neutralize any military threat Acadians posed and to interrupt the vital supply lines Acadians provided to Louisbourg by deporting Acadians from Acadia. The British began the Expulsion of the Acadians with the Bay of Fundy campaign in 1755. Over the next nine years over 12,000 Acadians of 15,000 were removed from Nova Scotia. In 1758, the fortress of Louisbourg was laid siege for a second time within 15 years, this time by more than 27,000 British soldiers and sailors with over 150 warships. After the French surrender, Louisbourg was thoroughly destroyed by British engineers to ensure it would never be reclaimed. With the fall of Louisbourg, French and Mi'kmaw resistance in the region crumbled. British forces seized remaining French control over Acadia in the coming months, with Île-Saint-Jean falling in 1759 to British forces on their way to Quebec City for the first siege of Quebec and the ensuing Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The war ended and Britain had gained control over the entire Maritime region and the Indigenous people signed the Halifax Treaties. ===American Revolution=== Following the Seven Years' War, empty Acadian lands were settled first by 8,000 New England Planters and then by immigrants brought from Yorkshire. Île-Royale was renamed Cape Breton Island and incorporated into the Colony of Nova Scotia. Some of the Acadians who had been deported came back but went to the eastern coasts of New Brunswick. Both the colonies of Nova Scotia (present-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) and St. John's Island (Prince Edward Island) were affected by the American Revolutionary War, largely by privateering against American shipping, but several coastal communities were also the targets of American raiders. Charlottetown, the capital of the new colony of St. John's Island, was ransacked in 1775 with the provincial secretary kidnapped and the Great Seal stolen. The largest military action in the Maritimes during the revolutionary war was the attack on Fort Cumberland (the renamed Fort Beauséjour) in 1776 by a force of American sympathizers led by Jonathan Eddy. The fort was partially overrun after a month-long siege, but the attackers were ultimately repelled after the arrival of British reinforcements from Halifax. The most significant impact from this war was the settling of large numbers of Loyalist refugees in the region (34,000 to the 17,000 settlers already there), especially in Shelburne and Parrtown (Saint John). Following the Treaty of Paris in 1783, Loyalist settlers in what would become New Brunswick persuaded British administrators to split the Colony of Nova Scotia to create the new colony of New Brunswick in 1784. At the same time, another part of the Colony of Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island, was split off to become the Colony of Cape Breton Island. The Colony of St. John's Island was renamed Prince Edward Island on November 29, 1798. The War of 1812 had some effect on the shipping industry in the Maritime colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Cape Breton Island; however, the significant Royal Navy presence in Halifax and other ports in the region prevented any serious attempts by American raiders. Maritime and American privateers targeted unprotected shipping of both the United States and Britain respectively, further reducing trade. New Brunswick's section of the Canada–US border did not have any significant action during this conflict, although British forces did occupy a portion of coastal Maine at one point. The most significant incident from this war which occurred in the Maritimes was the British capture and detention of USS Chesapeake, an American frigate in Halifax. ===19th century=== In 1820, the Colony of Cape Breton Island was merged back into the Colony of Nova Scotia for the second time by the British government. British settlement of the Maritimes, as the colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island came to be known, accelerated throughout the late 18th century and into the 19th century with significant immigration to the region as a result of Scottish migrants displaced by the Highland Clearances and Irish escaping the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849). As a result, significant portions of the three provinces are influenced by Celtic heritages, with Scottish Gaelic (and to a lesser degree, Irish Gaelic) having been widely spoken, particularly in Cape Breton, although it is less prevalent today. During the American Civil War, a significant number of Maritimers volunteered to fight for the armies of the Union, while a small handful joined the Confederate Army. However, the majority of the conflict's impact was felt in the shipping industry. Maritime shipping boomed during the war due to large-scale Northern imports of war supplies which were often carried by Maritime ships as Union ships were vulnerable to Confederate naval raiders. Diplomatic tensions between Britain and the Unionist North had deteriorated after some interests in Britain expressed support for the secessionist Confederate South. The Union Navy, although much smaller than the British Royal Navy and no threat to the Maritimes, did posture off Maritime coasts at times chasing Confederate naval ships which sought repairs and reprovisioning in Maritime ports, especially Halifax. The immense size of the Union Army (the largest on the planet toward the end of the Civil War), however, was viewed with increasing concern by Maritimers throughout the early 1860s. Another concern was the rising threat of Fenian raids on border communities in New Brunswick by the Fenian Brotherhood seeking to end British rule in Ireland. This combination of events, coupled with an ongoing decline in British military and economic support to the region as the Home Office favoured newer colonial endeavours in Africa and elsewhere, led to a call among Maritime politicians for a conference on Maritime Union, to be held in early September 1864 in Charlottetown – chosen in part because of Prince Edward Island's reluctance to give up its jurisdictional sovereignty in favour of uniting with New Brunswick and Nova Scotia into a single colony. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia felt that if the union conference were held in Charlottetown, they might be able to convince Island politicians to support the proposal. The Charlottetown Conference, as it came to be called, was also attended by a slew of visiting delegates from the neighbouring Crown colony, the Province of Canada, who had largely arrived at their own invitation with their own agenda. This agenda saw the conference dominated by discussions of creating an even larger union of the entire territory of British North America into a united colony. The Charlottetown Conference ended with an agreement to meet the following month in Quebec City, where more formal discussions ensued, culminating with meetings in London and the signing of the British North America Act, 1867 (BNA Act). Of the Maritime provinces, only Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were initially party to the BNA Act: Prince Edward Island's reluctance, combined with a booming agricultural and fishing export economy having led to that colony opting not to sign on. ==Major population centres== The major communities of the region include Halifax and Cape Breton in Nova Scotia, Moncton, Saint John, and Fredericton in New Brunswick, and Charlottetown in Prince Edward Island. ==Climate== In spite of its name, The Maritimes has a humid continental climate of the warm-summer subtype. Especially in coastal Nova Scotia, differences between summers and winters are narrow compared to the rest of Canada. The inland climate of New Brunswick is in stark contrast during winter, resembling more continental areas. Summers are somewhat tempered by the marine influence throughout the provinces, but due to the southerly parallels still remain similar to more continental areas further west. Yarmouth in Nova Scotia has significant marine influence to have a borderline oceanic microclimate, but winter nights are still cold even in all coastal areas. The northernmost areas of New Brunswick are only just above subarctic with very cold continental winters. ==Demographics== The Maritimes were predominantly rural until recent decades, having resource-based economies of fishing, agriculture, forestry, and coal mining. Maritimers are predominantly of west European origin: Scottish Canadians, Irish Canadians, English Canadians, and Acadians. New Brunswick, in general, differs from the other two Maritime provinces in that it has a much higher Francophone population. There was once a significant Canadian Gaelic speaking population. Helen Creighton recorded Celtic traditions of rural Nova Scotia in the mid-1900s. There are Black Canadians who are mostly descendants of Black Loyalists or black refugees from the War of 1812. This Maritime population is mainly among Black Nova Scotians. There are Mi'kmaw nations in all Atlantic regions. There are also Wolastoqey nations along the Saint John River, also along parts of the Saint Lawrence River, and in Quebec toward Montreal. There are also Passamaquoddy nations along the Fundy Bay, along the edge of the US border, and across the border into Maine. Together these nations form the Wabanaki Confederacy. means 'the dawn land'. ==Economy== ===Present status=== Given the small population of the region (compared with the Central Canadian provinces or the New England states), the regional economy is a net exporter of natural resources, manufactured goods, and services. The regional economy has long been tied to natural resources such as fishing, logging, farming, and mining activities. Significant industrialization in the second half of the 19th century brought steel to Trenton, Nova Scotia, and subsequent creation of a widespread industrial base to take advantage of the region's large underground coal deposits. After Confederation, however, this industrial base withered with technological change, and trading links to Europe and the U.S. were reduced in favour of those with Ontario and Quebec. In recent years, however, the Maritime regional economy has begun increased contributions from manufacturing again and the steady transition to a service economy. Important manufacturing centres in the region include Pictou County, Truro, the Annapolis Valley and the South Shore, and the Strait of Canso area in Nova Scotia, as well as Summerside in Prince Edward Island, and the Miramichi area, the North Shore and the upper Saint John River valley of New Brunswick. Some predominantly coastal areas have become major tourist centres, such as parts of Prince Edward Island, Cape Breton Island, the South Shore of Nova Scotia and the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Bay of Fundy coasts of New Brunswick. Additional service-related industries in information technology, pharmaceuticals, insurance and financial sectors—as well as research-related spin-offs from the region's numerous universities and colleges—are significant economic contributors. Another important contribution to Nova Scotia's provincial economy is through spin-offs and royalties relating to off-shore petroleum exploration and development. Mostly concentrated on the continental shelf of the province's Atlantic coast in the vicinity of Sable Island, exploration activities began in the 1960s and resulted in the first commercial production field for oil beginning in the 1980s. Natural gas was also discovered in the 1980s during exploration work, and this is being commercially recovered, beginning in the late 1990s. Initial optimism in Nova Scotia about the potential of off-shore resources appears to have diminished with the lack of new discoveries, although exploration work continues and is moving farther off-shore into waters on the continental margin. Regional transportation networks have also changed significantly in recent decades with port modernizations, with new freeway and ongoing arterial highway construction, the abandonment of various low-capacity railway branch lines (including the entire railway system of Prince Edward Island and southwestern Nova Scotia), and the construction of the Canso Causeway and the Confederation Bridge. There have been airport improvements at various centres providing improved connections to markets and destinations in the rest of North America and overseas. Improvements in infrastructure and the regional economy notwithstanding, the three provinces remain one of the poorer regions of Canada. While urban areas are growing and thriving, economic adjustments have been harsh in rural and resource-dependent communities, and emigration has been an ongoing phenomenon for some parts of the region. Another problem is seen in the lower average wages and family incomes within the region. Property values are depressed, resulting in a smaller tax base for these three provinces, particularly when compared with the national average which benefits from central and western Canadian economic growth. This has been particularly problematic with the growth of the welfare state in Canada since the 1950s, resulting in the need to draw upon equalization payments to provide nationally mandated social services. Since the 1990s the region has experienced an exceptionally tumultuous period in its regional economy with the collapse of large portions of the ground fishery throughout Atlantic Canada, the closing of coal mines and a steel mill on Cape Breton Island, and the closure of military bases in all three provinces. That being said, New Brunswick has one of the largest military bases in the Commonwealth of Nations (CFB Gagetown), which plays a significant role in the cultural and economic spheres of Fredericton, the province's capital city. ===Historical=== ====Growth==== While the economic underperformance of the Maritime economy has been long lasting, it has not always been present. The mid-19th century, especially the 1850s and 1860s, has long been seen as a "Golden Age" in the Maritimes. Growth was strong, and the region had one of British North America's most extensive manufacturing sectors as well as a large international shipping industry. The question of why the Maritimes fell from being a centre of Canadian manufacturing to being an economic hinterland is thus a central one to the study of the region's pecuniary difficulties. The period in which the decline occurred had a great many potential culprits. In 1867 Nova Scotia and New Brunswick merged with the Canadas in Confederation, with Prince Edward Island joining them six years later in 1873. Canada was formed only a year after free trade with the United States (in the form of the Reciprocity Treaty) had ended. In the 1870s John A. Macdonald's National Policy was implemented, creating a system of protective tariffs around the new nation. Throughout the period there was also significant technological change both in the production and transportation of goods. ====Reputed Golden Age==== Several scholars have explored the so-called "Golden Age" of the Maritimes in the years just before Confederation. In Nova Scotia, the population grew steadily from 277,000 in 1851 to 388,000 in 1871, mostly from natural increase since immigration was slight. The era has been called a Golden Age, but that was a myth created in the 1930s to lure tourists to a romantic era of tall ships and antiques. Recent historians using census data have shown that is a fallacy. In 1851–1871 there was an overall increase in per capita wealth holding. However most of the gains went to the urban elite class, especially businessmen and financiers living in Halifax. The wealth held by the top 10% rose considerably over the two decades, but there was little improvement in the wealth levels in rural areas, which comprised the great majority of the population. Likewise Gwyn reports that gentlemen, merchants, bankers, colliery owners, shipowners, shipbuilders, and master mariners flourished. However the great majority of families were headed by farmers, fishermen, craftsmen and labourer. Most of them—and many widows as well—lived in poverty. Out migration became an increasingly necessary option. Thus the era was indeed a golden age but only for a small but powerful and highly visible elite. ====Economic decline==== The cause of economic malaise in the Maritimes is an issue of great debate and controversy among historians, economists, and geographers. The differing opinions can approximately be divided into the "structuralists", who argue that poor policy decisions are to blame, and the others, who argue that unavoidable technological and geographical factors caused the decline. The exact date that the Maritimes began to fall behind the rest of Canada is difficult to determine. Historian Kris Inwood places the date very early, at least in Nova Scotia, finding clear signs that the Maritimes "Golden Age" of the mid-19th century was over by 1870, before Confederation or the National Policy could have had any significant impact. Richard Caves places the date closer to 1885. T.W. Acheson takes a similar view and provides considerable evidence that the early 1880s were in fact a booming period in Nova Scotia and this growth was only undermined towards the end of that decade. David Alexander argues that any earlier declines were simply part of the global Long Depression, and that the Maritimes first fell behind the rest of Canada when the great boom period of the early 20th century had little effect on the region. E.R. Forbes, however, emphasizes that the precipitous decline did not occur until after the First World War during the 1920s when new railway policies were implemented. Forbes also contends that significant Canadian defence spending during the Second World War favoured powerful political interests in Central Canada such as C. D. Howe, when major Maritime shipyards and factories, as well as Canada's largest steel mill, located in Cape Breton Island, fared poorly. One of the most important changes, and one that almost certainly had an effect, was the revolution in transportation that occurred at this time. The Maritimes were connected to central Canada by the Intercolonial Railway in the 1870s, removing a longstanding barrier to trade. For the first time this placed the Maritime manufacturers in direct competition with those of Central Canada. Maritime trading patterns shifted considerably from mainly trading with New England, Britain, and the Caribbean, to being focused on commerce with the Canadian interior, enforced by the federal government's tariff policies. Coincident with the construction of railways in the region, the age of the wooden sailing ship began to come to an end, being replaced by larger and faster steel steamships. The Maritimes had long been a centre for shipbuilding, and this industry was hurt by the change. The larger ships were also less likely to call on the smaller population centres such as Saint John and Halifax, preferring to travel to cities like New York and Montreal. Even the Cunard Line, founded by Maritime-born Samuel Cunard, stopped making more than a single ceremonial voyage to Halifax each year. More controversial than the role of technology is the argument over the role of politics in the origins of the region's decline. Confederation and the tariff and railway freight policies that followed have often been blamed for having a deleterious effect on the Maritime economies. Arguments have been made that the Maritimes' poverty was caused by control over policy by Central Canada which used the national structures for its own enrichment. This was the central view of the Maritime Rights Movement of the 1920s, which advocated greater local control over the region's finances. T.W. Acheson is one of the main proponents of this theory. He notes the growth that was occurring during the early years of the National Policy in Nova Scotia demonstrates how the effects of railway fares and the tariff structure helped undermine this growth. Capitalists from Central Canada purchased the factories and industries of the Maritimes from their bankrupt local owners and proceeded to close down many of them, consolidating the industry in Central Canada. The policies in the early years of Confederation were designed by Central Canadian interests, and they reflected the needs of that region. The unified Canadian market and the introduction of railroads created a relative weakness in the Maritime economies. Central to this concept, according to Acheson, was the lack of metropolises in the Maritimes. Montreal and Toronto were well-suited to benefit from the development of large-scale manufacturing and extensive railway systems in Quebec and Ontario, these being the goals of the Macdonald and Laurier governments. In the Maritimes the situation was very different. Today New Brunswick has several mid-sized centres in Saint John, Moncton, and Fredericton but no significant population centre. Nova Scotia has a growing metropolitan area surrounding Halifax, but a contracting population in industrial Cape Breton County, and several smaller centres in Bridgewater, Kentville, Yarmouth, and Pictou County. Prince Edward Island's only significant population centres are in Charlottetown and Summerside. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, just the opposite was the case with little to no population concentration in major industrial centres as the predominantly rural resource-dependent Maritime economy continued on the same path as it had since European settlement on the region's shores. Despite the region's absence of economic growth on the same scale as other parts of the nation, the Maritimes has changed markedly throughout the 20th century, partly as a result of global and national economic trends, and partly as a result of government intervention. Each sub-region within the Maritimes has developed over time to exploit different resources and expertise. Saint John became a centre of the timber trade and shipbuilding and is currently a centre for oil refining and some manufacturing. The northern New Brunswick communities of Edmundston, Campbellton, Dalhousie, Bathurst, and Miramichi are focused on the pulp and paper industry and some mining activity. Moncton was a centre for railways and has changed its focus to becoming a multi-modal transportation centre with associated manufacturing and retail interests. The Halifax metropolitan area has come to dominate peninsular Nova Scotia as a retail and service centre, but that province's industries were spread out from the coal and steel industries of industrial Cape Breton and Pictou counties, the mixed farming of the North Shore and Annapolis Valley, and the fishing industry was primarily focused on the South Shore and Eastern Shore. Prince Edward Island is largely dominated by farming, fishing, and tourism. Given the geographic diversity of the various sub-regions within the Maritimes, policies to centralize the population and economy were not initially successful, thus Maritime factories closed while those in Ontario and Quebec prospered. The traditional staples thesis, advocated by scholars such as S.A. Saunders, looks at the resource endowments of the Maritimes and argues that it was the decline of the traditional industries of shipbuilding and fishing that led to Maritime poverty, since these processes were rooted in geography, and thus all but inevitable. Kris Inwood has revived the staples approach and looks at a number of geographic weaknesses relative to Central Canada. He repeats Acheson's argument that the region lacks major urban centres, but adds that the Maritimes were also lacking the great rivers that led to the cheap and abundant hydro-electric power, key to Quebec and Ontario's urban and manufacturing development, that the extraction costs of Maritime resources were higher (particularly in the case of Cape Breton coal), and that the soils of the region were poorer and thus the agricultural sector weaker. The Maritimes are the only provinces in Canada which entered Confederation in the 19th century and have kept their original colonial boundaries. All three provinces have the smallest land base in the country and have been forced to make do with resources within. By comparison, the former colony of the Province of Canada (divided into the District of Canada East, and the District of Canada West) and the western provinces were dozens of times larger and in some cases were expanded to take in territory formerly held in British Crown grants to companies such as the Hudson's Bay Company; in particular the November 19, 1869 sale of Rupert's Land to the Government of Canada under the Rupert's Land Act 1868 was facilitated in part by Maritime taxpayers. The economic riches of energy and natural resources held within this larger land base were only realized by other provinces during the 20th century. ==Industries== The maritime provinces' main industry is fishing. Fishing can be found in any maritime province. This includes fishing for lobster, mackerel, tuna, salmon and many more kinds of fish. Oysters and salmonoid aquaculture is also increasingly important economically. ===Nova Scotia=== Nova Scotia is very strong in agriculture, forestry and fishing. ===Prince Edward Island=== Tourism is important to the economy of PEI. Anne of Green Gables was written in PEI, and this attracts tourists to PEI. PEI is also known for its agriculture, mainly the potato, and fishing industries. ===New Brunswick=== Agriculture and forestry are two prominent industries found in New Brunswick. Despite having an extensive coastline, New Brunswick's industrial sector has never been entirely reliant on the success of the fisheries. Likewise, the strong shipbuilding heritage of the province directly relates to its forest resources. Because of this, New Brunswickers tend to attribute their cultural heritage less with the sea and more with their forests and rivers. ==Politics== Maritime conservatism since the Second World War has been very much part of the Red Tory tradition, key influences being former Premier of Nova Scotia and federal Progressive Conservative Party leader Robert Stanfield and New Brunswick Tory strategist Dalton Camp. In recent years, the social democratic New Democratic Party (NDP) has made significant inroads both federally and provincially in the region. The NDP has elected members of parliament (MPs) from New Brunswick, but most of the focus of the party at the federal and provincial levels is currently in the Halifax area of Nova Scotia. Industrial Cape Breton has historically been a region of labour activism, electing Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (and later NDP) MPs, and even produced many early members of the Communist Party of Canada in the pre-Second World War era. In the 2004 federal election, the NDP captured 28.45% of the vote in Nova Scotia, more than any other province. In the 2009 provincial election the NDP formed a majority government, the first in the region. In the 2004 federal election, the Conservatives had one of the worst showings in the region for a right-wing party, going back to Confederation, with the exception of the 1993 election. The Conservative party improved its seat count in the 2008 and elected 13 MPs in the 2011 election. However, in the 2015 election the Liberal Party won every seat in the region, defeating all of the Conservative (and NDP) challengers. The Liberal Party of Canada has done well in the Maritimes in the past because of its interventionist policies. The Acadian Peninsula region of New Brunswick tends to vote for the Liberals or NDP for social political reasons, as well as treatment of the French by various parties. In the 1997 federal election, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's Liberals endured a bitter defeat to the PCs and NDP in many ridings as a result of unpopular cuts to unemployment benefits for seasonal workers, as well as closures of several Canadian Forces bases, the refusal to honour a promise to rescind the Goods and Services Tax, cutbacks to provincial equalization payments, health care, post-secondary education and regional transportation infrastructure such as airports, fishing harbours, seaports, and railways . The Liberals held onto seats in Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick, while being shut out of Nova Scotia entirely, the second time in history (the only other time being the Diefenbaker sweep). In 2015 the Liberals won every seat in The Maritimes, defeating Conservative and NDP incumbents. The Maritimes is currently represented in the Canadian Parliament by 25 Members of the House of Commons (Nova Scotia – 11, New Brunswick – 10, Prince Edward Island – 4) and 24 Senators (Nova Scotia and New Brunswick – 10 each, Prince Edward Island – 4). This level of representation was established at the time of Confederation when the Maritimes had a much larger proportion of the national population. The comparatively large population growth of western and central Canada during the immigration boom of the 20th century has reduced the Maritimes' proportion of the national population to less than 10%, resulting in an over-representation in Parliament, with some federal ridings having fewer than 35,000 people, compared to central and western Canada where ridings typically contain 100,000–120,000 people. The Senate of Canada is structured along regional lines, giving an equal number of seats (24) to the Maritimes, Ontario, Quebec, and western Canada, in addition to the later entry of Newfoundland and Labrador, as well as the three territories. Enshrined in the Constitution, this model was developed to ensure that no area of the country is able to exert undue influence in the Senate. The Maritimes, with its much smaller proportion of the national population (compared to the time of Confederation) also have an over-representation in the Senate, particularly compared to the population growth of Ontario and the western provinces. This has led to calls to reform the Senate; however, such a move would entail constitutional changes. Another factor related to the number of Senate seats is that a constitutional amendment in the early 20th century mandated that no province can have fewer Members of Parliament than it has senators. This court decision resulted from a complaint by the Government of Prince Edward Island after that province's number of MPs was proposed to change from 4 to 3, accounting for its declining proportion of the national population at that time. When PEI entered Confederation in 1873, it was accorded 6 MPs and 4 Senators; however this was reduced to 4 MPs by the early 20th century. Senators being appointed for life at this time, these coveted seats rarely went unfilled for a long period of time anywhere in Canada. As a result, PEI's challenge was accepted by the federal government, and its level of federal representation was secured. In the aftermath of the 1989 budget, which saw a filibuster by Liberal Senators in attempt to kill legislation creating the Goods and Services Tax, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney "stacked" the Senate by creating additional seats in several provinces across Canada, including New Brunswick; however, there was no attempt by these provinces to increase the number of MPs to reflect this change in Senate representation.	[ "National Policy", "Long Depression", "Seven Years' War", "Montreal", "Giovanni da Verrazzano", "New England", "Keynesian economics", "French and Indian Wars", "Expulsion of the Acadians", "Wisconsin glaciation", "Eastern Shore (Nova Scotia)", "Canadian Gaelic", "Home Office", "Cabot Strait", "Brian Mulroney", "Nova Scotia", "Atlantic Daylight Time", "Wolastoqey", "Quebec City", "King William's War", "Canadian Confederation", "Fredericton", "Celts", "Miramichi, New Brunswick", "Natural gas", "Samuel Cunard", "Kentville", "Senate of Canada", "Isthmus of Chignecto", "Cape Breton County", "Battle of the Plains of Abraham", "Confederate States of America", "Francophone Canadians", "Liberal Party of Canada", "Peace and Friendship Treaties", "Archaic period (North America)", "Tumulus", "petroleum", "list of regions of Canada", "Toronto", "Constitution Act, 1867", "Southern Nova Scotia", "Great Famine (Ireland)", "Newfoundland and Labrador", "Arcadia, New Brunswick", "British North America", "welfare state", "2004 Canadian federal election", "Normandy", "Battle of Fort Cumberland (1776)", "Cunard Line", "Annapolis Royal", "New York City", "Progressive Conservative Party of Canada", "Gulf of St. Lawrence", "L'Anse aux Meadows", "Raid on Salmon Falls", "Government House (Prince Edward Island)", "St. Lawrence River", "Arterial road", "North Shore (New Brunswick)", "2015 Canadian federal election", "New Brunswick", "New Hampshire", "Constitution of Canada", "Eastern Canada", "Union Navy", "Maritime Film Classification Board", "Great Lakes", "War of 1812", "prehistory of the Canadian Maritimes", "Prince Edward Island", "English Canadians", "branch line", "tariff", "Halifax Regional Municipality", "Richard E. Caves", "Past sea level", "Cape Breton Island", "health care", "2011 Canadian federal election", "Anne of Green Gables", "frigate", "Union Army", "Caribbean", "Vikings", "Fenian raids", "Maritime Quebec", "continental margin", "Military history of the Maliseet", "Intercolonial Railway", "Maritime Union", "Hudson River", "World War I", "Maritime Archaic", "Co-operative Commonwealth Federation", "War of the Austrian Succession", "Member of parliament", "Labrador", "Black Nova Scotians", "Pictou County", "History of Nova Scotia", "Dalton Camp", "Iroquois", "Acadians", "oceanic climate", "Fortress of Louisbourg", "Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)", "Migration from Yorkshire to Nova Scotia", "C. D. Howe", "Rupert's Land Act 1868", "Newfoundland (island)", "Parliament of Canada", "social democracy", "Black Loyalist", "Nine Years' War", "Communist Party of Canada", "Irish Canadians", "Beothuk", "staples thesis", "Hudson's Bay Company", "Father Le Loutre's War", "New France", "Allagash River", "Acadian Peninsula", "Bay of Fundy campaign", "privateer", "St. Augustine, Florida", "Bay of Fundy", "Siege of Louisbourg (1758)", "Charlottetown", "Queen Anne's War", "Edmundston", "Treaty of Breda (1667)", "Commonwealth of Nations", "Benjamin Church (ranger)", "Atlantic Standard Time", "Paleo-Indians", "Halifax, Nova Scotia", "Premier of Nova Scotia", "steamship", "1993 Canadian federal election", "King George's War", "Treaty of Paris (1783)", "Hydroelectricity", "Tantramar Marshes", "Sydney, Nova Scotia", "Oliver Cromwell", "Canso Causeway", "Province of Canada", "unemployment benefits", "Annapolis Valley", "Roanoke Colony", "Strait of Canso", "equalization payments", "Diogo Homem", "tall ship", "Truro, Nova Scotia", "Thomas Davies (British Army officer)", "Sable Island", "Ontario", "Confederate States Navy", "1997 Canadian federal election", "Annapolis Basin", "Moncton", "free trade", "First Nations in Canada", "1958 Canadian federal election", "Quebec", "Highland Clearances", "Jonathan Eddy", "Irish language", "Maritime Rights Movement", "Rupert's Land", "Tertiary education", "Military history of the Mi'kmaq", "Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)", "Abenaki", "Union (American Civil War)", "2009 Nova Scotia general election", "Wabanaki Confederacy", "Crown colony", "humid continental climate", "Campbellton, New Brunswick", "Red Tory", "provinces and territories of Canada", "Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons", "Royal Navy", "Confederate States Army", "Black refugee (War of 1812)", "Gaspé Peninsula", "Côte-Nord", "Bathurst, New Brunswick", "Canadian Forces base", "USS Chesapeake (1799)", "Greenwood, Nova Scotia", "Mississippi River", "subarctic climate", "Acadia", "New Democratic Party", "CFB Gagetown", "Atlantic Ocean", "World War II", "Cape Breton Regional Municipality", "Charlottetown Conference", "Irish diaspora", "Maine", "Port-Royal (Acadia)", "Jamestown, Virginia", "Vinland", "Industrial Cape Breton", "Dummer's War", "microclimate", "Grand Banks of Newfoundland", "Helen Creighton", "Robert Stanfield", "American Revolutionary War", "Maliseet", "New England Planters", "Siege of Louisbourg (1745)", "War of the Spanish Succession", "Central Canada", "Passamaquoddy", "Raid on Chignecto (1696)", "Fort Beauséjour", "Scottish Gaelic", "Samuel de Champlain", "Brittany", "information technology", "Citadel Hill (Fort George)", "Jacques Cartier", "John A. Macdonald", "Confederation Bridge", "New Ireland (Maine)", "Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1632)", "Canada East", "Gulf of Maine", "British rule in Ireland", "Vermont", "Loyalist (American Revolution)", "Yarmouth, Nova Scotia", "Vienne (department)", "Scottish Canadians", "Bridgewater, Nova Scotia", "Triple-E Senate", "Goods and services tax (Canada)", "Black Canadians", "Shelburne, Nova Scotia", "Dalhousie, New Brunswick", "Summerside, Prince Edward Island", "Mi'kmaq", "John Cabot", "Fenian Brotherhood", "Jean Chrétien", "Controlled-access highway", "American Civil War", "Acadiensis", "Name of Canada", "Military history of the Acadians", "Algonquian peoples", "Atlantic Canada", "Trenton, Nova Scotia", "shipbuilding", "Saint John, New Brunswick", "Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty", "Siege of Port Royal (1710)", "William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling", "French and Indian War", "Saint Croix Island, Maine" ]
7,383	Cyril of Alexandria	Cyril of Alexandria (; or ⲡⲓ̀ⲁⲅⲓⲟⲥ Ⲕⲓⲣⲓⲗⲗⲟⲥ; 376–444) was the Patriarch of Alexandria from 412 to 444. He was enthroned when the city was at the height of its influence and power within the Roman Empire. Cyril wrote extensively and was a major player in the Christological controversies of the late-4th and 5th centuries. He was a central figure in the Council of Ephesus in 431, which led to the deposition of Nestorius as Patriarch of Constantinople. Cyril is counted among the Church Fathers and also as a Doctor of the Church, and his reputation within the Christian world has resulted in his titles Pillar of Faith and Seal of all the Fathers. The Nestorian bishops at their synod at the Council of Ephesus declared him a heretic, labelling him as a "monster, born and educated for the destruction of the church". Cyril is well known for his dispute with Nestorius and his supporter, Patriarch John of Antioch, whom Cyril excluded from the Council of Ephesus for arriving late. He is also known for his expulsion of Novatians and Jews from Alexandria and for inflaming tensions that led to the murder of the Hellenistic philosopher Hypatia by a Christian mob. Historians disagree over the extent of his responsibility in this. Cyril tried to oblige the pious Christian emperor Theodosius II (AD 408–450) to himself by dedicating his Paschal table to him. Cyril's Paschal table was provided with a Metonic basic structure in the form of a 19-year lunar cycle adopted by him around AD 425, which was very different from the first Metonic 19-year lunar cycle invented around AD 260 by Anatolius, but exactly equal to the lunar cycle which had been introduced around AD 412 by Annianus; the Julian equivalent of this Alexandrian cycle adopted by Cyril and nowadays referred to as the "classical (Alexandrian) 19-year lunar cycle" would emerge a century later in Rome as the basic structure of Dionysius Exiguus’ Paschal table (AD 525). The Catholic Church did not commemorate Saint Cyril in the Tridentine calendar: it added his feast only in 1882, assigning to it the date of 9 February. Yet the 1969 Catholic Calendar revision moved it to 27 June, considered to be the day of the saint's death, as celebrated by the Coptic Orthodox Church. The same date has been chosen for the Lutheran calendar. The Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches celebrate his feast day on 9 June and also, together with Pope Athanasius I of Alexandria, on 18 January. Cyril is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 27 June. Western Rite Orthodox Christians within the Antiochian Western Rite Vicariate, which is under the auspices of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, celebrate the Feast of Saint Cyril of Alexandria on 28 January, which is when his Feast Day occurs in the Roman Martyrology. ==Early life== Little is known for certain of Cyril's early life. He was born circa 376, in the town of Didouseya, Egypt, modern-day El-Mahalla El-Kubra. A few years after his birth, his maternal uncle Theophilus rose to the powerful position of Patriarch of Alexandria. His mother remained close to her brother and under his guidance, Cyril was well educated. His writings show his knowledge of Christian writers of his day, including Eusebius, Origen, Didymus the Blind, and writers of the Church of Alexandria. He received the formal Christian education standard for his day: he studied grammar from age twelve to fourteen (390–392), rhetoric and humanities from fifteen to twenty (393–397) and finally theology and biblical studies (398–402). which deposed John Chrysostom as Archbishop of Constantinople. The prior year, Theophilus had been summoned by the emperor to Constantinople to apologize before a synod, over which Chrysostom would preside, on account of several charges which were brought against him by certain Egyptian monks. Theophilus had them persecuted as Origenists. Placing himself at the head of soldiers and armed servants, Theophilus had marched against the monks, burned their dwellings, and ill-treated those whom he captured. Theophilus arrived at Constantinople with twenty-nine of his suffragan bishops, and conferring with those opposed to the Archbishop, drafted a long list of largely unfounded accusations against Chrysostom, who refused to recognize the legality of a synod in which his open enemies were judges. Chrysostom was subsequently deposed. ===Patriarch of Alexandria=== Theophilus died on 15 October 412, and Cyril was made Pope or Patriarch of Alexandria on 18 October 412, but only after a riot between his supporters and those of his rival Archdeacon Timotheus. According to Socrates Scholasticus, the Alexandrians were always rioting. Thus, Cyril followed his uncle in a position that had become powerful and influential, rivalling that of the prefect in a time of turmoil and frequently violent conflict between the cosmopolitan city's pagan, Jewish, and Christian inhabitants. He began to exert his authority by causing the churches of the Novatianists to be closed and their sacred vessels to be seized. ==Controversies== === Dispute with the Prefect === Orestes, Praefectus augustalis of the Diocese of Egypt, steadfastly resisted Cyril's ecclesiastical encroachment upon secular prerogatives. Tension between the parties increased when in 415, Orestes published an edict that outlined new regulations regarding mime shows and dancing exhibitions in the city, which attracted large crowds and were commonly prone to civil disorder of varying degrees. Crowds gathered to read the edict shortly after it was posted in the city's theater. Cyril sent the grammaticus Hierax to discover the content of the edict. The edict angered Christians as well as Jews. At one such gathering, Hierax read the edict and applauded the new regulations, prompting a disturbance. Many people felt that Hierax was attempting to incite the crowd—particularly the Jews—into sedition. Orestes had Hierax tortured in public in a theatre. This order had two aims: one to quell the riot, the other to mark Orestes' authority over Cyril. Socrates Scholasticus recounts that upon hearing of Hierex's severe and public punishment, Cyril threatened to retaliate against the Jews of Alexandria with "the utmost severities" if the harassment of Christians did not cease immediately. In response to Cyril's threat, the Jews of Alexandria grew even more furious, eventually resorting to violence against the Christians. They plotted to flush the Christians out at night by running through the streets claiming that the Church of Alexander was on fire. When Christians responded to what they were led to believe was the burning down of their church, "the Jews immediately fell upon and slew them" by using rings to recognize one another in the dark and killing everyone else in sight. When the morning came, Cyril, along with many of his followers, took to the city's synagogues in search of the perpetrators of the massacre. According to Socrates, after Cyril rounded up all the Jews in Alexandria he ordered them to be stripped of all possessions, banished them from Alexandria, and allowed their goods to be pillaged by the remaining citizens of Alexandria. Scholasticus alleges that all the Jews of Alexandria were banished, while John of Nikiû says it was only those involved in the ambush and massacre. Susan Wessel says that, while it is not clear whether Scholasticus was a Novationist (whose churches Cyril had closed), he was apparently sympathetic towards them, and repeatedly accuses Cyril of abusing his episcopal power by infringing on the rights and duties of the secular authorities. Wessel says, however, "...Socrates probably does not provide accurate and unambiguous information about Cyril's relationship to imperial authority". Nonetheless, with Cyril's banishment of the Jews, however many, "Orestes [...] was filled with great indignation at these transactions, and was excessively grieved that a city of such magnitude should have been suddenly bereft of so large a portion of its population." === Murder of Hypatia === The Prefect Orestes enjoyed the political backing of Hypatia, an astronomer, philosopher and mathematician who had considerable moral authority in the city of Alexandria, and who had extensive influence. Indeed, many students from wealthy and influential families came to Alexandria purposely to study privately with Hypatia, and many of these later attained high posts in government and the Church. Several Christians thought that Hypatia's influence had caused Orestes to reject all conciliatory offerings by Cyril. Modern historians think that Orestes had cultivated his relationship with Hypatia to strengthen a bond with the pagan community of Alexandria, as he had done with the Jewish one, in order to better manage the tumultuous political life of the Egyptian capital. According to Socrates Scholasticus during the Christian season of Lent in March 415, a mob of Christians under the leadership of a lector named Peter, raided Hypatia's carriage as she was travelling home. They dragged her into a building known as the Kaisarion, a former pagan temple and center of the Roman imperial cult in Alexandria that had been converted into a Christian church. There, the mob stripped Hypatia naked and murdered her using ostraka, which can either be translated as "roof tiles" or "oyster shells". Later historian John of Nikiû also tells a similar story. Even later historian Byzantinist Fr. Adrian Fortescue, says that the mob of Christian Parabalanies and Peter, cruelly tore her to pieces on the steps of a church. Damascius adds that they also cut out her eyeballs. They tore her body into pieces and dragged her limbs through the town to a place called Cinarion, where they set them on fire. According to Watts, this was in line with the traditional manner in which Alexandrians carried the bodies of the "vilest criminals" outside the city limits to cremate them as a way of symbolically purifying the city. === Cyril's involvement=== Although Socrates Scholasticus never explicitly identifies Hypatia's murderers, they are commonly assumed to have been members of the parabalani. Christopher Haas disputes this identification, arguing that the murderers were more likely "a crowd of Alexandrian laymen". Socrates Scholasticus unequivocally condemns the actions of the mob, declaring, "Surely nothing can be farther from the spirit of Christianity than the allowance of massacres, fights, and transactions of that sort." Neoplatonist historian Damascius ( 458 – 538) was "anxious to exploit the scandal of Hypatia's death", and attributed responsibility for her murder to Bishop Cyril and his Christian followers. Damascius's account of the Christian murder of Hypatia is the sole historical source naming Bishop Cyril. Some modern studies, as well as the 2009 Hypatia biopic Agora represent Hypatia as falling casualty to a conflict between two Christian factions, one peaceful and moderate and led by Orestes, with the support of Hypatia, and fundamentalist faction enforced by Parabalani and led by Patriarch Cyril. According to lexicographer William Smith, "She was accused of too much familiarity with Orestes, prefect of Alexandria, and the charge spread among the clergy, who took up the notion that she interrupted the friendship of Orestes with their archbishop, Cyril." Scholasticus, alleges that Hypatia fell "victim to the political jealousy which at the time prevailed" and that news of Hypatia's murder, "brought no small disgrace", not only to Patriarch Cyril but to the whole Christian Church in Alexandria, "for murder and slaughter and all such things are altogether opposed to the Christian religion." After the murder, a deputation of citizens went to Constantinople to petition the Emperor for an investigation so as to prevent such horrors in the future and to put down the disorderly Parabalani, however they urged for the Patriarch to be allowed to remain in the city (Orestes wanted him banished). One could deduce from this that there were some who didn't think Cyril responsible for this or that even his own followers thought he went too far. However, according to Damascius, Cyril himself allegedly only managed to escape even more serious punishment by bribing one of Theodosius's officials. Indeed, the investigation resulted in the emperors Honorius and Theodosius II issuing an edict in autumn of 416, which attempted to remove the parabalani from Cyril's power and instead place them under the authority of Orestes. The edict restricted the parabalani from attending "any public spectacle whatever" or entering "the meeting place of a municipal council or a courtroom." It also severely restricted their recruitment by limiting the total number of parabalani to no more than five hundred. === Conflict with Nestorius === Another major conflict was between the Alexandrian and Antiochian schools of ecclesiastical reflection, piety, and discourse. This long running conflict widened with the third canon of the First Council of Constantinople which granted the see of Constantinople primacy over the older sees of Alexandria and Antioch. Thus, the struggle between the sees of Alexandria and Antioch now included Constantinople. The conflict came to a head in 428 after Nestorius, who originated in Antioch, was made Archbishop of Constantinople. Cyril gained an opportunity to restore Alexandria's pre-eminence over both Antioch and Constantinople when an Antiochine priest who was in Constantinople at Nestorius' behest began to preach against calling Mary the "Mother of God" (Theotokos). As the term "Mother of God" had long been attached to Mary, the laity in Constantinople complained against the priest. Rather than repudiating the priest, Nestorius intervened on his behalf. Nestorius argued that Mary was neither a "Mother of Man" nor "Mother of God" as these referred to Christ's two natures; rather, Mary was the "Mother of Christ" (Greek: Christotokos). Christ, according to Nestorius, was the conjunction of the Godhead with his "temple" (which Nestorius was fond of calling his human nature). The controversy seemed to be centered on the issue of the suffering of Christ. Cyril maintained that the Son of God or the divine Word, truly suffered "in the flesh." However, Nestorius claimed that the Son of God was altogether incapable of suffering, even within his union with the flesh. Eusebius of Dorylaeum went so far as to accuse Nestorius of adoptionism. By this time, news of the controversy in the capital had reached Alexandria. At Easter 429 A.D., Cyril wrote a letter to the Egyptian monks warning them of Nestorius's views. A copy of this letter reached Constantinople where Nestorius preached a sermon against it. This began a series of letters between Cyril and Nestorius which gradually became more strident in tone. Finally, Emperor Theodosius II convoked the Council of Ephesus (in 431) to solve the dispute. Cyril selected Ephesus Theodosius, by now old enough to hold power by himself, annulled the verdict of the Council and arrested Cyril, but Cyril eventually escaped. Having fled to Egypt, Cyril bribed Theodosius's courtiers, and sent a mob led by Dalmatius, a hermit, to besiege Theodosius's palace, and shout abuse; the emperor eventually gave in, sending Nestorius into minor exile (Upper Egypt)." during the First Council of Ephesus (431), establishing the ecclesiastically settled basis for all subsequent mariological developments. Prior to the controversy over the theology of Nestorius, Cyril rarely if ever used the Mariological title, but theo-political circumstances compelled him as Archbishop of one of the Empire's chief sees, to become involved and develop his theology." Beginning in 429 Cyril wrote a series of letters to various ecclesiastical authorities in which he espoused the orthodoxy of "Theotokos". The propriety of the term was justified through appeals to earlier theologians who had used it, like Athanasius, the Cappadocians, and Atticus. Following an epistolary exchange with the increasingly unpopular archbishop of Constantinople, in 430 Cyril wrote his famous 12 Anathemas in which anyone who refused to call Mary Theotokos was condemned. The following year over 100 bishops met in council at Ephesus to rule on the disputes. In between sessions at the Council Cyril delivered a number of sermons; some of those attributed to his hand are of disputed authorship, but 6 are recognised as genuine. Homily IV delivered upon the late arrival of western delegates is a particularly striking example of Cyril's developed Mariology. It is the foremost expression of Cyril's devotion to Mary, and is one of the first historical attestations of the salutation Χαῖρε ("Hail") being used to invoke the Virgin, a practice later standardised in Byzantine homiletics and hymnography such as the sermons of Chrysippus and Basil of Selecucia, and the Akathist hymn. Mary, who is credited with calling the council fathers together, embodies for Cyril the paradoxes of orthodox Christology, "container of the uncontained" and "the place for the infinite", among other lauded descriptions. Cyril's notions of the identity of Christ, therefore, have direct bearing on the identity of Mary. Wessell explains how "Cyril's spatial metaphors construed Mary as a sacred place" and how he "applied metaphors depicting royalty and exaltation to Mary: she was the treasure of the world, the crown of virginity, and the sceptre of orthodoxy." Subsequently, such praise would become normative in Marian theology. In several of his works, Cyril focuses on the love of Jesus to his mother. On the Cross, he overcomes his pain and thinks of his mother. At the wedding in Cana, he bows to her wishes. The conflict with Nestorius was mainly over this issue, and some have argued that it has often been misunderstood. "[T]he debate was not so much about Mary as about Jesus. The question was not what honors were due to Mary, but how one was to speak of the birth of Jesus." The substance of Cyril's arumentation was Christological in orientation. His mature Mariology was chiefly in service to this, and to the end of discrediting Nestorius. Yet Wessel, quoting Homily IV, notes that the enthusiastic praises go beyond the strictly Christological. "She was not only valuable as a vessel storing something sacred but was herself precious and venerated: ‘Is it even possible for people to speak of the celebrated Mary? The virginal womb; O thing of wonder! The marvel strikes me with awe!’" Such sentiments served to further distinguish what Cyril believed to be orthodox theology from that which Nestorius taught, characterising the latter as subversive to both church and empire. As "scepter of orthodoxy", Mary became the standard of Christological fidelity in Cyril's theology; Nestorius's denial of "Theotokos" became the identifiable sign of his impugning of the divinity of Jesus. St. Cyril received an important recognition of his preachings by the Second Council of Constantinople (553 d.C.) which declared; "St. Cyril who announced the right faith of Christians" (Anathematism XIV, Denzinger et Schoenmetzer 437). ==Works== Cyril was a scholarly archbishop and a prolific writer. In the early years of his active life in the Church he wrote several exegetical documents. Among these were: Commentaries on the Old Testament, Thesaurus, Discourse Against Arians, Commentary on St. John's Gospel, and Dialogues on the Trinity. In 429 as the Christological controversies increased, the output of his writings was so extensive that his opponents could not match it. His writings and his theology have remained central to the tradition of the Fathers and to all Orthodox to this day. Becoming Temples of God (Ναοὶ θεοῦ χρηματιοῦμεν) (in Greek original and English) Second Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius Commentary on the Letter to Hebrews Third Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius (containing the twelve anathemas) Formula of Reunion: In Brief (A summation of the reunion between Cyril and John of Antioch) The "Formula of Reunion", between Cyril and John of Antioch Five tomes against Nestorius (Adversus Nestorii blasphemias) That Christ is One (Quod unus sit Christus) Scholia on the incarnation of the Only-Begotten (Scholia de incarnatione Unigeniti) Against Diodore of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia (fragments) Against the synousiasts (fragments) Commentary on the Gospel of Luke Commentary on the Gospel of John Against Julian the Apostate Cyrilli Alexandrini liber Thesaurus adversus hereticos a Georgio Trapesuntio traductus (in Latin and Greek) ===Translations=== Cyril of Alexandria: Select Letters, edited and translated by Lionel R. Wickham (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983). Letters 1-50, translated by John I. McEnerney (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1987). Letters 51-110, translated by John I. McEnerney (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1987). St. Cyril of Alexandria: The Christological Controversy, translated by John A. McGuckin (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994). On the Unity of Christ, translated by John A. McGuckin (New York: St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1997). Cyril of Alexandria, by Norman Russell (London: Routledge, 2000) - contains translations of selections from the Commentary on Isaiah, Commentary on John, Against Nestorius, An Explanation of the Twelve Chapters, and Against Julian. Against Those who are Unwilling to Confess that the Holy Virgin is Theotokos, edited and translated by Protopresbyter George Dion. Dragas (New Hampshire: Orthodox Research Institute, 2004) Commentary on the Twelve Prophets: Volume 1, translated by Robert C. Hill (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2007). Commentary on the Twelve Prophets: Volume 2, translated by Robert C. Hill (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2008). Commentary on Isaiah, translated by Robert C. Hill (Massachusetts: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2008). Festal Letters: 1-12, edited with introduction and notes by John J. O'Keefe and translated by Philip R. Amidon, S.J. (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2009). Commentary on the Twelve Prophets: Volume 3, translated by Robert C. Hill (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2012). Festal Letters: 13-30, edited with introduction and notes by John J. O'Keefe and translated by Philip R. Amidon, S.J. (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2013). Commentary on John: Volume 1, edited by Joel C. Elowsky and translated with introduction and notes by David R. Maxwell (Illinois: IVP Academic, 2013). Three Christological Treatises, translated by Daniel King (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2014). Commentary on John: Volume 2, edited by Joel C. Elowsky and translated with introduction and notes by David R. Maxwell (Illinois: IVP Academic, 2015). Glaphyra on the Pentateuch, Volume 1: Genesis, translated by Nicholas P. Lunn with introduction by Gregory K. Hillis (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2018). Glaphyra on the Pentateuch, Volume 2: Exodus through Deuteronomy, translated by Nicholas P. Lunn (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2019). Christological Dialogue on the Incarnation of the Only-Begotten, edited by Ramez Mikhail, translated with introduction by Emmanuel Gergis, and foreword by Fr. Michel Najim (Burke, Virginia: Agora University Press, 2020). Commentary on the Letter to the Hebrews, translated by Khachik Grigoryan (Yerevan: Ankyunacar Publishing, 2021). Commentaries on Romans, 1-2 Corinthians, and Hebrews, edited by Joel C. Elowsky and translated with introduction and notes by David R. Maxwell (Illinois: IVP Academic, 2022).	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7,387	Cyril of Jerusalem	Cyril of Jerusalem (, Kýrillos A Ierosolýmon; ; 386) was a theologian of the Early Church. About the end of AD 350, he succeeded Maximus as Bishop of Jerusalem, but was exiled on more than one occasion due to the enmity of Acacius of Caesarea, and the policies of various emperors. Cyril left important writings documenting the instruction of catechumens and the order of the Liturgy in his day. Cyril is venerated as a saint within the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. In 1883, Cyril was declared a Doctor of the Church by Pope Leo XIII. The Roman Catholic Church maintains an Optional Memorial for Cyril on 18 March. Cyril is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 18 March. He should not be confused with Cyril of Alexandria. ==Life and character== Little is known of his life before he became a bishop; the assignment of his birth to the year 315 rests on conjecture. According to Butler, Cyril was born at or near the city of Jerusalem and was well-read in both the writings of the early Christian theologians and the Greek philosophers. Cyril was ordained a deacon by Bishop Macarius of Jerusalem in about 335 AD and a priest some eight years later by Bishop Maximus. Around the end of 350 AD, he succeeded Maximus in the See of Jerusalem, although the evidence for this relies on the Catecheses written by Cyril where he refers to himself as "bishop". Jerome also suggests Cyril was an Arian at this stage. Cyril is described as a preacher and liturgist by the pilgrim Egeria. ==Episcopacy== Relations between Metropolitan Acacius of Caesarea and Cyril became strained. Acacius is presented as a leading Arian by the orthodox historians, and his opposition to Cyril in the 350s is attributed by these writers to this. Sozomen also suggests that the tension may have been increased by Acacius's jealousy of the importance assigned to Cyril's See by the Council of Nicaea, as well as by the threat posed to Caesarea by the rising influence of the seat of Jerusalem as it developed into the prime Christian holy place and became a centre of pilgrimage. Acacius charged Cyril with selling church property. The city of Jerusalem had suffered drastic food shortages at which point church historians Sozomen and Theodoret report "Cyril secretly sold sacramental ornaments of the church and a valuable holy robe, fashioned with gold thread that the emperor Constantine had once donated for the bishop to wear when he performed the rite of Baptism", possibly to keep people from starving. For two years, Cyril resisted Acacius' summons to account for his actions, but a church council held under Acacius's influence in 357 AD deposed Cyril in his absence, and Cyril took refuge with Silvanus, Bishop of Tarsus. The following year, 359 AD, in an atmosphere more hostile to Acacius, the Council of Seleucia reinstated Cyril and deposed Acacius. In 360 AD, this was reversed by Emperor Constantius again, and Cyril suffered another year's exile from Jerusalem until the Emperor Julian's accession allowed him to return in 361. Cyril was once again banished from Jerusalem by the Arian Emperor Valens in 367 AD but was able to return again after Valens's death in 378 AD, after which he remained undisturbed until his death in 386. In 380 AD, Gregory of Nyssa came to Jerusalem on the recommendation of a council held at Antioch in the preceding year. He seemingly found the faith in good shape, but worried that the city was prey to parties and corrupt in morals. Cyril's jurisdiction over Jerusalem was expressly confirmed by the First Council of Constantinople (381), at which he was present. ==Theological position== Though his theology was at first somewhat indefinite in phraseology, he undoubtedly gave a thorough adhesion to the Nicene Orthodoxy. Even if he did avoid the debatable term homoousios, he expressed its sense in many passages, which exclude equally Patripassianism, Sabellianism, and the formula "there was a time when the Son was not" attributed to Arius. Cyril's writings are filled with the loving and forgiving nature of God which was somewhat uncommon during his time period. Cyril fills his writings with great lines of the healing power of forgiveness and the Holy Spirit, like "The Spirit comes gently and makes himself known by his fragrance. He is not felt as a burden for God is light, very light. Rays of light and knowledge stream before him as the Spirit approaches. The Spirit comes with the tenderness of a true friend to save, to heal, to teach, to counsel, to strengthen and to console". Cyril himself followed God's message of forgiveness many times throughout his life. This is most clearly seen in his two major exiles where Cyril was disgraced and forced to leave his position and his people behind. He never wrote or showed any ill will towards those who wronged him. Cyril stressed the themes of healing and regeneration in his catechesis. ==Catechetical lectures== Cyril's famous twenty-three lectures given to catechumens in Jerusalem being prepared for, and after, baptism are best considered in two parts: the first eighteen lectures are commonly known as the Catechetical Lectures, Catechetical Orations or Catechetical Homilies, while the final five are often called the Mystagogic Catecheses (μυσταγωγικαί), because they deal with the mysteries (μυστήρια) i.e. Sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation and the Eucharist. His catechetical lectures (Greek Κατηχήσεις, Katēchēseis) are generally assumed, on the basis of limited evidence, to have been delivered either in Cyril's early years as a bishop, around 350 AD, or perhaps in 348 AD, while Cyril was still a priest, deputising for his bishop, Maximus. The Catechetical Lectures were given in the Martyrion, the basilica erected by Constantine. It is not only among us, who are marked with the name of Christ, that the dignity of faith is great; all the business of the world, even of those outside the Church, is accomplished by faith. By faith, marriage laws join in union persons who were strangers to one another. By faith, agriculture is sustained; for a man does not endure the toil involved unless he believes he will reap a harvest. By faith, seafaring men, entrusting themselves to a tiny wooden craft, exchange the solid element of the land for the unstable motion of the waves." In the 13th lecture, Cyril of Jerusalem discusses the Crucifixion and burial of Jesus. The main themes that Cyril focuses on in these lectures are Original sin and Jesus' sacrificing himself to save us from our sins. Also, the burial and Resurrection which occurred three days later proving the divinity of Jesus Christ and the loving nature of the Father. Cyril was very adamant about the fact that Jesus went to his death with full knowledge and willingness. Not only did he go willingly but throughout the process he maintained his faith and forgave all those who betrayed him and engaged in his execution. Cyril writes "who did not sin, neither was deceit found in his mouth, who, when he was reviled, did not revile, when he suffered did not threaten". This line by Cyril shows his belief in the selflessness of Jesus especially in this last final act of Love. The lecture also gives a sort of insight to what Jesus may have been feeling during the execution from the whippings and beatings, to the crown of thorns, to the nailing on the cross. Cyril intertwines the story with the messages Jesus told throughout his life before his execution relating to his final act. For example, Cyril writes "I gave my back to those who beat me and my cheeks to blows; and my face I did not shield from the shame of spitting". This clearly reflects the teachings of Jesus to turn the other cheek and not raising your hands against violence because violence just begets violence begets violence. The segment of the Catechesis really reflects the voice Cyril maintained in all of his writing. The writings always have the central message of the Bible; Cyril is not trying to add his own beliefs in reference to religious interpretation and remains grounded in true biblical teachings. Danielou sees the baptism rite as carrying eschatological overtones, in that "to inscribe for baptism is to write one's name in the register of the elect in heaven". ==Eschatology== Oded Irshai observed that Cyril lived in a time of intense apocalyptic expectation, when Christians were eager to find apocalyptic meaning in every historical event or natural disaster. Cyril spent a good part of his episcopacy in intermittent exile from Jerusalem. Abraham Malherbe argued that when a leader's control over a community is fragile, directing attention to the imminent arrival of the antichrist effectively diverts attention from that fragility. of 351 AD recorded the appearance of a cross of light in the sky above Golgotha, witnessed by the whole population of Jerusalem. The Greek church commemorates this miracle on 7 May. Though in modern times the authenticity of the Letter has been questioned, on the grounds that the word homoousios occurs in the final blessing, many scholars believe this may be a later interpolation, and accept the letter's authenticity on the grounds of other pieces of internal evidence. Cyril interpreted this as both a sign of support for Constantius, who was soon to face the usurper Magnentius, and as announcing the Second Coming, which was soon to take place in Jerusalem. Not surprisingly, in Cyril's eschatological analysis, Jerusalem holds a central position. Matthew 24:6 speaks of "wars and reports of wars", as a sign of the End Times, and it is within this context that Cyril read Julian's war with the Persians. Matthew 24:7 speaks of "earthquakes from place to place", and Jerusalem experienced an earthquake in 363 at a time when Julian was attempting to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem. Embroiled in a rivalry with Acacius of Caesarea over the relative primacy of their respective sees, Cyril saw even ecclesial discord a sign of the Lord's coming. Catechesis 15 would appear to cast Julian as the antichrist, although Irshai views this as a later interpolation. Many scholars would currently view the Mystagogic Catecheses as being written by Cyril, but in the 370s or 380s, rather than at the same time as the Catechetical Lectures. According to the Spanish pilgrim Egeria, these mystagogical catecheses were given to the newly baptised in the Church of the Anastasis in the course of Easter Week. ==Works== ===Editions=== W. C. Reischl, J. Rupp (1848; 1860). Cyrilli Hierosolymarum Archiepiscopi opera quae supersunt omnia. München. Christa Müller-Kessler and Michael Sokoloff (1999). The Catechism of Cyril of Jerusalem in the Christian Palestinian Aramaic Version, A Corpus of Christian Palestinian Aramaic, vol. V. Groningen: STYX-Publications. Christa Müller-Kessler (2021). Neue Fragmente zu den Katechesen des Cyrill von Jerusalem im Codex Sinaiticus rescriptusi (Georg. NF 19, 71) mit einem zweiten Textzeugen (Syr. NF 11) aus dem Fundus des St. Katherinenklosters, Oriens Christianus 104, pp. 23–66. ===Modern translations=== McCauley, Leo P. and Anthony A. Stephenson, (1969, 1970). The works of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem. 2 vols. Washington: Catholic University of America Press [contains an introduction, and English translations of: Vol 1: The introductory lecture (Procatechesis). Lenten lectures (Catecheses). Vol 2: Lenten lectures (Katēchēseis). Mystagogical lectures (Katēchēseis mystagōgikai). Sermon on the paralytic (Homilia eis ton paralytikon ton epi tēn Kolymbēthran). Letter to Constantius (Epistolē pros Kōnstantion). Fragments.] Telfer, W. (1955). Cyril of Jerusalem and Nemesius of Emesa. The Library of Christian classics, v. 4. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. Yarnold, E. (2000). Cyril of Jerusalem. The early church fathers. London: Routledge. [provides an introduction, and full English translations of the Letter to Constantius, the Homily on the Paralytic, the Procatechesis, and the Mystagogic Catechesis, as well as selections from the Lenten Catecheses.]	[ "homoousian", "Catholic Church", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Golgotha", "Creed", "Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem", "Jerusalem", "Nicene Creed", "burial of Jesus", "Paganism", "Jerome", "Tarsus (city)", "Greek language", "Magnentius", "Christian heresy", "Calendar of saints (Church of England)", "Oriental Orthodox Church", "Syria Palaestina", "Galilee earthquake of 363", "Oriental Orthodoxy", "Macarius of Jerusalem", "Baptism", "Eucharist", "Descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross", "Sabellianism", "polemics", "Metropolitan bishop", "Arianism", "Sozomen", "Gregory of Nyssa", "Holy Communion", "Maximus III of Jerusalem", "Patripassianism", "Anglican Communion", "Arius", "Catechesis", "Saint", "Caesarea Maritima", "Bishop John II of Jerusalem", "baptism", "Church Fathers", "Old Testament", "Valens", "Arian", "Greek philosophers", "Egeria (pilgrim)", "Lutheran Church", "First Council of Nicaea", "Holy Spirit", "Maximus of Jerusalem", "Crucifixion of Jesus", "First Council of Constantinople", "Original sin", "Julian the Apostate", "deacon", "Doctor of the Church", "catechumen", "Pope Leo XIII", "homoousion", "Resurrection of Christ", "Liturgy of Saint James", "Constantine the Great", "John II, Bishop of Jerusalem", "Second Coming", "Council of Seleucia", "Early Church", "Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria", "Confirmation", "Christian liturgy", "crown of thorns", "Acacius of Caesarea", "Paremhat", "Church of the Byzantine Rite", "Optional Memorial", "Sacraments", "Cyril of Alexandria", "saint", "Roman Catholic Church", "Church of England" ]
7,388	Hanukkah	Hanukkah (, ; Ḥănukkā ) is a Jewish festival commemorating the recovery of Jerusalem and subsequent rededication of the Second Temple at the beginning of the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire in the 2nd century BCE. Hanukkah is observed for eight nights and days, starting on the 25th day of Kislev according to the Hebrew calendar, which may occur at any time from November 28 to December 27 in the Gregorian calendar. The festival is observed by lighting the candles of a candelabrum with nine branches, commonly called a menorah or hanukkiah. One branch is placed above or below the others and its candle is used to light the other eight candles. This unique candle is called the shammash (, "attendant"). Each night, one additional candle is lit by the shammash until all eight candles are lit together on the final night of the festival. Other Hanukkah festivities include singing Hanukkah songs, playing the game of dreidel and eating oil-based foods, such as latkes and sufganiyot (similar to jelly donuts), and dairy foods. Since the 1970s, the worldwide Chabad Hasidic movement has initiated public menorah lightings in open public places in many countries. Originally instituted as a feast "in the manner of Sukkot (Booths)", it does not come with the corresponding obligations, and is therefore a relatively minor holiday in strictly religious terms. Nevertheless, Hanukkah has attained major cultural significance in North America and elsewhere, especially among secular Jews, due to often occurring around the same time as Christmas during the festive season. == Etymology == The name "Hanukkah" derives from the Hebrew verb "", meaning "to dedicate". On Hanukkah, the Maccabean Jews regained control of Jerusalem and rededicated the Temple. Many homiletical explanations have been given for the name: The name can be broken down into , "[they] rested [on the] twenty-fifth", referring to the fact that the Jews ceased fighting on the 25th day of Kislev, the day on which the holiday begins. , from the same root, is the name for Jewish education, emphasizing ethical training and discipline. (Hanukkah) is also the Hebrew acronym for – "Eight candles, and the halakha is according to the House of Hillel". This is a reference to the disagreement between two rabbinical schools of thought – the House of Hillel and the House of Shammai – on the proper order in which to light the Hanukkah flames. Shammai opined that eight candles should be lit on the first night, seven on the second night, and so on down to one on the last night (because the miracle was greatest on the first day). Hillel argued in favor of starting with one candle and lighting an additional one every night, up to eight on the eighth night (because the miracle grew in greatness each day). Jewish law adopted the position of Hillel. Psalm 30 is called , "the Song of the 'Dedication' of the House", and is traditionally recited on Hanukkah. 25 (of Kislev) + 5 (Books of Torah) = 30, which is the number of the song. === Alternative spellings === In Hebrew, the word Hanukkah is written or (). It is most commonly transliterated to English as Hanukkah or . The spelling Hanukkah, which is based on using characters of the English alphabet as symbols to re-create the word's correct spelling in Hebrew, is the most common and the preferred choice of Merriam–Webster, Collins English Dictionary, the Oxford Style Manual, and the style guides of The New York Times and The Guardian. The sound represented by Ch (, similar to the Scottish pronunciation of loch) is not native to the English language. Furthermore, the letter ḥeth (), which is the first letter in the Hebrew spelling, is pronounced differently in modern Hebrew (voiceless uvular fricative) from in classical Hebrew (voiceless pharyngeal fricative ), and neither of those sounds is unambiguously representable in English spelling. However, its original sound is closer to the English H than to the Scottish Ch, and Hanukkah more accurately represents the spelling in the Hebrew alphabet. === Festival of Lights === In Modern Hebrew, Hanukkah may also be called the Festival of Lights (, ), based on a comment by Josephus in Antiquities of the Jews, καὶ ἐξ ἐκείνου μέχρι τοῦ δεῦρο τὴν ἑορτὴν ἄγομεν καλοῦντες αὐτὴν φῶτα "And from then on we celebrate this festival, and we call it Lights". The first Hebrew translation of Antiquities (1864) used () "Festival of Lamps", but the translation "Festival of Lights" () appeared by the end of the nineteenth century. == Historical sources == === Books of Maccabees === The story of Hanukkah is told in the books of the First and Second Maccabees, which describe in detail the rededication of the Temple in Jerusalem and the lighting of the menorah. These books, however, are not a part of the canonized Masoretic Text version of the Tanakh (Hebrew and Aramaic language Jewish Bible) used and accepted by normative Rabbinical Judaism and therefore modern Jews (as copied, edited and distributed by a group of Jews known as the Masoretes between the 7th and 10th centuries of the Common Era). However, the books of Maccabees were included among the deuterocanonical books added to the Septuagint, a Greek-language translation of the Hebrew Bible originally compiled in the mid-3rd century BCE. The Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches consider the books of Maccabees as a canonical part of the Old Testament. The eight-day rededication of the temple is described in 1 Maccabees, though the miracle of the oil does not appear here. A story similar in character, and older in date, is the one alluded to in 2 Maccabees according to which the relighting of the altar fire by Nehemiah was due to a miracle which occurred on the 25th of Kislev, and which appears to be given as the reason for the selection of the same date for the rededication of the altar by Judah Maccabee. portrays the feast as a delayed observation of the eight-day Feast of Booths (Sukkot); similarly 2 Maccabees explains the length of the feast as "in the manner of the Feast of Booths". === Early rabbinic sources === Megillat Taanit (1st century) contains a list of festive days on which fasting or eulogizing is forbidden. It specifies, "On the 25th of [Kislev] is Hanukkah of eight days, and one is not to eulogize". The scholion (9th-10th century) then references the story of the rededication of the Temple. The Mishna (late 2nd century) mentions Hanukkah in several places, but never describes its laws in detail and never mentions any aspect of the history behind it. To explain the Mishna's lack of a systematic discussion of Hanukkah, Nissim ben Jacob postulated that information on the holiday was so commonplace that the Mishna felt no need to explain it. Modern scholar Reuvein Margolies suggests that as the Mishnah was redacted after the Bar Kochba revolt, its editors were reluctant to include explicit discussion of a holiday celebrating another relatively recent revolt against a foreign ruler, for fear of antagonizing the Romans. The miracle of the one-day supply of oil miraculously lasting eight days is described in the Talmud, committed to writing about 600 years after the events described in the books of Maccabees. The Talmud says that after the forces of Antiochus IV had been driven from the Temple, the Maccabees discovered that almost all of the ritual olive oil had been profaned. They found only a single container that was still sealed by the High Priest, with enough oil to keep the menorah in the Temple lit for a single day. They used this, yet it burned for eight days (the time it took to have new oil pressed and made ready). The Talmud presents three options: The law requires only one light each night per household, A better practice is to light one light each night for each member of the household The most preferred practice is to vary the number of lights each night. Except in times of danger, the lights were to be placed outside one's door, on the opposite side of the mezuza, or in the window closest to the street. Rashi, in a note to Shabbat 21b, says their purpose is to publicize the miracle. The blessings for Hanukkah lights are discussed in tractate Succah, p. 46a. Megillat Antiochus (probably composed in the 2nd century) concludes with the following words: The Al HaNissim prayer is recited on Hanukkah as an addition to the Amidah prayer, which was formalized in the late 1st century. Al HaNissim describes the history of the holiday as follows: In the days of Mattiyahu ben Yohanan, high priest, the Hasmonean and his sons, when the evil Greek kingdom stood up against Your people Israel, to cause them to forget Your Torah and abandon the ways You desire – You, in Your great mercy, stood up for them in their time of trouble; You fought their fight, You judged their judgment, You took their revenge; You delivered the mighty into the hands of the weak, the many into the hands of the few, the impure into the hands of the pure, the evil into the hands of the righteous, the sinners into the hands of those who engaged in Your Torah; You made yourself a great and holy name in Your world, and for Your people Israel You made great redemption and salvation as this very day. And then Your sons came to the inner chamber of Your house, and cleared Your Temple, and purified Your sanctuary, and lit candles in Your holy courtyards, and established eight days of Hanukkah for thanksgiving and praise to Your holy name. === Narrative of Josephus === The Jewish historian Titus Flavius Josephus narrates in his book, Jewish Antiquities XII, how the victorious Judas Maccabeus ordered lavish yearly eight-day festivities after rededicating the Temple in Jerusalem that had been profaned by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Josephus does not say the festival was called Hanukkah but rather the "Festival of Lights": Now Judas celebrated the festival of the restoration of the sacrifices of the temple for eight days, and omitted no sort of pleasures thereon; but he feasted them upon very rich and splendid sacrifices; and he honored God, and delighted them by hymns and psalms. Nay, they were so very glad at the revival of their customs, when, after a long time of intermission, they unexpectedly had regained the freedom of their worship, that they made it a law for their posterity, that they should keep a festival, on account of the restoration of their temple worship, for eight days. And from that time to this we celebrate this festival, and call it Lights. I suppose the reason was because this liberty beyond our hopes appeared to us; and that thence was the name given to that festival. Judas also rebuilt the walls round about the city, and reared towers of great height against the incursions of enemies, and set guards therein. He also fortified the city Bethsura, that it might serve as a citadel against any distresses that might come from our enemies. === Other ancient sources === In the New Testament, John 10:22–23 says, "Then came the Festival of Dedication at Jerusalem. It was winter, and Jesus was in the temple courts walking in Solomon's Colonnade" (NIV). The Greek noun used appears in the neuter plural as "the renewals" or "the consecrations" (; ). The same root appears in 2 Esdras 6:16 in the Septuagint to refer specifically to Hanukkah. This Greek word was chosen because the Hebrew word for 'consecration' or 'dedication' is Hanukkah (). The Aramaic New Testament uses the Aramaic word (a close synonym), which literally means 'renewal' or 'to make new'. == History == === Background === After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, Judea became part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE, when King Antiochus III the Great of Syria defeated King Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt at the Battle of Panium. Judea then became part of the Seleucid Empire of Syria. King Antiochus III the Great, wanting to conciliate his new Jewish subjects, guaranteed their right to "live according to their ancestral customs" and to continue to practice their religion in the Temple of Jerusalem. The Seleucids, like the Ptolemies before them, held a suzerainty over Judea, where they respected Jewish culture and protected Jewish institutions. This policy was drastically reversed by Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the son of Antiochus III, seemingly after what was either a dispute over leadership of the Temple in Jerusalem and the office of High Priest, or possibly a revolt whose nature was lost to time after being crushed. In 175 BCE, Antiochus IV invaded Judea at the request of the sons of Tobias. The Tobiads, who led the Hellenizing Jewish faction in Jerusalem, were expelled to Syria around 170 BCE when the high priest Onias and his pro-Egyptian faction wrested control from them. The exiled Tobiads lobbied Antiochus IV Epiphanes to recapture Jerusalem. As Flavius Josephus relates: === Traditional view === When the Second Temple in Jerusalem was looted and services stopped, Judaism was outlawed. In 167 BCE, Antiochus ordered an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. He banned brit milah (circumcision) and ordered pigs to be sacrificed at the altar of the temple. Antiochus's actions provoked a large-scale revolt. Mattathias (Mattityahu), a Jewish priest, and his five sons Jochanan, Simeon, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah led a rebellion against Antiochus. It started with Mattathias killing first a Jew who wanted to comply with Antiochus's order to sacrifice to Zeus, and then a Greek official who was to enforce the government's behest (1 Mac. 2, 24–25). Judah became known as Yehuda HaMakabi ("Judah the Hammer"). By 166 BCE, Mattathias had died, and Judah took his place as leader. By 164 BCE, the Jewish revolt against the Seleucid monarchy was successful. The Temple was liberated and rededicated. The festival of Hanukkah was instituted to celebrate this event. Judah ordered the Temple to be cleansed, a new altar to be built in place of the polluted one and new holy vessels to be made. Maimonides (12th century) described Hanukkah as follows: When, on the twenty-fifth of Kislev, the Jews had emerged victorious over their foes and destroyed them, they re-entered the Temple where they found only one jar of pure oil, enough to be lit for only a single day; yet they used it for lighting the required set of lamps for eight days, until they managed to press olives and produce pure oil. Because of this, the sages of that generation ruled that the eight days beginning with the twenty-fifth of Kislev should be observed as days of rejoicing and praising the Lord. Lamps are lit in the evening over the doors of the homes, on each of the eight nights, so as to display the miracle. These days are called Hanukkah, when it is forbidden to lament or to fast, just as it is on the days of Purim. Lighting the lamps during the eight days of Hanukkah is a religious duty imposed by the sages. === Academic sources === Some modern scholars, following the account in 2 Maccabees, observe that the king was intervening in an internal civil war between the Maccabean Jews and the Hellenized Jews in Jerusalem. These competed violently over who would be the High Priest, with traditionalists with Hebrew/Aramaic names like Onias contesting with Hellenizing High Priests with Greek names like Jason and Menelaus. In particular, Jason's Hellenistic reforms would prove to be a decisive factor leading to eventual conflict within the ranks of Judaism. Other authors point to possible socioeconomic reasons in addition to the religious reasons behind the civil war. What began in many respects as a civil war escalated when the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria sided with the Hellenizing Jews in their conflict with the traditionalists. As the conflict escalated, Antiochus took the side of the Hellenizers by prohibiting the religious practices the traditionalists had rallied around. This may explain why the king, in a total departure from Seleucid practice in all other places and times, banned a traditional religion. The miracle of the oil is widely regarded as a legend and its authenticity has been questioned since the Middle Ages. However, given the famous question Joseph Karo (1488–1575) posed concerning why Hanukkah is celebrated for eight days when the miracle was only for seven days (since there was enough oil for one day), it was clear that writing in the 16th century CE, he believed it to be a historical event. This belief has been adopted by most of Orthodox Judaism, in as much as Karo's Shulchan Aruch is a main code of Jewish Law. === Timeline === 198 BCE: Armies of the Seleucid King Antiochus III (Antiochus the Great) oust Ptolemy V from Judea and Samaria. 168 BCE: Under the reign of Antiochus IV, the second Temple is looted, Jews are massacred, and Judaism is outlawed. 167 BCE: Antiochus orders an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. Mattathias and his five sons John, Simon, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah lead a rebellion against Antiochus. Judah becomes known as Judah Maccabee ("Judah the Hammer"). 166 BCE: Mattathias dies, and Judah takes his place as leader. The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom begins; It lasts until 63 BCE. 164 BCE: The Jewish revolt against the Seleucid monarchy is successful in recapturing the Temple, which is liberated and rededicated (Hanukkah). 142 BCE: Re-establishment of the Second Jewish Commonwealth. The Seleucids recognize Jewish autonomy. The Seleucid kings have a formal overlordship, which the Hasmoneans acknowledge. This inaugurates a period of population growth and religious, cultural and social development. This includes the conquest of the areas now covered by Transjordan, Samaria, Galilee, and Idumea (also known as Edom), and the forced conversion of Idumeans to the Jewish religion, including circumcision. 139 BCE: The Roman Senate recognizes Jewish autonomy. 134 BCE: Antiochus VII Sidetes besieges Jerusalem. The Jews under John Hyrcanus become Seleucid vassals but retain religious autonomy. 129 BCE: Antiochus VII dies. The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom throws off Syrian rule completely. 96 BCE: Beginning of an eight-year civil war between Sadducee king Alexander Yanai and the Pharisees. 85–82 BCE: Consolidation of the Kingdom in territory east of the Jordan River. 63 BCE: The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom comes to an end because of a rivalry between the brothers Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus II, both of whom appeal to the Roman Republic to intervene and settle the power struggle on their behalf. The Roman general Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) is dispatched to the area. Twelve thousand Jews are massacred in the Roman Siege of Jerusalem. The Priests of the Temple are struck down at the Altar. Rome annexes Judea. === Battles of the Maccabean Revolt === Selected battles between the Maccabees and the Seleucid Syrian-Greeks: Battle with Apollonius and Battle with Seron: Judas Maccabeus defeats two smaller Seleucid detachments. Battle of Emmaus: Judas Maccabeus performs a daring night march to make a surprise attack on the Seleucid camp while the Seleucid forces are split. Battle of Beth Zur: Judas Maccabeus defeats the army of Lysias, and captures Jerusalem soon after. Lysias relents and repeals Antiochus IV's anti-Jewish decrees. Battle of Beth Zechariah: The Seleucids defeat the Maccabees. Eleazar Avaran, another of Mattathias's sons, is killed in battle by a war elephant. Battle of Adasa: Judas defeats the forces of Nicanor after killing him early in the battle. Battle of Elasa: Judas dies in battle against the army of Bacchides. He is succeeded by his brother Jonathan Apphus, and eventually their other brother Simon Thassi, as leader of the rebellion. The Seleucids re-establish control of the cities for 8 years, but eventually make deals with the Maccabees and appoint their leaders as official Seleucid governors and generals in a vassal-like status before eventual independence. === Characters and heroes === Matityahu the Priest, also referred to as Mattathias and Mattathias ben Johanan. Matityahu was a Jewish priest who, together with his five sons, played a central role in the story of Hanukkah. Judah the Maccabee, also referred to as Judas Maccabeus and Y'hudhah HaMakabi. Judah was the eldest son of Matityahu and is acclaimed as one of the greatest warriors in Jewish history alongside Joshua, Gideon, and David. Eleazar the Maccabee, also referred to as Eleazar Avaran, Eleazar Maccabeus and Eleazar Hachorani/Choran. Simon the Maccabee, also referred to as Simon Maccabeus and Simon Thassi. Johanan the Maccabee, also referred to as Johanan Maccabeus and John Gaddi. Jonathan the Maccabee, also referred to as Jonathan Apphus. Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Seleucid king controlling the region during this period. Judith. Acclaimed for her heroism in the assassination of Holofernes. Hannah and her seven sons. Arrested, tortured and killed one by one, by Antiochus IV Epiphanes for refusing to bow to an idol. == Rituals == Hanukkah is celebrated with a series of rituals that are performed every day throughout the eight-day holiday, some are family-based and others communal. There are special additions to the daily prayer service, and a section is added to the blessing after meals. Hanukkah is not a "Sabbath-like" holiday, and there is no obligation to refrain from activities that are forbidden on the Sabbath, as specified in the Shulkhan Arukh. Adherents go to work as usual but may leave early in order to be home to kindle the lights at nightfall. There is no religious reason for schools to be closed, although in Israel schools close from the second day for the whole week of Hanukkah. Many families exchange gifts each night, such as books or games, and "Hanukkah Gelt" is often given to children. Fried foods—such as latkes (potato pancakes), jelly doughnuts (sufganiyot) and Sephardic bimuelos—are eaten to commemorate the importance of oil during the celebration of Hanukkah. Some also have a custom of eating dairy products to remember Judith and how she overcame Holofernes by feeding him cheese, which made him thirsty, and giving him wine to drink. When Holofernes became very drunk, Judith cut off his head. === Kindling the Hanukkah lights === Each night throughout the eight-day holiday, a candle or oil-based light is lit. As a universally practiced "beautification" (hiddur mitzvah) of the mitzvah, the number of lights lit is increased by one each night. An extra light called a shammash, meaning "attendant" or "sexton", is also lit each night, and is given a distinct location, usually higher, lower, or to the side of the others. while among Sephardim the prevalent custom is to have one set of lights for the entire household. The purpose of the shammash is to adhere to the prohibition, specified in the Talmud, against using the Hanukkah lights for anything other than publicizing and meditating on the Hanukkah miracle. This differs from Sabbath candles which are meant to be used for illumination and lighting. Hence, if one were to need extra illumination on Hanukkah, the shammash candle would be available, and one would avoid using the prohibited lights. Some, especially Ashkenazim, light the shammash candle first and then use it to light the others. So altogether, including the shammash, two lights are lit on the first night, three on the second and so on, ending with nine on the last night, for a total of 44 (36, excluding the shammash). It is Sephardic custom not to light the shammash first and use it to light the rest. Instead, the shammash candle is the last to be lit, and a different candle or a match is used to light all the candles. Some Hasidic Jews follow this Sephardic custom as well. The lights can be candles or oil lamps. In the United States, Hanukkah became a more visible festival in the public sphere from the 1970s when Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson called for public awareness and observance of the festival and encouraged the lighting of public menorahs. The reason for the Hanukkah lights is not for the "lighting of the house within", but rather for the "illumination of the house without", so that passersby should see it and be reminded of the holiday's miracle (i.e. that the sole cruse of pure oil found which held enough oil to burn for one night actually burned for eight nights). Accordingly, lamps are set up at a prominent window or near the door leading to the street. It is customary amongst some Ashkenazi Jews to have a separate menorah for each family member (customs vary), whereas most Sephardi Jews light one for the whole household. Only when there was danger of antisemitic persecution were lamps supposed to be hidden from public view, as was the case in Persia under the rule of the Zoroastrians, Generally, women are exempt in Jewish law from time-bound positive commandments, although the Talmud requires that women engage in the mitzvah of lighting Hanukkah candles "for they too were involved in the miracle." Some Jews in North America and Israel have taken up environmental concerns in relation to Hanukkah's "miracle of the oil", emphasizing reflection on energy conservation and energy independence. An example of this is the Coalition on the Environment and Jewish Life's renewable energy campaign. === Candle-lighting time === Hanukkah lights should usually burn for at least half an hour after it gets dark. Many light at sundown, while most Hasidim and many other communities light later, generally around nightfall. Many Hasidic Rebbes light much later to fulfill the obligation of publicizing the miracle by the presence of their Hasidim when they kindle the lights. Inexpensive small wax candles sold for Hanukkah burn for approximately half an hour so should be lit no earlier than nightfall. If for whatever reason one didn't light at sunset or nightfall, the lights should be kindled later, as long as there are people in the streets. === Blessings over the candles === Typically two blessings (brachot; singular: brachah) are recited during this eight-day festival when lighting the candles. On the first night only, the shehecheyanu blessing is added, making a total of three blessings. The first blessing is recited before the candles are lit, and while most recite the other blessing(s) beforehand as well, some have the custom to recite them after. On the first night of Hanukkah one light (candle or oil) is lit on the right side of the menorah, on the following night a second light is placed to the left of the first but it is lit first, and so on, proceeding from placing candles right to left but lighting them from left to right over the eight nights. ==== Blessing for lighting the candles ==== Transliteration: Translation: "Blessed are You, our God, King of the universe, Who has sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us to kindle the Hanukkah light[s]." ==== Blessing for the miracles of Hanukkah ==== {{Hebrew paragraph\| בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה ה' אֱ-לֹהֵינוּ מֶלֶךְ הָעוֹלָם, שֶׁעָשָׂה נִסִּים לַאֲבוֹתֵֽינוּ בַּיָּמִים הָהֵם בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה. === Maoz Tzur === In the Ashkenazi tradition, each night after the lighting of the candles, the hymn Ma'oz Tzur is sung. The song contains six stanzas. The first and last deal with general themes of divine salvation, and the middle four deal with events of persecution in Jewish history, praising God for survival despite these tragedies (the exodus from Egypt, the Babylonian captivity, the miracle of the holiday of Purim, the Hasmonean victory) and expressing a longing for the days when Judea will finally triumph over Rome. The song was composed in the thirteenth century by a poet only known through the acrostic found in the first letters of the original five stanzas of the song: Mordechai. The familiar tune is most probably a derivation of a German Protestant church hymn or a popular folk song. === Other customs === After lighting the candles and Ma'oz Tzur, singing other Hanukkah songs is customary in many Jewish homes. Some Hasidic and Sephardi Jews recite Psalms, such as Psalm 30, Psalm 67, and Psalm 91. In North America and in Israel it is common to exchange presents or give children presents at this time. In addition, many families encourage their children to give tzedakah (charity) in lieu of presents for themselves. === Special additions to daily prayers === An addition is made to the "hoda'ah" (thanksgiving) benediction in the Amidah (thrice-daily prayers), called Al HaNissim ("On/about the Miracles"). This addition refers to the victory achieved over the Syrians by the Hasmonean Mattathias and his sons. The same prayer is added to the grace after meals. In addition, the Hallel (praise) Psalms are sung during each morning service and the Tachanun penitential prayers are omitted. The Torah is read every day in the shacharit morning services in synagogue, on the first day beginning from Numbers 6:22 (according to some customs, Numbers 7:1), and the last day ending with Numbers 8:4. Since Hanukkah lasts eight days it includes at least one, and sometimes two, Jewish Sabbaths (Saturdays). The weekly Torah portion for the first Sabbath is almost always Miketz, telling of Joseph's dream and his enslavement in Egypt. The Haftarah reading for the first Sabbath Hanukkah is Zechariah 2:14 – Zechariah 4:7. When there is a second Sabbath on Hanukkah, the Haftarah reading is from 1 Kings 7:40–50. The Hanukkah menorah is also kindled daily in the synagogue, at night with the blessings and in the morning without the blessings. The menorah is not lit during Shabbat, but rather prior to the beginning of Shabbat as described above and not at all during the day. During the Middle Ages "Megillat Antiochus" was read in the Italian synagogues on Hanukkah just as the Book of Esther is read on Purim. It still forms part of the liturgy of the Yemenite Jews. === Zot Hanukkah: Hanukkah as the end of the High Holy Days === The last day of Hanukkah is known by some as Zot Hanukkah and by others as Chanukat HaMizbeach, from the verse read on this day in the synagogue Numbers 7:84, Zot Hanukkat Hamizbe'ach: "This was the dedication of the altar". According to the teachings of Kabbalah and Hasidism, this day is the final "seal" of the High Holiday season of Yom Kippur and is considered a time to repent out of love for God. In this spirit, many Hasidic Jews wish each other Gmar chatimah tovah ("may you be sealed totally for good"), a traditional greeting for the Yom Kippur season. It is taught in Hasidic and Kabbalistic literature that this day is particularly auspicious for the fulfillment of prayers. Some Hasidic scholars teach that the Hanukkah is in fact the final conclusion of God's judgment extending High Holy Days of Rosh Hashana when humanity is judged and Yom Kippur when the judgment is sealed: Hassidic masters quote from Kabbalistic sources that the God's mercy extends even further, giving the Children of Israel till the final day of Chanukah (known as "Zot Chanukah" based on words which appear in the Torah reading of that day), to return to Him and receive a favorable judgment. They see several hints to this in different verses. One is Isaiah 27:9: "Through this (zot) will Jacob's sin be forgiven" – i.e., on account of the holiness of Zot Chanukah. === Other related laws and customs === It is customary for women not to work for at least the first half-hour of the candles' burning, and some have the custom not to work for the entire time of burning. It is also forbidden to fast or to eulogize during Hanukkah. and "Oh Chanukah". In the Nadvorna Hasidic dynasty, it is customary for the rebbes to play violin after the menorah is lit. Penina Moise's Hannukah Hymn published in the 1842 Hymns Written for the Use of Hebrew Congregations was instrumental in the beginning of Americanization of Hanukkah. === Foods === There is a custom of eating foods fried or baked in oil (preferably olive oil) to commemorate the miracle of a small flask of oil keeping the Second Temple's Menorah alight for eight days. Traditional foods include potato pancakes, known as latkes in Yiddish, especially among Ashkenazi families. Sephardi, Polish, and Israeli families eat jam-filled doughnuts ( pontshkes), bimuelos (fritters) and sufganiyot which are deep-fried in oil. Italkim and Hungarian Jews traditionally eat cheese pancakes known as "cassola" or "cheese latkes". Latkes are not popular in Israel, having been largely replaced by sufganiyot due to local economic factors, convenience and the influence of trade unions. Bakeries in Israel have popularized many new types of fillings for sufganiyot besides the traditional strawberry jelly filling, including chocolate cream, vanilla cream, caramel, cappuccino and others. In recent years, downsized, "mini" sufganiyot containing half the calories of the regular, 400-to-600-calorie version, have become popular. Rabbinic literature also records a tradition of eating cheese and other dairy products during Hanukkah. This custom, as mentioned above, commemorates the heroism of Judith during the Babylonian captivity of the Jews and reminds us that women also played an important role in the events of Hanukkah. The deuterocanonical book of Judith (Yehudit or Yehudis in Hebrew), which is not part of the Tanakh, records that Holofernes, an Assyrian general, had surrounded the village of Bethulia as part of his campaign to conquer Judea. After intense fighting, the water supply of the Jews was cut off and the situation became desperate. Judith, a pious widow, told the city leaders that she had a plan to save the city. Judith went to the Assyrian camps and pretended to surrender. She met Holofernes, who was smitten by her beauty. She went back to his tent with him, where she plied him with cheese and wine. When he fell into a drunken sleep, Judith beheaded him and escaped from the camp, taking the severed head with her (the beheading of Holofernes by Judith has historically been a popular theme in art). When Holofernes' soldiers found his corpse, they were overcome with fear; the Jews, on the other hand, were emboldened and launched a successful counterattack. The town was saved, and the Assyrians defeated. Roast goose has historically been a traditional Hanukkah food among Eastern European and American Jews, although the custom has declined in recent decades. Indian Jews traditionally consume gulab jamun, fried dough balls soaked in a sweet syrup, similar to teiglach or bimuelos, as part of their Hanukkah celebrations. Italian Jews eat fried chicken, cassola (a ricotta cheese latke almost similar to a cheesecake), and fritelle de riso par Hanukkah (a fried sweet rice pancake). Romanian Jews eat pasta latkes as a traditional Hanukkah dish. Syrian Jews consume Kibbet Yatkeen, a dish made with pumpkin and bulgur wheat similar to latkes, as well as their own version of keftes de prasa spiced with allspice and cinnamon. === Dreidel === After lighting the candles, it is customary to play (or spin) the dreidel. The dreidel, or sevivon in Hebrew, is a four-sided spinning top that children play with during Hanukkah. Each side is imprinted with a Hebrew letter which is an abbreviation for the Hebrew words (, "A great miracle happened there"), referring to the miracle of the oil that took place in the Beit Hamikdash. The fourth side of some dreidels sold in Israel are inscribed with the letter (Pe), rendering the acronym (, "A great miracle happened here"), referring to the fact that the miracle occurred in the land of Israel, although this is a relatively recent innovation. Stores in Haredi neighborhoods sell the traditional Shin dreidels as well, because they understand "there" to refer to the Temple and not the entire Land of Israel, and because the Hasidic Masters ascribe significance to the traditional letters. === Hanukkah gelt === Chanukkah gelt (Yiddish for "Chanukkah money"), known in Israel by the Hebrew translation , is often distributed to children during the festival of Hanukkah. The giving of Hanukkah gelt also adds to the holiday excitement. The amount is usually in small coins, although grandparents or relatives may give larger sums. The tradition of giving Chanukah gelt dates back to a long-standing East European custom of children presenting their teachers with a small sum of money at this time of year as a token of gratitude. One minhag favors the fifth night of Hanukkah for giving Hanukkah gelt. Unlike the other nights of Hanukkah, the fifth does not ever fall on the Shabbat, hence never conflicting with the Halachic injunction against handling money on the Shabbat. === Hanukkah in the White House === The earliest Hanukkah link with the White House occurred in 1951 when Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion presented United States President Harry Truman with a Hanukkah menorah. In 1979 President Jimmy Carter took part in the first public Hanukkah candle-lighting ceremony of the National Menorah held across the White House lawn. In 1989, President George H. W. Bush displayed a menorah in the White House. In 1993, President Bill Clinton invited a group of schoolchildren to the Oval Office for a small ceremony. In 2004, after eight years of reissuing the menorah design, the USPS issued a dreidel design for the Hanukkah stamp. The dreidel design was used through 2008. In 2009 a Hanukkah stamp was issued with a design featured a photograph of a menorah with nine lit candles. In 2008, President George W. Bush held an official Hanukkah reception in the White House where he linked the occasion to the 1951 gift by using that menorah for the ceremony, with a grandson of Ben-Gurion and a grandson of Truman lighting the candles. In December 2014, two Hanukkah celebrations were held at the White House. The White House commissioned a menorah made by students at the Max Rayne school in Israel and invited two of its students to join U.S. President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama as they welcomed over 500 guests to the celebration. The students' school in Israel had been subjected to arson by extremists. President Obama said these "students teach us an important lesson for this time in our history. The light of hope must outlast the fires of hate. That's what the Hanukkah story teaches us. It's what our young people can teach us – that one act of faith can make a miracle, that love is stronger than hate, that peace can triumph over conflict." Rabbi Angela Warnick Buchdahl, in leading prayers at the ceremony commented on the how special the scene was, asking the President if he believed America's founding fathers could possibly have pictured that a female Asian-American rabbi would one day be at the White House leading Jewish prayers in front of the African-American president. == Dates == The dates of Hanukkah are determined by the Hebrew calendar. Hanukkah begins at the 25th day of Kislev and concludes on the second or third day of Tevet (Kislev can have 29 or 30 days). The Jewish day begins at sunset. Hanukkah dates for recent and upcoming: In 2013, on 28 November, the American holiday of Thanksgiving fell during Hanukkah for only the third time since Thanksgiving was declared a national holiday by President Abraham Lincoln. The last time was 1899, and due to the nature of the Gregorian and Jewish calendars being slightly out of sync with each other, it will not happen again in the foreseeable future. This rare convergence prompted the creation of the neologism Thanksgivukkah. == Symbolic importance == Major Jewish holidays are those when all forms of work are forbidden, and that feature traditional holiday meals, kiddush, holiday candle-lighting, etc. Only biblical holidays fit these criteria, and Chanukah was instituted some two centuries after the Hebrew Bible was completed. Nevertheless, though Chanukah is of rabbinic origin, it is traditionally celebrated in a major and very public fashion. The requirement to position the menorah, or Chanukiah, at the door or window, symbolizes the desire to give the Chanukah miracle a high-profile. Moreover, Hallel (a set of Psalms expressing praise that is recited on significant Jewish holidays) is recited on all eight days of Hanukkah, which signifies Hanukkah's importance on the Jewish calendar. While not considered the most significant holiday, the recitation of Hallel on Hanukkah highlights its importance in Jewish tradition. Some Jewish historians suggest a different explanation for the rabbinic reluctance to laud the militarism. First, the rabbis wrote after Hasmonean leaders had led Judea into Rome's grip and so may not have wanted to offer the family much praise. Second, they clearly wanted to promote a sense of dependence on God, urging Jews to look toward the divine for protection. They likely feared inciting Jews to another revolt that might end in disaster, as the Bar Kochba revolt did. ==Modern history== ===Zionism=== The emergence of Jewish nationalism and the Zionist movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries had a profound impact on the celebration and reinterpretation of Jewish holidays. These developments resulted in increased emphasis on certain Jewish celebrations, of which Hanukkah and Tu BiShvat are prominent examples. Hanukkah took on renewed meaning following the rise of Jewish nationalism as a nationalist holiday, symbolizing the struggle of the Jewish people against foreign oppression and their desire for national re-creation (although the struggle of Jews against foreign oppression has always been a core component of Hanukkah, as shown by the Al HaNissim, which has been part of Jewish liturgy since at least 700 CE). Hanukkah served as a common ground where both religious and secular Zionists could unite around their nationalist agenda. Rabbi Shmuel Mohilever, an early religious Zionist, proposed making Hanukkah the official holiday of the proto-Zionist organization Hovevei Zion in Russia in 1881. Public celebrations of Hanukkah gained prominence in the early 20th century, with parades and public events becoming common. Schools in Mandate Palestine played an early role in promoting these celebrations. With the advent of Zionism and the state of Israel, the themes of militarism were reconsidered. In modern Israel, the national and military aspects of Hanukkah became, once again, more dominant. ===North America=== In North America, Hanukkah in the 21st century has taken a place equal to Passover as a symbol of Jewish identity. Both the Israeli and North American versions of Hanukkah emphasize resistance, focusing on some combination of national liberation and religious freedom as the defining meaning of the holiday. Diane Ashton argues that Jewish immigrants to America raised the profile of Hanukkah as a kid-centered alternative to Christmas as early as the 1800s. This in parts mirrors the ascendancy of Christmas, which like Hanukkah increased in importance in the 1800s. During this time period, Jewish leaders (especially Reform) such as Max Lilienthal and Isaac Mayer Wise made an effort to rebrand Hanukkah and started creating Hanukkah celebration for kids at their synagogues, which included candy and singing songs. By the 1900s, it started to become a commercial holiday like Christmas, with Hanukkah gifts and decorations appearing in stores and Jewish Women's magazines printing articles on holiday decorations, children's celebrations, and gift giving. Children play a big role in Hanukkah, and Jewish families with children are more likely to celebrate it than childless Jewish families, and sociologists hypothesize that this is because Jewish parents do not want their kids to be alienated from their non-Jewish peers who celebrate Christmas. === Relationship to Kwanzaa === In December 2022, New York City Mayor Eric Adams, Reverends Al Sharpton and Conrad Tillard, businessman Robert F. Smith, Rabbi Shmuley Boteach, and Elisha Wiesel joined to celebrate Hanukkah and Kwanzaa together, and combat racism and antisemitism, at Carnegie Hall.	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Smith (investor)", "Nehemiah", "Mishna", "Shabbat candles", "Johanan Maccabeus", "Harry Truman", "Hebrew calendar", "Simon Thassi", "John Gaddi", "Harry S. Truman", "613 commandments", "Judas Maccabeus", "Battle of Beth Horon (166 BCE)", "Battle of Beth Zechariah", "Elisha Wiesel", "Jewish secularism", "teiglach", "Sephardic Jews", "Second Temple", "Culture of Greece", "Sephardic", "George H. W. Bush", "Italian Jews", "High Priest (Judaism)", "Menachem M. Schneerson", "Edom", "Maimonides", "Hillel the Elder", "Middle Ages", "Antiochus III", "Idumea", "Eerdmans Publishing", "geminate", "Babylonian captivity", "Jason (high priest)", "Alexander Yanai", "Shammai", "Barack Obama", "Harvard University Press", "Seleucid", "Biblical canon", "Homiletics", "Haredi Judaism", "Judith Beheading Holofernes", "3rd century BCE", "Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period", "Menelaus (High Priest)", "cheese latkes", "Hasidic Judaism", "Beth-zur", "Masoretes", "Aristobulus II", "Ptolemaic Kingdom", "Hasidic", "Michelle Obama", "Halachic", "Dreidel", "Pączki", "Dreidel, Dreidel, Dreidel", "Birkat Hamazon", "European Commission", "Chanukkah gelt", "Reform Judaism", "Gideon", "Zoroastrianism", "Gospel of John", "Samaria", "Tevet", "public sphere", "Onias III", "Judeo-Spanish", "Septuagint", "Chabad", "National day", "Reuvein Margolies", "Roman Republic", "Hanukkah gelt", "candelabrum", "Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus", "temple in Jerusalem", "Judith", "Kislev", "Mitzvah", "Battle with Apollonius", "doughnut", "chabad.org", "minhag", "Galilee", "Sephardi Jews", "Shulkhan Arukh", "Kibbet Yatkeen", "Nissim of Gerona", "High Holy Days", "Ashkenazic", "Menorah (Temple)", "Oh Chanukah", "Shmuley Boteach", "Jewish holidays", "voiceless uvular fricative", "romanized", "Chabad.org", "God", "mezuzah", "Siege of Jerusalem (63 BCE)", "shehecheyanu", "Battle of Adasa", "sufganiyot", "Second Maccabees", "Lovers of Zion", "Megillat Taanit", "halakha", "Abraham Lincoln", "Amidah", "Joshua", "Jonathan Apphus", "Maccabees", "Talmud", "Jerusalem", "Second Temple period", "George W. Bush", "Italian rite Jews", "Jewish greetings", "Deep frying", "Hanukkah menorah", "Simon Maccabeus", "Rashi", "Hart's Rules", "Ma'oz Tzur", "Shulchan Aruch", "Yiddish", "Joseph Karo", "Fairleigh Dickinson University Press", "Battle of Panium", "John Hyrcanus", "deuterocanonical", "New Testament", "Orthodox Judaism", "Thanksgivukkah", "Max Lilienthal", "White House", "Ashkenazi Jews", "David", "Seal (emblem)", "Google Books", "Routledge", "dreidel", "Antiquities of the Jews", "Aish HaTorah", "Al HaNissim", "tzedakah", "National Menorah", "Kohen", "Yemenite Jews", "death of Alexander the Great", "Jews", "Christmas and holiday season", "Book of Esther", "Jason Aronson", "Maccabean Revolt", "deuterocanonical books", "Berlin", "Mandatory Palestine", "Angela Warnick Buchdahl", "Rosh Hashana", "Christmas tree", "Mishneh Torah", "English language", "Masoretic Text", "Antiochus III the Great", "Temple in Jerusalem", "gulab jamun", "Common Era", "Pe (Semitic letter)", "Jewish history", "Bill Clinton", "Judaism", "Isaac Mayer Wise", "Passover", "Transjordan (region)", "Ancient Egypt", "Knesset Menorah", "Jordan River", "About.com", "Sadducee", "gabbai", "Eleazar Avaran", "BCE", "Syrian Jews", "Simon Maccabaeus", "Conrad Tillard", "Psalms", "loch" ]
7,390	Christian views on marriage	Christian terminology and theological views of marriage vary by time period, by country, and by the different Christian denominations. Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians consider marriage as a holy sacrament or sacred mystery, while Protestants consider marriage to be a sacred institution or "holy ordinance" of God. However, there have been differing attitudes among denominations and individual Christians towards not only the concept of Christian marriage, but also concerning divorce, remarriage, gender roles, family authority (the "headship" of the husband), the legal status of married women, birth control, marriageable age, cousin marriage, marriage of in-laws, interfaith marriage, same-sex marriage, and polygamy, among other topics, so that in the 21st century there cannot be said to be a single, uniform, worldwide view of marriage among all who profess to be Christians. Christian teaching has never held that marriage is necessary for everyone; for many centuries in Western Europe, priestly or monastic celibacy was valued as highly as, if not higher than, marriage. Christians who did not marry were expected to refrain from all sexual activity, as were those who took holy orders or monastic vows. In some Western countries, a separate and secular civil wedding ceremony is required for recognition by the state, while in other Western countries, couples must merely obtain a marriage license from a local government authority and can be married by Christian or other clergy if they are authorized by law to conduct weddings. In this case, the state recognizes the religious marriage as a civil marriage as well; and Christian couples married in this way have all the rights of civil marriage, including, for example, divorce, even if their church forbids divorce. ==Biblical foundations and history== === Old Testament === Polygyny, or men having multiple wives at once, is one of the most common marital arrangements represented in the Old Testament, yet scholars doubt that it was common among average Israelites because of the wealth needed to practice it. Both the biblical patriarchs and kings of Israel are described as engaged in polygamous relationships. Despite the various polygynous relationships in the Bible, Old Testament scholar Peter Gentry has said that it does not mean that God condones polygyny. He also made note of the various problems that polygynous relationships present with the examples of Abraham, Jacob, David, and Solomon in the Bible. Alternatively, this could be a case of graded absolutism. Betrothal (), which is merely a binding promise to get married, is distinct from marriage itself (), with the time between these events varying substantially. Since a wife was regarded as property in biblical times, the betrothal () was effected simply by purchasing her from her father (or guardian) (i.e. paying the bride price to the woman and her father); Additionally, according to French anthropologist Philippe Rospabé, the payment of the bride price does not entail the purchase of a woman, as was thought in the early twentieth century. Instead, it is a purely symbolic gesture acknowledging (but never paying off) the husband's permanent debt to the wife's parents. Like the adjacent Arabic culture (in the pre-Islamic period), the act of marriage appears mainly to have consisted of the groom fetching the bride, although among the Israelites the procession was a festive occasion, accompanied by music, dancing, and lights. William Barclay (1907–1978) has written: Theologian Frank Stagg says that manuscripts disagree as to the presence in the original text of the phrase "except for fornication". Stagg writes: "Divorce always represents failure...a deviation from God's will.... There is grace and redemption where there is contrition and repentance.... There is no clear authorization in the New Testament for remarriage after divorce." Stagg interprets the chief concern of Matthew 5 as being "to condemn the criminal act of the man who divorces an innocent wife.... Jesus was rebuking the husband who victimizes an innocent wife and thinks that he makes it right with her by giving her a divorce". He points out that Jesus refused to be trapped by the Pharisees into choosing between the strict and liberal positions on divorce as held at the time in Judaism. When they asked him, "Is it lawful for a man to divorce his wife for any cause?" he answered by reaffirming God's will as stated in Genesis, that in marriage husband and wife are made "one flesh", and what God has united man must not separate. he taught that there is a place for voluntary singleness in Christian service. He believed marriage could be a distraction from an urgent mission, that he was living in a time of crisis and urgency where the Kingdom of God would be established where there would be no marriage nor giving in marriage: === New Testament beyond the Gospels === The Apostle Paul quoted passages from Genesis almost verbatim in two of his New Testament books. He used marriage not only to describe the kingdom of God, as Jesus had done, but to define also the nature of the 1st-century Christian church. His theological view was a Christian development of the Old Testament parallel between marriage and the relationship between God and Israel. He analogized the church as a bride and Christ as the bridegroom─drawing parallels between Christian marriage and the relationship between Christ and the Church. There is no hint in the New Testament that Jesus was ever married, and no clear evidence that Paul was ever married. However, both Jesus and Paul seem to view marriage as a legitimate calling from God for Christians. Paul elevates singleness to that of the preferable position, but does offer a caveat suggesting this is "because of the impending crisis"—which could itself extend to present times (see also Pauline privilege). Paul's primary issue was that marriage adds concerns to one's life that detract from their ability to serve God without distraction. Some scholars have speculated that Paul may have been a widower since prior to his conversion to Christianity he was a Pharisee and member of the Sanhedrin, positions in which the social norm of the day required the men to be married. But it is just as likely that he never married at all. === Marriage and early Church Fathers === Building on what they saw the example of Jesus and Paul advocating, some early Church Fathers placed less value on the family and saw celibacy and freedom from family ties as a preferable state. Nicene Fathers such as Augustine believed that marriage was a sacrament because it was a symbol used by Paul to express Christ's love of the Church. However, there was also an apocalyptic dimension in his teaching, and he was clear that if everybody stopped marrying and having children that would be an admirable thing; it would mean that the Kingdom of God would return all the sooner and the world would come to an end. Such a view reflects the Manichaean past of Augustine and the influence of Neoplatonism. While upholding the New Testament teaching that marriage is "honourable in all and the bed undefiled," Augustine believed that "yet, whenever it comes to the actual process of generation, the very embrace which is lawful and honourable cannot be effected without the ardour of lust...This is the carnal concupiscence, which, while it is no longer accounted sin in the regenerate, yet in no case happens to nature except from sin." Both Tertullian and Gregory of Nyssa were church fathers who were married. They each stressed that the happiness of marriage was ultimately rooted in misery. They saw marriage as a state of bondage that could only be cured by celibacy. They wrote that at the very least, the virgin woman could expect release from the "governance of a husband and the chains of children." Tertullian argued that second marriage, having been freed from the first by death,"will have to be termed no other than a species of fornication," partly based on the reasoning that this involves desiring to marry a woman out of sexual ardor, which a Christian convert is to avoid. Also advocating celibacy and virginity as preferable alternatives to marriage, Jerome wrote: "It is not disparaging wedlock to prefer virginity. No one can make a comparison between two things if one is good and the other evil." On First Corinthians 7:1 he reasons, "It is good, he says, for a man not to touch a woman. If it is good not to touch a woman, it is bad to touch one: for there is no opposite to goodness but badness. But if it be bad and the evil is pardoned, the reason for the concession is to prevent worse evil." St. John Chrysostom wrote: "...virginity is better than marriage, however good.... Celibacy is...an imitation of the angels. Therefore, virginity is as much more honorable than marriage, as the angel is higher than man. But why do I say angel? Christ, Himself, is the glory of virginity." Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, said that the first commandment given to men was to increase and multiply, but now that the earth was full there was no need to continue this process of multiplication. This view of marriage was reflected in the lack of any formal liturgy formulated for marriage in the early Church. No special ceremonial was devised to celebrate Christian marriage—despite the fact that the Church had produced liturgies to celebrate the Eucharist, Baptism and Confirmation. It was not important for a couple to have their nuptials blessed by a priest. People could marry by mutual agreement in the presence of witnesses. Marriage was officially recognized as a sacrament at the 1184 Council of Verona. In the decrees on marriage of the Council of Trent (twenty-fourth session from 1563), the validity of marriage was made dependent upon the wedding taking place before a priest and two witnesses, The Catholic Church allowed marriages to take place inside churches only starting with the 16th century, beforehand religious marriages happened on the porch of the church. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that God himself is the author of the sacred institution of marriage, which is His way of showing love for those He created. Marriage is a divine institution that can never be broken, even if the husband or wife legally divorce in the civil courts; as long as they are both alive, the Church considers them bound together by God. Holy Matrimony is another name for sacramental marriage. Marriage is intended to be a faithful, exclusive, lifelong union of a man and a woman. Committing themselves completely to each other, a Catholic husband and wife strive to sanctify each other, bring children into the world, and educate them in the Catholic way of life. Man and woman, although created differently from each other, complement each other. This complementarity draws them together in a mutually loving union. The valid marriage of baptized Christians is one of the seven Roman Catholic sacraments. The sacrament of marriage is the only sacrament that a priest does not administer directly; a priest, however, is the chief witness of the husband and wife's administration of the sacrament to each other at the wedding ceremony in a Catholic church. The Roman Catholic Church views that Christ himself established the sacrament of marriage at the wedding feast of Cana; therefore, since it is a divine institution, neither the Church nor state can alter the basic meaning and structure of marriage. Husband and wife give themselves totally to each other in a union that lasts until death. Priests are instructed that marriage is part of God's natural law and to support the couple if they do choose to marry. Today it is common for Roman Catholics to enter into a "mixed marriage" between a Catholic and a baptized non-Catholic. Couples entering into a mixed marriage are usually allowed to marry in a Catholic church provided their decision is of their own accord and they intend to remain together for life, to be faithful to each other, and to have children which are brought up in the Catholic faith. In Roman Catholic teaching, marriage has two objectives: the good of the spouses themselves, and the procreation and education of children (1983 code of canon law, c.1055; 1994 catechism, par.2363). Hence "entering marriage with the intention of never having children is a grave wrong and more than likely grounds for an annulment." It is normal procedure for a priest to ask the prospective bride and groom about their plans to have children before officiating at their wedding. The Roman Catholic Church may refuse to marry anyone unwilling to have children, since procreation by "the marriage act" is a fundamental part of marriage. Thus usage of any form of contraception, in vitro fertilization, or birth control besides natural family planning is a grave offense against the sanctity of marriage and ultimately against God. Protestant Christian denominations consider marital sexual pleasure to be a gift of God, though they vary on their position on birth control, ranging from the acceptance of the use of contraception to only allowing natural family planning to teaching Quiverfull doctrine—that birth control is sinful and Christians should have large families. Conservative Protestants consider marriage a solemn covenant between wife, husband and God. Most view sexual relations as appropriate only within a marriage. Protestant Churches discourage divorce though the way it is addressed varies by denomination; for example, the Reformed Church in America permits divorce and remarriage, while other denominations such as the Evangelical Methodist Church Conference forbid divorce except in the case of fornication and do not allow for remarriage in any circumstance. Many Methodist Christians teach that marriage is "God's gift and covenant intended to imitate God's covenant with humankind" that "Christians enter in their baptism." For example, the rite used in the Free Methodist Church proclaims that marriage is "more than a legal contract, being a bond of union made in heaven, into which you enter discreetly and reverently." of the woman and the man. There is considerable debate among many Christians today—not just Protestants—whether equality of husband and wife or male headship is the biblically ordained view, and even if it is biblically permissible. The divergent opinions fall into two main groups: Complementarians (who call for husband-headship and wife-submission) and Christian Egalitarians (who believe in full partnership equality in which couples can discover and negotiate roles and responsibilities in marriage). There is no debate that Ephesians 5 presents a historically benevolent husband-headship/wife-submission model for marriage. The questions are (a) how these New Testament household codes are to be reconciled with the calls earlier in Chapter 5 (cf. verses 1, 18, 21) for mutual submission among all believers, and (b) the meaning of "head" in v.23. It is important to note that verse 22 contains no verb in the original manuscripts, which were also not divided into verses: It refers to the 1st centuries of the church, where spiritual union of spouses in the first sacramental marriage was eternal. Therefore, it is considered a martyrdom as each spouse learns to die to self for the sake of the other. Like all Mysteries, Orthodox marriage is more than just a celebration of something which already exists: it is the creation of something new, the imparting to the couple of the grace which transforms them from a 'couple' into husband and wife within the Body of Christ. "On the basis of the ideal of the first marriage as an image of the glory of God the question is which significance such a second marriage has and whether it can be regarded as Mysterion. Even though there are opinions (particularly in the west) which deny the sacramental character to the second marriage, in the orthodox literature almost consistently either a reduced or even a full sacramentality is attributed to it. The investigation of the second marriage rite shows that both positions affirming the sacramentality to a second marriage can be justified." Early church texts forbid marriage between an Orthodox Christian and a heretic or schismatic (which would include all non-Orthodox Christians). Traditional Orthodox Christians forbid mixed marriages with other denominations. More liberal ones perform them, provided that the couple formally commit themselves to rearing their children in the Orthodox faith. All people are called to celibacy—human beings are all born into virginity, and Orthodox Christians are expected by Sacred Tradition to remain in that state unless they are called into marriage and that call is sanctified. The church blesses two paths on the journey to salvation: monasticism and marriage. Mere celibacy, without the sanctification of monasticism, can fall into selfishness and tends to be regarded with disfavour by the Church. === Non-Trinitarian denominations === ==== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ==== In the teachings of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), celestial (or eternal) marriage is a covenant between a man, a woman, and God performed by a priesthood authority in a temple of the church. Thus, eternally married couples are often referred to as being "sealed" to each other. Sealed couples who keep their covenants are also promised to have their posterity sealed to them in the afterlife. (The church will no longer perform a celestial marriage for a couple unless they are first or simultaneously legally married.) The church encourages its members to be in good standing with it so that they may marry or be sealed in the temple. A celestial marriage is not annulled by a civil divorce: a "cancellation of a sealing" may be granted, but only by the First Presidency, the highest authority in the church. Civil divorce and marriage outside the temple carries somewhat of a stigma in the Mormon culture; the church teaches that the "gospel of Jesus Christ—including repentance, forgiveness, integrity, and love—provides the remedy for conflict in marriage." Regarding marriage and divorce, the church instructs its leaders: "No priesthood officer is to counsel a person whom to marry. Nor should he counsel a person to divorce his or her spouse. Those decisions must originate and remain with the individual. When a marriage ends in divorce, or if a husband and wife separate, they should always receive counseling from Church leaders." In church temples, members of the LDS Church perform vicarious celestial marriages for deceased couples who were legally married. ==== New Church (or Swedenborgian Church) ==== The New Church teaches that marital love (or "conjugial love") is "the precious jewel of human life and the repository of the Christian religion" because the love shared between a husband and a wife is the source of all peace and joy. Emanuel Swedenborg coined the term "conjugial" (rather than the more usual adjective in reference to marital union, "conjugal") to describe the special love experienced by married partners. Those who never married in the natural world will, if they wish, find a spouse in heaven. ==== Jehovah's Witnesses ==== The Jehovah's Witnesses view marriage to be a permanent arrangement with the only possible exception being adultery. Divorce is strongly discouraged even when adultery is committed since the wronged spouse is free to forgive the unfaithful one. There are provisions for a domestic separation in the event of "failure to provide for one's household" and domestic violence, or spiritual resistance on the part of a partner. Even in such situations though divorce would be considered grounds for loss of privileges in the congregation. Remarrying after death or a proper divorce is permitted. Marriage is the only situation where any type of sexual interaction is acceptable, and even then certain restrictions apply to acts such as oral and anal sex. Married persons who are known to commit such acts may in fact lose privileges in the congregation as they are supposed to be setting a good example to the congregation. == Interdenominational marriage == In Christianity, an interdenominational marriage (also known as an ecumenical marriage) is a marriage between two baptized Christians who belong to different Christian denominations, e.g. a wedding between a Lutheran man and a Catholic woman. Nearly all denominations permit interdenominational marriages. In Methodism, ¶81 of the 2014 Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection, states with regard to interdenominational marriages: "We do not prohibit our people from marrying persons who are not of our connection, provided such persons have the form and are seeking the power of godliness; but we are determined to discourage their marrying persons who do not come up to this description." The Catholic Church recognizes as sacramental, (1) the marriages between two baptized Protestants or between two baptized Orthodox Christians, as well as (2) marriages between baptized non-Catholics and Catholics, although in the latter case, consent from the diocesan bishop must be obtained, with this being termed "permission to enter into a mixed marriage". To illustrate (1), for example, "if two Lutherans marry in the Lutheran Church in the presence of a Lutheran minister, the Catholic Church recognizes this as a valid sacrament of marriage." == Interreligious marriage == In Christianity, an interfaith marriage is a marriage between a baptized Christian and a non-baptized person, e.g. a wedding between a Christian man and Jewish woman. Although the Catholic Church recognizes as natural marriages weddings between two non-Christians or those between a Catholic and a non-Christian, these are not considered to be sacramental, and in the latter case, the Catholic must seek permission from the local bishop for the marriage to occur; this permission is known as "dispensation from disparity of cult". In Methodist Christianity, the 2014 Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection discourages interfaith marriages, stating "Many Christians have married unconverted persons. This has produced bad effects; they have either been hindered for life, or have turned back to perdition." == Same-sex marriage == Anglican denominations such as the Episcopal Church in United States the Anglican Church of Canada, the Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia, the Anglican Episcopal Church of Brazil, the Scottish Episcopal Church in Scotland and mainline Protestant denominations such as the United Church of Christ, the United Church of Canada, the Metropolitan Community Church, the Presbyterian Church (USA), the Quakers, the United Reformed Church in United Kingdom, the Church of Scotland, the Methodist Church of Great Britain, the Church of Iceland, the Church of Sweden, the Church of Denmark, the Church of Norway, the United Protestant Church in Belgium, the Protestant Church in Baden, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Bavaria, the Evangelical Church in Berlin, Brandenburg and Silesian Upper Lusatia, the Evangelical Church of Bremen, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Brunswick, the Evangelical Church of Hesse Electorate-Waldeck, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Oldenburg, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Hanover, the Church of Lippe, the Evangelical Reformed Church in Bavaria and Northwestern Germany, the Evangelical Church in the Rhineland, the Protestant Church in Hesse and Nassau, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany the Protestant Church of the Palatinate, the Evangelical Church of Westphalia, the Mennonite Church in the Netherlands the United Protestant Church of France, the Catholic Diocese of the Old Catholics in Germany, the Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland, some Reformed churches in Federation of Swiss Protestant Churches for example the Reformed Church of Aargau, the Protestant Church of Geneva or the Evangelical Reformed Church of the Canton of Zürich and some non-trinitarian denominations such as the Unity Church and the Unitarians, and Affirming Pentecostal Church International perform weddings between same-sex couples. The Evangelical Lutheran Church of America, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, some Lutheran and united churches in Evangelical Church in Germany, some Reformed churches in Federation of Swiss Protestant Churches, and the Protestant Church in the Netherlands do not administer sacramental marriage to same-sex couples, but blesses same-sex unions through the use of a specific liturgy. The Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, and other more conservative Protestant denominations do not perform or recognize same-sex marriage because they do not consider it as marriage at all, and considering any homosexual sexual activity to be sinful. The Global Anglican Future Conference (GAFCON) consisting of the Church of Nigeria, Anglican Church of Kenya, Anglican Church of Tanzania, Rwanda and Uganda; Anglican Church of South America, Australia, parts of England, Canada, USA and Church of India through the Jerusalem Conference clearly asserted "the unchangeable standard of Christian marriage between one man and one woman as the proper place for sexual intimacy." ==Location of the wedding== With respect to religion, historic Christian belief emphasizes that Christian weddings should occur in a church as Christian marriage should begin where one also starts their faith journey (Christians receive the sacrament of baptism in church in the presence of their congregation). Catholic weddings must "take place in a church building" as holy matrimony is a sacrament; sacraments normatively occur in the presence of Christ in the house of God, and "members of the faith community [should be] present to witness the event and provide support and encouragement for those celebrating the sacrament". While the voice of God had said, "I hate divorce", some authorities believe the divorce rate in the church is nearly comparable to that of the culture at large. The Catholic Church official doctrine is that divorce is immoral with the exception of its use to protect one or more spouses with the understanding that civil divorce is not an actual divorce in the eyes of God. Christians today hold three competing views as to what is the biblically ordained relationship between husband and wife. These views range from Christian egalitarianism that interprets the New Testament as teaching complete equality of authority and responsibility between the man and woman in marriage, all the way to Patriarchy that calls for a "return to complete patriarchy" in which relationships are based on male-dominant power and authority in marriage: According to this principle, there can be no moral or theological justification for permanently granting or denying status, privilege, or prerogative solely on the basis of a person's race, class, or gender. This proof text is typically used for the egalitarian view but misses the Greek text is addressing “you,” second person plural, so application to individuals is a common whole-part fallacy when reading Galatians. 2. Christian Complementarians prescribe husband-headship—a male-led hierarchy. This view's core beliefs call for a husband's "loving, humble headship" and the wife's "intelligent, willing submission" to his headship. They believe women have "different but complementary roles and responsibilities in marriage". This view holds to Genesis 1 that men and women are made in equal dignity yet also emphasizes relational distinctions via St. Paul’s teaching that marriage signifies the unity between Christ and his bride the Church, which entails the man is to be like Christ and the woman is to be like the Church. 3. Biblical patriarchy prescribes a strict male-dominant hierarchy. A very strong view makes the husband the ruler over his wife and his household. Their organization's first tenet is that "God reveals Himself as masculine, not feminine. God is the eternal Father and the eternal Son, the Holy Spirit is also addressed as He, and Jesus Christ is a male". They consider the husband-father to be sovereign over his household—the family leader, provider, and protector. They call for a wife to be obedient to her head (her husband) as described in Ephesians 6. One view of this perspective leads to a domination of head over body, male over female. If it is accompanied with equal revelation of the earth described as mother in Wisdom literature, the Church as a she (ecclesia), etc then a second version of this view is the patriarchal-matriarchal view which emphasizes equal dignity, asymmetrical complimentary, each aiming at virtue cultivation, but maintaining the essential head-body metaphor St Paul uses. Some Christian authorities permit the practice polygamy (specifically polygyny), but this practice, besides being illegal in Western cultures, is now considered to be out of the Christian mainstream in most parts of the globe; the Lutheran World Federation hosted a regional conference in Africa, in which the acceptance of polygamists and their wives into full membership by the Lutheran Church in Liberia was defended as being permissible. While the Lutheran Church in Liberia permits men to retain their wives if they married them prior to being received into the Church, it does not permit polygamists who have become Christians to marry more wives after they have received the sacrament of Holy Baptism. ===Family authority and responsibilities=== Much of the dispute hinges on how one interprets the New Testament household code (Haustafel), a term coined by Martin Luther, which has as its main focus hierarchical relationships between three pairs of social classes that were controlled by Roman law: husbands/wives, parents/children, and masters/slaves. The apostolic teachings, with variations, that constitute what has been termed the "household code" occurs in four epistles (letters) by the Apostle Paul and in 1 Peter. In the early Roman Republic, long before the time of Christ, the law of manus along with the concept of patria potestas (rule of the fathers), gave the husband nearly absolute autocratic power over his wife, children, and slaves, including the power of life and death. In practice, the extreme form of this right was seldom exercised, and it was eventually limited by law. Theologian Frank Stagg finds the basic tenets of the code in Aristotle's discussion of the household in Book 1 of Politics and in Philo's Hypothetica 7.14. Serious study of the New Testament Household Code (Haustafel) began with Martin Dilbelius in 1913, with a wide range of studies since then. In a Tübingen dissertation, by James E. Crouch concludes that the early Christians found in Hellenistic Judaism a code which they adapted and Christianized. The Staggs believe the several occurrences of the New Testament household code in the Bible were intended to meet the needs for order within the churches and in the society of the day. They maintain that the New Testament household code is an attempt by Paul and Peter to Christianize the concept of family relationships for Roman citizens who had become followers of Christ. The Staggs write that there is some suggestion in scripture that because Paul had taught that they had newly found freedom "in Christ", wives, children, and slaves were taking improper advantage of the Haustafel both in the home and the church. "The form of the code stressing reciprocal social duties is traced to Judaism's own Oriental background, with its strong moral/ethical demand but also with a low view of woman.... At bottom is probably to be seen the perennial tension between freedom and order.... What mattered to (Paul) was 'a new creation' and 'in Christ' there is 'not any Jew not Greek, not any slave nor free, not any male and female'. Other Egalitarian authors such as Margaret Howe agree with Kroeger, writing that "The word 'head' must be understood not as 'ruler' but as 'source. Wayne Grudem criticizes commonly rendering kephalē in those same passages only to mean "source", and argues that it denotes "authoritative head" in such texts as Corinthians 11. They interpret that verse to mean that God the Father is the authoritative head over the Son, and in turn Jesus is the authoritative head over the church, not simply its source. By extension, they then conclude that in marriage and in the church, the man is the authoritative head over the woman. Another potential way to define the word "head", and hence the relationship between husband and wife as found in the Bible, is through the example given in the surrounding context in which the word is found. In that context the husband and wife are compared to Christ and his church. The context seems to imply an authority structure based on a man sacrificing himself for his wife, as Christ did for the church; a love-based authority structure, where submission is not required but freely given based on the care given to the wife. Some biblical references on this subject are debated depending on one's school of theology. The historical grammatical method is a hermeneutic technique that strives to uncover the meaning of the text by taking into account not just the grammatical words, but also the syntactical aspects, the cultural and historical background, and the literary genre. Thus references to a patriarchal Biblical culture may or may not be relevant to other societies. What is believed to be a timeless truth to one person or denomination may be considered a cultural norm or minor opinion to another. === Egalitarian view === Christian Egalitarians (from the French word "égal" meaning "equal") believe that Christian marriage is intended to be a marriage without any hierarchy—a full and equal partnership between the wife and husband. They emphasize that nowhere in the New Testament is there a requirement for a wife to obey her husband. While "obey" was introduced into marriage vows for much of the church during the Middle Ages, its only New Testament support is found in Peter 3, with that only being by implication from Sarah's obedience to Abraham. Christian Egalitarians interpret scripture to mean that God intended spouses to practice mutual submission, each in equality with the other. The phrase "mutual submission" comes from a verse in Ephesians 5 which precedes advice for the three domestic relationships of the day, including slavery. It reads, "Submit to one another ('mutual submission') out of reverence for Christ", wives to husbands, children to parents, and slaves to their master. Christian Egalitarians believe that full partnership in marriage is the most biblical view, producing the most intimate, wholesome, and reciprocally fulfilling marriages. The Christian Egalitarian view of marriage asserts that gender, in and of itself, neither privileges nor curtails a believer's gifting or calling to any ministry in the church or home. It does not imply that women and men are identical or undifferentiated, but affirms that God designed men and women to complement and benefit one another. A foundational belief of Christian Egalitarians is that the husband and wife are created equally and are ordained of God to "become one", a biblical principle first ordained by God in Genesis 2, reaffirmed by Jesus in Matthew 19 and Mark 10, and by the Apostle Paul in Ephesians 5. Therefore, they see that "oneness" as pointing to gender equality in marriage. They believe the biblical model for Christian marriages is therefore for the spouses to share equal responsibility within the family—not one over the other nor one under the other. David Dykes, theologian, author, and pastor of a 15,000-member Baptist church, sermonized that "When you are in Christ, you have full equality with all other believers". In a sermon he entitled "The Ground Is Level at the Foot of the Cross", he said that some theologians have called one particular Bible verse the Christian Magna Carta. The Bible verse reads: "There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus." Acknowledging the differences between men and women, Dykes writes that "in Christ, these differences don't define who we are. The only category that really matters in the world is whether you are in Christ. At the cross, Jesus destroyed all the made-made barriers of hostility:" ethnicity, social status, and gender. Those of the egalitarian persuasion point to the biblical instruction that all Christian believers, irrespective of gender, are to submit or be subject "to one another in the fear of God" or "out of reverence for Christ". Gilbert Bilezikian writes that in the highly debated Ephesians 5 passage, the verb "to be subject" or "to be submitted" appears in verse 21 which he describes as serving as a "hinge" between two different sections. The first section consists of verses 18–20, verse 21 is the connection between the two, and the second section consists of verses 22–33. When discussion begins at verse 22 in Ephesians 5, Paul appears to be reaffirming a chain of command principle within the family. However, Advocates of Christian egalitarianism believe that this model has firm biblical support: The word translated "help" or "helper" in Genesis 2 until quite recently was generally understood to subordinate a wife to her husband. The KJV translates it as God saying, "I will make a help meet for him". The first distortion was extrabiblical: the noun "help" and the adjective "meet" traditionally have been combined into a new noun, "helpmate". Thus, wives were often referred to as her husband's "helpmate". Next, from the word "help" were drawn inferences of authority/subjection distinctions between men and women. "Helper" was taken to mean that husband was boss and wife his domestic. It is now realized that of the 21 times the Hebrew word 'ezer is used in the Old Testament, in eight of those instances the term clearly means "savior"—another word for Jehovah God. For example, Psalm 33 says "the Lord...is our help ('ezer) and shield". Psalm 121 reads "I lift up my eyes to the mountains—where does my help ('ezer) come from? My help ('ezer) comes from the Lord, the Maker of heaven and earth." That Hebrew word is not used in the Bible with reference to any subordinate person such a servant. The "two becoming one" concept, first cited in Genesis 2, was quoted by Jesus in his teachings on marriage and recorded almost identically in the gospels of both Matthew and Mark. In those passages Jesus reemphasized the concept by adding a divine postscript to the Genesis passage: "So, they are no longer two, but one" (NIV). The Apostle Paul also quoted the Genesis 2:24 passage in Ephesians 5 Then Paul states that every husband must love his wife as he loves himself. Jesus actually forbids any hierarchy of relationships in Christian relationships. All three synoptic gospels record virtually the same teaching of Jesus, adding to its apparent significance: The Apostle Paul calls on husbands and wives to be subject to each other out of reverence for Christ—mutual submission. As persons, husband and wife are of equal value. There is no priority of one spouse over the other. In truth, they are one. and recorded in Galatians 3, applies to all Christian relationships, including Christian marriage: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female: for you are all one in Christ Jesus." The Apostle Peter calls husbands and wives "joint heirs of the grace of life" and cautions a husband who is not considerate to his wife and does not treat her with respect that his prayers will be hindered. Each of the six times Aquila and his wife Priscilla are mentioned by name in the New Testament, they are listed together. Their order of appearance alternates, with Aquila mentioned first in the first, third and fifth mentions, and Priscilla (Prisca) first in the other three. Some revisions of the Bible put Priscilla first, instead of Aquila, in Acts 18:26, following the Vulgate and a few Greek texts. Some scholars suggest that Priscilla was the head of the family unit. Among spouses, it is possible to submit without love, but it is impossible to love without submitting mutually to each other. The egalitarian paradigm leaves it up to the couple to decide who is responsible for what task or function in the home. Such decisions should be made rationally and wisely, not based on gender or tradition. Examples of a couple's decision logic might include: which spouse is more competent for a particular task or function; which has better access to it; or if they decide both are similarly competent and have comparable access, they might make the decision based on who prefers that function or task, or conversely, which of them dislikes it less than the other. The egalitarian view holds that decisions about managing family responsibilities are made rationally through cooperation and negotiation, not on the basis of tradition (e.g., "man's work" or "woman's" work), nor any other irrelevant or irrational basis. === Complementarian view === Complementarians hold to a hierarchical structure between husband and wife. They believe men and women have different gender-specific roles that allow each to complement the other, hence the designation "Complementarians". The Complementarian view of marriage holds that while the husband and wife are of equal worth before God, husbands and wives are given different functions and responsibilities by God that are based on gender, and that male leadership is biblically ordained so that the husband is always the senior authority figure. They state they "observe with deep concern" "accompanying distortions or neglect of the glad harmony portrayed in Scripture between the intelligent, humble leadership of redeemed husbands and the loving, willing support of that leadership by redeemed wives". They believe "the Bible presents a clear chain of authority—above all authority and power is God; God is the head of Christ. Then in descending order, Christ is the head of man, man is the head of woman, and parents are the head of their children." Complementarians teach that God intended men to lead their wives as "heads" of the family. Wayne Grudem, in an article that interprets the "mutual submission" of Ephesians 5 as being hierarchical, writes that it means "being considerate of one another, and caring for one another’s needs, and being thoughtful of one another, and sacrificing for one another." Scriptures such as 1 Corinthians 11:3: "But I would have you know, that the head of every man is Christ; and the head of the woman is the man; and the head of Christ is God", (KJV) is understood as meaning the wife is to be subject to her husband, if not unconditionally. According to Complementarian authors John Piper, Wayne Grudem, and others, historically, but to a significantly lesser extent in most of Christianity today, the predominant position in both Catholicism and conservative Protestantism places the male as the "head" in the home and in the church. They hold that women are commanded to be in subjection to male leadership, with a wife being obedient to her head (husband), based upon Old Testament precepts and principles. This view holds that, "God has created men and women equal in their essential dignity and human personhood, but different and complementary in function with male headship in the home and in the Church." Grudem also acknowledges exceptions to the submission of wives to husbands where moral issues are involved. Rather than unconditional obedience, Complementarian authors such as Piper and Grudem are careful to caution that a wife's submission should never cause her to "follow her husband into sin." Roman Catholic Church teaching on the role of women includes that of Pope Leo XIII in his 1880 encyclical Arcanum which states: Though each of their churches is autonomous and self-governed, the official position of the Southern Baptist Convention (the largest Protestant denomination in the United States) is: ===Biblical patriarchy=== The patriarchal model of marriage is clearly the oldest one. It characterized the theological understanding of most Old Testament writers. It mandates the supremacy, at times the ultimate domination, of the husband-father in the family. In the first century Roman Empire, in the time of Jesus, Paul, and Peter, it was the law of the land and gave the husband absolute authority over his wife, children, and slaves—even the power of life or death. It subordinates all women. Biblical patriarchy is similar to Complementarianism but with differences of degree and emphasis. Biblical patriarchists carry the husband-headship model considerably further and with more militancy. While Complementarians also hold to exclusively male leadership in both the home and the church, Biblical patriarchy extends that exclusion to the civic sphere as well, so that women should not be civil leaders and indeed should not have careers outside the home. Patriarchy is based on authoritarianism—complete obedience or subjection to male authority as opposed to individual freedom. Patriarchy gives preeminence to the male in essentially all matters of religion and culture. It explicitly deprives all women of social, political, and economic rights. The marriage relationship simply reinforced this dominance of women by men, providing religious, cultural, and legal structures that clearly favor patriarchy to the exclusion of even basic human dignity for wives. Historically in classical patriarchy, the wives and children were always legally dependent upon the father, as were the slaves and other servants. It was the way of life throughout most of the Old Testament, religiously, legally, and culturally. However, it was not unique to Hebrew thought. With only minor variations, it characterized virtually every pagan culture of that day—including all Pre-Christian doctrine and practice. Biblical patriarchists see what they describe as a crisis of this era being what they term to be a systematic attack on the "timeless truths of biblical patriarchy". They believe such an attack includes the movement to "subvert the biblical model of the family, and redefine the very meaning of fatherhood and motherhood, masculinity, femininity, and the parent and child relationship." The patriarchists teach that "the woman was created as a helper to her husband, as the bearer of children, and as a "keeper at home", concluding that the God-ordained and proper sphere of dominion for a wife is the household. Biblical patriarchists consider that "faithfulness to Christ requires that (Biblical patriarchy) be believed, taught, and lived". They claim that the "man is...the image and glory of God in terms of authority, while the woman is the glory of man". They teach that a wife is to be obedient to her "head" (husband), based upon Old Testament teachings and models. === Other views === See Christian feminism	[ "priesthood (Mormonism)", "Catholic Church", "parental guardian", "United Church of Canada", "Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland", "Christian feminism", "Grand duke", "Church of Norway", "theology", "Evangelical Church of Hesse Electorate-Waldeck", "Aquila and Priscilla", "Evelyn Stagg", "Women in Christianity", "monastic vows", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Covenant (religion)", "fornication", "Divine Liturgy", "Schism (religion)", "heaven", "Kenya", "New Testament Household Code", "synoptic gospels", "polygyny", "Church of Sweden", "Warsaw", "stole (vestment)", "Sacred Tradition", "William Barclay (theologian)", "Anglican Church of Canada", "Anglican Episcopal Church of Brazil", "Crown (headgear)", "Western Europe", "Evangelical Church of Westphalia", "mainline Protestant", "Eternal life (Christianity)", "martyr", "marriage license", "United Methodist Church", "Anglican Church of South America", "church (building)", "Jehovah's Witnesses", "Christian views of women", "Christian egalitarianism", "Christian views on birth control", "Sacred mysteries", "Jerome", "Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection", "natural marriage", "Church of Nigeria", "Aristotle", "Protestant Church in Baden", "Southern Baptist Convention", "Methodism", "United Protestant Church in Belgium", "prophet", "Saint Paul", "Sanhedrin", "Syro-Malabar Catholic Church", "Politics (Aristotle)", "Israel", "Episcopal Church (United States)", "Israelites", "Evangelical Lutheran Church in Oldenburg", "Adam Clarke", "Christian marriage", "kings of Israel", "natural family planning", "New York City", "ordination", "Sacraments of the Catholic Church", "graded absolutism", "Christianity in the 9th century", "New Covenant", "The New Church", "Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers", "Evangelical Lutheran Church of Hanover", "cousin marriage", "Patriarchy", "Oriental Orthodoxy", "Evangelical Reformed Church in Bavaria and Northwestern Germany", "Slavery", "Jesus in Christianity", "Ilya Repin", "Labarum", "divorce", "Protestant Church of Geneva", "Covenant (Latter Day Saints)", "Christian Egalitarianism", "Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada", "nissuin", "Baptism", "Chalcedonian Christianity", "Lutheran World Federation", "Eucharist", "Paul the Apostle and women", "Baptist Convention of Nicaragua", "Body of Christ", "Rho (letter)", "Kingdom of God", "Biblical hermeneutics", "Paulist Press", "Christians", "exaltation (Latter Day Saints)", "Polish people", "Church of Scotland", "Pre-Islamic Arabia", "marriageable age", "Saint Petersburg", "Unitarianism", "afterlife", "Reformation", "Martin Luther", "Catherine Kroeger", "Early Christianity", "The Local", "John Gill (theologian)", "Betrothal", "Monogamy in Christianity", "Metropolitan Museum of Art", "Tübingen", "erusin", "Alexandra Fyodorovna (Alix of Hesse)", "New Testament household code", "clergy", "Rebecca", "Divine grace", "Catholic Answers", "Polygyny", "holy orders", "Eschatology", "pilgrimage", "the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Early church", "Holy Communion", "Historical-grammatical method", "Matthew Henry", "Protestantism", "Emanuel Swedenborg", "Christian denominations", "God the Son", "coverture", "Presbyterian Church (USA)", "World to Come", "Wedding at Cana", "Coptic Orthodox Church", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Antonio", "women", "Lord's Day", "The Globe and Mail", "Gender roles in Christianity", "John Piper (theologian)", "United Church of Christ", "Evangelical Church in the Rhineland", "Evangelical Church in Germany", "Philo", "Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood", "Complementarianism", "Frank Stagg (theologian)", "Gospel Principles", "Global Anglican Future Conference", "baptism", "Metropolitan Community Church", "Heresy", "Evangelical Lutheran Church in Brunswick", "bride price", "Sealing (Mormonism)", "Evangelical Reformed Church of the Canton of Zürich", "Interfaith marriage", "Roman Republic", "Albert Barnes (theologian)", "Council of Trent", "Pauline privilege", "Church Fathers", "Old Testament", "Church of Lippe", "Mennonites in the Netherlands", "Wayne Grudem", "celibacy", "Church (congregation)", "Interfaith marriage in Christianity", "Handbook (LDS Church)", "monasticism", "Biblical patriarchy", "sin", "Church of Iceland", "The Watchtower", "Reformed Church of Aargau", "Methodist Church of Great Britain", "First Corinthians", "Protestant", "remarriage", "Polygamy in Christianity", "Quiverfull", "God in Christianity", "miaphysitism", "Albanians", "celestial marriage", "Isaiah", "Tanzania", "God the Father", "angels", "anthropologist", "in vitro fertilization", "virginity", "Catholic Diocese of the Old Catholics in Germany", "Reformed Church in America", "Marriage in the Catholic Church", "Scottish Episcopal Church", "Italy", "New Testament household codes", "First Presidency (LDS Church)", "Dale Martin (scholar)", "sacrament", "Gilbert Bilezikian", "contraception", "Affirming Pentecostal Church International", "civil marriage", "Methodist", "deacon", "Christian views on divorce", "men", "icon", "biblical patriarchs", "Cyprian", "Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia", "house church", "TheGuardian.com", "Unity Church", "Protestant Church in Hesse and Nassau", "Manus marriage", "United Protestant Church of France", "wikt:congregation", "Temple (LDS Church)", "Armia Krajowa", "Quakers", "Russian Museum", "Minister (Christianity)", "John Chrysostom", "Pope Paul VI", "Amalfi", "Salem, Ohio", "William Robertson Smith", "Apostle Paul", "Evangelical Church in Berlin, Brandenburg and Silesian Upper Lusatia", "Confirmation", "same-sex marriage", "niello", "Christian Church", "Christian liturgy", "Evangelical Lutheran Church of America", "Sacred Mysteries", "Holy Spirit in Christianity", "Evangelical Church of Bremen", "Protestant Church of the Palatinate", "Magna Carta", "Thessaloniki", "Sarah Sumner", "God in Mormonism", "gender equality", "Evangelical Lutheran Church in Bavaria", "Galatians 3:28", "Tertullian", "interdenominational marriage", "Pharisees", "Neoplatonism", "Deceased Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907", "Buddhist view of marriage", "God", "Pater familias", "conversion to Christianity", "Chi (letter)", "Free Methodist Church", "disparity of cult", "United Reformed Church", "Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany", "Christian fundamentalism", "bishop", "birth control", "liturgy", "The United Methodist Church", "priest", "Priest", "Annulment (Catholic Church)", "Manichaean", "Quaker wedding", "Christian theology", "priesthood (Catholic Church)", "Protestant Church in the Netherlands", "Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists", "parish", "Church of Denmark", "Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood", "Italo-Greek Catholic Church", "Louvre", "Federation of Swiss Protestant Churches", "Roman Catholic Church", "secularity", "Augustine", "Wedding", "Evangelical Methodist Church Conference", "Civil marriage" ]
7,392	Class (computer programming)	In object-oriented programming, a class defines the shared aspects of objects created from the class. The capabilities of a class differ between programming languages, but generally the shared aspects consist of state (variables) and behavior (methods) that are each either associated with a particular object or with all objects of that class. Object state can differ between each instance of the class whereas the class state is shared by all of them. The object methods include access to the object state (via an implicit or explicit parameter that references the object) whereas class methods do not. If the language supports inheritance, a class can be defined based on another class with all of its state and behavior plus additional state and behavior that further specializes the class. The specialized class is a sub-class, and the class it is based on is its superclass. ==Attributes== ===Object lifecycle=== As an instance of a class, an object is constructed from a class via instantiation. Memory is allocated and initialized for the object state and a reference to the object is provided to consuming code. The object is usable until it is destroyed its state memory is de-allocated. Most languages allow for custom logic at lifecycle events via a constructor and a destructor. ===Type=== An object expresses data type as an interface the type of each member variable and the signature of each member function (method). A class defines an implementation of an interface, and instantiating the class results in an object that exposes the implementation via the interface. In the terms of type theory, a class is an implementationa concrete data structure and collection of subroutineswhile a type is an interface. Different (concrete) classes can produce objects of the same (abstract) type (depending on type system). For example, the type (interface) might be implemented by that is fast for small stacks but scales poorly and that scales well but has high overhead for small stacks. === Structure === A class contains data field descriptions (or properties, fields, data members, or attributes). These are usually field types and names that will be associated with state variables at program run time; these state variables either belong to the class or specific instances of the class. In most languages, the structure defined by the class determines the layout of the memory used by its instances. Other implementations are possible: for example, objects in Python use associative key-value containers. Some programming languages such as Eiffel support specification of invariants as part of the definition of the class, and enforce them through the type system. Encapsulation of state is necessary for being able to enforce the invariants of the class. === Behavior === The behavior of a class or its instances is defined using methods. Methods are subroutines with the ability to operate on objects or classes. These operations may alter the state of an object or simply provide ways of accessing it. Many kinds of methods exist, but support for them varies across languages. Some types of methods are created and called by programmer code, while other special methods—such as constructors, destructors, and conversion operators—are created and called by compiler-generated code. A language may also allow the programmer to define and call these special methods. === Class interface === Every class implements (or realizes) an interface by providing structure and behavior. Structure consists of data and state, and behavior consists of code that specifies how methods are implemented. There is a distinction between the definition of an interface and the implementation of that interface; however, this line is blurred in many programming languages because class declarations both define and implement an interface. Some languages, however, provide features that separate interface and implementation. For example, an abstract class can define an interface without providing an implementation. Languages that support class inheritance also allow classes to inherit interfaces from the classes that they are derived from. For example, if "class A" inherits from "class B" and if "class B" implements the interface "interface B" then "class A" also inherits the functionality(constants and methods declaration) provided by "interface B". In languages that support access specifiers, the interface of a class is considered to be the set of public members of the class, including both methods and attributes (via implicit getter and setter methods); any private members or internal data structures are not intended to be depended on by external code and thus are not part of the interface. Object-oriented programming methodology dictates that the operations of any interface of a class are to be independent of each other. It results in a layered design where clients of an interface use the methods declared in the interface. An interface places no requirements for clients to invoke the operations of one interface in any particular order. This approach has the benefit that client code can assume that the operations of an interface are available for use whenever the client has access to the object. Class interface example The buttons on the front of your television set are the interface between you and the electrical wiring on the other side of its plastic casing. You press the "power" button to toggle the television on and off. In this example, your particular television is the instance, each method is represented by a button, and all the buttons together compose the interface (other television sets that are the same model as yours would have the same interface). In its most common form, an interface is a specification of a group of related methods without any associated implementation of the methods. A television set also has a myriad of attributes, such as size and whether it supports color, which together comprise its structure. A class represents the full description of a television, including its attributes (structure) and buttons (interface). Getting the total number of televisions manufactured could be a static method of the television class. This method is associated with the class, yet is outside the domain of each instance of the class. A static method that finds a particular instance out of the set of all television objects is another example. === Member accessibility === The following is a common set of access specifiers: Private (or class-private) restricts access to the class itself. Only methods that are part of the same class can access private members. Protected (or class-protected) allows the class itself and all its subclasses to access the member. Public means that any code can access the member by its name. Although many object-oriented languages support the above access specifiers,their semantics may differ. Object-oriented design uses the access specifiers in conjunction with careful design of public method implementations to enforce class invariants—constraints on the state of the objects. A common usage of access specifiers is to separate the internal data of a class from its interface: the internal structure is made private, while public accessor methods can be used to inspect or alter such private data. Access specifiers do not necessarily control visibility, in that even private members may be visible to client external code. In some languages, an inaccessible but visible member may be referred to at runtime (for example, by a pointer returned from a member function), but an attempt to use it by referring to the name of the member from the client code will be prevented by the type checker. The various object-oriented programming languages enforce member accessibility and visibility to various degrees, and depending on the language's type system and compilation policies, enforced at either compile time or runtime. For example, the Java language does not allow client code that accesses the private data of a class to compile. In the C++ language, private methods are visible, but not accessible in the interface; however, they may be made invisible by explicitly declaring fully abstract classes that represent the interfaces of the class. Some languages feature other accessibility schemes: Instance vs. class accessibility: Ruby supports instance-private and instance-protected access specifiers in lieu of class-private and class-protected, respectively. They differ in that they restrict access based on the instance itself, rather than the instance's class. Friend: C++ supports a mechanism where a function explicitly declared as a friend function of the class may access the members designated as private or protected. Path-based: Java supports restricting access to a member within a Java package, which is the logical path of the file. However, it is a common practice when extending a Java framework to implement classes in the same package as a framework class to access protected members. The source file may exist in a completely different location, and may be deployed to a different .jar file, yet still be in the same logical path as far as the JVM is concerned. One important question when modeling and implementing a system of object classes is whether a class can have one or more superclasses. In the real world with actual sets, it would be rare to find sets that did not intersect with more than one other set. However, while some systems such as Flavors and CLOS provide a capability for more than one parent to do so at run time introduces complexity that many in the object-oriented community consider antithetical to the goals of using object classes in the first place. Understanding which class will be responsible for handling a message can get complex when dealing with more than one superclass. If used carelessly this feature can introduce some of the same system complexity and ambiguity classes were designed to avoid. Most modern object-oriented languages such as Smalltalk and Java require single inheritance at run time. For these languages, multiple inheritance may be useful for modeling but not for an implementation. However, semantic web application objects do have multiple superclasses. The volatility of the Internet requires this level of flexibility and the technology standards such as the Web Ontology Language (OWL) are designed to support it. A similar issue is whether or not the class hierarchy can be modified at run time. Languages such as Flavors, CLOS, and Smalltalk all support this feature as part of their meta-object protocols. Since classes are themselves first-class objects, it is possible to have them dynamically alter their structure by sending them the appropriate messages. Other languages that focus more on strong typing such as Java and C++ do not allow the class hierarchy to be modified at run time. Semantic web objects have the capability for run time changes to classes. The rationale is similar to the justification for allowing multiple superclasses, that the Internet is so dynamic and flexible that dynamic changes to the hierarchy are required to manage this volatility. Although many class-based languages support inheritance, inheritance is not an intrinsic aspect of classes. An object-based language (i.e. Classic Visual Basic) supports classes yet does not support inheritance. == Inter-class relationships == A programming language may support various class relationship features. === Compositional === Classes can be composed of other classes, thereby establishing a compositional relationship between the enclosing class and its embedded classes. Compositional relationship between classes is also commonly known as a has-a relationship. For example, a class "Car" could be composed of and contain a class "Engine". Therefore, a Car has an Engine. One aspect of composition is containment, which is the enclosure of component instances by the instance that has them. If an enclosing object contains component instances by value, the components and their enclosing object have a similar lifetime. If the components are contained by reference, they may not have a similar lifetime. For example, in Objective-C 2.0: @interface Car : NSObject @property NSString name; @property Engine engine @property NSArray tires; @end This class has an instance of (a string object), , and (an array object). === Hierarchical === Classes can be derived from one or more existing classes, thereby establishing a hierarchical relationship between the derived-from classes (base classes, parent classes or ) and the derived class (child class or subclass) . The relationship of the derived class to the derived-from classes is commonly known as an is-a relationship. For example, a class 'Button' could be derived from a class 'Control'. Therefore, a Button is a Control. Structural and behavioral members of the parent classes are inherited by the child class. Derived classes can define additional structural members (data fields) and behavioral members (methods) in addition to those that they inherit and are therefore specializations of their superclasses. Also, derived classes can override inherited methods if the language allows. Not all languages support multiple inheritance. For example, Java allows a class to implement multiple interfaces, but only inherit from one class. If multiple inheritance is allowed, the hierarchy is a directed acyclic graph (or DAG for short), otherwise it is a tree. The hierarchy has classes as nodes and inheritance relationships as links. Classes in the same level are more likely to be associated than classes in different levels. The levels of this hierarchy are called layers or levels of abstraction. Example (Simplified Objective-C 2.0 code, from iPhone SDK): @interface UIResponder : NSObject //... @interface UIView : UIResponder //... @interface UIScrollView : UIView //... @interface UITableView : UIScrollView //... In this example, a UITableView is a UIScrollView is a UIView is a UIResponder is an NSObject. ===Modeling=== In object-oriented analysis and in Unified Modelling Language (UML), an association between two classes represents a collaboration between the classes or their corresponding instances. Associations have direction; for example, a bi-directional association between two classes indicates that both of the classes are aware of their relationship. Associations may be labeled according to their name or purpose. An association role is given end of an association and describes the role of the corresponding class. For example, a "subscriber" role describes the way instances of the class "Person" participate in a "subscribes-to" association with the class "Magazine". Also, a "Magazine" has the "subscribed magazine" role in the same association. Association role multiplicity describes how many instances correspond to each instance of the other class of the association. Common multiplicities are "0..1", "1..1", "1.." and "0..", where the "" specifies any number of instances. Most object-oriented programming languages allow the programmer to specify which classes are considered abstract and will not allow these to be instantiated. For example, in Java, C# and PHP, the keyword abstract is used. In C++, an abstract class is a class having at least one abstract method given by the appropriate syntax in that language (a pure virtual function in C++ parlance). ===Local and inner=== In some languages, classes can be declared in scopes other than the global scope. There are various types of such classes. An inner class is a class defined within another class. The relationship between an inner class and its containing class can also be treated as another type of class association. An inner class is typically neither associated with instances of the enclosing class nor instantiated along with its enclosing class. Depending on the language, it may or may not be possible to refer to the class from outside the enclosing class. A related concept is inner types, also known as inner data type or nested type, which is a generalization of the concept of inner classes. C++ is an example of a language that supports both inner classes and inner types (via typedef declarations). A local class is a class defined within a procedure or function. Such structure limits references to the class name to within the scope where the class is declared. Depending on the semantic rules of the language, there may be additional restrictions on local classes compared to non-local ones. One common restriction is to disallow local class methods to access local variables of the enclosing function. For example, in C++, a local class may refer to static variables declared within its enclosing function, but may not access the function's automatic variables. ===Metaclass=== A metaclass is a class where instances are classes. A metaclass describes a common structure of a collection of classes and can implement a design pattern or describe particular kinds of classes. Metaclasses are often used to describe frameworks. In some languages, such as Python, Ruby or Smalltalk, a class is also an object; thus each class is an instance of a unique metaclass that is built into the language. The Common Lisp Object System (CLOS) provides metaobject protocols (MOPs) to implement those classes and metaclasses. ===Sealed=== A sealed class cannot be subclassed. It is basically the opposite of an abstract class, which must be derived to be used. A sealed class is implicitly concrete. A class declared as sealed via the keyword in C# or in Java or PHP. For example, Java's class is marked as final. Sealed classes may allow a compiler to perform optimizations that are not available for classes that can be subclassed. ===Open=== An open class can be changed. Typically, an executable program cannot be changed by customers. Developers can often change some classes, but typically cannot change standard or built-in ones. In Ruby, all classes are open. In Python, classes can be created at runtime, and all can be modified afterward. Objective-C categories permit the programmer to add methods to an existing class without the need to recompile that class or even have access to its source code. ===Mixin=== Some languages have special support for mixins, though, in any language with multiple inheritance, a mixin is simply a class that does not represent an is-a-type-of relationship. Mixins are typically used to add the same methods to multiple classes; for example, a class might provide a method called when included in classes and that do not share a common parent. ===Partial=== In languages supporting the feature, a partial class is a class whose definition may be split into multiple pieces, within a single source-code file or across multiple files. The pieces are merged at compile time, making compiler output the same as for a non-partial class. The primary motivation for the introduction of partial classes is to facilitate the implementation of code generators, such as visual designers. Other benefits and effects of the partial class feature include: Enables separation of a class's interface and implementation code in a unique way. Eases navigation through large classes within an editor. Enables separation of concerns, in a way similar to aspect-oriented programming but without using any extra tools. Enables multiple developers to work on a single class concurrently without the need to merge individual code into one file at a later time. Partial classes have existed in Smalltalk under the name of Class Extensions for considerable time. With the arrival of the .NET framework 2, Microsoft introduced partial classes, supported in both C# 2.0 and Visual Basic 2005. WinRT also supports partial classes. ===Uninstantiable=== Uninstantiable classes allow programmers to group together per-class fields and methods that are accessible at runtime without an instance of the class. Indeed, instantiation is prohibited for this kind of class. For example, in C#, a class marked "static" can not be instantiated, can only have static members (fields, methods, other), may not have instance constructors, and is sealed. ===Unnamed=== An unnamed class or anonymous class is not bound to a name or identifier upon definition. This is analogous to named versus unnamed functions. == Benefits == The benefits of organizing software into object classes fall into three categories: Rapid development Ease of maintenance Reuse of code and designs Object classes facilitate rapid development because they lessen the semantic gap between the code and the users. System analysts can talk to both developers and users using essentially the same vocabulary, talking about accounts, customers, bills, etc. Object classes often facilitate rapid development because most object-oriented environments come with powerful debugging and testing tools. Instances of classes can be inspected at run time to verify that the system is performing as expected. Also, rather than get dumps of core memory, most object-oriented environments have interpreted debugging capabilities so that the developer can analyze exactly where in the program the error occurred and can see which methods were called to which arguments and with what arguments. Object classes facilitate ease of maintenance via encapsulation. When developers need to change the behavior of an object they can localize the change to just that object and its component parts. This reduces the potential for unwanted side effects from maintenance enhancements. Software reuse is also a major benefit of using Object classes. Classes facilitate re-use via inheritance and interfaces. When a new behavior is required it can often be achieved by creating a new class and having that class inherit the default behaviors and data of its superclass and then tailoring some aspect of the behavior or data accordingly. Re-use via interfaces (also known as methods) occurs when another object wants to invoke (rather than create a new kind of) some object class. This method for re-use removes many of the common errors that can make their way into software when one program re-uses code from another. == Runtime representation == As a data type, a class is usually considered as a compile time construct. A language or library may also support prototype or factory metaobjects that represent runtime information about classes, or even represent metadata that provides access to reflective programming (reflection) facilities and ability to manipulate data structure formats at runtime. Many languages distinguish this kind of run-time type information about classes from a class on the basis that the information is not needed at runtime. Some dynamic languages do not make strict distinctions between runtime and compile time constructs, and therefore may not distinguish between metaobjects and classes. For example, if Human is a metaobject representing the class Person, then instances of class Person can be created by using the facilities of the Human metaobject. ==Prototype-based programming== In contrast to creating an object from a class, some programming contexts support object creation by copying (cloning) a prototype object.	[ "Java (programming language)", "Variable (computer science)", "IBM", "Interface (Java)", "separation of concerns", "class invariant", "Automatic programming", "attribute (computing)", "type system", "Inheritance (object-oriented programming)", "Java syntax", "design pattern (computer science)", "W3C", "static variable", "Data (computing)", "subroutine", "Ruby (programming language)", "Classic Visual Basic", "Metaobject", "C++", "Common Lisp Object System", "Instance (computer science)", "C Sharp (programming language)", "object-based language", "precompilation", "directed acyclic graph", "multiple inheritance", "anonymous function", "run-time type information", "programming language", "Runtime (program lifecycle phase)", "Object lifetime", "Object (computer science)", "executable program", "access specifiers", "WinRT", "metaobject", ".NET Framework", "dynamic dispatch", "compile time", "Layer (object-oriented design)", "field (computer science)", "Visual Basic .NET", "Smalltalk", "Override (object-oriented programming)", "Microsoft", "string (computer science)", "Subset", "Association (object-oriented programming)", "member function", "object-oriented programming", "Unified Modeling Language", "object-oriented modeling", "Unified Modelling Language", "Prototype-based programming", "Reference (computer science)", "Objective-C", "method overriding", "abstract method", "visual designer", "aspect-oriented programming", "inner class", "automatic variable", "data structure", "PHP", "Protocol (object-oriented programming)", "Perl", "has-a", "Python (programming language)", "association (object-oriented programming)", "Constructor (object-oriented programming)", "member variable", "software framework", "friend function", "is-a", "Factory method pattern", "Method (computer programming)", "Polymorphism (computer science)", "tree (graph theory)", "Field (computer science)", "Scope (programming)", "source code editor", "mixin", "meta-object protocol", "Type signature", "prototype-based programming", "accessor method", "Web Ontology Language", "superset", "Destructor (computer programming)", "source code", "Encapsulation (object-oriented programming)", "virtual method", "reflective programming", "data type", "property (programming)", "object-oriented analysis and design", "semantic web", "typedef", "Mutator method" ]
7,394	Canterbury (disambiguation)	Canterbury is a city located in the county of Kent in southeast England. It may also refer to: ==Places== ===Australia=== Canterbury, New South Wales, a suburb of Sydney Electoral district of Canterbury, an electoral district in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly City of Canterbury, New South Wales, a local government area of Sydney Canterbury, Queensland, a small settlement Canterbury, Victoria, a suburb of Melbourne Canterbury railway station, Melbourne ===Canada=== Canterbury, New Brunswick, a community within the village of Lakeland Ridges Canterbury Parish, New Brunswick Canterbury Falls, Ancaster, Ontario Urbandale, Ottawa, a neighbourhood in Ottawa sometimes called Canterbury. ===New Zealand=== Canterbury Region, a region in the South Island of New Zealand Canterbury Province, a former province of New Zealand Canterbury Plains Canterbury Bight, a stretch of coastline ===United Kingdom=== Canterbury (UK Parliament constituency) City of Canterbury, the local government district in Kent Province of Canterbury, one of two ecclesiastical provinces which constitute the Church of England Diocese of Canterbury, a Church of England diocese Oriel Square, formerly Canterbury Square, Oxford ===United States=== Canterbury, Connecticut, a town Canterbury, Delaware, an unincorporated community Canterbury, New Hampshire, a town Canterbury, West Virginia, an unincorporated community ===Elsewhere=== Canterbury, Jamaica, a squatter suburb of Montego Bay Canterbury Spur, Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica 3563 Canterbury, an asteroid ==Schools== Canterbury Christ Church University, Kent, England University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand Canterbury College (disambiguation) Canterbury High School (disambiguation) Canterbury School (disambiguation) Canterbury University (Seychelles), an unaccredited institution ==Music== Canterbury scene, a style of progressive rock that originated in Canterbury, England Canterbury (album), a 1983 album by Diamond Head Canterbury (band), an English alternative rock band ==Ships== Canterbury (ship), the ship which transported William Penn and James Logan from England to Philadelphia in 1699 HMS Canterbury, several ships of the British Royal Navy HMNZS Canterbury (F421), a decommissioned New Zealand Navy frigate HMNZS Canterbury (L421), a multi-role vessel in the New Zealand Navy , a South Eastern and Chatham Railway ferry ==Sports== Canterbury (women's field hockey team), an amateur team in New Zealand Canterbury Golf Club, a golf club in Ohio, US Canterbury Open, a darts tournament in Christchurch, New Zealand Canterbury Park, a horse racing facility in Minnesota, US Canterbury Rugby Football Union, or Canterbury, the governing body for rugby union in a portion of the Canterbury Region of New Zealand Canterbury Stakes, an Australian Thoroughbred horse race Canterbury United Dragons, a men's football team in the New Zealand Football Championship Canterbury United Pride, a football team in the New Zealand National Women's League Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs, an Australian professional rugby league club that plays in the National Rugby League ==People and fictional characters== Chandler Canterbury (born 1998), American child actor and producer Dave Canterbury (born 1963), American survival expert and television personality Mark Canterbury (born 1964), known by the ring name Henry O. Godwinn, American professional wrestler Ray Canterbury (born 1969), American politician Tim Canterbury, a character in the BBC sitcom The Office ==Other uses== Canterbury (furniture), a small piece of furniture made originally to house sheet music Canterbury of New Zealand, or just Canterbury, a UK-based sports clothing company Canterbury Hospital, Campsie, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Kent and Canterbury Hospital, Canterbury, Kent, England Canterbury Hotel, Indianapolis, Indiana, US, on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) Canterbury Presbyterian Church, Cornwall, New York, US, on the NRHP Canterbury Road, North Oxford, England HM Prison Canterbury, a former prison in Canterbury, Kent, England Viscount Canterbury, an extinct title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom Canterbury power station	[ "Canterbury (band)", "Canterbury University (Seychelles)", "Canterbury, New Hampshire", "Canterbury Hotel", "Canterbury Region", "Canterbury Presbyterian Church", "Canterbury Parish, New Brunswick", "HMS Canterbury", "Canterbury (furniture)", "HMNZS Canterbury (F421)", "Canterbury Rugby Football Union", "Canterbury Open", "Canterbury United Dragons", "Canterbury Christ Church University", "Canterbury Province", "Canterbury School (disambiguation)", "HMNZS Canterbury (L421)", "Canterbury scene", "Canterbury Park", "Dave Canterbury", "Mark Canterbury", "Tim Canterbury", "Canterbury, Connecticut", "Canterbury High School (disambiguation)", "Canterbury College (disambiguation)", "Canterbury (UK Parliament constituency)", "Canterbury Stakes", "Canterbury power station", "Canterbury, Jamaica", "Ray Canterbury", "Canterbury, New Brunswick", "Canterbury Plains", "Canterbury United Pride", "Canterbury railway station, Melbourne", "Oriel Square", "3563 Canterbury", "Project Canterbury", "Canterbury, Delaware", "Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs", "Canterbury, New South Wales", "Kent and Canterbury Hospital", "HM Prison Canterbury", "Montego Bay", "Canterbury of New Zealand", "Canterbury", "City of Canterbury", "Canterbury Spur", "Canterbury Road", "Viscount Canterbury", "Diocese of Canterbury", "Urbandale, Ottawa", "National Rugby League", "Electoral district of Canterbury", "Canterbury Bight", "Canterbury Falls", "University of Canterbury", "Province of Canterbury", "Canterbury, Queensland", "Canterbury, West Virginia", "Canterbury (ship)", "Canterbury, Victoria", "Canterbury (women's field hockey team)", "Canterbury Golf Club", "Chandler Canterbury", "City of Canterbury, New South Wales", "Canterbury Hospital", "Canterbury (album)" ]
7,397	Color blindness	{{Infobox medical condition (new) \| name = Color blindness \| synonyms = Color vision deficiency, impaired color vision The condition is more prevalent in males, because the opsin genes responsible are located on the X chromosome. Color blind glasses (e.g. EnChroma) may help the red–green color blind at some color tasks, Some mobile apps can use a device's camera to identify colors. Depending on the jurisdiction, the color blind are ineligible for certain careers, The effect of color blindness on artistic ability is controversial, but a number of famous artists are believed to have been color blind. ==Effects== A color blind person will have decreased (or no) color discrimination along the red–green axis, blue–yellow axis, or both. However, the vast majority of the color blind are only affected on their red–green axis. The first indication of color blindness generally consists of a person using the wrong color for an object, such as when painting, or calling a color by the wrong name. The colors that are confused are very consistent among people with the same type of color blindness. File:Вечір на "інтегралі" - річка Південний Буг.jpg\|Normal sight File:Deuteranopia sight.jpg\|Deuteranopic sight File:Protanopia sight.png\|Protanopic sight File:Tritanopia sight.jpg\|Tritanopic sight File:Monochromacy sight.jpg\|Monochromatic sight ===Confusion colors=== Confusion colors are pairs or groups of colors that will often be mistaken by the color blind. Confusion colors for red–green color blindness include: cyan and grey rose-pink and grey blue and purple yellow and neon green red, green, orange, brown Confusion colors for tritan include: yellow and grey blue and green dark blue/violet and black violet and yellow-green red and rose-pink These colors of confusion are defined quantitatively by straight confusion lines plotted in CIEXYZ, usually plotted on the corresponding chromaticity diagram. The lines all intersect at a copunctal point, which varies with the type of color blindness. Chromaticities along a confusion line will appear metameric to dichromats of that type. Anomalous trichromats of that type will see the chromaticities as metameric if they are close enough, depending on the strength of their CVD. For two colors on a confusion line to be metameric, the chromaticities first have to be made isoluminant, meaning equal in lightness. Also, colors that may be isoluminant to the standard observer may not be isoluminant to a person with dichromacy. ===Color tasks=== Cole describes four color tasks, all of which are impeded to some degree by color blindness: Comparative – When multiple colors must be compared, such as with mixing paint Connotative – When colors are given an implicit meaning, such as red = stop Denotative – When identifying colors, for example by name, such as "where is the yellow ball?" Aesthetic – When colors look nice – or convey an emotional response – but do not carry explicit meaning The following sections describe specific color tasks with which the color blind typically have difficulty. ===Food=== Color blindness causes difficulty with the connotative color tasks associated with selecting or preparing food. Selecting food for ripeness can be difficult; the green–yellow transition of bananas is particularly hard to identify. It can also be difficult to detect bruises, mold, or rot on some foods, to determine when meat is done by color, to distinguish some varietals, such as a Braeburn vs. a Granny Smith apple, or to distinguish colors associated with artificial flavors (e.g. jelly beans, sports drinks). ===Skin color=== Changes in skin color due to bruising, sunburn, rashes or even blushing are easily missed by the red–green color blind. ===Traffic lights=== The colors of traffic lights can be difficult for the red–green color blindness. This difficulty includes distinguishing red/amber lights from sodium street lamps, distinguishing green lights (closer to cyan) from normal white lights, and distinguishing red from amber lights, especially when there are no positional clues available (see image). The main coping mechanism to overcome these challenges is to memorize the position of lights. The order of the common triplet traffic light is standardized as red–amber–green from top to bottom or left to right. Cases that deviate from this standard are rare. One such case is a traffic light in Tipperary Hill in Syracuse, New York, which is upside-down (green–amber–red top to bottom) due to the sentiments of its Irish American community. However, the light has been criticized due to the potential hazard it poses for color blind drivers. There are other several features of traffic lights available that help accommodate the color blind. British Rail signals use more easily identifiable colors: The red is blood red, the amber is yellow and the green is a bluish color. Most British road traffic lights are mounted vertically on a black rectangle with a white border (forming a "sighting board"), so that drivers can more easily look for the position of the light. In the eastern provinces of Canada, traffic lights are sometimes differentiated by shape in addition to color: square for red, diamond for yellow, and circle for green (see image). ===Signal lights=== Navigation lights in marine and aviation settings employ red and green lights to signal the relative position of other ships or aircraft. Railway signal lights also rely heavily on red–green–yellow colors. In both cases, these color combinations can be difficult for the red–green color blind. Lantern Tests are a common means of simulating these light sources to determine not necessarily whether someone is color blind, but whether they can functionally distinguish these specific signal colors. Those who cannot pass this test are generally completely restricted from working on aircraft, ships or rail, for example. ===Fashion=== Color analysis is the analysis of color in its use in fashion, to determine personal color combinations that are most aesthetically pleasing. Colors to combine can include clothing, accessories, makeup, hair color, skin color, eye color, etc. Color analysis involves many aesthetic and comparative color task that can be difficult for the color blind. ===Art=== Inability to distinguish color does not necessarily preclude the ability to become a celebrated artist. The 20th century expressionist painter Clifton Pugh, three-time winner of Australia's Archibald Prize, on biographical, gene inheritance and other grounds has been identified as a person with protanopia. 19th century French artist Charles Méryon became successful by concentrating on etching rather than painting after he was diagnosed as having a red–green deficiency. Jin Kim's red–green color blindness did not stop him from becoming first an animator and later a character designer with Walt Disney Animation Studios. ===Advantages=== Deuteranomals are better at distinguishing shades of khaki, which may be advantageous when looking for predators, food, or camouflaged objects hidden among foliage. Dichromats tend to learn to use texture and shape clues and so may be able to penetrate camouflage that has been designed to deceive individuals with normal color vision. Some tentative evidence finds that the color blind are better at penetrating certain color camouflages. Such findings may give an evolutionary reason for the high rate of red–green color blindness. There is also a study suggesting that people with some types of color blindness can distinguish colors that people with normal color vision are not able to distinguish. In the presence of chromatic noise, the color blind are more capable of seeing a luminous signal, as long as the chromatic noise appears metameric to them. This is the effect behind most "reverse" Pseudoisochromatic plates (e.g. "hidden digit" Ishihara plates) that are discernible to the color blind but unreadable to people with typical color vision. ===Digital design=== Color codes are useful tools for designers to convey information. The interpretation of this information requires users to perform a variety of color tasks, usually comparative but also sometimes connotative or denotative. However, these tasks are often problematic for the color blind when design of the color code has not followed best practices for accessibility. For example, one of the most ubiquitous connotative color codes is the "red means bad and green means good" or similar systems, based on the classic signal light colors. However, this color coding will almost always be undifferentiable to deutans or protans, and can instead be supplemented with a parallel connotative system (symbols, smileys, etc.). Good practices to ensure design is accessible to the color blind include: When possible (e.g. in simple video games or apps), allowing the user to choose their own colors is the most inclusive design practice. Using other signals that are parallel to the color coding, such as patterns, shapes, size or order. This not only helps the color blind, but also aids understanding by normally sighted people by providing them with multiple reinforcing cues. Using brightness contrast (different shades) in addition to color contrast (different hues) To achieve good contrast, conventional wisdom suggests converting a (digital) design to grayscale to ensure there is sufficient brightness contrast between colors. However, this does not account for the different perceptions of brightness to different varieties of color blindness, especially protan CVD, tritan CVD and monochromacy. Viewing the design through a CVD Simulator to ensure the information carried by color is still sufficiently conveyed. At a minimum, the design should be tested for deutan CVD, the most common kind of color blindness. Maximizing the area of colors (e.g. increase size, thickness or boldness of colored element) makes the color easier to identify. Color contrast improves as the angle the color subtends on the retina increases. This applies to all types of color vision. Maximizing brightness (value) and saturation (chroma) of the colors to maximize color contrast. Converting connotative tasks to comparative tasks by including a legend, even when the meaning is considered obvious (e.g. red means danger). Avoiding denotative color tasks (color naming) when possible. Some denotative tasks can be converted to comparative tasks by depicting the actual color whenever the color name is mentioned; for example, colored typography in "", or "purple ()". For denotative tasks (color naming), using the most common shades of colors. For example, green and yellow are colors of confusion in red–green CVD, but it is not common to mix forest green () with bright yellow (). Mistakes by the color blind increase drastically when uncommon shades are used, e.g. neon green () with dark yellow (). For denotative tasks, using colors that are classically associated with a color name. For example, using "firetruck" red () instead of burgundy () to represent the word "red". ===Color selection in design=== A common task for designers is to select a subset of colors (qualitative colormap) that are as mutually differentiable as possible (salient). For example, player pieces in a board game should be as different as possible. Classic advice suggests using Brewer palettes, but several of these are not actually accessible to the color blind. An issue with color selection is that the colors with the greatest contrast to the red–green color blind tend to be colors of confusion to the blue–yellow color blind and vice versa. In 2018, UX designer Allie Ofisher published 3 color palettes with 6 colors each, distinguishable for all variants of color blindness. ===Sequential colormaps=== A common task for data visualization is to represent a color scale, or sequential colormap, often in the form of a heat map or choropleth. Several scales are designed with special consideration for the color blind and are widespread in academia, including Cividis, and Parula. These comprise a light-to-dark scale superimposed on a yellow-to-blue scale, making them monotonic and perceptually uniform to all forms of color vision. ==Classification== Much terminology has existed and does exist for the classification of color blindness, but the typical classification for color blindness follows the von Kries classifications, which uses severity and affected cone for naming. ===Based on severity=== Based on clinical appearance, color blindness may be described as total or partial. Total color blindness (monochromacy) is much less common than partial color blindness. Partial color blindness includes dichromacy and anomalous trichromacy, but is often clinically defined as mild, moderate or strong. ====Monochromacy==== Monochromacy is often called total color blindness since there is no ability to see color. Although the term may refer to acquired disorders such as cerebral achromatopsia, it typically refers to congenital color vision disorders, namely rod monochromacy and blue cone monochromacy). In cerebral achromatopsia, a person cannot perceive colors even though the eyes are capable of distinguishing them. Some sources do not consider these to be true color blindness, because the failure is of perception, not of vision. They are forms of visual agnosia. Visual acuity usually falls to the 20/50 to 20/400 range. ====Dichromacy==== Dichromats can match any color they see with some mixture of just two primary colors (in contrast to those with normal sight (trichromats) who can distinguish three primary colors). In fact, many mild anomalous trichromats have very little difficulty carrying out tasks that require normal color vision and some may not even be aware that they have a color vision deficiency. The types of anomalous trichromacy include protanomaly, deuteranomaly and tritanomaly. It is approximately three times more common than dichromacy. Anomalous trichromats exhibit trichromacy, but the color matches they make differ from normal trichromats. In order to match a given spectral yellow light, protanomalous observers need more red light in a red/green mixture than a normal observer, and deuteranomalous observers need more green. This difference can be measured by an instrument called an Anomaloscope, where red and green lights are mixed by a subject to match a yellow light. ===Based on affected cone=== There are two major types of color blindness: difficulty distinguishing between red and green, and difficulty distinguishing between blue and yellow. These definitions are based on the phenotype of the partial color blindness. Clinically, it is more common to use a genotypical definition, which describes which cone/opsin is affected. ====Red–green color blindness==== Red–green color blindness includes protan and deutan CVD. Protan CVD is related to the L-cone and includes protanomaly (anomalous trichromacy) and protanopia (dichromacy). Deutan CVD is related to the M-cone and includes deuteranomaly (anomalous trichromacy) and deuteranopia (dichromacy). The phenotype (visual experience) of deutans and protans is quite similar. Common colors of confusion include red/brown/green/yellow as well as blue/purple. Both forms are almost always symptomatic of congenital red–green color blindness, so affects males disproportionately more than females. This form of color blindness is sometimes referred to as daltonism after John Dalton, who had red–green dichromacy. In some languages, daltonism is still used to describe red–green color blindness. Protan (2% of males): Lacking, or possessing anomalous L-opsins for long-wavelength sensitive cone cells. Protans have a neutral point at a cyan-like wavelength around 492 nm (see spectral color for comparison)—that is, they cannot discriminate light of this wavelength from white. For a protanope, the brightness of red is much reduced compared to normal. This dimming can be so pronounced that reds may be confused with black or dark gray, and red traffic lights may appear to be extinguished. They may learn to distinguish reds from yellows primarily on the basis of their apparent brightness or lightness, not on any perceptible hue difference. Violet, lavender, and purple are indistinguishable from various shades of blue. A very few people have been found who have one normal eye and one protanopic eye. These unilateral dichromats report that with only their protanopic eye open, they see wavelengths shorter than neutral point as blue and those longer than it as yellow. Deutan (6% of males): Lacking, or possessing anomalous M-opsins for medium-wavelength sensitive cone cells. Their neutral point is at a slightly longer wavelength, 498 nm, a more greenish hue of cyan. Deutans have the same hue discrimination problems as protans, but without the dimming of long wavelengths. Deuteranopic unilateral dichromats report that with only their deuteranopic eye open, they see wavelengths shorter than neutral point as blue and longer than it as yellow. ====Blue–yellow color blindness==== Blue–yellow color blindness includes tritan CVD. Tritan CVD is related to the S-cone and includes tritanomaly (anomalous trichromacy) and tritanopia (dichromacy). Blue–yellow color blindness is much less common than red–green color blindness, and more often has acquired causes than genetic. Tritans have difficulty discerning between bluish and greenish hues. Tritans have a neutral point at 571 nm (yellowish). Tritan (< 0.01% of individuals): Lacking, or possessing anomalous S-opsins or short-wavelength sensitive cone cells. Tritans see short-wavelength colors (blue, indigo and spectral violet) as greenish and drastically dimmed, some of these colors even as black. Yellow and orange are indistinguishable from white and pink respectively, and purple colors are perceived as various shades of red. Unlike protans and deutans, the mutation for this color blindness is carried on chromosome 7. Therefore, it is not sex-linked (equally prevalent in both males and females). The OMIM gene code for this mutation is 304000 "Colorblindness, Partial Tritanomaly". Tetartan is a hypothetical "fourth type" of color blindness, and a type of blue–yellow color blindness. Given the molecular basis of human color vision, it is unlikely this type could exist. ===Summary of cone complements=== The below table shows the cone complements for different types of human color vision, including those considered color blindness, normal color vision and 'superior' color vision. The cone complement contains the types of cones (or their opsins) expressed by an individual. ==Causes== Color blindness is any deviation of color vision from normal trichromatic color vision (often as defined by the standard observer) that produces a reduced gamut. Mechanisms for color blindness are related to the functionality of cone cells, and often to the expression of photopsins, the photopigments that 'catch' photons and thereby convert light into chemical signals. Color vision deficiencies can be classified as inherited or acquired. Inherited: inherited or congenital/genetic color vision deficiencies are most commonly caused by mutations of the genes encoding opsin proteins. However, several other genes can also lead to less common and/or more severe forms of color blindness. Acquired: color blindness that is not present at birth, may be caused by chronic illness, accidents, medication, chemical exposure or simply normal aging processes. ===Genetics=== Color blindness is typically an inherited genetic disorder. The most common forms of color blindness are associated with the Photopsin genes, but the mapping of the human genome has shown there are many causative mutations that do not directly affect the opsins. Mutations capable of causing color blindness originate from at least 19 different chromosomes and 56 different genes (as shown online at the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man [OMIM]). ====Genetics of red–green color blindness==== By far the most common form of color blindness is congenital red–green color blindness (Daltonism), which includes protanopia/protanomaly and deuteranopia/deuteranomaly. These conditions are mediated by the OPN1LW and OPN1MW genes, respectively, both on the X chromosome. An 'affected' gene is either missing (as in Protanopia and Deuteranopia - Dichromacy) or is a chimeric gene (as in Protanomaly and Deuteranomaly). Since the OPN1LW and OPN1MW genes are on the X chromosome, they are sex-linked, and therefore affect males and females disproportionately. Because the color blind 'affected' alleles are recessive, color blindness specifically follows X-linked recessive inheritance. Males have only one X chromosome (XY), and females have two (XX); Because the male only has one of each gene, if it is affected, the male will be color blind. Because a female has two alleles of each gene (one on each chromosome), if only one gene is affected, the dominant normal alleles will "override" the affected, recessive allele and the female will have normal color vision. However, if the female has two mutated alleles, she will still be color blind. This is why there is a disproportionate prevalence of color blindness, with ~8% of males exhibiting color blindness and ~0.5% of females. ====Genetics of blue–yellow color blindness==== Congenital blue–yellow color blindness is a much rarer form of color blindness including tritanopia/tritanomaly. These conditions are mediated by the OPN1SW gene on Chromosome 7 which encodes the S-opsin protein and follows autosomal dominant inheritance. The OPN1SW gene is almost invariant in the human population. Congenital tritan defects are often progressive, with nearly normal trichromatic vision in childhood (e.g. mild tritanomaly) progressing to dichromacy (tritanopia) as the S-cones slowly die. ====Other genetic causes==== Several inherited diseases are known to cause color blindness, including achromatopsia, cone dystrophy, Leber's congenital amaurosis and retinitis pigmentosa. These can be congenital or commence in childhood or adulthood. They can be static/stationary or progressive. Progressive diseases often involve deterioration of the retina and other parts of the eye, so often progress from color blindness to more severe visual impairments, up to and including total blindness. ===Non-genetic causes=== Physical trauma can cause color blindness, either neurologically – brain trauma which produces swelling of the brain in the occipital lobe – or retinally, either acute (e.g. from laser exposure) or chronic (e.g. from ultraviolet light exposure). Color blindness may also present itself as a symptom of degenerative diseases of the eye, such as cataract and age-related macular degeneration, and as part of the retinal damage caused by diabetes. Vitamin A deficiency may also cause color blindness. Color blindness may be a side effect of prescription drug use. For example, red–green color blindness can be caused by ethambutol, a drug used in the treatment of tuberculosis. Blue–yellow color blindness can be caused by sildenafil, an active component of Viagra. Hydroxychloroquine can also lead to hydroxychloroquine retinopathy, which includes various color defects. Exposure to chemicals such as styrene or organic solvents can also lead to color vision defects. Simple colored filters can also create mild color vision deficiencies. John Dalton's original hypothesis for his deuteranopia was actually that the vitreous humor of his eye was discolored: An autopsy of his eye after his death in 1844 showed this to be definitively untrue, though other filters are possible. Actual physiological examples usually affect the blue–yellow opponent channel and are named Cyanopsia and Xanthopsia, and are most typically an effect of yellowing or removal of the lens. The opponent channels can also be affected by the prevalence of certain cones in the retinal mosaic. The cones are not equally prevalent and not evenly distributed in the retina. When the number of one of these cone types is significantly reduced, this can also lead to or contribute to a color vision deficiency. This is one of the causes of tritanomaly. Some people are also unable to distinct between blue and green, which appears to be a combination of culture and exposure to UV-light. ==Diagnosis== ===Color vision test=== The main method for diagnosing a color vision deficiency is in testing the color vision directly. The Ishihara color test is the test most often used to detect red–green deficiencies and most often recognized by the public. Pseudoisochromatic plates, a classification which includes the Ishihara color test and HRR test, embed a figure in the plate as a number of spots surrounded by spots of a slightly different color. These colors must appear identical (metameric) to the color blind but distinguishable to color normals. Pseudoisochromatic plates are used as screening tools because they are cheap, fast, and simple, but they do not provide precise diagnosis of CVD. Lanterns, such as the Farnsworth Lantern Test, project small colored lights to a subject, who is required to identify the color of the lights. The colors are those of typical signal lights, i.e. red, green, and yellow, which also happen to be colors of confusion of red–green CVD. Lanterns do not diagnose color blindness, but they are occupational screening tests to ensure an applicant has sufficient color discrimination to be able to perform a job. Arrangement tests can be used as screening or diagnostic tools. The Farnsworth–Munsell 100 hue test is very sensitive, but the Farnsworth D-15 is a simplified version used specifically for screening for CVD. In either case, the subject is asked to arrange a set of colored caps or chips to form a gradual transition of color between two anchor caps. Anomaloscopes are typically designed to detect red–green deficiencies and are based on the Rayleigh match, which compares a mixture of red and green light in variable proportions to a fixed spectral yellow of variable luminosity. The subject must change the two variables until the colors appear to match. They are expensive and require expertise to administer, so they are generally only used in academic settings. ===Genetic testing=== While genetic testing cannot directly evaluate a subject's color vision (phenotype), most congenital color vision deficiencies are well-correlated with genotype. Therefore, the genotype can be directly evaluated and used to predict the phenotype. This is especially useful for progressive forms that do not have a strongly color deficient phenotype at a young age. However, it can also be used to sequence the L- and M-Opsins on the X-chromosome, since the most common alleles of these two genes are known and have even been related to exact spectral sensitivities and peak wavelengths. A subject's color vision can therefore be classified through genetic testing, but this is just a prediction of the phenotype, since color vision can be affected by countless non-genetic factors such as your cone mosaic. ==Management== Despite much recent improvement in gene therapy for color blindness, there is currently no FDA approved treatment for any form of CVD, and otherwise no cure for CVD currently exists. Management of the condition by using lenses to alleviate symptoms or smartphone apps to aid with daily tasks is possible. ===Lenses=== There are three kinds of lenses that an individual can wear that can increase their accuracy in some color related tasks (although none of these will "fix" color blindness or grant the wearer normal color vision): A red-tint contact lens worn over the non-dominant eye will leverage binocular disparity to improve discrimination of some colors. However, it can make other colors more difficult to distinguish. A 1981 review of various studies to evaluate the effect of the X-chrom (one brand) contact lens concluded that, while the lens may allow the wearer to achieve a better score on certain color vision tests, it did not correct color vision in the natural environment. A case history using the X-Chrom lens for a rod monochromat is reported and an X-Chrom manual is online. Tinted glasses (e.g. Pilestone/Colorlite glasses) apply a tint (e.g. magenta) to incoming light that can distort colors in a way that makes some color tasks easier to complete. These glasses can circumvent many color vision tests, though this is typically not allowed. Glasses with a notch filter (e.g. EnChroma glasses) filter a narrow band of light that excites both the L and M cones (yellow–green wavelengths). When combined with an additional stopband in the short wavelength (blue) region, these lenses may constitute a neutral-density filter (have no color tint). They improve on the other lens types by causing less distortion of colors and will essentially increase the saturation of some colors. They will only work on trichromats (anomalous or normal), and unlike the other types, do not have a significant effect on Dichromats. The glasses do not significantly increase one's ability on color blind tests. Some applications can simulate color blindness by applying a filter to an image or screen that reduces the gamut of an image to that of a specific type of color blindness. While they do not directly help color blind people, they allow those with normal color vision to understand how the color blind see the world. Their use can help improve inclusive design by allowing designers to simulate their own images to ensure they are accessible to the color blind. In 2003, a cybernetic device called eyeborg was developed to allow the wearer to hear sounds representing different colors. Achromatopsic artist Neil Harbisson was the first to use such a device in early 2004; the eyeborg allowed him to start painting in color by memorizing the sound corresponding to each color. In 2012, at a TED Conference, Harbisson explained how he could now perceive colors outside the ability of human vision. ==Epidemiology== Color blindness affects a large number of individuals, with protans and deutans being the most common types. Interestingly, even Dalton's first paper already arrived upon this 8% number: Gordon Lynn Walls claims that the first well-circulated case study of color blindness was published in a 1777 letter from Joseph Huddart to Joseph Priestley, which described "Harris the Shoemaker" and several of his brothers with what would later be described as protanopia. There appear to be no earlier surviving historical mentions of color blindness, despite its prevalence. Genetic analysis of Dalton's preserved eyeball confirmed him as having deuteranopia in 1995, some 150 years after his death. Influenced by Dalton, German writer J. W. von Goethe studied color vision abnormalities in 1798 by asking two young subjects to match pairs of colors. In 1837, August Seebeck first discriminated between protans and deutans (then as class I + II). In 1875, the Lagerlunda train crash in Sweden brought color blindness to the forefront. Following the crash, Professor Alarik Frithiof Holmgren, a physiologist, investigated and concluded that the color blindness of the engineer (who had died) had caused the crash. Professor Holmgren then created the first test for color vision using multicolored skeins of wool to detect color blindness and thereby exclude the color blind from jobs in the transportation industry requiring color vision to interpret safety signals. However, there is a claim that there is no firm evidence that color deficiency did cause the collision, or that it might have not been the sole cause. In 1920, Frederick William Edridge-Green devised an alternative theory of color vision and color blindness based on Newton's classification of 7 fundamental colors (ROYGBIV). Edridge-Green classified color vision based on how many distinct colors a subject could see in the spectrum. Normal subjects were termed hexachromic as they could not discern Indigo. Subjects with superior color vision, who could discern indigo, were heptachromic. The color blind were therefore dichromic (equivalent to dichromacy) or tri-, tetra- or pentachromic (anomalous trichromacy). ==Rights== In the United States, under federal anti-discrimination laws such as the Americans with Disabilities Act, color vision deficiencies have not been found to constitute a disability that triggers protection from workplace discrimination. A Brazilian court ruled that the color blind are protected by the Inter-American Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Person with Disabilities. At trial, it was decided that the carriers of color blindness have a right of access to wider knowledge, or the full enjoyment of their human condition. ===Occupations=== Color blindness may make it difficult or impossible for a person to engage in certain activities. Persons with color blindness may be legally or practically barred from occupations in which color perception is an essential part of the job (e.g., mixing paint colors), or in which color perception is important for safety (e.g., operating vehicles in response to color-coded signals). This occupational safety principle originates from the aftermath of the 1875 Lagerlunda train crash, which Alarik Frithiof Holmgren blamed on the color blindness of the engineer and created the first occupational screening test (Holmgren's wool test) against the color blind. Electronic wiring, transformers, resistors, and capacitors are color-coded as well, using black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, gray, white, silver, and gold. Participation, officiating and viewing sporting events can be impacted by color blindness. Professional football players Thomas Delaney and Fabio Carvalho have discussed the difficulties when color clashes occur, and research undertaken by FIFA has shown that enjoyment and player progression can be hampered by issues distinguishing the difference between the pitch and training objects or field markings. Snooker World Champions Mark Williams and Peter Ebdon sometimes need to ask the referee for help distinguishing between the red and brown balls due to their color blindness. Both have played foul shots on notable occasions by the wrong ball. ===Driving=== Red–green color blindness can make it difficult to drive, primarily due to the inability to differentiate red–amber–green traffic lights. Protans are further disadvantaged due to the darkened perception of reds, which can make it more difficult to quickly recognize brake lights. In response, some countries have refused to grant driver's licenses to individuals with color blindness: In April 2003, Romania removed color blindness from its list of disqualifying conditions for learner driver's licenses. It is now qualified as a condition that could potentially compromise driver safety, therefore a driver may have to be evaluated by an authorized ophthalmologist to determine if they can drive safely. As of May 2008, there is an ongoing campaign to remove the legal restrictions that prohibit color blind citizens from getting driver's licenses. In June 2020, India relaxed its ban on driver's licenses for the color blind to now only apply to those with strong CVD. While previously restricted, those who test as mild or moderate can now pass the medical requirements. Australia instituted a tiered ban on the color blind from obtaining commercial driver's licenses in 1994. This included a ban for all protans, and a stipulation that deutans must pass the Farnsworth Lantern. The stipulation on deutans was revoked in 1997 citing a lack of available test facilities, and the ban on protans was revoked in 2003. and since 2016 in Russia (2012 for dichromats). ===Piloting aircraft=== Although many aspects of aviation depend on color coding, only a few of them are critical enough to be interfered with by some milder types of color blindness. Some examples include color-gun signaling of aircraft that have lost radio communication, color-coded glide-path indications on runways, and the like. Some jurisdictions restrict the issuance of pilot credentials to persons with color blindness for this reason. Restrictions may be partial, allowing color-blind persons to obtain certification but with restrictions, or total, in which case color-blind persons are not permitted to obtain piloting credentials at all. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration requires that pilots be tested for normal color vision as part of their medical clearance in order to obtain the required medical certificate, a prerequisite to obtaining a pilot's certification. If testing reveals color blindness, the applicant may be issued a license with restrictions, such as no night flying and no flying by color signals—such a restriction effectively prevents a pilot from holding certain flying occupations, such as that of an airline pilot, although commercial pilot certification is still possible, and there are a few flying occupations that do not require night flight and thus are still available to those with restrictions due to color blindness (e.g., agricultural aviation). The government allows several types of tests, including medical standard tests (e.g., the Ishihara, Dvorine, and others) and specialized tests oriented specifically to the needs of aviation. If an applicant fails the standard tests, they will receive a restriction on their medical certificate that states: "Not valid for night flying or by color signal control". They may apply to the FAA to take a specialized test, administered by the FAA. Typically, this test is the "color vision light gun test". For this test an FAA inspector will meet the pilot at an airport with an operating control tower. The color signal light gun will be shone at the pilot from the tower, and they must identify the color. If they pass they may be issued a waiver, which states that the color vision test is no longer required during medical examinations. They will then receive a new medical certificate with the restriction removed. This was once a Statement of Demonstrated Ability (SODA), but the SODA was dropped, and converted to a simple waiver (letter) early in the 2000s. Research published in 2009 carried out by the City University of London's Applied Vision Research Centre, sponsored by the UK's Civil Aviation Authority and the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, has established a more accurate assessment of color deficiencies in pilot applicants' red/green and yellow–blue color range which could lead to a 35% reduction in the number of prospective pilots who fail to meet the minimum medical threshold.	[ "Blue cone monochromacy", "Rose (color)", "Burgundy (color)", "congenital red–green color blindness", "Tipperary Hill", "myopia", "World Snooker Championship", "Chromaticity", "Contrast (vision)", "AOPA", "hydroxychloroquine", "photophobia", "color task", "shades of blue", "Color analysis", "white", "binocular disparity", "color picker", "board game", "primary color", "shades of red", "Heredity", "J. W. von Goethe", "BBC Sport", "John Dalton (scientist)", "achromatopsia", "Ishihara test", "Alarik Frithiof Holmgren", "Gordon Lynn Walls", "black", "Irish American", "Peter Ebdon", "macular degeneration", "BBC News", "Medical College of Wisconsin", "pink", "trichromatic", "Sex linkage", "trichromacy", "red", "X chromosome", "ROYGBIV", "armed forces", "etching", "OPN1MW", "Trichromacy", "Color code", "CIEXYZ", "Navigation light", "khaki", "Cynthia Brewer", "John Dalton", "police officer", "Luminous efficiency function", "Eastern Canada", "EnChroma", "OPN1SW", "Violet (color)", "styrene", "Ophthalmology", "Dichromacy", "Leber's congenital amaurosis", "occiput", "Ishihara plate", "protan", "heat map", "gamut", "Railway signal", "smiley", "Anomaloscope", "Photopsin", "blue", "Neil Harbisson", "eyeborg", "OPN1LW", "Motion blindness", "Charles Méryon", "neutral-density filter", "shades of purple", "vitreous humor", "August Seebeck", "Color anomia", "notch filter", "genotype", "anomaloscope", "traffic lights", "brain", "City University of London", "Dugald Stewart", "ultraviolet light", "allele", "Cyanopsia", "visual impairment", "ethambutol", "choropleth", "blue cone monochromacy", "Genetics", "Jin Kim (animator)", "Florida State University", "color vision test", "Civil Aviation Authority", "train driver", "Cultural neuroscience", "firefighter", "alleles", "Parula", "Spectral sensitivity", "Joseph Priestley", "TED Conference", "Color term", "driver's license", "Progressive disease", "Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man", "Syracuse, New York", "Archibald Prize", "Color coding in data visualization", "Ishihara color test", "optic nerve", "Granny Smith", "Mark Williams (snooker player)", "World Snooker Tour", "List of people with color blindness", "X-linked recessive inheritance", "chimeric gene", "rose (color)", "Color difference", "Farnsworth Lantern Test", "Color agnosia", "color vision", "retinitis pigmentosa", "aircraft pilot", "photons", "animator", "mobile apps", "Pseudoisochromatic plate", "Red", "Gene therapy for color blindness", "Von Kries transform", "Achromatopsia", "deutan", "Holmgren's wool test", "Farnsworth–Munsell 100 hue test", "side effect", "genetic testing", "cataract", "Metamerism (color)", "Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society", "diabetes", "user experience", "heredity", "Retinal mosaic", "Walt Disney Animation Studios", "Federal Aviation Administration", "Chromosome 7", "traffic light", "phenotype", "congenital", "Precision approach path indicator", "Xanthopsia", "cone cell", "Clifton Pugh", "visual acuity", "spectral color", "mobile app", "tuberculosis", "Farnsworth Lantern", "Hydroxychloroquine", "Monochromacy", "photopsin", "color space", "Fábio Carvalho (footballer, born 2002)", "CIE 1931 color space", "cerebral achromatopsia", "dichromacy", "color", "opsin", "Color blind glasses", "Lens (anatomy)", "lightness", "Viagra", "The Times of India", "Braeburn", "retinal mosaic", "sildenafil", "indigo", "gene therapy for color blindness", "Snooker", "Vitamin A", "cone dystrophy", "Tetrachromacy", "Aviation light signals", "X-linked", "Nicolas Malebranche", "Shades of green", "visual agnosia", "photopigments", "cyan", "Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990", "monotonic", "Thomas Delaney", "eye", "Chart", "nystagmus", "Check mark", "Lagerlunda rail accident", "shades of violet" ]
7,398	Computer security	Computer security (also cybersecurity, digital security, or information technology (IT) security) is a subdiscipline within the field of information security. It consists of the protection of computer software, systems and networks from threats that can lead to unauthorized information disclosure, theft or damage to hardware, software, or data, as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the services they provide. The significance of the field stems from the expanded reliance on computer systems, the Internet, and wireless network standards. Its importance is further amplified by the growth of smart devices, including smartphones, televisions, and the various devices that constitute the Internet of things (IoT). Cybersecurity has emerged as one of the most significant new challenges facing the contemporary world, due to both the complexity of information systems and the societies they support. Security is particularly crucial for systems that govern large-scale systems with far-reaching physical effects, such as power distribution, elections, and finance. Although many aspects of computer security involve digital security, such as electronic passwords and encryption, physical security measures such as metal locks are still used to prevent unauthorized tampering. IT security is not a perfect subset of information security, therefore does not completely align into the security convergence schema. ==Vulnerabilities and attacks== A vulnerability refers to a flaw in the structure, execution, functioning, or internal oversight of a computer or system that compromises its security. Most of the vulnerabilities that have been discovered are documented in the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) database. An exploitable vulnerability is one for which at least one working attack or exploit exists. Actors maliciously seeking vulnerabilities are known as threats. Vulnerabilities can be researched, reverse-engineered, hunted, or exploited using automated tools or customized scripts. Various people or parties are vulnerable to cyber attacks; however, different groups are likely to experience different types of attacks more than others. In April 2023, the United Kingdom Department for Science, Innovation & Technology released a report on cyber attacks over the previous 12 months. They surveyed 2,263 UK businesses, 1,174 UK registered charities, and 554 education institutions. The research found that "32% of businesses and 24% of charities overall recall any breaches or attacks from the last 12 months." These figures were much higher for "medium businesses (59%), large businesses (69%), and high-income charities with £500,000 or more in annual income (56%)." These are where attackers indiscriminately target as many devices, services, or users as possible. They do this using techniques that take advantage of the openness of the Internet. These strategies mostly include phishing, ransomware, water holing and scanning. Due to the nature of backdoors, they are of greater concern to companies and databases as opposed to individuals. Backdoors may be added by an authorized party to allow some legitimate access or by an attacker for malicious reasons. Criminals often use malware to install backdoors, giving them remote administrative access to a system. Once they have access, cybercriminals can "modify files, steal personal information, install unwanted software, and even take control of the entire computer." Attackers can deny service to individual victims, such as by deliberately entering a wrong password enough consecutive times to cause the victim's account to be locked, or they may overload the capabilities of a machine or network and block all users at once. While a network attack from a single IP address can be blocked by adding a new firewall rule, many forms of distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks are possible, where the attack comes from a large number of points. In this case, defending against these attacks is much more difficult. Such attacks can originate from the zombie computers of a botnet or from a range of other possible techniques, including distributed reflective denial-of-service (DRDoS), where innocent systems are fooled into sending traffic to the victim. Attackers may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing software worms, keyloggers, covert listening devices or using wireless microphones. Even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be bypassed by booting another operating system or tool from a CD-ROM or other bootable media. Disk encryption and the Trusted Platform Module standard are designed to prevent these attacks. Direct service attackers are related in concept to direct memory attacks which allow an attacker to gain direct access to a computer's memory. The attacks "take advantage of a feature of modern computers that allows certain devices, such as external hard drives, graphics cards, or network cards, to access the computer's memory directly." Data transmitted across an open network allows an attacker to exploit a vulnerability and intercept it via various methods. Unlike malware, direct-access attacks, or other forms of cyber attacks, eavesdropping attacks are unlikely to negatively affect the performance of networks or devices, making them difficult to notice. Using a virtual private network (VPN), which encrypts data between two points, is one of the most common forms of protection against eavesdropping. Using the best form of encryption possible for wireless networks is best practice, as well as using HTTPS instead of an unencrypted HTTP. Programs such as Carnivore and NarusInSight have been used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and NSA to eavesdrop on the systems of internet service providers. Even machines that operate as a closed system (i.e., with no contact with the outside world) can be eavesdropped upon by monitoring the faint electromagnetic transmissions generated by the hardware. TEMPEST is a specification by the NSA referring to these attacks. ===Malware=== Malicious software (malware) is any software code or computer program "intentionally written to harm a computer system or its users." Once present on a computer, it can leak sensitive details such as personal information, business information and passwords, can give control of the system to the attacker, and can corrupt or delete data permanently. ==== Types of malware ==== Viruses are a specific type of malware, and are normally a malicious code that hijacks software with the intention to "do damage and spread copies of itself." Copies are made with the aim to spread to other programs on a computer. === Multi-vector, polymorphic attacks === Surfacing in 2017, a new class of multi-vector, polymorphic cyber threats combine several types of attacks and change form to avoid cybersecurity controls as they spread. Multi-vector polymorphic attacks, as the name describes, are both multi-vectored and polymorphic. Firstly, they are a singular attack that involves multiple methods of attack. In this sense, they are "multi-vectored (i.e. the attack can use multiple means of propagation such as via the Web, email and applications." However, they are also multi-staged, meaning that "they can infiltrate networks and move laterally inside the network." Phishing is typically carried out by email spoofing, instant messaging, text message, or on a phone call. They often direct users to enter details at a fake website whose look and feel are almost identical to the legitimate one. The fake website often asks for personal information, such as login details and passwords. This information can then be used to gain access to the individual's real account on the real website. Preying on a victim's trust, phishing can be classified as a form of social engineering. Attackers can use creative ways to gain access to real accounts. A common scam is for attackers to send fake electronic invoices to individuals showing that they recently purchased music, apps, or others, and instructing them to click on a link if the purchases were not authorized. A more strategic type of phishing is spear-phishing which leverages personal or organization-specific details to make the attacker appear like a trusted source. Spear-phishing attacks target specific individuals, rather than the broad net cast by phishing attempts. ===Privilege escalation=== Privilege escalation describes a situation where an attacker with some level of restricted access is able to, without authorization, elevate their privileges or access level. For example, a standard computer user may be able to exploit a vulnerability in the system to gain access to restricted data; or even become root and have full unrestricted access to a system. The severity of attacks can range from attacks simply sending an unsolicited email to a ransomware attack on large amounts of data. Privilege escalation usually starts with social engineering techniques, often phishing. ===Social engineering=== Social engineering, in the context of computer security, aims to convince a user to disclose secrets such as passwords, card numbers, etc. or grant physical access by, for example, impersonating a senior executive, bank, a contractor, or a customer. This generally involves exploiting people's trust, and relying on their cognitive biases. A common scam involves emails sent to accounting and finance department personnel, impersonating their CEO and urgently requesting some action. One of the main techniques of social engineering are phishing attacks. In early 2016, the FBI reported that such business email compromise (BEC) scams had cost US businesses more than $2 billion in about two years. In May 2016, the Milwaukee Bucks NBA team was the victim of this type of cyber scam with a perpetrator impersonating the team's president Peter Feigin, resulting in the handover of all the team's employees' 2015 W-2 tax forms. ===Spoofing=== Spoofing is an act of pretending to be a valid entity through the falsification of data (such as an IP address or username), in order to gain access to information or resources that one is otherwise unauthorized to obtain. Spoofing is closely related to phishing. There are several types of spoofing, including: Email spoofing, is where an attacker forges the sending (From, or source) address of an email. IP address spoofing, where an attacker alters the source IP address in a network packet to hide their identity or impersonate another computing system. MAC spoofing, where an attacker modifies the Media Access Control (MAC) address of their network interface controller to obscure their identity, or to pose as another. Biometric spoofing, where an attacker produces a fake biometric sample to pose as another user. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) spoofing, where an attacker sends spoofed address resolution protocol onto a local area network to associate their Media Access Control address with a different host's IP address. This causes data to be sent to the attacker rather than the intended host. In 2018, the cybersecurity firm Trellix published research on the life-threatening risk of spoofing in the healthcare industry. ===Tampering=== Tampering describes a malicious modification or alteration of data. It is an intentional but unauthorized act resulting in the modification of a system, components of systems, its intended behavior, or data. So-called Evil Maid attacks and security services planting of surveillance capability into routers are examples. ===HTML smuggling=== HTML smuggling allows an attacker to smuggle a malicious code inside a particular HTML or web page. HTML files can carry payloads concealed as benign, inert data in order to defeat content filters. These payloads can be reconstructed on the other side of the filter. When a target user opens the HTML, the malicious code is activated; the web browser then decodes the script, which then unleashes the malware onto the target's device. Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of their organization's information security effort and often take actions that impede organizational changes. Indeed, the Verizon Data Breach Investigations Report 2020, which examined 3,950 security breaches, discovered 30% of cybersecurity incidents involved internal actors within a company. Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In "Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change", authors commented, "It's a never-ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance." To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation. Pre-evaluation: To identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze the current security policies. Strategic planning: To come up with a better awareness program, clear targets need to be set. Assembling a team of skilled professionals is helpful to achieve it. Operative planning: A good security culture can be established based on internal communication, management buy-in, security awareness and a training program. Some common countermeasures are listed in the following sections: ===Security by design=== Security by design, or alternately secure by design, means that the software has been designed from the ground up to be secure. In this case, security is considered a main feature. The UK government's National Cyber Security Centre separates secure cyber design principles into five sections: Before a secure system is created or updated, companies should ensure they understand the fundamentals and the context around the system they are trying to create and identify any weaknesses in the system. Companies should design and centre their security around techniques and defences which make attacking their data or systems inherently more challenging for attackers. Companies should ensure that their core services that rely on technology are protected so that the systems are essentially never down. Although systems can be created which are safe against a multitude of attacks, that does not mean that attacks will not be attempted. Despite one's security, all companies' systems should aim to be able to detect and spot attacks as soon as they occur to ensure the most effective response to them. Companies should create secure systems designed so that any attack that is successful has minimal severity. These design principles of security by design can include some of the following techniques: The principle of least privilege, where each part of the system has only the privileges that are needed for its function. That way, even if an attacker gains access to that part, they only have limited access to the whole system. Automated theorem proving to prove the correctness of crucial software subsystems. Code reviews and unit testing, approaches to make modules more secure where formal correctness proofs are not possible. Defense in depth, where the design is such that more than one subsystem needs to be violated to compromise the integrity of the system and the information it holds. Default secure settings, and design to fail secure rather than fail insecure (see fail-safe for the equivalent in safety engineering). Ideally, a secure system should require a deliberate, conscious, knowledgeable and free decision on the part of legitimate authorities in order to make it insecure. Audit trails track system activity so that when a security breach occurs, the mechanism and extent of the breach can be determined. Storing audit trails remotely, where they can only be appended to, can keep intruders from covering their tracks. Full disclosure of all vulnerabilities, to ensure that the window of vulnerability is kept as short as possible when bugs are discovered. ===Security architecture=== Security architecture can be defined as the "practice of designing computer systems to achieve security goals." These goals have overlap with the principles of "security by design" explored above, including to "make initial compromise of the system difficult," and to "limit the impact of any compromise." Similarly, Techopedia defines security architecture as "a unified security design that addresses the necessities and potential risks involved in a certain scenario or environment. It also specifies when and where to apply security controls. The design process is generally reproducible." The key attributes of security architecture are: the relationship of different components and how they depend on each other. determination of controls based on risk assessment, good practices, finances, and legal matters. the standardization of controls. Practicing security architecture provides the right foundation to systematically address business, IT and security concerns in an organization. ===Security measures=== A state of computer security is the conceptual ideal, attained by the use of three processes: threat prevention, detection, and response. These processes are based on various policies and system components, which include the following: Limiting the access of individuals using user account access controls and using cryptography can protect systems files and data, respectively. Firewalls are by far the most common prevention systems from a network security perspective as they can (if properly configured) shield access to internal network services and block certain kinds of attacks through packet filtering. Firewalls can be both hardware and software-based. Firewalls monitor and control incoming and outgoing traffic of a computer network and establish a barrier between a trusted network and an untrusted network. Intrusion Detection System (IDS) products are designed to detect network attacks in-progress and assist in post-attack forensics, while audit trails and logs serve a similar function for individual systems. Response is necessarily defined by the assessed security requirements of an individual system and may cover the range from simple upgrade of protections to notification of legal authorities, counter-attacks, and the like. In some special cases, the complete destruction of the compromised system is favored, as it may happen that not all the compromised resources are detected. Cyber security awareness training to cope with cyber threats and attacks. Forward web proxy solutions can prevent the client to visit malicious web pages and inspect the content before downloading to the client machines. Today, computer security consists mainly of preventive measures, like firewalls or an exit procedure. A firewall can be defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or a network and another network, such as the Internet. They can be implemented as software running on the machine, hooking into the network stack (or, in the case of most UNIX-based operating systems such as Linux, built into the operating system kernel) to provide real-time filtering and blocking. In order to ensure adequate security, the confidentiality, integrity and availability of a network, better known as the CIA triad, must be protected and is considered the foundation to information security. To achieve those objectives, administrative, physical and technical security measures should be employed. The amount of security afforded to an asset can only be determined when its value is known. ===Vulnerability management=== Vulnerability management is the cycle of identifying, fixing or mitigating vulnerabilities, especially in software and firmware. Vulnerability management is integral to computer security and network security. Vulnerabilities can be discovered with a vulnerability scanner, which analyzes a computer system in search of known vulnerabilities, such as open ports, insecure software configuration, and susceptibility to malware. In order for these tools to be effective, they must be kept up to date with every new update the vendor release. Typically, these updates will scan for the new vulnerabilities that were introduced recently. Beyond vulnerability scanning, many organizations contract outside security auditors to run regular penetration tests against their systems to identify vulnerabilities. In some sectors, this is a contractual requirement. ===Reducing vulnerabilities=== The act of assessing and reducing vulnerabilities to cyber attacks is commonly referred to as information technology security assessments. They aim to assess systems for risk and to predict and test for their vulnerabilities. While formal verification of the correctness of computer systems is possible, it is not yet common. Operating systems formally verified include seL4, and SYSGO's PikeOS – but these make up a very small percentage of the market. It is possible to reduce an attacker's chances by keeping systems up to date with security patches and updates and by hiring people with expertise in security. Large companies with significant threats can hire Security Operations Centre (SOC) Analysts. These are specialists in cyber defences, with their role ranging from "conducting threat analysis to investigating reports of any new issues and preparing and testing disaster recovery plans." Whilst no measures can completely guarantee the prevention of an attack, these measures can help mitigate the damage of possible attacks. The effects of data loss/damage can be also reduced by careful backing up and insurance. Outside of formal assessments, there are various methods of reducing vulnerabilities. Two factor authentication is a method for mitigating unauthorized access to a system or sensitive information. It requires something you know: a password or PIN, and something you have: a card, dongle, cellphone, or another piece of hardware. This increases security as an unauthorized person needs both of these to gain access. Protecting against social engineering and direct computer access (physical) attacks can only happen by non-computer means, which can be difficult to enforce, relative to the sensitivity of the information. Training is often involved to help mitigate this risk by improving people's knowledge of how to protect themselves and by increasing people's awareness of threats. However, even in highly disciplined environments (e.g. military organizations), social engineering attacks can still be difficult to foresee and prevent. Inoculation, derived from inoculation theory, seeks to prevent social engineering and other fraudulent tricks and traps by instilling a resistance to persuasion attempts through exposure to similar or related attempts. ===Hardware protection mechanisms=== Hardware-based or assisted computer security also offers an alternative to software-only computer security. Using devices and methods such as dongles, trusted platform modules, intrusion-aware cases, drive locks, disabling USB ports, and mobile-enabled access may be considered more secure due to the physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access) required in order to be compromised. Each of these is covered in more detail below. USB dongles are typically used in software licensing schemes to unlock software capabilities, but they can also be seen as a way to prevent unauthorized access to a computer or other device's software. The dongle, or key, essentially creates a secure encrypted tunnel between the software application and the key. The principle is that an encryption scheme on the dongle, such as Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) provides a stronger measure of security since it is harder to hack and replicate the dongle than to simply copy the native software to another machine and use it. Another security application for dongles is to use them for accessing web-based content such as cloud software or Virtual Private Networks (VPNs). In addition, a USB dongle can be configured to lock or unlock a computer. Trusted platform modules (TPMs) secure devices by integrating cryptographic capabilities onto access devices, through the use of microprocessors, or so-called computers-on-a-chip. TPMs used in conjunction with server-side software offer a way to detect and authenticate hardware devices, preventing unauthorized network and data access. Computer case intrusion detection refers to a device, typically a push-button switch, which detects when a computer case is opened. The firmware or BIOS is programmed to show an alert to the operator when the computer is booted up the next time. Drive locks are essentially software tools to encrypt hard drives, making them inaccessible to thieves. Tools exist specifically for encrypting external drives as well. Disabling USB ports is a security option for preventing unauthorized and malicious access to an otherwise secure computer. Infected USB dongles connected to a network from a computer inside the firewall are considered by the magazine Network World as the most common hardware threat facing computer networks. Disconnecting or disabling peripheral devices (like camera, GPS, removable storage, etc.), that are not in use. Mobile-enabled access devices are growing in popularity due to the ubiquitous nature of cell phones. Built-in capabilities such as Bluetooth, the newer Bluetooth low energy (LE), near-field communication (NFC) on non-iOS devices and biometric validation such as thumbprint readers, as well as QR code reader software designed for mobile devices, offer new, secure ways for mobile phones to connect to access control systems. These control systems provide computer security and can also be used for controlling access to secure buildings. IOMMUs allow for hardware-based sandboxing of components in mobile and desktop computers by utilizing direct memory access protections. Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) can be used as a digital fingerprint or a unique identifier to integrated circuits and hardware, providing users the ability to secure the hardware supply chains going into their systems. ===Secure operating systems=== One use of the term computer security refers to technology that is used to implement secure operating systems. Using secure operating systems is a good way of ensuring computer security. These are systems that have achieved certification from an external security-auditing organization, the most popular evaluations are Common Criteria (CC). ===Secure coding=== In software engineering, secure coding aims to guard against the accidental introduction of security vulnerabilities. It is also possible to create software designed from the ground up to be secure. Such systems are secure by design. Beyond this, formal verification aims to prove the correctness of the algorithms underlying a system; important for cryptographic protocols for example. ===Capabilities and access control lists=== Within computer systems, two of the main security models capable of enforcing privilege separation are access control lists (ACLs) and role-based access control (RBAC). An access-control list (ACL), with respect to a computer file system, is a list of permissions associated with an object. An ACL specifies which users or system processes are granted access to objects, as well as what operations are allowed on given objects. Role-based access control is an approach to restricting system access to authorized users, used by the majority of enterprises with more than 500 employees, and can implement mandatory access control (MAC) or discretionary access control (DAC). A further approach, capability-based security has been mostly restricted to research operating systems. Capabilities can, however, also be implemented at the language level, leading to a style of programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented design. An open-source project in the area is the E language. ===User security training=== The end-user is widely recognized as the weakest link in the security chain and it is estimated that more than 90% of security incidents and breaches involve some kind of human error. Among the most commonly recorded forms of errors and misjudgment are poor password management, sending emails containing sensitive data and attachments to the wrong recipient, the inability to recognize misleading URLs and to identify fake websites and dangerous email attachments. A common mistake that users make is saving their user id/password in their browsers to make it easier to log in to banking sites. This is a gift to attackers who have obtained access to a machine by some means. The risk may be mitigated by the use of two-factor authentication. As the human component of cyber risk is particularly relevant in determining the global cyber risk an organization is facing, security awareness training, at all levels, not only provides formal compliance with regulatory and industry mandates but is considered essential in reducing cyber risk and protecting individuals and companies from the great majority of cyber threats. The focus on the end-user represents a profound cultural change for many security practitioners, who have traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively from a technical perspective, and moves along the lines suggested by major security centers to develop a culture of cyber awareness within the organization, recognizing that a security-aware user provides an important line of defense against cyber attacks. ===Digital hygiene=== Related to end-user training, digital hygiene or cyber hygiene is a fundamental principle relating to information security and, as the analogy with personal hygiene shows, is the equivalent of establishing simple routine measures to minimize the risks from cyber threats. The assumption is that good cyber hygiene practices can give networked users another layer of protection, reducing the risk that one vulnerable node will be used to either mount attacks or compromise another node or network, especially from common cyberattacks. Cyber hygiene should also not be mistaken for proactive cyber defence, a military term. The most common acts of digital hygiene can include updating malware protection, cloud back-ups, passwords, and ensuring restricted admin rights and network firewalls. As opposed to a purely technology-based defense against threats, cyber hygiene mostly regards routine measures that are technically simple to implement and mostly dependent on discipline or education. It can be thought of as an abstract list of tips or measures that have been demonstrated as having a positive effect on personal or collective digital security. As such, these measures can be performed by laypeople, not just security experts. Cyber hygiene relates to personal hygiene as computer viruses relate to biological viruses (or pathogens). However, while the term computer virus was coined almost simultaneously with the creation of the first working computer viruses, the term cyber hygiene is a much later invention, perhaps as late as 2000 by Internet pioneer Vint Cerf. It has since been adopted by the Congress and Senate of the United States, the FBI, EU institutions Websites and apps that accept or store credit card numbers, brokerage accounts, and bank account information are also prominent hacking targets, because of the potential for immediate financial gain from transferring money, making purchases, or selling the information on the black market. In-store payment systems and ATMs have also been tampered with in order to gather customer account data and PINs. The UCLA Internet Report: Surveying the Digital Future (2000) found that the privacy of personal data created barriers to online sales and that more than nine out of 10 internet users were somewhat or very concerned about credit card security. The most common web technologies for improving security between browsers and websites are named SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), and its successor TLS (Transport Layer Security), identity management and authentication services, and domain name services allow companies and consumers to engage in secure communications and commerce. Several versions of SSL and TLS are commonly used today in applications such as web browsing, e-mail, internet faxing, instant messaging, and VoIP (voice-over-IP). There are various interoperable implementations of these technologies, including at least one implementation that is open source. Open source allows anyone to view the application's source code, and look for and report vulnerabilities. The credit card companies Visa and MasterCard cooperated to develop the secure EMV chip which is embedded in credit cards. Further developments include the Chip Authentication Program where banks give customers hand-held card readers to perform online secure transactions. Other developments in this arena include the development of technology such as Instant Issuance which has enabled shopping mall kiosks acting on behalf of banks to issue on-the-spot credit cards to interested customers. ===Utilities and industrial equipment=== Computers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of telecommunications, the power grid, nuclear power plants, and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks. The Internet is a potential attack vector for such machines if connected, but the Stuxnet worm demonstrated that even equipment controlled by computers not connected to the Internet can be vulnerable. In 2014, the Computer Emergency Readiness Team, a division of the Department of Homeland Security, investigated 79 hacking incidents at energy companies. ===Aviation=== The aviation industry is very reliant on a series of complex systems which could be attacked. A simple power outage at one airport can cause repercussions worldwide, much of the system relies on radio transmissions which could be disrupted, and controlling aircraft over oceans is especially dangerous because radar surveillance only extends 175 to 225 miles offshore. There is also potential for attack from within an aircraft. Implementing fixes in aerospace systems poses a unique challenge because efficient air transportation is heavily affected by weight and volume. Improving security by adding physical devices to airplanes could increase their unloaded weight, and could potentially reduce cargo or passenger capacity. In Europe, with the (Pan-European Network Service) and NewPENS, and in the US with the NextGen program, air navigation service providers are moving to create their own dedicated networks. Many modern passports are now biometric passports, containing an embedded microchip that stores a digitized photograph and personal information such as name, gender, and date of birth. In addition, more countries are introducing facial recognition technology to reduce identity-related fraud. The introduction of the ePassport has assisted border officials in verifying the identity of the passport holder, thus allowing for quick passenger processing. Plans are under way in the US, the UK, and Australia to introduce SmartGate kiosks with both retina and fingerprint recognition technology. The airline industry is moving from the use of traditional paper tickets towards the use of electronic tickets (e-tickets). These have been made possible by advances in online credit card transactions in partnership with the airlines. Long-distance bus companies are also switching over to e-ticketing transactions today. The consequences of a successful attack range from loss of confidentiality to loss of system integrity, air traffic control outages, loss of aircraft, and even loss of life. ===Consumer devices=== Desktop computers and laptops are commonly targeted to gather passwords or financial account information or to construct a botnet to attack another target. Smartphones, tablet computers, smart watches, and other mobile devices such as quantified self devices like activity trackers have sensors such as cameras, microphones, GPS receivers, compasses, and accelerometers which could be exploited, and may collect personal information, including sensitive health information. WiFi, Bluetooth, and cell phone networks on any of these devices could be used as attack vectors, and sensors might be remotely activated after a successful breach. The increasing number of home automation devices such as the Nest thermostat are also potential targets. ===Large corporations=== Large corporations are common targets. In many cases attacks are aimed at financial gain through identity theft and involve data breaches. Examples include the loss of millions of clients' credit card and financial details by Home Depot, Staples, Target Corporation, and Equifax. Medical records have been targeted in general identify theft, health insurance fraud, and impersonating patients to obtain prescription drugs for recreational purposes or resale. Although cyber threats continue to increase, 62% of all organizations did not increase security training for their business in 2015. Not all attacks are financially motivated, however: security firm HBGary Federal had a serious series of attacks in 2011 from hacktivist group Anonymous in retaliation for the firm's CEO claiming to have infiltrated their group, and Sony Pictures was hacked in 2014 with the apparent dual motive of embarrassing the company through data leaks and crippling the company by wiping workstations and servers. ===Automobiles=== Vehicles are increasingly computerized, with engine timing, cruise control, anti-lock brakes, seat belt tensioners, door locks, airbags and advanced driver-assistance systems on many models. Additionally, connected cars may use WiFi and Bluetooth to communicate with onboard consumer devices and the cell phone network. Simple examples of risk include a malicious compact disc being used as an attack vector, and the car's onboard microphones being used for eavesdropping. However, if access is gained to a car's internal controller area network, the danger is much greater – and in a widely publicized 2015 test, hackers remotely carjacked a vehicle from 10 miles away and drove it into a ditch. Manufacturers are reacting in numerous ways, with Tesla in 2016 pushing out some security fixes over the air into its cars' computer systems. In the area of autonomous vehicles, in September 2016 the United States Department of Transportation announced some initial safety standards, and called for states to come up with uniform policies. Additionally, e-Drivers' licenses are being developed using the same technology. For example, Mexico's licensing authority (ICV) has used a smart card platform to issue the first e-Drivers' licenses to the city of Monterrey, in the state of Nuevo León. ===Shipping=== Shipping companies have adopted RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) technology as an efficient, digitally secure, tracking device. Unlike a barcode, RFID can be read up to 20 feet away. RFID is used by FedEx and UPS. ===Government=== Government and military computer systems are commonly attacked by activists and foreign powers. Local and regional government infrastructure such as traffic light controls, police and intelligence agency communications, personnel records, as well as student records. The FBI, CIA, and Pentagon, all utilize secure controlled access technology for any of their buildings. However, the use of this form of technology is spreading into the entrepreneurial world. More and more companies are taking advantage of the development of digitally secure controlled access technology. GE's ACUVision, for example, offers a single panel platform for access control, alarm monitoring and digital recording. ===Internet of things and physical vulnerabilities=== The Internet of things (IoT) is the network of physical objects such as devices, vehicles, and buildings that are embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and network connectivity that enables them to collect and exchange data. Concerns have been raised that this is being developed without appropriate consideration of the security challenges involved. While the IoT creates opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems, it also provides opportunities for misuse. In particular, as the Internet of Things spreads widely, cyberattacks are likely to become an increasingly physical (rather than simply virtual) threat. If a front door's lock is connected to the Internet, and can be locked/unlocked from a phone, then a criminal could enter the home at the press of a button from a stolen or hacked phone. People could stand to lose much more than their credit card numbers in a world controlled by IoT-enabled devices. Thieves have also used electronic means to circumvent non-Internet-connected hotel door locks. An attack aimed at physical infrastructure or human lives is often called a cyber-kinetic attack. As IoT devices and appliances become more widespread, the prevalence and potential damage of cyber-kinetic attacks can increase substantially. ===Medical systems=== Medical devices have either been successfully attacked or had potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated, including both in-hospital diagnostic equipment and implanted devices including pacemakers and insulin pumps. There are many reports of hospitals and hospital organizations getting hacked, including ransomware attacks, Windows XP exploits, viruses, and data breaches of sensitive data stored on hospital servers. On 28 December 2016 the US Food and Drug Administration released its recommendations for how medical device manufacturers should maintain the security of Internet-connected devices – but no structure for enforcement. === Energy sector === In distributed generation systems, the risk of a cyber attack is real, according to Daily Energy Insider. An attack could cause a loss of power in a large area for a long period of time, and such an attack could have just as severe consequences as a natural disaster. The District of Columbia is considering creating a Distributed Energy Resources (DER) Authority within the city, with the goal being for customers to have more insight into their own energy use and giving the local electric utility, Pepco, the chance to better estimate energy demand. The D.C. proposal, however, would "allow third-party vendors to create numerous points of energy distribution, which could potentially create more opportunities for cyber attackers to threaten the electric grid." ===Telecommunications=== Perhaps the most widely known digitally secure telecommunication device is the SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card, a device that is embedded in most of the world's cellular devices before any service can be obtained. The SIM card is just the beginning of this digitally secure environment. The Smart Card Web Servers draft standard (SCWS) defines the interfaces to an HTTP server in a smart card. Tests are being conducted to secure OTA ("over-the-air") payment and credit card information from and to a mobile phone. Combination SIM/DVD devices are being developed through Smart Video Card technology which embeds a DVD-compliant optical disc into the card body of a regular SIM card. Other telecommunication developments involving digital security include mobile signatures, which use the embedded SIM card to generate a legally binding electronic signature. ==Cost and impact of security breaches== Serious financial damage has been caused by security breaches, but because there is no standard model for estimating the cost of an incident, the only data available is that which is made public by the organizations involved. "Several computer security consulting firms produce estimates of total worldwide losses attributable to virus and worm attacks and to hostile digital acts in general. The 2003 loss estimates by these firms range from $13 billion (worms and viruses only) to $226 billion (for all forms of covert attacks). The reliability of these estimates is often challenged; the underlying methodology is basically anecdotal." However, reasonable estimates of the financial cost of security breaches can actually help organizations make rational investment decisions. According to the classic Gordon-Loeb Model analyzing the optimal investment level in information security, one can conclude that the amount a firm spends to protect information should generally be only a small fraction of the expected loss (i.e., the expected value of the loss resulting from a cyber/information security breach). ==Attacker motivation== As with physical security, the motivations for breaches of computer security vary between attackers. Some are thrill-seekers or vandals, some are activists, others are criminals looking for financial gain. State-sponsored attackers are now common and well resourced but started with amateurs such as Markus Hess who hacked for the KGB, as recounted by Clifford Stoll in The Cuckoo's Egg. Attackers motivations can vary for all types of attacks from pleasure to political goals. Additionally, recent attacker motivations can be traced back to extremist organizations seeking to gain political advantage or disrupt social agendas. The growth of the internet, mobile technologies, and inexpensive computing devices have led to a rise in capabilities but also to the risk to environments that are deemed as vital to operations. All critical targeted environments are susceptible to compromise and this has led to a series of proactive studies on how to migrate the risk by taking into consideration motivations by these types of actors. Several stark differences exist between the hacker motivation and that of nation state actors seeking to attack based on an ideological preference. A key aspect of threat modeling for any system is identifying the motivations behind potential attacks and the individuals or groups likely to carry them out. The level and detail of security measures will differ based on the specific system being protected. For instance, a home personal computer, a bank, and a classified military network each face distinct threats, despite using similar underlying technologies. ==Computer security incident management== Computer security incident management is an organized approach to addressing and managing the aftermath of a computer security incident or compromise with the goal of preventing a breach or thwarting a cyberattack. An incident that is not identified and managed at the time of intrusion typically escalates to a more damaging event such as a data breach or system failure. The intended outcome of a computer security incident response plan is to contain the incident, limit damage and assist recovery to business as usual. Responding to compromises quickly can mitigate exploited vulnerabilities, restore services and processes and minimize losses. Incident response planning allows an organization to establish a series of best practices to stop an intrusion before it causes damage. Typical incident response plans contain a set of written instructions that outline the organization's response to a cyberattack. Without a documented plan in place, an organization may not successfully detect an intrusion or compromise and stakeholders may not understand their roles, processes and procedures during an escalation, slowing the organization's response and resolution. There are four key components of a computer security incident response plan: Preparation: Preparing stakeholders on the procedures for handling computer security incidents or compromises Detection and analysis: Identifying and investigating suspicious activity to confirm a security incident, prioritizing the response based on impact and coordinating notification of the incident Containment, eradication and recovery: Isolating affected systems to prevent escalation and limit impact, pinpointing the genesis of the incident, removing malware, affected systems and bad actors from the environment and restoring systems and data when a threat no longer remains Post incident activity: Post mortem analysis of the incident, its root cause and the organization's response with the intent of improving the incident response plan and future response efforts. ==Notable attacks and breaches== Some illustrative examples of different types of computer security breaches are given below. ===Robert Morris and the first computer worm=== In 1988, 60,000 computers were connected to the Internet, and most were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations. On 2 November 1988, many started to slow down, because they were running a malicious code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers – the first internet computer worm. The software was traced back to 23-year-old Cornell University graduate student Robert Tappan Morris who said "he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet". ===TJX customer credit card details=== In early 2007, American apparel and home goods company TJX announced that it was the victim of an unauthorized computer systems intrusion and that the hackers had accessed a system that stored data on credit card, debit card, check, and merchandise return transactions. ===Stuxnet attack=== In 2010, the computer worm known as Stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one-fifth of Iran's nuclear centrifuges. It did so by disrupting industrial programmable logic controllers (PLCs) in a targeted attack. This is generally believed to have been launched by Israel and the United States to disrupt Iran's nuclear program – although neither has publicly admitted this. ===Global surveillance disclosures=== In early 2013, documents provided by Edward Snowden were published by The Washington Post and The Guardian exposing the massive scale of NSA global surveillance. There were also indications that the NSA may have inserted a backdoor in a NIST standard for encryption. This standard was later withdrawn due to widespread criticism. The NSA additionally were revealed to have tapped the links between Google's data centers. ===Target and Home Depot breaches=== A Ukrainian hacker known as Rescator broke into Target Corporation computers in 2013, stealing roughly 40 million credit cards, and then Home Depot computers in 2014, stealing between 53 and 56 million credit card numbers. Warnings were delivered at both corporations, but ignored; physical security breaches using self checkout machines are believed to have played a large role. "The malware utilized is absolutely unsophisticated and uninteresting," says Jim Walter, director of threat intelligence operations at security technology company McAfee – meaning that the heists could have easily been stopped by existing antivirus software had administrators responded to the warnings. The size of the thefts has resulted in major attention from state and Federal United States authorities and the investigation is ongoing. ===Office of Personnel Management data breach=== In April 2015, the Office of Personnel Management discovered it had been hacked more than a year earlier in a data breach, resulting in the theft of approximately 21.5 million personnel records handled by the office. The Office of Personnel Management hack has been described by federal officials as among the largest breaches of government data in the history of the United States. Data targeted in the breach included personally identifiable information such as Social Security numbers, names, dates and places of birth, addresses, and fingerprints of current and former government employees as well as anyone who had undergone a government background check. It is believed the hack was perpetrated by Chinese hackers. ===Ashley Madison breach=== In July 2015, a hacker group is known as The Impact Team successfully breached the extramarital relationship website Ashley Madison, created by Avid Life Media. The group claimed that they had taken not only company data but user data as well. After the breach, The Impact Team dumped emails from the company's CEO, to prove their point, and threatened to dump customer data unless the website was taken down permanently. When Avid Life Media did not take the site offline the group released two more compressed files, one 9.7GB and the second 20GB. After the second data dump, Avid Life Media CEO Noel Biderman resigned; but the website remained to function. === Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack === In June 2021, the cyber attack took down the largest fuel pipeline in the U.S. and led to shortages across the East Coast. ==Legal issues and global regulation== International legal issues of cyber attacks are complicated in nature. There is no global base of common rules to judge, and eventually punish, cybercrimes and cybercriminals - and where security firms or agencies do locate the cybercriminal behind the creation of a particular piece of malware or form of cyber attack, often the local authorities cannot take action due to lack of laws under which to prosecute. Proving attribution for cybercrimes and cyberattacks is also a major problem for all law enforcement agencies. "Computer viruses switch from one country to another, from one jurisdiction to another – moving around the world, using the fact that we don't have the capability to globally police operations like this. So the Internet is as if someone [had] given free plane tickets to all the online criminals of the world." The government's regulatory role in cyberspace is complicated. For some, cyberspace was seen as a virtual space that was to remain free of government intervention, as can be seen in many of today's libertarian blockchain and bitcoin discussions. Many government officials and experts think that the government should do more and that there is a crucial need for improved regulation, mainly due to the failure of the private sector to solve efficiently the cybersecurity problem. R. Clarke said during a panel discussion at the RSA Security Conference in San Francisco, he believes that the "industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If the industry doesn't respond (to the threat), you have to follow through." On the other hand, executives from the private sector agree that improvements are necessary, but think that government intervention would affect their ability to innovate efficiently. Daniel R. McCarthy analyzed this public-private partnership in cybersecurity and reflected on the role of cybersecurity in the broader constitution of political order. On 22 May 2020, the UN Security Council held its second ever informal meeting on cybersecurity to focus on cyber challenges to international peace. According to UN Secretary-General António Guterres, new technologies are too often used to violate rights. ==International actions== Many different teams and organizations exist, including: The Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams (FIRST) is the global association of CSIRTs. The US-CERT, AT&T, Apple, Cisco, McAfee, Microsoft are all members of this international team. The Council of Europe helps protect societies worldwide from the threat of cybercrime through the Convention on Cybercrime. The purpose of the Messaging Anti-Abuse Working Group (MAAWG) is to bring the messaging industry together to work collaboratively and to successfully address the various forms of messaging abuse, such as spam, viruses, denial-of-service attacks and other messaging exploitations. France Telecom, Facebook, AT&T, Apple, Cisco, Sprint are some of the members of the MAAWG. ENISA : The European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA) is an agency of the European Union with the objective to improve network and information security in the European Union. ===Europe=== On 14 April 2016, the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union adopted the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). The GDPR, which came into force on 25 May 2018, grants individuals within the European Union (EU) and the European Economic Area (EEA) the right to the protection of personal data. The regulation requires that any entity that processes personal data incorporate data protection by design and by default. It also requires that certain organizations appoint a Data Protection Officer (DPO). The IT Security Association TeleTrusT exist in Germany since June 1986, which is an international competence network for IT security. ==National actions== ===Computer emergency response teams=== Most countries have their own computer emergency response team to protect network security. ==== Canada ==== Since 2010, Canada has had a cybersecurity strategy. This functions as a counterpart document to the National Strategy and Action Plan for Critical Infrastructure. There is also a Cyber Incident Management Framework to provide a coordinated response in the event of a cyber incident. The Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre (CCIRC) is responsible for mitigating and responding to threats to Canada's critical infrastructure and cyber systems. It provides support to mitigate cyber threats, technical support to respond & recover from targeted cyber attacks, and provides online tools for members of Canada's critical infrastructure sectors. It posts regular cybersecurity bulletins & operates an online reporting tool where individuals and organizations can report a cyber incident. To inform the general public on how to protect themselves online, Public Safety Canada has partnered with STOP.THINK.CONNECT, a coalition of non-profit, private sector, and government organizations, and launched the Cyber Security Cooperation Program. They also run the GetCyberSafe portal for Canadian citizens, and Cyber Security Awareness Month during October. Public Safety Canada aims to begin an evaluation of Canada's cybersecurity strategy in early 2015. ==== India ==== Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000. The National Cyber Security Policy 2013 is a policy framework by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) which aims to protect the public and private infrastructure from cyberattacks, and safeguard "information, such as personal information (of web users), financial and banking information and sovereign data". CERT- In is the nodal agency which monitors the cyber threats in the country. The post of National Cyber Security Coordinator has also been created in the Prime Minister's Office (PMO). The Indian Companies Act 2013 has also introduced cyber law and cybersecurity obligations on the part of Indian directors. Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000 Update in 2013. ==== South Korea ==== Following cyberattacks in the first half of 2013, when the government, news media, television stations, and bank websites were compromised, the national government committed to the training of 5,000 new cybersecurity experts by 2017. The South Korean government blamed its northern counterpart for these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in 2009, 2011, and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the accusations. ==== United States ==== ===== Cyber Plan ===== The United States has its first fully formed cyber plan in 15 years, as a result of the release of this National Cyber plan. In this policy, the US says it will: Protect the country by keeping networks, systems, functions, and data safe; Promote American wealth by building a strong digital economy and encouraging strong domestic innovation; Peace and safety should be kept by making it easier for the US to stop people from using computer tools for bad things, working with friends and partners to do this; and increase the United States' impact around the world to support the main ideas behind an open, safe, reliable, and compatible Internet. The new U.S. cyber strategy seeks to allay some of those concerns by promoting responsible behavior in cyberspace, urging nations to adhere to a set of norms, both through international law and voluntary standards. It also calls for specific measures to harden U.S. government networks from attacks, like the June 2015 intrusion into the U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM), which compromised the records of about 4.2 million current and former government employees. And the strategy calls for the U.S. to continue to name and shame bad cyber actors, calling them out publicly for attacks when possible, along with the use of economic sanctions and diplomatic pressure. ===== Legislation ===== The 1986 , the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act is the key legislation. It prohibits unauthorized access or damage of protected computers as defined in . Although various other measures have been proposed – none have succeeded. In 2013, executive order 13636 Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity was signed, which prompted the creation of the NIST Cybersecurity Framework. In response to the Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack President Joe Biden signed Executive Order 14028 on May 12, 2021, to increase software security standards for sales to the government, tighten detection and security on existing systems, improve information sharing and training, establish a Cyber Safety Review Board, and improve incident response. =====Standardized government testing services===== The General Services Administration (GSA) has standardized the penetration test service as a pre-vetted support service, to rapidly address potential vulnerabilities, and stop adversaries before they impact US federal, state and local governments. These services are commonly referred to as Highly Adaptive Cybersecurity Services (HACS). ===== Agencies ===== The Department of Homeland Security has a dedicated division responsible for the response system, risk management program and requirements for cybersecurity in the United States called the National Cyber Security Division. The National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center brings together government organizations responsible for protecting computer networks and networked infrastructure. The third priority of the FBI is to: "Protect the United States against cyber-based attacks and high-technology crimes", and they, along with the National White Collar Crime Center (NW3C), and the Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) are part of the multi-agency task force, The Internet Crime Complaint Center, also known as IC3. In addition to its own specific duties, the FBI participates alongside non-profit organizations such as InfraGard. The Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section (CCIPS) operates in the United States Department of Justice Criminal Division. The CCIPS is in charge of investigating computer crime and intellectual property crime and is specialized in the search and seizure of digital evidence in computers and networks. In 2017, CCIPS published A Framework for a Vulnerability Disclosure Program for Online Systems to help organizations "clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure and discovery conduct, thereby substantially reducing the likelihood that such described activities will result in a civil or criminal violation of law under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (18 U.S.C. § 1030)." The United States Cyber Command, also known as USCYBERCOM, "has the mission to direct, synchronize, and coordinate cyberspace planning and operations to defend and advance national interests in collaboration with domestic and international partners." It has no role in the protection of civilian networks. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission's role in cybersecurity is to strengthen the protection of critical communications infrastructure, to assist in maintaining the reliability of networks during disasters, to aid in swift recovery after, and to ensure that first responders have access to effective communications services. The Food and Drug Administration has issued guidance for medical devices, and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration is concerned with automotive cybersecurity. After being criticized by the Government Accountability Office, and following successful attacks on airports and claimed attacks on airplanes, the Federal Aviation Administration has devoted funding to securing systems on board the planes of private manufacturers, and the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System. Concerns have also been raised about the future Next Generation Air Transportation System. The US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in information assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information Technology (IT) certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network infrastructure defense have minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA). Andersson and Reimers (2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's A+ and Security+ through the ICS2.org's CISSP, etc. ===== Computer emergency readiness team ===== Computer emergency response team is a name given to expert groups that handle computer security incidents. In the US, two distinct organizations exist, although they do work closely together. US-CERT: part of the National Cyber Security Division of the United States Department of Homeland Security. CERT/CC: created by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and run by the Software Engineering Institute (SEI). ===== U.S. NRC, 10 CFR 73.54 Cybersecurity ===== In the context of U.S. nuclear power plants, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) outlines cybersecurity requirements under 10 CFR Part 73, specifically in §73.54. ===== NEI 08-09: Cybersecurity Plan for Nuclear Power Plants ===== The Nuclear Energy Institute's NEI 08-09 document, Cyber Security Plan for Nuclear Power Reactors, outlines a comprehensive framework for cybersecurity in the nuclear power industry. Drafted with input from the U.S. NRC, this guideline is instrumental in aiding licensees to comply with the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), which mandates robust protection of digital computers and equipment and communications systems at nuclear power plants against cyber threats. ==Modern warfare== There is growing concern that cyberspace will become the next theater of warfare. As Mark Clayton from The Christian Science Monitor wrote in a 2015 article titled "The New Cyber Arms Race": This has led to new terms such as cyberwarfare and cyberterrorism. The United States Cyber Command was created in 2009 and many other countries have similar forces. There are a few critical voices that question whether cybersecurity is as significant a threat as it is made out to be. ==Careers== Cybersecurity is a fast-growing field of IT concerned with reducing organizations' risk of hack or data breaches. According to research from the Enterprise Strategy Group, 46% of organizations say that they have a "problematic shortage" of cybersecurity skills in 2016, up from 28% in 2015. Commercial, government and non-governmental organizations all employ cybersecurity professionals. The fastest increases in demand for cybersecurity workers are in industries managing increasing volumes of consumer data such as finance, health care, and retail. However, the use of the term cybersecurity is more prevalent in government job descriptions. Typical cybersecurity job titles and descriptions include: ===Security analyst=== Analyzes and assesses vulnerabilities in the infrastructure (software, hardware, networks), investigates using available tools and countermeasures to remedy the detected vulnerabilities and recommends solutions and best practices. Analyzes and assesses damage to the data/infrastructure as a result of security incidents, examines available recovery tools and processes, and recommends solutions. Tests for compliance with security policies and procedures. May assist in the creation, implementation, or management of security solutions. ===Security engineer=== Performs security monitoring, security and data/logs analysis, and forensic analysis, to detect security incidents, and mount the incident response. Investigates and utilizes new technologies and processes to enhance security capabilities and implement improvements. May also review code or perform other security engineering methodologies. ===Security architect=== Designs a security system or major components of a security system, and may head a security design team building a new security system. ===Chief Information Security Officer (CISO)=== A high-level management position responsible for the entire information security division/staff. The position may include hands-on technical work. ===Chief Security Officer (CSO)=== A high-level management position responsible for the entire security division/staff. A newer position is now deemed needed as security risks grow. ===Data Protection Officer (DPO)=== A DPO is tasked with monitoring compliance with data protection laws (such as GDPR), data protection policies, awareness-raising, training, and audits. ===Security Consultant/Specialist/Intelligence=== Broad titles that encompass any one or all of the other roles or titles tasked with protecting computers, networks, software, data or information systems against viruses, worms, spyware, malware, intrusion detection, unauthorized access, denial-of-service attacks, and an ever-increasing list of attacks by hackers acting as individuals or as part of organized crime or foreign governments. Student programs are also available for people interested in beginning a career in cybersecurity. Meanwhile, a flexible and effective option for information security professionals of all experience levels to keep studying is online security training, including webcasts. A wide range of certified courses are also available. In the United Kingdom, a nationwide set of cybersecurity forums, known as the U.K Cyber Security Forum, were established supported by the Government's cybersecurity strategy in order to encourage start-ups and innovation and to address the skills gap identified by the U.K Government. In Singapore, the Cyber Security Agency has issued a Singapore Operational Technology (OT) Cybersecurity Competency Framework (OTCCF). The framework defines emerging cybersecurity roles in Operational Technology. The OTCCF was endorsed by the Infocomm Media Development Authority (IMDA). It outlines the different OT cybersecurity job positions as well as the technical skills and core competencies necessary. It also depicts the many career paths available, including vertical and lateral advancement opportunities. ==Terminology== The following terms used with regards to computer security are explained below: Access authorization restricts access to a computer to a group of users through the use of authentication systems. These systems can protect either the whole computer, such as through an interactive login screen, or individual services, such as a FTP server. There are many methods for identifying and authenticating users, such as passwords, identification cards, smart cards, and biometric systems. Anti-virus software consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, thwart, and eliminate computer viruses and other malicious software (malware). Applications are executable code, so general corporate practice is to restrict or block users the power to install them; to install them only when there is a demonstrated need (e.g. software needed to perform assignments); to install only those which are known to be reputable (preferably with access to the computer code used to create the application,- and to reduce the attack surface by installing as few as possible. They are typically run with least privilege, with a robust process in place to identify, test and install any released security patches or updates for them. For example, programs can be installed into an individual user's account, which limits the program's potential access, as well as being a means control which users have specific exceptions to policy. In Linux, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and other Unix-like operating systems there is an option to further restrict an application using chroot or other means of restricting the application to its own 'sandbox'. For example. Linux provides namespaces, and Cgroups to further restrict the access of an application to system resources. Generalized security frameworks such as SELinux or AppArmor help administrators control access. Java and other languages which compile to Java byte code and run in the Java virtual machine can have their access to other applications controlled at the virtual machine level. Some software can be run in software containers which can even provide their own set of system libraries, limiting the software's, or anyone controlling it, access to the server's versions of the libraries. Authentication techniques can be used to ensure that communication end-points are who they say they are. Automated theorem proving and other verification tools can be used to enable critical algorithms and code used in secure systems to be mathematically proven to meet their specifications. Backups are one or more copies kept of important computer files. Typically, multiple copies will be kept at different locations so that if a copy is stolen or damaged, other copies will still exist. Capability and access control list techniques can be used to ensure privilege separation and mandatory access control. Capabilities vs. ACLs discusses their use. Chain of trust techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all software loaded has been certified as authentic by the system's designers. Confidentiality is the nondisclosure of information except to another authorized person. Cryptographic techniques can be used to defend data in transit between systems, reducing the probability that the data exchange between systems can be intercepted or modified. Cyber attribution, is an attribution of cybercrime, i.e., finding who perpetrated a cyberattack. Cyberwarfare is an Internet-based conflict that involves politically motivated attacks on information and information systems. Such attacks can, for example, disable official websites and networks, disrupt or disable essential services, steal or alter classified data, and cripple financial systems. Data integrity is the accuracy and consistency of stored data, indicated by an absence of any alteration in data between two updates of a data record. Encryption is used to protect the confidentiality of a message. Cryptographically secure ciphers are designed to make any practical attempt of breaking them infeasible. Symmetric-key ciphers are suitable for bulk encryption using shared keys, and public-key encryption using digital certificates can provide a practical solution for the problem of securely communicating when no key is shared in advance. Endpoint security software aids networks in preventing malware infection and data theft at network entry points made vulnerable by the prevalence of potentially infected devices such as laptops, mobile devices, and USB drives. Firewalls serve as a gatekeeper system between networks, allowing only traffic that matches defined rules. They often include detailed logging, and may include intrusion detection and intrusion prevention features. They are near-universal between company local area networks and the Internet, but can also be used internally to impose traffic rules between networks if network segmentation is configured. A hacker is someone who seeks to breach defenses and exploit weaknesses in a computer system or network. Honey pots are computers that are intentionally left vulnerable to attack by crackers. They can be used to catch crackers and to identify their techniques. Intrusion-detection systems are devices or software applications that monitor networks or systems for malicious activity or policy violations. A microkernel is an approach to operating system design which has only the near-minimum amount of code running at the most privileged level – and runs other elements of the operating system such as device drivers, protocol stacks and file systems, in the safer, less privileged user space. Pinging. The standard ping application can be used to test if an IP address is in use. If it is, attackers may then try a port scan to detect which services are exposed. A port scan is used to probe an IP address for open ports to identify accessible network services and applications. A key logger is spyware that silently captures and stores each keystroke that a user types on the computer's keyboard. Social engineering is the use of deception to manipulate individuals to breach security. Logic bombs is a type of malware added to a legitimate program that lies dormant until it is triggered by a specific event. A unikernel is a computer program that runs on a minimalistic operating system where a single application is allowed to run (as opposed to a general purpose operating system where many applications can run at the same time). This approach to minimizing the attack surface is adopted mostly in cloud environments where software is deployed in virtual machines. Zero trust security means that no one is trusted by default from inside or outside the network, and verification is required from everyone trying to gain access to resources on the network. ==History== Since the Internet's arrival and with the digital transformation initiated in recent years, the notion of cybersecurity has become a familiar subject in both our professional and personal lives. Cybersecurity and cyber threats have been consistently present for the last 60 years of technological change. In the 1970s and 1980s, computer security was mainly limited to academia until the conception of the Internet, where, with increased connectivity, computer viruses and network intrusions began to take off. After the spread of viruses in the 1990s, the 2000s marked the institutionalization of organized attacks such as distributed denial of service. This led to the formalization of cybersecurity as a professional discipline. The April 1967 session organized by Willis Ware at the Spring Joint Computer Conference, and the later publication of the Ware Report, were foundational moments in the history of the field of computer security. Ware's work straddled the intersection of material, cultural, political, and social concerns. introduced the CIA triad of confidentiality, integrity, and availability as a clear and simple way to describe key security goals. While still relevant, many more elaborate frameworks have since been proposed. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, there were no grave computer threats because computers and the internet were still developing, and security threats were easily identifiable. More often, threats came from malicious insiders who gained unauthorized access to sensitive documents and files. Although malware and network breaches existed during the early years, they did not use them for financial gain. By the second half of the 1970s, established computer firms like IBM started offering commercial access control systems and computer security software products. One of the earliest examples of an attack on a computer network was the computer worm Creeper written by Bob Thomas at BBN, which propagated through the ARPANET in 1971. The program was purely experimental in nature and carried no malicious payload. A later program, Reaper, was created by Ray Tomlinson in 1972 and used to destroy Creeper. Between September 1986 and June 1987, a group of German hackers performed the first documented case of cyber espionage. The group hacked into American defense contractors, universities, and military base networks and sold gathered information to the Soviet KGB. The group was led by Markus Hess, who was arrested on 29 June 1987. He was convicted of espionage (along with two co-conspirators) on 15 Feb 1990. In 1988, one of the first computer worms, called the Morris worm, was distributed via the Internet. It gained significant mainstream media attention. Netscape started developing the protocol SSL, shortly after the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) launched Mosaic 1.0, the first web browser, in 1993. Netscape had SSL version 1.0 ready in 1994, but it was never released to the public due to many serious security vulnerabilities. The National Security Agency (NSA) is responsible for the protection of U.S. information systems and also for collecting foreign intelligence. The agency analyzes commonly used software and system configurations to find security flaws, which it can use for offensive purposes against competitors of the United States. NSA contractors created and sold click-and-shoot attack tools to US agencies and close allies, but eventually, the tools made their way to foreign adversaries. In 2016, NSAs own hacking tools were hacked, and they have been used by Russia and North Korea. NSA's employees and contractors have been recruited at high salaries by adversaries, anxious to compete in cyberwarfare. In 2007, the United States and Israel began exploiting security flaws in the Microsoft Windows operating system to attack and damage equipment used in Iran to refine nuclear materials. Iran responded by heavily investing in their own cyberwarfare capability, which it began using against the United States. ==Notable scholars==	[ "Google", "Salvatore J. Stolfo", "Telehealth", "Scareware", "Watering hole attack", "Text messaging", "security breach notification laws", "Willis Ware", "Creeper and Reaper", "Information privacy", "data logging", "QR code", "botnet", "Computer-aided dispatch", "Cyber-Attacks", "Joe Biden", "Form W-2", "Audit trail", "Advanced Encryption Standard", "data breach", "Pan-European Network Service", "Anti-spyware", "Peter J. Denning", "Vint Cerf", "Equifax", "Internet", "Microsoft Windows", "verizon", "programmable logic controller", "Electric power distribution", "Eavesdropping", "Brian LaMacchia", "France Télécom", "Access control", "near-field communication", "Rome Laboratory", "Next Generation Air Transportation System", "Ping (networking utility)", "compact disc", "Embedded system", "TeleTrusT", "Honeypot (computing)", "anti-lock brakes", "National Cyber Coordination Centre", "nation state", "United States Congress", "cipher", "identification card", "Privilege escalation", "Sandbox (computer security)", "Nuclear Regulatory Commission", "pacemaker", "digital evidence", "United Kingdom Government", "ransomware", "Peter Feigin", "Keystroke logging", "Federal Bureau of Investigation", "Vandalism", "microkernel", "RFID", "Shafi Goldwasser", "Port (computer networking)", "machine learning", "Integrated circuit", "cheque", "HBGary Federal", "access-control list", "Vulnerability Management", "Peter Gutmann (computer scientist)", "Denial-of-service attacks", "Application software", "Physical unclonable function", "internet service provider", "Defense in depth (computing)", "Nuclear power in the United States", "key logger", "Social Security number", "black market", "FBI", "File Transfer Protocol", "Antivirus software", "identity fraud", "Ransomware", "attack (computing)", "capability-based security", "Intrusion prevention system", "Pepco", "Virtual Private Networks", "Security information management", "Chain of trust", "virtual private network", "Ross J. Anderson", "Ware Report", "mall kiosk", "Trusted platform module", "Medical device manufacturing", "nuclear power industry", "Linux namespaces", "television", "Authentication", "Evil Maid attack", "The Pentagon", "MasterCard", "Trellix", "Cyber attribution", "mobile signature", "firmware", "Hacker (computer security)", "Bulletproof hosting", "fail-safe", "Australia", "Records management", "Self-checkout", "USCYBERCOM", "United States Department of Homeland Security", "DVD", "The Washington Post", "RSA Conference", "business email compromise", "chroot", "Backup", "webpage", "Home Depot", "electromagnetism", "operating system", "UK", "shared key", "NPR", "Business Insider", "Vulnerability (computing)", "electronic ticket", "Julie Collins", "Cyberwarfare", "The New York Times", "email spoofing", "Susan Landau", "Clare O'Neil", "symmetric-key algorithm", "Trojan horse (computing)", "National Cyber Security Division", "Potentially unwanted program", "optical disc", "computer systems", "Dorothy E. Denning", "Automated threat", "information systems", "Anti-subversion software", "Linux", "facial recognition technology", "PikeOS", "cyberwarfare", "San Francisco", "Personal identification number", "agency of the European Union", "computer viruses", "malware", "Gene Spafford", "HTTPS", "National Highway Traffic Safety Administration", "Israel", "Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency", "Computer security model", "NSA", "URL", "VoIP", "OpenBSD", "Government Accountability Office", "Rescator", "biometrics", "identity management", "EMV", "air traffic control", "Peter G. Neumann", "expected value", "National White Collar Crime Center", "Intrusion detection system", "bitcoin", "Tesla Motors", "Windows XP", "Fox Business Network", "threat (computer)", "Wireless security", "tablet computer", "jurisdiction", "nuclear centrifuge", "computer hardware", "activity tracker", "Acute stress reaction", "Annie Anton", "Kevin Mitnick", "National Cyber Security Policy 2013", "Computer emergency response team", "Endpoint security", "Chip Authentication Program", "Council of Europe", "bank account", "Nuclear Energy Institute", "sensor", "Address Resolution Protocol", "cryptographic protocol", "Anti-keylogger", "Microsoft", "backup", "National Security Agency", "Small and medium-sized enterprises", "blockchain", "wikt:academia", "Common Criteria", "Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section", "ARPANET", "Spring Joint Computer Conference", "exit procedure", "Code review", "Fred Piper", "HTML", "penetration test", "principle of least privilege", "biometric passport", "Countermeasure (computer)", "Remote Access Trojan", "encryption", "user account", "Richard A. Clarke", "security engineering", "Encryption", "computer network", "man-in-the-middle attack", "Java byte code", "military", "port scan", "Cyber-security regulation", "Stefan Brands", "network stack", "Security-evaluated operating system", "anxiety", "cyber attribution", "dynamic DNS", "Cloud computing", "superuser", "CD-ROM", "The Guardian", "António Guterres", "accelerometers", "traffic light", "Netscape", "electronics", "IP address spoofing", "legal attribution", "FreeBSD", "FedEx", "proactive cyber defence", "U.S. Office of Personnel Management", "Facebook", "The Cuckoo's Egg", "Subscriber Identity Module", "Firewall (networking)", "dongle", "network interface controller", "Denial-of-service attack", "forensics", "Data logging", "Phishing", "Milwaukee Bucks", "HTTP server", "Tampering (crime)", "Election security", "Monica S. Lam", "Security information and event management", "connected car", "Full disclosure (computer security)", "Target Corporation", "Intrusion Detection System", "DNS spoofing", "Kernel (operating system)", "source code", "cyberspace", "software", "safety engineering", "Butler Lampson", "Carl Landwehr", "smart device", "personal hygiene", "Bluetooth low energy", "United States Office of Personnel Management", "Cold boot attack", "NIST", "Transport Layer Security", "Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations", "smartphone", "Staples Inc.", "mobile devices", "sender", "Intrusion-detection system", "IBM", "UK Cyber Security Forum", "Barack Obama", "Lorrie Cranor", "United States Department of Justice Criminal Division", "Capability-based security", "Logfile", "cryptanalysis", "Automated teller machine", "Anonymous (group)", "computer software", "Sony Pictures", "National Aeronautics and Space Administration", "Data (computing)", "Nuclear safety and security", "Roger R. Schell", "Cynthia Dwork", "CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform", "Moti Yung", "fast flux", "look and feel", "Anti-malware", "Security and Privacy in Computer Systems", "Exploit (computer security)", "tracking device", "electronic signature", "network security", "L. 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Gordon", "Parental control", "CIA", "HTTP", "computer crime", "Bluetooth", "General Services Administration", "Carnivore (FBI)", "Cisco", "digital certificate", "instant messaging", "Edward Snowden", "Dawn Song", "United States Cyber Command", "licensee", "correctness (computer science)", "Anti-theft", "health insurance", "Adam Back", "Medical devices", "Internet Crime Complaint Center", "Computer virus", "IP address", "Daniel J. Bernstein", "authorization", "Food and Drug Administration", "audit trail", "E programming language", "local area networks", "access control", "protection", "World peace", "UNIX", "Disk encryption", "quantified self", "Logic bomb", "Man-in-the-middle attack", "BBN Technologies", "risk management", "information technology security assessment", "KGB", "local area network", "trusted platform module", "AppArmor", "United States Senate", "Clifford Stoll", "secure by design", "passwords", "US-CERT", "Anti-virus software", "Biometrics", "Germany", "wireless network standards", "attack surface", "Deborah Estrin", "SELinux", "Sprint Nextel", "Nest thermostat", "European Network and Information Security Agency", "algorithms", "Zero trust security", "Verizon", "intellectual property", "United Parcel Service", "CNNMoney", "secure coding", "security convergence", "system", "Computer Emergency Readiness Team", "European Union", "s:Executive Order 13636", "Bitcoin", "login", "Matt Blaze", "Markus Hess", "Ray Tomlinson", "NBA", "big data", "distributed denial of service", "least privilege", "Robert Tappan Morris", "Government of the United Kingdom", "Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System", "Prime Minister's Office (India)", "MAC spoofing", "DMA attack", "Hacktivism", "Bureau of Justice Assistance", "algorithm", "CERT Coordination Center", "Telephone call", "The Christian Science Monitor", "trojan horse (computing)", "user space", "Office of Personnel Management data breach", "security breach", "U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission", "Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack", "finance", "Evasion (network security)", "security breaches", "power grid", "IOMMU", "Unix", "network segmentation", "Narus (company)", "executable", "inoculation theory", "European Parliament", "zombie computer", "information security", "Lock and key", "fiction", "General Data Protection Regulation", "Apple Inc.", "Data loss prevention software", "Chuck Easttom", "unit testing", "insulin pump", "unikernel", "cybercrime", "Software vulnerability", "GDPR", "Nuevo León", "Backdoor (computing)", "Anti-tamper software", "public-key encryption", "computer virus", "Self-driving car", "Information technology", "Paul Carl Kocher", "AT&T", "Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures", "InfraGard", "Log management software", "Infocomm Media Development Authority", "open source", "Indian Computer Emergency Response Team", "formal verification", "biometric", "air navigation service provider", "phishing", "telecommunications", "mandatory access control", "open source software", "smart watch", "virtual machine", "aviation", "Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre", "Australian federal government", "legal", "cryptosystem", "McAfee", "Cybercrime", "controller area network", "Smartphone", "Computer network", "antivirus software", "Computer case", "Email spoofing", "Interoperability", "Gordon-Loeb Model", "cryptography" ]
7,400	Chris Cunningham	Chris Cunningham (born 15 October 1970) is an English video artist and music video director who directed music videos for electronic musicians such as Autechre, Squarepusher, and Aphex Twin and Björk. Early in his career he worked as a comic book artist. He has created art installations and directed short movies. In the mid 2000s, Cunningham began doing music production work, and has also designed album artwork for a variety of musicians. Cunningham worked on a never completed movie adaptation of William Gibson's cyberpunk novel Neuromancer. His style is noted for its use of robotics, body horror and Mickey mousing (syncing action with music). == Biography == === Early work - comic books and film special effects === Between circa 1990 and 1992, he worked as a comic book artist for 2000 AD working under the pseudonym "Chris Halls" (Halls is his stepfather's surname). He worked on comics including Aliens and Judge Dredd Megazine. His contributions included cover paintings and strips. For Kubrick, Cunningham designed and supervised animatronic prototypes of David; the central robot child character. Cunningham worked for over a year on the film. However, around this time Kubrick put the film on hold, with Cunningham going on to pursue a career as a director. === Music videos === Cunningham has had close ties to Warp Records since his first video for Autechre, "Second Bad Vilbel" in 1995 and Squarepusher's "Come On My Selector" in 1998, which received airplay on MTV's Amp and MTV's Chill Out Zone in Europe. Videos for Aphex Twin's "Come to Daddy" and "Windowlicker" are perhaps his best known. His video for Björk's "All Is Full of Love" won multiple awards, including an MTV music video award for Breakthrough Video and was nominated for a Grammy for Best Short Form Music Video. It was also the first ever music video to win a Gold Pencil at the D&AD Awards. It can still be seen at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. His video for Aphex Twin's "Windowlicker" was nominated for the "Best Video" award at the Brit Awards 2000. He also directed Madonna's "Frozen" video which became an international hit and won the award for Best Special Effects at the 1998 MTV Music Video Awards. Cunningham also came out of a seven-year hiatus from making music videos to direct the video for "Sheena Is a Parasite" by the Horrors. === Video art === His video installation Flex was first shown in 2000 at the Royal Academy of Arts, and subsequently at the Anthony d'Offay Gallery and other art galleries. Flex was commissioned by the Anthony d'Offay Gallery for the Apocalypse: Beauty & Horror in Contemporary Art exhibition curated by Norman Rosenthal and Max Wigram at the Royal Academy of Arts in 2000. The Anthony d'Offay Gallery also commissioned Monkey Drummer, a 2½ minute piece intended for exhibition as a companion to Flex at the 2000 Apocalypse exhibition at the Royal Academy of Arts: however, the piece was not finished in time. In it an automaton with nine appendages and the head of a monkey plays the drums to "Mt Saint Michel + Saint Michaels Mount", the 10th track on Aphex Twin's 2001 album drukqs. Monkey Drummer debuted as part of Cunningham's installation at the 49th International Exhibition of Art at the 2001 Venice Biennale, which consisted of a loop of Monkey Drummer, Flex, and his video for Björk's "All Is Full of Love". In 2002 both Flex and Monkey Drummer were exhibited by 5th Gallery in Dublin, Ireland, in an exhibition curated by Artist/Curator Paul Murnaghan, === Neuromancer === In an August 1999 Spike Magazine interview, cyberpunk author William Gibson stated "He (Chris) was brought to my attention by someone else. We were told, third-hand, that he was extremely wary of the Hollywood process, and wouldn't return calls. But someone else told us that Neuromancer had been his The Wind in the Willows, that he'd read it when he was a kid. I went to London and we met." Gibson is also quoted in the article as saying "Chris is my own 100 percent personal choice...My only choice. The only person I've met who I thought might have a hope in hell of doing it right. I went back to see him in London just after he'd finished the Bjork video, and I sat on a couch beside this dead sex little Bjork robot, except it was wearing Aphex Twin's head. We talked." In 2000, Cunningham and William Gibson began work on the script for Gibson's 1984 novel Neuromancer. However, because Neuromancer was due to be a big budget studio film, it is rumoured that Cunningham pulled out due to being a first time director without final cut approval. He also felt that too much of the original book's ideas had been cannibalised by other recent films. === Music production, 'live' and short films (2004 - present) === By 18 November 2004, the Neuromancer film project had been canned. On the FAQ on the William Gibson Board, Gibson stated about the adaptation "... The most recently rumoured version, to have been directed by Chris Cunningham, is now definitely not happening." Cunningham took a sabbatical from filmmaking to learn about music production and recording and to develop his own music projects. In 2005, Cunningham released the short film Rubber Johnny as a DVD accompanied by a book of photographs and drawings. Rubber Johnny, a six-minute experimental short film cut to a soundtrack by Aphex Twin remixed by Cunningham, was shot between 2001 and 2004. Shot on DV night-vision, it was made in Cunningham's own time as a home movie of sorts, and took three and half years of weekends to complete. The Telegraph called it "like a Looney Tunes short for a generation raised on video nasties and rave music". In 2005, Cunningham played a 45-minute audio visual piece performed live in Tokyo and Osaka in front of 30,000+ fans over the two nights at the Japanese electronic music festival . These performances evolved into Chris Cunningham Live, a 55-minute long performance piece combining original and remixed music and film. It features remixed, unreleased and brand new videos and music dynamically edited together into a new live piece spread over three screens. The sound accompanying these images includes Cunningham's first publicly performed compositions interspersed with his remixes of other artist's work. Chris Cunningham Live debuted as one of the headline attractions at Warp 20 in Paris on 8 May 2009 with other performances scheduled at festivals in UK, and a number of European cities later in the year. Chris Cunningham Live continued in June 2011, with performances in London, Barcelona, and Sydney, Australia. During this period Cunningham also made another short film for Warp Films, Spectral Musicians, which remains unreleased. The short film was set to Squarepusher's "My Fucking Sound" from his album Go Plastic; and to a piece called "Mutilation Colony" which was written especially for the short, and was released on the studio album Do You Know Squarepusher. In 2007, an excerpt from Flex was shown in the Barbican's exhibition Seduced: Art and Sex from Antiquity to Now curated by Martin Kemp, Marina Wallace and Joanne Bernstein. alongside other pieces by Bacon, Klimt, Rembrandt, Rodin and Picasso. In December 2007 Cunningham produced two tracks, "Three Decades" and "Primary Colours", for Primary Colours, the second album by the Horrors. In the summer of 2008, due to scheduling conflicts with his feature film script writing he could not work on the rest of the album which was subsequently recorded by Geoff Barrow from Portishead. In 2008, he produced and arranged a new version of 'I Feel Love' for the Gucci commercial that he also directed. He travelled to Nashville to work with Donna Summer to record a brand new vocal for it. In 2008, Cunningham produced a fashion shoot for Dazed & Confused using Grace Jones as a model to create "Nubian versions" of Rubber Johnny. In an interview for BBC's "The Culture Show", it was suggested that the collaboration may expand into a video project. In regards to the collaboration, Cunningham stated "For me, Grace has the strongest iconography of any artist in music. She’s definitely the most inspiring person I’ve worked with so far". In November 2008, Cunningham followed on with another photoshoot for Vice Magazine. ==Personal life== Cunningham was married to Warpaint's bassist Jenny Lee Lindberg in 2010. By 2016, they were no longer together. ==Photography== Cunningham has created photography and cover artwork for various people including Björk's "All Is Full of Love", Aphex Twin's "Windowlicker" and "Come to Daddy". == Videography == Cunningham has directed music videos, commercials and short films. His commercials for companies and brands, include Gucci, Sony (PlayStation), Levi's, Telecom Italia, Nissan, and Orange. The video collection The Work of Director Chris Cunningham was released in November 2004 as part of the Directors Label set. This DVD includes selected highlights from 1995 to 2000. "Second Bad Vilbel" (1996) video for Autechre "Back with the Killer Again" (1996) video for the Auteurs "Light Aircraft on Fire" (1996) video for the Auteurs "Fighting Fit" (1996) video for Gene "Another Day" (1996) video for Lodestar "Space Junkie" (1996) video for Holy Barbarians "36 Degrees" (1996) video for Placebo "Personally" (1997) video for 12 Rounds "Jesus Coming in for the Kill" (1997) video for Life's Addiction "The Next Big Thing" (1997) video for Jesus Jones "Tranquillizer" (1997) video for Geneva "No More Talk" (1997) video for Dubstar "Something to Say" (1997) video for Jocasta "Come to Daddy" (1997) video for Aphex Twin "Clip Clop" (1997) commercial for XFM London "Sport is Free" (1997) – commercial for ITV "Fetish" (1998) – commercial for NUS "Only You" (1998) video for Portishead "Frozen" (1998) video for Madonna "Come on My Selector" (1998) video for Squarepusher "Engine" (1999) commercial for Nissan. Featuring music by Boards of Canada "All Is Full of Love" (1999) video for Björk "Windowlicker" (1999) video for Aphex Twin "Afrika Shox" (1999) video for Leftfield and Afrika Bambaataa "Mental Wealth" (1999) commercial for Sony PlayStation "Photocopier" (unreleased) commercial for Levi's "Flex" (2000) video installation. Featuring music by Aphex Twin "Quiet" (2000) – commercial for Telecom Italia. Featuring music by Boards of Canada "Monkey Drummer" (2001) video installation. Featuring "Mt Saint Michel + Saint Michaels mount" from Aphex Twin's album Drukqs "Up and Down" (2002) – commercial for Levi's "Photo Messaging" (2003) commercial for Orange. Featuring music from Add N To (X). "Rubber Johnny" (2005) featuring "Afx237 V7" from Aphex Twin's album Drukqs "Sheena Is a Parasite" (2006) video for the Horrors "Gucci Flora" (2009) commercial for Gucci Perfume "New York Is Killing Me (Chris Cunningham Remix)" (2010) video for Gil Scott-Heron "Jaqapparatus 1" (2012) robotic art installation performance for Audi City London. "Love Is To Die" Multimedia documentary for the album release of Warpaint (2014).	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Artificial Intelligence", "electronic music", "Madonna", "Spike Magazine", "drukqs", "Go Plastic", "Neuromancer", "Nissan", "Rubber Johnny", "Afrika Shox", "Stanley Kubrick", "Royal Academy of Arts", "Drowned in Sound", "body horror", "Rembrandt", "Light Aircraft on Fire", "Alien (franchise)", "Judge Dredd Megazine", "Directors Label", "William Gibson", "Geoff Barrow", "Audi", "Vice Magazine", "David Fincher", "12 Rounds (band)" ]
7,401	Centaur	A centaur ( ; ; ), occasionally hippocentaur, also called Ixionidae (), is a creature from Greek mythology with the upper body of a human and the lower body and legs of a horse that was said to live in the mountains of Thessaly. In one version of the myth, the centaurs were named after Centaurus, and, through his brother Lapithes, were kin to the legendary tribe of the Lapiths. Centaurs are thought of in many Greek myths as being as wild as untamed horses, and were said to have inhabited the region of Magnesia and Mount Pelion in Thessaly, the Foloi oak forest in Elis, and the Malean peninsula in southern Laconia. Centaurs are subsequently featured in Roman mythology, and were familiar figures in the medieval bestiary. They remain a staple of modern fantastic literature. == Etymology == The Greek word kentauros is generally regarded as being of obscure origin. The etymology from ken + tauros, 'piercing bull', was a euhemerist suggestion in Palaephatus' rationalizing text on Greek mythology, On Incredible Tales (Περὶ ἀπίστων), which included mounted archers from a village called Nephele eliminating a herd of bulls that were the scourge of Ixion's kingdom. Another possible related etymology can be "bull-slayer". ==Mythology== ===Creation of centaurs=== The centaurs were usually said to have been born of Ixion and Nephele. As the story goes, Nephele was a cloud made into the likeness of Hera in a plot to trick Ixion into revealing his lust for Hera to Zeus. Ixion seduced Nephele and from that relationship centaurs were created. Another version, however, makes them children of Centaurus, a man who mated with the Magnesian mares. Centaurus was either himself the son of Ixion and Nephele (inserting an additional generation) or of Apollo and the nymph Stilbe. In the latter version of the story, Centaurus's twin brother was Lapithes, ancestor of the Lapiths. Another tribe of centaurs was said to have lived on Cyprus. According to Nonnus, the Cyprian Centaurs were fathered by Zeus, who, in frustration after Aphrodite had eluded him, spilled his seed on the ground of that land. Unlike those of mainland Greece, the Cyprian centaurs were ox-horned. There were also the Lamian Pheres, twelve rustic daimones (spirits) of the Lamos river. They were set by Zeus to guard the infant Dionysos, protecting him from the machinations of Hera, but the enraged goddess transformed them into ox-horned Centaurs unrelated to the Cyprian Centaurs. The Lamian Pheres later accompanied Dionysos in his campaign against the Indians. The centaur's half-human, half-horse composition has led many writers to treat them as liminal beings, caught between the two natures they embody in contrasting myths; they are both the embodiment of untamed nature, as in their battle with the Lapiths (their kin), and conversely, teachers like Chiron. ===Centauromachy=== The Centaurs are best known for their fight with the Lapiths who, according to one origin myth, would have been cousins to the centaurs. The battle, called the Centauromachy, was caused by the centaurs' attempt to carry off Hippodamia and the rest of the Lapith women on the day of Hippodamia's marriage to Pirithous, who was the king of the Lapithae and a son of Ixion. Theseus, a hero and founder of cities, who happened to be present, threw the balance in favour of the Lapiths by assisting Pirithous in the battle. The Centaurs were driven off or destroyed. Another Lapith hero, Caeneus, who was invulnerable to weapons, was beaten into the earth by Centaurs wielding rocks and the branches of trees. In her article "The Centaur: Its History and Meaning in Human Culture", Elizabeth Lawrence claims that the contests between the centaurs and the Lapiths typify the struggle between civilization and barbarism. The Centauromachy is most famously portrayed in the metopes of the Parthenon by Phidias and in the Battle of the Centaurs, a relief by Michelangelo. ==List of centaurs== Abas, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought against the Lapiths and fled. Agrius, repelled by Heracles in a fight. Amphion, tried to plunder Pholus of his wine and was killed by Heracles. Amycus, son of Ophion. He attended Pirithous' wedding and fought against the Lapiths. Amycus was killed by Pelates. Anchius, repelled by Heracles when he tried to steal the wine of Pholus. Aphareus, killed by Theseus in the fight at Pirithous' wedding. Aphidas, killed by Phorbas in the fight at Pirithous' wedding. Arctus, attended Pirithous' wedding and fought against the Lapiths. Areos, attended Pirithous' wedding and fought against the Lapiths. Argius, killed by Heracles when he tried to steal the wine of Pholus. Bienor, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Theseus. Bromus, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Caeneus. Chiron, the son of Cronus and Philyra. Chromis, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Pirithous. Chthonius, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Nestor. Clanis, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Peleus. Crenaeus, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Dryas. Daphnis, tried to plunder Pholus of his wine and was killed by Heracles. Dictys, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Pirithous. Dorylas, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Peleus. Doupon, tried to plunder Pholus of his wine and was killed by Heracles. Elatus, tried to plunder Pholus of his wine. Heracles shot an arrow at him, which, passing through his arm, stuck in the knee of Chiron. Eurytus, the wildest of the wild Centaurs. He started the fight at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Theseus. Gryneus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Exadius. Helops, attended Pirithous' wedding and fought in the battle against the Lapiths. While fleeing from Pirithous, he fell from a precipice into the top of a tree and impaled his body. Hippotion, another Centaur, killed by Heracles when he tried to steal the wine of Pholus. Homadus, tried to plunder Pholus of his wine. Some time after he attempted to rape Alcyone, a granddaughter of Perseus. He got killed in Arcadia. Hylaeus, killed by Heracles under unknown circumstances. Hylaeus, followed Dionysus in his Indian campaign and was killed by Orontes, an Indian General. Hyles, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought in the battle against the Lapiths and was killed by Peleus. Imbreus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Dryas. Lycabas, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought against the Lapiths and fled. Lycidas, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Dryas. Lycus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding was killed by Pirithous. Medon, attended Pirithous' wedding, fought against the Lapiths and fled. Mimas, attended Pirithous' wedding and fought against the Lapiths. Nedymnus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding. Killed by Theseus. Ophion, father of Amycus. Orneus, attended Pirithous' wedding fought against the Lapiths and fled. Perimedes, son of Peuceus and attended Pirithous' wedding and fought against the Lapiths. Peuceus, father of Perimedes and Dryalus. Phlegraeus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Peleus. Pylenor, having been wounded by Heracles washed himself in the river Anigrus, thus providing the river with a peculiar odor. Pyracmus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Caeneus. Ripheus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Theseus. Styphelus, fought against the Lapiths at Pirithous' wedding and was killed by Caeneus. Thereus, killed by Heracles when he tried to steal the wine of Pholus. Ureus, attended Pirithous' wedding and fought against the Lapiths. ==Origin of the myth== The most common theory holds that the idea of centaurs came from the first reaction of a non-riding culture, as in the Minoan Aegean world, to nomads who were mounted on horses. The theory suggests that such riders would appear as half-man, half-animal. Bernal Díaz del Castillo reported that the Aztecs also had this misapprehension about Spanish cavalrymen. The Lapith tribe of Thessaly, who were the kinsmen of the Centaurs in myth, were described as the inventors of horse-riding by Greek writers. The Thessalian tribes also claimed their horse breeds were descended from the centaurs. Robert Graves (relying on the work of Georges Dumézil, who argued for tracing the centaurs back to the Indian Gandharva), speculated that the centaurs were a dimly remembered, pre-Hellenic fraternal earth cult who had the horse as a totem. A similar theory was incorporated into Mary Renault's The Bull from the Sea. ==Variations== ===Female centaurs=== Though female centaurs, called centaurides or centauresses, are not mentioned in early Greek literature and art, they do appear occasionally in later antiquity. A Macedonian mosaic of the 4th century BC is one of the earliest examples of the centauress in art. Ovid also mentions a centauress named Hylonome who committed suicide when her husband Cyllarus was killed in the war with the Lapiths. ===India=== The Kalibangan cylinder seal, dated to be around 2600–1900 BC, Other sources claim the creatures represented are actually half human and half tigers, later evolving into the Hindu Goddess of War. These seals are also evidence of Indus-Mesopotamia relations in the 3rd millennium BC. In a popular legend associated with Pazhaya Sreekanteswaram Temple in Thiruvananthapuram, the curse of a saintly Brahmin transformed a handsome Yadava prince into a creature having a horse's body and the prince's head, arms, and torso in place of the head and neck of the horse. Kinnaras, another half-man, half-horse mythical creature from Indian mythology, appeared in various ancient texts, arts, and sculptures from all around India. It is shown as a horse with the torso of a man where the horse's head would be, and is similar to a Greek centaur. ===Russia=== A centaur-like half-human, half-equine creature called Polkan appeared in Russian folk art and lubok prints of the 17th–19th centuries. Polkan is originally based on Pulicane, a half-dog from Andrea da Barberino's poem I Reali di Francia, which was once popular in the Slavonic world in prosaic translations. ==Artistic representations== ===Classical art=== The extensive Mycenaean pottery found at Ugarit included two fragmentary Mycenaean terracotta figures which have been tentatively identified as centaurs. This finding suggests a Bronze Age origin for these creatures of myth. A painted terracotta centaur was found in the "Hero's tomb" at Lefkandi, and by the Geometric period, centaurs figure among the first representational figures painted on Greek pottery. An often-published Geometric period bronze of a warrior face-to-face with a centaur is at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In Greek art of the Archaic period, centaurs are depicted in three different forms. Some centaurs are depicted with a human torso attached to the body of a horse at the withers, where the horse's neck would be; this form, designated "Class A" by Professor Paul Baur, later became standard. "Class B" centaurs are depicted with a human body and legs joined at the waist to the hindquarters of a horse; in some cases centaurs of both Class A and Class B appear together. A third type, designated "Class C", depicts centaurs with human forelegs terminating in hooves. Baur describes this as an apparent development of Aeolic art, which never became particularly widespread. There are also paintings and motifs on amphorae and Dipylon cups which depict winged centaurs. Centaurs were also frequently depicted in Roman art. One example is the pair of centaurs drawing the chariot of Constantine the Great and his family in the Great Cameo of Constantine (circa AD 314–16), which embodies wholly pagan imagery, and contrasts sharply with the popular image of Constantine as the patron of early Christianity. ===Medieval art=== Centaurs preserved a Dionysian connection in the 12th-century Romanesque carved capitals of Mozac Abbey in the Auvergne. Other similar capitals depict harvesters, boys riding goats (a further Dionysiac theme), and griffins guarding the chalice that held the wine. Centaurs are also shown on a number of Pictish carved stones from north-east Scotland erected in the 8th–9th centuries AD (e.g., at Meigle, Perthshire). Though outside the limits of the Roman Empire, these depictions appear to be derived from Classical prototypes. ===Modern art=== The John C. Hodges library at The University of Tennessee hosts a permanent exhibit of a "Centaur from Volos" in its library. The exhibit, made by sculptor Bill Willers by combining a study human skeleton with the skeleton of a Shetland pony, is entitled "Do you believe in Centaurs?". According to the exhibitors, it was meant to mislead students in order to make them more critically aware. ===Cartography=== Depictions of centaurs in a mythical land located south beyond the world's known continents appear on a map by Urbano Monti from 1587, sometimes called Monti's Planisphere. ===In heraldry=== Centaurs are common in European heraldry, although more frequent in continental than in British arms. A centaur holding a bow is referred to as a sagittarius. ==Literature== ===Classical literature=== Jerome's version of the Life of St Anthony the Great, written by Athanasius of Alexandria about the hermit monk of Egypt, was widely disseminated in the Middle Ages; it relates Anthony's encounter with a centaur who challenged the saint, but was forced to admit that the old gods had been overthrown. The episode was often depicted in The Meeting of St Anthony Abbot and St Paul the Hermit by the painter Stefano di Giovanni, who was known as "Sassetta". Of the two episodic depictions of the hermit Anthony's travel to greet the hermit Paul, one is his encounter with the demonic figure of a centaur along the pathway in a wood. Lucretius, in his first-century BC philosophical poem On the Nature of Things, denied the existence of centaurs, based on the differing rates of growth of human and equine anatomies. Specifically, he states that at the age of three years, horses are in the prime of their life while humans at the same age are still little more than babies, making hybrid animals impossible. ===Medieval literature=== Centaurs are among the creatures which 14th-century Italian poet Dante placed as guardians in his Inferno. In Canto XII, Dante and his guide Virgil meet a band led by Chiron and Pholus, guarding the bank of Phlegethon in the seventh circle of Hell, a river of boiling blood in which the violent against their neighbours are immersed, shooting arrows into any who move to a shallower spot than their allotted station. The two poets are treated with courtesy, and Nessus guides them to a ford. In Canto XXIV, in the eighth circle, in Bolgia 7, a ditch where thieves are confined, they meet but do not converse with Cacus (who is a giant in the ancient sources), wreathed in serpents and with a fire-breathing dragon on his shoulders, arriving to punish a sinner who has just cursed God. In his Purgatorio, an unseen spirit on the sixth terrace cites the centaurs ("the drunken double-breasted ones who fought Theseus") as examples of the sin of gluttony. ===Modern day literature=== C.S. Lewis's The Chronicles of Narnia series portrays centaurs as wise and courageous creatures, who are gifted in fields such as astronomy and medicine. John Updike's 1963 novel The Centaur contains numerous references to mythological centaurs. The author depicts a rural Pennsylvanian town as seen through the optics of the myth of the centaur. An unknown and marginalized local school teacher, just like the mythological Chiron did for Prometheus, gave up his life for the future of his son who had chosen to be an independent artist in New York. In J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter series, centaurs inhabit the Forbidden Forest near Hogwarts, and are talented archers and healers; they are also known to their proficiency in astrology. The centaurs in Rick Riordan's Percy Jackson & the Olympians are portrayed as wild party-goers, with the exception of Chiron, who serves as the main director of activities at the series' demigod training facility. ==Gallery== File:Centaur lekythos Met 51.163.jpg\|Diosphos Painter, white-ground lekythos (500 BC) File:Sandro Botticelli 063.jpg\|Botticelli, Pallas and Centaur (1482–83) File:Canova - Theseus defeats the centaur - close.jpg\|Antonio Canova, Theseus Defeats the Centaur (1805–1819) File:Bova1860.jpg\|Prince Bova fights Polkan, Russian lubok (1860) File:Centaur nymph Marqueste Tuileries.jpg\|Centaur carrying off a nymph (1892) by Laurent Marqueste (Tuileries Garden, Paris) File:Brooklyn Museum - Centauress - John La Farge - overall.jpg\|Centauress, by John La Farge File:Centaure Malmaison crop.jpg\|A bronze statue of a centaur, after the Furietti Centaurs File:Augustin Courtet, Centauress and Faun. 1849. Bronze. Lyon, Parc de la Tête d’or. Photo, Jamie Mulherron.jpg\|Augustin Courtet, Centauress and Faun (1849), Lyon, Parc de la Tête d’or	[ "Capital (architecture)", "Botticelli", "Legendary creature", "Monychus", "Pausanias (geographer)", "Phlegethon", "Hippotion (mythology)", "Pelion", "Daphnis (mythology)", "lubok", "Ophion (mythology)", "Pliny the Elder", "Mermerus (mythology)", "Herculaneum", "Harry Potter", "euhemerism", "Laurent Marqueste", "Lucretius", "Eurynomus (mythology)", "Pylenor", "Sophocles", "Homer", "Achilles", "Bronze man and centaur (Metropolitan Museum of Art)", "Peisenor", "Foloi oak forest", "Gryneus (mythology)", "Shield of Heracles", "Auvergne (region)", "Lycus (mythology)", "Hylonome", "Anthony the Great", "kylix", "Ophion (centaur)", "J.K. Rowling", "Propertius", "Lists of legendary creatures", "Arctus (centaur)", "Thereus (mythology)", "Teleboas (mythology)", "Abas (mythology)", "Laconia", "Hera", "Charles Henry Oldfather", "C.S. 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7,403	Chemotaxis	Chemotaxis (from chemo- + taxis) is the movement of an organism or entity in response to a chemical stimulus. Somatic cells, bacteria, and other single-cell or multicellular organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. This is important for bacteria to find food (e.g., glucose) by swimming toward the highest concentration of food molecules, or to flee from poisons (e.g., phenol). In multicellular organisms, chemotaxis is critical to early development (e.g., movement of sperm towards the egg during fertilization) and development (e.g., migration of neurons or lymphocytes) as well as in normal function and health (e.g., migration of leukocytes during injury or infection). In addition, it has been recognized that mechanisms that allow chemotaxis in animals can be subverted during cancer metastasis, and the aberrant change of the overall property of these networks, which control chemotaxis, can lead to carcinogenesis. The aberrant chemotaxis of leukocytes and lymphocytes also contribute to inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis, asthma, and arthritis. Sub-cellular components, such as the polarity patch generated by mating yeast, may also display chemotactic behavior. Positive chemotaxis occurs if the movement is toward a higher concentration of the chemical in question; negative chemotaxis if the movement is in the opposite direction. Chemically prompted kinesis (randomly directed or nondirectional) can be called chemokinesis. == History of chemotaxis research == Although migration of cells was detected from the early days of the development of microscopy by Leeuwenhoek, a Caltech lecture regarding chemotaxis propounds that 'erudite description of chemotaxis was only first made by T. W. Engelmann (1881) and W. F. Pfeffer (1884) in bacteria, and H. S. Jennings (1906) in ciliates'. The Nobel Prize laureate I. Metchnikoff also contributed to the study of the field during 1882 to 1886, with investigations of the process as an initial step of phagocytosis. The significance of chemotaxis in biology and clinical pathology was widely accepted in the 1930s, and the most fundamental definitions underlying the phenomenon were drafted by this time. The most important aspects in quality control of chemotaxis assays were described by H. Harris in the 1950s. In the 1960s and 1970s, the revolution of modern cell biology and biochemistry provided a series of novel techniques that became available to investigate the migratory responder cells and subcellular fractions responsible for chemotactic activity. The availability of this technology led to the discovery of C5a, a major chemotactic factor involved in acute inflammation. The pioneering works of J. Adler modernized Pfeffer's capillary assay and represented a significant turning point in understanding the whole process of intracellular signal transduction of bacteria. == Bacterial chemotaxis—general characteristics == Some bacteria, such as E. coli, have several flagella per cell (4–10 typically). These can rotate in two ways: Counter-clockwise rotation aligns the flagella into a single rotating bundle, causing the bacterium to swim in a straight line; and Clockwise rotation breaks the flagella bundle apart such that each flagellum points in a different direction, causing the bacterium to tumble in place. The directions of rotation are given for an observer outside the cell looking down the flagella toward the cell. === Behavior === The overall movement of a bacterium is the result of alternating tumble and swim phases, called run-and-tumble motion. As a result, the trajectory of a bacterium swimming in a uniform environment will form a random walk with relatively straight swims interrupted by random tumbles that reorient the bacterium. Bacteria such as E. coli are unable to choose the direction in which they swim, and are unable to swim in a straight line for more than a few seconds due to rotational diffusion; in other words, bacteria "forget" the direction in which they are going. By repeatedly evaluating their course, and adjusting if they are moving in the wrong direction, bacteria can direct their random walk motion toward favorable locations. In the presence of a chemical gradient bacteria will chemotax, or direct their overall motion based on the gradient. If the bacterium senses that it is moving in the correct direction (toward attractant/away from repellent), it will keep swimming in a straight line for a longer time before tumbling; however, if it is moving in the wrong direction, it will tumble sooner. Bacteria like E. coli use temporal sensing to decide whether their situation is improving or not, and in this way, find the location with the highest concentration of attractant, detecting even small differences in concentration. This biased random walk is a result of simply choosing between two methods of random movement; namely tumbling and straight swimming. The helical nature of the individual flagellar filament is critical for this movement to occur. The protein structure that makes up the flagellar filament, flagellin, is conserved among all flagellated bacteria. Vertebrates seem to have taken advantage of this fact by possessing an immune receptor (TLR5) designed to recognize this conserved protein. As in many instances in biology, there are bacteria that do not follow this rule. Many bacteria, such as Vibrio, are monoflagellated and have a single flagellum at one pole of the cell. Their method of chemotaxis is different. Others possess a single flagellum that is kept inside the cell wall. These bacteria move by spinning the whole cell, which is shaped like a corkscrew. ===Signal transduction=== Chemical gradients are sensed through multiple transmembrane receptors, called methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCPs), which vary in the molecules that they detect. These receptors may bind attractants or repellents directly or indirectly through interaction with proteins of periplasmatic space. The signals from these receptors are transmitted across the plasma membrane into the cytosol, where Che proteins are activated. The Che proteins alter the tumbling frequency, and alter the receptors. CheA, in turn, transfers phosphoryl groups to conserved aspartate residues in the response regulators CheB and CheY; CheA is a histidine kinase and it does not actively transfer the phosphoryl group, rather, the response regulator CheB takes the phosphoryl group from CheA. This mechanism of signal transduction is called a two-component system, and it is a common form of signal transduction in bacteria. CheY induces tumbling by interacting with the flagellar switch protein FliM, inducing a change from counter-clockwise to clockwise rotation of the flagellum. Change in the rotation state of a single flagellum can disrupt the entire flagella bundle and cause a tumble. ====Receptor regulation==== CheB, when activated by CheA, acts as a methylesterase, removing methyl groups from glutamate residues on the cytosolic side of the receptor; it works antagonistically with CheR, a methyltransferase, which adds methyl residues to the same glutamate residues. The MCPs no longer respond to the attractant when they are fully methylated; therefore, even though the level of attractant might remain high, the level of CheA-P (and CheB-P) increases and the cell begins to tumble. that bacteria have to chemical gradients, other mechanisms are involved in increasing the absolute value of the sensitivity on a given background. Well-established examples are the ultra-sensitive response of the motor to the CheY-P signal, and the clustering of chemoreceptors. == Chemoattractants and chemorepellents == Chemoattractants and chemorepellents are inorganic or organic substances possessing chemotaxis-inducer effect in motile cells. These chemotactic ligands create chemical concentration gradients that organisms, prokaryotic and eukaryotic, move toward or away from, respectively. Effects of chemoattractants are elicited via chemoreceptors such as methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCP). MCPs in E.coli include Tar, Tsr, Trg and Tap. Chemoattracttants to Trg include ribose and galactose with phenol as a chemorepellent. Tap and Tsr recognize dipeptides and serine as chemoattractants, respectively. Non-acylated methioninyl peptides do not act as chemoattractants to neutrophils and macrophages. GTP and ATP are chemorepellents in micro-molar concentrations to both Tetrahymena and Paramecium. These organisms avoid these molecules by producing avoiding reactions to re-orient themselves away from the gradient. ==Eukaryotic chemotaxis== The mechanism of chemotaxis that eukaryotic cells employ is quite different from that in the bacteria E. coli; however, sensing of chemical gradients is still a crucial step in the process. Due to their small size and other biophysical constraints, E. coli cannot directly detect a concentration gradient. Instead, they employ temporal gradient sensing, where they move over larger distances several times their own width and measure the rate at which perceived chemical concentration changes. Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotes and have receptors embedded uniformly throughout the cell membrane. In prokaryotes, this mechanism involves the methylation of receptors called methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCPs). LEGI involves the balance between a fast excitation and delayed inhibition which controls downstream signaling such as Ras activation and PIP3 production. Levels of receptors, intracellular signalling pathways and the effector mechanisms all represent diverse, eukaryotic-type components. In eukaryotic unicellular cells, amoeboid movement and cilium or the eukaryotic flagellum are the main effectors (e.g., Amoeba or Tetrahymena). Some eukaryotic cells of higher vertebrate origin, such as immune cells also move to where they need to be. Besides immune competent cells (granulocyte, monocyte, lymphocyte) a large group of cells—considered previously to be fixed into tissues—are also motile in special physiological (e.g., mast cell, fibroblast, endothelial cells) or pathological conditions (e.g., metastases). Chemotaxis has high significance in the early phases of embryogenesis as development of germ layers is guided by gradients of signal molecules. ===Detection of a gradient of chemoattractant=== The specific molecule/s that allow a eukaryotic cells detect a gradient of chemoattractant ligands (that is, a sort of the molecular compass that detects the direction of a chemoattractant) seems to change depending on the cell and chemoattractant receptor involved or even the concentration of the chemoattractant. However, these molecules apparently are activated independently of the motility of the cell. That is, even an immnobilized cell is still able to detect the direction of a chemoattractant. There appear to be mechanisms by which an external chemotactic gradient is sensed and turned into an intracellular Ras and PIP3 gradients, which results in a gradient and the activation of a signaling pathway, culminating in the polymerisation of actin filaments. The growing distal end of actin filaments develops connections with the internal surface of the plasma membrane via different sets of peptides and results in the formation of anterior pseudopods and posterior uropods. Cilia of eukaryotic cells can also produce chemotaxis; in this case, it is mainly a Ca2+-dependent induction of the microtubular system of the basal body and the beat of the 9 + 2 microtubules within cilia. The orchestrated beating of hundreds of cilia is synchronized by a submembranous system built between basal bodies. The details of the signaling pathways are still not totally clear. ====Chemotaxis-related migratory responses==== Chemotaxis refers to the directional migration of cells in response to chemical gradients; several variations of chemical-induced migration exist as listed below. Chemokinesis refers to an increase in cellular motility in response to chemicals in the surrounding environment. Unlike chemotaxis, the migration stimulated by chemokinesis lacks directionality, and instead increases environmental scanning behaviors. In haptotaxis the gradient of the chemoattractant is expressed or bound on a surface, in contrast to the classical model of chemotaxis, in which the gradient develops in a soluble fluid. The most common biologically active haptotactic surface is the extracellular matrix (ECM); the presence of bound ligands is responsible for induction of transendothelial migration and angiogenesis. Necrotaxis embodies a special type of chemotaxis when the chemoattractant molecules are released from necrotic or apoptotic cells. Depending on the chemical character of released substances, necrotaxis can accumulate or repel cells, which underlines the pathophysiological significance of this phenomenon. ===Receptors=== In general, eukaryotic cells sense the presence of chemotactic stimuli through the use of 7-transmembrane (or serpentine) heterotrimeric G-protein-coupled receptors, a class representing a significant portion of the genome. Some members of this gene superfamily are used in eyesight (rhodopsins) as well as in olfaction (smelling). The main classes of chemotaxis receptors are triggered by: Formyl peptides - formyl peptide receptors (FPR), Chemokines - chemokine receptors (CCR or CXCR), and Leukotrienes - leukotriene receptors (BLT). However, induction of a wide set of membrane receptors (e.g., cyclic nucleotides, amino acids, insulin, vasoactive peptides) also elicit migration of the cell. ====Chemotactic selection==== While some chemotaxis receptors are expressed in the surface membrane with long-term characteristics, as they are determined genetically, others have short-term dynamics, as they are assembled ad hoc in the presence of the ligand. The diverse features of the chemotaxis receptors and ligands allows for the possibility of selecting chemotactic responder cells with a simple chemotaxis assay By chemotactic selection, we can determine whether a still-uncharacterized molecule acts via the long- or the short-term receptor pathway. The term chemotactic selection is also used to designate a technique that separates eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells according to their chemotactic responsiveness to selector ligands. ===Chemotactic ligands=== The number of molecules capable of eliciting chemotactic responses is relatively high, and we can distinguish primary and secondary chemotactic molecules. The main groups of the primary ligands are as follows: Formyl peptides are di-, tri-, tetrapeptides of bacterial origin, formylated on the N-terminus of the peptide. They are released from bacteria in vivo or after decomposition of the cell, a typical member of this group is the N-formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (abbreviated fMLF or fMLP). Bacterial fMLF is a key component of inflammation has characteristic chemoattractant effects in neutrophil granulocytes and monocytes. The chemotactic factor ligands and receptors related to formyl peptides are summarized in the related article, Formyl peptide receptors. Complement 3a (C3a) and complement 5a (C5a) are intermediate products of the complement cascade. Their synthesis is joined to the three alternative pathways (classical, lectin-dependent, and alternative) of complement activation by a convertase enzyme. The main target cells of these derivatives are neutrophil granulocytes and monocytes as well. Chemokines belong to a special class of cytokines; not only do their groups (C, CC, CXC, CX3C chemokines) represent structurally related molecules with a special arrangement of disulfide bridges but also their target cell specificity is diverse. CC chemokines act on monocytes (e.g., RANTES), and CXC chemokines are neutrophil granulocyte-specific (e.g., IL-8). Investigations of the three-dimensional structures of chemokines provided evidence that a characteristic composition of beta-sheets and an alpha helix provides expression of sequences required for interaction with the chemokine receptors. Formation of dimers and their increased biological activity was demonstrated by crystallography of several chemokines, e.g. IL-8. Metabolites of polyunsaturated fatty acids Leukotrienes are eicosanoid lipid mediators made by the metabolism of arachidonic acid by ALOX5 (also termed 5-lipoxygenase). Their most prominent member with chemotactic factor activity is leukotriene B4, which elicits adhesion, chemotaxis, and aggregation of leukocytes. The chemoattractant action of LTB4 is induced via either of two G protein–coupled receptors, BLT1 and BLT2, which are highly expressed in cells involved in inflammation and allergy. The family of 5-Hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid eicosanoids are arachidonic acid metabolites also formed by ALOX5. Three members of the family form naturally and have prominent chemotactic activity. These, listed in order of decreasing potency, are: 5-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid, 5-oxo-15-hydroxy-eicosatetraenoic acid, and 5-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. This family of agonists stimulates chemotactic responses in human eosinophils, neutrophils, and monocytes by binding to the Oxoeicosanoid receptor 1, which like the receptors for leukotriene B4, is a G protein-coupled receptor. with 5-oxoeicosatrienoic acid being as potent as its arachidonic acid-derived analog, 5-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid, in stimulating human blood eosinophil and neutrophil chemotaxis. 12-Hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid is a non-eicosanoid metabolite of arachidonic acid made by cyclooxygenase 1 or cyclooxygenase 2 that stimulates leukocyte chemotaxis though the leukotriene B4 receptor, BLT2. 15-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid is an eicosanoid metabolite of arachidonic acid made my ALOX15; it has weak chemotactic activity for human monocytes (sees 15-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid#15-oxo-ETE). The receptor or other mechanism by which this metabolite stimulates chemotaxis has not been elucidated. ==== Chemotactic range fitting ==== Chemotactic responses elicited by ligand-receptor interactions vary with the concentration of the ligand. Investigations of ligand families (e.g. amino acids or oligopeptides) demonstrates that chemoattractant activity occurs over a wide range, while chemorepellent activities have narrow ranges. ==Clinical significance== A changed migratory potential of cells has relatively high importance in the development of several clinical symptoms and syndromes. Altered chemotactic activity of extracellular (e.g., Escherichia coli) or intracellular (e.g., Listeria monocytogenes) pathogens itself represents a significant clinical target. Modification of endogenous chemotactic ability of these microorganisms by pharmaceutical agents can decrease or inhibit the ratio of infections or spreading of infectious diseases. Apart from infections, there are some other diseases wherein impaired chemotaxis is the primary etiological factor, as in Chédiak–Higashi syndrome, where giant intracellular vesicles inhibit normal migration of cells. ==Mathematical models== Several mathematical models of chemotaxis were developed depending on the type of Migration (e.g., basic differences of bacterial swimming, movement of unicellular eukaryotes with cilia/flagellum and amoeboid migration) Physico-chemical characteristics of the chemicals (e.g., diffusion) working as ligands Biological characteristics of the ligands (attractant, neutral, and repellent molecules) Assay systems applied to evaluate chemotaxis (see incubation times, development, and stability of concentration gradients) Other environmental effects possessing direct or indirect influence on the migration (lighting, temperature, magnetic fields, etc.) Although interactions of the factors listed above make the behavior of the solutions of mathematical models of chemotaxis rather complex, it is possible to describe the basic phenomenon of chemotaxis-driven motion in a straightforward way. Indeed, let us denote with \varphi the spatially non-uniform concentration of the chemo-attractant and \nabla \varphi as its gradient. Then the chemotactic cellular flow (also called current) {\bf J} that is generated by the chemotaxis is linked to the above gradient by the law:where C is the spatial density of the cells and \chi is the so-called 'Chemotactic coefficient' - \chi is often not constant, but a decreasing function of the chemo-attractant. For some quantity \rho that is subject to total flux {\bf J} and generation/destruction term S, it is possible to formulate a continuity equation: {\partial \rho\over{\partial t}} + \nabla \cdot {\bf J} = S where \nabla \cdot () is the divergence. This general equation applies to both the cell density and the chemo-attractant. Therefore, incorporating a diffusion flux into the total flux term, the interactions between these quantities are governed by a set of coupled reaction-diffusion partial differential equations describing the change in C and \varphi: The chemotactic behavior of the bacteria was proven to lead to non-trivial population patterns even in the absence of environmental heterogeneities. The presence of structural pore scale heterogeneities has an extra impact on the emerging bacterial patterns. ==Measurement of chemotaxis== A wide range of techniques is available to evaluate chemotactic activity of cells or the chemoattractant and chemorepellent character of ligands. The basic requirements of the measurement are as follows: Concentration gradients can develop relatively quickly and persist for a long time in the system Chemotactic and chemokinetic activities are distinguished Migration of cells is free toward and away on the axis of the concentration gradient Detected responses are the results of active migration of cells Despite the fact that an ideal chemotaxis assay is still not available, there are several protocols and pieces of equipment that offer good correspondence with the conditions described above. The most commonly used are summarised in the table below: ==Artificial chemotactic systems== Chemical robots that use artificial chemotaxis to navigate autonomously have been designed. Applications include targeted delivery of drugs in the body. More recently, enzyme molecules have also shown positive chemotactic behavior in the gradient of their substrates. The thermodynamically favorable binding of enzymes to their specific substrates is recognized as the origin of enzymatic chemotaxis. Additionally, enzymes in cascades have also shown substrate-driven chemotactic aggregation. Apart from active enzymes, non-reacting molecules also show chemotactic behavior. This has been demonstrated by using dye molecules that move directionally in gradients of polymer solution through favorable hydrophobic interactions.	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7,406	Cheshire	Cheshire ( ) is a ceremonial county in North West England. It is bordered by Merseyside to the north-west, Greater Manchester to the north-east, Derbyshire to the east, Staffordshire to the south-east, and Shropshire to the south; to the west it is bordered by the Welsh counties of Flintshire and Wrexham, and has a short coastline on the Dee Estuary. Warrington is the largest settlement, and the city of Chester is the county town. The county has an area of and had a population of 1,095,500 at the 2021 census. The north and west are relatively urbanised, and contain the settlements of Warrington, Chester, Runcorn, Widnes, and Ellesmere Port. The south and east of the county are primarily rural, and the largest settlement is Crewe. For local government purposes Cheshire comprises four unitary authority areas: Cheshire East, Cheshire West and Chester, Halton, and Warrington. The county historically included all of the Wirral Peninsula and parts of southern Greater Manchester and northern Derbyshire, but excluded Widnes and Warrington. The landscape of the county is dominated by the Cheshire Plain, an area of relatively flat land divided by the Mid-Cheshire Ridge. To the west, Cheshire contains the south of the Wirral Peninsula, and to the east the landscape rises to the Pennines, where the county contains part of the Peak District. The River Mersey runs through the north of Cheshire before broadening into its wide estuary; the River Dee forms part of the county's border with Wales, then fully enters England and flows through the city of Chester before re-entering Wales upstream of its estuary. Red Triassic sandstone forms the bedrock of much of the county, and was used in the construction of many of its buildings. ==Toponymy== Cheshire's name was originally derived from an early name for Chester, and was first recorded as Legeceasterscir in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, meaning "the shire of the city of legions". Although the name first appears in 980, it is thought that the county was created by Edward the Elder around 920. Because of the historically close links with the land bordering Cheshire to the west, which became modern Wales, there is a history of interaction between Cheshire and North Wales. The Domesday Book records Cheshire as having two complete Hundreds (Atiscross and Exestan) that later became the principal part of Flintshire. Additionally, another large portion of the Duddestan Hundred later became known as English Maelor (Maelor Saesneg) when it was transferred to North Wales. For this and other reasons, the Welsh language name for Cheshire, , is sometimes used.]] After the Norman conquest of 1066 by William I, dissent and resistance continued for many years after the invasion. In 1069 local resistance in Cheshire was finally put down using draconian measures as part of the Harrying of the North. The ferocity of the campaign against the English populace was enough to end all future resistance. Examples were made of major landowners such as Earl Edwin of Mercia, their properties confiscated and redistributed amongst Norman barons. The earldom was sufficiently independent from the kingdom of England that the 13th-century Magna Carta did not apply to the shire of Chester, so the earl wrote up his own Chester Charter at the petition of his barons. ===County Palatine=== William I made Cheshire a county palatine and gave Gerbod the Fleming the new title of Earl of Chester. When Gerbod returned to Normandy in about 1070, the king used his absence to declare the earldom forfeit and gave the title to Hugh d'Avranches (nicknamed Hugh Lupus, or "wolf"). Because of Cheshire's strategic location on the Welsh Marches, the Earl had complete autonomous powers to rule on behalf of the king in the county palatine. ====Hundreds==== Cheshire in the Domesday Book (1086) is recorded as a much larger county than it is today. It included two hundreds, Atiscross and Exestan, that later became part of North Wales. At the time of the Domesday Book, it also included as part of Duddestan Hundred the area of land later known as English Maelor (which used to be a detached part of Flintshire) in Wales. The area between the Mersey and Ribble (referred to in the Domesday Book as "Inter Ripam et Mersam") formed part of the returns for Cheshire. Although this has been interpreted to mean that at that time south Lancashire was part of Cheshire, more exhaustive research indicates that the boundary between Cheshire and what was to become Lancashire remained the River Mersey. With minor variations in spelling across sources, the complete list of hundreds of Cheshire at this time are: Atiscross, Bochelau, Chester, Dudestan, Exestan, Hamestan, Middlewich, Riseton, Roelau, Tunendune, Warmundestrou and Wilaveston. ====Feudal baronies==== There were 8 feudal baronies in Chester, the barons of Kinderton, Halton, Malbank, Mold, Shipbrook, Dunham-Massey, and the honour of Chester itself. Feudal baronies or baronies by tenure were granted by the Earl as forms of feudal land tenure within the palatinate in a similar way to which the king granted English feudal baronies within England proper. An example is the barony of Halton. One of Hugh d'Avranche's barons has been identified as Robert Nicholls, Baron of Halton and Montebourg. ====North Mersey to Lancashire==== In 1182, the land north of the Mersey became administered as part of the new county of Lancashire, resolving any uncertainty about the county in which the land "Inter Ripam et Mersam" was. Over the years, the ten hundreds consolidated and changed names to leave just seven—Broxton, Bucklow, Eddisbury, Macclesfield, Nantwich, Northwich and Wirral. ===Principality: Merging of Palatine and Earldom=== In 1397 the county had lands in the march of Wales added to its territory, and was promoted to the rank of principality. This was because of the support the men of the county had given to King Richard II, in particular by his standing armed force of about 500 men called the "Cheshire Guard". As a result, the King's title was changed to "King of England and France, Lord of Ireland, and Prince of Chester". No other English county has been honoured in this way, although it lost the distinction on Richard's fall in 1399. ===Lieutenancy: North split-off=== ====District==== Through the Local Government Act 1972, which came into effect on 1 April 1974, some areas in the north became part of the metropolitan counties of Greater Manchester and Merseyside. Stockport (previously a county borough), Altrincham, Hyde, Dukinfield and Stalybridge in the north-east became part of Greater Manchester. Much of the Wirral Peninsula in the north-west, including the county boroughs of Birkenhead and Wallasey, joined Merseyside as the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral. At the same time the Tintwistle Rural District was transferred to Derbyshire. The area of south Lancashire not included within either the Merseyside or Greater Manchester counties, including Widnes and the county borough of Warrington, was added to the new non-metropolitan county of Cheshire. ====District and Unitary==== Halton and Warrington became unitary authorities independent of Cheshire County Council on 1 April 1998, but remain part of Cheshire for ceremonial purposes and also for fire and policing. Halton is part of Liverpool City Region combined authority, which also includes the five metropolitan boroughs of Merseyside. A referendum for a further local government reform connected with an elected regional assembly was planned for 2004, but was abandoned. ====Unitary==== As part of the local government restructuring in April 2009, Cheshire County Council and the Cheshire districts were abolished and replaced by two new unitary authorities, Cheshire East and Cheshire West and Chester. The existing unitary authorities of Halton and Warrington were not affected by the change. == Governance == ===Current=== File:Cheshire unitary labell.png\|220px\|thumb\|The ceremonial county showing the four unitary authorities. Click on the map for more information poly 132 343 74 237 19 152 25 129 215 134 231 120 255 121 298 172 293 195 263 221 221 222 179 257 152 293 175 350 Cheshire West and Chester poly 168 293 241 241 285 239 325 225 382 264 383 272 316 308 312 348 225 368 Cheshire East poly 333 175 269 130 267 103 300 82 357 102 480 90 491 189 410 239 Cheshire East poly 313 228 334 183 419 219 354 293 Cheshire East poly 131 105 166 58 182 73 182 94 201 99 207 91 218 105 210 129 183 127 161 121 131 107 Halton poly 188 75 192 30 266 9 296 73 267 82 251 107 234 112 Warrington desc none Cheshire has no county-wide elected local council, but it does have a Lord Lieutenant under the Lieutenancies Act 1997 and a High Sheriff under the Sheriffs Act 1887. Local government functions apart from the Police and Fire/Rescue services are carried out by four smaller unitary authorities: Cheshire East, Cheshire West and Chester, Halton, and Warrington. All four unitary authority areas have borough status. Policing and fire and rescue services are still provided across the county as a whole. The Cheshire Fire Authority consist of members of the four councils, while governance of Cheshire Constabulary is performed by the elected Cheshire Police and Crime Commissioner. Winsford is a major administrative hub for Cheshire with the Police and Fire & Rescue Headquarters based in the town as well as a majority of Cheshire West and Chester Council. It was also home to the former Vale Royal Borough Council and Cheshire County Council. Devolution talks for the county were scheduled for Autumn 2024. Plans to establish a Cheshire and Warrington Combined Authority were approved by the UK government in February 2025. Halton Borough has been a member of the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority since that authority was established in 2014. ===Transition into a lieutenancy=== From 1 April 1974 the area under the control of the county council was divided into eight local government districts; Chester, Congleton, Crewe and Nantwich, Ellesmere Port and Neston, Halton, Macclesfield, Vale Royal and Warrington. Halton (which includes the towns of Runcorn and Widnes) and Warrington became unitary authorities in 1998. The remaining districts and the county were abolished as part of local government restructuring on 1 April 2009. The Halton and Warrington boroughs were not affected by the 2009 restructuring. On 25 July 2007, the Secretary of State Hazel Blears announced she was 'minded' to split Cheshire into two new unitary authorities, Cheshire West and Chester, and Cheshire East. She confirmed she had not changed her mind on 19 December 2007 and therefore the proposal to split two-tier Cheshire into two would proceed. Cheshire County Council leader Paul Findlow, who attempted High Court legal action against the proposal, claimed that splitting Cheshire would only disrupt excellent services while increasing living costs for all. On 31 January 2008 The Standard, Cheshire and district's newspaper, announced that the legal action had been dropped. Members against the proposal were advised that they may be unable to persuade the court that the decision of Hazel Blears was "manifestly absurd". The Cheshire West and Chester unitary authority covers the area formerly occupied by the City of Chester and the boroughs of Ellesmere Port and Neston and Vale Royal; Cheshire East now covers the area formerly occupied by the boroughs of Congleton, Crewe and Nantwich, and Macclesfield. The changes were implemented on 1 April 2009. Congleton Borough Council pursued an appeal against the judicial review it lost in October 2007. The appeal was dismissed on 4 March 2008. ==Geography== ===Physical=== A plain of glacial till and other glacio-fluvial sediments extends across much of Cheshire, separating the hills of North Wales and the Pennines. Known as the Cheshire Plain, it was formed following the retreat of a Quaternary ice sheet which left the area dotted with kettle holes, those which hold water being referred to as meres. The bedrock of this region is almost entirely Triassic sandstone, outcrops of which have long been quarried, notably at Runcorn, providing the distinctive red stone for Liverpool Cathedral and Chester Cathedral. The eastern half of the county is Upper Triassic Mercia Mudstone laid down with large salt deposits which were mined for hundreds of years around Winsford. Separating this area from Lower Triassic Sherwood Sandstone to the west is a prominent sandstone ridge known as the Mid Cheshire Ridge. A footpath, the Sandstone Trail, follows this ridge from Frodsham to Whitchurch passing Delamere Forest, Beeston Castle and earlier Iron Age forts. The western fringes of the Peak District - the southernmost extent of the Pennine range - form the eastern part of the county. The highest point (county top) in the historic county of Cheshire was Black Hill () near Crowden in the Cheshire Panhandle, a long eastern projection of the county which formerly stretched along the northern side of Longdendale and on the border with the West Riding of Yorkshire. Black Hill is now the highest point in the ceremonial county of West Yorkshire. Within the current ceremonial county and the unitary authority of Cheshire East the highest point is Shining Tor on the Derbyshire/Cheshire border between Macclesfield and Buxton, at above sea level. After Shining Tor, the next highest point in Cheshire is Shutlingsloe, at above sea level. Shutlingsloe lies just to the south of Macclesfield Forest and is sometimes humorously referred to as the "Matterhorn of Cheshire" thanks to its distinctive steep profile. ===Human=== ====Green belt==== Cheshire contains portions of two green belt areas surrounding the large conurbations of Merseyside and Greater Manchester (North Cheshire Green Belt, part of the North West Green Belt) and Stoke-on-Trent (South Cheshire Green Belt, part of the Stoke-on-Trent Green Belt), these were first drawn up from the 1950s. Contained primarily within Cheshire East and Chester West & Chester, with small portions along the borders of the Halton and Warrington districts, towns and cities such as Chester, Macclesfield, Alsager, Congleton, Northwich, Ellesmere Port, Knutsford, Warrington, Poynton, Disley, Neston, Wilmslow, Runcorn, and Widnes are either surrounded wholly, partially enveloped by, or on the fringes of the belts. The North Cheshire Green Belt is contiguous with the Peak District Park boundary inside Cheshire. ====Borders==== The ceremonial county borders Merseyside, Greater Manchester, Derbyshire, Staffordshire and Shropshire in England along with Flintshire and Wrexham in Wales, arranged by compass directions as shown in the table. below. Cheshire also forms part of the North West England region. === Flora and fauna === In July 2022, beavers bred in Cheshire for the first time in 400 years, following a reintroduction scheme. ==Demography== ===Population=== Based on the Census of 2001, the overall population of Cheshire East and Cheshire West and Chester is 673,781, of which 51.3% of the population were male and 48.7% were female. Of those aged between 0–14 years, 51.5% were male and 48.4% were female; and of those aged over 75 years, 62.9% were female and 37.1% were male. The population for 2021 is forecast to be 708,000. In 2001, the population density of Cheshire East and Cheshire West and Chester was 32 people per km2, lower than the North West average of 42 people/km2 and the England and Wales average of 38 people/km2. Ellesmere Port and Neston had a greater urban density than the rest of the county with 92 people/km2. ===Ethnicity=== In 2001, ethnic white groups accounted for 98% (662,794) of the population, and 10,994 (2%) in ethnic groups other than white. Of the 2% in non-white ethnic groups: 3,717 (34%) belonged to mixed ethnic groups 3,336 (30%) were Asian or Asian British 1,076 (10%) were black or black British 1,826 (17%) were of Chinese ethnic groups 1,039 (9%) were of other ethnic groups. ==Religion== In the 2001 Census, 81% of the population (542,413) identified themselves as Christian; 124,677 (19%) did not identify with any religion or did not answer the question; 5,665 (1%) identified themselves as belonging to other major world religions; and 1,033 belonged to other religions. In terms of Roman Catholic church administration, most of Cheshire falls into the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury. ==Economy== Cheshire has a diverse economy with significant sectors including agriculture, automotive, bio-technology, chemical, financial services, food and drink, ICT, and tourism. The county is famous for the production of Cheshire cheese, salt and silk. The county has seen a number of inventions and firsts in its history. A mainly rural county, Cheshire has a high concentration of villages. Agriculture is generally based on the dairy trade, and cattle are the predominant livestock. Land use given to agriculture has fluctuated somewhat, and in 2005 totalled 1558 km2 over 4,609 holdings. Based on holdings by EC farm type in 2005, 8.51 km2 was allocated to dairy farming, with another 11.78 km2 allocated to cattle and sheep. The chemical industry in Cheshire was founded in Roman times, with the mining of salt in Winsford, Middlewich and Northwich. Salt is still mined in the area by British Salt. The salt mining has led to a continued chemical industry around Northwich, with Brunner Mond based in the town. Other chemical companies, including Ineos (formerly ICI), have plants at Runcorn. The Essar Refinery (formerly Shell Stanlow Refinery) is at Ellesmere Port. The oil refinery has operated since 1924 and has a capacity of 12 million tonnes per year. Crewe was once the centre of the British railway industry, and remains a major railway junction. The Crewe railway works, built in 1840, employed 20,000 people at its peak, although the workforce is now less than 1,000. Crewe is also the home of Bentley cars. Also within Cheshire are manufacturing plants for Jaguar and Vauxhall Motors in Ellesmere Port. The county also has an aircraft industry, with the BAE Systems facility at Woodford Aerodrome, part of BAE System's Military Air Solutions division. The facility designed and constructed Avro Lancaster and Avro Vulcan bombers and the Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod. On the Cheshire border with Flintshire is the Broughton aircraft factory, more recently associated with Airbus. Tourism in Cheshire from within the UK and overseas continues to perform strongly. Over 8 million nights of accommodation (both UK and overseas) and over 2.8 million visits to Cheshire were recorded during 2003. At the start of 2003, there were 22,020 VAT-registered enterprises in Cheshire, an increase of 7% since 1998, many in the business services (31.9%) and wholesale/retail (21.7%) sectors. Between 2002 and 2003 the number of businesses grew in four sectors: public administration and other services (6.0%), hotels and restaurants (5.1%), construction (1.7%), and business services (1.0%). However, towns such as Crewe and Winsford have significant deprivation. The county's proximity to the cities of Manchester and Liverpool means counter urbanisation is common. Cheshire West has a fairly large proportion of residents who work in Liverpool and Manchester, while the town of Northwich and area of Cheshire East falls more within Manchester's sphere of influence. ==Education== All four local education authorities in Cheshire operate only comprehensive state school systems. When Altrincham, Sale and Bebington were moved from Cheshire to Trafford and Merseyside in 1974, they took some former Cheshire selective schools. There are two universities based in the county, the University of Chester and the Chester campus of The University of Law. The Crewe campus of Manchester Metropolitan University was scheduled to close in 2019. ==Culture== ===Arts and entertainment=== Cheshire has produced musicians such as Joy Division members Ian Curtis and Stephen Morris, One Direction member Harry Styles, the members of The 1975, Take That member Gary Barlow, The Cult member Ian Astbury, Catfish and the Bottlemen member Van McCann, Girls Aloud member Nicola Roberts, Stephen Hough, John Mayall, The Charlatans member Tim Burgess, and Nigel Stonier. Actors from Cheshire include Russ Abbot, Warren Brown, Julia Chan, Ray Coulthard, Daniel Craig, Tim Curry, Wendy Hiller, Tom Hughes, Tim McInnerny, Ben Miller, Pete Postlethwaite, Adam Rickitt, John Steiner, and Ann Todd. The most famous author from the county is Lewis Carroll, who wrote Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and named the Cheshire Cat character after it. Other notable Cheshire writers include Hall Caine, Alan Garner, and Elizabeth Gaskell. Artists from Cheshire include ceramic artist Emma Bossons and sculptor/photographer Andy Goldsworthy. Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC North West and ITV Granada. Television signals are received from the Winter Hill TV transmitter. Local radio stations in the county include Chester's Dee Radio, Capital North West and Wales, Smooth Wales, Cheshire's Silk Radio and Hits Radio Staffordshire & Cheshire. It is one of only four counties in the country (along with County Durham, Dorset, and Rutland) that does not have its own designated BBC radio station; the south and parts of the east are covered by BBC Radio Stoke, while BBC Radio Merseyside tends to cover the west, and BBC Radio Manchester covers the north and parts of the east. The BBC directs readers to Stoke and Staffordshire when Cheshire is selected on their website. There were plans to launch BBC Radio Cheshire, but those were shelved in 2007 after the BBC license fee settlement was lower than expected. ===Sports=== Athletes native to Cheshire include sailor Ben Ainslie, cricketer Ian Botham, rock climber Shauna Coxsey, boxer Tyson Fury, oarsman Matt Langridge, mountaineer George Mallory, marathon runner Paula Radcliffe, cyclist Sarah Storey, and hurdler Shirley Strong. It has also been home to numerous athletes from outside the county. Many Premier League footballers have relocated there over the years upon joining nearby teams such as Manchester United FC, Manchester City FC, Everton FC, and Liverpool FC. These include Dean Ashton, Seth Johnson, Jesse Lingard and Michael Owen, The "Cheshire Golden Triangle" is the collective name for a group of adjacent Cheshire villages where the number of footballers, actors, and entrepreneurs moving in over the years led to the average house prices becoming some of the most expensive in the UK. Cheshire has one Football League team, Crewe Alexandra, which plays in . The next highest-placed teams are Chester and Warrington Town, who both compete in the National League North, the sixth tier of English football. Northwich Victoria, another ex-League team which was a founding member of the Football League Division Two in 1892/1893, now represents Cheshire in the Northern Premier League along with Nantwich Town. Macclesfield Town another former League club, went into liquidation in 2020; a phoenix club, Macclesfield, was formed in 2021. The Warrington Wolves and Widnes Vikings are the premier rugby league teams in Cheshire; the former plays in the Super League, while the latter plays in the Championship. There are also numerous junior clubs in the county, including Chester Gladiators. Cheshire County Cricket Club is one of the clubs that make up the minor counties of English and Welsh cricket. Cheshire also is represented in the highest level basketball league in the UK, the BBL, by Cheshire Phoenix (formerly Cheshire Jets). Europe's largest motorcycle event, the Thundersprint, is held in Northwich every May. ===Other=== The Royal Cheshire Show, an annual agricultural show, has taken place since the 1800s. Cheshire also produced a military hero in Norman Cyril Jones, a World War I flying ace who won the Distinguished Flying Cross. ===Unofficial county flower=== As part of a 2002 marketing campaign, the plant conservation charity Plantlife chose the cuckooflower as the county flower. Previously, a sheaf of golden wheat was the county emblem, a reference to the Earl of Chester's arms in use from the 12th century. ===Landmarks=== Prehistoric burial grounds have been discovered at The Bridestones near Congleton (Neolithic) and Robin Hood's Tump near Alpraham (Bronze Age). The remains of Iron Age hill forts are found on sandstone ridges at several locations in Cheshire. Examples include Maiden Castle on Bickerton Hill, Helsby Hillfort and Woodhouse Hillfort at Frodsham. The Roman fortress and walls of Chester, perhaps the earliest building works in Cheshire remaining above ground, are constructed from purple-grey sandstone. The distinctive local red sandstone has been used for many monumental and ecclesiastical buildings throughout the county: for example, the medieval Beeston Castle, Chester Cathedral and numerous parish churches. Occasional residential and industrial buildings, such as Helsby railway station (1849), are also in this sandstone. Many surviving buildings from the 15th to 17th centuries are timbered, particularly in the southern part of the county. Notable examples include the moated manor house Little Moreton Hall, dating from around 1450, and many commercial and residential buildings in Chester, Nantwich and surrounding villages. Early brick buildings include Peover Hall near Macclesfield (1585), Tattenhall Hall (pre-1622), and the Pied Bull Hotel in Chester (17th-century). From the 18th century, orange, red or brown brick became the predominant building material used in Cheshire, although earlier buildings are often faced or dressed with stone. Examples from the Victorian period onwards often employ distinctive brick detailing, such as brick patterning and ornate chimney stacks and gables. Notable examples include Arley Hall near Northwich, Willington Hall near Chester (both by Nantwich architect George Latham) and Overleigh Lodge, Chester. From the Victorian era, brick buildings often incorporate timberwork in a mock Tudor style, and this hybrid style has been used in some modern residential developments in the county. Industrial buildings, such as the Macclesfield silk mills (for example, Waters Green New Mill), are also usually in brick. ==Settlements== The county is home to some of the most affluent areas of northern England, including Alderley Edge, Wilmslow, Prestbury, Tarporley and Knutsford, named in 2006 as the most expensive place to buy a house in the north of England. The former Cheshire town of Altrincham was in second place. The area is sometimes referred to as The Golden Triangle on account of the area in and around the aforementioned towns and villages. Holmes Chapel has increasingly become a sought out tourist destination due to being the former hometown of celebrity Harry Styles, and is also undergoing a planned population increase. Thingwall, currently in the county of Merseyside but historically part of Cheshire until 1974, is known for having once been the base of a Viking parliament established by Norse settlers in the area. There is currently one city in the county officially, Chester. However, it remains a disputed piece of folklore that the village of Thelwall (today administratively paired with its neighbour Grappenhall in a civil parish) was at one time considered a city. Warrington is currently the largest urban settlement in the county overall despite its town status, and was one of the third wave of post-Second World War UK new towns designated for expansion. Other core settlements across Cheshire are: Some settlements which were historically part of the county now fall under the ceremonial counties of Derbyshire, Merseyside and Greater Manchester: ==Transport== ===Railways=== The main railway line through the county is the West Coast Main Line. Trains on the main London to Scotland line call at Crewe (in the south of the county) and Warrington Bank Quay (in the north of the county). Trains stop at Crewe and Runcorn on the Liverpool branch of the WCML; Crewe and Macclesfield are each hourly stops on the two Manchester branches. The major interchanges are: Crewe (the biggest station in Cheshire) for trains to London Euston, Glasgow Central, Edinburgh Waverley, Manchester Piccadilly and Liverpool Lime Street (via the WCML). Trains on other routes travel to Wales, the Midlands (Birmingham, Stoke and Derby) as well as suburban services to Manchester Piccadilly, Chester and Liverpool Lime Street. Warrington stations (Central and Bank Quay) for suburban services to Manchester Piccadilly, Chester and Liverpool Lime Street and regional express services to North Wales, London, Scotland, Yorkshire, the East Coast and the East Midlands Chester for urban services (via Merseyrail) to Liverpool Central, suburban services to Manchester, Warrington, Wrexham General and rural Cheshire and express services to Llandudno, Holyhead, Birmingham, the West Midlands, London and Cardiff and, from May 2019, to Leeds. In the east of Cheshire, Macclesfield station is served by Avanti West Coast, CrossCountry and Northern, on the Manchester–London line. Services from Manchester to the south coast frequently stop at Macclesfield. Neston on the Wirral Peninsula is served by a railway station on the Borderlands line between Bidston and Wrexham. ===Roadways=== Cheshire has of roads, including of the M6, M62, M53 and M56 motorways; there are 23 interchanges and four service areas. It also has the A580 "East Lancashire Road" at its border with Greater Manchester at Leigh. The M6 motorway at the Thelwall Viaduct carries 140,000 vehicles every 24 hours. Bus transport in Cheshire is provided by various operators. The major bus operator in the Cheshire area is D&G Bus. Other operators in Cheshire include Stagecoach Chester & Wirral and Network Warrington. There are also several operators based outside of Cheshire, who either run services wholly within the area or services which start from outside the area. Companies include Arriva Buses Wales, Aimee's Travel, High Peak, First Greater Manchester, D&G bus and Stagecoach Manchester. Some services are run under contract to Cheshire West and Chester, Cheshire East, Borough of Halton and Warrington Councils. ===Waterways=== The Cheshire canal system includes several canals originally used to transport the county's industrial products (mostly chemicals). Nowadays they are mainly used for tourist traffic. The Cheshire Ring is formed from the Rochdale, Ashton, Peak Forest, Macclesfield, Trent and Mersey and Bridgewater canals. The Manchester Ship Canal is a wide, stretch of water opened in 1894. It consists of the rivers Irwell and Mersey made navigable to Manchester for seagoing ships leaving the Mersey estuary. The canal passes through the north of the county via Runcorn and Warrington. Rivers and canals in the county are:	[ "Julia Chan", "Shutlingsloe", "Runcorn", "Pete Postlethwaite", "Cheshire Police and Crime Commissioner", "Upton, Merseyside", "Liverpool", "Crewe Town Council", "Thundersprint", "Wallasey", "Edinburgh Waverley railway station", "Stephen Hough", "Eastgate Clock", "Grappenhall and Thelwall", "Shining Tor", "John Mayall", "ice sheet", "Macclesfield", "Eaton Hall, Cheshire", "Tintwistle", "Hyde, Greater Manchester", "Gatley", "Willington Hall", "Northern (train operating company)", "Paula Radcliffe", "Borough of Warrington", "Cheadle, Greater Manchester", "River Mersey", "Historic counties of England", "Mercia Mudstone Group", "Tim Curry", "Helsby", "Warren Brown (actor)", "Trent and Mersey Canal", "Leasowe", "Bebington", "Chester", "2021 United Kingdom census", "Llangollen Canal", "Canals in Cheshire", "Borough of Halton", "Flintshire (historic)", "High Sheriff of Cheshire", "May Day", "Liverpool FC", "Moreton, Merseyside", "Dukinfield", "Gary Barlow", "Daniel Craig", "Plantlife", "Vauxhall Motors", "Peak Forest Canal", "Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester", "Macclesfield Forest", "Elizabeth Gaskell", "county palatine", "Cheshire West & Chester", "unitary authority", "minor counties of English and Welsh cricket", "River Dean", "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", "The University of Law", "BBC Radio Merseyside", "Heswall", "M6 motorway", "Hoylake", "Cardamine pratensis", "Thelwall", "Cheshire West and Chester", "Classic FM (UK)", "Warrington Wolves", "Holyhead railway station", "Cheshire and Warrington Combined Authority", "Cheshire Inventions, Innovations and Firsts", "Stephen Morris (musician)", "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland", "Lymm", "The Cult", "Prestbury, Cheshire", "Liverpool Lime Street railway station", "Norman Cyril Jones", "Cheshire Ring", "Woodley, Greater Manchester", "River Ribble", "Macclesfield Canal", "Crewe Alexandra F.C.", "Bredbury", "Hugh d'Avranches", "Greater Manchester", "Leeds railway station", "Helsby railway station", "Chester Cathedral", "County Durham", "Tim McInnerny", "Sheriffs Act 1887", "Sarah Storey", "Girls Aloud", "Welsh Marches", "Flintshire Chronicle", "Birmingham New Street railway station", "Pennines", "Evening Standard", "Wrexham County Borough", "sandstone", "Liverpool City Region Combined Authority", "Ann Todd", "Royal Dutch Shell", "Port Sunlight", "Tarporley", "Sky Sports", "Knutsford", "Mid Cheshire Ridge", "Church of England", "Rutland", "Winter Hill transmitting station", "Manchester Piccadilly railway station", "Cheshire Constabulary", "Brunner Mond", "Romiley", "Cheadle Hulme", "hill fort", "Earl of Chester", "Alsager", "West Coast Main Line", "River Wheelock", "Beeston Castle", "River Gowy", "Hazel Blears", "Wirral Peninsula", "Healthcare in Cheshire", "Culcheth", "CrossCountry", "Norman Franks", "RFL Championship", "mere (lake)", "Vale Royal", "Ashton Canal", "Iron Age", "Fluvioglacial landform", "Hale, Greater Manchester", "Chester Rows", "Warrington Town F.C.", "Marple, Greater Manchester", "Merseyrail", "Bidston railway station", "Shropshire Union Canal", "Michael Owen", "2009 structural changes to local government in England", "Dorset", "Rochdale Canal", "Chester (district)", "Bronze Age", "Cheshire cheese", "ITV Granada", "Hits Radio Staffordshire & Cheshire", "Ian Botham", "Bollington", "Woodhead, Derbyshire", "Cheshire County Council", "Thingwall", "New Ferry", "River Irwell", "March Hare", "Soccer AM", "Magna Carta of Chester", "Nantwich Town F.C.", "Tattenhall Hall", "Metropolitan Borough of Wirral", "Alan Garner", "hundred (division)", "Matterhorn", "Golden Triangle (Cheshire)", "Northwich", "Adam Rickitt", "Cheshire Cat", "Widnes Vikings", "Northwich Victoria F.C.", "Welsh language", "Cheshire Phoenix", "Hale Barns", "Catfish and the Bottlemen", "Crewe railway station", "Glasgow Central railway station", "Domesday Book", "BBC Radio Stoke", "Manchester Metropolitan University", "Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)", "feudal land tenure", "Liverpool Central railway station", "Middlewich", "Macclesfield F.C.", "Hundreds of Cheshire", "Constable of Chester", "Winsford", "River Dee (Wales)", "Poynton", "Edward the Elder", "Pied Bull Hotel", "Wendy Hiller", "Warrington Central railway station", "Dee Estuary", "Gerbod the Fleming, 1st Earl of Chester", "Green belt (United Kingdom)", "Mid-Cheshire Ridge", "Stalybridge", "Emma Bossons", "Hundred (county division)", "Lancashire", "combined authority", "hundreds of Cheshire", "Metropolitan Borough of Trafford", "William the Conqueror", "The 1975", "Macclesfield Town F.C.", "National League North", "Eurasian beaver", "Tarvin", "Staffordshire", "BBC Radio Manchester", "Tintwistle Rural District", "Airbus", "Ray Coulthard", "Bromborough", "Local Education Authority", "River Croco", "Take That", "Irby, Merseyside", "Derby railway station", "M62 motorway", "Avro Lancaster", "Lord Lieutenant", "Holmes Chapel", "George Latham (architect)", "Triassic", "Matt Langridge", "Flintshire", "Normandy", "Hatter (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)", "Bickerton Hill", "kettle hole", "Jaguar (car)", "Delamere Forest", "Nantwich", "Ineos", "canal", "BBC", "BAE Systems", "elision", "Harry Styles", "Local government in England", "Andy Goldsworthy", "Borderlands line", "Leigh, Greater Manchester", "Eastham, Merseyside", "Cheshire Plain", "Imperial Chemical Industries", "Brimstage", "Super League", "Widnes", "Russ Abbot", "Whaley Bridge", "Warrington", "Crewe and Nantwich", "Premier League", "West Kirby", "Overleigh Lodge", "Halton (borough)", "Newtown, Derbyshire", "Silk FM", "Timperley", "New towns in the United Kingdom", "One Direction", "table salt", "Dee 106.3", "Heald Green", "Everton FC", "Longdendale", "West Yorkshire", "Bidston", "Roman Britain", "Warrington Bank Quay railway station", "Wulfric Spot", "Wrexham Central railway station", "Edwin of Mercia", "Diocese of Chester", "Manchester", "Ben Ainslie", "Wales", "Faber and Faber", "Macclesfield (borough)", "St Mary's Church, Nantwich", "Malpas, Cheshire", "Little Moreton Hall", "Partington", "River Bollin", "Joy Division", "Diocese of Shrewsbury", "Ben Miller", "M53 motorway", "Sale, Greater Manchester", "Capital North West and Wales", "Harrying of the North", "Ceremonial counties of England", "F. R. H. Du Boulay", "West Riding of Yorkshire", "Quaternary glaciation", "Euston railway station", "River Dee, Wales", "Neolithic", "Magna Carta", "BBC North West", "English feudal barony", "Local Government Act 1972", "Congleton", "Mossley", "High Lane, Greater Manchester", "Parliamentary constituencies in Cheshire", "Cardiff Central railway station", "Unitary authorities of England", "county flower", "Alpraham", "Salt in Cheshire", "Crowden, Derbyshire", "Sandbach", "Congleton (borough)", "Pensby", "Woodford, Greater Manchester", "Middle English", "Cheshire (UK Parliament constituency)", "Derbyshire", "Thelwall Viaduct", "Manchester Ship Canal", "Maiden Castle, Cheshire", "Ellesmere Port", "River Goyt", "Buxton", "Peak District", "Outline of England", "Manchester United FC", "Saltney", "Shirley Strong", "Bridgewater Canal", "Peover Hall", "Nigel Stonier", "Neston", "Altrincham", "Cheshire East", "Handforth", "Wilmslow", "Rail transport in Great Britain", "Black Hill (Peak District)", "A580 road", "Stockport", "Lewis Carroll", "Shropshire", "Avro Vulcan", "Political make-up of local councils in the United Kingdom", "Greasby", "Frodsham", "River Dane", "Northern Premier League", "George Mallory", "Stoke-on-Trent", "Dean Ashton", "counter urbanisation", "Birchwood, Cheshire", "Seth Johnson (footballer)", "Ian Curtis", "Tim Burgess (artist)", "M56 motorway", "Crewe Works", "Woodford Aerodrome", "Hall Caine", "Tom Hughes (actor)", "Stoke-on-Trent railway station", "Llywelyn the Great", "Sandstone Trail", "flying ace", "county town", "British Salt", "till", "civil parish", "Chester railway station", "Hazel Grove", "Ian Astbury", "Alderley Edge", "Macclesfield railway station", "John Steiner", "Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary", "metropolitan borough", "British Basketball League", "Ellesmere Port and Neston", "Cheshire Fire and Rescue Service", "University of Chester", "Merseyside", "rugby league", "River Weaver", "Custos Rotulorum of Cheshire", "English Maelor", "Capesthorne Hall", "Borough status in the United Kingdom", "Wrexham General railway station", "The Charlatans (English band)", "Shauna Coxsey", "Lord Lieutenant of Cheshire", "Llandudno railway station", "Arley Hall", "Birkenhead", "Liverpool Cathedral", "march of Wales", "North Wales", "Great Britain Historical GIS", "Avanti West Coast", "Smooth Wales", "Whitchurch, Shropshire", "Jesse Lingard", "Second World War", "Bramhall", "Hattersley", "Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod", "regional assemblies in England", "urban density", "Manchester City FC", "Stanlow Refinery", "Bentley", "Tyson Fury", "Lieutenancies Act 1997", "Cheshire County Cricket Club", "Broughton, Flintshire", "Nicola Roberts", "The Bridestones", "Crewe", "Chester F.C.", "Liverpool City Region", "A Vision of Britain through Time", "North West England", "Neston railway station", "Wythenshawe" ]
7,407	County town	In Great Britain and Ireland, a county town is usually the location of administrative or judicial functions within a county, and the place where public representatives are elected to parliament. Following the establishment of county councils in England in 1889, the headquarters of the new councils were usually established in the county town of each county; however, the concept of a county town pre-dates these councils. The concept of a county town is ill-defined and unofficial. Some counties in Great Britain have their administrative bodies housed elsewhere. For example, Lancaster is the county town of Lancashire, but the county council is in Preston. Owing to the creation of unitary authorities, some county towns in Great Britain are administratively separate from the county. For example, Nottingham is separated from the rest of Nottinghamshire, and Brighton and Hove is separate from East Sussex. On a ceremonial level, both are in their own respective counties geographically. ==Great Britain, historic== ===England=== This list shows towns or cities which held county functions at various points in time. ===Scotland=== ===Wales=== Following the Norman invasion of Wales, the Cambro-Normans created the historic shire system (also known as ancient counties). Many of these counties were named for the centre of Norman power within the new county (Caernarfonshire named for Caernarfon, Monmouthshire named for Monmouth) others were named after the previous medieval Welsh kingdoms (Ceredigon becomes Cardigan, Morgannwg becomes Glamorgan). The 1535 Laws in Wales Act established the historic counties in English law, but in Wales they were later replaced with eight preserved counties for ceremonial purposes and the twenty two principal areas are used for administrative purposes. Neither of these subdivisions use official county towns, although their administrative headquarters and ceremonial centres are often located in the historic county town. ==Great Britain, post 19th-century reforms== With the creation of elected county councils in 1889, the administrative headquarters in some cases moved away from the traditional county town. Furthermore, in 1965 and 1974 there were major boundary changes in England and Wales and administrative counties were replaced with new metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties. The boundaries underwent further alterations between 1995 and 1998 to create unitary authorities, and some of the ancient counties and county towns were restored. (Note: not all headquarters are or were called County Halls or Shire Halls e.g.: Cumbria County Council's HQ up until 2016 was called The Courts and has since moved to Cumbria House.) Before 1974, many of the county halls were in towns and cities that had the status of a county borough i.e. a borough outside the county council's jurisdiction. ===England, from 1889===	[ "Kirkwall", "County Armagh", "Exeter", "Mold, Wales", "South Yorkshire", "Ely, Cambridgeshire", "Liverpool", "Truro", "County Cavan", "Bishop Auckland", "County Hall, Newcastle upon Tyne", "Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely", "Warwickshire", "Dundalk", "Derby", "Bodmin", "Cumberland", "Avon (county)", "Merionethshire", "Kingston, Jamaica", "Middlesex", "assize court", "Gloucestershire", "County Sligo", "Beaumaris, Wales", "Rothesay, Argyll and Bute", "Kerry County Council", "Kildare County Council", "Cambridge", "Penrith, Cumbria", "Chester", "Appleby-in-Westmorland", "Aylesbury", "Hereford and Worcester", "County Kilkenny", "Spanish Town", "Berkshire", "Antrim, County Antrim", "Flintshire (historic)", "Alloa", "Belfast", "Knight of the shire", "East Sussex", "Monaghan", "Preserved counties of Wales", "North Yorkshire", "Southwark", "Lochgilphead", "Kilkenny", "Roscommon County Council", "County Londonderry", "East Kent", "Herefordshire", "Gwent (county)", "Cambridgeshire", "Radnorshire", "Winchester", "Clackmannan", "Launceston, Cornwall", "County Wexford", "Monmouthshire (historic)", "County Dublin", "Chichester", "Cromarty", "Great Britain", "Cleveland (county)", "Devon", "Isle of Anglesey", "Laois County Council", "Monmouth", "Salisbury", "Humberside", "Woodhatch Place, Reigate", "West Midlands (county)", "County Hall, Morpeth", "Huntingdonshire", "Wells, Somerset", "Argyll", "Limerick", "Lincolnshire", "Welshpool", "Wiltshire", "Isle of Wight", "Holland, Lincolnshire", "Hertford", "County Hall (Surrey)", "Beaumaris", "Abingdon-on-Thames", "Carmarthen", "Nairn", "Ross-shire", "Greater Manchester", "Peeblesshire", "Mullingar", "Wicklow", "Presteigne", "County Durham", "Dorchester, Dorset", "Offaly County Council", "Wexford County Council", "York", "Stranraer", "Cork City Council", "Haverfordwest", "Brentford", "Dolgellau", "Norwich", "City of Westminster", "Trowbridge", "Local government in Wales", "Worcester, England", "Wakefield", "Inveraray", "Lichfield", "Mold, Flintshire", "Chelmsford", "Aberystwyth", "Dún Laoghaire", "North Tipperary County Council", "Rutland", "Midlothian", "Nenagh", "Northallerton", "Downpatrick", "Lanark", "Enniskillen", "parliament", "Trim, County Meath", "Cupar", "County Leitrim", "Louth County Council", "Greater London", "Glamorgan", "Carlow", "Clwyd", "Ipswich", "West Glamorgan", "Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown County Council", "Northamptonshire", "Gwynedd", "Ruthin", "County Louth", "Greater London Council", "Brecon", "Clare County Council", "Middlesex County, Jamaica", "County Galway", "Bedford", "Berwick upon Tweed", "Preston, Lancashire", "Roscommon", "Dorset", "Tipperary County Council", "Kinross-shire", "Isle of Ely", "East Suffolk (county)", "Denbighshire (historic)", "county", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Lambeth", "Brighton and Hove", "Norman invasion of Wales", "Canterbury", "County Waterford", "West Suffolk (county)", "Newington, London", "Coventry", "Lincoln, Lincolnshire", "exclave", "Waterford City and County Council", "Duns, Scottish Borders", "Newport, Wales", "South Dublin County Council", "Wicklow County Council", "Galway City Council", "Clackmannanshire", "Hamilton, South Lanarkshire", "County Tyrone", "Lewes", "Buckingham", "Norfolk", "County Kildare", "New Radnor", "Powys", "Kinross", "Haddington, East Lothian", "Sligo County Council", "County Westmeath", "Essex", "Cardigan, Ceredigion", "County Borough of Carlisle", "Coleraine", "Dingwall", "Limerick City and County Council", "Lincoln, England", "Bath, Somerset", "Ross and Cromarty", "West Lothian (historic)", "Swansea", "Tyne and Wear", "Aberdeen", "Dumfriesshire", "Roxburghshire", "Tullamore", "Greenlaw", "Daingean", "Sleaford", "Stirlingshire", "Linlithgow", "Longman", "Carrick-on-Shannon", "Perth, Scotland", "County of London", "Kingston upon Thames", "Inverness-shire", "Inverness", "County Carlow", "Carlisle", "Tallaght", "County Antrim", "County Down", "Lancashire", "County Offaly", "Cornwall County, Jamaica", "Longford", "Golspie", "Lifford", "Clonmel", "Carmarthenshire", "Omagh", "Savanna-la-Mar", "Bridewell Palace", "county borough", "Somerset", "County Roscommon", "Staffordshire", "Mayo County Council", "31 Geo. 3", "County Kerry", "metropolitan county", "West Sussex", "Ayrshire", "Cumbria", "County Longford", "Flint, Wales", "Fife", "County Monaghan", "Hampshire", "Banff, Aberdeenshire", "County Meath", "Buckinghamshire", "Inner London Sessions House", "Northumberland", "Peterborough", "City Hall, Cork", "East Riding of Yorkshire", "Sadberge", "Ilchester", "Somerton, Somerset", "Soke of Peterborough", "Bedfordshire", "Forfar", "Kingston upon Hull", "Kirkcudbright", "Wick, Caithness", "Stonehaven", "Dumbarton", "County Donegal", "Oxfordshire", "Poole", "Longford County Council", "Caernarfon", "Armagh", "county council", "Southampton", "Renfrew, Scotland", "Llangefni", "Ayr", "Jedburgh", "Westmeath County Council", "Peebles", "administrative county", "Taunton", "County Cork", "Guildford", "Dublin City Council", "Donegal County Council", "Sligo", "Middlesbrough", "County Fermanagh", "Edinburgh", "Pembroke, Pembrokeshire", "West Yorkshire", "Hereford", "Dumfries", "Bury St Edmunds", "Mid Glamorgan", "Shrewsbury", "Huntingdon", "Manchester", "Navan", "Roxburgh", "Parts of Holland", "Lampeter", "Dublin County Council", "Angus, Scotland", "Lanarkshire", "Fingal County Council", "Lerwick", "Kesteven", "County Hall, Cork", "Kincardineshire", "Aberaeron", "Stafford", "County of Bute", "Lonsdale (hundred)", "Perthshire", "West Riding of Yorkshire", "Selkirk, Scottish Borders", "Dyfed", "Local Government Reform Act 2014", "Taunton, Somerset", "Wexford", "County Tipperary", "Naas", "Paisley, Renfrewshire", "Leitrim County Council", "Cardigan, Wales", "Swords, Dublin", "Selkirkshire", "Glasgow", "Caernarfonshire", "Matlock, Derbyshire", "Cardiff", "Kincardine, Aberdeenshire", "Newcastle upon Tyne", "Nottingham", "Unitary authorities of England", "Barnsley", "Maidstone", "Derbyshire", "Horsham", "Cork County Council", "County seat", "Parts of Lindsey", "County Mayo", "Cornwall", "North Riding of Yorkshire", "City of London", "Stirling", "Renfrewshire", "Cheshire", "Unitary Authority", "Beverley", "Leicestershire", "West Kent", "Cromartyshire", "Westmorland", "West Bridgford", "Wiltshire and Swindon History Centre", "Oakham", "Nottinghamshire", "Ceredigion", "Llandrindod Wells", "South Glamorgan", "Shropshire", "Reading, Berkshire", "Wilton, Wiltshire", "Surrey Gaol Act 1791", "English law", "Denbigh", "county court", "Surrey County, Jamaica", "Birmingham", "Lancaster, Lancashire", "Ennis", "Dornoch", "Cambro-Normans", "County Clare", "Monaghan County Council", "City Hall, Southwark", "Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542", "Greater London Authority", "County Laois", "Wigtownshire", "Pembrokeshire", "City Hall, London (Newham)", "Boston, Lincolnshire", "non-metropolitan county", "County Limerick", "Worcestershire", "City Hall, Dublin", "Newport, Isle of Wight", "Newgate Prison", "Cockermouth", "Administrative centre", "Brecknockshire", "Kilkenny County Council", "Hertfordshire", "Northampton", "Nairnshire", "County Wicklow", "England and Wales", "Cavan", "Castlebar", "Gloucester", "Carlow County Council", "Westminster", "Devizes", "City of Bristol", "Galway", "Oxford", "March, Cambridgeshire", "Alconbury Weald", "Merseyside", "Wigtown", "Bristol", "Alnwick", "Warwick", "South Tipperary County Council", "Montgomery, Powys", "Montgomeryshire", "Galway County Council", "Durham, England", "Leicester", "Cavan County Council", "County Hall, London", "Suffolk", "Portlaoise", "Clerkenwell", "county corporate", "Huntingdon and Peterborough", "Tralee", "Kendal", "Middlesex Guildhall", "Morpeth, Northumberland", "Cwmbran", "Berwick-upon-Tweed", "Surrey", "Meath County Council", "Ireland", "Kent", "Elgin, Moray", "Waterford", "Dungarvan", "Dunbartonshire" ]
7,411	Constitution of Canada	The Constitution of Canada () is the supreme law in Canada. It outlines Canada's system of government and the civil and human rights of those who are citizens of Canada and non-citizens in Canada. Its contents are an amalgamation of various codified acts, treaties between the Crown and Indigenous Peoples (both historical and modern), uncodified traditions and conventions. Canada is one of the oldest constitutional monarchies in the world. The Canadian constitution includes core written documents and provisions that are constitutionally entrenched, take precedence over all other laws and place substantive limits on government action; these include the Constitution Act, 1867 (formerly the British North America Act, 1867) and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Constitution Act, 1867 provides for a constitution "similar in principle" to the largely unwritten constitution of the United Kingdom, recognizes Canada as a constitutional monarchy and federal state, and outlines the legal foundations of Canadian federalism. The Constitution of Canada includes written and unwritten components. The Supreme Court of Canada has held that this list is not exhaustive and that the Constitution of Canada includes a number of pre-confederation acts and unwritten components as well. The Canadian constitution also includes the fundamental principles of federalism, democracy, constitutionalism and the rule of law, and respect for minorities. The act renamed the northeasterly portion of the former French province of New France as the Province of Quebec, roughly coextensive with the southern third of contemporary Quebec. The proclamation, which established an appointed colonial government, was the constitution of Quebec until 1774 when the British parliament passed the Quebec Act, which expanded the province's boundaries to the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers (one of the grievances listed in the United States Declaration of Independence). Significantly, the Quebec Act also replaced French criminal law with the English common law system; but the French civil law system was retained for non-criminal matters. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American War of Independence and sent a wave of British loyalist refugees northward to Quebec and Nova Scotia. In 1784, the two provinces were divided: Nova Scotia was split into Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island (rejoined to Nova Scotia in 1820), Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick, while Quebec was split into Lower Canada (southern Quebec) and Upper Canada (southern through lower northern Ontario). The winter of 1837–38 saw rebellion in both Canadas, contributing to their re-union as the Province of Canada in 1841. The British North America Act, 1867 established the Dominion of Canada as a federation of provinces. Initially, on July 1, 1867, four provinces entered into confederation as "One dominion under the name of Canada": Canada West (former Upper Canada, now Ontario), Canada East (former Lower Canada, now Quebec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Although listed, Newfoundland never ratified the statute so was still subject to imperial authority when its entire system of government and economy collapsed in the mid-1930s. Canada did ratify the statute but with a requested exception—the Canadian federal and provincial governments could not agree on an amending formula for the Canadian constitution. It would be another 50 years before this was achieved. In the interim, the British parliament periodically passed constitutional amendments when requested by the government of Canada. This was never anything but a rubber stamp. The patriation of the Canadian constitution was achieved in 1982 when the British parliament, with the request and assent of the Canadian Parliament, passed the Canada Act 1982, which included in its schedules the Constitution Act, 1982. The United Kingdom thus renounced any remaining responsibility for, or jurisdiction over, Canada. In a formal ceremony on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Queen Elizabeth II proclaimed the Constitution Act, 1982 into law on April 17, 1982. The Constitution Act, 1982, includes the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Before the Charter, various statutes protected an assortment of civil rights and obligations but nothing was enshrined in the constitution until 1982. The Charter has thus placed a strong focus upon individual and collective rights of the people of Canada. The enactment of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms has fundamentally changed much of Canadian constitutional law. The act also codified many previously oral constitutional conventions and made amendment of the constitution in general significantly more difficult. Previously, the Canadian constitution could be formally amended by an act of the British parliament, or by informal agreement between the federal and provincial governments, or even simply by adoption as the custom of an oral convention or performance that shows precedential but unwritten tradition. Since the act, textual amendments must now conform to certain specified provisions in the written portion of the Canadian constitution. ==Constitution Act, 1867== This was an act of the British parliament, originally called the British North America Act 1867. It outlined Canada's system of government, which combines Britain's Westminster model of parliamentary government with the division of sovereignty (federalism). Although it is the first of 20 British North America Acts, it is the most famous as the primary document of Canadian Confederation. With the patriation of the Constitution in 1982, this act was renamed Constitution Act, 1867. In recent years, the 1867 document has mainly served as the basis on which the division of powers between the provinces and the federal government is analyzed. ==Constitution Act, 1982== Endorsed by all provincial governments except that of Quebec, this was the formal act of Parliament that effected Canada's full legislative independence from the United Kingdom. Part V of this act established an amending formula for the Canadian constitution, the lack of which (due to more than 50 years of disagreement between the federal and provincial governments) meant Canada's constitutional amendments still required enactment by the British parliament after the Statute of Westminster in 1931. The Constitution Act, 1982 was enacted as a schedule to the Canada Act 1982, a British act of Parliament which was introduced at the request of a joint address to Queen Elizabeth II by the Senate and House of Commons of Canada. The version of the Canada Act 1982 which is in force in Britain is in English only, but the version of the act in force in Canada is bilingual, English and French. In addition to enacting the Constitution Act, 1982, the Canada Act 1982 provides that no further British acts of Parliament will apply to Canada as part of its law, finalizing Canada's legislative independence. ===Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms=== As noted above, this is Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982. The Charter is the constitutional guarantee of the civil rights and liberties of every citizen in Canada, such as freedom of expression, of religion, and of mobility. Part II addresses the rights of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Canada's constitution is composed of several individual statutes. There are three general methods by which a statute becomes entrenched in the Constitution: Specific mention as a constitutional document in section 52(2) of the Constitution Act, 1982 (e.g., the Constitution Act, 1867). Constitutional entrenchment of an otherwise statutory English, British, or Canadian document because its (still in force) subject-matter provisions are explicitly assigned to one of the methods of the amending formula (per the Constitution Act, 1982)—e.g., provisions with regard to the monarchy in the English Bill of Rights 1689 or the Act of Settlement 1701.English and British statutes are part of Canadian law because of the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865; section 129 of the Constitution Act, 1867; and the Statute of Westminster 1931. If still at least partially unrepealed those laws then became entrenched when the amending formula was made part of the constitution. Reference by an entrenched document—e.g., the Preamble of the Constitution Act, 1867 entrenchment of written and unwritten principles from the constitution of the United Kingdom or the Constitution Act, 1982 reference to the Proclamation of 1763.Crucially, this includes Aboriginal rights and Crown treaties with particular First Nations (e.g., historic "numbered" treaties; modern land-claims agreements). ===Unwritten or uncodified sources=== The existence of unwritten constitutional components was reaffirmed in 1998 by the Supreme Court in Reference re Secession of Quebec. The Constitution is more than a written text. It embraces the entire global system of rules and principles which govern the exercise of constitutional authority. A superficial reading of selected provisions of the written constitutional enactment, without more, may be misleading. In practice, there have been three sources of unwritten constitutional law: Conventions: Constitutional conventions form part of the constitution, but they are not judicially enforceable. They include the existence of the office of prime minister and the Cabinet, the practice that the Crown in most circumstances is required to grant royal assent to bills adopted by both houses of Parliament, and the requirement that the prime minister either resign or request a dissolution and general election upon losing a vote of confidence in the House of Commons. Royal prerogative: Reserve powers of the Canadian Crown, being remnants of the powers once held by the British Crown, reduced over time by the parliamentary system. Primarily, these are the orders in council, which give the government the authority to declare war, conclude treaties, issue passports, make appointments, make regulations, incorporate, and receive lands that escheat to the Crown. Unwritten principles: Principles that are incorporated into the Canadian constitution by the preamble of the Constitution Act, 1867, including a statement that the constitution is "similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom", much of which is unwritten. Unlike conventions, they are justiciable. Amongst those principles most recognized as constitutional to date are federalism, liberal democracy, constitutionalism, the rule of law, and respect for minorities. Others include responsible government, representation by population, judicial independence, and parliamentary supremacy. ==Provincial constitutions== Unlike in most federations, Canadian provinces do not have written provincial constitutions. Provincial constitutions are instead a combination of uncodified constitution, provisions of the Constitution of Canada, and provincial statutes. Overall structures of provincial governments (like the legislature and cabinet) are described in parts of the Constitution of Canada. Governmental structure of the original four provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario) is described in Part V of the Constitution Act, 1867. The three colonies that joined Canada after Confederation (British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and Labrador) had existing UK legislation which described their governmental structure, and this was affirmed in each colony's Terms of Union, which now form part of Canada's Constitution. The remaining three provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta) were created by federal statute. Their constitutional structures are described in those statutes, which now form part of Canada's Constitution. All provinces have enacted legislation that establishes other rules for the structure of government. For example, every province (and territory) has an act governing elections to the legislature, and another governing procedure in the legislature. Two provinces have explicitly listed such acts as being part of their provincial constitution; see Constitution of Quebec and Constitution Act (British Columbia). However, these acts do not, generally, supersede other legislation and do not require special procedures to amend, and so they function as regular statutes rather than constitutional statutes. A small number of non-constitutional provincial laws do supersede all other provincial legislation, as a constitution would. This is referred to as quasi-constitutionality. Quasi-constitutionality is often applied to human rights laws, allowing those laws to act as a de facto constitutional charter of rights. For example, laws preventing discrimination in employment, housing, and services have clauses making them quasi-constitutional in ten of thirteen jurisdictions. ===Amending provincial constitutions=== Section 45 of the Constitution Act, 1982 allows each province to amend its own constitution. This applies, for example, to provincial statute laws like Constitution of Quebec and Constitution Act (British Columbia). However, if the desired change would require an amendment to any documents that form part of the Constitution of Canada, it would require the consent of the Senate and House of Commons under section 43. This was done, for example, by the Constitution Amendment, 1998, when Newfoundland asked the federal government to amend the Terms of Union of Newfoundland to allow it to end denominational quotas for religion classes. A small number of statutes within provincial constitutions cannot be amended by a simple majority of the legislative assembly, despite section 45. For example, section 7 of the Constitution of Alberta Amendment Act, 1990 requires plebiscites of Métis settlement members before that act can be amended. Courts have not yet ruled about whether this kind of language really would bind future legislatures, but it might do so if the higher bar was met when creating the law. ==Vandalism of the proclamation paper== In 1983, Peter Greyson, an art student, entered Ottawa's National Archives (known today as Library and Archives Canada) and poured red paint mixed with glue over a copy of the proclamation of the 1982 constitutional amendment. He said he was displeased with the federal government's decision to allow United States missile testing in Canada and had wanted to "graphically illustrate to Canadians" how wrong he believed the government to be. Greyson was charged with public mischief and sentenced to 89 days in jail, 100 hours of community work, and two years of probation. A grapefruit-sized stain remains on the original document; restoration specialists opted to leave most of the paint intact, fearing that removal attempts would only cause further damage.	[ "Statute of Westminster 1931", "law of Canada", "MOS:CANADA", "liberal democracy", "system of government", "Constitution of Quebec", "Nunavut", "Prince Edward Island Terms of Union", "Constitution Act (British Columbia)", "Prime Minister of Canada", "rule of law", "Nova Scotia", "Cabinet of Canada", "Canadian Confederation", "orders in council", "Justiciability", "Constitution Act, 1867", "Monarchy of Canada", "Métis", "federalism", "Treaty of Paris of 1783", "Alberta", "CBC News", "New Brunswick", "Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms", "Prince Edward Island", "British North America Acts", "Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865", "Constitution Act, 1982", "Aboriginal peoples in Canada", "United States Declaration of Independence", "Bill of Rights 1689", "Terms of Union of Newfoundland with Canada", "constitutionalism", "British Raj", "Reference re Secession of Quebec", "Human Rights Code (British Columbia)", "Ohio River", "Parliament of Canada", "Saskatchewan", "Dominion of Newfoundland", "Yukon Territory", "list of Canadian constitutional documents", "Hudson's Bay Company", "Rubber stamp (politics)", "New France", "Manitoba", "Parliament of England", "constitutional convention (political custom)", "population of Canada", "Commonwealth of Nations", "Constitutionalism", "escheat", "House of Commons of Canada", "Uncodified constitution", "Province of Canada", "constitution of the United Kingdom", "Proclamation of 1763", "patriation", "Ontario", "Human rights in Canada", "British Columbia Terms of Union", "royal assent", "The Canadian Encyclopedia", "American War of Independence", "Quebec", "representation by population", "responsible government", "Human Rights Code (Ontario)", "Bangladesh", "Upper Canada", "Act of Parliament", "1926 Imperial Conference", "Canada West", "Lower Canada", "Canadian values", "Mississippi River", "parliamentary supremacy", "Animus (journal)", "quasi-constitutionality", "Federation", "Elizabeth II", "Canada Act 1982", "uncodified constitution", "Parliament Hill", "Act of Settlement 1701", "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms", "Quebec Act", "Magna Carta", "Canadian federalism", "British Empire", "Canada East", "Royal Proclamation of 1763", "Northwest Territories", "Library and Archives Canada", "Supreme Court of Canada", "British Columbia", "constitutional law", "Entrenched clause", "Constitutional convention (political custom)", "judicial independence", "Myanmar", "constitutional monarchy", "Pakistan" ]
7,424	Crochet	Crochet (; ) is a process of creating textiles by using a crochet hook to interlock loops of yarn, thread, or strands of other materials. The name is derived from the French term crochet, which means 'hook'. Hooks can be made from different materials (aluminum, steel, metal, wood, bamboo, bone, etc.), sizes, and types (in-line, tapered, ergonomic, etc.). The key difference between crochet and knitting, beyond the implements used for their production, is that each stitch in crochet is completed before the next one, while knitting keeps many stitches open at a time. Some variant forms of crochet, such as Tunisian crochet and Broomstick lace, do keep multiple crochet stitches open at a time. ==Etymology== The word crochet is derived from the French word , a diminutive of croche, in turn from the Germanic croc, both meaning "hook". In 1567, the tailor of Mary, Queen of Scots, Jehan de Compiegne, supplied her with silk thread for sewing and crochet, "soye à coudre et crochetz". ==Origins== Knitted textiles survive from as early as the 11th century CE, but the first substantive evidence of crocheted fabric emerges in Europe during the 19th century. Earlier work identified as crochet was commonly made by nålebinding, a different looped yarn technique. There are three main theories for the origin of crochet.Some believe that its beginnings can be traced to the Arab trade route, originating in Arabia and spreading to Tibet and then Spain as well as other Mediterranean countries. The first is "simple open crochet" (crochet simple ajour), a mesh of chain-stitch arches. The second (illustrated here) starts in a semi-open form (demi jour), where chain-stitch arches alternate with equally long segments of slip-stitch crochet, and closes with a star made with "double-crochet stitches" (dubbelde hekelsteek: double-crochet in British terminology; single-crochet in US). The third purse is made entirely in double-crochet. The instructions prescribe the use of a tambour needle (as illustrated below) and introduce a number of decorative techniques. The earliest dated reference in English to garments made of cloth produced by looping yarn with a hook—shepherd's knitting—is in The Memoirs of a Highland Lady by Elizabeth Grant (1797–1830). The journal entry, itself, is dated 1812 but was not recorded in its subsequently published form until some time between 1845 and 1867, and the actual date of publication was first in 1898. Nonetheless, the 1833 volume of Penélopé describes and illustrates a shepherd's hook, and recommends its use for crochet with coarser yarn. In 1844, one of the numerous books discussing crochet that began to appear in the 1840s states: Two years later, the same author writes: An instruction book from 1846 describes Shepherd or single crochet as what in current international terminology is either called single crochet or slip-stitch crochet, with U.S. terminology always using the latter (reserving single crochet for use as noted above). It similarly equates "Double" and "French crochet". Notwithstanding the categorical assertion of a purely British origin, there is solid evidence of a connection between French tambour embroidery, french passementerie and crochet. A form of hook known as crochet was used to create 'chains in the air' as part of passementerie back in the 17th century. This is confirmed by a patent issued to the passementiers by Louis XIV in 1653, and there are earlier decorative examples of this technique. The patent lists various items, including "thread for embroidery, enhanced and embellished as done with a needle, on thimbles, on the fingers, on a crochet, and on a bobbin." Similarly, chain stitch appears in Queen Elizabeth I's wardrobe accounts, starting in 1558, with further references to garments bordered with 'cheyne lace' in other inventories. One example from 1588 describes "a long cloak of murry velvet, with a border of small cheyne lace of Venice silver." While the exact design of the 1653 crochet is unclear, a 1723 French dictionary by Jacques Savary des Brûlons describes a crochet as a small iron instrument, three or four inches long, with a pointed, curved end and a wooden handle, used by passementiers for tasks like creating hat seams and attaching flowers to mesh. It is most likely that the hook used in crochet came from the ones used by the French pessamenterie industry. French tambour embroidery and the crochet needle used for it was illustrated in detail in 1763 in Diderot's Encyclopedia. The tip of the needle shown there is indistinguishable from that of a present-day inline crochet hook and the chain stitch separated from a cloth support is a fundamental element of the latter technique. The 1823 Penélopé instructions unequivocally state that the tambour tool was used for crochet and the first of the 1840s instruction books uses the terms tambour and crochet as synonyms. This equivalence is retained in the 4th edition of that work, 1847. The strong taper of the shepherd's hook eases the production of slip-stitch crochet but is less amenable to stitches that require multiple loops on the hook at the same time. Early yarn hooks were also continuously tapered but gradually enough to accommodate multiple loops. The design with a cylindrical shaft that is commonplace today was largely reserved for tambour-style steel needles. Both types gradually merged into the modern form that appeared toward the end of the 19th century, including both tapered and cylindrical segments, and the continuously tapered bone hook remained in industrial production until World War II. The early instruction books make frequent reference to the alternative use of 'ivory, bone, or wooden hooks' and 'steel needles in a handle', as appropriate to the stitch being made. Taken with the synonymous labeling of shepherd's- and single crochet, and the similar equivalence of French- and double crochet, there is a strong suggestion that crochet is rooted both in tambour embroidery and shepherd's knitting, leading to thread and yarn crochet respectively; a distinction that is still made. The locus of the fusion of all these elements—the "invention" noted above—has yet to be determined, as does the origin of shepherd's knitting. Shepherd's hooks are still being made for local slip-stitch crochet traditions. The form in the accompanying photograph is typical for contemporary production. A longer continuously tapering design intermediate between it and the 19th-century tapered hook was also in earlier production, commonly being made from the handles of forks and spoons. ==Irish crochet== In the 19th century, as Ireland was facing the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849), crochet lace work was introduced as a form of famine relief (the production of crocheted lace being an alternative way of making money for impoverished Irish workers). Men, women, children joined a co-operative in order to crochet and produce products to help with famine relief during the Great Irish Famine. Schools to teach crocheting were started. Teachers were trained and sent across Ireland to teach this craft. When the Irish immigrated to the Americas, they were able to take with them crocheting. Mademoiselle Riego de la Branchardiere is generally credited with the invention of Irish Crochet, publishing the first book of patterns in 1846. Irish lace became popular in Europe and America, and was made in quantity until the first World War. ==Modern practice and culture== Fashions in crochet changed with the end of the Victorian era in the 1890s. Crocheted laces in the new Edwardian era, peaking between 1910 and 1920, became even more elaborate in texture and complicated stitching. The strong Victorian colors disappeared, though, and new publications called for white or pale threads, except for fancy purses, which were often crocheted of brightly colored silk and elaborately beaded. After World War I, far fewer crochet patterns were published, and most of them were simplified versions of the early 20th-century patterns. After World War II, from the late 1940s until the early 1960s, there was a resurgence in interest in home crafts, particularly in the United States, with many new and imaginative crochet designs published for colorful doilies, potholders, and other home items, along with updates of earlier publications. These patterns called for thicker threads and yarns than in earlier patterns and included variegated colors. The craft remained primarily a homemaker's art until the late 1960s and early 1970s, when the new generation picked up on crochet and popularized granny squares, a motif worked in the round and incorporating bright colors. Although crochet underwent a subsequent decline in popularity, the early 21st century has seen a revival of interest in handcrafts and DIY, as well as improvement of the quality and varieties of yarn. As well as books and classes, there are YouTube tutorials and TikTok videos to help people who may need a clearer explanation to learn how to crochet. Crochet has been used as a medium to explore identity and self-expression in educational programs, bridging the gap between art and technology. Today, many popular crochet projects amongst youth include creating stuffed animals, hats, and even flowers. Filet crochet, Tunisian crochet, tapestry crochet, broomstick lace, hairpin lace, cro-hooking, and Irish crochet are all variants of the basic crochet method. == Mental health benefits of crocheting == Coping with anxiety, depression, major life events such as grief or divorce, and management of chronic pain and illness. Crochet is relatively low-cost and portable and the basic stitches can be easily learned by most people. The tactile and creative nature of crochet has been shown to improve emotional well-being and foster a sense of community among participants. Based on a study done by the Royal Society for Public Health in 2020 on 8,391 crocheters from 87 different countries over 6 weeks, 89.5% of crocheters felt calmer, 82% felt happier, and 74.7% felt more useful which can signify an improvement in mental health from participating in crochet. The benefits appear to stem from the low cost, portability, and easily learned aspects of crochet. ==Sustainability and crochet in fashion== Sustainability can be a key pillar of crochet, as it may use upcycled and environmentally friendly materials in yarn to create sustainable fabrics such as bamboo, hemp, cotton, linen, and wool. Synthetic fibres, e.g., acrylic and polyester are, nevertheless, quite commonly used. Since crochet is typically made by hand, crochet contributes to ethical production by adhering to the slow production of garments and accessories rather than the fast-paced and mechanized garments that are produced on a mass scale by the fast fashion industry. There are crochet machines but there is little evidence to support crochet machines contributing to mass production in the same sense that other textiles are being used in fast fashion. In addition, crochet fabric can be loosened and undone easily to be reused in a new way. Crochet can be added to worn or torn garments and to add a stylistic enhancement, such as a collar or sleeves, which may contribute to upcycling of clothing. Crochet highlights the sustainability factor of quality versus quantity because of the customization aspect which can make crochet items more personalized. Another aspect of the sustainability of crochet is that crochet is versatile and can be used to create many different products eliminating the need to constantly buy new products. Many crochet and knit yarn brands have taken a stance on sustainability by aiming to increase the production of natural fibers such as organic cotton, hemp, wool and recycled yarns. Creating crocheted items has become a way to make sustainable fashion. Fast fashion brands like Shein have created products that resemble crocheted items. Crochet has experienced a revival on the catwalk as well. Christopher Kane's Fall 2011 Ready-to-Wear collection makes intensive use of the granny square, one of the most basic of crochet motifs. Websites such as Etsy and Ravelry have made it easier for individual hobbyists to sell and distribute their patterns or projects across the internet. ==Materials== The basic materials required for crocheting are a hook, scissors (to cut yarn), and some type of material that will be crocheted, the most commonly used are yarn or thread. Alternatively, some people choose to crochet with their hands, especially for large yarns. Yarn, one of the most commonly used materials for crocheting, has varying weights which need to be taken into consideration when following patterns. The weight of the yarn can affect not only the look of the product but also the feeling. Acrylic can also be used when crocheting, as it is synthetic and an alternative to wool. Additional tools are convenient for making related accessories. Examples of such tools include cardboard cutouts, which can be used to make tassels, fringe, and many other items; a pom-pom circle, used to make pom-poms; a tape measure and a gauge measure, both used for measuring crocheted work and counting stitches; a row counter; and occasionally plastic rings, which are used for special projects. In recent years, yarn selections have moved beyond synthetic and plant and animal-based fibers to include bamboo, qiviut, hemp, and banana stalks, to name a few. Many advanced crocheters have also incorporated recycled materials into their work in an effort to "go green" and experiment with new textures by using items such as plastic bags, old T-shirts or sheets, VCR or cassette tape, and ribbon. Artisan-made hooks are often made of hand-turned woods, sometimes decorated with semi-precious stones or beads. Steel crochet hooks are sized in a reverse manner – the higher the number, the smaller the hook. They range in size from 0.9 to 2.7 millimeters, or from 14 to 00 in American sizing. A yarn's usefulness is judged by several factors, such as its loft (its ability to trap air), its resilience (elasticity under tension), its washability and colorfastness, its hand (its feel, particularly softness vs. scratchiness), its durability against abrasion, its resistance to pilling, its hairiness (fuzziness), its tendency to twist or untwist, its overall weight and drape, its blocking and felting qualities, its comfort (breathability, moisture absorption, wicking properties) and its appearance, which includes its color, sheen, smoothness and ornamental features. Other factors include allergenicity, speed of drying, resistance to chemicals, moths, and mildew, melting point and flammability, retention of static electricity, and the propensity to accept dyes. Desirable properties may vary for different projects, so there is no one "best" yarn. Although crochet may be done with ribbons, metal wire, or more exotic filaments, most yarns are made by spinning fibers. In spinning, the fibers are twisted so that the yarn resists breaking under tension; the twisting may be done in either direction, resulting in a Z-twist or S-twist yarn. If the fibers are first aligned by combing them and the spinner uses a worsted type drafting method such as the short forward draw, the yarn is smoother and called a worsted; by contrast, if the fibers are carded but not combed and the spinner uses a woolen drafting method such as the long backward draw, the yarn is fuzzier and called woolen-spun. The fibers making up a yarn may be continuous filament fibers such as silk and many synthetics, or they may be staples (fibers of an average length, typically a few inches); naturally filament fibers are sometimes cut up into staples before spinning. The strength of the spun yarn against breaking is determined by the amount of twist, the length of the fibers, and the thickness of the yarn. In general, yarns become stronger with more twists (also called worst), longer fibers, and thicker yarns (more fibers); for example, thinner yarns require more twists than thicker yarns to resist breaking under tension. The thickness of the yarn may vary along its length; a slub is a much thicker section in which a mass of fibers is incorporated into the yarn. The spun fibers are generally divided into animal fibers, plant, and synthetic fibers. These fiber types are chemically different, corresponding to proteins, carbohydrates, and synthetic polymers, respectively. Animal fibers include silk, but generally are long hairs of animals such as sheep (wool), goat (angora, or cashmere goat), rabbit (angora), llama, alpaca, dog, cat, camel, yak, and muskox (qiviut). Plants used for fibers include cotton, flax (for linen), bamboo, ramie, hemp, jute, nettle, raffia, yucca, coconut husk, banana trees, soy and corn. Rayon and acetate fibers are also produced from cellulose mainly derived from trees. Common synthetic fibers include acrylics, polyesters such as dacron and ingeo, nylon and other polyamides, and olefins such as polypropylene. Of these types, wool is generally favored for crochet, chiefly owing to its superior elasticity, warmth and (sometimes) felting; however, wool is generally less convenient to clean and some people are allergic to it. It is also common to blend different fibers in the yarn, e.g., 85% alpaca and 15% silk. Even within a type of fiber, there can be great variety in the length and thickness of the fibers; for example, Merino wool and Egyptian cotton are favored because they produce exceptionally long, thin (fine) fibers for their type. A single spun yarn may be crochet as is, or braided or plied with another. In plying, two or more yarns are spun together, almost always in the opposite sense from which they were spun individually; for example, two Z-twist yarns are usually plied with an S-twist. The opposing twist relieves some of the yarn's tendency to curl up and produces a thicker, balanced yarn. Plied yarns may themselves be plied together, producing cabled yarns or multi-stranded yarns. Sometimes, the yarns being plied are fed at different rates, so that one yarn loops around the other, as in bouclé. The single yarns may be dyed separately before plying, or afterward to give the yarn a uniform look. The dyeing of yarns is a complex art. Yarns need not be dyed, or they may be dyed one color or a great variety of colors. Dyeing may be done industrially, by hand, or even hand-painted onto the yarn. A great variety of synthetic dyes have been developed since the synthesis of indigo dye in the mid-19th century; however, natural dyes are also possible, although they are generally less brilliant. The color scheme of a yarn is sometimes called its colorway. Variegated yarns can produce interesting visual effects, such as diagonal stripes. ==Process== Crocheted fabric is begun by placing a slip-knot loop on the hook (though other methods, such as a magic ring or simple folding over of the yarn, may be used), pulling another loop through the first loop, and repeating this process to create a chain of a suitable length. The chain is either turned and worked in rows, or joined to the beginning of the row with a slip stitch and worked in rounds. Rounds can also be created by working many stitches into a single loop. Stitches are made by pulling one or more loops through each loop of the chain. At any one time at the end of a stitch, there is only one loop left on the hook. Tunisian crochet, however, draws all of the loops for an entire row onto a long hook before working them off one at a time. Like knitting, crochet can be worked either flat (back and forth in rows) or in the round (in spirals, such as when making tubular pieces). ==Types of stitches== There are six main types of basic stitches (the following description uses international crochet terminology with US variants noted in brackets). Chain stitch (ch) – the most basic of all stitches and used to begin most projects. Yarn round hook (yrh) and draw through. Slip stitch (sl st or ss) – used to join chain stitch to form a ring. Insert hook in work, yrh, draw through. Double crochet (dc) (US = single crochet) – Insert hook, draw loop through, (2 loops on hook, hence double), yrh, draw through. Half treble (htr) (US = half double) – yrh, insert hook, draw loop through, (3 loops on hook, hence treble), yrh, draw through all loops. Treble (tr) (US = double) – yrh, insert hook, draw loop through (3 loops on hook, hence treble), yrh, draw through 2 loops, yrh, draw through 2 loops. Double treble (US = treble or triple) – as treble but 2 yrh at start (hence double treble). Also triple treble (ttr), as treble but with 3 yrh at start, and so on. While the horizontal distance covered by these basic stitches is the same, they differ in height and can be replaced with a length of ch when required, e.g. 1 tr = 3 ch. The more advanced stitches are often combinations of these basic stitches, or are made by inserting the hook into the work in unusual locations. More advanced stitches include the shell stitch, V stitch, spike stitch, Afghan stitch, butterfly stitch, popcorn stitch, cluster stitch, and crocodile stitch. ==International crochet terms and notations== There are two main notations of basic stitches, one used across Europe, Australia, India and other crocheting nations, the other in the US and Canada. (In America, international terminology is often erroneously called British or UK terminology.) Crochet is traditionally worked from a written pattern using standard abbreviations or from a diagram, thus enabling non-English speakers to use English-based patterns. To help counter confusion when reading patterns, a diagramming system using a standard international notation has come into use (illustration, left). In the United States, crochet terminology and sizing guidelines, as well as standards for yarn and hook labeling, are primarily regulated by the Craft Yarn Council. Another terminological difference is known as tension (international) and gauge (US). Individual crocheters work yarn with a loose or a tight hold and, if unmeasured, these differences can lead to significant size changes in finished garments that have the same number of stitches. In order to control for this inconsistency, printed crochet instructions include a standard for the number of stitches across a standard swatch of fabric. An individual crocheter begins work by producing a test swatch and compensating for any discrepancy by changing to a smaller or larger hook. ==Differences and similarities to knitting== One of the more obvious differences is that crochet uses one hook while most knitting uses two needles. In most crochet, the artisan usually has only one live stitch on the hook (except Tunisian crochet), while a knitter keeps an entire row of stitches active simultaneously. Dropped stitches, which can unravel a knitted fabric, rarely interfere with crochet work, due to a second structural difference between knitting and crochet. In knitting, each stitch is supported by the corresponding stitch in the row above and it supports the corresponding stitch in the row below. In contrast, crochet stitches are only supported by and support the stitches on either side of it. If a stitch in a finished crocheted item breaks, the stitches above and below remain intact, and because of the complex looping of each stitch, the stitches on either side are unlikely to come loose unless heavily stressed Round or cylindrical patterns are simple to produce with a regular crochet hook, but cylindrical knitting requires either a set of circular needles or three to five special double-ended needles. Many crocheted items are composed of individual motifs which are then joined, either by sewing or crocheting, whereas knitting is usually composed of one fabric, such as entrelac. Freeform crochet is a technique that can create interesting shapes in three dimensions because new stitches can be made independently of previous stitches almost anywhere in the crocheted piece. It is generally accomplished by building shapes or structural elements onto existing crocheted fabric at any place the crafter desires. Knitting can be accomplished by machine, while many crochet stitches can only be crafted by hand. The height of knitted and crocheted stitches is also different: a single crochet stitch is twice the height of a knit stitch in the same yarn size and comparable diameter tools, and a double crochet stitch is about four times the height of a knit stitch. While most crochet is made with a hook, there is also a method of crocheting with a knitting loom. This is called loomchet. Slip stitch crochet is very similar to knitting. Each stitch in slip stitch crochet is formed the same way as a knit or purl stitch which is then bound off. A person working in slip stitch crochet can follow a knitted pattern with knits, purls, and cables, and get a similar result. It is a common perception that crochet produces a thicker fabric than knitting, tends to have less "give" than knitted fabric, and uses approximately a third more yarn for a comparable project than knitted items. Although this is true when comparing a single crochet swatch with a stockinette swatch, both made with the same size yarn and needle/hook, it is not necessarily true for crochet in general. Most crochet uses far less than 1/3 more yarn than knitting for comparable pieces, and a crocheter can get similar feel and drape to knitting by using a larger hook or thinner yarn. Tunisian crochet and slip stitch crochet can in some cases use less yarn than knitting for comparable pieces. According to sources claiming to have tested the 1/3 more yarn assertion, a single crochet stitch (sc) uses approximately the same amount of yarn as knit garter stitch, but more yarn than stockinette stitch. Any stitch using yarnovers uses less yarn than single crochet to produce the same amount of fabric. Cluster stitches, which are in fact multiple stitches worked together, will use the most length. Standard crochet stitches like sc and dc also produce a thicker fabric, more like knit garter stitch. This is part of why they use more yarn. Slip stitch can produce a fabric much like stockinette that is thinner and therefore uses less yarn. Any yarn can be either knitted or crocheted, provided needles or hooks of the correct size are used, but the cord's properties should be taken into account. For example, lofty, thick woolen yarns tend to function better when knitted, which does not crush their airy structure, while thin and tightly spun yarn helps to achieve the firm texture required for Amigurumi crochet. File:Crochet-round.jpg\|Most crochet uses one hook and works upon one stitch at a time. Crochet may be worked in circular rounds without any specialized tools, as shown here. File:Pink knitting in front of pink sweatshirt.JPG\|Knitting uses two or more straight needles that carry multiple stitches. File:Doublepoints2.JPG\|Unlike crochet, knitting requires specialized needles to create circular rounds. File:Amigurumi-bear.jpg\|For amigurumi, crocheting creates a knobbier and more structured texture compared with knitting. ==Craftivism== It has been very common for people and groups to crochet clothing and other garments and then donate them to soldiers during war. People have also crocheted clothing and then donated it to hospitals, for sick patients and also for newborn babies. Sometimes groups will crochet for a specific charity purpose, such as crocheting for homeless shelters, nursing homes, etc. It is becoming increasingly popular to crochet hats (commonly referred to as "chemo caps") and donate them to cancer treatment centers, for those undergoing chemotherapy and therefore losing hair. During October pink hats and scarves are made and proceeds are donated to breast cancer funds. Organizations dedicated to using crochet as a way to help others include Knots of Love, Crochet for Cancer, and Soldiers' Angels. These organizations offer warm useful items for people in need. In 2020, people around the world banded together to help save the wildlife affected by the Australian bushfires by crocheting kangaroo pouches, koala mittens, and wildlife nests. This was an international effort to help during the particularly bad bushfire season which devastated local ecological systems. A group started in 2005 to create crochet versions of coral reefs grew by 2022 to over 20,000 contributors in what became the Crochet Coral Reef Project. Extending hyperbolic crochet for activism and education with color, a group of South African crafters created The Abundance Crochet Coral Reef, an eco-art installation in Cape Town's Two Oceans Aquarium, to juxtapose hyperbolic shapes crocheted in variations of white on one side of a display with fiber coral shapes crocheted in various colors to illustrate coral bleaching due to oceanic warming and climate change. Feminist scholar-activists have argued for crochet as an embodied method of inquiry aimed at uncovering entangled, relational, and situated ways being and knowing inclusive of the more-than-human co-creation of worlds. In Staying with the Trouble, Donna Haraway argues for the methodological use of crochet to model ecological and mathematical phenomena as "a kind of lure to an affective cognitive ecology stitched in fiber arts" that works "not by mimicry, but by open-ended, exploratory process." ==Yarn bombing== In recent years, a practice called yarn bombing, or the use of knitted or crocheted cloth to modify and beautify one's (usually outdoor) surroundings, emerged in the US and spread worldwide. Yarn bombers sometimes target existing pieces of graffiti for beautification. In 2010, an entity dubbed "the Midnight Knitter" hit West Cape May. Residents awoke to find knit cozies hugging tree branches and sign poles. In September 2015, Grace Brett was named "The World's Oldest Yarn Bomber". She is part of a group of yarn graffiti-artists called the Souter Stormers, who beautify their local town in Scotland. ==Mathematics and hyperbolic crochet== Crochet has been used to illustrate shapes in hyperbolic space that are difficult to reproduce using other media or are difficult to understand when viewed two-dimensionally. Mathematician Daina Taimiņa first used crochet in 1997 to create strong, durable models of hyperbolic space after finding paper models were delicate and hard to create. These models enable one to turn, fold, and otherwise manipulate space to more fully grasp ideas such as how a line can appear curved in hyperbolic space yet actually be straight. Her work received an exhibition by the Institute For Figuring. As hyperbolic and mathematics-based crochet has become more popular, there have been several events highlighting work from various fiber artists. Two shows were Sant Ocean Hall at the Smithsonian in Washington, D.C., and Sticks, Hooks, and the Mobius: Knit and Crochet Go Cerebral at Lafayette College in Pennsylvania. ==Architecture== In Style in the technical arts, Gottfried Semper looks at the textile with great promise and historical precedent. In Section 53, he writes of the "loop stitch, or Noeud Coulant: a knot that, if untied, causes the whole system to unravel." In the same section, Semper confesses his ignorance of the subject of crochet but believes strongly that it is a technique of great value as a textile technique and possibly something more. There are a small number of architects currently interested in the subject of crochet as it relates to architecture. The following publications, explorations and thesis projects can be used as a resource to see how crochet is being used within the capacity of architecture. Emergent Explorations: Analog and Digital Scripting – Alexander Worden Research and Design: The Architecture of Variation – Lars Spuybroek YurtAlert – Kate Pokorny == Styles in crochet == Mosaic crochet Granny square Freeform crochet Motifs Crocheted lace Tunisian crochet Tapestry crochet Amigurumi Filet crochet Corner to Corner (C2C) Crochet Irish crochet lace Bead crochet Doily	[ "coral bleaching", "cellulose acetate", "needle lace", "camel", "France", "French language", "ingeo", "chemotherapy", "wool", "Hyperbolic geometry", "Etsy", "cat", "Margaret Wertheim", "Encyclopédie", "Tapestry crochet", "banana tree", "polymer", "indigo dye", "Smithsonian Institution", "polypropylene", "textile", "Cape Town, South Africa", "knitting", "Elizabeth Grant (diarist)", "eco-art", "cotton", "The Tempestry Project", "broomstick lace", "fringe (trim)", "List of crochet stitches", "tassels", "row counter (hand knitting)", "Fiber art", "Felt", "Filet crochet", "Motif (textile arts)", "Tatting", "Doily", "Daina Taimiņa", "qiviut", "YarnWeight", "cancer", "Manzanar", "jute", "Embroidery", "Euclidean geometry", "polyester", "Swift (textiles)", "ramie", "colorway", "llama", "crochet hook", "slub (textiles)", "Freeform crochet and knitting", "Knitting", "History of knitting", "Mary, Queen of Scots", "hemp", "linen", "2019–20 Australian bushfire season", "Tunisian crochet", "Broomstick lace", "yak", "protein", "Climate change", "bouclé", "thread (yarn)", "hairpin lace", "Units of textile measurement", "sheep", "soy", "flax", "alpaca", "passementerie", "Gossypium barbadense", "Great Irish Famine", "animal fiber", "Shein", "felt", "Irish Crochet", "Edwardian era", "bamboo", "spinning (textiles)", "goat", "yucca", "pill (textile)", "catwalk", "nylon", "Sewing", "coconut", "raffia", "olefin", "steel", "Victorian era", "amigurumi", "Christopher Kane", "rabbit", "acrylic fiber", "Staying with the Trouble", "Urtica dioica", "hyperbolic space", "Ravelry", "Donna Haraway", "Bead crochet", "nålebinding", "tapestry crochet", "synthetic fiber", "World War II", "staple (wool)", "Crochet needle", "cro-hook", "sustainable fashion", "homeless shelters", "Maize", "polyethylene terephthalate", "angora goat", "natural dye", "tree", "Macramé", "Institute For Figuring", "angora rabbit", "laundry", "Rayon", "Amigurumi", "Knots of Love", "ivory", "Elasticity (physics)", "granny square", "yarn", "Crochet Guild of America", "silk", "Santina M. Levey", "tape measure", "lace", "dog", "Merino", "Lafayette College", "Granny square", "cashmere goat", "Irish crochet lace", "plying", "nursing homes", "muskox", "Cro-hook", "Ansel Adams", "yarn bombing", "Two Oceans Aquarium", "Jean de Compiègne", "Do it yourself", "entrelac", "Jane Gaugain", "braid", "More-than-human world", "cellulose", "Slip knot", "Germanic languages", "embroidery", "Crocheted lace", "carbohydrate" ]
7,425	Electromagnetic coil	An electromagnetic coil is an electrical conductor such as a wire in the shape of a coil (spiral or helix). Electromagnetic coils are used in electrical engineering, in applications where electric currents interact with magnetic fields, in devices such as electric motors, generators, inductors, electromagnets, transformers, sensor coils such as in medical MRI imaging machines. Either an electric current is passed through the wire of the coil to generate a magnetic field, or conversely, an external time-varying magnetic field through the interior of the coil generates an EMF (voltage) in the conductor. A current through any conductor creates a circular magnetic field around the conductor due to Ampere's law. The advantage of using the coil shape is that it increases the strength of the magnetic field produced by a given current. The magnetic fields generated by the separate turns of wire all pass through the center of the coil and add (superpose) to produce a strong field there. The induced voltage can be increased by winding the wire into a coil because the field lines intersect the circuit multiple times. The hole in the center of the coil is called the core area or magnetic axis. Each loop of wire is called a turn. A winding that has a single tap in the center of its length is called center-tapped. Coils can have more than one winding, insulated electrically from each other. When there are two or more windings around a common magnetic axis, the windings are said to be inductively coupled or magnetically coupled. A time-varying current through one winding will create a time-varying magnetic field that passes through the other winding, which will induce a time-varying voltage in the other windings. This is called a transformer. The winding to which current is applied, which creates the magnetic field, is called the primary winding. The other windings are called secondary windings. ==Magnetic core== Many electromagnetic coils have a magnetic core, a piece of ferromagnetic material like iron in the center to increase the magnetic field. The current through the coil magnetizes the iron, and the field of the magnetized material adds to the field produced by the wire. This is called a ferromagnetic-core or iron-core coil. A ferromagnetic core can increase the magnetic field and inductance of a coil by hundreds or thousands of times over what it would be without the core. A ferrite core coil is a variety of coil with a core made of ferrite, a ferrimagnetic ceramic compound. Ferrite coils have lower core losses at high frequencies. A coil with a core which forms a closed loop, possibly with some narrow air gaps, is called a closed-core coil. By providing a closed path for the magnetic field lines, this geometry minimizes the magnetic reluctance and produces the strongest magnetic field. It is often used in transformers. A common form for closed-core coils is a toroidal core coil, in which the core has the shape of a torus or doughnut, with either a circular or rectangular cross section. This geometry has minimum leakage flux and radiates minimum electromagnetic interference (EMI). A coil with a core which is a straight bar or other non-loop shape is called an open-core coil. This has lower magnetic field and inductance than a closed core, but is often used to prevent magnetic saturation of the core. A coil without a ferromagnetic core is called an air-core coil. This includes coils wound on plastic or other nonmagnetic forms, as well as coils which actually have empty air space inside their windings. ==Types of coils== Coils can be classified by the frequency of the current they are designed to operate with: Direct current or DC coils or electromagnets operate with a steady direct current in their windings Audio-frequency or AF coils, inductors or transformers operate with alternating currents in the audio frequency range, less than 20 kHz Radio-frequency or RF coils, inductors or transformers operate with alternating currents in the radio frequency range, above 20 kHz Coils can be classified by their function: ===Electromagnets=== Electromagnets are coils that generate a magnetic field for some external use, often to exert a mechanical force on something. or remove existing background fields. A few specific types: Solenoid - an electromagnet in the form of a straight hollow helix of wire Motor and generator windings - iron core electromagnets on the rotor or stator of electric motors and generators which act on each other to either turn the shaft (motor) or generate an electric current (generator) Field winding - an iron-core coil which generates a steady magnetic field to act on the armature winding. Armature winding - an iron-core coil which is acted on by the magnetic field of the field winding to either create torque (motor) or induce a voltage to produce power (generator) Helmholtz coil, Maxwell coil - air-core coils which serve to cancel an external magnetic field Degaussing coil - a coil used to demagnetize parts Voice coil - a coil used in a moving-coil loudspeaker, suspended between the poles of a magnet. When the audio signal is passed through the coil, it vibrates, moving the attached speaker cone to create sound waves. The reverse is used in a dynamic microphone, where sound vibrations intercepted by something like a diaphragm physically transfer to a voice coil immersed in a magnetic field, and the coil's terminal ends then provide an electric analog of those vibrations. ===Inductors=== Inductors or reactors are coils which generate a magnetic field which interacts with the coil itself, to induce a back EMF which opposes changes in current through the coil. Inductors are used as circuit elements in electrical circuits, to temporarily store energy or resist changes in current. A few types: Tank coil - an inductor used in a tuned circuit Choke - an inductor used to block high frequency AC while allowing through low frequency AC or DC. Loading coil - an inductor used to add inductance to an antenna, to make it resonant, or to a cable to prevent distortion of signals. Variometer - an adjustable inductor consisting of two coils in series, an outer stationary coil and a second one inside it which can be rotated so their magnetic axes are in the same direction or opposed. Flyback transformer - Although called a transformer, this is actually an inductor which serves to store energy in switching power supplies and horizontal deflection circuits for CRT televisions and monitors Saturable reactor - an iron-core inductor used to control AC power by varying the saturation of the core using a DC control voltage in an auxiliary winding. Inductive ballast - an inductor used in gas-discharge lamp circuits, such as fluorescent lamps, to limit the current through the lamp. ===Transformers=== A transformer is a device with two or more magnetically coupled windings (or sections of a single winding). A time varying current in one coil (called the primary winding) generates a magnetic field which induces a voltage in the other coil (called the secondary winding). A few types: Distribution transformer - A transformer in an electric power grid which transforms the high voltage from the electric power line to the lower voltage used by utility customers. Autotransformer - a transformer with only one winding. Different portions of the winding, accessed with taps, act as primary and secondary windings of the transformer. Toroidal transformer - the core is in the shape of a toroid. This is a commonly used shape as it decreases the leakage flux, resulting in less electromagnetic interference. Induction coil or trembler coil - an early transformer which uses a vibrating interrupter mechanism to break the primary current so it can operate off of DC current. Ignition coil - an induction coil used in internal combustion engines to create a pulse of high voltage to fire the spark plug which initiates the fuel burning. Balun - a transformer which matches a balanced transmission line to an unbalanced one. Bifilar coil - a coil wound with two parallel, closely spaced strands. If AC currents are passed through it in the same direction, the magnetic fluxes will add, but if equal currents in opposite directions pass through the windings the opposite fluxes will cancel, resulting in zero flux in the core. So no voltage will be induced in a third winding on the core. These are used in instruments and in devices like Ground Fault Interrupters. They are also used in low inductance wirewound resistors for use at RF frequencies. Audio transformer - A transformer used with audio signals. They are used for impedance matching. Hybrid coil - a specialized audio transformer with 3 windings used in telephony circuits to convert between two-wire and four-wire circuits ===Electric machines=== Electric machines such as motors and generators have one or more windings which interact with moving magnetic fields to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. Often a machine will have one winding through which passes most of the power of the machine (the "armature"), and a second winding which provides the magnetic field of the rotating element ( the "field winding") which may be connected by brushes or slip rings to an external source of electric current. In an induction motor, the "field" winding of the rotor is energized by the slow relative motion between the rotating winding and the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator winding, which induces the necessary exciting current in the rotor. ===Transducer coils=== These are coils used to translate time-varying magnetic fields to electric signals, and vice versa. A few types: Sensor or pickup coils - these are used to detect external time-varying magnetic fields Inductive sensor - a coil which senses when a magnet or iron object passes near it Recording head - a coil which is used to create a magnetic field to write data to a magnetic storage medium, such as magnetic tape, or a hard disk. Conversely it is also used to read the data in the form of changing magnetic fields in the medium. Induction heating coil - an AC coil used to heat an object by inducing eddy currents in it, a process called induction heating. Loop antenna - a coil which serves as a radio antenna, to convert radio waves to electric currents. Rogowski coil - a toroidal coil used as an AC measuring device Musical instrument pickup - a coil used to produce the output audio signal in an electric guitar or electric bass. Flux gate - a sensor coil used in a magnetometer Magnetic phonograph cartridge - a sensor in a record player that uses a coil to translate vibration of a needle to an audio signal in playing vinyl phonograph records. There are also types of coil which don't fit into these categories. ==Winding technology==	[ "electric current", "microphone", "Ampere's circuital law", "stator", "impedance matching", "induction heating", "spiral", "Helmholtz coil", "audio frequency", "ferromagnetic", "magnetic field", "Transformer types", "Inductor", "Audio transformer", "frequency", "Recording head", "iron", "torus", "four-wire circuit", "Armature (electrical engineering)", "conventional current", "magnetometer", "circuit element", "electric motor", "Flyback transformer", "insulation (electric)", "switching power supply", "trembler coil", "Loading coil", "Electrical conductivity", "magnetic tape", "Ignition coil", "wire", "Electrical ballast", "Ground Fault Interrupter", "Rogowski coil", "phonograph record", "Magnetic cartridge", "alternating current", "right hand grip rule", "voltage", "direct current", "magnetic field line", "spark plug", "secondary winding", "Choke (electronics)", "Balun", "electric guitar", "Electric machine", "Distribution transformer", "Inductive sensor", "Hanna curve", "electric bass", "Flux-gate magnetometer", "Field winding", "transformer", "Degaussing", "magnetic core", "antenna (radio)", "Pickup (music technology)", "Electromotive force", "Faraday's law of induction", "electric power grid", "electrical engineering", "number of turns", "ferrite core", "Induction coil", "telephony", "Magnetic resonance imaging", "internal combustion engine", "universal motor", "tuned circuit", "magnetic storage", "loudspeaker", "magnetic flux", "Diaphragm (acoustics)", "fluorescent lamp", "audio signal", "power line", "rotor (electric)", "Voice coil", "Solenoid", "vathode-ray tube", "induction motor", "two-wire circuit", "primary winding", "electromagnetic interference", "Bifilar coil", "inductance", "hard disk", "magnetic saturation", "helix", "ferrimagnetic", "leakage flux", "Superposition principle", "Saturable reactor", "electromagnet", "Hybrid coil", "electric generator", "gas-discharge lamp", "magnetic wire", "record player", "Induction heating", "inductor", "Autotransformer", "Maxwell coil", "toroid", "radio frequency", "core loss", "Electric generator", "Toroidal transformer", "eddy current", "Loop antenna", "magnetic reluctance", "balanced transmission line" ]
7,426	Charles I of England	Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was born into the House of Stuart as the second son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England, where he spent much of the rest of his life. He became heir apparent to the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1612 upon the death of his elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. An unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry him to Infanta Maria Anna of Spain culminated in an eight-month visit to Spain in 1623 that demonstrated the futility of the marriage negotiation. Two years later, shortly after his accession, he married Henrietta Maria of France. After his accession in 1625, Charles quarrelled with the English Parliament, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. He believed in the divine right of kings and was determined to govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without Parliamentary consent, and perceived his actions as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch. His religious policies, coupled with his marriage to a Roman Catholic, generated antipathy and mistrust from Reformed religious groups such as the English Puritans and Scottish Covenanters, who thought his views too Catholic. He supported high church Anglican ecclesiastics and failed to aid continental Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years' War. His attempts to force the Church of Scotland to adopt high Anglican practices led to the Bishops' Wars, strengthened the position of the English and Scottish parliaments, and helped precipitate his own downfall. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War. After his defeat in 1645 at the hands of the Parliamentarian New Model Army, he fled north from his base at Oxford. Charles surrendered to a Scottish force and, after lengthy negotiations between the English and Scottish parliaments, was handed over to the Long Parliament in London. Charles refused to accept his captors' demands for a constitutional monarchy, and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647. Re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, he forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648, the New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for high treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and the Commonwealth of England was established as a republic. The monarchy was restored in 1660, with Charles's son Charles II as king. ==Early life== The second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. At a Protestant ceremony in the Chapel Royal of Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh on 23 December 1600, he was baptised by David Lindsay, Bishop of Ross, and created Duke of Albany, the traditional title of the second son of the king of Scotland, with the subsidiary titles of Marquess of Ormond, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch. James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, and when she died childless in March 1603, he became king of England as James I. Charles was a weak and sickly infant, and while his parents and older siblings left for England in April and early June that year, due to his fragile health, he remained in Scotland with his father's friend Lord Fyvie appointed as his guardian. By 1604, when Charles was three-and-a-half, he was able to walk the length of the great hall at Dunfermline Palace without assistance, and it was decided that he was strong enough to journey to England to be reunited with his family. In mid-July 1604, he left Dunfermline for England, where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. In England, Charles was placed under the charge of Elizabeth, Lady Carey, the wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey, who put him in boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles. His speech development was also slow, and he had a stammer for the rest of his life. In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereign's second son, and made a Knight of the Bath. Thomas Murray, a presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics and religion. In 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter. Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, which might have been caused by rickets. He became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his physically stronger and taller elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, whom Charles adored and attempted to emulate. But in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid (or possibly porphyria). Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent. As the eldest surviving son of the sovereign, he automatically gained several titles, including Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay. In November 1616, he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester. ==Heir apparent== In 1613, Charles's sister Elizabeth married Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and moved to Heidelberg. In 1617, the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, a Catholic, was elected king of Bohemia. The next year, the Bohemians rebelled, defenestrating the Catholic governors. In August 1619, the Bohemian Diet chose Frederick, who led the Protestant Union, as their monarch, while Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor in the imperial election. Frederick's acceptance of the Bohemian crown in defiance of the Emperor marked the beginning of the turmoil that would develop into the Thirty Years' War. The conflict, originally confined to Bohemia, spiralled into a wider European war, which the English Parliament and public quickly grew to see as a polarised continental struggle between Catholics and Protestants. In 1620, King Frederick was defeated at the Battle of White Mountain near Prague and his hereditary lands in the Electoral Palatinate were invaded by a Habsburg force from the Spanish Netherlands. James, however, had been seeking marriage between Prince Charles and Ferdinand's niece, Infanta Maria Anna of Spain, and began to see the Spanish match as a possible diplomatic means of achieving peace in Europe. Negotiation with Spain proved unpopular with both the public and James's court. The English Parliament was actively hostile towards Spain and Catholicism, and thus, when called by James in 1621, the members hoped for an enforcement of recusancy laws, a naval campaign against Spain, and a Protestant marriage for the Prince of Wales. James's Lord Chancellor, Francis Bacon, was impeached before the House of Lords for corruption. The impeachment was the first since 1459 without the King's official sanction in the form of a bill of attainder. The incident set an important precedent as the process of impeachment would later be used against Charles and his supporters George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, Archbishop William Laud, and Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford. James insisted that the House of Commons be concerned exclusively with domestic affairs, while the members protested that they had the privilege of free speech within the Commons' walls, demanding war with Spain and a Protestant princess of Wales. Like his father, Charles considered discussion of his marriage in the Commons impertinent and an infringement of his father's royal prerogative. In January 1622, James dissolved Parliament, angry at what he perceived as the members' impudence and intransigence. Charles and Buckingham, James's favourite and a man who had great influence over the prince, travelled incognito to Spain in February 1623 to try to reach agreement on the long-pending Spanish match. The trip was an embarrassing failure. The infanta thought Charles little more than an infidel, and the Spanish at first demanded that he convert to Catholicism as a condition of the match. They insisted on toleration of Catholics in England and the repeal of the English penal laws, which Charles knew Parliament would not agree to, and that the infanta remain in Spain for a year after any wedding to ensure that England complied with all the treaty's terms. A personal quarrel erupted between Buckingham and Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, the Spanish chief minister, and so Charles conducted the ultimately futile negotiations personally. When he returned to London in October, without a bride and to a rapturous and relieved public welcome, he and Buckingham pushed the reluctant James to declare war on Spain. With the encouragement of his Protestant advisers, James summoned the English Parliament in 1624 to request subsidies for a war. Charles and Buckingham supported the impeachment of the Lord Treasurer, Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex, who opposed war on grounds of cost and quickly fell in much the same manner Bacon had. James told Buckingham he was a fool, and presciently warned Charles that he would live to regret the revival of impeachment as a parliamentary tool. An underfunded makeshift army under Ernst von Mansfeld set off to recover the Palatinate, but it was so poorly provisioned that it never advanced beyond the Dutch coast. By 1624, the increasingly ill James was finding it difficult to control Parliament. By the time of his death in March 1625, Charles and Buckingham had already assumed de facto control of the kingdom. ==Early reign== With the failure of the Spanish match, Charles and Buckingham turned their attention to France. On 1 May 1625 Charles was married by proxy to the 15-year-old French princess Henrietta Maria in front of the doors of Notre Dame de Paris. He had seen her in Paris while en route to Spain. They met in person on 13 June 1625 in Canterbury. Charles delayed the opening of his first Parliament until after the marriage was consummated, to forestall any opposition. Many members of the Commons opposed his marriage to a Catholic, fearing that he would lift restrictions on Catholic recusants and undermine the official establishment of the reformed Church of England. Charles told Parliament that he would not relax religious restrictions, but promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with his brother-in-law Louis XIII of France. Moreover, the treaty loaned to the French seven English naval ships that were used to suppress the Protestant Huguenots at La Rochelle in September 1625. Charles was crowned on 2 February 1626 at Westminster Abbey, but without his wife at his side, because she refused to participate in a Protestant religious ceremony. Distrust of Charles's religious policies increased with his support of a controversial anti-Calvinist ecclesiastic, Richard Montagu, who was in disrepute among the Puritans. In his pamphlet A New Gag for an Old Goose (1624), a reply to the Catholic pamphlet A New Gag for the New Gospel, Montagu argued against Calvinist predestination, the doctrine that God preordained salvation and damnation. Anti-Calvinistsknown as Arminiansbelieved that people could accept or reject salvation by exercising free will. Arminian divines had been one of the few sources of support for Charles's proposed Spanish marriage. With King James's support, Montagu produced another pamphlet, Appello Caesarem, published in 1625 shortly after James's death and Charles's accession. To protect Montagu from the stricture of Puritan members of Parliament, Charles made him a royal chaplain, heightening many Puritans' suspicions that Charles favoured Arminianism as a clandestine attempt to aid Catholicism's resurgence. Rather than direct involvement in the European land war, the English Parliament preferred a relatively inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World, hoping for the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets. Parliament voted to grant a subsidy of £140,000, an insufficient sum for Charles's war plans. Moreover, the House of Commons limited its authorisation for royal collection of tonnage and poundage (two varieties of customs duties) to a year, although previous sovereigns since Henry VI had been granted the right for life. In this manner, Parliament could delay approval of the rates until after a full-scale review of customs revenue. The bill made no progress in the House of Lords past its first reading. Although no act of Parliament for the levy of tonnage and poundage was obtained, Charles continued to collect the duties. A poorly conceived and executed naval expedition against Spain under Buckingham's leadership went badly, and the House of Commons began proceedings for the impeachment of the Duke. In May 1626, Charles nominated Buckingham as Chancellor of Cambridge University in a show of support, and had two members who had spoken against BuckinghamDudley Digges and Sir John Eliotarrested at the door of the House. The Commons was outraged by the imprisonment of two of their members, and after about a week in custody, both were released. On 12 June 1626, the Commons launched a direct protestation attacking Buckingham, stating, "We protest before your Majesty and the whole world that until this great person be removed from intermeddling with the great affairs of state, we are out of hope of any good success; and do fear that any money we shall or can give will, through his misemployment, be turned rather to the hurt and prejudice of this your kingdom than otherwise, as by lamentable experience we have found those large supplies formerly and lately given." Despite the protests, Charles refused to dismiss his friend, dismissing Parliament instead. Meanwhile, domestic quarrels between Charles and Henrietta Maria were souring the early years of their marriage. Disputes over her jointure, appointments to her household, and the practice of her religion culminated in the King expelling the vast majority of her French attendants in August 1626. Despite Charles's agreement to provide the French with English ships as a condition of marrying Henrietta Maria, in 1627 he launched an attack on the French coast to defend the Huguenots at La Rochelle. The action, led by Buckingham, was ultimately unsuccessful. Buckingham's failure to protect the Huguenotsand his retreat from Saint-Martin-de-Réspurred Louis XIII's siege of La Rochelle and furthered the English Parliament's and people's detestation of the Duke. Charles provoked further unrest by trying to raise money for the war through a "forced loan": a tax levied without parliamentary consent. In November 1627, the test case in the King's Bench, the "Five Knights' Case", found that the King had a prerogative right to imprison without trial those who refused to pay the forced loan. Summoned again in March 1628, Parliament adopted a Petition of Right on 26 May, calling upon Charles to acknowledge that he could not levy taxes without Parliament's consent, impose martial law on civilians, imprison them without due process, or quarter troops in their homes. Charles assented to the petition on 7 June, but by the end of the month he had prorogued Parliament and reasserted his right to collect customs duties without authorisation from Parliament. On 23 August 1628, Buckingham was assassinated. Charles was deeply distressed. According to Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, he "threw himself upon his bed, lamenting with much passion and with abundance of tears". He remained grieving in his room for two days. In contrast, the public rejoiced at Buckingham's death, accentuating the gulf between the court and the nation and between the Crown and the Commons. Buckingham's death effectively ended the war with Spain and eliminated his leadership as an issue, but it did not end the conflicts between Charles and Parliament. It did, however, coincide with an improvement in Charles's relationship with his wife, and by November 1628 their old quarrels were at an end. Perhaps Charles's emotional ties were transferred from Buckingham to Henrietta Maria. She became pregnant for the first time, and the bond between them grew stronger. Together, they embodied an image of virtue and family life, and their court became a model of formality and morality. ==Personal rule== ===Parliament prorogued=== In January 1629, Charles opened the second session of the English Parliament, which had been prorogued in June 1628, with a moderate speech on the tonnage and poundage issue. Members of the House of Commons began to voice opposition to Charles's policies in light of the case of John Rolle, a Member of Parliament whose goods had been confiscated for failing to pay tonnage and poundage. Many MPs viewed the imposition of the tax as a breach of the Petition of Right. When Charles ordered a parliamentary adjournment on 2 March, members held the Speaker, Sir John Finch, down in his chair so that the session could be prolonged long enough for resolutions against Catholicism, Arminianism, and tonnage and poundage to be read out and acclaimed by the chamber. This was too much for Charles, who dissolved Parliament and had nine parliamentary leaders, including Sir John Eliot, imprisoned over the matter, thereby turning the men into martyrs and giving popular cause to their protest. Personal rule necessitated peace. Without the means in the foreseeable future to raise funds from Parliament for a European war, or Buckingham's help, Charles made peace with France and Spain. The next 11 years, during which Charles ruled England without a Parliament, are known as the Personal Rule or the "eleven years' tyranny". Ruling without Parliament was not exceptional, and was supported by precedent. But only Parliament could legally raise taxes, and without it Charles's capacity to acquire funds for his treasury was limited to his customary rights and prerogatives. ===Finances=== A large fiscal deficit had arisen during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. Notwithstanding Buckingham's short-lived campaigns against both Spain and France, Charles had little financial capacity to wage wars overseas. Throughout his reign, he was obliged to rely primarily on volunteer forces for defence and on diplomatic efforts to support his sister Elizabeth and his foreign policy objective for the restoration of the Palatinate. England was still the least taxed country in Europe, with no official excise and no regular direct taxation. To raise revenue without reconvening Parliament, Charles resurrected an all-but-forgotten law called the "Distraint of Knighthood", in abeyance for over a century, which required any man who earned £40 or more from land each year to present himself at the king's coronation to be knighted. Relying on this old statute, Charles fined those who had failed to attend his coronation in 1626. The chief tax Charles imposed was a feudal levy known as ship money, which proved even more unpopular, and lucrative, than tonnage and poundage. Previously, collection of ship money had been authorised only during wars, and only on coastal regions. But Charles argued that there was no legal bar to collecting the tax for defence during peacetime and throughout the kingdom. Ship money, paid directly to the Treasury of the Navy, provided between £150,000 to £200,000 annually between 1634 and 1638, after which yields declined. Opposition to ship money steadily grew, but England's 12 common law judges ruled the tax within the King's prerogative, though some had reservations. The prosecution of John Hampden for non-payment in 1637–38 provided a platform for popular protest, and the judges found against Hampden only by the narrow margin of 7–5. Charles also derived money by granting monopolies, despite a statute forbidding such action, which, though inefficient, raised an estimated £100,000 a year in the late 1630s. One such monopoly was for soap, pejoratively called "popish soap" because some of its backers were Catholics. Charles also raised funds from the Scottish nobility, at the price of considerable acrimony, by the Act of Revocation (1625), whereby all gifts of royal or church land made to the nobility since 1540 were revoked, with continued ownership being subject to an annual rent. In addition, the boundaries of the royal forests in England were restored to their ancient limits as part of a scheme to maximise income by exploiting the land and fining land users within the reasserted boundaries for encroachment. The programme's focus was disafforestation and sale of forest lands for conversion to pasture and arable farming, or in the case of the Forest of Dean, development for the iron industry. Disafforestation frequently caused riots and disturbances, including those known as the Western Rising. Against the background of this unrest, Charles faced bankruptcy in mid-1640. The City of London, preoccupied with its own grievances, refused to make any loans to him, as did foreign powers. In this extremity, in July Charles seized silver bullion worth £130,000 held in trust at the mint in the Tower of London, promising its later return at 8% interest to its owners. In August, after the East India Company refused to grant a loan, Lord Cottington seized the company's stock of pepper and spices and sold it for £60,000 (far below its market value), promising to refund the money with interest later. ==Religious conflicts== Throughout Charles's reign, the English Reformation was in the forefront of political debate. Arminian theology emphasised clerical authority and the individual's ability to reject or accept salvation, which opponents viewed as heretical and a potential vehicle for the reintroduction of Catholicism. Puritan reformers considered Charles too sympathetic to Arminianism, and opposed his desire to move the Church of England in a more traditional and sacramental direction. In addition, his Protestant subjects followed the European war closely and grew increasingly dismayed by Charles's diplomacy with Spain and his failure to support the Protestant cause abroad effectively. In 1633, Charles appointed William Laud Archbishop of Canterbury. They initiated a series of reforms to promote religious uniformity by restricting non-conformist preachers, insisting the liturgy be celebrated as prescribed by the Book of Common Prayer, organising the internal architecture of English churches to emphasise the sacrament of the altar, and reissuing King James's Declaration of Sports, which permitted secular activities on the sabbath. The Feoffees for Impropriations, an organisation that bought benefices and advowsons so that Puritans could be appointed to them, was dissolved. Laud prosecuted those who opposed his reforms in the Court of High Commission and the Star Chamber, the two most powerful courts in the land. The courts became feared for their censorship of opposing religious views and unpopular among the propertied classes for inflicting degrading punishments on gentlemen. For example, in 1637 William Prynne, Henry Burton and John Bastwick were pilloried, whipped and mutilated by cropping and imprisoned indefinitely for publishing anti-episcopal pamphlets. When Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties. Although born in Scotland, Charles had become estranged from it; his first visit since early childhood was for his Scottish coronation in 1633. To the dismay of the Scots, who had removed many traditional rituals from their liturgical practice, Charles insisted that the coronation be conducted using the Anglican rite. In 1637, he ordered the use of a new prayer book in Scotland that was almost identical to the English Book of Common Prayer, without consulting either the Scottish Parliament or the Kirk. Although it had been written, under Charles's direction, by Scottish bishops, many Scots resisted it, seeing it as a vehicle to introduce Anglicanism to Scotland. On 23 July, riots erupted in Edinburgh on the first Sunday of the prayer book's usage, and unrest spread throughout the Kirk. The public began to mobilise around a reaffirmation of the National Covenant, whose signatories pledged to uphold the reformed religion of Scotland and reject any innovations not authorised by Kirk and Parliament. When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland met in November 1638, it condemned the new prayer book, abolished episcopal church government, and adopted presbyterian government by elders and deacons. ===Bishops' Wars=== Charles perceived the unrest in Scotland as a rebellion against his authority, precipitating the First Bishops' War in 1639. He did not seek subsidies from the English Parliament to wage war, instead raising an army without parliamentary aid and marching to Berwick-upon-Tweed, on the Scottish border. The army did not engage the Covenanters, as the King feared the defeat of his forces, whom he believed to be significantly outnumbered by the Scots. In the Treaty of Berwick, Charles regained custody of his Scottish fortresses and secured the dissolution of the Covenanters' interim government, albeit at the decisive concession that both the Scottish Parliament and General Assembly of the Scottish Church were called. The military failure in the First Bishops' War caused a financial and diplomatic crisis for Charles that deepened when his efforts to raise funds from Spain while simultaneously continuing his support for his Palatine relatives led to the public humiliation of the Battle of the Downs, where the Dutch destroyed a Spanish bullion fleet off the coast of Kent in sight of the impotent English navy. Charles continued peace negotiations with the Scots in a bid to gain time before launching a new military campaign. Because of his financial weakness, he was forced to call Parliament into session in an attempt to raise funds for such a venture. Both the English and Irish parliaments were summoned in the early months of 1640. In March 1640, the Irish Parliament duly voted in a subsidy of £180,000 with the promise to raise an army 9,000 strong by the end of May. But in the English general election in March, court candidates fared badly, and Charles's dealings with the English Parliament in April quickly reached stalemate. The earls of Northumberland and Strafford attempted to broker a compromise whereby the King would agree to forfeit ship money in exchange for £650,000 (although the cost of the coming war was estimated at £1 million). Nevertheless, this alone was insufficient to produce consensus in the Commons. The Parliamentarians' calls for further reforms were ignored by Charles, who still retained the support of the House of Lords. Despite the protests of the Earl of Northumberland, the Short Parliament (as it came to be known) was dissolved in May 1640, less than a month after it assembled. By this stage the Earl of Strafford, Lord Deputy of Ireland since 1632, had emerged as Charles's right-hand man and, together with Archbishop Laud, pursued a policy that he termed "Thorough", which aimed to make central royal authority more efficient and effective at the expense of local or anti-government interests. Although originally a critic of the King, Strafford defected to royal service in 1628, in part due to the Duke of Buckingham's persuasion, and had since emerged, alongside Laud, as the most influential of Charles's ministers. Bolstered by the failure of the English Short Parliament, the Scottish Parliament declared itself capable of governing without the King's consent, and in August 1640 the Covenanter army moved into the English county of Northumberland. Following the illness of Lord Northumberland, who was the King's commander-in-chief, Charles and Strafford went north to command the English forces, despite Strafford being ill himself with a combination of gout and dysentery. The Scottish soldiery, many of whom were veterans of the Thirty Years' War, had far greater morale and training than their English counterparts. They met virtually no resistance until reaching Newcastle upon Tyne, where they defeated the English forces at the Battle of Newburn and occupied the city, as well as the neighbouring County Palatine of Durham. As demands for a parliament grew, Charles took the unusual step of summoning a great council of peers. By the time it met, on 24 September at York, Charles had resolved to follow the almost universal advice to call a parliament. After informing the peers that a parliament would convene in November, he asked them to consider how he could acquire funds to maintain his army against the Scots in the meantime. They recommended making peace. A cessation of arms was negotiated in the humiliating Treaty of Ripon, signed in October 1640. This stated that the Scots would continue to occupy Northumberland and Durham and be paid £850 per day indefinitely until a final settlement was negotiated and the English Parliament recalled, which would be required to raise sufficient funds to pay the Scottish forces. Consequently, Charles summoned what later became known as the Long Parliament. Once again, his supporters fared badly at the polls. Of the 493 members of the Commons returned in November, more than 350 opposed the King. ==Long Parliament== ===Tensions escalate=== The Long Parliament proved just as difficult for Charles as had the Short Parliament. It assembled on 3 November 1640 and quickly began proceedings to impeach the King's leading counsellors for high treason. Strafford was taken into custody on 10 November; Laud was impeached on 18 December; Finch, now Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, was impeached the next day, and fled to The Hague with Charles's permission on 21 December. To prevent the King from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the Triennial Act, which required Parliament to be summoned at least every three years, and permitted the Lord Keeper and 12 peers to summon Parliament if the King failed to do so. The Act was coupled with a subsidy bill, and to secure the latter, Charles grudgingly granted royal assent in February 1641. Strafford had become the principal target of the Parliamentarians, particularly John Pym, and he went on trial for high treason on 22 March 1641. But Sir Henry Vane's key allegation that Strafford had threatened to use the Irish army to subdue England was not corroborated, and on 10 April Pym's case collapsed. Pym and his allies immediately launched a bill of attainder, which simply declared Strafford guilty and pronounced the sentence of death. Charles assured Strafford that "upon the word of a king you shall not suffer in life, honour or fortune", and the attainder could not succeed if Charles withheld assent. Furthermore, many members and most peers opposed the attainder, not wishing, in the words of one, to "commit murder with the sword of justice". But increased tensions and an attempted coup by royalist army officers in support of Strafford and in which Charles was involved began to sway the issue. The Commons passed the bill on 20 April by a large margin (204 in favour, 59 opposed, and 230 abstained), and the Lords acquiesced (by 26 votes to 19, with 79 absent) in May. On 3 May, Parliament's Protestation attacked the "wicked counsels" of Charles's "arbitrary and tyrannical government". While those who signed the petition undertook to defend the King's "person, honour and estate", they also swore to preserve "the true reformed religion", Parliament, and the "rights and liberties of the subjects". Fearing for his family's safety in the face of unrest, Charles reluctantly assented to Strafford's attainder on 9 May after consulting his judges and bishops. Strafford was beheaded three days later. Also in early May, Charles assented to an unprecedented Act that forbade the dissolution of the English Parliament without its consent. In the following months, ship money, fines in distraint of knighthood and excise without parliamentary consent were declared unlawful, and the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished. All remaining forms of taxation were legalised and regulated by the Tonnage and Poundage Act. The House of Commons also launched bills attacking bishops and episcopacy, but these failed in the Lords. Charles had made important concessions in England, and temporarily improved his position in Scotland by signing a final settlement of the Bishops' Wars, then securing the Scots' favour on a visit from August to November 1641 during which he conceded to the official establishment of presbyterianism in Scotland. But after an attempted royalist coup in Scotland, known as the Incident, Charles's credibility was significantly undermined. ===Irish rebellion=== Ireland's population was split into three main sociopolitical groups: the Gaelic Irish, who were Catholic; the Old English, who were descended from medieval Normans and also predominantly Catholic; and the New English, who were Protestant settlers from England and Scotland aligned with the English Parliament and the Covenanters. Strafford's administration had improved the Irish economy and boosted tax revenue, but had done so by heavy-handedly imposing order. He had trained up a large Catholic army in support of the King and weakened the Irish Parliament's authority, while continuing to confiscate land from Catholics for Protestant settlement at the same time as promoting a Laudian Anglicanism that was anathema to Presbyterians. As a result, all three groups had become disaffected. Strafford's impeachment provided a new departure for Irish politics whereby all sides joined to present evidence against him. In a similar manner to the English Parliament, the Old English members of the Irish Parliament argued that while opposed to Strafford they remained loyal to Charles. They argued that the King had been led astray by malign counsellors, and that, moreover, a viceroy such as Strafford could emerge as a despotic figure instead of ensuring that the King was directly involved in governance. Strafford's fall from power weakened Charles's influence in Ireland. The dissolution of the Irish army was unsuccessfully demanded three times by the English Commons during Strafford's imprisonment, until lack of money eventually forced Charles to disband the army at the end of Strafford's trial. Disputes over the transfer of land ownership from native Catholic to settler Protestant, particularly in relation to the plantation of Ulster, coupled with resentment at moves to ensure the Irish Parliament was subordinate to the Parliament of England, sowed the seeds of rebellion. When armed conflict arose between the Gaelic Irish and New English in late October 1641, the Old English sided with the Gaelic Irish while simultaneously professing their loyalty to the King. In November 1641, the House of Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance, a long list of grievances against actions by Charles's ministers committed since the beginning of his reign (that were asserted to be part of a grand Catholic conspiracy of which the King was an unwitting member), but it was in many ways a step too far by Pym and passed by only 11 votes, 159 to 148. Furthermore, the Remonstrance had very little support in the House of Lords, which the Remonstrance attacked. The tension was heightened by news of the Irish rebellion, coupled with inaccurate rumours of Charles's complicity. Throughout November, a series of alarmist pamphlets published stories of atrocities in Ireland, including massacres of New English settlers by the native Irish who could not be controlled by the Old English lords. Rumours of "papist" conspiracies circulated in England, and English anti-Catholic opinion was strengthened, damaging Charles's reputation and authority. The English Parliament distrusted Charles's motivations when he called for funds to put down the Irish rebellion; many members of the Commons suspected that forces he raised might later be used against Parliament itself. Pym's Militia Bill was intended to wrest control of the army from the King, but it did not have the support of the Lords, let alone Charles. Instead, the Commons passed the bill as an ordinance, which they claimed did not require royal assent. The Militia Ordinance appears to have prompted more members of the Lords to support the King. In an attempt to strengthen his position, Charles generated great antipathy in London, which was already fast falling into lawlessness, when he placed the Tower of London under the command of Colonel Thomas Lunsford, an infamous, albeit efficient, career officer. When rumours reached Charles that Parliament intended to impeach his wife for supposedly conspiring with the Irish rebels, he decided to take drastic action. ===Five members=== Charles suspected, probably correctly, that some members of the English Parliament had colluded with the invading Scots. On 3 January 1642, Charles directed Parliament to give up five specific members of the Commons—Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, William Strode and Sir Arthur Haselrig—and one peer, Lord Mandeville, on the grounds of high treason. When Parliament refused, it was possibly Henrietta Maria who persuaded Charles to arrest the five members by force, which he resolved to do personally. But news of the warrant reached Parliament ahead of him, and the wanted men slipped away by boat shortly before Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed guard on 4 January. Having displaced Speaker William Lenthall from his chair, the King asked him where the MPs had fled. Lenthall, on his knees, famously replied, "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here." Charles abjectly declared "all my birds have flown", and was forced to retire empty-handed. The botched arrest attempt was politically disastrous for Charles. No English sovereign had ever entered the House of Commons, and his unprecedented invasion of the chamber to arrest its members was considered a grave breach of parliamentary privilege. In one stroke Charles destroyed his supporters' efforts to portray him as a defence against innovation and disorder. Parliament quickly seized London, and Charles fled the capital for Hampton Court Palace on 10 January, moving two days later to Windsor Castle. After sending his wife and eldest daughter to safety abroad in February, he travelled northwards, hoping to seize the military arsenal at Hull. To his dismay, he was rebuffed by the town's Parliamentary governor, Sir John Hotham, who refused him entry in April, and Charles was forced to withdraw. ==English Civil War== In mid-1642, both sides began to arm. Charles raised an army using the medieval method of commission of array, and Parliament called for volunteers for its militia. The negotiations proved futile, and Charles raised the royal standard in Nottingham on 22 August 1642. By then, his forces controlled roughly the Midlands, Wales, the West Country and northern England. He set up his court at Oxford. Parliament controlled London, the south-east and East Anglia, as well as the English navy. After a few skirmishes, the opposing forces met in earnest at Edgehill, on 23 October 1642. Charles's nephew Prince Rupert of the Rhine disagreed with the battle strategy of the royalist commander Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey, and Charles sided with Rupert. Lindsey resigned, leaving Charles to assume overall command assisted by Patrick Ruthven, 1st Earl of Forth. Rupert's cavalry successfully charged through the parliamentary ranks, but instead of swiftly returning to the field, rode off to plunder the parliamentary baggage train. Lindsey, acting as a colonel, was wounded and bled to death without medical attention. The battle ended inconclusively as the daylight faded. In his own words, the experience of battle had left Charles "exceedingly and deeply grieved". He regrouped at Oxford, turning down Rupert's suggestion of an immediate attack on London. After a week, he set out for the capital on 3 November, capturing Brentford on the way while simultaneously continuing to negotiate with civic and parliamentary delegations. At Turnham Green on the outskirts of London, the royalist army met resistance from the city militia, and faced with a numerically superior force, Charles ordered a retreat. He overwintered in Oxford, strengthening the city's defences and preparing for the next season's campaign. Peace talks between the two sides collapsed in April. The war continued indecisively over the next couple of years, and Henrietta Maria returned to Britain for 17 months from February 1643. After Rupert captured Bristol in July 1643, Charles visited the port city and laid siege to Gloucester, further up the river Severn. His plan to undermine the city walls failed due to heavy rain, and on the approach of a parliamentary relief force, Charles lifted the siege and withdrew to Sudeley Castle. The parliamentary army turned back towards London, and Charles set off in pursuit. The two armies met at Newbury, Berkshire, on 20 September. Just as at Edgehill, the battle stalemated at nightfall, and the armies disengaged. In January 1644, Charles summoned a Parliament at Oxford, which was attended by about 40 peers and 118 members of the Commons; all told, the Oxford Parliament, which sat until March 1645, was supported by the majority of peers and about a third of the Commons. Charles became disillusioned by the assembly's ineffectiveness, calling it a "mongrel" in private letters to his wife. In 1644, Charles remained in the southern half of England while Rupert rode north to relieve Newark and York, which were under threat from parliamentary and Scottish Covenanter armies. Charles was victorious at the Battle of Cropredy Bridge in late June, but the royalists in the north were defeated at the Battle of Marston Moor just a few days later. The King continued his campaign in the south, encircling and disarming the parliamentary army of Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex. Returning northwards to his base at Oxford, he fought at Newbury for a second time before the winter closed in; the battle ended indecisively. Attempts to negotiate a settlement over the winter, while both sides rearmed and reorganised, were again unsuccessful. At the Battle of Naseby on 14 June 1645, Rupert's horsemen again mounted a successful charge against the flank of Parliament's New Model Army, but elsewhere on the field, opposing forces pushed Charles's troops back. Attempting to rally his men, Charles rode forward, but as he did so, Robert Dalzell, 1st Earl of Carnwath seized his bridle and pulled him back, fearing for the King's safety. The royalist soldiers misinterpreted Carnwath's action as a signal to move back, leading to a collapse of their position. The military balance tipped decisively in Parliament's favour. There followed a series of defeats for the royalists, and then the siege of Oxford, from which Charles escaped (disguised as a servant) in April 1646. He put himself into the hands of the Scottish Presbyterian army besieging Newark, and was taken northwards to Newcastle upon Tyne. After nine months of negotiations, the Scots finally arrived at an agreement with the English Parliament: in exchange for £100,000, and the promise of more money in the future, the Scots withdrew from Newcastle and delivered Charles to the parliamentary commissioners in January 1647. ===Captivity=== Parliament held Charles under house arrest at Holdenby House in Northamptonshire until Cornet George Joyce took him by threat of force from Holdenby on 3 June in the name of the New Model Army. By this time, mutual suspicion had developed between Parliament, which favoured army disbandment and presbyterianism, and the New Model Army, which was primarily officered by congregationalist Independents, who sought a greater political role. Charles was eager to exploit the widening divisions, and apparently viewed Joyce's actions as an opportunity rather than a threat. He was taken first to Newmarket, at his own suggestion, and then transferred to Oatlands and subsequently Hampton Court, while more fruitless negotiations took place. By November, he determined that it would be in his best interests to escape—perhaps to France, Southern England or Berwick-upon-Tweed, near the Scottish border. He fled Hampton Court on 11 November, and from the shores of Southampton Water made contact with Colonel Robert Hammond, Parliamentary Governor of the Isle of Wight, whom he apparently believed to be sympathetic. But Hammond confined Charles in Carisbrooke Castle and informed Parliament that Charles was in his custody. From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties. In direct contrast to his previous conflict with the Scottish Kirk, on 26 December 1647 he signed a secret treaty with the Scots. Under the agreement, called the "Engagement", the Scots undertook to invade England on Charles's behalf and restore him to the throne on condition that Presbyterianism be established in England for three years. The royalists rose in May 1648, igniting the Second Civil War, and as agreed with Charles, the Scots invaded England. Uprisings in Kent, Essex, and Cumberland, and a rebellion in South Wales, were put down by the New Model Army, and with the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Preston in August 1648, the royalists lost any chance of winning the war. Charles's only recourse was to return to negotiations, which were held at Newport on the Isle of Wight. On 5 December 1648, Parliament voted 129 to 83 to continue negotiating with the King, but Oliver Cromwell and the army opposed any further talks with someone they viewed as a bloody tyrant and were already taking action to consolidate their power. Hammond was replaced as Governor of the Isle of Wight on 27 November, and placed in the custody of the army the following day. In Pride's Purge on 6 and 7 December, the members of Parliament out of sympathy with the military were arrested or excluded by Colonel Thomas Pride, while others stayed away voluntarily. The remaining members formed the Rump Parliament. It was effectively a military coup. ==Trial== Charles was moved to Hurst Castle at the end of 1648, and thereafter to Windsor Castle. In January 1649, the Rump Parliament House of Commons indicted him for treason; however, the House of Lords rejected the charge. The idea of trying a king was novel. The Chief Justices of the three common law courts of England—Henry Rolle, Oliver St John and John Wilde—all opposed the indictment as unlawful. The Rump Commons declared itself capable of legislating alone, passed a bill creating a separate court for Charles's trial, and declared the bill an act without the need for royal assent. The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 commissioners, but many either refused to serve or chose to stay away. Only 68 (all firm Parliamentarians) attended Charles's trial on charges of high treason and "other high crimes" that began on 20 January 1649 in Westminster Hall. John Bradshaw acted as President of the Court, and the prosecution was led by Solicitor General John Cook. Charles was accused of treason against England by using his power to pursue his personal interest rather than the good of the country. The charge stated that he was devising "a wicked design to erect and uphold in himself an unlimited and tyrannical power to rule according to his will, and to overthrow the rights and liberties of the people". In carrying this out he had "traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present Parliament, and the people therein represented", and that the "wicked designs, wars, and evil practices of him, the said Charles Stuart, have been, and are carried on for the advancement and upholding of a personal interest of will, power, and pretended prerogative to himself and his family, against the public interest, common right, liberty, justice, and peace of the people of this nation." Presaging the modern concept of command responsibility, the indictment held him "guilty of all the treasons, murders, rapines, burnings, spoils, desolations, damages and mischiefs to this nation, acted and committed in the said wars, or occasioned thereby." An estimated 300,000 people, or 6% of the population, died during the war. Over the first three days of the trial, whenever Charles was asked to plead, he refused, stating his objection with the words: "I would know by what power I am called hither, by what lawful authority...?" He claimed that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch, that his own authority to rule had been given to him by God and by the traditional laws of England, and that the power wielded by those trying him was only that of force of arms. Charles insisted that the trial was illegal, explaining that, The court, by contrast, challenged the doctrine of sovereign immunity and proposed that "the King of England was not a person, but an office whose every occupant was entrusted with a limited power to govern 'by and according to the laws of the land and not otherwise'." At the end of the third day, Charles was removed from the court, which then heard more than 30 witnesses against him in his absence over the next two days, and on 26 January condemned him to death. The next day, the King was brought before a public session of the commission, declared guilty, and sentenced. The judgement read, "For all which treasons and crimes this court doth adjudge that he, the said Charles Stuart, as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy to the good people of this nation, shall be put to death by the severing of his head from his body." Fifty-nine of the commissioners signed Charles's death warrant. ==Execution== Charles's execution was scheduled for Tuesday, 30 January 1649. Two of his children remained in England under the control of the Parliamentarians: Elizabeth and Henry. They were permitted to visit him on 29 January, and he bade them a tearful farewell. The next morning, he called for two shirts to prevent the cold weather causing any noticeable shivers that the crowd could have mistaken for fear: "the season is so sharp as probably may make me shake, which some observers may imagine proceeds from fear. I would have no such imputation." Charles was separated from spectators by large ranks of soldiers, and his last speech reached only those with him on the scaffold. He blamed his fate on his failure to prevent the execution of his loyal servant Strafford: "An unjust sentence that I suffered to take effect, is punished now by an unjust sentence on me." He declared that he had desired the liberty and freedom of the people as much as any, "but I must tell you that their liberty and freedom consists in having government ... It is not their having a share in the government; that is nothing appertaining unto them. A subject and a sovereign are clean different things." He continued, "I shall go from a corruptible to an incorruptible Crown, where no disturbance can be." At about 2:00 p.m., Charles put his head on the block after saying a prayer and signalled the executioner when he was ready by stretching out his hands; he was then beheaded in one clean stroke. According to observer Philip Henry, a moan "as I never heard before and desire I may never hear again" rose from the assembled crowd, some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in the King's blood as a memento. The executioner was masked and disguised, and there is debate over his identity. The commissioners approached Richard Brandon, the common hangman of London, but he refused, at least at first, despite being offered £200—a considerably large sum for the time. It is possible he relented and undertook the commission after being threatened with death, but others have been named as potential candidates, including George Joyce, William Hulet and Hugh Peters. The clean strike, confirmed by an examination of the King's body at Windsor in 1813, suggests that the execution was carried out by an experienced headsman. It was common practice for the severed head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words "Behold the head of a traitor!" Charles's head was exhibited, but those words were not used, possibly because the executioner did not want his voice recognised. On the day after the execution, the King's head was sewn back onto his body, which was then embalmed and placed in a lead coffin. The commission refused to allow Charles's burial at Westminster Abbey, so his body was conveyed to Windsor on the night of 7 February. He was buried in private on 9 February 1649 in the Henry VIII vault in the chapel's quire, alongside the coffins of Henry VIII and Henry's third wife, Jane Seymour, in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. The King's son, Charles II, later planned for an elaborate royal mausoleum to be erected in Hyde Park, London, but it was never built. ==Legacy== Ten days after Charles's execution, on the day of his interment, a memoir purportedly written by him appeared for sale. This book, the Eikon Basilike (Greek for the "Royal Portrait"), contained an apologia for royal policies, and proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda. John Milton wrote a Parliamentary rejoinder, the Eikonoklastes ("The Iconoclast"), but the response made little headway against the pathos of the royalist book. Anglicans and royalists fashioned an image of martyrdom, and in the Convocations of Canterbury and York of 1660 King Charles the Martyr was added to the Church of England's liturgical calendar. High church Anglicans held special services on the anniversary of his death. Churches, such as those at Falmouth and Tunbridge Wells, and Anglican devotional societies such as the Society of King Charles the Martyr, were founded in his honour. With the monarchy overthrown, England became a republic or "Commonwealth". The House of Lords was abolished by the Rump Commons, and a Council of State assumed executive power. All significant military opposition in Britain and Ireland was extinguished by the forces of Oliver Cromwell in the Anglo-Scottish War and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. Cromwell forcibly disbanded the Rump Parliament in 1653, thereby establishing the Protectorate with himself as Lord Protector. Upon his death in 1658, he was briefly succeeded by his ineffective son, Richard. Parliament was reinstated, and the monarchy was restored to Charles I's eldest son, Charles II, in 1660. Charles's unprecedented 1642 invasion of the House of Commons' chamber, a grave violation of the liberties of Parliament, and his unsuccessful attempt to arrest five Members of Parliament are commemorated annually at the State Opening of Parliament. ===Art=== Partly inspired by his visit to the Spanish court in 1623, Charles became a passionate and knowledgeable art collector, amassing one of the finest art collections ever assembled. In Spain, he sat for a sketch by Velázquez, and acquired works by Titian and Correggio, among others. In England, his commissions included the ceiling of the Banqueting House, Whitehall, by Peter Paul Rubens and paintings by other artists from the Low Countries such as Gerard van Honthorst, Daniel Mytens, and Anthony van Dyck. His close associates, including the Duke of Buckingham and Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel, shared his interest and have been dubbed the Whitehall Group. In 1627 and 1628, Charles purchased the entire collection of the Duke of Mantua, which included work by Titian, Correggio, Raphael, Caravaggio, Andrea del Sarto and Andrea Mantegna. His collection grew further to encompass Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Leonardo da Vinci, Hans Holbein the Younger, Wenceslaus Hollar, Tintoretto and Veronese, and self-portraits by both Albrecht Dürer and Rembrandt. By Charles's death, there were an estimated 1,760 paintings, most of which were sold and dispersed by Parliament. ===Assessments=== In the words of John Philipps Kenyon, "Charles Stuart is a man of contradictions and controversy". Revered by high Tories who considered him a saintly martyr, he was condemned by Whig historians, such as Samuel Rawson Gardiner, who thought him duplicitous and delusional. In recent decades, most historians have criticised him, the main exception being Kevin Sharpe, who offered a more sympathetic view that has not been widely adopted. Sharpe argued that the King was a dynamic man of conscience, but Barry Coward thought Charles "the most incompetent monarch of England since Henry VI", a view shared by Ronald Hutton, who called him "the worst king we have had since the Middle Ages". Archbishop William Laud, whom Parliament beheaded during the war, called Charles a "mild and gracious prince who knew not how to be, or how to be made, great." Charles was more sober and refined than his father, but he was intransigent. He deliberately pursued unpopular policies that brought ruin on himself. Both Charles and James were advocates of the divine right of kings, but while James's ambitions concerning absolute prerogative were tempered by compromise and consensus with his subjects, Charles believed he had no need to compromise or even to explain his actions. He thought he was answerable only to God. "Princes are not bound to give account of their actions," he wrote, "but to God alone". ==Titles, styles, honours and arms== ===Titles and styles=== 23 December 1600 – 27 March 1625: Duke of Albany, Marquess of Ormonde, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch 6 January 1605 – 27 March 1625: Duke of York 6 November 1612 – 27 March 1625: Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay 4 November 1616 – 27 March 1625: Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649: His Majesty The King The official style of Charles I as king in England was "Charles, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc." The style "of France" was only nominal, and was used by every English monarch from Edward III to George III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled. The authors of his death warrant called him "Charles Stuart, King of England". ===Honours=== KB: Knight of the Bath, 6 January 1605 KG: Knight of the Garter, 24 April 1611 ===Arms=== As Duke of York, Charles bore the royal arms of the kingdom differenced by a label Argent of three points, each bearing three torteaux Gules. As the Prince of Wales, he bore the royal arms differenced by a plain label Argent of three points. As king, Charles bore the royal arms undifferenced: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, the Scottish arms were placed in the first and fourth quarters with the English and French arms in the second quarter. ==Issue== Charles had nine children, five of whom reached adulthood. Two of his sons eventually succeeded as king, and two children died at or shortly after birth. ==Ancestry==	[ "Philip Henry", "First Battle of Newbury", "Execution of Louis XVI", "Long Parliament", "Elizabeth Stuart (daughter of Charles I)", "Western Rising", "popish soap", "Court of High Commission", "Battle of Edgehill", "Thomas Murray (provost of Eton)", "Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652)", "Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales", "Ronald Hutton", "siege of Oxford", "Normans in Ireland", "Battle of Cropredy Bridge", "Thomas Lunsford", "commission of array", "John Cook (regicide)", "Cumberland", "High church", "George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham", "Roman Catholic", "Calendar of saints (Church of England)", "Bishop of Ross (Scotland)", "James VI and I", "Henrietta of England", "Petition of Right", "Elizabeth Trevannion", "decapitation", "Huguenots", "Arthur Haselrig", "Henrietta Maria", "Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon", "heir apparent", "Church of Scotland", "Church of King Charles the Martyr, Royal Tunbridge Wells", "Habsburg Spain", "great council of peers", "married by proxy", "State Opening of Parliament", "Gules", "Mary, Queen of Scots", "Thorough", "high Tories", "Forest of Dean", "Windsor Castle", "Lord Chancellor", "Coronation of the British monarch", "Kirk", "typhoid", "Henry Rolle", "Charles West Cope", "Anne, Queen of Great Britain", "Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom", "torteau", "John Rolle (Parliamentarian)", "David Lindsay (bishop of Ross)", "George Joyce", "differenced", "King Charles the Martyr", "Holyrood Palace", "Charles II of England", "siege of La Rochelle", "Correggio", "Parliament of Ireland", "Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Oxford Parliament (1644)", "Palatinate campaign", "Henry VII of England", "Style of the British sovereign", "Gerard van Honthorst", "Argent", "Algernon Percy, 10th Earl of Northumberland", "Andrea Mantegna", "Richard Montagu", "Paolo Veronese", "Louis XIII of France", "Palace of Whitehall", "Archbishop of Canterbury", "Isle of Wight", "Treaty of Madrid (1630)", "Spanish America", "List of artworks in the Gonzaga collection", "Ulrich III, Duke of Mecklenburg", "favourite", "predestination", "Catherine of Braganza", "Duke of Rothesay", "Robert Hammond (English army officer)", "Charles I's journey from Oxford to the Scottish army camp near Newark", "prosecution", "infanta", "patron saint", "Battle of Preston (1648)", "John Hampden", "Kingdom of Scotland", "Battle of Marston Moor", "Anthony van Dyck", "Charles I Insulted by Cromwell's Soldiers", "History of Calvinist-Arminian debate", "By the Grace of God", "York", "Defenestrations of Prague", "House of Commons of England", "Gregorian calendar", "King of England", "Holdenby House", "Philippe I, Duke of Orléans", "Church of England", "constitutional monarchy", "Lord Treasurer", "General Assembly of the Church of Scotland", "New World", "Margaret Tudor", "Protestation of 1641", "Battle of Naseby", "Frederick V, Elector Palatine", "Wenceslaus Hollar", "absolute monarch", "William II, Prince of Orange", "royal forest", "rampant", "Cromwellian conquest of Ireland", "Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley", "Earl of Chester", "Coat of arms of the Prince of Wales", "New Model Army", "Book of Common Prayer (1604)", "Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox", "Diego Velázquez", "Second English Civil War", "James II & VII", "Hampton Court", "Mary, Princess of Orange", "Knight of the Garter", "fleurs-de-lis", "Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares", "Anna of Brandenburg, Duchess of Mecklenburg", "Henry VI of England", "battle of Edgehill", "Treaty of Suza", "Treaty of London (1641)", "Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester", "Heads of Proposals", "Anne Hyde", "Earl of Ormond (Scotland)", "Duke of York", "Book of Common Prayer", "James VI", "Parliament of Scotland", "royal prerogative", "high church", "Sir John Hotham, 1st Baronet", "Anne of Denmark", "Lord Keeper of the Great Seal", "John Milton", "command responsibility", "Anne Stuart (born 1637)", "Saint George", "The Hague", "Thames Valley", "William Laud", "Spanish treasure fleet", "Titian", "Canterbury", "Sir John Eliot", "Henrietta, Duchess of Orléans", "Dudley Digges", "de facto", "Five Knights' Case", "Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow", "Bohemian Revolt", "List of regicides of Charles I", "Anglo-Spanish War (1625–1630)", "Sir John Finch", "Hampton Court Palace", "Maria Anna of Spain", "Azure (heraldry)", "Catholic", "Andrea del Sarto", "John Wilde (jurist)", "Personal Rule", "James IV of Scotland", "Frederick I of Denmark", "John Philipps Kenyon", "West Country", "Spanish match", "Oatlands Palace", "Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester", "Church of King Charles the Martyr, Falmouth", "Bohemian Diet", "Hugh Peters", "de jure", "Plantations of Ireland", "Peter Heylin", "Newbury, Berkshire", "Prince of Wales", "Or (heraldry)", "Whig historians", "Lord Cottington", "Richard Brandon", "Electoral Palatinate", "subsidiary title", "Militia Ordinance", "Arminianism in the Church of England", "Second Battle of Newbury", "Leonardo da Vinci", "Battle of Brentford (1642)", "Rump Parliament", "Alexander Seton, 1st Earl of Dunfermline", "County Palatine of Durham", "imperial election of 1619", "Siege of Gloucester", "Court of King's Bench (England)", "John Pym", "style (manner of address)", "Whitehall Group", "Edward III", "Earl of Ross", "Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus", "King of Ireland", "Habsburg", "Duke of Albany", "Carisbrooke Castle", "English Parliament", "Battle of the Downs", "Scottish Prayer Book (1637)", "republic", "Convocations of Canterbury and York", "bill of attainder", "Elizabeth I of England", "Holy Roman Emperor", "high treason", "William Lenthall", "Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of Charles I", "divine right of kings", "English Restoration", "Sudeley Castle", "plantation of Ulster", "Northumberland", "Navy Pay Office (Royal Navy)", "Free will in theology", "Henry Burton (Puritan)", "Samuel Rawson Gardiner", "List of English monarchs", "St James's Palace", "List of Scottish monarchs", "Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg", "British claims to the French throne", "Lord Deputy of Ireland", "Royal Mint", "Kingston upon Hull", "Relief of Newark", "Gian Lorenzo Bernini", "The Incident (conspiracy)", "Arminians", "Covenanters", "Tower of London", "Absolutism (European history)", "Siege of Hull (1642)", "Divine right of kings", "Robert Carey, 1st Earl of Monmouth", "Puritan", "Reformation", "Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel", "episcopal church government", "Jenny Geddes", "porphyria", "tressure", "Pride's Purge", "Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex", "Society of King Charles the Martyr", "Westminster Hall", "John Bastwick", "first reading", "ship money", "St George's Chapel, Windsor", "House of Lords", "Norman invasion of Ireland", "Henrietta Maria of France", "king of England", "Patrick Ruthven, 1st Earl of Forth", "jointure", "benefice", "Mary II", "English Civil War", "Hurst Castle", "House of Stuart", "Parliamentary privilege in the United Kingdom", "Peter Paul Rubens", "Newark, England", "Grand Remonstrance", "river Severn", "Kevin Sharpe (historian)", "tonnage and poundage", "King of Scotland", "sceptre", "Ernst von Mansfeld", "royal assent", "Denzil Holles, 1st Baron Holles", "Protestant", "Treaty of Oxford", "Death and funeral of James VI and I", "St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle", "Margaret Douglas", "Eikon Basilike", "Presbyterian polity", "congregationalist polity", "Henry Vane the Elder", "National Covenant", "English Council of State", "Thomas Pride", "Chancellor of Cambridge University", "Eugène Lami", "Royal Collection Trust", "Mary of Modena", "Raphael", "Elizabeth of Denmark, Duchess of Mecklenburg", "Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford", "Star Chamber", "Mary of Guise", "East India Company", "mocking of Christ", "Thirty Years' War", "Notre Dame de Paris", "Gaelic Ireland", "Kingdom of Ireland", "recusancy", "Calvinist", "Julian calendar", "Newcastle upon Tyne", "Nottingham", "Treaty of Ripon", "Impeachment in the United Kingdom", "Caravaggio", "List of Irish monarchs", "Tintoretto", "Cropping (punishment)", "James VII & II", "Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia", "Defender of the Faith", "Dutch Republic", "City of London", "Banqueting House, Whitehall", "Paul Delaroche", "Saint-Martin-de-Ré", "British monarchy", "sovereign immunity", "Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange", "advowson", "Solicitor General for England and Wales", "Southampton Water", "king of Scotland", "Prague", "English penal laws", "Richard Cromwell", "James V of Scotland", "Jane Seymour", "Francis Rous", "presbyterian", "Hans Holbein the Younger", "Triennial Act", "Royal Arms of England", "Storming of Bristol", "Duke of Cornwall", "Kingdom of England", "prorogued", "Frederick II of Denmark", "Knight of the Bath", "Lord Protector", "Oliver St John", "Useless Parliament", "Banqueting House", "William III & II", "Anglican", "Dunfermline Palace", "rickets", "Barry Coward", "Statute of Monopolies", "Royal coat of arms of Scotland", "John Bradshaw (judge)", "Christian III of Denmark", "Eikonoklastes", "Cadiz Expedition (1625)", "Puritans", "Westminster Abbey", "Newport, Isle of Wight", "Execution of Charles I", "Lady Day", "Spanish Netherlands", "Prince Rupert of the Rhine", "La Rochelle", "Chapel Royal", "Charles Landseer", "Robert Dalzell, 1st Earl of Carnwath", "Henry VIII", "Short Parliament", "Oliver Cromwell", "Commonwealth of England", "Treaty of Berwick (1639)", "Battle of Turnham Green", "Declaration of Sports", "passant guardant", "First Bishops' War", "Royal Navy", "James VI of Scotland", "Oxford", "Francis Bacon", "Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)", "Engagers", "Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex", "Newmarket, Suffolk", "Pieter Bruegel the Elder", "Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré (1627)", "Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey", "the Protectorate", "king of Bohemia", "William Hewlett (regicide)", "Sophia of Pomerania", "princess of Wales", "George III", "damnation", "English Reformation", "Label (heraldry)", "Bishops' Wars", "Siege of York", "Daniel Mytens", "Hyde Park, London", "salvation", "William Strode", "Quartering (heraldry)", "Militia Bill", "Albrecht Dürer", "pilloried", "High Court of Justice (1649)", "Independent (religion)", "Battle of Newburn", "Feoffees for Impropriations", "Battle of Lostwithiel", "Anne of England (1637–1640)", "James II of England", "liturgy", "Rembrandt", "Covenanter", "Berwick-upon-Tweed", "Battle of White Mountain", "Pale (heraldry)", "Brotton, Jerry", "William Prynne", "Kent", "Heidelberg", "Protestant Union", "Elizabeth Stuart (1635–1650)" ]
7,431	Counter-Strike (video game)	Counter-Strike (also known as Half-Life: Counter-Strike or Counter-Strike 1.6) is a 2000 tactical first-person shooter game developed by Valve Corporation and published by Sierra Studios. It is the first installment in the Counter-Strike series. The game pits two teams—the Counter-Terrorists and Terrorists—against each other in objective-based game modes. The most common objectives are bomb defusal and hostage rescue, each played on designated maps. Players begin with a knife and pistol, and they can purchase more advanced weapons and equipment with money earned through eliminating enemies or accomplishing goals. Once eliminated, players do not respawn until the end of the round. Minh Le and Jess Cliffe planned a game based on counter-terrorism in 1998 with development beginning the following year when the first few beta versions were released. The Half-Life modification gained significant popularity and interest, which attracted Valve. Valve later acquired the game's intellectual property and announced a partnership with Le and Cliffe. After finishing development, Counter-Strike was released by Valve for Microsoft Windows in November 2000. Several remakes and ports were released on Xbox, as well as OS X and Linux. Since its release, Counter-Strike received positive reviews from critics who praised the gameplay and its emphasis on teamwork and strategy. It has been called one of the most influential first-person shooters and noted for its realistic and tactical approach to counter-terrorism. The game became a major hit and sold millions of copies and grossing millions of dollars. Because of this success, sequels of Counter-Strike came out, with the first one being Counter-Strike: Condition Zero, released in 2004, which was received with mixed reviews. Counter-Strike: Source came out later that year, which ran on Valve's Source engine, offering improved visuals and physics. In 2012, Counter-Strike: Global Offensive was launched, giving the franchise new game modes and better matchmaking. Counter-Strike 2, developed in the Source 2 engine, was released in 2023 as an update to Global Offensive. ==Gameplay== Counter-Strike is a team-based multiplayer first-person shooter video game in which players play as Terrorists (T) or Counter-Terrorists (CT). Each game begins with both teams spawning simultaneously as one of eight possible default character models (four each for Counter-Terrorist and Terrorist). Each player begins with $800, two magazines of ammo, a knife, and a handgun: a Heckler & Koch USP for the Counter-Terrorists or a Glock 18c for the Terrorists. Players are usually allowed a few seconds before the round starts to purchase equipment but not move. They may purchase equipment whenever they are in a buy zone for their team. When players are killed, they become spectators for the rest of the round. They may typically watch the rest of the round from a variety of chosen observer modes. At the end of each round players receive money for the next round; $3,500 for winning a round, $1,500 for losing one, and $300 for killing an enemy, up to a maximum of $16,000. Players can be fined, or lose money, by killing a teammate or a hostage. Depending on the map there are 3 possible objectives to win as well as the option of eliminating all enemy team members Bomb defusal: The Terrorist team has a bomb when the round starts. The goal of the Terrorists is to plant the bomb at a bomb site—usually called Bombsite A or Bombsite B on the map—and make sure it explodes. The Counter-Terrorist team wins if they are able to defuse the bomb within a set time limit. If either team is eliminated before the bomb is planted, the other team wins. Bomb defusal maps start with the prefix "de_" (e.g de_dust2). Hostage rescue: Four hostages are often located close to the Terrorist base on the map. The goal of the counter-terrorists is to lead the captives to a location on the map where they are rescued. A heads-up display (HUD) shows information to assist players during gameplay. The action indicator in the top right displays the names of players who are killed and the weapon used. The radar, or mini-map, shows the positions of teammates and other relevant map details. The HUD displays the player's health, armor, ammunition, and money as well as the round timer. On the left side, icons indicate important locations such as hostage rescue areas, VIP escape points, buy zones, and bomb sites, and in bomb defusal maps, it shows whether the player is carrying the C4 bomb or a defuse kit. There are three categories of weapons: melee (knife), secondary (handguns), and primary (rifles, shotguns, machine guns, and submachine guns). Players are only allowed to carry one weapon of each category at a time. There is a separate category for equipment like defusing kits and hand grenades which do not have the same carry limits. ==Development== Video game programmer Minh "Gooseman" Le was previously involved in developing video game mods, such as Navy SEALs for Quake and Action Quake 2. However, he wanted to create his own mod to have more control over development. He chose to use the game engine GoldSrc, because he had already worked with the Quake and Quake 2 engines, and he felt it was a logical choice. The realistic setting of Half-Life, which was developed using GoldSrc, made Half-Life well-suited for his concept of a mod involving terrorists and counter-terrorists. In February 1999, the first screenshots of Counter-Strike were released, accompanied by an interview with Le about the mod. Le and Jess Cliffe, who had both worked on Action Quake 2, connected through Internet Relay Chat, during which Le shared his idea for the mod. Cliffe, excited by the concept, offered to create a website for it and became involved in the project. Several movies served as sources of inspiration for prospective weapon candidates. For instance, the Krieg 552 and M249 were included in Counter-Strike due to inspiration from the 1998 film Ronin. Additionally, the films Air Force One and Léon: The Professional served as further influences for weapon selection. A few weapon models in Counter-Strike deviate from their real-world counterparts because Le had to make assumptions about how certain weapons would behave in animations due to limited information. On March 15, 1999, the mod received its name following an ICQ chat between Le and Cliffe. It was hosted by GameSpys Joost Schurr on Planet Half-Life. Minh Le's reputation from Action Quake 2 led to the mod receiving significant attention before release. The website attracted 10,000 visitors within two and a half weeks. In May 1999, the mod's most pressing issue was a shortage of people to make maps to play on. A contest was held to select maps for the initial beta, though some maps selected were later discarded. Before the first beta's official release, a pre-beta build was leaked online, which potentially accelerated the release of the mod. featured a hostage rescue scenario, 9 weapons, 4 maps, and one player model per side. Jess Cliffe reported that the release was well-received by the community. The interest in the game drew numerous players to Cliffe's website, which helped both him and Le make revenue from advertisements hosted on the site. Another website related to Counter-Strike was launched by John "Rizzuh" Jensen as a source for information about the game, tactics, skins and sounds. In late 1999, Minh Le began working at Barking Dog Studios while finishing his studies. When Valve Software learned of this, they asked Barking Dog to assist in developing Beta 5, offering to finance the project and acquire the game's intellectual property. Barking Dog mainly handled development, as Le was occupied with his university studies. New hostage models were introduced, and the development of the game was further supported with the release of Beta 5.2. ==Release== ===Pre-release=== On April 12, 2000, Valve Software announced a partnership with the Counter-Strike Team, confirming that Counter-Strike 1.0 would be included in an upcoming Half-Life patch. Though not explicitly stated, it is widely believed that this followed Valve's acquisition of Counter-Strike. Statements suggest the rights were sold in early 2000, involving a financial transaction. Despite the partnership, two more beta versions were released. Beta 6.5 (June 8, 2000) introduced an updated netcode, while Beta 7.0 (August 26, 2000) added drive-able vehicles. Following the acquisition of the game by Valve, while Cliffe continued working for them, Le did additional work towards a Counter-Strike 2.0 based on Valve's upcoming Source engine, but left to start his own studio after Valve opted to shelve the sequel. The decision aimed to increase accessibility and test market demand for a multiplayer game independent of Half-Life. Legal issues arose before the retail release, particularly regarding weapon names, which were changed to fictional alternatives. Valve also had to secure rights for maps and textures, leading to modifications and removals of certain assets. Minh Le, one of the original developers, compensated mappers whose work Valve did not purchase. Maverick Developments created a training map for the retail edition. On November 9, 2000, Valve announced that the retail version had gone gold, and the mod version was released shortly after. It was launched under the name Half-Life: Counter-Strike because according to Jess Cliffe, the game did not have a strong identity. After launch, Valve continued releasing updates. Version 1.1 implemented a new spectator mode, version 1.3 introduced voice chat, and version 1.4 added anti-cheat measures. Counter-Strike 1.5, released on June 12, 2002, was the last update before transitioning to Steam. In October 2002, it was stated that Counter-Strike 1.6 would initially be distributed via Steam, with a beta test preceding its official release. Public beta testing was originally set to begin in mid-November, but the launch was first postponed to mid-December before finally starting on January 16, 2003. On the same day, due to overwhelming demand, further beta admissions were quickly suspended as Steam's servers ran out of bandwidth. It was available to the public once again in July 2003. Along with the beta release, Valve and Plantronics announced a blue-and-gold-colored Counter-Strike headset based on Plantronics' DSP-500 headset. The headset had an adjustable microphone boom, a built-in volume control, and was usable with a USB port rather than a sound card. During the beta phase, the game underwent multiple updates, introducing new weapons and a completely redesigned interface based on Valve's VGUI2 technology. Additionally, the official bot, developed by Turtle Rock Studios for Counter-Strike: Condition Zero, was publicly tested within Counter-Strike 1.6 from June 5. Following release, advertisements were brought to Counter-Strike. They were removed after the game was converted to the SteamPipe content delivery system. Plans for Counter-Strike 1.7—which aimed to merge the player bases of Counter-Strike and Condition Zero—were never realized. In January 2013, Valve ported Counter-Strike onto OS X and Linux. It is the third Valve game to be ported to Linux, after Counter-Strike: Source and Team Fortress 2. ===Controversy=== The game faced scrutiny in Germany after being linked to the Erfurt school massacre in 2002 after it was found on the computer of the perpetrator, Robert Steinhäuser. Politicians, including Günther Beckstein, and media outlets, particularly Bild, then regularly referred to the game as . Calls for banning violent video games intensified, with politicians like Beckstein advocating for penalties against players. Media outlets like Frontal 21 on ZDF often portrayed players negatively. In 2002, Germany's BPjM considered indexing Counter-Strike but ultimately rejected it, concluding that the game's objectives could be achieved without violence and that its communication aspects were beneficial. Chancellor Gerhard Schröder criticized the decision as irresponsible. A Brazilian federal judge, Carlos Alberto Simões de Tomaz, ordered a ban on the sale of Counter-Strike and EverQuest in October 2007 arguing that the games "bring imminent stimulus to the subversion of the social order, attempting against the democratic state and the law and against public security." The order began to be enforced on January 17, 2008, but regional federal court order lifting the prohibition on the sale of Counter-Strike was published on June 18, 2009. ==Reception== ===Player count=== Counter-Strike became one of the most popular video games. During the beta stages, it garnered over 245,000 players. After its release in November 2000, the game reached a player count of over 700,000, who played on over 7,000 servers, surpassing both Team Fortress Classic and Unreal Tournament. In March 2002, Counter-Strike was the most popular multiplayer game across 150 game centers in North America. Counter-Strike stayed at the top in June, July, and August. ===Critical reception=== ====PC reception==== Upon its retail release, Counter-Strike received highly favorable reviews. The New York Times reported that E-Sports Entertainment ESEA League started the first professional fantasy e-sports league in 2004 with the game Counter-Strike. Some credit the move into professional competitive team play with prizes as a major factor in Counter-Strike longevity and success. The game was praised by critics for its emphasis on teamwork and communication among players. Scott Osborne, writing for GameSpot, felt that the audio messages were a decent feature, which covered requests for backup, status reports and warnings. One problem, according to him, was that both teams used the same voice. Clayton Wolfe of IGN expressed the importance of teamwork and stating, "It's the team-based tactics that make [Counter-Strike] so fun." In 2003, Counter-Strike was inducted into GameSpot's greatest games of all time list. ===Sales=== Counter-Strike became the first fan-made video game to be released commercially. By July 2001, global retail sales of the game had surpassed 250,000 units. By October 2002, sales had exceeded 1.3 million copies. Sales continued to rise, reaching 1.5 million units and generating $40 million in revenue by February 2003. By August 2004, Counter-Strike had grossed $75 million in revenue and had an estimated two million players worldwide. In the United States, its retail version sold 550,000 copies and earned $15.7 million by August 2006, making it the 22nd best-selling PC game in the country between January 2000 and August 2006. The Xbox version of the game sold 1.5 million copies. As of December 2008, Counter-Strike had sold approximately 4.2 million copies, surpassing all other Valve games except Half-Life and Half-Life 2. A portion of Half-Life sales is often attributed to Counter-Strike since the game was originally available as a modification of Half-Life. Half-Life experienced an unusual increase in sales year-over-year following its release, which Gabe Newell attributed to the popularity of Counter-Strike. He described the release of the mod as one of the best things that could have happened to Half-Life. ==Competitive play== The original Counter-Strike has been played in competitive tournaments since 2000, with the first major event taking place at the Cyberathlete Professional League (CPL) Winter Championship in 2001. The CPL announced a transition from Quake III Arena to Counter-Strike for the Winter Championship. Prior to this, the 2000 Babbage's event featured a Counter-Strike competition sponsored by Kärna, the parent company of Razer, offering a $15,000 prize pool. However, Kärna experienced financial difficulties, leading to delays in prize payouts. On March 14, 2001, the CPL issued a statement confirming that alternative arrangements would be made if the payments were not received by April 2, 2001. On April 12, 2001, the CPL Winter Championship commenced at the Hyatt Regency in Dallas, Texas. The event featured 48 competing teams, marking the first large-scale Counter-Strike tournament. The competition attracted over 800 attendees, including participants and Bring Your Own Computer (BYOC) players. Many professional Quake players were notably absent, while the Counter-Strike community saw an influx of new competitors. This tournament was the largest Counter-Strike event at the time and contributed to the game's rise in professional esports. In 2003, the Esports World Convention hosted a Counter-Strike tournament which featured 37 teams competing for a $100,000 prize pool. In 2012, the Electronic Sports League removed the game from the main titles for the 2012–2013 Intel Extreme Masters due to its decreasing popularity outside of Europe. ==Sequels== Following the success of Counter-Strike, Valve went on to make multiple sequels. The first sequel, Counter-Strike: Condition Zero, which used Counter-Strikes GoldSrc engine, was released in 2004. Counter-Strike: Source, a remake of the original Counter-Strike, was the first in the series to use Valve's Source engine and was also released in 2004, eight months after the release of Condition Zero. The next game in the Counter-Strike series was Counter-Strike: Global Offensive, released for Windows, OS X, Linux, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 in 2012. Counter-Strike 2, an updated version of Global Offensive, was released in 2023. The game spawned multiple spin-offs for the Asian gaming market. The first, Counter-Strike Neo, was an arcade game developed by Namco and released in Japan in 2003. In 2008, Nexon Corporation released Counter-Strike Online, a free-to-play installment in the series monetized via microtransactions. Counter-Strike Online was followed by Counter-Strike Online 2 in 2013. In 2014, Nexon released Counter-Strike Nexon: Zombies worldwide via Steam.	[ "The Escapist (magazine)", "Nexon Corporation", "Kotaku", "BarrysWorld", "Bring Your Own Computer", "Game Developers Conference", "Retro Gamer", "Unreal Tournament", "game engine", "Dallas", "Günther Beckstein", "OS X", "Linux", "Air Force One (film)", "PlayStation 3", "ZDF", "BPjM", "game centers", "Europe", "Business 2.0", "GameSpot", "Regional Federal Courts", "Secondary weapon", "Electronic Sports League", "ICQ", "Microsoft Windows", "microtransaction", "Xbox Game Studios", "Software release life cycle", "Video game remake", "Team Fortress 2", "first-person shooter", "Glock", "Terrorist", "Plantronics", "Condition Zero", "Computer Games Magazine", "Softpedia", "M249 light machine gun", "Quake III Arena", "Germany", "Computer Gaming World", "Source (game engine)", "Polygon", "Gabe Newell", "Game Revolution", "Ronin (film)", "Counter-Strike 2", "Planet Half-Life", "ESEA League", "Xbox Live", "Cyberathlete Professional League", "Counter-Strike", "Action Quake 2", "Steam (service)", "SK-Gaming", "G1 (website)", "intellectual property", "Artificial intelligence", "Greg Kasavin", "Tactical shooter", "EP Daily", "Namco", "Xbox 360", "Golden Joystick Awards", "Razer Inc.", "Barking Dog Studios", "Valve Corporation", "Counter-Strike: Condition Zero", "de dust2", "Xbox (console)", "GameGuru", "Jess Cliffe", "GameRankings", "Léon: The Professional", "Counter-Strike: Source", "Game Informer", "Counter-Strike Online", "University of Tampere", "Newspapers.com", "GameSpy", "Source 2", "Lansing State Journal", "CBS Interactive", "Krieg 552 Commando", "Eurogamer", "Heckler & Koch USP", "GameStar", "Team Fortress Classic", "Gamasutra", "IGN", "Texas", "Valve Software", "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive", "PCMag", "Source engine", "Shacknews", "EverQuest", "Philippine Daily Inquirer", "Intel Extreme Masters", "GoldSrc", "Gerhard Schröder", "Half-Life 2", "Erfurt school massacre", "heads-up display", "Counter-Strike Nexon: Zombies", "software development kit", "Video game modding", "Quake (video game)", "GameRevolution", "Hyatt Regency Dallas", "Computer and Video Games", "Valve", "Sierra Studios", "Port (video gaming)", "Game Developers Choice Awards", "Ritual Entertainment", "Half-Life (video game)", "Level (video games)", "sound card", "counterterrorism", "mini-map", "Esports World Convention", "Minh Le", "IRC", "Metacritic", "The New York Times", "Edge (magazine)", "Multiplayer video game", "Gone gold", "Bild", "List of video games derived from modifications", "melee", "Counter-Strike Online 2", "Camping (video games)", "Turtle Rock Studios" ]
7,434	Camille Pissarro	Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro ( ; ; 10 July 1830 – 13 November 1903) was a Danish-French Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist painter born on the island of St Thomas (now in the US Virgin Islands, but then in the Danish West Indies). His importance resides in his contributions to both Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. Pissarro studied from great forerunners, including Gustave Courbet and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot. He later studied and worked alongside Georges Seurat and Paul Signac when he took on the Neo-Impressionist style at the age of 54. In 1873 he helped establish a collective society of fifteen aspiring artists, becoming the "pivotal" figure in holding the group together and encouraging the other members. Art historian John Rewald called Pissarro the "dean of the Impressionist painters", not only because he was the oldest of the group, but also "by virtue of his wisdom and his balanced, kind, and warmhearted personality". Paul Cézanne said "he was a father for me. A man to consult and a little like the good Lord", and he was also one of Paul Gauguin's masters. Pierre-Auguste Renoir referred to his work as "revolutionary", through his artistic portrayals of the "common man", as Pissarro insisted on painting individuals in natural settings without "artifice or grandeur". Pissarro is the only artist to have shown his work at all eight Paris Impressionist exhibitions, from 1874 to 1886. He "acted as a father figure not only to the Impressionists" but to all four of the major Post-Impressionists, Cézanne, Seurat, Gauguin, and van Gogh. ==Early years== Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro was born on 10 July 1830 on the island of St. Thomas to Frederick Abraham Gabriel Pissarro and Rachel Manzano-Pomié. His father was of Portuguese Jewish descent and held French nationality. His mother was from a French-Jewish family from St. Thomas with Provençal Jewish roots. His father was a merchant who came to the island from France to deal with the hardware store of a deceased uncle, Isaac Petit, and married his widow. The marriage caused a stir within St. Thomas's small Jewish community because she was previously married to Frederick's uncle and according to Jewish law a man is forbidden from marrying his aunt. In subsequent years his four children attended the all-black primary school. Upon his death, his will specified that his estate be split equally between the synagogue and St. Thomas' Protestant church. When Pissarro was twelve his father sent him to boarding school in France. He studied at the Savary Academy in Passy near Paris. While a young student, he developed an early appreciation of the French art masters. Monsieur Savary himself gave him a strong grounding in drawing and painting and suggested he draw from nature when he returned to St. Thomas. After his schooling, Pissarro returned to St. Thomas at the age of sixteen or seventeen, where his father advocated Pissarro to work in his business as a port clerk. Nevertheless, Pissarro took every opportunity during those next five years at the job to practice drawing during breaks and after work. Mirzoeff states, "A formal analysis suggests that [Sawkins's] work influenced the young Pissarro, who had just returned to the island from his school in France. Soon afterward, Pissarro began his own drawings of the local African population in apparent imitation of Sawkins," creating "sketches for a postslavery imagination." He also studied paintings by other artists whose style impressed him: Courbet, Charles-François Daubigny, Jean-François Millet, and Corot. He also enrolled in various classes taught by masters, at schools such as École des Beaux-Arts and Académie Suisse. But Pissarro eventually found their teaching methods "stifling," states art historian John Rewald. This prompted him to search for alternative instruction, which he requested and received from Corot. He and Corot shared a love of rural scenes painted from nature. It was by Corot that Pissarro was inspired to paint outdoors, also called "plein air" painting. Pissarro found Corot, along with the work of Gustave Courbet, to be "statements of pictorial truth," writes Rewald. He discussed their work often. Jean-François Millet was another whose work he admired, especially his "sentimental renditions of rural life". Corot would complete his paintings back in his studio, often revising them according to his preconceptions. Pissarro, however, preferred to finish his paintings outdoors, often at one sitting, which gave his work a more realistic feel. As a result, his art was sometimes criticised as being "vulgar," because he painted what he saw: "rutted and edged hodgepodge of bushes, mounds of earth, and trees in various stages of development." According to one source, such details were equivalent to today's art showing garbage cans or beer bottles on the side of a street. This difference in style created disagreements between Pissarro and Corot. Walters Art Museum.]] In 1859, while attending the free school, the Académie Suisse, Pissarro became friends with a number of younger artists who likewise chose to paint in the more realistic style. Among them were Claude Monet, Armand Guillaumin and Paul Cézanne. What they shared in common was their dissatisfaction with the dictates of the Salon. Cézanne's work had been mocked at the time by the others in the school, and, writes Rewald, in his later years Cézanne "never forgot the sympathy and understanding with which Pissarro encouraged him." At the age of thirty-eight, Pissarro had begun to win himself a reputation as a landscapist to rival Corot and Daubigny. In the late 1860s or early 1870s, Pissarro became fascinated with Japanese prints, which influenced his desire to experiment in new compositions. He described the art to his son Lucien: "It is marvelous. This is what I see in the art of this astonishing people ... nothing that leaps to the eye, a calm, a grandeur, an extraordinary unity, a rather subdued radiance ..." His political philosophies also motivated some of his art. The purpose of the album was political, Pissarro created the album as a gift for his niece aiming to solidify her anarchist tendencies. ==The London years== After the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, having only Danish nationality and being unable to join the army, he moved his family to Norwood, then a village on the edge of London. However, his style of painting, which was a forerunner of what was later called "Impressionism", did not do well. He wrote to his friend, Théodore Duret, that "my painting doesn't catch on, not at all ..." views of The Crystal Palace relocated from Hyde Park, Dulwich College, Sydenham Hill, All Saints Church Upper Norwood, and a lost painting of St. Stephen's Church. Returning to France, Pissarro lived in Pontoise from 1872 to 1884. In 1890 he again visited England and painted some ten scenes of central London. He came back again in 1892, painting in Kew Gardens and Kew Green, and also in 1897, when he produced several oils described as being of Bedford Park, Chiswick, but in fact all being of the nearby Stamford Brook area except for one of Bath Road, which runs from Stamford Brook along the south edge of Bedford Park. ==French Impressionism== When Pissarro returned to his home in France after the war, he discovered that of the 1,500 paintings he had done over 20 years, which he was forced to leave behind when he moved to London, only 40 remained. The rest had been damaged or destroyed by the soldiers, who often used them as floor mats outside in the mud to keep their boots clean. It is assumed that many of those lost were done in the Impressionist style he was then developing, thereby "documenting the birth of Impressionism." Armand Silvestre, a critic, went so far as to call Pissarro "basically the inventor of this [Impressionist] painting"; however, Pissarro's role in the Impressionist movement was "less that of the great man of ideas than that of the good counselor and appeaser ..." "Monet ... could be seen as the guiding force." Towards the end of the 1890s she began to distance herself from the Impressionists, avoiding Degas at times as she did not have the strength to defend herself against his "wicked tongue". Instead, she came to prefer the company of "the gentle Camille Pissarro", with whom she could speak frankly about the changing attitudes toward art. She once described him as a teacher "that could have taught the stones to draw correctly." Art historian Cora Michael notes that “of the Impressionists, Pissarro was perhaps the one most devoted to printmaking and…approached prints from the point of view of an avant-garde artist.” In the 1880s to early 1890s, Pissarro returned to his studio in Pontoise, where he worked with many different print mediums to produce works such as “Vegetable Market at Pontoise” and “The Road to Rouen: The Hills of Pontoise". ==Neo-Impressionist period== By the 1880s, Pissarro began to explore new themes and methods of painting to break out of what he felt was an artistic "mire". As a result, Pissarro went back to his earlier themes by painting the life of country people, which he had done in Venezuela in his youth. Degas described Pissarro's subjects as "peasants working to make a living". Pierre-Auguste Renoir, in 1882, referred to Pissarro's work during this period as "revolutionary," in his attempt to portray the "common man." Pissarro himself did not use his art to overtly preach any kind of political message, however, although his preference for painting humble subjects was intended to be seen and purchased by his upper class clientele. He also began painting with a more unified brushwork along with pure strokes of color. ===Studying with Seurat and Signac=== In 1885 he met Georges Seurat and Paul Signac, both of whom relied on a more "scientific" theory of painting by using very small patches of pure colours to create the illusion of blended colours and shading when viewed from a distance. Pissarro then spent the years from 1885 to 1888 practising this more time-consuming and laborious technique, referred to as pointillism. The paintings that resulted were distinctly different from his Impressionist works, and were on display in the 1886 Impressionist Exhibition, but under a separate section, along with works by Seurat, Signac, and his son Lucien. All four works were considered an "exception" to the eighth exhibition. Joachim Pissarro notes that virtually every reviewer who commented on Pissarro's work noted "his extraordinary capacity to change his art, revise his position and take on new challenges." His work has also been described by art historian Diane Kelder as expressing "the same quiet dignity, sincerity, and durability that distinguished his person." She adds that "no member of the group did more to mediate the internecine disputes that threatened at times to break it apart, and no one was a more diligent proselytizer of the new painting." Camille Pissarro is a pivotal character in the historical fiction novels, The Dream Collector, Books I & II by R.w. Meek, depicting his major role among the Impressionists and his open-mindedness toward the Post-Impressionist art of George Seurat, Paul Gauguin and Vincent van Gogh. ===The legacy of Nazi-looted Pissarros=== During the early 1930s throughout Europe, Jewish owners of numerous fine art masterpieces found themselves forced to give up or sell off their collections for minimal prices due to anti-Jewish laws created by the new Nazi regime. Many Jews were forced to flee Germany starting in 1933, and then, as the Nazis expanded their hold over all of Europe, Austria, France, Holland, Poland, Italy and other countries. The Nazis created special looting organizations like the Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce whose mission it was to seize Jewish property notably valuable artworks. When those forced into exile or deported to extermination camps owned valuables, including artwork, they were often sold to finance the Nazi war effort, sent to Hitler's personal museum, traded or seized by officials for personal gain. Several artworks by Pissarro were looted from their Jewish owners in Germany, France and elsewhere by the Nazis. Pissarro's Shepherdess Bringing Home the Sheep (La Bergère Rentrant des Moutons") was looted from the Jewish art collectors Yvonne et Raoul Meyer in France in 1941 and transited via Switzerland and New York before entering the Fred Jones Jr Museum at the University of Oklahoma. In 2014, Meyer's daughter, Léonie-Noëlle Meyer filed a restitution claim which resulted in years of court battle. The lawsuit resulted in the recognition of Meyer's ownership and its transfer to France for five years, coupled with an agreement to shuttle the painting back and forth between Paris and Oklahoma every three years after that. However, in 2020 Meyer filed suit in a French court to challenge the accord. After Fred Jones Jr Museum sued Meyer requesting heavy financial penalties, the Holocaust survivor abandoned her effort to recover the Pissarro, saying, "I have no other choice. Pissarro's Picking Peas (La Cueillette) was looted from Jewish businessman Simon Bauer, in addition to 92 other artworks seized in 1943 by the Vichy collaborationist regime in France. Pissarro's Sower And Ploughman, was owned by Dr Henri Hinrichsen, a Jewish music publisher from Leipzig, until 11 January 1940, when he was forced to relinquish the painting to Hildebrand Gurlitt in Nazi-occupied Brussels, before being murdered in Auschwitz in September 1942. Pissarro's "Le Quai Malaquais, Printemps", owned by German Jewish publisher Samuel Fischer, founder of the famous S. Fischer Verlag, passed through the hands of infamous Nazi art looter Bruno Lohse. Pissarro's Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps, owned by Max Silberberg, a German Jewish industrialist whose renowned art collection was considered "one of the best in pre-war Germany", was seized and sold in a forced auction before Silberberg and his wife Johanna were murdered in Auschwitz. In the decades after World War II, many art masterpieces were found on display in various galleries and museums in Europe and the United States, often with false provenances and labels missing. Some, as a result of legal action, were later returned to the families of the original owners. Many of the recovered paintings were then donated to the same or other museums as a gift. One such lost piece, Pissarro's 1897 oil painting, Rue St. Honoré, Apres Midi, Effet de Pluie, was discovered hanging at Madrid's government-owned museum, the Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza. In January 2011 the Spanish government denied a request by the US ambassador to return the painting. At the subsequent trial in Los Angeles, the court ruled that the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection Foundation was the rightful owner. In 1999, Pissarro's 1897 Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps appeared in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, its donor having been unaware of its pre-war provenance. In January 2012, Le Marché aux Poissons (The Fish Market), a color monotype, was returned after 30 years. During his lifetime, Camille Pissarro sold few of his paintings. By the 21st century, however, his paintings were selling for millions. An auction record for the artist was set on 6 November 2007 at Christie's in New York, where a group of four paintings, Les Quatre Saisons (the Four Seasons), sold for $14,601,000 (estimate $12,000,000 – $18,000,000). In November 2009 Le Pont Boieldieu et la Gare d'Orléans, Rouen, Soleil sold for $7,026,500 at Sotheby's in New York. In February 2014 the 1897 Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps, originally owned by the German industrialist and Holocaust victim Max Silberberg (de), sold at Sotheby's in London for £19.9M, nearly five times the previous record. In October 2021 Berlin's Alte Nationalgalerie restituted Pissarro's "A Square in La Roche-Guyon" (1867) to the heirs of Armand Dorville, a French Jewish art collector whose family was persecuted by the Nazis and whose paintings had been sold at a 1942 auction in Nice that was overseen by the Commissariat Général aux Questions Juives. The museum then purchased the Pissarro back. File:Pissarro Camille - Boulevard Montmartre à Paris.jpg\| Boulevard Montmartre à Paris, 1897. Hermitage Museum File:Boulevard Montmartre- Mardi Gras (frameless).jpg\|Boulevard Montmartre: Mardi Gras, 1897. Hammer Museum File:Camille Pissarro - Boulevard Montmartre, morning, cloudy weather - Google Art Project.jpg\| Boulevard Montmartre, morning, cloudy weather, 1897. National Gallery of Victoria File:The Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning.JPG\|The Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning, 1897. Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Camille Pissarro - Boulevard Montmartre, Spring - Google Art Project.jpg\|Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps, street view from hotel window, 1897 File:Camille Pissarro - Boulevard Montmartre at Night - c 1897 - National Gallery UK.jpg\|The Boulevard Montmartre at Night, 1897. National Gallery ==A family of painters== Camille's son Lucien was an Impressionist and Neo-impressionist painter as were his second and third sons Georges Henri Manzana Pissarro and Félix Pissarro. Lucien's daughter Orovida Pissarro was also a painter. Camille's great-grandson, Joachim Pissarro, became Head Curator of Drawing and Painting at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City and a professor in Hunter College's Art Department. Camille's great-granddaughter, Lélia Pissarro, has had her work exhibited alongside her great-grandfather. Another great-granddaughter, Julia Pissarro, a Barnard College graduate, is also active in the art scene. From the only daughter of Camille, Jeanne Pissarro, other painters include Henri Bonin-Pissarro (1918–2003) and Claude Bonin-Pissarro (born 1921), who is the father of the Abstract artist Frédéric Bonin-Pissarro (born 1964). The grandson of Camille Pissarro, Hugues Claude Pissarro (dit Pomié), was born in 1935 in the western section of Paris, Neuilly-sur-Seine, and began to draw and paint as a young child under his father's tutelage. During his adolescence and early twenties he studied the works of the great masters at the Louvre. His work has been featured in exhibitions in Europe and the United States, and he was commissioned by the White House in 1959 to paint a portrait of U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower. He now lives and paints in Donegal, Ireland, with his wife Corinne also an accomplished artist and their children. ==Paintings== File:Camille Pissarro - A Plaza in Caracas.jpg\|A Plaza in Caracas, c. 1850–52, oil on canvas. Colección Patricia Phelps de Cisneros File:Camille Pissarro - Allée dans une fôret (sur 1859).jpg\|Allée dans une forêt (Road in a Forest), 1859, oil on canvas, Private Collection File:Camille Pissarro - Le Labourage, Bérelles (PD 46).jpg\|Working at Bérelles (Le Labourage, Bérelles), c. 1860, oil on panel, Private Collection File:Camille Pissarro - Châtaigniers à Louveciennes - 1879.jpg\|Châtaignier à Louveciennes, 1870. Musée d'Orsay, Paris File:Camille Pissarro - Allée dans le parc de Marly.jpg\|The Woods at Marly, 1871. Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid File:La Route.jpg\|The Road to Versailles, Louveciennes: Morning Frost, 1871. Dallas Museum of Art File:Pissaro, Camille, Still Life Apples and Pears.jpg\|Still Life: Apples and Pears in a Round Basket, 1872. The Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection, on long-term loan to the Princeton University Art Museum File:Camille Pissarro - Paul Cézanne.jpg\|Camille Pissarro, Portrait of Paul Cézanne, 1874. National Gallery, London File:Camille Pissarro A Cowherd at Valhermeil, Auvers-sur-Oise The Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg\|A Cowherd at Valhermeil, Auvers-sur-Oise, 1874. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York File:MuMA - Pissarro - Un carrefour à l'Hermitage, Pontoise.JPG\|Un Carrefour à l'Hermitage, Pontoise, 1876. Musée Malraux, Le Havre File:Camille Pissarro - Red roofs, corner of a village, winter - Google Art Project.jpg\|Toits rouges, coin d'un village, hiver, Côte de Saint-Denis, Pontoise, 1877. Musée d'Orsay, Paris Image:Camille Pissarro - The Côte des Bœufs at L'Hermitage - National Gallery London.jpg\|The Côte des Bœufs at L'Hermitage, 1877. National Gallery, London Image:Camille Pissarro - Dans le jardin des Mathurins, Pontoise - 503.jpg\|The Garden of Pontoise, 1877 File:Camille Pissarro Washerwoman, Study The Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg\|Washerwoman, Study, 1880. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York File:Camille Pissarro - Conversation - Google Art Project.jpg\|Conversation, c. 1881. National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo File:The Harvest, Pontoise.jpg\|The Harvest, Pontoise, 1881. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York File:Camille Pissarro - The Harvest - Google Art Project.jpg\|The Harvest, 1882. Artizon Museum, Tokyo File:CAMILLE PISSARRO (1830-1903) Le jardin de Maubuisson, Pontoise, la mère Bellette 21 7-16 x 25 7-8 in. (54.5 x 65.7cm).jpg\| Le jardin de Maubuisson, Pontoise, 1882 File:The Church at Eragny Pissarro.jpg\|The Church at Eragny, 1884. Walters Art Museum File:Route Enneigée avec maison, environs d'Éragny by Camille Pissarro.jpg\|Route Enneigée avec maison, environs d'Éragny, 1885 Image:Bergère rentrant des moutons.jpg\| Shepherdess Bringing in Sheep (Bergère rentrant des moutons) 1886. University of Oklahoma File:Camille Pissarro 019.jpg\|Children on a Farm, 1887. Collection of G. Signac, Paris Image:Camille Pissarro 016.jpg\|Haying at Eragny, 1889 File:Pissarro—Old Chelsea Bridge.jpg\|Old Chelsea Bridge, London 1890. Smith College Museum of Arts File:The Place du Havre, Paris.jpg\|Place du Havre, Paris, 1893. Art Institute of Chicago File:Morning, An Overcast Day, Rouen MET DT1863.jpg\|Morning, An Overcast Day, Rouen, 1896. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York File:14 oct 2014 theatre fr.jpg\|Place du Théâtre Français: Fog Effect, 1897. Dallas Museum of Art File:Camille Pissarro 036.jpg\|Rouen, Rue de l'Épicerie, 1898 File:Camille Pissarro, The Garden of the Tuileries on a Winter Afternoon, 1899.jpg\|The Garden of the Tuileries on a Winter Afternoon, 1899, Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Camille Pissarro - La Place due Théâtre Français - Google Art Project.jpg\| La Place du Théâtre Français, 1898. LACMA, Los Angeles File:Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) - 'View of Rouen', 1898.jpg\|View of Rouen, 1898. Honolulu Museum of Art File:WLA_metmuseum_Camille_Pissarro_French.jpg\|The Garden of the Tuileries on a Spring Morning, 1899. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York File:Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) - 'Morning, Winter Sunshine, Frost, the Pont-Neuf, the Seine, the Louvre, Soleil D'hiver Gella Blanc', ca. 1901.jpg\|Morning, Winter Sunshine, Frost, the Pont-Neuf, the Seine, the Louvre, Soleil D'hiver Gella Blanc, c. 1901. Honolulu Museum of Art File:Pissarro havre.jpg\|Ship entering the Harbor at Le Havre, 1903. Dallas Museum of Art File:Camille Pissarro - The Fish Market in Dieppe, Grey Weather, Morning - 1902 - Dallas Museum of Art.jpg\|The Fish Market, Dieppe: Grey Weather, Morning, c 1902. Dallas Museum of Art ==Drawings and prints== File:Camille Pissarro - La Guaira.jpg\|La Guaira, 1852–54, graphite and ink on paper File:Camille Pissarro - View from Upper Norwood.jpg\|View from Upper Norwood, c. 1870, pen and brown ink over pencil on paper. Ashmolean Museum File:LES POMMIERS, PONTOISE.PNG\|Apple Trees at Pontoise, c. 1872, pastel on paper File:Piette by Pissarro.jpg\|Portrait of Ludovic Piette, c. 1875, pastel on paper. Wildenstein Institute File:The Woods at L'Hermitage, Pontoise MET DP108213.jpg\|The Woods at L'Hermitage, Pontoise, 1879, softground etching, aquatint, and drypoint on china paper (sixth state). Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Camille Pissarro - Boulevard de Rochechouart, 1880. Pastel, Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute.jpg\|Boulevard de Rochechouart, 1880, pastel on beige wove paper File:Camille Pissarro - Paysage a Osny - Google Art Project.jpg\|Landscape in Osny, 1887, etching on Holland paper. Museum of Fine Arts, Houston File:Camille Pissarro-Faneuses d'Eragny.jpg\|Tedders of Eragny (Faneuses d'Eragny), 1897, etching, aquatint and dry-point on paper. Strasbourg Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art File:Paysanne Nouant son Foulard by Camille Pissarro.jpg\|Paysanne Nouant son Foulard, 1882, pastel on paper ==List of paintings== The Banks of the Oise near Pontoise 1873, Indianapolis Museum of Art Pont Boieldieu in Rouen, Rainy Weather, 1896, Art Gallery of Ontario Steamboats in the Port of Rouen, 1896, Metropolitan Museum of Art Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps, view from window, 1897, private collection Bath Road, London, 1897, Ashmolean Museum Hay Harvest at Éragny, 1901, National Gallery of Canada Self-portrait, 1903, Tate Gallery, London Le Printemps, Paysannes dans un Champ, 1882, fan-shaped painting in gouache on silk, Private Collection Paysans Ramassant des Pommes, circa 1890, oil on panel	[ "Franco-Prussian War", "Tate Gallery", "Bath Road, London", "Monet", "Rue St. Honoré, Apres Midi, Effet de Pluie", "Art Institute of Chicago", "plein air", "National Gallery of Canada", "Derek Walcott", "S. Fischer Verlag", "Salon des Refusés", "Dallas Museum of Art", "Sotheby's", "Vichy France", "Art Gallery of Ontario", "Impressionism", "Impressionist", "Henry Pearlman", "Éragny-sur-Epte", "Gustave Courbet", "File:Camille Pissarro - The Avenue, Sydenham (1871).jpg", "Degas", "Kew Gardens", "Gauguin", "Sydenham Hill", "St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands", "Princeton University Art Museum", "Salon (Paris)", "Steamboats in the Port of Rouen", "Armand Guillaumin", "Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce", "Bruno Lohse", "Paul Cézanne", "Japanese prints", "John Rewald", "Claude Bonin-Pissarro", "Vincent van Gogh", "Joachim Pissarro", "Musée Malraux", "Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot", "Paul Signac", "Nicholas Mirzoeff", "Neo-Impressionist", "First Impressionist Exhibition", "Croydon", "Lucien Pissarro", "catalogue raisonné", "Hildebrand Gurlitt", "Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands", "impasto", "Morning, An Overcast Day, Rouen", "Georges Henri Manzana Pissarro", "County Donegal", "Charles-François Daubigny", "John Constable", "Honolulu Museum of Art", "Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza", "National Gallery", "LACMA", "National Gallery of Victoria", "Armand Silvestre", "Caracas", "Metropolitan Museum of Art", "Colección Patricia Phelps de Cisneros", "Kew Green", "Frédéric Bazille", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "Walters Art Museum", "Jules-Antoine Castagnary", "Raoul Meyer", "de:Max Silberberg", "Jewish culture", "Adriana Hunter", "Mary Cassatt", "Jean-François Millet", "Stamford Brook", "Cologne", "Jews of Portugal", "The Holocaust", "monotype", "Claude Monet", "Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps", "Museum of Modern Art", "Napoleon III", "Louveciennes", "University of Oklahoma", "provenance", "Frédéric Bonin-Pissarro", "Self-portrait", "Camille Corot", "Henri-Edmond Cross", "National Gallery, London", "Christopher Lloyd (art historian)", "Hammer Museum", "Cézanne", "Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs", "Paul Gauguin", "The New Yorker", "Osny", "The Côte des Bœufs at L'Hermitage", "Charlotte Amalie, United States Virgin Islands", "Lionello Venturi", "Le Révolté", "Paul Durand-Ruel", "Pontoise", "Sydenham, London", "Bedford Park, London", "The Banks of the Oise near Pontoise", "La Guaira", "Paul-Émile Pissarro", "JPG", "Auschwitz concentration camp", "The Garden of the Tuileries on a Winter Afternoon (Pissarro)", "Pierre-Auguste Renoir", "Hatje Cantz Verlag", "Mitla", "Israel Museum", "Armand Dorville", "National Museum of Western Art", "Lorenz Eitner", "Bérelles", "The Crystal Palace", "Hugues Claude Pissarro", "Georges Seurat", "Émile Zola", "The Harvest, Pontoise", "Orovida Camille Pissarro", "Holocaust", "Hermitage Museum", "Anton Melbye", "Jean Grave", "James Gay Sawkins", "Anka Muhlstein", "Post-Impressionism", "Henri Hinrichsen", "Christie's", "Wildenstein Institute", "Adam Gopnik", "Pont Boieldieu in Rouen, Rainy Weather", "Museum of Fine Arts, Houston", "Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands", "Académie Suisse", "Linda Nochlin", "Théodore Duret", "Fritz Melbye", "Hyde Park, London", "Courbet", "Hay Harvest at Éragny", "Léone-Noëlle Meyer", "Fred Jones Jr. Museum of Art", "Barnard College", "Danish West Indies", "Artizon Museum", "Dulwich College", "Upper Norwood", "Félix Pissarro", "Simon Bauer", "List of claims for restitution for Nazi-looted art", "Indianapolis Museum of Art", "US Virgin Islands", "Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum", "art critic", "Ashmolean Museum", "Musée d'Orsay", "Octave Mirbeau", "pointillism", "A Cowherd at Valhermeil, Auvers-sur-Oise", "The New York Times", "Smith College", "Venezuela", "Paris", "Samuel von Fischer", "Max Silberberg", "Passy", "Lélia Pissarro", "Ludovic Piette", "Theo van Gogh (art dealer)", "Charles-Philippe de Chennevières-Pointel", "Alte Nationalgalerie", "Strasbourg Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art", "Neo-Impressionism", "Villard (imprint)", "Shepherdess Bringing in Sheep", "Lordship Lane (Dulwich)", "École des Beaux-Arts", "Louvre", "Irving Stone", "J. M. W. Turner", "Père Lachaise Cemetery", "The Holocaust in France" ]
7,435	Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures	The diagnostic tests in cardiology are methods of identifying heart conditions associated with healthy vs. unhealthy, pathologic heart function. ==Bedside== ===History=== Obtaining a medical history is always the first "test", part of understanding the likelihood of significant disease, as detectable within the current limitations of clinical medicine. Yet heart problems often produce no symptoms until very advanced, and many symptoms, such as palpitations and sensations of extra or missing heart beats correlate poorly with relative heart health vs disease. Hence, a history alone is rarely sufficient to diagnose a heart condition. ===Auscultation=== Auscultation employs a stethoscope to more easily hear various normal and abnormal sounds, such as normal heart beat sounds and the usual heart beat sound changes associated with breathing versus heart murmurs. ==Laboratory== ===Blood tests=== A variety of blood tests are available for analyzing cholesterol transport behavior, HDL, LDL, triglycerides, lipoprotein little a, homocysteine, C-reactive protein, blood sugar control: fasting, after eating or averages using glycated albumen or hemoglobin, myoglobin, creatine kinase, troponin, brain-type natriuretic peptide, etc. to assess the evolution of coronary artery disease and evidence of existing damage. A great many more physiologic markers related to atherosclerosis and heart function are used and being developed and evaluated in research. (*) due to the high cost, LDL is usually calculated instead of being measured directly source: Beyond Cholesterol, Julius Torelli MD, 2005 ==Electrophysiology== ===Electrocardiogram=== Electrocardiography (ECG/EKG in German vernacular. Elektrokardiogram) monitors electrical activity of the heart, primarily as recorded from the skin surface. A 12 lead recording, recording the electrical activity in three planes, anterior, posterior, and lateral is the most commonly used form. The ECG allows observation of the heart electrical activity by visualizing waveform beat origin (typically from the sinoatrial or SA node) following down the bundle of HIS and ultimately stimulating the ventricles to contract forcing blood through the body. Much can be learned by observing the QRS morphology (named for the respective portions of the polarization/repolarization waveform of the wave, P,Q,R,S,T wave). Rhythm abnormalities can also be visualized as in slow heart rate bradycardia, or fast heart rate tachycardia. ===Fasegram=== A Fasegraphy allows expanding the system of Electrocardiography diagnostic features, based on the evaluation of the speed characteristics of the process, and thereby increasing the sensitivity and specificity of ECG-diagnostics. Fasegraphy allows determining the initial features of changes in the cardiac muscle, even on a single-channel ECG, which are underestimated in traditional ECG diagnostics. ===Holter monitor=== A Holter monitor records a continuous EKG rhythm pattern (rarely a full EKG) for 24 hours or more. These monitors are used for suspected frequent rhythm abnormalities, especially ones the wearer may not recognize by symptoms. They are more expensive than event monitors. ===Event monitor=== An event monitor records short term EKG rhythm patterns, generally storing the last 2 to 5 minutes, adding in new and discarding old data, for 1 to 2 weeks or more. There are several different types with different capabilities. When the wearer presses a button on the monitor, it quits discarding old and continues recording for a short additional period. The wearer then plays the recording, via a standard phone connection, to a center with compatible receiving and rhythm printing equipment, after which the monitor is ready to record again. These monitors are used for suspected infrequent rhythm abnormalities, especially ones the wearer does recognize by symptoms. They are less expensive than Holter monitors. ===Cardiac stress testing=== Cardiac stress testing is used to determine to assess cardiac function and to disclose evidence of exertion-related cardiac hypoxia. Radionuclide testing using thallium or technetium can be used to demonstrate areas of perfusion abnormalities. With a maximal stress test the level of exercise is increased until the person's heart rate will not increase any higher, despite increased exercise. A fairly accurate estimate of the target heart rate, based on extensive clinical research, can be estimated by the formula 220 beats per minute minus patient's age. This linear relation is accurate up to about age 30, after which it mildly underestimates typical maximum attainable heart rates achievable by healthy individuals. Other formulas exist, such as that by Miller (217 - (0.85 × Age)) and others. Achieving a high enough heart rate at the end of exercise is critical to improving the sensitivity of the test to detect high grade heart artery stenosis. High frequency analysis of the QRS complex may be useful for detection of coronary artery disease during an exercise stress test. ===Electrophysiology study=== The electrophysiology study or EP study is the end all of electrophysiological tests of the heart. It involves a catheter with electrodes probing the endocardium, the inside of the heart, and testing the conduction pathways and electrical activity of individual areas of the heart. ==Medical imaging== Cardiac imaging techniques include coronary catheterization, echocardiogram, intravascular ultrasound, retinal vessel analysis and the coronary calcium scan.	[ "Holter monitor", "coronary calcium scan", "echocardiogram", "homocysteine", "Hypoxia (medical)", "cholesterol", "tachycardia", "intravascular ultrasound", "Fibrinogen", "Reference ranges for common blood tests", "stethoscope", "Electrocardiography", "cardiac muscle", "Medical technologist", "electrophysiology study", "physiology", "medical history", "brain-type natriuretic peptide", "retinal vessel analysis", "coronary catheterization", "Ferritin", "pathology", "Radionuclide test", "High density lipoprotein", "bradycardia", "Blood Pressure", "Low density lipoprotein", "triglyceride", "event monitor", "atherosclerosis", "coronary artery disease", "Cholesterol", "C-reactive protein", "Triglyceride", "Coronary calcium scan", "troponin", "heart murmur", "myoglobin", "stenosis", "lipoprotein little a", "Auscultation", "Fasegraphy", "HFQRS", "Lipoprotein", "creatine kinase", "Cardiology", "ECG", "thallium", "electricity", "Cardiac stress testing", "technetium", "heart", "Homocysteine", "Insulin", "blood test" ]
7,437	Carlo Collodi	Carlo Lorenzini (; 24 November 1826 – 26 October 1890), better known by the pen name Carlo Collodi ( ; ), was an Italian author, humourist, and journalist, widely known for his fairy tale novel The Adventures of Pinocchio. ==Early life== Lorenzini was born in Florence on 24 November 1826. His mother Angiolina Orzali Lorenzini was a seamstress from Collodi, the town from which he later took the pen name, and his father Domenico Lorenzini was a cook. Both parents worked for the ' Ginori Lisci. and he had ten siblings; seven died at a young age. He spent most of his childhood in the town of Collodi where his mother was born. He lived there with his maternal grandmother. After attending primary school, he was sent to study at a theological seminary in Colle Val d'Elsa. In 1844, he started working at the Florentine bookstore Libreria Piatti, where he assisted Giuseppe Aiazzi, a prominent Italian manuscript specialist. This newspaper was censored by order of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. In 1854, he published his second newspaper, ' ("The Controversy"). Lorenzini's first publications were in his periodicals. A debut came in 1856 with the play ' and parodic guidebook , both in 1856. By 1860, he published his first notable work called ' (Mr. Alberi Is Right!), which outlined his political and cultural vision of Italy. This is the text where Lorenzini started using the Collodi pseudonym, which was taken from his mother's hometown. Lorenzini died suddenly in Florence on 26 October 1890 at the age of 63 and is interred at Cimitero Monumentale Delle Porte Sante in Florence. The National Carlo Collodi Foundation was established in 1962 to promote education and the works of Collodi, and Pinocchio Park, which was opened in 1956 in the town of Collodi and remains a popular attraction today.	[ "allegory", "Charles Perrault", "The Adventures of Pinocchio", "Giornale per i bambini", "fairy tale novel", "Template:Infobox writer/doc", "Project Gutenberg", "Grand Duchy of Tuscany", "Pinocchio (1940 film)", "Atlas Obscura", "Collodi (Italy)", "Grand duke of tuscany", "Florence", "theological seminary", "Kingdom of Italy", "Marionette", "Macchiette", "Unification of Italy", "political satire", "Colle di Val d'Elsa" ]
7,439	Constructible number	In geometry and algebra, a real number r is constructible if and only if, given a line segment of unit length, a line segment of length \|r\| can be constructed with compass and straightedge in a finite number of steps. Equivalently, r is constructible if and only if there is a closed-form expression for r using only integers and the operations for addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and square roots. The geometric definition of constructible numbers motivates a corresponding definition of constructible points, which can again be described either geometrically or algebraically. A point is constructible if it can be produced as one of the points of a compass and straightedge construction (an endpoint of a line segment or crossing point of two lines or circles), starting from a given unit length segment. Alternatively and equivalently, taking the two endpoints of the given segment to be the points (0, 0) and (1, 0) of a Cartesian coordinate system, a point is constructible if and only if its Cartesian coordinates are both constructible numbers. Constructible numbers and points have also been called ruler and compass numbers and ruler and compass points, to distinguish them from numbers and points that may be constructed using other processes. The set of constructible numbers forms a field: applying any of the four basic arithmetic operations to members of this set produces another constructible number. This field is a field extension of the rational numbers and in turn is contained in the field of algebraic numbers. It is the Euclidean closure of the rational numbers, the smallest field extension of the rationals that includes the square roots of all of its positive numbers. The proof of the equivalence between the algebraic and geometric definitions of constructible numbers has the effect of transforming geometric questions about compass and straightedge constructions into algebra, including several famous problems from ancient Greek mathematics. The algebraic formulation of these questions led to proofs that their solutions are not constructible, after the geometric formulation of the same problems previously defied centuries of attack. == Geometric definitions == ===Geometrically constructible points=== Let O and A be two given distinct points in the Euclidean plane, and define S to be the set of points that can be constructed with compass and straightedge starting with O and A. Then the points of S are called constructible points. O and A are, by definition, elements of S. To more precisely describe the remaining elements of S, make the following two definitions: a line segment whose endpoints are in S is called a constructed segment, and a circle whose center is in S and which passes through a point of S (alternatively, whose radius is the distance between some pair of distinct points of S) is called a constructed circle. Then, the points of S, besides O and A are: the intersection of two non-parallel constructed segments, or lines through constructed segments, the intersection points of a constructed circle and a constructed segment, or line through a constructed segment, or the intersection points of two distinct constructed circles. As an example, the midpoint of constructed segment OA is a constructible point. One construction for it is to construct two circles with OA as radius, and the line through the two crossing points of these two circles. Then the midpoint of segment OA is the point where this segment is crossed by the constructed line. ===Geometrically constructible numbers=== The starting information for the geometric formulation can be used to define a Cartesian coordinate system in which the point O is associated to the origin having coordinates (0,0) and in which the point A is associated with the coordinates (1, 0). The points of S may now be used to link the geometry and algebra by defining a constructible number to be a coordinate of a constructible point. Equivalent definitions are that a constructible number is the x-coordinate of a constructible point (x,0) or the length of a constructible line segment. In one direction of this equivalence, if a constructible point has coordinates (x,y), then the point (x,0) can be constructed as its perpendicular projection onto the x-axis, and the segment from the origin to this point has length x. In the reverse direction, if x is the length of a constructible line segment, then intersecting the x-axis with a circle centered at O with radius x gives the point (x,0). It follows from this equivalence that every point whose Cartesian coordinates are geometrically constructible numbers is itself a geometrically constructible point. For, when x and y are geometrically constructible numbers, point (x,y) can be constructed as the intersection of lines through (x,0) and (0,y), perpendicular to the coordinate axes. ==Algebraic definitions== ===Algebraically constructible numbers=== The algebraically constructible real numbers are the subset of the real numbers that can be described by formulas that combine integers using the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, multiplicative inverse, and square roots of positive numbers. Even more simply, at the expense of making these formulas longer, the integers in these formulas can be restricted to be only 0 and 1. For instance, the square root of 2 is constructible, because it can be described by the formulas \sqrt2 or \sqrt{1+1}. Analogously, the algebraically constructible complex numbers are the subset of complex numbers that have formulas of the same type, using a more general version of the square root that is not restricted to positive numbers but can instead take arbitrary complex numbers as its argument, and produces the principal square root of its argument. Alternatively, the same system of complex numbers may be defined as the complex numbers whose real and imaginary parts are both constructible real numbers. For instance, the complex number i has the formulas \sqrt{-1} or \sqrt{0-1}, and its real and imaginary parts are the constructible numbers 0 and 1 respectively. These two definitions of the constructible complex numbers are equivalent. In one direction, if q=x+iy is a complex number whose real part x and imaginary part y are both constructible real numbers, then replacing x and y by their formulas within the larger formula x+y\sqrt{-1} produces a formula for q as a complex number. In the other direction, any formula for an algebraically constructible complex number can be transformed into formulas for its real and imaginary parts, by recursively expanding each operation in the formula into operations on the real and imaginary parts of its arguments, using the expansions (a+ib)\pm (c+id)=(a \pm c)+i(b \pm d) (a+ib)(c+id)=(ac-bd) + i(ad+bc) \frac{1}{a+ib}=\frac{a}{a^2+b^2} + i \frac{-b}{a^2+b^2} \sqrt{a+ib} = \frac{(a+r)\sqrt{r}}{s} + i\frac{b\sqrt{r}}{s}, where r=\sqrt{a^2+b^2{}_{\!}} and s=\sqrt{(a+r)^2+b^2}. ===Algebraically constructible points=== The algebraically constructible points may be defined as the points whose two real Cartesian coordinates are both algebraically constructible real numbers. Alternatively, they may be defined as the points in the complex plane given by algebraically constructible complex numbers. By the equivalence between the two definitions for algebraically constructible complex numbers, these two definitions of algebraically constructible points are also equivalent. In the other direction, a set of geometric objects may be specified by algebraically constructible real numbers: coordinates for points, slope and y-intercept for lines, and center and radius for circles. It is possible (but tedious) to develop formulas in terms of these values, using only arithmetic and square roots, for each additional object that might be added in a single step of a compass-and-straightedge construction. It follows from these formulas that every geometrically constructible number is algebraically constructible. ==Algebraic properties== The definition of algebraically constructible numbers includes the sum, difference, product, and multiplicative inverse of any of these numbers, the same operations that define a field in abstract algebra. Thus, the constructible numbers (defined in any of the above ways) form a field. More specifically, the constructible real numbers form a Euclidean field, an ordered field containing a square root of each of its positive elements. Examining the properties of this field and its subfields leads to necessary conditions on a number to be constructible, that can be used to show that specific numbers arising in classical geometric construction problems are not constructible. It is convenient to consider, in place of the whole field of constructible numbers, the subfield \mathbb{Q}(\gamma) generated by any given constructible number \gamma, and to use the algebraic construction of \gamma to decompose this field. If \gamma is a constructible real number, then the values occurring within a formula constructing it can be used to produce a finite sequence of real numbers \alpha_1,\dots, \alpha_n=\gamma such that, for each i, \mathbb{Q}(\alpha_1,\dots,\alpha_i) is an extension of \mathbb{Q}(\alpha_1,\dots,\alpha_{i-1}) of degree 2. Using slightly different terminology, a real number is constructible if and only if it lies in a field at the top of a finite tower of real quadratic extensions, \mathbb{Q} = K_0 \subseteq K_1 \subseteq \dots \subseteq K_n, starting with the rational field \mathbb{Q} where \gamma is in K_n and for all 0< j\le n, [K_j:K_{j-1}]=2. It follows from this decomposition that the degree of the field extension [\mathbb{Q}(\gamma):\mathbb{Q}] is 2^r, where r counts the number of quadratic extension steps. Analogously to the real case, a complex number is constructible if and only if it lies in a field at the top of a finite tower of complex quadratic extensions. More precisely, \gamma is constructible if and only if there exists a tower of fields \mathbb{Q} = F_0 \subseteq F_1 \subseteq \dots \subseteq F_n, where \gamma is in F_n, and for all 0, [F_j:F_{j-1}]= 2. The difference between this characterization and that of the real constructible numbers is only that the fields in this tower are not restricted to being real. Consequently, if a complex number a complex number \gamma is constructible, then the above characterization implies that [\mathbb{Q}(\gamma):\mathbb{Q}] is a power of two. However, this condition is not sufficient - there exist field extensions whose degree is a power of two, but which cannot be factored into a sequence of quadratic extensions. To obtain a sufficient condition for constructibility, one must instead consider the splitting field K=\mathbb{Q}(\gamma,\gamma',\gamma'',\dots) obtained by adjoining all roots of the minimal polynomial of \gamma. If the degree of extension is a power of two, then its Galois group G=\mathrm{Gal}(K/\mathbb{Q}) is a 2-group, and thus admits a descending sequence of subgroups G = G_n \supseteq G_{n-1} \supseteq \cdots \supseteq G_0 = 1, with \|G_k\| = 2^k for 0\leq k \leq n. By the fundamental theorem of Galois theory, there is a corresponding tower of quadratic extensions \mathbb{Q} = F_0 \subseteq F_1 \subseteq \dots \subseteq F_n = K, whose topmost field contains \gamma, and from this it follows that \gamma is constructible. The fields that can be generated from towers of quadratic extensions of \mathbb{Q} are called of \mathbb{Q}. The fields of real and complex constructible numbers are the unions of all real or complex iterated quadratic extensions of \mathbb{Q}. ==Trigonometric numbers== Trigonometric numbers are the cosines or sines of angles that are rational multiples of \pi. These numbers are always algebraic, but they may not be constructible. The cosine or sine of the angle 2\pi/n is constructible only for certain special numbers n: The powers of two The Fermat primes, prime numbers that are one plus a power of two The products of powers of two and any number of distinct Fermat primes. Thus, for example, \cos(\pi/15) is constructible because 15 is the product of the Fermat primes 3 and 5; but \cos(\pi/9) is not constructible (not being the product of Fermat primes) and neither is \cos(\pi/7) (being a non-Fermat prime). == Impossible constructions == The ancient Greeks thought that certain problems of straightedge and compass construction they could not solve were simply obstinate, not unsolvable. However, the non-constructibility of certain numbers proves that these constructions are logically impossible to perform. (The problems themselves, however, are solvable using methods that go beyond the constraint of working only with straightedge and compass, and the Greeks knew how to solve them in this way. One such example is Archimedes' Neusis construction solution of the problem of Angle trisection.) In particular, the algebraic formulation of constructible numbers leads to a proof of the impossibility of the following construction problems: Doubling the cube The problem of doubling the unit square is solved by the construction of another square on the diagonal of the first one, with side length \sqrt2 and area 2. Analogously, the problem of doubling the cube asks for the construction of the length \sqrt[3]{2} of the side of a cube with volume 2. It is not constructible, because the minimal polynomial of this length, x^3-2, has degree 3 over \Q. As a cubic polynomial whose only real root is irrational, this polynomial must be irreducible, because if it had a quadratic real root then the quadratic conjugate would provide a second real root. Angle trisection In this problem, from a given angle \theta, one should construct an angle \theta/3. Algebraically, angles can be represented by their trigonometric functions, such as their sines or cosines, which give the Cartesian coordinates of the endpoint of a line segment forming the given angle with the initial segment. Thus, an angle \theta is constructible when x=\cos\theta is a constructible number, and the problem of trisecting the angle can be formulated as one of constructing \cos(\tfrac{1}{3}\arccos x). For example, the angle \theta=\pi/3=60^\circ of an equilateral triangle can be constructed by compass and straightedge, with x=\cos\theta=\tfrac12. However, its trisection \theta/3=\pi/9=20^\circ cannot be constructed, because \cos\pi/9 has minimal polynomial 8x^3-6x-1 of degree 3 over \Q. Because this specific instance of the trisection problem cannot be solved by compass and straightedge, the general problem also cannot be solved. Squaring the circle A square with area \pi, the same area as a unit circle, would have side length \sqrt\pi, a transcendental number. Therefore, this square and its side length are not constructible, because it is not algebraic over \Q. Regular polygons If a regular n-gon is constructed with its center at the origin, the angles between the segments from the center to consecutive vertices are 2\pi/n. The polygon can be constructed only when the cosine of this angle is a trigonometric number. Thus, for instance, a 15-gon is constructible, but the regular heptagon is not constructible, because 7 is prime but not a Fermat prime. For a more direct proof of its non-constructibility, represent the vertices of a regular heptagon as the complex roots of the polynomial x^7-1. Removing the factor x-1, dividing by x^3, and substituting y=x+1/x gives the simpler polynomial y^3+y^2-2y-1, an irreducible cubic with three real roots, each two times the real part of a complex-number vertex. Its roots are not constructible, so the heptagon is also not constructible. Alhazen's problem If two points and a circular mirror are given, where on the circle does one of the given points see the reflected image of the other? Geometrically, the lines from each given point to the point of reflection meet the circle at equal angles and in equal-length chords. However, it is impossible to construct a point of reflection using a compass and straightedge. In particular, for a unit circle with the two points (\tfrac16,\tfrac16) and (-\tfrac12,\tfrac12) inside it, the solution has coordinates forming roots of an irreducible degree-four polynomial x^4-2x^3+4x^2+2x-1. Although its degree is a power of two, the splitting field of this polynomial has degree divisible by three, so it does not come from an iterated quadratic extension and Alhazen's problem has no compass and straightedge solution. ==History== The birth of the concept of constructible numbers is inextricably linked with the history of the three impossible compass and straightedge constructions: doubling the cube, trisecting an angle, and squaring the circle. The restriction of using only compass and straightedge in geometric constructions is often credited to Plato due to a passage in Plutarch. According to Plutarch, Plato gave the duplication of the cube (Delian) problem to Eudoxus and Archytas and Menaechmus, who solved the problem using mechanical means, earning a rebuke from Plato for not solving the problem using pure geometry. However, this attribution is challenged, due, in part, to the existence of another version of the story (attributed to Eratosthenes by Eutocius of Ascalon) that says that all three found solutions but they were too abstract to be of practical value. Proclus, citing Eudemus of Rhodes, credited Oenopides ( 450 BCE) with two ruler and compass constructions, leading some authors to hypothesize that Oenopides originated the restriction. The restriction to compass and straightedge is essential to the impossibility of the classic construction problems. Angle trisection, for instance, can be done in many ways, several known to the ancient Greeks. The Quadratrix of Hippias of Elis, the conics of Menaechmus, or the marked straightedge (neusis) construction of Archimedes have all been used, as has a more modern approach via paper folding. Although not one of the classic three construction problems, the problem of constructing regular polygons with straightedge and compass is often treated alongside them. The Greeks knew how to construct regular with n=2^h (for any integer h\ge 2), 3, 5, or the product of any two or three of these numbers, but other regular eluded them. In 1796 Carl Friedrich Gauss, then an eighteen-year-old student, announced in a newspaper that he had constructed a regular 17-gon with straightedge and compass. Gauss's treatment was algebraic rather than geometric; in fact, he did not actually construct the polygon, but rather showed that the cosine of a central angle was a constructible number. The argument was generalized in his 1801 book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae giving the condition for the construction of a regular Gauss claimed, but did not prove, that the condition was also necessary and several authors, notably Felix Klein, attributed this part of the proof to him as well. Alhazen's problem is also not one of the classic three problems, but despite being named after Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), a medieval Islamic mathematician, it already appears in Ptolemy's work on optics from the second century. Pierre Wantzel proved algebraically that the problems of doubling the cube and trisecting the angle are impossible to solve using only compass and straightedge. In the same paper he also solved the problem of determining which regular polygons are constructible: a regular polygon is constructible if and only if the number of its sides is the product of a power of two and any number of distinct Fermat primes (i.e., the sufficient conditions given by Gauss are also necessary). An attempted proof of the impossibility of squaring the circle was given by James Gregory in (The True Squaring of the Circle and of the Hyperbola) in 1667. Although his proof was faulty, it was the first paper to attempt to solve the problem using algebraic properties of . It was not until 1882 that Ferdinand von Lindemann rigorously proved its impossibility, by extending the work of Charles Hermite and proving that is a transcendental number. Alhazen's problem was not proved impossible to solve by compass and straightedge until the work of Jack Elkin. The study of constructible numbers, per se, was initiated by René Descartes in La Géométrie, an appendix to his book Discourse on the Method published in 1637. Descartes associated numbers to geometrical line segments in order to display the power of his philosophical method by solving an ancient straightedge and compass construction problem put forth by Pappus.	[ "Euclidean closure", "straightedge and compass construction", "Ptolemy", "closed-form expression", "abstract algebra", "Euclid's Elements", "Heptadecagon", "sine", "Proclus", "Ibn al-Haytham", "Felix Klein", "square root of 2", "Pappus of Alexandria", "quadratic extension", "Degree of a field extension", "ancient Greece", "La Géométrie", "minimal polynomial (field theory)", "Line-line intersection", "Computable number", "Disquisitiones Arithmeticae", "power of two", "Plato", "Quadratrix of Hippias", "if and only if", "Discourse on the Method", "trigonometric function", "Constructible polygon", "right triangle", "Pierre Wantzel", "Eudoxus of Cnidus", "Square root", "Euclidean field", "ancient Greek mathematics", "Trigonometric number", "Neusis construction", "Charles Hermite", "Archimedes", "Cut-the-knot", "Eudemus of Rhodes", "Doubling the cube", "fundamental theorem of Galois theory", "complex plane", "Mathematics in medieval Islam", "splitting field", "Cartesian coordinate system", "René Descartes", "complex number", "Carl Friedrich Gauss", "compass and straightedge constructions", "Ferdinand von Lindemann", "half-angle formula", "algebraic number", "heptagon", "conic section", "James Gregory (astronomer and mathematician)", "Alhazen's problem", "unit circle", "algebra", "Menaechmus", "Eutocius of Ascalon", "Optics (Ptolemy)", "intercept theorem", "Squaring the circle", "real number", "rational number", "Oenopides", "Angle trisection", "Conjugate (square roots)", "square roots", "Definable real number", "plane (geometry)", "geometric mean theorem", "Algebraic extension", "Plutarch", "Fermat prime", "integers", "square root", "Archytas", "cosine", "line segment", "transcendental number", "Hippias of Elis", "Eratosthenes", "pure geometry", "field extension", "geometry", "hypotenuse", "tower of fields", "P-group", "field (algebra)", "mathematics of paper folding" ]
7,441	Carson City, Nevada	Carson City, officially the Consolidated Municipality of Carson City, is an independent city and the capital of the U.S. state of Nevada. As of the 2020 census, the population was 58,639, making it the 6th most populous city in the state. The majority of the city's population lives in Eagle Valley, on the eastern edge of the Carson Range, a branch of the Sierra Nevada, about south of Reno. The city is named after the mountain man Kit Carson (1809-1868). The town began as a stopover for California-bound immigrants, but developed into a city with the Comstock Lode, a silver strike in the mountains to the northeast. The city has served as Nevada's capital since statehood in 1864; for much of its history it was a hub for the Virginia and Truckee Railroad, although the tracks were removed in 1950. Before 1969, Carson City was the county seat of Ormsby County. That year, after a referendum approved merging the city and the county, the state legislature issued a revised city charter that merged them into the Consolidated Municipality of Carson City. With the consolidation, the city limits extend west across the Sierra Nevada to the California-Nevada state line in the middle of Lake Tahoe. Like other independent cities in the United States, it is treated as a county-equivalent for census purposes. ==History== The Washoe people have inhabited the valley and surrounding areas for about 6,000 years. The first European Americans to arrive in what is now known as Eagle Valley were John C. Frémont and his exploration party in January 1843. Fremont named the river flowing through the valley Carson River in honor of Kit Carson,(1809-1868), the mountain man, explorer and scout he had hired for his expedition. Later, settlers named the area Washoe, in reference to the indigenous people. By 1851, the Eagle Station ranch along the Carson River was a trading post and stop-over for westbound travelers and wagons on the California Trail's Carson Branch, which ran through Eagle Valley. The valley and trading post received their name from a bald eagle that was hunted and killed by one of the early settlers and was featured pinned on a wall inside the post. As the area was part of the larger Utah Territory (1850-1896), it was governed from the territorial (and later state) capital of Salt Lake City on the eastern shore of the Great Salt Lake, where the territorial government was headquartered there several hundred miles further east with Mormon (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) patriarch of Brigham Young (1801-1877), as first Governor of Utah. Early settlers bristled at the control by Mormon-influenced officials and desired the creation of the provisional Nevada Territory with Isaac Roop (1822-1869, served 1859-1861), as provisional Governor. A vigilante group of influential settlers, headed by Abraham Curry (1815-1873), sought a site for a capital city for the envisioned future separate territory. In 1858, Abraham Curry bought Eagle Station and the settlement was thereafter renamed Carson City. Curry and several other partners had Eagle Valley surveyed for development. Curry decided Carson City would someday serve as the capital city and left a plot in the center of town for a capitol building. After gold and silver ore were discovered in 1859 on the nearby newly-named Comstock Lode, Carson City's population began to grow. Curry built the Warm Springs Hotel a mile to the east of the town center. When new territorial governor James W. Nye (1815-1876, served 1861-1864), traveled east to Nevada, he chose Carson City as the territorial capital instead of earlier Genoa, which had functioned temporarily as such for the past few years. Influenced by Carson City lawyer William M. Stewart (1827-1909), who escorted him from the port of San Francisco, California where he arrived onboard a passenger steamboat liner, then journeying uphill past Sacramento to Nevada. As such, Carson City bested Virginia City and American Flat. Curry loaned the Warm Springs Hotel to the territorial Legislature as a temporary meeting hall. The Legislature named Carson City to be the county seat of Ormsby County and also selected the hotel as the territorial prison, with Curry serving as its first warden. Today, the property is still part of the state prison. When Nevada became the 36th state in 1864 during the American Civil War (1861-1865), Carson City was confirmed as Nevada's permanent state capital. Carson City's development was no longer dependent on the mining industry and instead became a thriving commercial center. The Virginia and Truckee Railroad was built between Virginia City and Carson City. A log flume was also built from the Sierra Nevada mountains range into Carson City. The current Nevada State Capitol building was constructed from 1869 to 1871. The United States Mint also operated its branch of the Carson City Mint between the years of 1870 and 1893, which struck gold and silver coins of United States currency. People came from China during that time, many to work on the transcontinental railroad being constructed. Some of them owned businesses and taught school. By 1880, almost a thousand Chinese people, "one for every five Caucasians", lived in Carson City. Carson City's population and transportation traffic decreased when the Central Pacific Railroad built a branch line through Donner Pass to connect with the Carson and Colorado Railroad. The new branch also bypassed the Virginia & Truckee line, and ran too far to the north to benefit Carson City. The city was slightly revitalized with the mining booms in nearby Tonopah and Goldfield. The United States federal building (now renamed the Paul Laxalt Building) was completed in 1890 as was the Stewart Indian School. Even these developments could not prevent its population from dropping to just over 1,500 people by 1930. Carson City resigned itself to small city status, advertising itself as "America's smallest capital". The city slowly grew after World War II (1939/1941-1945); by 1960, it had reached its former 1880 mining boom-town era population size of 80 years before. ===20th-century revitalization and growth=== In 1931, gambling was legalized in Nevada which increased tourism to Carson City. As early as the late 1940s, discussions began about merging Ormsby County and Carson City. By this time, the county was little more than Carson City and a few hamlets to the west. By the 1960 census, all but 2,900 of the county's residents lived in Carson City. However, the effort did not pay off until 1966, when a statewide referendum approved the merger. The required constitutional amendment was passed in 1968. On April 1, 1969, Ormsby County and Carson City officially merged as the Consolidated Municipality of Carson City. In 1991, the city adopted a downtown master plan, specifying no building within of the capitol would surpass it in height. This plan effectively prohibited future high-rise development in the center of downtown. The Ormsby House is the tallest building in downtown Carson City, at a height of . The structure was completed in 1972. ==Geography== Most of the city proper resides in the Eagle Valley. The Carson River flows from Douglas County through the southwestern edge of both the valley and Carson City. Since the consolidation, the city limits today include several small populated areas outside of this valley. Today the city limits include several peaks in the Sierra Nevada, small portions of both the Virginia Range and the Pine Nut Mountains and portions of Marlette Lake and Lake Tahoe. The highest elevation in city limits is Snow Valley Peak at an elevation of . Carson City is one of two state capitals that border another state, the other being Trenton, New Jersey. ===Climate=== Carson City features a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSk, Trewartha: BSak) with cold winters and hot summers. The city is in a high desert river valley approximately above sea level. There are four fairly distinct seasons. Winters see typically light to moderate snowfall, with an average of , with the most snowfall being from July 1951 to June 1952 and the least from July 2002 to June 2003. Most precipitation occurs in winter and spring, with summer and fall being fairly dry, drier than neighboring California. The wettest “rain year” was from July 1937 to June 1938 with and the driest from July 1971 to June 1972 with . The most precipitation in one month occurred in December 1955 when fell and the most snowfall in March 1952. The most precipitation in one day has been on November 19 of 1950. There are 39.5 afternoons of + highs annually, with + temperatures occurring 1.2 afternoons per year. ===Places of interest=== ====Museums==== Nevada State Capitol – original capitol still housing the governor's offices with museum exhibits Nevada State Museum – former branch of the United States Mint featuring rock, mining and prehistoric exhibits, and a recreated Wild West village Nevada State Railroad Museum – featuring the Inyo locomotive and relocated Wabuska Railroad Station Stewart Indian School – museum collection includes items from former faculty, students and school Foreman-Roberts House Museum – Gothic Revival architecture, tours available. Sears–Ferris House (not open to public) – home of George Washington Gale Ferris Jr., inventor of the Ferris wheel Yesterday's Flyers, an aviation museum in Carson City. Children's Museum of Northern Nevada – Carson City ====Open land==== Silver Saddle Ranch Mexican Dam – 1860s stone dam across the Carson River Prison Hill – California Trail historic markers, location of the Stewart "S" Carson Aquatic Trail Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest (Carson Ranger District) Kings Canyon Falls Snow Valley Peak – – highest point within Carson City Tahoe Rim Trail Lake Tahoe–Nevada State Park Lake Tahoe beachfront (several beaches along Lake Tahoe lie within the city limits) Chimney Beach Secret Harbor Whale Beach Skunk Harbor Washoe Lake State Park – borders city to the north "C Hill" – hill featuring the Carson City "C" and giant American Flag ==Demographics== Carson City is the smallest of the United States' 366 metropolitan statistical areas. As of the 2010 census, there were 55,274 people, 20,171 households, and 13,252 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 21,283 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 81.1% White, 1.9% Black or African American, 2.4% Native American, 2.1% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 9.4% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. 21% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. As of the 2000 census, there were 20,171 households, out of which 29.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.0% were married couples living together, 11.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.3% were non-families. 27.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.97. The city's age distribution was: 23.4% under the age of 18, 7.9% from 18 to 24, 28.9% from 25 to 44, 24.9% from 45 to 64, and 14.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108.2 males. Data from the 2000 census indicates the median income for a household in the city was $41,809, and the median income for a family was $49,570. Males had a median income of $35,296 versus $27,418 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,943. 10.0% of the population and 6.9% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 13.7% of those under the age of 18 and 5.8% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. ===Languages=== As of 2010, 82.3% (42,697) of Carson City residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a first language, while 14.1% (7,325) spoke Spanish, 0.6% (318) French, and numerous Indo-Aryan languages were spoken as a main language by 0.5% (261) of the population over the age of five. In total, 17.7% (9,174) of Carson City's population age 5 and older spoke a first language other than English. ==Government and politics== Ormsby County consolidated with Carson City in 1969, and the county simultaneously dissolved. The city is now governed by a five-member board of supervisors, consisting of a mayor and four supervisors. Carson City, being the state capital, has seen many political protests and demonstrations. In an attempt to either make a proposed spent nuclear fuel storage facility at Yucca Mountain prohibitively expensive (by raising property tax rates to the maximum allowed) or to allow the state to collect the potential federal payments of property taxes on the facility, the state government in 1987 carved Yucca Mountain out of Nye County and created a new county with no residents out of the area surrounding Yucca called Bullfrog County. Carson City became the county seat of Bullfrog County, even though it was not in Bullfrog County and is more than from Yucca Mountain. A state judge found the process unconstitutional in 1989, and Bullfrog County's territory was retroceded to Nye County. ==Culture== ===Sports and recreation=== Carson City has never hosted any professional team sports. However, a variety of sports are offered at parks and recreation. Many neighborhood parks offer a wide variety of features including picnic tables, beaches, restrooms, fishing, softball, basketball hoops, ponds, tennis, and volleyball. The largest park is Mills Park, which has a total land area of and includes the narrow-gauge Carson & Mills Park Railroad. While there are no ski slopes within Carson City, the city is near the Heavenly Mountain Resort, Diamond Peak and Mount Rose Ski Tahoe skiing areas. Carson City houses the 2024 #1 rated disc golf course in Nevada, Stadium Course At Carson Ridge. ==Notable people== Carson City has served as one of the state's centers for politics and business. Every state governor since Denver S. Dickerson has resided in the Governor's Mansion in Carson City. The following personalities took up residence in Carson City at some point in their lives. Mackena Bell, racing driver Duane Leroy Bliss, timber businessman Orion Clemens, Secretary of Nevada Territory Steven S. Coughlin, American epidemiologist and author John Cradlebaugh, first Delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives from Nevada Territory Abraham Curry, founding father of Carson City and early politician Dat So La Lee, Native American basket weaver and artist Nellie Verrill Mighels Davis, journalist David Eddings, best selling author of fantasy novels George Washington Gale Ferris Jr., inventor of the Ferris wheel Ellen Hopkins, author Paul Laxalt, former Governor and U.S. Senator Greg LeMond, two time World Champion road racing cyclist, and three-time winner of the Tour de France Alice Little, Irish-American sex-worker and advocate David Lundquist, Major League baseball player (Chicago White Sox) Maurice E. McLoughlin, two-time U.S. Open champion, member of International Tennis Hall of Fame Henry Rust Mighels, journalist, politician, first husband of Nellie Verrill Mighels Davis Hank Monk, stagecoach driver William Ormsby, soldier and namesake of Ormsby County and Ormsby House Donovan Osborne, Major League baseball player (St. Louis Cardinals) Darrell Rasner, Major League baseball player (New York Yankees) Don Tatro, member of the Nevada Senate Mark Twain, author (lived with his brother Orion Clemens) Matt Williams, Major League third baseman (San Francisco Giants, Cleveland Indians, and Arizona Diamondbacks) Sarah Winnemucca, Native American activist and author ==Economy and infrastructure== The following is a list of notable employers in Carson City from the fourth quarter of 2012: 1,000–1,499 employees Carson City School District 500–999 employees Nevada Department of Transportation Western Nevada College 200–499 employees Nevada Department of Corrections Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles Casino Fandango Walmart Precision Castparts Corp. Gold Dust West Hotel and Casino Carson Nugget Costco Wholesale Corporation Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources 100–199 employees Nevada Department of Health and Human Services, Division of Welfare and Supportive Services ===Transportation=== There are four highways in the city: Nevada State Route 28, U.S. Route 395, U.S. Route 50, and Interstate 580, its only freeway. Phase 1 of the Carson City Freeway Project from US 395, just north of the city, to US 50 was completed in February 2006, and Phase 2A, extending from Rt. 50 to Fairview Drive, was officially opened on September 24, 2009. Phase 2B, Fairview Drive to Rt. 50, was completed in August 2017. Prior to 2012, Carson City was one of the only five state capitals not directly served by an interstate highway until I-580 was extended into the city limits. Carson City's first modern bus system, Jump Around Carson, or JAC, opened to the public in October 2005. JAC uses a smaller urban bus ideal for Carson City. Tahoe Transportation District connects Gardnerville with Carson City. However, there is virtually no ground public transportation to other destinations. Passenger trains have not served Carson City since 1950, when the Virginia and Truckee Railroad was shut down. Greyhound Lines stopped their bus services to the town in 2006 and Amtrak discontinued their connecting thruway bus to Sacramento, California, in 2008. There is now only a limited Monday – Friday RTC bus service, to Reno which is still served by both Greyhound and Amtrak, as well as Eastern Sierra Transit Authority service from Lone Pine to Reno. Carson City is also served by the Carson Airport, which is a regional airport in the northern part of the city. Reno–Tahoe International Airport, which is away, handles domestic commercial flights. ==Education== The Carson City School District, the sole public school district of the city, operates ten schools there. The six elementary schools are Bordewich-Bray Elementary School, Empire Elementary School, Fremont Elementary School, Fritsch Elementary School, Mark Twain Elementary School, and Al Seeliger Elementary School. The two middle schools are Carson Middle School and Eagle Valley Middle School. Carson High School and the alternative Pioneer High School serve high school students. Carson High is on Saliman Road. The district sponsors Carson Montessori School, a public charter school serving grades K-6. Students residing in any Nevada county may enroll. Carson Montessori School is the only school in district operating with a balanced budget. In 2019 Carson Montessori School received the Governor's STEM Schools Designation, an official recognition given to 25 schools statewide which causes a short ceremony attended by the governor during which receiving schools are assigned a 10-foot banner. Western Nevada College (WNC) is a regionally accredited, two-year and four-year institution which is part of the Nevada System of Higher Education. The college offers many programs including education, arts and science. Carson City has a public library, the Carson City Library. ==Historic buildings== Image:StCharlesHotel Carson City.jpg\| Image:Laxalt Building, 2007.jpg\| Image:Nevada Govenors Mansion.JPG\| File:Paul Laxalt State Building.jpg\|Paul Laxalt State Building – formerly the U.S. Court House & Post Office, now home to the Nevada Commission on Tourism	[ "Governor of Utah", "at-large", "Jump Around Carson", "The Oregonian", "French language", "Nevada Department of Corrections", "state capital", "Marlette Lake", "David Lundquist", "Barack Obama", "Brigham Young", "Köppen climate classification", "Amtrak", "Reno–Tahoe International Airport", "Lone Pine, California", "Orion Clemens", "Western Nevada College", "Gold Dust West Hotel and Casino", "Snow Valley Peak", "Carson High School (Carson City, Nevada)", "William Ormsby", "Reno, Nevada", "Virginia and Truckee 22 Inyo", "county seat", "county-equivalent", "George W. Bush", "U.S. Route 50", "Sacramento, California", "Ormsby County, Nevada", "Geographic Names Information System", "public library", "Nevada Department of Health and Human Services", "Pacific Time Zone", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Whale Beach (Nevada)", "Los Angeles Times", "Carson City Mint", "first language", "Great Salt Lake", "Gardnerville, Nevada", "Ormsby House", "Isaac Roop", "Henry Rust Mighels", "Steven S. Coughlin", "bald eagle", "ZIP code", "John Cradlebaugh", "California Trail", "Hispanic and Latino Americans", "Washoe people", "Nevada State Museum, Carson City", "Carson Range", "indigenous peoples of the Americas", "U.S. state", "Regional Transportation Commission of Washoe County", "Casino Fandango", "Nevada Governor's Mansion", "Virginia City, Nevada", "narrow-gauge railway", "U.S. Route 395", "Nevada Senate", "David Eddings", "Mount Rose Ski Tahoe", "Simon & Schuster", "Carson City School District", "Modern Language Association", "metropolitan statistical area", "Carson Airport", "Hispanic", "List of cities in Nevada", "2020 United States census", "Carson City", "Central Pacific Railroad", "Arcadia Publishing", "Utah Territory", "Sierra Nevada", "Nye County, Nevada", "Area code 775", "List of governors of Nevada", "John McCain", "mountain man", "Mormon", "European American", "International Tennis Hall of Fame", "Sarah Winnemucca", "Donovan Osborne", "gambling", "Don Tatro", "Nellie Verrill Mighels Davis", "Tonopah, Nevada", "Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest", "Lake Tahoe–Nevada State Park", "San Francisco, California", "Greyhound Lines", "Comstock Lode", "List of sovereign states", "John C. Frémont", "Paul Laxalt", "Ellen Hopkins", "Indo-Aryan languages", "Hank Monk", "Matt Williams (third baseman)", "Nevada State Capitol", "Nevada Department of Transportation", "Denver S. Dickerson", "Genoa, Nevada", "Sears–Ferris House", "California", "Spanish language", "Carson Nugget", "Heavenly Mountain Resort", "Interstate 580 (Nevada)", "log flume", "St. Charles-Muller's Hotel", "China", "Empire City, Nevada", "Carson Ranger District", "U.S. Route 50 in Nevada", "Goldfield, Nevada", "Yucca Mountain", "transcontinental railroad", "silver", "state legislature", "Tahoe Rim Trail", "Washoe Lake State Park", "Lake Tahoe", "James W. Nye", "Chimney Beach", "George Washington Gale Ferris Jr.", "World War II", "Nevada", "English language", "Darrell Rasner", "Nevada State Railroad Museum", "Mark Twain", "Associated Press", "Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources", "U.S. Census Bureau", "gold", "Carson River", "Pine Nut Mountains", "List of capitals in the United States", "Ferris wheel", "Diamond Peak (ski area)", "Mackena Bell", "Wild West", "Douglas County, Nevada", "Eastern Sierra Transit Authority", "Bullfrog County, Nevada", "Quartz (publication)", "Maurice E. McLoughlin", "Walmart", "Independent city (United States)", "Donner Pass", "Nevada State Route 28", "Alice Little", "Asian Americans", "Carson and Colorado Railroad", "Trenton, New Jersey", "disc golf", "cold semi-arid climate", "African Americans", "Trewartha climate classification", "Kit Carson", "Nevada Territory", "Virginia and Truckee Railroad", "William M. Stewart", "Carson Hot Springs", "Stewart Indian School", "Nevada System of Higher Education", "American Civil War", "Costco Wholesale Corporation", "Virginia Range", "Greg LeMond", "Eagle Valley (Nevada)", "Salt Lake City", "John Kerry", "Ormsby County", "Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles", "United States currency", "C-SPAN", "Abraham Curry", "Sacramento", "Precision Castparts Corp.", "Dat So La Lee", "Tahoe Transportation District", "United States Mint", "consolidated city-county", "Duane Leroy Bliss" ]
7,445	Classification of finite simple groups	In mathematics, the classification of finite simple groups (popularly called the enormous theorem) is a result of group theory stating that every finite simple group is either cyclic, or alternating, or belongs to a broad infinite class called the groups of Lie type, or else it is one of twenty-six exceptions, called sporadic (the Tits group is sometimes regarded as a sporadic group because it is not strictly a group of Lie type, in which case there would be 27 sporadic groups). The proof consists of tens of thousands of pages in several hundred journal articles written by about 100 authors, published mostly between 1955 and 2004. Simple groups can be seen as the basic building blocks of all finite groups, reminiscent of the way the prime numbers are the basic building blocks of the natural numbers. The Jordan–Hölder theorem is a more precise way of stating this fact about finite groups. However, a significant difference from integer factorization is that such "building blocks" do not necessarily determine a unique group, since there might be many non-isomorphic groups with the same composition series or, put in another way, the extension problem does not have a unique solution. Daniel Gorenstein (1923–1992), Richard Lyons, and Ronald Solomon are gradually publishing a simplified and revised version of the proof. ==Statement of the classification theorem== The classification theorem has applications in many branches of mathematics, as questions about the structure of finite groups (and their action on other mathematical objects) can sometimes be reduced to questions about finite simple groups. Thanks to the classification theorem, such questions can sometimes be answered by checking each family of simple groups and each sporadic group. Daniel Gorenstein announced in 1983 that the finite simple groups had all been classified, but this was premature as he had been misinformed about the proof of the classification of quasithin groups. The completed proof of the classification was announced by after Aschbacher and Smith published a 1221-page proof for the missing quasithin case. ==Overview of the proof of the classification theorem== wrote two volumes outlining the low rank and odd characteristic part of the proof, and wrote a 3rd volume covering the remaining characteristic 2 case. The proof can be broken up into several major pieces as follows: ===Groups of small 2-rank=== The simple groups of low 2-rank are mostly groups of Lie type of small rank over fields of odd characteristic, together with five alternating and seven characteristic 2 type and nine sporadic groups. The simple groups of small 2-rank include: Groups of 2-rank 0, in other words groups of odd order, which are all solvable by the Feit–Thompson theorem. Groups of 2-rank 1. The Sylow 2-subgroups are either cyclic, which is easy to handle using the transfer map, or generalized quaternion, which are handled with the Brauer–Suzuki theorem: in particular there are no simple groups of 2-rank 1 except for the cyclic group of order two. Groups of 2-rank 2. Alperin showed that the Sylow subgroup must be dihedral, quasidihedral, wreathed, or a Sylow 2-subgroup of U3(4). The first case was done by the Gorenstein–Walter theorem which showed that the only simple groups are isomorphic to L2(q) for q odd or A7, the second and third cases were done by the Alperin–Brauer–Gorenstein theorem which implies that the only simple groups are isomorphic to L3(q) or U3(q) for q odd or M11, and the last case was done by Lyons who showed that U3(4) is the only simple possibility. Groups of sectional 2-rank at most 4, classified by the Gorenstein–Harada theorem. The classification of groups of small 2-rank, especially ranks at most 2, makes heavy use of ordinary and modular character theory, which is almost never directly used elsewhere in the classification. All groups not of small 2 rank can be split into two major classes: groups of component type and groups of characteristic 2 type. This is because if a group has sectional 2-rank at least 5 then MacWilliams showed that its Sylow 2-subgroups are connected, and the balance theorem implies that any simple group with connected Sylow 2-subgroups is either of component type or characteristic 2 type. (For groups of low 2-rank the proof of this breaks down, because theorems such as the signalizer functor theorem only work for groups with elementary abelian subgroups of rank at least 3.) ===Groups of component type=== A group is said to be of component type if for some centralizer C of an involution, C/O(C) has a component (where O(C) is the core of C, the maximal normal subgroup of odd order). These are more or less the groups of Lie type of odd characteristic of large rank, and alternating groups, together with some sporadic groups. A major step in this case is to eliminate the obstruction of the core of an involution. This is accomplished by the B-theorem, which states that every component of C/O(C) is the image of a component of C. The idea is that these groups have a centralizer of an involution with a component that is a smaller quasisimple group, which can be assumed to be already known by induction. So to classify these groups one takes every central extension of every known finite simple group, and finds all simple groups with a centralizer of involution with this as a component. This gives a rather large number of different cases to check: there are not only 26 sporadic groups and 16 families of groups of Lie type and the alternating groups, but also many of the groups of small rank or over small fields behave differently from the general case and have to be treated separately, and the groups of Lie type of even and odd characteristic are also quite different. ===Groups of characteristic 2 type=== A group is of characteristic 2 type if the generalized Fitting subgroup F*(Y) of every 2-local subgroup Y is a 2-group. As the name suggests these are roughly the groups of Lie type over fields of characteristic 2, plus a handful of others that are alternating or sporadic or of odd characteristic. Their classification is divided into the small and large rank cases, where the rank is the largest rank of an odd abelian subgroup normalizing a nontrivial 2-subgroup, which is often (but not always) the same as the rank of a Cartan subalgebra when the group is a group of Lie type in characteristic 2. The rank 1 groups are the thin groups, classified by Aschbacher, and the rank 2 ones are the notorious quasithin groups, classified by Aschbacher and Smith. These correspond roughly to groups of Lie type of ranks 1 or 2 over fields of characteristic 2. Groups of rank at least 3 are further subdivided into 3 classes by the trichotomy theorem, proved by Aschbacher for rank 3 and by Gorenstein and Lyons for rank at least 4. The three classes are groups of GF(2) type (classified mainly by Timmesfeld), groups of "standard type" for some odd prime (classified by the Gilman–Griess theorem and work by several others), and groups of uniqueness type, where a result of Aschbacher implies that there are no simple groups. The general higher rank case consists mostly of the groups of Lie type over fields of characteristic 2 of rank at least 3 or 4. ===Existence and uniqueness of the simple groups=== The main part of the classification produces a characterization of each simple group. It is then necessary to check that there exists a simple group for each characterization and that it is unique. This gives a large number of separate problems; for example, the original proofs of existence and uniqueness of the monster group totaled about 200 pages, and the identification of the Ree groups by Thompson and Bombieri was one of the hardest parts of the classification. Many of the existence proofs and some of the uniqueness proofs for the sporadic groups originally used computer calculations, most of which have since been replaced by shorter hand proofs. ==History of the proof== ===Gorenstein's program=== In 1972 announced a program for completing the classification of finite simple groups, consisting of the following 16 steps: Groups of low 2-rank. This was essentially done by Gorenstein and Harada, who classified the groups with sectional 2-rank at most 4. Most of the cases of 2-rank at most 2 had been done by the time Gorenstein announced his program. The semisimplicity of 2-layers. The problem is to prove that the 2-layer of the centralizer of an involution in a simple group is semisimple. Standard form in odd characteristic. If a group has an involution with a 2-component that is a group of Lie type of odd characteristic, the goal is to show that it has a centralizer of involution in "standard form" meaning that a centralizer of involution has a component that is of Lie type in odd characteristic and also has a centralizer of 2-rank 1. Classification of groups of odd type. The problem is to show that if a group has a centralizer of involution in "standard form" then it is a group of Lie type of odd characteristic. This was solved by Aschbacher's classical involution theorem. Quasi-standard form Central involutions Classification of alternating groups. Some sporadic groups Thin groups. The simple thin finite groups, those with 2-local p-rank at most 1 for odd primes p, were classified by Aschbacher in 1978 Groups with a strongly p-embedded subgroup for p odd The signalizer functor method for odd primes. The main problem is to prove a signalizer functor theorem for nonsolvable signalizer functors. This was solved by McBride in 1982. Groups of characteristic p type. This is the problem of groups with a strongly p-embedded 2-local subgroup with p odd, which was handled by Aschbacher. Quasithin groups. A quasithin group is one whose 2-local subgroups have p-rank at most 2 for all odd primes p, and the problem is to classify the simple ones of characteristic 2 type. This was completed by Aschbacher and Smith in 2004. Groups of low 2-local 3-rank. This was essentially solved by Aschbacher's trichotomy theorem for groups with e(G)=3. The main change is that 2-local 3-rank is replaced by 2-local p-rank for odd primes. Centralizers of 3-elements in standard form. This was essentially done by the Trichotomy theorem. Classification of simple groups of characteristic 2 type. This was handled by the Gilman–Griess theorem, with 3-elements replaced by p-elements for odd primes. ===Timeline of the proof=== Many of the items in the table below are taken from . The date given is usually the publication date of the complete proof of a result, which is sometimes several years later than the proof or first announcement of the result, so some of the items appear in the "wrong" order. ==Second-generation classification== The proof of the theorem, as it stood around 1985 or so, can be called first generation. Because of the extreme length of the first generation proof, much effort has been devoted to finding a simpler proof, called a second-generation classification proof. This effort, called "revisionism", was originally led by Daniel Gorenstein. , ten volumes of the second generation proof have been published (Gorenstein, Lyons & Solomon 1994, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2005, 2018a, 2018b; & Capdeboscq, 2021, 2023). In 2012 Solomon estimated that the project would need another 5 volumes, but said that progress on them was slow. It is estimated that the new proof will eventually fill approximately 5,000 pages. (This length stems in part from the second generation proof being written in a more relaxed style.) However, with the publication of volume 9 of the GLS series, and including the Aschbacher–Smith contribution, this estimate was already reached, with several more volumes still in preparation (the rest of what was originally intended for volume 9, plus projected volumes 10 and 11). Aschbacher and Smith wrote their two volumes devoted to the quasithin case in such a way that those volumes can be part of the second generation proof. Gorenstein and his collaborators have given several reasons why a simpler proof is possible. The most important thing is that the correct, final statement of the theorem is now known. Simpler techniques can be applied that are known to be adequate for the types of groups we know to be finite simple. In contrast, those who worked on the first generation proof did not know how many sporadic groups there were, and in fact some of the sporadic groups (e.g., the Janko groups) were discovered while proving other cases of the classification theorem. As a result, many of the pieces of the theorem were proved using techniques that were overly general. Because the conclusion was unknown, the first generation proof consists of many stand-alone theorems, dealing with important special cases. Much of the work of proving these theorems was devoted to the analysis of numerous special cases. Given a larger, orchestrated proof, dealing with many of these special cases can be postponed until the most powerful assumptions can be applied. The price paid under this revised strategy is that these first generation theorems no longer have comparatively short proofs, but instead rely on the complete classification. Many first generation theorems overlap, and so divide the possible cases in inefficient ways. As a result, families and subfamilies of finite simple groups were identified multiple times. The revised proof eliminates these redundancies by relying on a different subdivision of cases. Finite group theorists have more experience at this sort of exercise, and have new techniques at their disposal. has called the work on the classification problem by Ulrich Meierfrankenfeld, Bernd Stellmacher, Gernot Stroth, and a few others, a third generation program. One goal of this is to treat all groups in characteristic 2 uniformly using the amalgam method. ===Length of proof=== Gorenstein has discussed some of the reasons why there might not be a short proof of the classification similar to the classification of compact Lie groups. The most obvious reason is that the list of simple groups is quite complicated: with 26 sporadic groups there are likely to be many special cases that have to be considered in any proof. So far no one has yet found a clean uniform description of the finite simple groups similar to the parameterization of the compact Lie groups by Dynkin diagrams. Atiyah and others have suggested that the classification ought to be simplified by constructing some geometric object that the groups act on and then classifying these geometric structures. The problem is that no one has been able to suggest an easy way to find such a geometric structure associated with a simple group. In some sense, the classification does work by finding geometric structures such as BN-pairs, but this only comes at the end of a very long and difficult analysis of the structure of a finite simple group. Another suggestion for simplifying the proof is to make greater use of representation theory. The problem here is that representation theory seems to require very tight control over the subgroups of a group in order to work well. For groups of small rank, one has such control and representation theory works very well, but for groups of larger rank no-one has succeeded in using it to simplify the classification. In the early days of the classification, there was a considerable effort made to use representation theory, but this never achieved much success in the higher rank case. ==Consequences of the classification== This section lists some results that have been proved using the classification of finite simple groups. The Schreier conjecture The Signalizer functor theorem The B conjecture The Schur–Zassenhaus theorem for all groups (though this only uses the Feit–Thompson theorem). A transitive permutation group on a finite set with more than 1 element has a fixed-point-free element of prime power order. The classification of 2-transitive permutation groups. The classification of rank 3 permutation groups. The Sims conjecture Frobenius's conjecture on the number of solutions of .	[ "trichotomy theorem", "Z* theorem", "Bull. London Math. Soc.", "American Mathematical Society", "groups of Lie type", "integer factorization", "Schreier conjecture", "Sims conjecture", "alternating groups", "Suzuki groups", "cyclic group", "Janko group J2", "ZJ theorem", "strongly embedded subgroup", "component theorem", "Atlas of Finite Groups", "Projective linear group", "Brauer–Fowler theorem", "Alperin–Brauer–Gorenstein theorem", "commutator subgroup", "Feit–Thompson theorem", "Mathieu group", "mathematics", "O'Nan group", "Gilman–Griess theorem", "signalizer functor theorem", "Group representation", "Graduate Texts in Mathematics", "Solvable group", "Suzuki sporadic group", "Walter's theorem", "Schur–Zassenhaus theorem", "Hall–Higman theorem", "Richard Lyons (mathematician)", "John Horton Conway", "minimal polynomial (linear algebra)", "representation theory", "Academic Press", "Frobenius's theorem (group theory)", "Scientific American", "Signalizer functor theorem", "Brauer–Suzuki theorem", "CN group", "2-generated core", "quadratic pair", "balance theorem", "thin finite groups", "O'Nan–Scott theorem", "Notices of the American Mathematical Society", "BN pair", "rank of a group", "Fitting subgroup", "Janko group J3", "sporadic groups", "B-theorem", "isomorphic", "odd order theorem", "thin finite group", "Trichotomy theorem", "quasithin group", "modular character", "Chevalley groups", "Harada–Norton group", "Dynkin diagram", "Janko group J4", "simple group", "L-balance theorem", "Burnside's theorem", "Marcus du Sautoy", "Brauer–Suzuki–Wall theorem", "Tits group", "group of Lie type", "Held group", "Jordan–Hölder theorem", "monster group", "Sylow theorem", "McLaughlin group (mathematics)", "Lyons group", "List of finite simple groups", "Ree group", "rank 3 permutation group", "Springer-Verlag", "uniqueness case", "p-solvable group", "Frobenius group", "Fischer groups", "baby monster group", "Ree groups", "group theory", "CA group", "Gorenstein–Harada theorem", "finite group", "Mathieu group M22", "quaternion", "B conjecture", "Gorenstein–Walter theorem", "N-group (finite group theory)", "Daniel Gorenstein", "generalized Fitting subgroup", "group extension", "Ronald Solomon", "prime number", "proof assistant", "Rudvalis group", "Thompson sporadic group", "multiple transitivity", "Coq (software)", "MathOverflow", "Mark Ronan", "Group of Lie type", "Conway groups", "classical involution theorem", "BN-pair", "compact Lie group", "Hall subgroup", "Higman–Sims group", "natural number", "composition series", "groups of GF(2)-type", "signalizer functor", "Janko group J1", "Janko group" ]
7,446	Chalcolithic	The Chalcolithic ( ) (also called the Copper Age and Eneolithic) was an archaeological period characterized by the increasing use of smelted copper. It followed the Neolithic and preceded the Bronze Age. It occurred at different periods in different areas, but was absent in some parts of the world, such as Russia, where there was no well-defined Copper Age between the Stone and Bronze Ages. Stone tools were still predominantly used during this period. The Chalcolithic covers both the early cold working (hammering) of near pure copper ores, as exhibited by the likes of North American Great Lakes Old Copper complex, from around 6,500 BC, through the later copper smelting cultures. The archaeological site of Belovode, on Rudnik mountain in Serbia, has the world's oldest securely dated evidence of copper smelting at high temperature, from . The transition from Copper Age to Bronze Age in Europe occurred between the late 5th and the late In the Ancient Near East the Copper Age covered about the same period, beginning in the late and lasting for about a millennium before it gave rise to the Early Bronze Age. A study in the journal Antiquity from 2013 reporting the discovery of a tin bronze foil from the Pločnik archaeological site dated to , as well as 14 other artefacts from Bulgaria and Serbia dated to before 4,000 BC, showed that early tin bronze was more common than previously thought and developed independently in Europe 1,500 years before the first tin bronze alloys in the Near East. The concept of the Copper Age was put forward by Hungarian scientist Ferenc Pulszky in the 1870s, when, on the basis of the significant number of large copper objects unearthed within the Carpathian Basin, he suggested that the previous threefold division of the Prehistoric Age – the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages – should be further divided with the introduction of the Copper Age. In 1881, John Evans recognized that use of copper often preceded the use of bronze, and distinguished between a transitional Copper Age and the Bronze Age proper. He did not include the transitional period in the Bronze Age, but described it separately from the customary stone / bronze / iron system, at the Bronze Age's beginning. He did not, however, present it as a fourth age but chose to retain the tripartite system. }} to mean Evans's original definition of Copper Age. ==Regions== ===Near East=== The emergence of metallurgy may have occurred first in the Fertile Crescent. Lead may have been the first ore that humans smelted, since it can be easily obtained by heating galena. Possible early examples of lead smelting, supported by the extreme rarity of native lead, include: lead beads, found on Level IX of Chatal/Çatal Hüyük in central Anatolia, though they might be made of galena, cerussite, or metallic lead, and accordingly might or might not be evidence of early smelting; a lead bracelet, found in level XII of Yarim Tepe I, dated to the 6th millennium BC; a small cone-shaped piece of lead, found in the "Burnt House" in TT6 at Arpachiyah, dated to the Halaf period or slightly later than the Yarim Tepe bracelet; Arsenical copper or bronze was produced in eastern Turkey (Malatya Province) at two ancient sites, Norşuntepe and Değirmentepe, around 4200 BC. According to Boscher (2016), hearths or natural draft furnaces, slag, ore, and pigment had been recovered throughout these sites. This was in the context of Ubaid period architectural complexes typical of southern Mesopotamian architecture. Norşuntepe site demonstrates that some form of arsenic alloying was indeed taking place by the 4th millennium BC. Since the slag identified at Norşuntepe contains no arsenic, this means that arsenic in some form was added separately. ===Europe=== A copper axe found at Prokuplje, Serbia contains the oldest securely dated evidence of copper-making, (7,500 years ago). The find in June 2010 extends the known record of copper smelting by about 800 years, and suggests that copper smelting may have been invented in separate parts of Asia and Europe at that time rather than spreading from a single source. Copper artefacts found in northern Germany and Denmark date from between 4000 and 3300 BC, with most finds dating from 3500 - 3300 BC. They belong to the Funnel Beaker group. The copper was mined in Serbian mines, as researchers from Kiel have recently discovered. Ötzi the Iceman, who was found in the Ötztal Alps in 1991 and whose remains have been dated to about 3300 BC, was found with a Mondsee copper axe. Examples of Chalcolithic cultures in Europe include Vila Nova de São Pedro and Los Millares on the Iberian Peninsula. Pottery of the Beaker people has been found at both sites, dating to several centuries after copper-working began there. The Beaker culture appears to have spread copper and bronze technologies in Europe, along with Indo-European languages. In Britain, copper was used between the 25th and , but some archaeologists do not recognise a British Chalcolithic because production and use was on a small scale. ===South Asia=== Ceramic similarities between the Indus Valley Civilisation, southern Turkmenistan, and northern Iran during 4300–3300 BC of the Chalcolithic period suggest considerable mobility and trade. The term "Chalcolithic" has also been used in the context of the South Asian Stone Age. In Bhirrana, the earliest Indus civilization site, copper bangles and arrowheads were found. The inhabitants of Mehrgarh in present-day Pakistan fashioned tools with local copper ore between 7000 and 3300 BC. The Nausharo site was a pottery workshop in province of Balochistan, Pakistan, that dates to 4,500 years ago; 12 blades and blade fragments were excavated there. These blades are long, wide, and relatively thin. Archaeological experiments show that these blades were made with a copper indenter and functioned as a potter's tool to trim and shape unfired pottery. Petrographic analysis indicates local pottery manufacturing, but also reveals the existence of a few exotic black-slipped pottery items from the Indus Valley. In India, Chalcolithic culture flourished in mainly four farming communities – Ahar or Banas, Kayatha, Malwa, and Jorwe. These communities had some common traits like painted pottery and use of copper, but they had a distinct ceramic design tradition. Banas culture (2000–1600 BC) had ceramics with red, white, and black design. Kayatha culture (2450–1700 BC) had ceramics painted with brown colored design. Malwa culture (1900–1400 BC) had profusely decorated pottery with red or black colored design. Jorwe culture (1500–900 BC) had ceramics with matte surface and black-on-red design. Pandu Rajar Dhibi (2000–1600 BC) is a Chalcolithic site in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent. It is located on the south bank of Ajay River in West Bengal. Blackware, painted Koshi ware, pottery, various ornaments made of pearl and copper, various types of tools, pieces of fabric woven from Shimul cotton thread, human and various animal skeletons, burnt clay fragments have been found at the site. In March 2018, archaeologists had discovered three carts and copper artifacts including weapons dating to 1800 BC in Sanauli village of Uttar Pradesh. The artifacts belongs to Ochre Coloured Pottery culture. ===Pre-Columbian Americas=== In the Archaeology of the Americas, a five-period system is conventionally used which does not include metal ages, though metalworking technology did precede European contact in some areas. Andean civilizations in South America appear to have independently invented copper smelting. The term "Chalcolithic" is also applied to American civilizations that already used copper and copper alloys thousands of years before Europeans immigrated. Besides cultures in the Andes and Mesoamerica, the Old Copper complex mined and fabricated copper as tools, weapons, and personal ornaments in an area centered in the upper Great Lakes region (present-day Michigan and Wisconsin). The evidence of smelting or alloying that has been found in North America is subject to some dispute and a common assumption by archaeologists is that objects were cold-worked into shape. Artifacts from some of these sites have been dated to 6500–1000 BC, making them some of the oldest Chalcolithic sites in the world. Some archaeologists find artifactual and structural evidence of casting by Hopewellian and Mississippian peoples to be demonstrated in the archaeological record. ===East Asia=== In the 5th millennium BC copper artifacts start to appear in East Asia, such as in the Jiangzhai and Hongshan cultures, but those metal artifacts were not widely used during this early stage. Copper manufacturing gradually appeared in the Yangshao period (5000–3000 BC). Jiangzhai is the only site where copper artifacts were found in the Banpo culture. Archaeologists have found remains of copper metallurgy in various cultures from the late fourth to the early third millennia BC. These include the copper-smelting remains and copper artifacts of the Hongshan culture (4700–2900) and copper slag at the Yuanwozhen site. This indicates that inhabitants of the Yellow River valley had already learned how to make copper artifacts by the later Yangshao period. ===Sub-Saharan Africa=== In the region of the Aïr Mountains, Niger, independent copper smelting developed between 3000 and 2500 BC. The process was not in a developed state, indicating smelting was not foreign. It became mature about 1500 BC.	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7,447	Circumcision and law	Laws restricting, regulating, or banning circumcision, some dating back to ancient times, have been enacted in many countries and communities. In the case of non-therapeutic circumcision of children, proponents of laws in favor of the procedure often point to the rights of the parents or practitioners, namely the right of freedom of religion. Those against the procedure point to the boy's right of freedom from religion. In several court cases, judges have pointed to the irreversible nature of the act, the grievous harm to the boy's body, and the right to self-determination, and bodily integrity. == History== === Judaism === There are ancient religious requirements for circumcision. The Hebrew Bible commands Jews to circumcise their male children on the eighth day of life, and to circumcise their male slaves. Laws which ban circumcision are also ancient. The ancient Greeks prized the foreskin and disapproved of the Jewish custom of circumcision. 1 Maccabees, 1:60–61 states that King Antiochus IV of Syria, the occupying power of Judea in 170 BCE, outlawed circumcision on penalty of death, one of the grievances leading to the Maccabean Revolt. According to the Historia Augusta, the Roman emperor Hadrian issued a decree which banned circumcision in the empire, and some modern scholars argue that this was a main cause of the Jewish Bar Kokhba revolt of 132 CE. The Roman historian Cassius Dio, however, made no mention of such a law, instead, he blamed the Jewish uprising on Hadrian's decision to rebuild Jerusalem and rename it Aelia Capitolina, a city dedicated to Jupiter. Antoninus Pius permitted Jews to circumcise their own sons. However, he forbade the circumcision of non-Jewish males who were either foreign-born slaves of Jews and the circumcision of non-Jewish males who were members of Jewish households, in violation of Genesis 17:12. He also banned non-Jewish men from converting to Judaism. Antoninus Pius exempted the Egyptian priesthood from the otherwise universal ban on circumcision. Constantine the Great made it illegal to circumcise Christian slaves, and punished the owners who allowed it by freeing the Christian from slavery. === Ecclesiastical canon law in Christianity === Circumcision has also played a major role in Christian history and theology. The Council of Jerusalem in the early Christian Church declared that circumcision was not necessary for Christians; covenant theology largely views the Christian sacrament of baptism as fulfilling the Israelite practice of circumcision, both being signs and seals of the covenant of grace. Though mainstream Christian denominations maintain a neutral position on routine circumcision, it is widely practiced in many Christian communities. Historically, the Lutheran Churches have also not practiced circumcision among their communicants. Currently the Catholic Church maintains a neutral position on the practice of non-religious circumcision. Today, many Christian denominations are neutral about ritual male circumcision, not requiring it for religious observance, but neither forbidding it for cultural or other reasons. On the other hand, in Oriental Christianity, the Coptic Orthodox Church and Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Eritrean Orthodox Church require that their male members undergo circumcision. === Soviet Union === Before glasnost, according to an article in The Jewish Press, Jewish ritual circumcision was forbidden in the Soviet Union. However, David E. Fishman, professor of Jewish History at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, states that, whereas the heder and yeshiva, the organs of Jewish education, "were banned by virtue of the law separating church and school, and subjected to tough police and administrative actions", circumcision was not proscribed by law or suppressed by executive measures. Jehoshua A. Gilboa writes that while circumcision was not officially or explicitly banned, pressure was exerted to make it difficult. Mohels in particular were concerned that they could be punished for any health issue that might develop, even if it arose some time after the circumcision. === Albania === In 1967, all religion in Communist Albania was banned, along with the practice of circumcision. The practice was driven underground and many boys were secretly circumcised. == International law == === Council of Europe === On 1 October 2013, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe adopted a non-binding resolution in which they state they are "particularly worried about a category of violation of the physical integrity of children", and included in this category "circumcision of young boys for religious reasons". On 7 October, Israel's president Shimon Peres wrote a personal missive to the Secretary General of the Council of Europe, Thorbjørn Jagland, to stop the "ban", arguing: "The Jewish communities across Europe would be greatly afflicted to see their cultural and religious freedom impeded upon by the Council of Europe, an institution devoted to the protection of these very rights." Two days later, Jagland clarified that the resolution was non-binding and that "Nothing in the body of our legally binding standards would lead us to put on equal footing the issue of female genital mutilation and the circumcision of young boys for religious reasons." === European Union === A study commissioned by the European Parliament Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs published in February 2013 stated that "Male circumcision for non-therapeutic reasons appears to be practiced with relative regularity and frequency throughout Europe," and said it was "the only scenario, among the topics discussed in the present chapter, in which the outcome of the balancing between the right to physical integrity and religious freedom is in favour of the latter." The study recommended that "the best interests of children should be paramount, while acknowledging the relevance of this practice for Muslims and Jews. Member States should ensure that circumcision of underage children is performed according to the medical profession's art and under conditions that do not put the health of minors at risk. The introduction of regulations by the Member States in order to set the conditions and the appropriate medical training for those called to perform it is warranted." === 2013 Nordic ombudsmen statement === On 30 September 2013, the children's ombudsmen of all five Nordic countries – Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden – together with the children's spokesperson from Greenland and representatives of associations of Nordic paediatricians and paediatric surgeons, gathered in Oslo to discuss the issue, and released a joint declaration proposing a ban on non-therapeutic circumcision of male minors: == Modern laws by country == As of February 2018, no European country has a ban on male circumcision. Whereas child custody regulations have been applied to cases involving circumcision, there seems to be no state which currently unequivocally bans infant male circumcision for non-therapeutic reasons, albeit the legality of such circumcision is disputed in some legislations. The present table provides a non-exhaustive overview comparing legal restrictions and requirements on non-therapeutic infant circumcision in several countries. Some countries require one or both parents to consent to the operation; some of these (Finland, \| \| \| Parents \| \| \| Parents In 1993, a non-binding research paper of the Queensland Law Reform Commission (Circumcision of Male Infants) concluded that "On a strict interpretation of the assault provisions of the Queensland Criminal Code, routine circumcision of a male infant could be regarded as a criminal act," and that doctors who perform circumcision on male infants may be liable to civil claims by that child at a later date. No prosecutions have occurred in Queensland, and circumcisions continue to be performed. In 1999, a Perth man won A$360,000 in damages after a doctor admitted he botched a circumcision operation at birth which left the man with a badly deformed penis. In 2002, Queensland police charged a father with grievous bodily harm for having his two sons, then aged nine and five, circumcised without the knowledge and against the wishes of the mother. The mother and father were in a family court dispute. The charges were dropped when the police prosecutor revealed that he did not have all family court paperwork in court and the magistrate refused to grant an adjournment. Cosmetic circumcision for newborn males is currently banned in all Australian public hospitals, South Australia being the last state to adopt the ban in 2007; the procedure was not forbidden from being performed in private hospitals. In the same year, the Tasmanian President of the Australian Medical Association, Haydn Walters, stated that they would support a call to ban circumcision for non-medical, non-religious reasons. In 2009, the Tasmanian Law Reform Institute released its Issues Paper investigating the law relating to male circumcision in Tasmania, it "highlights the uncertainty in relation to whether doctors can legally perform circumcision on infant males". The Tasmania Law Reform Institute released its recommendations for reform of Tasmanian law relative to male circumcision on 21 August 2012. The report makes fourteen recommendations for reform of Tasmanian law relative to male circumcision. === Belgium === The Belgian Advisory Committee on Bioethics finds that circumcision is a radical operation, and that physical integrity of the child takes precedence over parents' belief systems. In 2012, Le Soir reported a 21% increase in the amount of circumcisions in Belgium from 2006 and 2011. In the previous 25 years, one in three Belgian-born boys had allegedly been circumcised. A questionnaire to hospitals in Wallonia and Brussels showed that about 80 to 90% of the procedures had religious or cultural motives. The Ministry of Health stressed the importance of safe circumstances, physicians warned that "no surgical procedure is without risk" and that circumcision was "not a necessary procedure". In 2017, it was estimated that about 15% of Belgian men were circumcised. The incidence has been gradually rising: in 2002, about 17,800 boys or men underwent circumcision, which increased to almost 26,200 in 2016. The expenses of undergoing circumcision are covered by the National Institute for Disease and Disability Insurance (RIZIV/INAMI), costing about 2.7 million euros in 2016. After inquiries were submitted to the Belgian Bioethics Advisory Committee in early 2014, an ethics commission was set up to review the morality of covering the costs of medically unnecessary surgery through taxpayer money, especially considering that many taxpayers regard the practice as immoral. By July 2017, the commission reportedly reached consensus on discontinuing the financial coverage of non-medical circumcision, but was still debating whether to advise the government to institute a total ban of the practice. The commission's final (non-binding) recommendation, presented on 19 September 2017, was to cease public funding for non-medical circumcision, and to not circumcise anyone underage until they can consent or reject the procedure after being properly informed. This was in line with the 1990 Convention on the Rights of the Child, and mirrors the 2013 non-binding Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe's resolution against underage non-therapeutic circumcision. However, Health Minister Maggie De Block rejected the commission's advice, arguing the RIZIV "cannot know whether there is a medical motive or not" when parents request a circumcision, and when they are denied a professional procedure, chances are parents will have a non-expert perform it, leading to worse results for the children. The Health Minister's response was received with mixed reactions. === Canada === The Canadian Paediatric Society does not recommend routine circumcision, finding that medical necessity has not been clearly established, and as such, that it should be deferred until the individual concerned is able to make his own choices. According to the College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia: === Denmark === Circumcision is legal in Denmark, and each year 1,000 to 2,000 boys are circumcised for non-medical reasons, the Danish Health Authority estimated in 2013, For boys below the age of 15, circumcision requires consent from the parents, while the boy can consent when he is 15 years or older. Circumcision is classified as an operation and reserved for doctors, though the responsible doctor can delegate the actual operation to non-medical person, as long as the doctor is present. The operation requires "sufficient pain relief (analgesic) and sedation (Anesthesia)" The doctor is responsible for having the necessary qualifications (both for the operation and the pain relief) and for being informed about the newest scientific developments in the area. Other professional organizations followed them, and according to DR, only the Authority and two private clinics that perform circumcisions remain in the committee. The Danish population overwhelmingly support a ban on non-medical circumcision of boys below the age of 18. A 2020 survey measured the support at 86%, while surveys in 2018, 2016 and 2014 measured the support at 83%, 87% and 74%, respectively In 2018, a citizen's initiative calling for such a ban reached the threshold of 50.000 signatures to be put forward in the Folketing. It was subsequently found compliant with the Danish Constitution, in particularly §67 on religious freedom. The Danish Medical Association believes boys should decide for themselves after they turn 18 years old, but does not call for a ban. , the Social Democrats and Venstre, who together hold a majority in the Folketing, oppose a ban, while the Danish People's Party, the Socialist People's Party, Red-Green Alliance, The Alternative, The New Right and Liberal Alliance favour a ban. The Conservative and the Social Liberal Party have no official opinion on the question. In favour of a ban Danish People's Party ===Finland=== The Finnish Ombudsman for Equality finds that circumcising young boys without a medical reason is legally highly questionable, The Finnish Supreme Court found that non-therapeutic circumcision of boys is assault, and the Finnish Ombudsman for Children proposed that Finland should ban non-therapeutic circumcision of young boys: In August 2006, a Finnish court ruled that the circumcision of a four-year-old boy arranged by his mother, who is Muslim, to be an illegal assault. The boy's father, who had not been consulted, reported the incident to the police. A local prosecutor stated that the prohibition of circumcision is not gender-specific in Finnish law. A lawyer for the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health stated that there is neither legislation nor prohibition on male circumcision, and that "the operations have been performed on the basis of common law." The case was appealed and in October 2008 the Finnish Supreme Court ruled that the circumcision, "carried out for religious and social reasons and in a medical manner, did not have the earmarks of a criminal offence. It pointed out in its ruling that the circumcision of Muslim boys is an established tradition and an integral part of the identity of Muslim men". In 2008, the Finnish government was reported to be considering a new law to legalise circumcision if the practitioner is a doctor and if the child consents. In December 2011, Helsinki District Court said that the Supreme Court's decision does not mean that circumcision is legal for any non-medical reasons. The court referred to the Convention on Human rights and Biomedicine of the Council of Europe, which was ratified in Finland in 2010. In November 2020, the Finnish Parliament passed a new law on female genital mutilation. An earlier version of the draft law could also have criminalised nonmedical infant circumcision, but due to intense lobbying by several Islamic and Jewish organisations including the Central Council of Finnish Jewish Communities, Milah UK, and the European Jewish Congress, the wording was changed and instead, the law passed in Parliament now states that the issue of circumcision of boys should be "clarified" in the future. In favour of a ban Social Democratic Party of Finland Finns Party Green League In October 2006, a Turkish national who performed ritual circumcisions on seven boys was convicted of causing dangerous bodily harm by the state court in Düsseldorf. In September 2007, a Frankfurt am Main appeals court found that the circumcision of an 11-year-old boy without his approval was an unlawful personal injury. The boy, whose parents were divorced, was visiting his Muslim father during a vacation when his father forced him to be ritually circumcised. The boy had planned to sue his father for . In May 2012, the Cologne regional appellate court ruled that religious circumcision of male children amounts to bodily injury, and is a criminal offense in the area under its jurisdiction. published by Holm Putzke, a German law professor at the University of Passau. The court arrived at its judgment by application of the human rights provisions of the Basic Law, a section of the Civil Code, and some sections of the Criminal Code to non-therapeutic circumcision of male children. Some observers said it could set a legal precedent that criminalizes the practice. Jewish and Muslim groups were outraged by the ruling, viewing it as trampling on freedom of religion. The German ambassador to Israel, Andreas Michaelis, told Israeli lawmakers that Germany was working to resolve the issue and that it does not apply at a national level, but instead only to the local jurisdiction of the court in Cologne. The Council of the Coordination of Muslims in Germany condemned the ruling, stating that it is "a serious attack on religious freedom". Ali Kizilkaya, a spokesman of the council, stated that, "The ruling does not take everything into account, religious practice concerning circumcision of young Muslims and Jews has been carried out over the millennia on a global level." The Roman Catholic archbishop of Aachen, Heinrich Mussinghoff, said that the ruling was "very surprising", and the contradiction between "basic rights on freedom of religion and the well-being of the child brought up by the judges is not convincing in this very case". Hans Ulrich Anke, the head of the Protestant Church in Germany, said the ruling should be appealed since it did not "sufficiently" consider the religious significance of the rite. A spokesman, Steffen Seibert, for German Chancellor Angela Merkel stated that Jewish and Muslim communities will be free to practice circumcision responsibly, and the government would find a way around the local ban in Cologne. The spokesman stated "For everyone in the government it is absolutely clear that we want to have Jewish and Muslim religious life in Germany. Circumcision carried out in a responsible manner must be possible in this country without punishment." In July 2012, a group of rabbis, imams, and others said that they view the ruling against circumcision "an affront on our basic religious and human rights". The joint statement was signed by leaders of groups including Germany's Turkish-Islamic Union for Religious Affairs, the Islamic Center Brussels, the Rabbinical Centre of Europe, the European Jewish Parliament and the European Jewish Association, who met with members of European Parliament from Germany, Finland, Belgium, Italy, and Poland. European rabbis, who urged Jews to continue circumcision, planned further talks with Muslim and Christian leaders to determine how they can oppose the ban together. The Jewish Hospital of Berlin suspended the practice of male circumcision. On 19 July 2012, a joint resolution of the CDU/CSU, SPD and FDP factions in the Bundestag requesting the executive branch to draft a law permitting circumcision of boys to be performed without unnecessary pain in accordance with best medical practice carried with a broad majority. The New York Times reported that the German Medical Association "condemned the ruling for potentially putting children at risk by taking the procedure out of the hands of doctors, but it also warned surgeons note to perform circumcisions for religious reasons until legal clarity was established". The ruling was supported by Deutsche Kinderhilfe, a German child rights organization, which asked for a two-year moratorium to discuss the issue and pointed out that religious circumcision may contravene the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Article 24.3: "States Parties shall take all effective and appropriate measures with a view to abolishing traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children."). The German Academy for Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine (Deutsche Akademie für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin e.V., DAKJ), the German Association for Pediatric Surgery (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kinderchirurgie, DGKCH) and the Professional Association of Pediatric and Adolescent Physicians (Berufsverband der Kinder- und Jugendärzte) took a firm stand against non-medical routine infant circumcision. In July, in Berlin, a criminal complaint was lodged against Rabbi Yitshak Ehrenberg for "causing bodily harm" by performing religious circumcision, and for vocal support of the continuation of the practice. In September, the prosecutors dismissed the complaint, concluding that "there is no proof to establish that the rabbi's conduct met the 'condition of a criminal' violation". In September, Reuters reported "Berlin's senate said doctors could legally circumcise infant boys for religious reasons in its region, given certain conditions." On 12 December 2012, following a series of hearings and consultations, the Bundestag adopted the proposed law explicitly permitting non-therapeutic circumcision to be performed under certain conditions; it is now §1631(d) in the German Civil Code. The vote tally was 434 ayes, 100 noes, and 46 abstentions. Following approval by the Bundesrat and signing by the Bundespräsident, the new law became effective on 28 December 2012 a day after its publication in the Federal Gazette. === Iceland === In May 2005, Iceland amended its General Penal Code to criminalise female genital mutilation In February 2018, the Progressive Party proposed a bill that would change the words "girl child" to "child" and "her sexual organs" to "[their] sexual organs", thereby making Iceland the first European country to ban male circumcision for non-medical reasons. The bill was ultimately put on hold later that year following pressure from the United States, Israel, and various lobbyist groups. In favour of the proposed ban (March 2018) Progressive Party In 2003, an expert in medical law suggested that the Constitution of Ireland's guarantees of family autonomy would probably trump concern for the child's bodily autonomy. Until the 1990s the practice was largely confined to the brit milah of the small Jewish community, generally performed by a mohel travelling from Great Britain and certified there by the Initiation Society, with no concern from law enforcement. The boy's parents had enquired about circumcision within the health service, until a review after the death. At the 2005 trial, the prosecution argued that "the carrying out of a circumcision by a non-medical person was not an offence in Ireland", Jurist Máiréad Enright questioned the judge's "radical cultural relativism" and felt as a Circuit Court case it had "limited precedential value". While the Waterford case was pending, the Minister for Health established an advisory committee on "cultural male circumcision". Its 2006 report recommended that circumcision be provided within the health service as an outpatient procedure by trained surgeons and anaesthetists. Circumcisions carried out by "untrained people" should be investigated by the Health Service Executive and might be prosecuted as child abuse. In 2020 another Nigerian traditional circumcisionist was jailed for 3 years after pleading guilty to reckless endangerment of a 10-month-old, who spent two weeks in hospital after a 2015 procedure without anaesthetic or proper sterilisation. The judge called it "a barbaric act of cruelty" and said the man should abide by Irish cultural norms. On 30 July 2024 a London-based rabbi was arrested after performing a circumcision in a Dublin house with the parents' consent. He was charged with carrying out a surgical procedure without being a registered medical practitioner, contrary to the Medical Practitioners Act 2007. The accused is a mohel registered with the Initiation Society. The Chief Rabbi of Ireland said that the client family was not Jewish, but the Jewish community would be offering assistance to the mohel. The Jewish Chronicle suggested the reason the case was singled out for prosecution was because it was a "non-religious circumcision"; On 6 August he was remanded for a further two weeks in anticipation of "multiple further charges" from the Director of Public Prosecutions. On 22 August he was granted bail at a hearing which was told no mohel had previously been prosecuted in such a case. === Israel === In Israel, Jewish circumcision is entirely legal. The circumcision rate is very high in Israel, although some limited data suggests the practice is slowly declining. According to an online survey by the parents' portal Mamy in 2006, the rate was 95%, while earlier estimates put it at 98–99%. Ben Shalem, an organisation dedicated to the abolition of circumcision, petitioned the Supreme Court in 1999 on the grounds that circumcision violated human dignity, children's rights and criminal law. The petition was rejected. In 2013, a Rabbinical court in Israel ordered a mother in the midst of divorce proceedings to circumcise her son in accordance with the father's wishes, or pay a fine of 500 Israeli Shekel for every day that the child is not circumcised. She appealed against the Rabbinical court ruling and the High Court ruled in her favour stating, among other considerations, the basic right of freedom from religion. === Netherlands === The Royal Dutch Medical Association (KNMG) finds non-therapeutic circumcision of male minors to be in conflict with children's right to autonomy and physical integrity, and that there are good reasons for its legal prohibition, as exists for female genital mutilation: In May 2008 a father who had his two sons, aged 3 and 6, circumcised against the will of their mother was found not guilty of abuse as the circumcision was performed by a physician and due to the court's restraint in setting a legal precedent; instead he was given a 6-week suspended jail sentence for taking the boys away from their mother against her will. The parquet of the Supreme Court of the Netherlands made an elaborate statement on the legal status of circumcision on 5 July 2011 in the course of a criminal case. First, the parquet notes that there is no law that specifically prohibits the circumcision of boys, nor that the practice falls under the more general crime of (zware) mishandeling ('(grave) assault'). "Genital mutilation of girls in any case undoubtedly falls under (zware) mishandeling (Art. 300–303 Dutch Criminal Code). Whereas most forms of genital cutting of girls are generally marked as genital mutilation, a similar communis opinio regarding genital cutting of boys does not yet exist so far." The Supreme Court acknowledged that society's attitudes on genital cutting of boys had been gradually shifting over the course of years, and that "the increasing concern [in the medical world] about the harm and the risk of complications during a circumcision is indeed relevant", but that overall there were not enough reasons yet to proceed to criminalisation. Neither could intentional infliction of grave bodily harm (Art. 82 Dutch Criminal Code) be applied to the normal circumstances of a competently and hygienically performed circumcision in a clinic. And because young children are incapable of exercising the right to self-determination, parents ought to do this on their behalf. They can both request a circumcision to be performed, as well as consent to it being performed, on the grounds of their parental authority. However, it is important that both parents consent to the procedure. In favour of a ban Christian Union, political party, on the basis of Article 11 of the Constitution concerning bodily integrity (from 2006 to 2011) Royal Dutch Medical Association (KNMG), federation of physicians (since 2010) Youth Organisation Freedom and Democracy, youth wing People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) (since 2014) Young Democrats, youth wing Democrats 66 (D66) (since 2017, favours a gradual increase of the minimum age for circumcision) PINK!, youth wing Party for the Animals (PvdD) (since 2018) Against a ban Council of Public Health and Care (RVZ), medical advisory committee for parliament and government (since 2010) Rabbi Herman Loonstein, president of Federative Jewish Netherlands Christian Union, political party, on the basis of Article 6 of the Constitution concerning freedom of religion (since 2011 In June 2012, the centre-right Centre Party proposed a ban on circumcision on males under eighteen, after an Oslo infant died in May following a circumcision. A bill on ritual circumcision of boys was passed (against two votes) in the Norwegian Parliament in June 2014, with the new law going into effect on 1 January 2015. This law explicitly allows Jews to practice brit milah and obligates the Norwegian Health Care regions to offer the Muslim minority a safe and affordable procedure. Local anaesthesia needs to be applied and a licensed physician needs to be present at the circumcision, which hospitals started to perform in March 2015. In May 2017, the right-wing Progress Party proposed to ban circumcision for males under sixteen. In favour of a ban Centre Party (under 18, since 2012) Among other provisions, the minimum age for circumcision is age 18. In 2004, a 22-year-old Rastafarian convert was forcibly circumcised by a group of Xhosa tribal elders and relatives. When he first fled, two police returned him to those who had circumcised him. In another case, a medically circumcised Xhosa man was forcibly recircumcised by his father and community leaders. He laid a charge of unfair discrimination on the grounds of his religious beliefs, seeking an apology from his father and the Congress of Traditional Leaders of South Africa. According to South African newspapers, the subsequent trial became "a landmark case around forced circumcision". In October 2009, the Eastern Cape High Court at Bhisho (sitting as an Equality Court) clarified that circumcision is unlawful unless done with the full consent of the initiate. === Slovenia === The Slovenian Human Rights Ombudsman found in February 2012, after consulting various relevant expert bodies and studying relevant constitutional and legal stipulations, that circumcision for non-medical reasons is a violation of children's rights, that ritual circumcision for religious reasons is unacceptable in Slovenia for both legal and ethical reasons and should not be performed by doctors: === Sweden === In 2001, the Parliament of Sweden enacted a law allowing only persons certified by the National Board of Health to circumcise infants. It requires a medical doctor or an anesthesia nurse to accompany the circumciser and for anaesthetic to be applied beforehand. After the first two months of life circumcisions can only be performed by a physician. The stated purpose of the law was to increase the safety of the procedure. Swedish Jews and Muslims objected to the law, and in 2001, the World Jewish Congress called it "the first legal restriction on Jewish religious practice in Europe since the Nazi era". The requirement for an anaesthetic to be administered by a medical professional is a major issue, and the low degree of availability of certified professionals willing to conduct circumcision has also been subject to criticism. According to a survey, two out of three paediatric surgeons said they refuse to perform non-therapeutic circumcision, and less than half of all county councils offer it in their hospitals. However, in 2006, the U.S. State Department stated, in a report on Sweden, that most Jewish mohels had been certified under the law and 3000 Muslim and 40–50 Jewish boys were circumcised each year. An estimated 2000 of these are performed by persons who are neither physicians nor have officially recognised certification. The Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare reviewed the law in 2005 and recommended that it be maintained, but found that the law had failed with regard to the intended consequence of increasing the safety of circumcisions. but this was later abandoned in favour of a non-binding recommendation. aiming at ceasing all non-medically justified circumcision without prior consent: In October 2018, the right-wing populist Sweden Democrats party submitted a draft motion to parliament calling for a ban. At the annual conference of the Centre Party in September 2019, 314 to 166 commissioners voted in favor of prohibiting boys' circumcision. Several Jewish and Islamic organisations voiced their opposition to a potential ban. The Left Party has also expressed support for a prohibition on circumcising boys before the age of 18; other parties have so far not backed a potential ban, though the Green Party found the practice "problematic". In favour of a ban Sweden Democrats === United Kingdom === Male circumcision has traditionally been presumed to be legal under British law, however some authors have argued that there is no solid foundation for this view in English law. While legal, the British Medical Association finds it ethically unacceptable to circumcise a child or young person, either with or without competence, who refuses the procedure, irrespective of the parents' wishes, and that parental preference alone does not constitute sufficient grounds for performing NTMC on a child unable to express his own view: The passage of the Human Rights Act 1998 has led to some speculation that the lawfulness of the circumcision of male children is unclear. One 1999 case, Re "J" (child's religious upbringing and circumcision) said that circumcision in Britain required the consent of all those with parental responsibility (however this comment was not part of the reason for the judgement and therefore is not legally binding), or the permission of the court, acting for the best interests of the child, and issued an order prohibiting the circumcision of a male child of a non-practicing Muslim father and non-practicing Christian mother with custody. The reasoning included evidence that circumcision carried some medical risk; that the operation would be likely to weaken the relationship of the child with his mother, who strongly objected to circumcision without medical necessity; that the child may be subject to ridicule by his peers as the odd one out and that the operation might irreversibly reduce sexual pleasure, by permanently removing some sensory nerves, even though cosmetic foreskin restoration might be possible. The court did not rule out circumcision against the consent of one parent. It cited a hypothetical case of a Jewish mother and an agnostic father with a number of sons, all of whom, by agreement, had been circumcised as infants in accordance with Jewish laws; the parents then have another son who is born after they have separated; the mother wishes him to be circumcised like his brothers; the father for no good reason, refuses his agreement. In such a case, a decision in favor of circumcision was said to be likely. In 2001 the General Medical Council had found a doctor who had botched circumcision operations guilty of abusing his professional position and that he had acted "inappropriately and irresponsibly", and struck him off the register. A doctor who had referred patients to him, and who had pressured a mother into agreeing to the surgery, was also condemned. In 2009 it was reported that a 20-year-old man whose father had him ritually circumcised as a baby is preparing to sue the doctor who circumcised him. This is believed to be the first time a person who was circumcised as an infant has made a claim in the UK. The case is expected to be heard in 2010. In a 2015 case regarding female circumcision, a judge concluded that non-therapeutic circumcision of male children is a "significant harm". In 2016, the Family Court in Exeter ruled that a Muslim father could not have his two sons (aged 6 and 4) circumcised after their mother disagreed. Mrs Justice Roberts declared that the boys should first grow old enough "to the point where each of the boys themselves will make their individual choices once they have the maturity and insight to appreciate the consequences and longer-term effects of the decisions which they reach". ==== Nottingham case ==== In June 2017, Nottinghamshire Police arrested three people on suspicion of "conspiracy to commit grievous bodily harm". The mother first contacted social services and eventually the police in November 2014. The police initially dismissed the complaint, but after the mother got help from the anti-circumcision group Men Do Complain and leading human rights lawyer Saimo Chahal QC, they reopened the case, and ended up arresting three suspects involved. In November 2017, the Crown Prosecution Service explained to the mother in a letter they were not going to prosecute the doctor, who claimed he was unaware of the mother's non-consent. However, Chahal appealed this decision, which she said "lacks any semblance of a considered and reasoned decision and is flawed and irrational", and threatened to bring the case to court. The by then 29-year-old mother finally sued the doctor in April 2018. === United States === Circumcision of adults who grant personal informed consent for the surgical operation is legal. In the United States, non-therapeutic circumcision of male children has long been assumed to be lawful in every jurisdiction provided that one parent grants surrogate informed consent. Adler (2013) has recently challenged the validity of this assumption. As with every country, doctors who circumcise children must take care that all applicable rules regarding informed consent and safety are satisfied. While anti-circumcision groups have occasionally proposed legislation banning non-therapeutic child circumcision, it has not been supported in any legislature. After a failed attempt to adopt a local ordinance banning circumcision on a San Francisco ballot, the state of California enacted in October 2011 a law protecting circumcision from local attempts to ban the practice. In 2012, New York City required those performing metzitzah b'peh, the oral suction of the open circumcision wound required by Hasidim, to obey stringent consent requirements, including documentation. Agudath Israel of America and other Jewish groups have planned to sue the city in response. Disputes between parents Occasionally the courts are asked to make a ruling when parents cannot agree on whether or not to circumcise a child. In January 2001 a dispute between divorcing parents in New Jersey was resolved when the mother, who sought to have the boy circumcised withdrew her request. The boy had experienced two instances of foreskin inflammation and she wanted to have him circumcised. The father, who had experienced a traumatic circumcision as a child, objected and they turned to the courts for a decision. The Medical Society of New Jersey and the Urological Society of New Jersey both opposed any court ordered medical treatment. As the parties came to an agreement, no precedent was set. In June 2001 a Nevada court settled a dispute over circumcision between two parents but put a strict gag order on the terms of the settlement. In July 2001 a dispute between parents in Kansas over circumcision was resolved when the mother's request to have the infant circumcised was withdrawn. In this case the father opposed circumcision while the mother asserted that not circumcising the child was against her religious beliefs. (The woman's pastor had stated that circumcision was "important" but was not necessary for salvation.) On 24 July 2001 the parents reached agreement that the infant would not be circumcised. On 14 July 2004 a mother appealed to the Missouri Supreme Court to prevent the circumcision of her son after a county court and the Court of Appeals had denied her a writ of prohibition. However, in early August 2004, before the Supreme Court had given its ruling, the father, who had custody of the boy, had him circumcised. In October 2006 a judge in Chicago granted an injunction blocking the circumcision of a 9-year-old boy. In granting the injunction the judge stated that "the boy could decide for himself whether to be circumcised when he turns 18." On 25 January 2008, the Court returned the case to the trial court with instructions to determine whether the child agrees or objects to the proposed circumcision. The father appealed to the US Supreme Court to allow him to have his son circumcised but his appeal was rejected. The case then returned to the trial court. When the trial court interviewed the couple's son, now 14 years old, the boy stated that he did not want to be circumcised. This also provided the necessary circumstances to allow the boy to change residence to live with his mother. The boy was not circumcised. Other disputes In September 2004 the North Dakota Supreme Court rejected a mother's attempt to prosecute her doctor for circumcising her child without fully informing her of the consequences of the procedure. The judge and jury found that the plaintiffs were adequately informed of possible complications, and the jury further found that it is not incumbent on the doctors to describe every "insignificant" risk. In March 2009 a Fulton County, GA, State Court jury awarded $2.3 million in damages to a 4-year-old boy and his mother for a botched circumcision in which too much tissue was removed causing permanent disfigurement. In August 2010 an eight-day-old boy was circumcised in a Florida hospital against the stated wishes of the parents. The hospital admitted that the boy was circumcised by mistake; the mother has sued the hospital and the doctor involved in the case.	[ "Protestant Church", "Catholic Church", "Kevin Myers", "Hasidim", "Norway", "Greenland", "The Oregonian", "Irish health care", "Fulton County, Georgia", "University of Pennsylvania Press", "Anesthesiology", "Law Reform Commission (Ireland)", "Exeter", "Washington, D.C.", "Liberal Alliance (Denmark)", "Hebrew Bible", "anaesthesia", "Secretariat of the European Parliament", "Centre Party (Sweden)", "Human Rights Act 1998", "People's Party for Freedom and Democracy", "Oriental Christianity", "Conservative People's Party (Denmark)", "Medical Council of Ireland", "The Jewish Press", "Ethics of circumcision", "Social Democrats (Denmark)", "Jerusalem", "Denmark", "Perth", "Chancellor of Germany", "Female genital mutilation", "self-determination", "WP:CONV", "child abuse", "Australian Medical Association", "Incidence (epidemiology)", "Jupiter (god)", "Danish Medical Association", "Turkish-Islamic Union for Religious Affairs", "The Alternative (Denmark)", "Ancient Greece", "Cassius Dio", "CDU/CSU", "Youth Organisation Freedom and Democracy", "Jury instructions", "Nordic countries", "The Jewish Daily Forward", "Antoninus Pius", "Israel", "Young Democrats (Netherlands)", "National Board of Health and Welfare (Sweden)", "Royal Australasian College of Physicians", "Roman Catholic", "mohel", "precedent", "Local anesthesia", "Democrats 66", "British Medical Association", "Soviet Union", "Red–Green Alliance (Denmark)", "Sveriges Radio", "medical necessity", "Left-Green Movement", "Danish People's Party", "Swedish Social Democratic Party", "Le Soir", "BBC", "Svenska Dagbladet", "Green Party (Sweden)", "Belgium", "circumcision", "1 Maccabees", "Shimon Peres", "Liberals (Sweden)", "20 Minuten", "Bar Kokhba's revolt", "communis opinio", "Aelia Capitolina", "Cheder", "Düsseldorf", "Historia Augusta", "Dutch Criminal Code", "Bundestag", "Parquet (legal)", "metzitzah b'peh", "Jews in Ireland", "The Local", "New Zealand", "Health Service Executive", "The Times of Israel", "Minister for Health (Ireland)", "World Jewish Congress", "Anti-Defamation League", "glasnost", "Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch", "History of Christianity", "Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church", "Wallonia", "Circumcision controversy in early Christianity", "Saimo Chahal", "County Councils of Sweden", "Oxford University Press", "slavery", "yeshiva", "Roman Empire", "Missouri Supreme Court", "Holm Putzke", "bail", "Centre Party (Norway)", "Secretary General of the Council of Europe", "Christian Democrats (Finland)", "Heinrich Mussinghoff", "Christian denominations", "Christian Union (Netherlands)", "Party for the Animals", "Angela Merkel", "Popular initiative", "Coptic Orthodox Church", "Christendom", "Springer Science+Business Media", "Social Democratic Party of Finland", "Pirate Party (Iceland)", "Dagbladet", "SPD", "Intensive care medicine", "General Penal Code (Iceland)", "outpatient", "anaesthetic", "Agudath Israel of America", "Venstre (Denmark)", "health board (Ireland)", "Equality Court", "Kansas", "King's College London", "Oregon Supreme Court", "Celtic Tiger", "North Dakota Supreme Court", "Constitution of Denmark", "Sweden Democrats", "baptism", "Khitan (circumcision)", "cultural relativism", "Prevalence of circumcision", "archbishop", "Council of Jerusalem", "Children's Act 2005", "Muslim", "The Jewish Week", "Christian Democrats (Sweden)", "Gaza war", "Right to family life", "Immigration to Ireland", "Infobase Publishing", "Left Party (Sweden)", "Moderate Party", "Vårt Land (Norwegian newspaper)", "Royal Dutch Medical Association", "Las Vegas Review-Journal", "brit milah", "Director of Public Prosecutions (Ireland)", "Queensland", "Finns Party", "Lutheran Church", "reckless endangerment", "Danish Health Authority", "Constitution of Ireland", "guerrilla warfare", "covenant theology", "Bundesgesetzblatt (Germany)", "general anaesthesia", "Convention on the Rights of the Child", "World Health Organization", "Anesthesia", "Maccabean Revolt", "DR (broadcaster)", "Brussels", "Sterilization (microbiology)", "sacrament", "Antiochus IV Epiphanes", "Andreas Michaelis", "People's Party (Iceland, 2016)", "Forum Communications", "Maggie De Block", "Forced circumcision", "Syria", "Georgetown University Press", "Frankfurt", "The Forum of Fargo-Moorhead", "European Parliament", "Progressive Party (Iceland)", "Canadian Paediatric Society", "Xhosa people", "Chief Rabbi of Ireland", "Esmé Wiegman-van Meppelen Scheppink", "Freedom from religion (secular law)", "Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "Mohel", "Operating theater", "Iceland", "Islamic Cultural Centre of Iceland", "Supreme Court of the Netherlands", "Dagens Nyheter", "Constantine the Great", "Jones & Bartlett Learning", "Complication (medicine)", "The Jewish Chronicle", "Pre-trial detention", "Free Democratic Party (Germany)", "President of Germany", "American Academy of Pediatrics", "German Medical Association", "Ethiopian Orthodox Church", "Jews Against Circumcision", "PINK!", "Aachen", "Christian Church", "Australia", "Oslo", "Progress Party (Norway)", "Haaretz", "Swedish Medical Association", "Finland", "Judea", "The New Right (Denmark)", "Jew", "Jewish Theological Seminary of America", "European Parliament Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs", "Oregon", "Children's rights", "College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia", "Socialist People's Party (Denmark)", "bodily autonomy", "Danish Social Liberal Party", "Folketing", "European Jewish Congress", "Daily Mirror", "Sweden", "Parliament of Sweden", "The New York Times", "Storting", "Eastern Cape High Court, Bhisho", "Green League", "Christian theology", "Thorbjørn Jagland", "analgesic", "Eastern Cape", "Sunday Tribune", "The Scotsman", "Sexual consent in law", "Waterford", "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe", "Circuit Court (Ireland)", "Bundesrat of Germany", "Hadrian", "freedom of religion" ]
7,449	Called to Common Mission	Called to Common Mission (CCM) is an agreement between The Episcopal Church (ECUSA) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) in the United States, establishing full communion between them. It was ratified by the ELCA in 1999, the ECUSA in 2000, after the narrow failure of a previous agreement. Its principal author on the Episcopal side was theological professor J. Robert Wright. Under the agreement, they recognize the validity of each other's baptisms and ordinations. The agreement provided that the ELCA would accept the historical episcopate and the "threefold ministry" of bishop - priest (or pastor) - deacon with respect to ministers of communicant churches serving ELCA congregations; the installation of the ELCA presiding bishop was performed through the laying on of hands by Lutheran bishops in the historic episcopate. This provision was opposed by some in the ELCA, which after its founding merger in 1988, held a lengthy study of the ministry which was undertaken with divided opinions. In response to concerns about the meaning of the CCM, synod bishops in the ELCA drafted the Tucson resolution which presented the official ELCA position. It made clear that there is no requirement to ordain deacons or accept their ministry. It also provided assurance that the ELCA did not and was not required by CCM to change its own theological stance. Lutheran churches of Scandinavian origin, such as the Church of Sweden and Church in Kenya, affirm apostolic succession and are in the historical episcopate; nevertheless, some within the ELCA argued that the historical episcopate would contradict the doctrine that the church exists wherever the Word of God is preached and sacraments are practiced. The traditional ELCA doctrine is affirmed by the Tucson resolution. Others objected on the grounds that adopting the Episcopalian / Anglican view on priestly orders and hierarchical structure was contrary to the Evangelical Lutheran concept of the "priesthood of all believers", which holds that all Christians stand on equal footing before God. They argued that the Old Covenant required a priest to mediate between God and humanity, but that New Covenant explicitly abolishes the need for priestly role by making every Christian a priest with direct access to God's grace. The Tucson resolution explained that the ELCA had not adopted the Episcopal view, but ECUSA or Reformed ordinands accepted by ELCA congregations would follow ELCA practice. Still others objected because of the implied directive that the use of a lay presidency would be abolished. This was a particular issue for rural congregations that periodically "called" a congregation member to conduct communion services consecrating the elements (of bread and wine for service) in the interim period or with the absence of ordained clergy (pastor). The Tucson resolution explicitly affirmed the continued use of lay ministry.	[ "Old Covenant", "Evangelical Lutheran Church in Kenya", "Porvoo Communion", "Evangelical Lutheran Church in America", "Anglican", "Lutheranism", "Churches Beyond Borders", "J. Robert Wright", "Church of Sweden", "lay presidency", "Episcopal Church in the United States of America", "apostolic succession", "pastor", "bishop", "deacon", "priest", "historical episcopate", "ordination", "New Covenant", "Waterloo Declaration", "priesthood of all believers", "baptism", "Lutheran Congregations in Mission for Christ" ]
7,450	Context menu	A context menu (also called contextual, shortcut, and pop up or pop-up menu) is a menu in a graphical user interface (GUI) that appears upon user interaction, such as a right-click mouse operation. A context menu offers a limited set of choices that are available in the current state, or context, of the operating system or application to which the menu belongs. Usually the available choices are actions related to the selected object. From a technical point of view, such a context menu is a graphical control element. == History == Context menus first appeared in the Smalltalk environment on the Xerox Alto computer, where they were called pop-up menus; they were invented by Dan Ingalls in the mid-1970s. Microsoft Office v3.0 introduced the context menu for copy and paste functionality in 1990. Borland demonstrated extensive use of the context menu in 1991 at the Second Paradox Conference in Phoenix Arizona. Lotus 1-2-3/G for OS/2 v1.0 added additional formatting options in 1991. Borland Quattro Pro for Windows v1.0 introduced the Properties context menu option in 1992. ==Implementation== Context menus are opened via various forms of user interaction that target a region of the GUI that supports context menus. The specific form of user interaction and the means by which a region is targeted vary: On a computer running Microsoft Windows, macOS, or Unix running the X Window System, clicking the secondary mouse button (usually the right button) opens a context menu for the region that is under the mouse pointer. For quickness, implementations may additionally support hold-and-release selection, meaning the pointer is held down and dragged, and released at desirable menu entry. On systems that support one-button mice, context menus are typically opened by pressing and holding the primary mouse button (this works on the icons in the Dock on macOS) or by pressing a keyboard/mouse button combination (e.g. Ctrl-mouse click in Classic Mac OS and macOS). A keyboard alternative for macOS is to enable Mouse keys in Universal Access. Then, depending on whether a laptop or compact or extended keyboard type is used, the shortcut is ++5 or +5 (numeric keypad) or ++i (laptop). On systems with a multi-touch interface such as MacBook or Surface, the context menu can be opened by pressing or tapping with two fingers instead of just one. Some cameras on smartphones for example recognize a QR code when a picture is taken. Then a pop-up appears if you want to 'open' the QR content. This could be anything like a website or to configure your phone to connect to Wi-Fi. See image. On some user interfaces, context menu items are accompanied by icons for quicker recognition upon navigation. Context menus can also have a top row of icons only for quick access to most frequently used options. Windows mouse click behavior is such that the context menu doesn't open while the mouse button is pressed, but only opens the menu when the button is released, so the user has to click again to select a context menu item. This behavior differs from that of macOS and most free software GUIs. In Microsoft Windows, pressing the Application key or Shift+F10 opens a context menu for the region that has focus. Context menus are sometimes hierarchically organized, allowing navigation through different levels of the menu structure. The implementations differ: Microsoft Word was one of the first applications to only show sub-entries of some menu entries after clicking an arrow icon on the context menu, otherwise executing an action associated with the parent entry. This makes it possible to quickly repeat an action with the parameters of the previous execution, and to better separate options from actions. === X Window Managers === The following window managers provide context menu functionality: Awesome IceWM—middle-click and right-click context menus on desktop, menu bar, title bars, and title icon olwm openbox sawfish ==Usability== Context menus have received some criticism from usability analysts when improperly used, as some applications make certain features only available in context menus, which may confuse even experienced users (especially when the context menus can only be activated in a limited area of the application's client window). Context menus usually open in a fixed position under the pointer, but when the pointer is near a screen edge the menu will be displaced - thus reducing consistency and impeding use of muscle memory. If the context menu is being triggered by keyboard, such as by using Shift + F10, the context menu appears near the focused widget instead of the position of the pointer, to save recognition efforts. ==In documentation== Microsoft's guidelines call for always using the term context menu, and explicitly deprecate shortcut menu.	[ "Menu key", "Dan Ingalls", "X Window System", "middle-click", "Universal Access", "graphical control element (software)", "right-click", "olwm", "title bar", "Lotus 1-2-3", "openbox", "QR code", "Sawfish (window manager)", "multi-touch", "Menu (computing)", "muscle memory", "macOS", "Xerox Alto", "Quattro Pro", "Focus (computing)", "Desktop environment", "Mouse (computing)", "IceWM", "Unix", "Pie menu", "Selection (user interface)", "Microsoft Word", "Mouse keys", "Microsoft Windows", "Wi-Fi", "title icon", "Awesome (window manager)", "Smalltalk", "OS/2", "Classic Mac OS", "Microsoft Office", "window manager", "graphical user interface", "Borland", "usability", "menu bar", "Elements of graphical user interfaces", "Screen hotspot" ]
7,451	Jews as the chosen people	In Judaism, the concept of the Jews as chosen people ( hāʿām hanīvḥar) is the belief that the Jews as a people, via descent from the ancient Israelites, are a chosen people, i.e. selected to be in a covenant with God. Israelites being properly the chosen people of God is found directly in the Book of Deuteronomy 7:6 as the verb baḥar (בָּחַר), and is alluded to elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible using other terms such as "holy people" as goy or gentile, Book of Exodus 19:6. Much is written about these topics in rabbinic literature. The three largest Jewish denominations—Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism—maintain the belief that the Jews have been chosen by God for a purpose. Sometimes this choice is seen by believers as charging the Jewish people with a specific mission—to be a light unto the nations, and to exemplify the covenant with God as described in the Torah. Isaiah and Jeremiah viewed God's loving choice of Israel as a means to teaching monotheism, combatting idolatry, curbing human arrogance, ending violence, lust, greed, extreme chauvinism and warfare, and ushering in a new society. The concept of "chosenness" is acknowledged by many to connote ethnic supremacy, the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) also identifies prophets outside the community of Israel and the prophet Jonah is explicitly told to go prophesize to the non-Jewish people of Nineveh. Jewish tradition is clear that there were interactions of non-Jewish prophets with God which are not recounted in the Torah. Based on these statements and stories, some rabbis theorized that, in the words of Natan'el al-Fayyumi, a Yemenite Jewish theologian of the 12th century, "God permitted to some people that which he forbade to others ... [and] God sends a prophet to every people according to their own language." (Levine, 1907/1966) The Mishnah states that "Humanity was produced from one man, Adam, to show God's greatness. When a man mints a coin in a press, each coin is identical. But when the King of Kings, the Holy One, blessed be He, creates people in the form of Adam not one is similar to any other" (Mishnah Sanhedrin 4:5). ==Etymological background== The term "chosen people" is free translated from the biblical terms ʿam segullah (“treasure people”) and ʿam nahallah (“heritage people”). Deuteronomy 7:5-7:6, "But thus shall ye deal with them; ye shall destroy their altars, and break down their images, and cut down their groves, and burn their graven images with fire. For thou art a holy people unto the LORD thy God: the LORD thy God hath chosen thee to be His own treasure, out of all peoples that are upon the face of the earth." A similar passage speaking of Israel as the chosen people follows prohibitions on baldness and cutting yourself in mourning, "For thou art a holy people". The Torah also says, "Now therefore, if you will obey my voice indeed, and keep my covenant, then you shall be a peculiar treasure unto me from all the peoples, for all the earth is mine." God promises that he will never exchange his people with any other: "And I will establish My covenant between Me and you and your descendants after you in their generations, for an everlasting covenant, to be God to you and your descendants after you." Other Torah verses about chosenness, "And you shall be unto me a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation" "The Lord did not set his love upon you, nor choose you, because you were more in number than any people; for you were the fewest of all people; but because the Lord loved you, and because he would keep the oath which he had sworn unto your ancestors." The obligation imposed upon the Israelites was emphasized by the prophet Amos: "You only have I singled out of all the families of the earth: therefore will I visit upon you all your iniquities." ==Rabbinic views== Most Jewish texts do not state that "God chose the Jews" by itself. Rather, this is usually linked with a mission or purpose, such as proclaiming God's message among all the nations, even though Jews cannot become "unchosen" if they shirk their mission. This implies a special duty, which evolves from the belief that Jews have been pledged by the covenant which God concluded with the biblical patriarch Abraham, their ancestor, and again with the entire Jewish nation at Mount Sinai. In this view, Jews are charged with living a holy life as God's priest-people. In the Jewish prayerbook (the Siddur), chosenness is referred to in a number of ways. The blessing for reading the Torah reads, "Praised are You, Lord our God, King of the Universe, Who has chosen us out of all the nations and bestowed upon us His Torah." In the "Kiddush", a prayer of sanctification, in which the Sabbath is inaugurated over a cup of wine, the text reads, "For you have chosen us and sanctified us out of all the nations, and have given us the Sabbath as an inheritance in love and favour. Praised are you, Lord, who hallows the Sabbath." In the "Kiddush" recited on festivals it reads, "Blessed are You ... who have chosen us from among all nations, raised us above all tongues, and made us holy through His commandments." The Aleinu prayer refers to the concept of Jews as a chosen people: "It is our duty to praise the Master of all, to exalt the Creator of the Universe, who has not made us like the nations of the world and has not placed us like the families of the earth; who has not designed our destiny to be like theirs, nor our lot like that of all their multitude. We bend the knee and bow and acknowledge before the Supreme King of Kings, the Holy One, blessed be he, that it is he who stretched forth the heavens and founded the earth. His seat of glory is in the heavens above; his abode of majesty is in the lofty heights. Sometimes this choice is seen as charging the Jewish people with a specific mission—to be a light unto the nations, and to exemplify the covenant with God as described in the Torah. This view, however, does not always preclude a belief that God has a relationship with other peoples—rather, Judaism held that God had entered into a covenant with all humankind, and that Jews and non-Jews alike have a relationship with God. Biblical references as well as rabbinic literature support this view: Moses refers to the "God of the spirits of all flesh", also identifies prophets outside the community of Israel. Based on these statements, some rabbis theorized that, in the words of Natan'el al-Fayyumi, a Yemenite Jewish theologian of the 12th century, "God permitted to every people something he forbade to others...[and] God sends a prophet to every people according to their own language." The Mishnah states that "Humanity was produced from one man, Adam, to show God's greatness. When a man mints a coin in a press, each coin is identical. But when the King of Kings, the Holy One, blessed be He, creates people in the form of Adam not one is similar to any other." The Tosefta, a collection of important post-Talmudic discourses, also states: "Righteous people of all nations have a share in the world to come." ===Further interpretations=== The following section contains information from the Jewish Encyclopedia, originally published between 1901–1906, which is in the public domain. According to the Rabbis, "Israel is of all nations the most willful or headstrong one, and the Torah was to give it the right scope and power of resistance, or else the world could not have withstood its fierceness." "The Lord offered the Law to all nations; but all refused to accept it except Israel." How do we understand "A Gentile who consecrates his life to the study and observance of the Law ranks as high as the high priest", says R. Meïr, by deduction from Lev. xviii. 5; II Sam. vii. 19; Isa. xxvi. 2; Ps. xxxiii. 1, cxviii. 20, cxxv. 4, where all stress is laid not on Israel, but on man or the righteous one. Maimonides states: It is now abundantly clear that the pledges Hashem made to Avraham and his descendants would be fulfilled exclusively first in Yitzchak and then in Yaakov, Yitzchak son. This is confirmed by a passage that states, "He is ever mindful of His covenant ... that He made with Avraham, swore to Yitzchak, and confirmed in a decree for Yaakov, for Yisrael, as an eternal covenant." The Gemara states this regarding a non-Jew who studies Torah [his 7 mitzvot] and regarding this, see Shita Mekubetzes, Bava Kama 38a who says that this is an exaggeration. In any case, this statement was not extolling the non-Jew. The Rishonim explain that it is extolling the Torah. Tosfos explains that it uses the example of a kohen gadol (high priest), because this statement is based on the verse, "y'kara hi mipnimim" (it is more precious than pearls). This is explained elsewhere in the Gemara to mean that the Torah is more precious pnimim (translated here as "inside" instead of as "pearls"; thus that the Torah is introspectively absorbed into the person), which refers to lifnai v'lifnim (translated as "the most inner of places"), that is the Holy of Holies where the kahon gadol went. In any case, in Midrash Rabba this statement is made with an important addition: a non-Jew who converts and studies Torah etc. The Nation of Israel is likened to the olive. Just as this fruit yields its precious oil only after being much pressed and squeezed, so Israel's destiny is one of great oppression and hardship, in order that it may thereby give forth its illuminating wisdom. Poverty is the quality most befitting Israel as the chosen people. Only on account of its good works is Israel among the nations "as the lily among thorns", or "as wheat among the chaff." ==Modern Orthodox views== Rabbi Lord Immanuel Jakobovits, former Chief Rabbi of the United Synagogue of Great Britain (Modern Orthodox Judaism), described chosenness in this way: "Yes, I do believe that the chosen people concept as affirmed by Judaism in its holy writ, its prayers, and its millennial tradition. In fact, I believe that every people—and indeed, in a more limited way, every individual—is "chosen" or destined for some distinct purpose in advancing the designs of Providence. Only, some fulfill their mission and others do not. Maybe the Greeks were chosen for their unique contributions to art and philosophy, the Romans for their pioneering services in law and government, the British for bringing parliamentary rule into the world, and the Americans for piloting democracy in a pluralistic society. The Jews were chosen by God to be 'peculiar unto Me' as the pioneers of religion and morality; that was and is their national purpose." Modern Orthodox theologian Michael Wyschogrod wrote: "[T]he initial election of Abraham himself was not earned. ... We are simply told that God commanded Abraham to leave his place of birth and go to a land that God would show him. He is also promised that his descendants will become a numerous people. But nowhere does the Bible tell us why Abraham rather than someone else was chosen. The implication is that God chooses whom He wishes and that He owes no accounting to anyone for His choices." Rabbi Norman Lamm, a leader of Modern Orthodox Judaism, wrote: "The chosenness of Israel relates exclusively to its spiritual vocation embodied in the Torah; the doctrine, indeed, was announced at Sinai. Whenever it is mentioned in our liturgy—such as the blessing immediately preceding the Shema....it is always related to Torah or Mitzvot (commandments). This spiritual vocation consists of two complementary functions, described as "Goy Kadosh", that of a holy nation, and "Mamlekhet Kohanim", that of a kingdom of priests. The first term denotes the development of communal separateness or differences in order to achieve a collective self-transcendence. ... The second term implies the obligation of this brotherhood of the spiritual elite toward the rest of mankind; priesthood is defined by the prophets as fundamentally a teaching vocation." ==Conservative views== Conservative Judaism views the concept of chosenness in this way: "Few beliefs have been subject to as much misunderstanding as the 'Chosen People' doctrine. The Torah and the Prophets clearly stated that this does not imply any innate Jewish superiority. In the words of Amos (3:2) 'You alone have I singled out of all the families of the earth—that is why I will call you to account for your iniquities.' The Torah tells us that we are to be "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation" with obligations and duties which flowed from our willingness to accept this status. Far from being a license for special privilege, it entailed additional responsibilities not only toward God but to our fellow human beings. As expressed in the blessing at the reading of the Torah, our people have always felt it to be a privilege to be selected for such a purpose. For the modern traditional Jew, the doctrine of the election and the covenant of Israel offers a purpose for Jewish existence which transcends its own self interests. It suggests that because of our special history and unique heritage we are in a position to demonstrate that a people that takes seriously the idea of being covenanted with God can not only thrive in the face of oppression, but can be a source of blessing to its children and its neighbors. It obligates us to build a just and compassionate society throughout the world and especially in the land of Israel where we may teach by example what it means to be a 'covenant people, a light unto the nations.'" Rabbi Reuven Hammer comments on the excised sentence in the Aleinu prayer mentioned above: "Originally the text read that God has not made us like the nations who "bow down to nothingness and vanity, and pray to an impotent god", ... In the Middle Ages these words were censored, since the church believed they were an insult to Christianity. Omitting them tends to give the impression that the Aleinu teaches that we are both different and better than others. The actual intent is to say that we are thankful that God has enlightened us so that, unlike the pagans, we worship the true God and not idols. There is no inherent superiority in being Jewish, but we do assert the superiority of monotheistic belief over paganism. Although paganism still exists today, we are no longer the only ones to have a belief in one God." ==Reform views== Reform Judaism views the concept of chosenness as follows: "Throughout the ages it has been Israel's mission to witness to the Divine in the face of every form of paganism and materialism. We regard it as our historic task to cooperate with all men in the establishment of the kingdom of God, of universal brotherhood, Justice, truth and peace on earth. This is our Messianic goal." In 1999 the Reform movement stated, "We affirm that the Jewish people are bound to God by an eternal covenant, as reflected in our varied understandings of Creation, Revelation and Redemption. ... We are Israel, a people aspiring to holiness, singled out through our ancient covenant and our unique history among the nations to be witnesses to God's presence. We are linked by that covenant and that history to all Jews in every age and place." ==Alternative views== ===Equality of souls=== Many Kabbalistic sources, notably the Tanya, contain statements to the effect that the Jewish soul is qualitatively different from the non-Jewish soul. A number of known Chabad rabbis offered alternative readings of the Tanya, did not take this teaching literally, and even managed to reconcile it with the leftist ideas of internationalism and class struggle. The original text of the Tanya refers to the "idol worshippers" and does not mention the "nations of the world" at all, although such interpretation was endorsed by Menachem Mendel Schneerson and is popular in contemporary Chabad circles. Hillel Paricher, an early Tanya commentator, wrote that the souls of righteous Gentiles are more similar to the Jewish souls, and are generally good and not egoistic. This teaching was accepted by Schneerson and is considered normative in Chabad. ====Different in character but not different in value==== According to the author of the Tanya himself, a righteous non-Jew can achieve a high level of spirituality, similar to an angel, although his soul is still fundamentally different in character, but not value, from a Jewish one. Tzemach Tzedek, the third rebbe of Chabad, wrote that the Muslims are naturally good-hearted people. Rabbi Yosef Jacobson, a popular contemporary Chabad lecturer, teaches that in today's world most non-Jews belong to the category of righteous Gentiles, effectively rendering the Tanya's attitude anachronistic. ====Altruism==== An anti-Zionist interpretation of Tanya was offered by Abraham Yehudah Khein, a prominent Ukrainian Chabad rabbi, who supported anarchist communism and considered Peter Kropotkin a great Tzaddik. Khein basically read the Tanya backwards; since the souls of idol worshipers are known to be evil, according to the Tanya, while the Jewish souls are known to be good, he concluded that truly altruistic people are really Jewish, in a spiritual sense, while Jewish nationalists and class oppressors are not. By this logic, he claimed that Vladimir Solovyov and Rabindranath Tagore probably have Jewish souls, while Leon Trotsky and other totalitarians do not, and many Zionists, whom he compared to apes, are merely "Jewish by birth certificate". ====Righteous non-Jews==== Nachman of Breslov also believed that Jewishness is a level of consciousness, and not an intrinsic inborn quality. He wrote that, according to the Book of Malachi, one can find "potential Jews" among all nations, whose souls are illuminated by the leap of "holy faith", which "activated" the Jewishness in their souls. These people would otherwise convert to Judaism, but prefer not to do so. Instead, they recognize the Divine unity within their pagan religions. Isaac Arama, an influential philosopher and mystic of the 15th century, believed that righteous non-Jews are spiritually identical to the righteous Jews. Rabbi Menachem Meiri, a famous Catalan Talmudic commentator and Maimonidian philosopher, considered all people, who sincerely profess an ethical religion, to be part of a greater "spiritual Israel". He explicitly included Christians and Muslims in this category. Meiri rejected all Talmudic laws that discriminate between the Jews and non-Jews, claiming that they only apply to the ancient idolators, who had no sense of morality. The only exceptions are a few laws related directly or indirectly to intermarriage, which Meiri did recognize. Meiri applied his idea of "spiritual Israel" to the Talmudic statements about unique qualities of the Jewish people. For example, he believed that the famous saying that Israel is above astrological predestination (Ein Mazal le-Israel) also applied to the followers of other ethical faiths. He also considered countries, inhabited by decent moral non-Jews, such as Languedoc, as a spiritual part of the Holy Land. ===Spinoza=== One Jewish critic of chosenness was the philosopher Baruch Spinoza. In the third chapter of his Theologico-Political Treatise, Spinoza mounts an argument against a naive interpretation of God's choice of the Jews. Bringing evidence from the Bible itself, he argues that God's choice of Israel was not unique (he had chosen other nations before choosing the Hebrew nation) and that the choice of the Jews is neither inclusive (it does not include all of the Jews, but only the 'pious' ones) nor exclusive (it also includes 'true gentile prophets'). Finally, he argues that God's choice is not unconditional. Recalling the numerous times God threatened the complete destruction of the Hebrew nation, he asserts that this choice is neither absolute, nor eternal, nor necessary. ===Einstein=== In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, the physicist Albert Einstein wrote: The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this.... For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people.... I cannot see anything “chosen” about them. ==Reconstructionist criticism== Reconstructionist Judaism rejects the concept of chosenness. Its founder, Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, said that the idea that God chose the Jewish people leads to racist beliefs among Jews, thus, it must be excised from Jewish theology. This rejection of chosenness is made explicit in the movement's siddurim (prayer books). For example, the original blessing recited before reading from the Torah contains the phrase, "asher bahar banu mikol ha’amim"—"Praised are you Lord our God, ruler of the Universe, who has chosen us from among all peoples by giving us the Torah." The Reconstructionist version is rewritten as "asher kervanu la’avodato", "Praised are you Lord our God, ruler of the Universe, who has drawn us to your service by giving us the Torah." In the mid-1980s, the Reconstructionist movement issued its Platform on Reconstructionism. It states that the idea of chosenness is "morally untenable", because anyone who has such beliefs "implies the superiority of the elect community and the rejection of others." Not all Reconstructionists accept this view. The newest siddur of the movement, Kol Haneshamah, includes the traditional blessings as an option, and some modern Reconstructionist writers have opined that the traditional formulation should be embraced because it is not racist. An original prayer book by the Reconstructionist feminist poet Marcia Falk, The Book of Blessings, has been accepted by many Reform and Reconstructionist Jews. Falk rejects all concepts which are related to hierarchy or distinction; she sees any distinction as leading to the acceptance of other kinds of distinctions, thus leading to prejudice. She writes that as a politically liberal feminist, she must reject distinctions made between men and women, homosexuals and heterosexuals, Jews and non-Jews, and to some extent even distinctions between the Sabbath and the other six days of the week. She thus rejects the idea of chosenness as unethical. She also rejects Jewish theology in general, and instead holds to a form of religious humanism. Falk writes: "The idea of Israel as God's chosen people ... is a key concept in rabbinic Judaism. Yet it is particularly problematic for many Jews today, in that it seems to fly in the face of monotheistic belief that all humanity is created in the divine image—and hence, all humanity is equally loved and valued by God. ... I find it difficult to conceive of a feminist Judaism that would incorporate it in its teaching: the valuing of one people over and above others is all too analogous to the privileging of one sex over another." Reconstructionist author Judith Plaskow also criticises the idea of chosenness, for many of the same reasons as Falk. A politically liberal lesbian, Plaskow rejects most distinctions made between men and women, homosexuals and heterosexuals, and Jews and non-Jews. In contrast to Falk, Plaskow does not reject all concepts of difference as inherently leading to unethical beliefs, and holds to a more classical form of Jewish theism than Falk. A number of responses to these views have been made by Reform and Conservative Jews; they hold the view that these criticisms are against teachings that do not exist within liberal forms of Judaism, and such teachings are rare in Orthodox Judaism (outside certain Haredi communities, such as Chabad). A separate criticism stems from the very existence of feminist forms of Judaism in all denominations of Judaism, which do not have a problem with the concept of chosenness. ==Views of other religions== ===Islam=== The children of Israel enjoy a special status in the Islamic holy book, the Quran (2:47 and 2:122). However, Muslim scholars point out that this status did not confer upon Israelites any racial superiority, and was only valid so long as the Israelites maintain their covenant with God. ===Christianity=== Some Christians believe that the Jews were God's chosen people, but because of Jewish rejection of Jesus, the Christians in turn received that special status. This doctrine is known as Supersessionism. Other Christians, such as the Christadelphians, believe that God has not rejected Israel as his chosen people and that the Jews will in fact accept Jesus as their Messiah at his Second Coming, resulting in their salvation. The view that the Jews still retain their status as the chosen people is also associated with Dispensational theology, promoted by John Nelson Darby and Cyrus Scofield. Augustine criticized Jewish chosenness as "carnal." He reasoned that Israel was chosen "according to the flesh." The Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary similarly argues that God made Israel the "holy nation" to exclusively uphold the promises made to their "pious forefathers". They argue that Jewish supremacist views are unsound, with Jews being frequently described as a small people that engaged in "perverse" moral conduct in the Bible. The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes the "People of God" as referring to all people who have faith in Christ and are baptized. They have characteristics "that distinguish it from all other religious, ethnic, political, or cultural groups found in history". ==Influence on Judaism's relationship with other religions== Avi Beker, an Israeli scholar and former Secretary General of the World Jewish Congress, regarded the idea of the chosen people as Judaism's defining concept and "the central unspoken psychological, historical, and theological problem which is at the heart of Jewish-Gentile relations." In his book The Chosen: The History of an Idea, and the Anatomy of an Obsession, Beker expresses the view that the concept of chosenness is the driving force behind Jewish-Gentile relations, explaining both the admiration and, more pointedly, the envy and the hatred which the world has felt towards the Jews in both religious and secular terms. Beker argues that while Christianity has modified its doctrine on the displacement of the Jews, Islam has neither reversed nor reformed its theology concerning the succession of both the Jews and the Christians. According to Beker, this presents a major barrier to conflict resolution in the Arab-Israeli conflict. ==Ethnocentrism== The Israeli philosopher Ze'ev Levy writes that chosenness can be "(partially) justified only from the historical angle" with respect to its spiritual and moral contribution to Jewish life through the centuries as "a powerful agent of consolation and hope". He points out, however, that modern anthropological theories "do not merely proclaim the inherent universal equality of all people [as] human beings; they also stress the equivalence [emphasis in original] of all human cultures." He continues that "there are no inferior and superior people or cultures but only different, other, ones." He concludes that the concept of chosenness entails ethnocentrism, "which does not go hand in hand with otherness, that is, with unconditional respect of otherness". Some people have said that Judaism's chosen people concept is racist because it implies that Jews are superior to non-Jews.	[ "Jewish people", "prejudice", "Transaction Publishers", "Siddur", "Rabindranath Tagore", "Moses", "Tzaddik", "Hebrew Bible", "Covenant (biblical)", "Book of Exodus", "Islam", "HarperOne", "Talmud", "Christadelphians", "Nachman of Breslov", "ancient Rome", "anarchist communism", "Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)", "Tanya (Judaism)", "prophet", "Abraham Yehudah Khein", "Israelites", "Immanuel Jakobovits", "Kabbalah", "Tanakh", "Mordecai Kaplan", "light unto the nations", "Anti-Judaism", "Promised Land", "Theologico-Political Treatise", "chosen people", "Rabbi", "Albert Einstein", "Criticism of Judaism", "Hillel Paritcher", "Pittsburgh", "Menachem Mendel Schneersohn", "Leon Trotsky", "Halakha", "Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary", "Ukraine", "Peter Kropotkin", "Ethnic supremacism", "Bible", "World Jewish Congress", "Lech Lecha", "Gil Student", "Jewish feminism", "History of Christianity", "Artscroll", "Córdoba, Andalusia", "Reuven Hammer", "Orthodox Judaism", "Menachem Mendel Schneerson", "Reform Judaism", "Nineveh", "Michael Wyschogrod", "Antisemitism", "Racism", "Book of Malachi", "Left-wing politics", "Ismar Elbogen", "Aleinu", "God (word)", "Judith Plaskow", "Chabad", "Rabbinical Assembly", "Jewish religious movements", "Ohio", "Eric Gutkind", "Catechism of the Catholic Church", "Jews", "God in Judaism", "Marcia Falk", "Norman Lamm", "Quran", "John Nelson Darby", "Conservative Judaism", "Internationalism (politics)", "rejection of Jesus", "ethnocentrism", "Mount Sinai", "Deuteronomy", "rabbinic literature", "Menachem Meiri", "Nosson Scherman", "Haredi", "Holy Land", "class struggle", "Olam Haba", "anti-Zionism", "Dispensationalism", "Religious nationalism", "Isaac ben Moses Arama", "covenant (biblical)", "Jewish religion", "Jonah", "Natan'el al-Fayyumi", "Jewish Encyclopedia", "siddur", "Modern Orthodox Judaism", "anthropological", "Supersessionism", "Shabbat", "Book of Deuteronomy", "C. I. Scofield", "Catalan people", "British Empire", "Judaism", "Hellenic civilization", "God", "Reconstructionist Judaism", "Mishnah", "land of Israel", "Kiddush", "Avi Beker", "Jason Aronson Inc", "Torah", "Languedoc", "Baruch Spinoza", "ape", "Maimonides", "Augustine", "Amos (prophet)", "Abraham" ]
7,453	Christian persecution	Christian persecution may refer to: History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance Persecution of other groups by Christians Historical persecution by Christians Persecution of Heathens (disambiguation) Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I Anti-paganism policy of Constantius II Persecution of Germanic Pagans (disambiguation) Persecution of Ottoman Muslims Persecution of Jews Black Death Jewish persecutions Persecutions of Christians by other Christians Anti-Catholicism Anti-Protestantism Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians Persecution of Christians in Mexico Persecution of Christians by other groups Persecution of Christians Persecution of Christians in the New Testament Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire Decian persecution Persecution in Lyon Diocletianic Persecution List of Christians martyred during the reign of Diocletian Gothic persecution of Christians Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians Persecution of Oriental Orthodox Christians Persecution of Copts Persecution of Christians in the modern era Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Germany Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc Eastern Catholic victims of Soviet persecutions Religious persecution during the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina Anti-Christian violence in India Genocide of Christians by ISIL Persecution of Christians in the Muslim world	[ "Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union", "Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire", "Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Germany", "Persecution of Copts", "Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians", "Persecution in Lyon", "Persecution of Christians in the Muslim world", "Persecution of Germanic Pagans (disambiguation)", "Persecution of Oriental Orthodox Christians", "Anti-Christian violence in India", "Religious persecution during the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina", "Eastern Catholic victims of Soviet persecutions", "Persecution of Jews", "History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance", "Anti-paganism policy of Constantius II", "Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc", "Religious persecution", "Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I", "Persecution of Christians in Mexico", "Anti-Catholicism", "Diocletianic Persecution", "Black Death Jewish persecutions", "Persecution of Christians in the New Testament", "Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany", "Decian persecution", "Genocide of Christians by ISIL", "Persecution of Heathens (disambiguation)", "Anti-Protestantism", "Historical persecution by Christians", "Persecution of Orthodox Christians (disambiguation)", "List of Christians martyred during the reign of Diocletian", "Persecution of Christians", "Christian persecution complex", "Persecution of Ottoman Muslims", "Persecution of Christians in the modern era", "Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire", "Gothic persecution of Christians" ]
7,455	Chaparral	Chaparral ( ) is a shrubland plant community found primarily in California, southern Oregon, and northern Baja California. It is shaped by a Mediterranean climate (mild wet winters and hot dry summers) and infrequent, high-intensity crown fires. Many chaparral shrubs have hard sclerophyllous evergreen leaves, as contrasted with the associated soft-leaved, drought-deciduous, scrub community of coastal sage scrub, found often on drier, southern-facing slopes. Three other closely related chaparral shrubland systems occur in southern Arizona, western Texas, and along the eastern side of central Mexico's mountain chains, all having summer rains in contrast to the Mediterranean climate of other chaparral formations. ==Etymology== The name comes from the Spanish word , which translates to "place of the scrub oak". Scrub oak in turn comes from the Basque word , which has the same meaning. ==Overview== In its natural state, chaparral is characterized by infrequent fires, with natural fire return intervals ranging between 30 years and over 150 years. Mature chaparral (at least 60 years since time of last fire) is characterized by nearly impenetrable, dense thickets (except the more open desert chaparral). These plants are flammable during the late summer and autumn months when conditions are characteristically hot and dry. They grow as woody shrubs with thick, leathery, evergreen and often small leaves. The plants are typically drought resistant, with some exceptions. After the first rains following a fire, the landscape is dominated by small flowering herbaceous plants, known as fire followers, which die back with the summer dry period. Similar plant communities are found in the four other Mediterranean climate regions around the world, including the Mediterranean Basin (where it is known as ), central Chile (where it is called ), the South African Cape Region (known there as ), and in Western and Southern Australia (as ). According to the California Academy of Sciences, Mediterranean shrubland contains more than 20% of the world's plant diversity. Chaparral comprises 9% of California's wildland vegetation and contains 20% of its plant species. Conservation International and other conservation organizations consider chaparral to be a biodiversity hotspot – a biological community with a large number of different species that is threatened by human activity. Chaparral characteristically is found in areas with steep topography and shallow stony soils, while adjacent areas with clay soils, even where steep, tend to be colonized by annual plants and grasses. Some chaparral species are adapted to nutrient-poor soils developed over serpentine and other ultramafic rock, with a high ratio of magnesium and iron to calcium and potassium, that are also generally low in essential nutrients such as nitrogen. ==California chaparral== ===California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion=== The California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome, has three sub-ecoregions with ecosystem–plant community subdivisions: California coastal sage and chaparral:In coastal Southern California and northwestern coastal Baja California, as well as all of the Channel Islands off California and Guadalupe Island (Mexico). California montane chaparral and woodlands:In southern and central coast adjacent and inland California regions, including covering some of the mountains of the California Coast Ranges, the Transverse Ranges, and the western slopes of the northern Peninsular Ranges. California interior chaparral and woodlands:In central interior California surrounding the Central Valley, covering the foothills and lower slopes of the northeastern Transverse Ranges and the western Sierra Nevada range. Some indicator plants of the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion include: Quercus species – oaks: Quercus agrifolia – coast live oak Quercus berberidifolia – scrub oak Quercus chrysolepis – canyon live oak Quercus douglasii – blue oak Quercus wislizeni – interior live oak Artemisia species – sagebrush: Artemisia californica – California sagebrush, coastal sage brush Arctostaphylos species – manzanitas: Arctostaphylos glauca – bigberry manzanita Arctostaphylos manzanita – common manzanita Ceanothus species – California lilacs: Ceanothus cuneatus – buckbrush Ceanothus megacarpus – bigpod ceanothus Rhus species – sumacs: Rhus integrifolia – lemonade berry Rhus ovata – sugar bush Eriogonum species – buckwheats: Eriogonum fasciculatum – California buckwheat Salvia species – sages: Salvia mellifera – Californian black sage ===California cismontane and transmontane chaparral subdivisions=== Another phytogeography system uses two California chaparral and woodlands subdivisions: the cismontane chaparral and the transmontane (desert) chaparral. ====California cismontane chaparral==== Cismontane chaparral ("this side of the mountain") refers to the chaparral ecosystem in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome in California, growing on the western (and coastal) sides of large mountain range systems, such as the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada in the San Joaquin Valley foothills, western slopes of the Peninsular Ranges and California Coast Ranges, and south-southwest slopes of the Transverse Ranges in the Central Coast and Southern California regions. =====Cismontane chaparral plant species===== In Central and Southern California chaparral forms a dominant habitat. Members of the chaparral biota native to California, all of which tend to regrow quickly after fires, include: Adenostoma fasciculatum, chamise Adenostoma sparsifolium, redshanks Arctostaphylos spp., manzanita Ceanothus spp., ceanothus Cercocarpus spp., mountain mahogany Cneoridium dumosum, bush rue Eriogonum fasciculatum, California buckwheat Garrya spp., silk-tassel bush Hesperoyucca whipplei, yucca Heteromeles arbutifolia, toyon Acmispon glaber, deerweed Malosma laurina, laurel sumac Marah macrocarpus, wild cucumber Mimulus aurantiacus, bush monkeyflower Pickeringia montana, chaparral pea Prunus ilicifolia, islay or hollyleaf cherry Quercus berberidifolia, scrub oak Q. dumosa, scrub oak Q. wislizenii var. frutescens Rhamnus californica, California coffeeberry Rhus integrifolia, lemonade berry Rhus ovata, sugar bush Salvia apiana, Californian white sage Salvia mellifera, Californian black sage Xylococcus bicolor, mission manzanita =====Cismontane chaparral bird species===== The complex ecology of chaparral habitats supports a very large number of animal species. The following is a short list of birds which are an integral part of the cismontane chaparral ecosystems. Characteristic chaparral bird species include: Wrentit (Chamaea fasciata) California thrasher (Toxostoma redivivum) California towhee (Melozone crissalis) Spotted towhee (Pipilo maculatus) California scrub jay (Aphelocoma californica) Other common chaparral bird species include: Anna's hummingbird (Calypte anna) Bewick's wren (Thryomanes bewickii) Bushtit (Psaltriparus minimus) Costa's hummingbird (Calypte costae) Greater roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus) ====California transmontane (desert) chaparral==== Transmontane chaparral or desert chaparral—transmontane ("the other side of the mountain") chaparral—refers to the desert shrubland habitat and chaparral plant community growing in the rainshadow of these ranges. Transmontane chaparral features xeric desert climate, not Mediterranean climate habitats, and is also referred to as desert chaparral. Desert chaparral is a regional ecosystem subset of the deserts and xeric shrublands biome, with some plant species from the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion. Unlike cismontane chaparral, which forms dense, impenetrable stands of plants, desert chaparral is often open, with only about 50% of the ground covered. It is distinguished from the cismontane chaparral found on the coastal side of the mountains, which experiences higher winter rainfall. Naturally, desert chaparral experiences less winter rainfall than cismontane chaparral. Plants in this community are characterized by small, hard (sclerophyllic) evergreen (non-deciduous) leaves. Desert chaparral grows above California's desert cactus scrub plant community and below the pinyon–juniper woodland. It is further distinguished from the deciduous sub-alpine scrub above the pinyon–juniper woodlands on the same side of the Peninsular ranges. Due to the lower annual rainfall (resulting in slower plant growth rates) when compared to cismontane chaparral, desert chaparral is more vulnerable to biodiversity loss and the invasion of non-native weeds and grasses if disturbed by human activity and frequent fire. =====Transmontane chaparral distribution===== Transmontane (desert) chaparral typically grows on the lower ( elevation) northern slopes of the southern Transverse Ranges (running east to west in San Bernardino and Los Angeles counties) and on the lower () eastern slopes of the Peninsular Ranges (running south to north from lower Baja California to Riverside and Orange counties and the Transverse Ranges). It can also be found in higher-elevation sky islands in the interior of the deserts, such as in the upper New York Mountains within the Mojave National Preserve in the Mojave Desert. The California transmontane (desert) chaparral is found in the rain shadow deserts of the following: Sierra Nevada creating the Great Basin Desert and northern Mojave Desert Transverse Ranges creating the western through eastern Mojave Desert Peninsular Ranges creating the Colorado Desert and Yuha Desert. Canis latrans, coyote Lynx rufus, bobcat Neotoma sp., desert pack rat Odocoileus hemionus, mule deer Peromyscus truei, pinyon mouse Puma concolor, mountain lion Stagmomantis californica, California mantis ==Fire== Chaparral is a coastal biome with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. The chaparral area receives about of precipitation a year. This makes the chaparral most vulnerable to fire in the late summer and fall. The chaparral ecosystem as a whole is adapted to be able to recover from naturally infrequent, high-intensity fire (fires occurring between 30 and 150 years or more apart); indeed, chaparral regions are known culturally and historically for their impressive fires. (This does create a conflict with human development adjacent to and expanding into chaparral systems.) Additionally, Native Americans burned chaparral near villages on the coastal plain to promote plant species for textiles and food. Before a major fire, typical chaparral plant communities are dominated by manzanita, chamise Adenostoma fasciculatum and Ceanothus species, toyon (which can sometimes be interspersed with scrub oaks), and other drought-resistant shrubs with hard (sclerophyllous) leaves; these plants resprout (see resprouter) from underground burls after a fire. Plants that are long-lived in the seed bank or serotinous with induced germination after fire include chamise, Ceanothus, and fiddleneck. Some chaparral plant communities may grow so dense and tall that it becomes difficult for large animals and humans to penetrate, but may be teeming with smaller fauna in the understory. The seeds of many chaparral plant species are stimulated to germinate by some fire cue (heat or the chemicals from smoke or charred wood). Because of the hot, dry conditions that exist in the California summer and fall, chaparral is one of the most fire-prone plant communities in North America. Some fires are caused by lightning, but these are usually during periods of high humidity and low winds and are easily controlled. Nearly all of the very large wildfires are caused by human activity during periods of hot, dry easterly Santa Ana winds. These human-caused fires are commonly ignited by power line failures, vehicle fires and collisions, sparks from machinery, arson, or campfires. ===Threatened by high fire frequency=== Though adapted to infrequent fires, chaparral plant communities can be eliminated by frequent fires. A high frequency of fire (less than 10-15 years apart) will result in the loss of obligate seeding shrub species such as Manzanita spp. This high frequency disallows seeder plants to reach their reproductive size before the next fire and the community shifts to a sprouter-dominance. If high frequency fires continue over time, obligate resprouting shrub species can also be eliminated by exhausting their energy reserves below-ground. Today, frequent accidental ignitions can convert chaparral from a native shrubland to non-native annual grassland and drastically reduce species diversity, especially under drought brought about by climate change. ===Wildfire debate=== There are two older hypotheses relating to California chaparral fire regimes that caused considerable debate in the past within the fields of wildfire ecology and land management. Research over the past two decades have rejected these hypotheses: That older stands of chaparral become "senescent" or "decadent", thus implying that fire is necessary for the plants to remain healthy, That wildfire suppression policies have allowed dead chaparral to accumulate unnaturally, creating ample fuel for large fires. The perspective that older chaparral is unhealthy or unproductive may have originated during the 1940s when studies were conducted measuring the amount of forage available to deer populations in chaparral stands. However, according to recent studies, California chaparral is extraordinarily resilient to very long periods without fire and continues to maintain productive growth throughout pre-fire conditions. Seeds of many chaparral plants actually require 30 years or more worth of accumulated leaf litter before they will successfully germinate (e.g., scrub oak, Quercus berberidifolia; toyon, Heteromeles arbutifolia; and holly-leafed cherry, Prunus ilicifolia). When intervals between fires drop below 10 to 15 years, many chaparral species are eliminated and the system is typically replaced by non-native, invasive, weedy grassland. The idea that older chaparral is responsible for causing large fires was originally proposed in the 1980s by comparing wildfires in Baja California and southern California. It was suggested that fire suppression activities in southern California allowed more fuel to accumulate, which in turn led to larger fires. Historically, mixed-severity fires likely burned through these forests every decade or so, However, chaparral has a high-intensity crown-fire regime, meaning that fires consume nearly all the above ground growth whenever they burn, with a historical frequency of 30 to 150 years or more. Large, infrequent, high-intensity wildfires are part of the natural fire regime for California chaparral. Extreme weather conditions (low humidity, high temperature, high winds), drought, and low fuel moisture are the primary factors in determining how large a chaparral fire becomes.	[ "Basque language", "ponderosa pine", "Nitrogen fixation", "Baja California", "biome", "Purshia tridentata", "leaf litter", "evergreen", "Central Valley (California)", "Canis latrans", "Chilean Matorral", "Rhus ovata", "Hesperoyucca whipplei", "Eriogonum", "Opuntia phaeacantha", "burl", "sclerophyll", "California coastal sage and chaparral", "Ceanothus cuneatus", "Mimulus aurantiacus", "desert chaparral", "Southern California", "resprouter", "Rhus", "Marah macrocarpus", "Neotoma", "Transverse Ranges", "Quercus wislizenii", "Opuntia acanthocarpa", "Mediterranean Basin", "decadent", "Keystone species", "Prunus ilicifolia", "Great Basin Desert", "University of California Press", "Dendromecon rigida", "Garrya", "Calypte anna", "Channel Islands of California", "Colorado Desert", "Salvia", "Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub", "Ceanothus megacarpus", "Pipilo maculatus", "Quercus cornelius-mulleri", "California scrub oak", "Mojave National Preserve", "coastal sage scrub", "Los Angeles County", "Xylococcus bicolor", "scrub oak", "Ceanothus", "Quercus agrifolia", "Adenostoma sparsifolium", "Santa Rosa Mountains (California)", "Fremontodendron californicum", "Orange County, California", "Arctostaphylos glauca", "Eriogonum fasciculatum", "Ceanothus greggii", "Thryomanes bewickii", "leaves", "Prunus fremontii", "Cercocarpus", "Chile", "San Bernardino County", "biodiversity hotspot", "Geococcyx californianus", "Prunus fasciculata", "Sierra Nevada", "California interior chaparral and woodlands", "Quercus", "Rhamnus californica", "Garrigue", "Heteromeles arbutifolia", "drought resistant", "Agave deserti", "Heath", "Artemisia (genus)", "California montane chaparral and woodlands", "Sonoran Desert", "Adenostoma fasciculatum", "Simmondsia chinensis", "San Gabriel Mountains", "Yuha Desert", "Conservation International", "Laguna Mountains", "pinyon–juniper woodland", "toyon", "California", "Spanish language", "Central Coast (California)", "Opuntia echinocarpa", "Chamaea fasciata", "Psaltriparus minimus", "fynbos", "Cneoridium dumosum", "California Chaparral Institute", "San Joaquin Valley", "deciduous", "Texas", "Mediterranean climate", "Quercus berberidifolia", "Mormon tea", "Aphelocoma californica", "kwongan", "plant community", "ecoregion", "biological community", "indicator plants", "deserts and xeric shrublands", "wildfire suppression", "Cercocarpus ledifolius", "Guadalupe Island", "Santa Ana winds", "biodiversity loss", "desert bighorn sheep", "mountain range", "San Bernardino Mountains", "Arctostaphylos", "Arctostaphylos manzanita", "Peromyscus truei", "Lynx rufus", "Salvia mellifera", "Santa Barbara, California", "Puma concolor", "maquis shrubland", "Quercus wislizeni", "sclerophyllous", "Los Angeles basin", "ecosystem", "New York Mountains", "senescent", "South Africa", "Odocoileus hemionus", "Acmispon glaber", "Malacosoma", "Quercus chrysolepis", "Australia", "Toxostoma redivivum", "Rosaceae", "California Coast Ranges", "Ephedra (plant)", "California chaparral and woodlands", "Salvia apiana", "Calypte costae", "Mojave Desert", "rainshadow", "Malosma laurina", "sky island", "PLOS One", "shrubland", "Quercus coccifera", "International Association of Wildland Fire", "crown fire", "Artemisia californica", "southern Oregon", "phytogeography", "deserts of California", "Yucca schidigera", "Oakland, CA", "Pickeringia montana", "Peninsular Ranges", "manzanita", "Quercus douglasii", "Quercus dumosa", "Rewilding", "Arizona", "drought-deciduous", "Melozone crissalis", "Stagmomantis californica", "Rhus integrifolia", "chamise" ]
7,456	CJD	CJD can mean: Chojoongdong, South Korean newspaper Christliches Jugenddorfwerk Deutschlands, German Christian educational institution Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, rare disease of the brain caused by prions Candilejas Airport, Colombia (by IATA code)	[ "Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease", "Christliches Jugenddorfwerk Deutschlands", "List of airports by IATA airport code: C", "Chojoongdong" ]
7,460	Clinker	Clinker may refer to: Cement clinker, a kilned then quenched cement product Clinker (boat building), construction method for wooden boats Clinker (waste), waste from industrial processes, particularly coal burning Clinkers (album), a 1978 album by saxophonist Steve Lacy Clinker brick, rough dark-coloured bricks Clinker Peak, a volcanic peak in British Columbia, Canada Clinker Ridge, a mountain ridge in British Columbia. Canada Gary James Joynes, a.k.a. Clinker Mount Price (British Columbia), formerly known as Clinker Mountain Clinker may also refer to: Small rocks that form in some ʻAʻā lava flows Waste from coal-seam fires == Surname == Cletus Clinker (1911–1979), American football player and coach Humphry Clinker, title character of Tobias Smollett's 1771 novel The Expedition of Humphry Clinker	[ "Cement clinker", "lava", "Clinker (waste)", "Mount Price (British Columbia)", "Gary James Joynes", "Clinker Ridge", "Clinker (boat building)", "coal-seam fire", "Cletus Clinker", "The Expedition of Humphry Clinker", "Clinker Peak", "Clinkers (album)", "Clinker brick" ]
7,461	Clipper	A clipper was a type of mid-19th-century merchant sailing vessel, designed for speed. The term was also retrospectively applied to the Baltimore clipper, which originated in the late 18th century. Clippers were generally narrow for their length, small by later 19th-century standards, could carry limited bulk freight, and had a large total sail area. "Clipper" does not refer to a specific sailplan; clippers may be schooners, brigs, brigantines, etc., as well as full-rigged ships. Clippers were mostly constructed in British and American shipyards, although France, Brazil, the Netherlands, and other nations also produced some. Clippers sailed all over the world, primarily on the trade routes between the United Kingdom and China, in transatlantic trade, and on the New York-to-San Francisco route around Cape Horn during the California gold rush. Dutch clippers were built beginning in the 1850s for the tea trade and passenger service to Java. The boom years of the clipper era began in 1843 in response to a growing demand for faster delivery of tea from China and continued with the demand for swift passage to gold fields in California and Australia beginning in 1848 and 1851, respectively. The era ended with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. ==Origin and usage of "clipper"== The etymological origin of the word clipper is uncertain, but is believed to be derived from the English language verb "to clip", which at the time meant "to run or fly swiftly". The first application of the term "clipper", in a nautical sense, is likewise uncertain. The type known as the Baltimore clipper originated at the end of the 18th century on the eastern seaboard of the USA. At first, these fast sailing vessels were referred to as "Virginia-built" or "pilot-boat model", with the name "Baltimore-built" appearing during the War of 1812. In the final days of the slave trade (circa 1835–1850)just as the type was dying outthe term, Baltimore clipper, became common. The common retrospective application of the word "clipper" to this type of vessel has caused confusion. The Oxford English Dictionary's earliest quote (referring to the Baltimore clipper) is from 1824. The dictionary cites Royal Navy officer and novelist Frederick Marryat as using the term in 1830. British newspaper usage of the term can be found as early as 1832 and in shipping advertisements from 1835. A US court case of 1834 has evidence that discusses a clipper being faster than a brig. ==Definitions== A clipper is a sailing vessel designed for speed, a priority that takes precedence over cargo-carrying capacity or building or operating costs. It is not restricted to any one rig (while many were fully rigged ships, others were barques, brigs, or schooners), nor was the term restricted to any one hull type. Howard Chapelle lists three basic hull types for clippers. The first was characterised by the sharp and ends found in the Baltimore clipper. The second was a hull with a full midsection and modest deadrise, but sharp endsthis was a development of the hull form of transatlantic packets. The third was more experimental, with deadrise and sharpness being balanced against the need to carry a profitable quantity of cargo. A clipper carried a large sail area and a fast hull; by the standards of any other type of sailing ship, a clipper was greatly over-canvassed. The last defining feature of a clipper, in the view of maritime historian David MacGregor, was a captain who had the courage, skill, and determination to get the fastest speed possible out of her. In assessing the hull of a clipper, different maritime historians use different criteria to measure "sharpness", "fine lines" or "fineness", a concept which is explained by comparing a rectangular cuboid with the underwater shape of a vessel's hull. The more material one has to carve off the cuboid to achieve the hull shape, the sharper the hull. Ideally, a maritime historian would be able to look at either the block coefficient of fineness or the prismatic coefficient of various clippers, but measured drawings or accurate half models may not exist to calculate either of these figures. An alternative measure of sharpness for hulls of a broadly similar shape is the coefficient of underdeck tonnage, as used by David MacGregor in comparing tea clippers. This could be calculated from the measurements taken to determine the registered tonnage, so can be applied to more vessels. An extreme clipper has a hull of great fineness, as judged either by the prismatic coefficient, the coefficient of underdeck tonnage, or some other technical assessment of hull shape. This term has been misapplied in the past, without reference to hull shape. As commercial vessels, these are totally reliant on speed to generate a profit for their owners, as their sharpness limits their cargo-carrying capacity. A medium clipper has a cargo-carrying hull that has some sharpness. In the right conditions and with a capable captain, some of these achieved notable quick passages. They were also able to pay their way when the high freight rates often paid to a fast sailing ship were not available (in a fluctuating market). The term "clipper" applied to vessels between these two categories. They often made passages as fast as extreme clippers, but had less difficulty in making a living when freight rates were lower. ==History== The first ships to which the term "clipper" seems to have been applied were the Baltimore clippers, developed in the Chesapeake Bay before the American Revolution, and reached their zenith between 1795 and 1815. They were small, rarely exceeding 200 tons OM. In the War of 1812, some were lightly armed, sailing under letters of marque and reprisal, when the typeexemplified by Chasseur, launched at Fells Point, Baltimore in 1814became known for her incredible speed; the deep draft enabled the Baltimore clipper to sail close to the wind. Clippers, running the British blockade of Baltimore, came to be recognized for speed rather than cargo space. The type existed as early as 1780. A 1789 drawing of purchased by the Royal Navy in 1780 in the West Indiesrepresents the earliest draught of what became known as the Baltimore clipper. Vessels of the Baltimore clipper type continued to be built for the slave trade, being useful for escaping enforcement of the British and American legislation prohibiting the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Some of these Baltimore clippers were captured when working as slavers, condemned by the appropriate court, and sold to owners who then used them as opium clippersmoving from one illegal international trade to another. Ann McKim, built in Baltimore in 1833 by the Kennard & Williamson shipyard, is considered by some to be the original clipper ship. (Maritime historians Howard I. Chapelle and David MacGregor decry the concept of the "first" clipper, preferring a more evolutionary, multiple-step development of the type.) She measured 494 tons OM, and was built on the enlarged lines of a Baltimore clipper, with sharply raked stem, counter stern, and square rig. Although Ann McKim was the first large clipper ship ever constructed, she cannot be said to have founded the clipper ship era, or even that she directly influenced shipbuilders, since no other ship was built like her, but she may have suggested the clipper design in vessels of ship rig. She did, however, influence the building of Rainbow in 1845, the first extreme clipper ship. Scottish Maid, 150 tons OM, was the first British clipper ship. The earliest British clipper ships were built for trade within the British Isles (Scottish Maid was built for the Aberdeen to London trade). Then followed the vast clipper trade of tea, opium, spices, and other goods from the Far East to Europe, and the ships became known as "tea clippers". From 1839, larger American clipper ships started to be built beginning with Akbar, 650 tons OM, in 1839, and including the 1844-built Houqua, 581 tons OM. These larger vessels were built predominantly for use in the China tea trade and known as "tea clippers". Antelope was relatively flat-floored and had only an 8-inch deadrise at half-floor. The medium clipper, though still very fast, could carry more cargo. After 1854, extreme clippers were replaced in American shipbuilding yards by medium clippers. The last example of these still in reasonable condition is Cutty Sark, preserved in dry dock at Greenwich, United Kingdom. Damaged by fire on 21 May 2007 while undergoing conservation, the ship was permanently elevated 3.0 m above the dry dock floor in 2010 as part of a plan for long-term preservation. Clippers were built for seasonal trades such as tea, where an early cargo was more valuable, or for passenger routes. One passenger ship survives, the City of Adelaide designed by William Pile of Sunderland. The fast ships were ideally suited to low-volume, high-profit goods, such as tea, opium, spices, people, and mail. The return could be spectacular. The Challenger returned from Shanghai with "the most valuable cargo of tea and silk ever to be laden in one bottom". Competition among the clippers was public and fierce, with their times recorded in the newspapers. The last China clippers had peak speeds over , but their average speeds over a whole voyage were substantially less. The joint winner of the Great Tea Race of 1866 logged about 15,800 nautical miles on a 99-day trip. This gives an average speed slightly over . The key to a fast passage for a tea clipper was getting across the China Sea against the monsoon winds that prevailed when the first tea crop of the season was ready. These difficult sailing conditions (light and/or contrary winds) dictated the design of tea clippers. The US clippers were designed for the strong winds encountered on their route around Cape Horn. Donald McKay's Sovereign of the Seas reported the highest speed ever achieved by a sailing ship of the era, , made while running her easting down to Australia in 1854. (John Griffiths' first clipper, the Rainbow, had a top speed of 14 knots.) Eleven other instances are reported of a ship's logging or over. Ten of these were recorded by American clippers. Besides the breath-taking day's run of the Champion of the Seas, 13 other cases are known of a ship's sailing over in 24 hours. With few exceptions, though, all the port-to-port sailing records are held by the American clippers. The 24-hour record of the Champion of the Seas, set in 1854, was not broken until 1984 (by a multihull), or 2001 (by another monohull). ==Decline== The American clippers sailing from the East Coast to the California goldfields were working in a booming market. Freight rates were high everywhere in the first years of the 1850s. This started to fade in late 1853. The ports of California and Australia reported that they were overstocked with goods that had been shipped earlier in the year. This gave an accelerating fall in freight rates that was halted, however, by the start of the Crimean War in March 1854, as many ships were now being chartered by the French and British governments. The end of the Crimean War in April 1856 released all this capacity back on the world shipping marketsthe result being a severe slump. The next year had the Panic of 1857, with effects on both sides of the Atlantic. The United States was just starting to recover from this in 1861 when the American Civil War started, causing significant disruption to trade in both Union and Confederate states. As the economic situation deteriorated in 1853, American shipowners either did not order new vessels, or specified an ordinary clipper or a medium clipper instead of an extreme clipper. No extreme clipper was launched in an American shipyard after the end of 1854 and only a few medium clippers after 1860. By contrast, British trade recovered well at the end of the 1850s. Tea clippers had continued to be launched during the depressed years, apparently little affected by the economic downturn. The long-distance route to China was not realistically challenged by steamships in the early part of the 1860s. No true steamer (as opposed to an auxiliary steamship) had the fuel efficiency to carry sufficient cargo to make a profitable voyage. The auxiliary steamships struggled to make any profit. The situation changed in 1866 when the Alfred Holt-designed and owned SS Agamemnon made her first voyage to China. Holt had persuaded the Board of Trade to allow higher steam pressures in British merchant vessels. Running at 60 psi instead of the previously permitted 25 psi, and using an efficient compound engine, Agamemnon had the fuel efficiency to steam at 10 knots to China and back, with coaling stops at Mauritius on the outward and return legscrucially carrying sufficient cargo to make a profit. In 1869, the Suez Canal opened, giving steamships a route about shorter than that taken by sailing ships round the Cape of Good Hope. Despite initial conservatism by tea merchants, by 1871, tea clippers found strong competition from steamers in the tea ports of China. A typical passage time back to London for a steamer was 58 days, while the fastest clippers could occasionally make the trip in less than 100 days; the average was 123 days in the 1867–68 tea season. ==In popular culture== The clipper legacy appears in collectible cards and in the name of a basketball team. === Sailing cards === Departures of clipper ships, mostly from New York and Boston to San Francisco, were advertised by clipper-ship sailing cards. These cards, slightly larger than today's postcards, were produced by letterpress and wood engraving on coated card stock. Most clipper cards were printed in the 1850s and 1860s, and represented the first pronounced use of color in American advertising art. Perhaps 3,500 cards survive. With their rarity and importance as artifacts of nautical, Western, and printing history, clipper cards are valued by both private collectors and institutions. === Basketball team === The Los Angeles Clippers of the National Basketball Association take their name from the type of ship. After the Buffalo Braves moved to San Diego, California in 1978, a contest was held to choose a new name. The winning name highlighted the city's connection with the clippers that frequented San Diego Bay. The team retained the name in its 1984 move to Los Angeles. === Airliners === The airline Pan Am named its aircraft beginning with the word 'Clipper' and used Clipper as its callsign. This was intended to evoke an image of speed and glamour. ===Space probe=== The Europa Clipper is a NASA probe that is currently on a mission to explore Jupiter and its moons; it was launched in 2024 and is expected to reach Jupiter in 2030.	[ "Franklin Delano Roosevelt", "medium clipper", "Samuel Hartt Pook", "Windjammer", "City of Adelaide (1864)", "William Jardine (surgeon)", "Compound steam engine", "G. P. Putnam's Sons", "List of people who sailed on clipper ships", "Europa Clipper", "Joseph Warren Holmes", "City of Sunderland", "rectangular cuboid", "brigantine", "Buffalo Braves", "Ann McKim (clipper)", "Biofouling", "Antelope of Boston", "Jupiter", "Hulk (ship type)", "Mystic Seaport", "Alexander Hall and Sons", "Panic of 1857", "Champion of the Seas", "Great Tea Race of 1866", "War of 1812", "Eleanor Creesy", "Los Angeles Clippers", "Andrew Jackson (clipper)", "Cape Horn", "Australian Gold Rush", "American Revolution", "dry dock", "Clipper card", "New Zealand", "Donald McKay", "Fells Point, Baltimore", "museum ship", "National Maritime Museum", "Flying Cloud (clipper)", "sail", "Letter of Marque", "Cutty Sark", "Sail plan", "Board of Trade", "Greenwich", "Packet boat", "Baltimore clipper", "Chesapeake Bay", "Extreme Clipper", "San Diego Bay", "Suez Canal", "Glossary of nautical terms (A-L)", "William Pile (shipbuilder)", "brig", "Frederick Marryat", "Scottish Maid", "Alfred Holt", "draft (hull)", "Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves", "shipyard", "Close hauled", "SS Agamemnon (1865)", "California gold rush", "extreme clipper", "Challenger (clipper)", "Tea race (competitions)", "Royal Navy", "Builder's Old Measurement", "Sovereign of the Seas (clipper)", "Library of Congress", "Pan Am", "San Diego", "Naval Institute Press", "Aberdeen", "List of clipper ships", "sailplan", "Jock Willis Shipping Line", "American Neptune", "Sailing ship", "copper sheathing", "Pounds per square inch", "Composite construction", "Transom (nautical)", "full-rigged ship", "Australia", "Java", "East India Company", "Howard I. Chapelle", "Houqua (clipper)", "Slave Trade Act 1807", "fuel efficiency", "American Memory", "Stem (ship)", "galvanic corrosion", "Crimean War", "opium", "schooner", "West Africa Squadron", "transatlantic crossing", "East Indies", "Teredo navalis", "American Civil War", "Merchant ship", "Clipper route", "National Basketball Association", "Rainbow (clipper)" ]
7,462	Clive Anderson	Clive Stuart Anderson (born 10 December 1952) is an English television and radio presenter, comedian, writer and former barrister. Winner of a British Comedy Award in 1991, Anderson began experimenting with comedy and writing comedic scripts during his 15-year legal career. He then became host of Whose Line Is It Anyway?, initially a radio show on BBC Radio 4 in 1988, before moving to television on Channel 4 from 1988 to 1999. He was also host of his own chat show Clive Anderson Talks Back, which changed its name to Clive Anderson All Talk in 1996, from 1989 to 1999. He has also hosted many radio programmes and made guest appearances on Have I Got News for You, Mock the Week and QI. == Early life == Anderson's mother was English and his parents met while serving in the RAF. He was educated at Stanburn Primary School and Harrow County School for Boys then a grammar school which closed in 1975. His group of contemporaries included Geoffrey Perkins and Michael Portillo. His Scottish father originally from Glasgow was promoted to manager Anderson attended Selwyn College, Cambridge, where, from 1974 to 1975, he was President of the Cambridge Footlights. He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1976 and became a practising barrister, specialising in criminal law. While still practising law, he continued performing, including taking a show to the Edinburgh Fringe in 1981 with Griff Rhys Jones. ==Career== ===Television=== Anderson was involved in the fledgling alternative comedy scene in the early 1980s and was the first act to appear at The Comedy Store when it opened in 1979. He made his name as host of the original UK version of the improvised television comedy show Whose Line Is It Anyway?, which ran for 10 series on Channel 4 from 1988 to 1999. Anderson hosted his own chat show Clive Anderson Talks Back, which ran for 10 series on Channel 4 from 1989 to 1996. The show then moved to the BBC, with the name changed to Clive Anderson All Talk, running for 4 series from 1996 to 1999. In one incident in 1997, Anderson was deserted by his guests, the Bee Gees, after he made several digs at them and their music. He once had a glass of water poured over his head by a perturbed Richard Branson, to which he replied, "I'm used to that; I've flown Virgin." When singer and actress Cher appeared on the show, Anderson alluded to her alleged cosmetic surgery, asking her "You look like a million dollars – is that how much it cost?" He also said to author and politician Jeffrey Archer, in response to his derogatory comment about the show, "You're a critic too... there's no beginning to your talents." Archer retorted that "The old ones are always the best" for Anderson to reply "Yes, I've read your books." He has made ten appearances on Have I Got News for You. In 1996, a heated exchange occurred on the show when he joked to fellow guest Piers Morgan that the Daily Mirror was now, thanks to Morgan (then its editor), almost as good as The Sun. When asked by Morgan, "What do you know about editing newspapers?" he swiftly replied "About as much as you do". Anderson has also frequently appeared on QI. In 2007, he featured as a regular panellist on the ITV comedy show News Knight. From 2019 to 2020 he co-hosted the television series Mystic Britain on the Sky television channel Smithsonian. In 2005, he presented the short-lived quiz Back in the Day for Channel 4. On 25 February 2008, he started to present Brainbox Challenge, a new game show, for BBC Two. Later that year, he presented a talent show-themed reality TV series produced by the BBC entitled Maestro, starring eight celebrities. In 2009, Anderson was the television host of the BBC's Last Night of the Proms. In November 2023, Anderson appeared on TV game show Richard Osman's House of Games, winning the show by one point. ===Radio=== Anderson presents legal show Unreliable Evidence on BBC Radio 4. He also covered the Sunday morning 11 a.m. to 1 p.m. show on BBC Radio 2 until the end of January 2008. In early 1988, Anderson hosted the original radio version of Whose Line Is It Anyway?, which ran for 6 episodes on BBC Radio 4 before the show moved to television later that year. It was announced in April 2008 that Anderson, who had previously filled in for host Ned Sherrin from 2006 until Sherrin's death in 2007, would be taking over as permanent host of Loose Ends. He also hosted six series of Clive Anderson's Chat Room on BBC Radio 2 from 2004 to 2009. Anderson has appeared on BBC Radio 4's The Unbelievable Truth hosted by David Mitchell. Anderson also presented the radio show The Guessing Game on BBC Radio Scotland. Anderson has also appeared on BBC Radio 5 Live's Fighting Talk. ===Comedy and newspaper writing=== Anderson is a comedy sketch writer who has written for Frankie Howerd, Not the Nine O'Clock News, and Griff Rhys Jones and Mel Smith. The couple have three children. He supports Arsenal, and Rangers football teams. He is President of the Woodland Trust and became Vice Patron of the Solicitors' Benevolent Association, a registered charity. ==Awards== The show Whose Line is it Anyway? won a BAFTA award in 1990. Later, Anderson won both the "Top Entertainment Presenter" and "Top Radio Comedy Personality" at the British Comedy Awards in 1991. In 2023 he was made an Honorary Fellow of Selwyn College, Cambridge.	[ "Piers Morgan", "Highbury", "Sunday Post", "Brainbox Challenge", "Scottish people", "BBC Radio 5 Live", "Griff Rhys Jones", "Rory McGrath", "Admission to practice law", "ITV (TV network)", "Ned Sherrin", "Geoffrey Perkins", "Maestro (British TV series)", "News Knight", "Harrow High School", "Richard Branson", "Arsenal F.C.", "Loose Ends (radio)", "BBC Radio 2", "Rangers F.C.", "Cher", "Footlights", "QI", "Middle Temple", "Back in the Day (game show)", "barrister", "Edinburgh Fringe", "Black Cinderella Two Goes East", "Woodland Trust", "Whose Line Is It Anyway? (British TV series)", "Michael Portillo", "Jeffrey Archer", "Have I Got News for You", "Channel 4", "Bradford & Bingley", "The Comedy Store (London)", "Stanmore", "Whose Line Is It Anyway? (radio series)", "Fighting Talk", "Bee Gees", "BBC Radio 4", "IMDb", "Richard Osman's House of Games", "Daily Mirror", "Frankie Howerd", "BBC Radio Scotland", "Selwyn College, Cambridge", "BBC Two", "Not the Nine O'Clock News", "Bachelor of Arts", "The Sunday Correspondent", "alternative comedy", "Mel Smith", "BAFTA", "British Comedy Awards", "criminal law", "Virgin Atlantic", "the Proms", "David Mitchell (comedian)", "Jane Anderson (physician)", "BBC", "Mock the Week", "The Sun (United Kingdom)" ]
7,463	Cold fusion	Cold fusion is a hypothesized type of nuclear reaction that would occur at, or near, room temperature. It would contrast starkly with the "hot" fusion that is known to take place naturally within stars and artificially in hydrogen bombs and prototype fusion reactors under immense pressure and at temperatures of millions of degrees, and be distinguished from muon-catalyzed fusion. There is currently no accepted theoretical model that would allow cold fusion to occur. In 1989, two electrochemists at the University of Utah, Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons, reported that their apparatus had produced anomalous heat ("excess heat") of a magnitude they asserted would defy explanation except in terms of nuclear processes. They further reported measuring small amounts of nuclear reaction byproducts, including neutrons and tritium. The small tabletop experiment involved electrolysis of heavy water on the surface of a palladium (Pd) electrode. The reported results received wide media attention and raised hopes of a cheap and abundant source of energy. Many scientists tried to replicate the experiment with the few details available. Expectations diminished as a result of numerous failed replications, the retraction of several previously reported positive replications, the identification of methodological flaws and experimental errors in the original study, and, ultimately, the confirmation that Fleischmann and Pons had not observed the expected nuclear reaction byproducts. By late 1989, most scientists considered cold fusion claims dead, and cold fusion subsequently gained a reputation as pathological science. In 1989 the United States Department of Energy (DOE) concluded that the reported results of excess heat did not present convincing evidence of a useful source of energy and decided against allocating funding specifically for cold fusion. A second DOE review in 2004, which looked at new research, reached similar conclusions and did not result in DOE funding of cold fusion. Presently, since articles about cold fusion are rarely published in peer-reviewed mainstream scientific journals, they do not attract the level of scrutiny expected for mainstream scientific publications. Nevertheless, some interest in cold fusion has continued through the decades—for example, a Google-funded failed replication attempt was published in a 2019 issue of Nature. A small community of researchers continues to investigate it, often under the alternative designations low-energy nuclear reactions (LENR) or condensed matter nuclear science (CMNS). ==History== Nuclear fusion is normally understood to occur at temperatures in the tens of millions of degrees. This is called "thermonuclear fusion". Since the 1920s, there has been speculation that nuclear fusion might be possible at much lower temperatures by catalytically fusing hydrogen absorbed in a metal catalyst. In 1989, a claim by Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann (then one of the world's leading electrochemists) that such cold fusion had been observed caused a brief media sensation before the majority of scientists criticized their claim as incorrect after many found they could not replicate the excess heat. Since the initial announcement, cold fusion research has continued by a small community of researchers who believe that such reactions happen and hope to gain wider recognition for their experimental evidence. ===Early research=== The ability of palladium to absorb hydrogen was recognized as early as the nineteenth century by Thomas Graham. In the late 1920s, two Austrian-born scientists, Friedrich Paneth and Kurt Peters, originally reported the transformation of hydrogen into helium by nuclear catalysis when hydrogen was absorbed by finely divided palladium at room temperature. However, the authors later retracted that report, saying that the helium they measured was due to background from the air. In 1927, Swedish scientist John Tandberg reported that he had fused hydrogen into helium in an electrolytic cell with palladium electrodes. On the basis of his work, he applied for a Swedish patent for "a method to produce helium and useful reaction energy". Due to Paneth and Peters's retraction and his inability to explain the physical process, his patent application was denied. After deuterium was discovered in 1932, Tandberg continued his experiments with heavy water. The final experiments made by Tandberg with heavy water were similar to the original experiment by Fleischmann and Pons. Fleischmann and Pons were not aware of Tandberg's work. ===Fleischmann–Pons experiment=== The most famous cold fusion claims were made by Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann in 1989. After a brief period of interest by the wider scientific community, their reports were called into question by nuclear physicists. Pons and Fleischmann never retracted their claims, but moved their research program from the US to France after the controversy erupted. ====Events preceding announcement==== Martin Fleischmann of the University of Southampton and Stanley Pons of the University of Utah hypothesized that the high compression ratio and mobility of deuterium that could be achieved within palladium metal using electrolysis might result in nuclear fusion. To investigate, they conducted electrolysis experiments using a palladium cathode and heavy water within a calorimeter, an insulated vessel designed to measure process heat. Current was applied continuously for many weeks, with the heavy water being renewed at intervals. Some deuterium was thought to be accumulating within the cathode, but most was allowed to bubble out of the cell, joining oxygen produced at the anode. For most of the time, the power input to the cell was equal to the calculated power leaving the cell within measurement accuracy, and the cell temperature was stable at around 30 °C. But then, at some point (in some of the experiments), the temperature rose suddenly to about 50 °C without changes in the input power. These high temperature phases would last for two days or more and would repeat several times in any given experiment once they had occurred. The calculated power leaving the cell was significantly higher than the input power during these high temperature phases. Eventually the high temperature phases would no longer occur within a particular cell. In 1988, Fleischmann and Pons applied to the United States Department of Energy for funding towards a larger series of experiments. Up to this point they had been funding their experiments using a small device built with $100,000 out-of-pocket. The grant proposal was turned over for peer review, and one of the reviewers was Steven Jones of Brigham Young University. Jones had worked for some time on muon-catalyzed fusion, a known method of inducing nuclear fusion without high temperatures, and had written an article on the topic entitled "Cold nuclear fusion" that had been published in Scientific American in July 1987. Fleischmann and Pons and co-workers met with Jones and co-workers on occasion in Utah to share research and techniques. During this time, Fleischmann and Pons described their experiments as generating considerable "excess energy", in the sense that it could not be explained by chemical reactions alone. They felt that such a discovery could bear significant commercial value and would be entitled to patent protection. Jones, however, was measuring neutron flux, which was not of commercial interest. To avoid future problems, the teams appeared to agree to publish their results simultaneously, though their accounts of their 6 March meeting differ. ====Announcement==== In mid-March 1989, both research teams were ready to publish their findings, and Fleischmann and Jones had agreed to meet at an airport on 24 March to send their papers to Nature via FedEx. Fleischmann and Pons, however, pressured by the University of Utah, which wanted to establish priority on the discovery, (they claimed in the press release that it would be published in Nature}} as well as attention from the scientific community. The 1986 discovery of high-temperature superconductivity had made scientists more open to revelations of unexpected but potentially momentous scientific results that could be replicated reliably even if they could not be explained by established theories. Many scientists were also reminded of the Mössbauer effect, a process involving nuclear transitions in a solid. Its discovery 30 years earlier had also been unexpected, though it was quickly replicated and explained within the existing physics framework. The announcement of a new purported clean source of energy came at a crucial time: adults still remembered the 1973 oil crisis and the problems caused by oil dependence, anthropogenic global warming was starting to become notorious, the anti-nuclear movement was labeling nuclear power plants as dangerous and getting them closed, people had in mind the consequences of strip mining, acid rain, the greenhouse effect and the Exxon Valdez oil spill, which happened the day after the announcement. In the press conference, Chase N. Peterson, Fleischmann and Pons, backed by the solidity of their scientific credentials, repeatedly assured the journalists that cold fusion would solve environmental problems, and would provide a limitless inexhaustible source of clean energy, using only seawater as fuel. They said the results had been confirmed dozens of times and they had no doubts about them. In the accompanying press release Fleischmann was quoted saying: "What we have done is to open the door of a new research area, our indications are that the discovery will be relatively easy to make into a usable technology for generating heat and power, but continued work is needed, first, to further understand the science and secondly, to determine its value to energy economics." ====Response and fallout==== Although the experimental protocol had not been published, physicists in several countries attempted, and failed, to replicate the excess heat phenomenon. The first paper submitted to Nature reproducing excess heat, although it passed peer review, was rejected because most similar experiments were negative and there were no theories that could explain a positive result; while CERN physicist Douglas R. O. Morrison said that "essentially all" attempts in Western Europe had failed. Even those reporting success had difficulty reproducing Fleischmann and Pons' results. On 10 April 1989, a group at Texas A&M University published results of excess heat and later that day a group at the Georgia Institute of Technology announced neutron production—the strongest replication announced up to that point due to the detection of neutrons and the reputation of the lab. became the only scientific support for cold fusion in 26 April US Congress hearings. and his research was derided by scientists who saw it later. For the next six weeks, competing claims, counterclaims, and suggested explanations kept what was referred to as "cold fusion" or "fusion confusion" in the news. In April 1989, Fleischmann and Pons published a "preliminary note" in the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. This paper notably showed a gamma peak without its corresponding Compton edge, which indicated they had made a mistake in claiming evidence of fusion byproducts. Fleischmann and Pons replied to this critique, but the only thing left clear was that no gamma ray had been registered and that Fleischmann refused to recognize any mistakes in the data. A much longer paper published a year later went into details of calorimetry but did not include any nuclear measurements. Nevertheless, Fleischmann and Pons and a number of other researchers who found positive results remained convinced of their findings. The University of Utah asked Congress to provide $25 million to pursue the research, and Pons was scheduled to meet with representatives of President Bush in early May. On 30 April 1989, cold fusion was declared dead by The New York Times. The Times called it a circus the same day, and the Boston Herald attacked cold fusion the following day. On 1 May 1989, the American Physical Society held a session on cold fusion in Baltimore, including many reports of experiments that failed to produce evidence of cold fusion. At the end of the session, eight of the nine leading speakers stated that they considered the initial Fleischmann and Pons claim dead, with the ninth, Johann Rafelski, abstaining. Steven E. Koonin of Caltech called the Utah report a result of "the incompetence and delusion of Pons and Fleischmann," which was met with a standing ovation. Douglas R. O. Morrison, a physicist representing CERN, was the first to call the episode an example of pathological science. On 4 May, due to all this new criticism, the meetings with various representatives from Washington were cancelled. From 8 May, only the A&M tritium results kept cold fusion afloat. In July and November 1989, Nature published papers critical of cold fusion claims. Negative results were also published in several other scientific journals including Science, Physical Review Letters, and Physical Review C (nuclear physics). However, no further DOE nor NSF funding resulted from the panel's recommendation. By this point, however, academic consensus had moved decidedly toward labeling cold fusion as a kind of "pathological science". University faculty were then "stunned" when a lawyer representing Pons and Fleischmann demanded the Salamon paper be retracted under threat of a lawsuit. The lawyer later apologized; Fleischmann defended the threat as a legitimate reaction to alleged bias displayed by cold-fusion critics. In early May 1990, one of the two A&M researchers, Kevin Wolf, acknowledged the possibility of spiking, but said that the most likely explanation was tritium contamination in the palladium electrodes or simply contamination due to sloppy work. In June 1990 an article in Science by science writer Gary Taubes destroyed the public credibility of the A&M tritium results when it accused its group leader John Bockris and one of his graduate students of spiking the cells with tritium. In October 1990 Wolf finally said that the results were explained by tritium contamination in the rods. An A&M cold fusion review panel found that the tritium evidence was not convincing and that, while they couldn't rule out spiking, contamination and measurements problems were more likely explanations, it found no excess heat, and its reports of tritium production were met with indifference. On 1 January 1991, Pons left the University of Utah and went to Europe. In 1992, Pons and Fleischmann resumed research with Toyota Motor Corporation's IMRA lab in France. Fleischmann left for England in 1995, and the contract with Pons was not renewed in 1998 after spending $40 million with no tangible results. The IMRA laboratory stopped cold fusion research in 1998 after spending £12 million. Pons has made no public declarations since, and only Fleischmann continued giving talks and publishing papers. Mostly in the 1990s, several books were published that were critical of cold fusion research methods and the conduct of cold fusion researchers. Over the years, several books have appeared that defended them. Around 1998, the University of Utah had already dropped its research after spending over $1 million, and in the summer of 1997, Japan cut off research and closed its own lab after spending $20 million. After 1991, cold fusion research only continued in relative obscurity, conducted by groups that had increasing difficulty securing public funding and keeping programs open. These small but committed groups of cold fusion researchers have continued to conduct experiments using Fleischmann and Pons electrolysis setups in spite of the rejection by the mainstream community. In 2021, following Nature's 2019 publication of anomalous findings that might only be explained by some localized fusion, scientists at the Naval Surface Warfare Center, Indian Head Division announced that they had assembled a group of scientists from the Navy, Army and National Institute of Standards and Technology to undertake a new, coordinated study. The researchers who continue their investigations acknowledge that the flaws in the original announcement are the main cause of the subject's marginalization, and they complain of a chronic lack of funding and no possibilities of getting their work published in the highest impact journals. University researchers are often unwilling to investigate cold fusion because they would be ridiculed by their colleagues and their professional careers would be at risk. In 1994, David Goodstein, a professor of physics at Caltech, advocated increased attention from mainstream researchers and described cold fusion as: ===United States=== United States Navy researchers at the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center (SPAWAR) in San Diego have been studying cold fusion since 1989. This and other published papers prompted a 2004 Department of Energy (DOE) review. ==== 2004 DOE panel ==== In August 2003, the U.S. Secretary of Energy, Spencer Abraham, ordered the DOE to organize a second review of the field. This was thanks to an April 2003 letter sent by MIT's Peter L. Hagelstein, In March 2013 Graham K. Hubler, a nuclear physicist who worked for the Naval Research Laboratory for 40 years, was named director. One of the SKINR projects is to replicate a 1991 experiment in which a professor associated with the project, Mark Prelas, says bursts of millions of neutrons a second were recorded, which was stopped because "his research account had been frozen". He claims that the new experiment has already seen "neutron emissions at similar levels to the 1991 observation". In May 2016, the United States House Committee on Armed Services, in its report on the 2017 National Defense Authorization Act, directed the Secretary of Defense to "provide a briefing on the military utility of recent U.S. industrial base LENR advancements to the House Committee on Armed Services by September 22, 2016". ===Italy=== Since the Fleischmann and Pons announcement, the Italian national agency for new technologies, energy and sustainable economic development (ENEA) has funded Franco Scaramuzzi's research into whether excess heat can be measured from metals loaded with deuterium gas. Such research is distributed across ENEA departments, CNR laboratories, INFN, universities and industrial laboratories in Italy, where the group continues to try to achieve reliable reproducibility (i.e. getting the phenomenon to happen in every cell, and inside a certain frame of time). In 2006–2007, the ENEA started a research program which claimed to have found excess power of up to 500 percent, and in 2009, ENEA hosted the 15th cold fusion conference. ===Japan=== Between 1992 and 1997, Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry sponsored a "New Hydrogen Energy (NHE)" program of US$20 million to research cold fusion. In 1999 the Japan C-F Research Society was established to promote the independent research into cold fusion that continued in Japan. The society holds annual meetings. Perhaps the most famous Japanese cold fusion researcher was Yoshiaki Arata, from Osaka University, who claimed in a demonstration to produce excess heat when deuterium gas was introduced into a cell containing a mixture of palladium and zirconium oxide, A special section in the Indian multidisciplinary journal Current Science published 33 cold fusion papers in 2015 by major cold fusion researchers including several Indian researchers. ==Reported results== A cold fusion experiment usually includes: a metal, such as palladium or nickel, in bulk, thin films or powder; and deuterium, hydrogen, or both, in the form of water, gas or plasma. Electrolysis cells can be either open cell or closed cell. In open cell systems, the electrolysis products, which are gaseous, are allowed to leave the cell. In closed cell experiments, the products are captured, for example by catalytically recombining the products in a separate part of the experimental system. These experiments generally strive for a steady state condition, with the electrolyte being replaced periodically. There are also "heat-after-death" experiments, where the evolution of heat is monitored after the electric current is turned off. The most basic setup of a cold fusion cell consists of two electrodes submerged in a solution containing palladium and heavy water. The electrodes are then connected to a power source to transmit electricity from one electrode to the other through the solution. Even when anomalous heat is reported, it can take weeks for it to begin to appear—this is known as the "loading time," the time required to saturate the palladium electrode with hydrogen (see "Loading ratio" section). The Fleischmann and Pons early findings regarding helium, neutron radiation and tritium were never replicated satisfactorily, and its levels were too low for the claimed heat production and inconsistent with each other. Neutron radiation has been reported in cold fusion experiments at very low levels using different kinds of detectors, but levels were too low, close to background, and found too infrequently to provide useful information about possible nuclear processes. ===Excess heat and energy production=== An excess heat observation is based on an energy balance. Various sources of energy input and output are continuously measured. Under normal conditions, the energy input can be matched to the energy output to within experimental error. In experiments such as those run by Fleischmann and Pons, an electrolysis cell operating steadily at one temperature transitions to operating at a higher temperature with no increase in applied current. If the higher temperatures were real, and not an experimental artifact, the energy balance would show an unaccounted term. In the Fleischmann and Pons experiments, the rate of inferred excess heat generation was in the range of 10–20% of total input, though this could not be reliably replicated by most researchers. Researcher Nathan Lewis discovered that the excess heat in Fleischmann and Pons's original paper was not measured, but estimated from measurements that didn't have any excess heat. Unable to produce excess heat or neutrons, and with positive experiments being plagued by errors and giving disparate results, most researchers declared that heat production was not a real effect and ceased working on the experiments. In 1993, after their original report, Fleischmann reported "heat-after-death" experiments—where excess heat was measured after the electric current supplied to the electrolytic cell was turned off. This type of report has also become part of subsequent cold fusion claims. ===Helium, heavy elements, and neutrons=== Known instances of nuclear reactions, aside from producing energy, also produce nucleons and particles on readily observable ballistic trajectories. In support of their claim that nuclear reactions took place in their electrolytic cells, Fleischmann and Pons reported a neutron flux of 4,000 neutrons per second, as well as detection of tritium. The classical branching ratio for previously known fusion reactions that produce tritium would predict, with 1 watt of power, the production of 1012 neutrons per second, levels that would have been fatal to the researchers. In 2009, Mosier-Boss et al. reported what they called the first scientific report of highly energetic neutrons, using CR-39 plastic radiation detectors, but the claims cannot be validated without a quantitative analysis of neutrons. Several medium and heavy elements like calcium, titanium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper and zinc have been reported as detected by several researchers, like Tadahiko Mizuno or George Miley. The report presented to the United States Department of Energy (DOE) in 2004 indicated that deuterium-loaded foils could be used to detect fusion reaction products and, although the reviewers found the evidence presented to them as inconclusive, they indicated that those experiments did not use state-of-the-art techniques. In response to doubts about the lack of nuclear products, cold fusion researchers have tried to capture and measure nuclear products correlated with excess heat. Considerable attention has been given to measuring 4He production. However, the reported levels are very near to background, so contamination by trace amounts of helium normally present in the air cannot be ruled out. In the report presented to the DOE in 2004, the reviewers' opinion was divided on the evidence for 4He, with the most negative reviews concluding that although the amounts detected were above background levels, they were very close to them and therefore could be caused by contamination from air. One of the main criticisms of cold fusion was that deuteron-deuteron fusion into helium was expected to result in the production of gamma rays—which were not observed and were not observed in subsequent cold fusion experiments. Cold fusion researchers have since claimed to find X-rays, helium, neutrons and nuclear transmutations. Some researchers also claim to have found them using only light water and nickel cathodes. The 2004 DOE panel expressed concerns about the poor quality of the theoretical framework cold fusion proponents presented to account for the lack of gamma rays. ==Proposed mechanisms== Researchers in the field do not agree on a theory for cold fusion. One proposal considers that hydrogen and its isotopes can be absorbed in certain solids, including palladium hydride, at high densities. This creates a high partial pressure, reducing the average separation of hydrogen isotopes. However, the reduction in separation is not enough to create the fusion rates claimed in the original experiment, by a factor of ten. In muon-catalyzed fusion there are more fusions because the presence of the muon causes deuterium nuclei to be 207 times closer than in ordinary deuterium gas. But deuterium nuclei inside a palladium lattice are further apart than in deuterium gas, and there should be fewer fusion reactions, not more. Paneth and Peters in the 1920s already knew that palladium can absorb up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen gas, storing it at several thousands of times the atmospheric pressure. This led them to believe that they could increase the nuclear fusion rate by simply loading palladium rods with hydrogen gas. Tandberg then tried the same experiment but used electrolysis to make palladium absorb more deuterium and force the deuterium further together inside the rods, thus anticipating the main elements of Fleischmann and Pons' experiment. and even then there would be measurable levels of radiation. Also, experiments indicate that the ratios of deuterium fusion remain constant at different energies. In general, pressure and chemical environment cause only small changes to fusion ratios. Errors in these assumptions have been offered as non-nuclear explanations for excess heat. One assumption made by Fleischmann and Pons is that the efficiency of electrolysis is nearly 100%, meaning nearly all the electricity applied to the cell resulted in electrolysis of water, with negligible resistive heating and substantially all the electrolysis product leaving the cell unchanged. This assumption gives the amount of energy expended converting liquid D2O into gaseous D2 and O2. The efficiency of electrolysis is less than one if hydrogen and oxygen recombine to a significant extent within the calorimeter. Several researchers have described potential mechanisms by which this process could occur and thereby account for excess heat in electrolysis experiments. Another assumption is that heat loss from the calorimeter maintains the same relationship with measured temperature as found when calibrating the calorimeter. This assumption ceases to be accurate if the temperature distribution within the cell becomes significantly altered from the condition under which calibration measurements were made. This can happen, for example, if fluid circulation within the cell becomes significantly altered. Recombination of hydrogen and oxygen within the calorimeter would also alter the heat distribution and invalidate the calibration. == Publications == The ISI identified cold fusion as the scientific topic with the largest number of published papers in 1989, of all scientific disciplines. The Nobel Laureate Julian Schwinger declared himself a supporter of cold fusion in the fall of 1989, after much of the response to the initial reports had turned negative. He tried to publish his theoretical paper "Cold Fusion: A Hypothesis" in Physical Review Letters, but the peer reviewers rejected it so harshly that he felt deeply insulted, and he resigned from the American Physical Society (publisher of PRL) in protest. The number of papers sharply declined after 1990 because of two simultaneous phenomena: first, scientists abandoned the field; second, journal editors declined to review new papers. Consequently, cold fusion fell off the ISI charts. Researchers who got negative results turned their backs on the field; those who continued to publish were simply ignored. A 1993 paper in Physics Letters A was the last paper published by Fleischmann, and "one of the last reports [by Fleischmann] to be formally challenged on technical grounds by a cold fusion skeptic." Critics and skeptics stopped attending these conferences, with the notable exception of Douglas Morrison, who died in 2001. With the founding in 2004 of the International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science (ISCMNS), the conference was renamed the International Conference on Condensed Matter Nuclear Science—for reasons that are detailed in the subsequent research section above—but reverted to the old name in 2008. Cold fusion research is often referenced by proponents as "low-energy nuclear reactions", or LENR, Since 2007, the American Chemical Society (ACS) meetings also include "invited symposium(s)" on cold fusion. An ACS program chair, Gopal Coimbatore, said that without a proper forum the matter would never be discussed and, "with the world facing an energy crisis, it is worth exploring all possibilities." On 22–25 March 2009, the American Chemical Society meeting included a four-day symposium in conjunction with the 20th anniversary of the announcement of cold fusion. Researchers working at the U.S. Navy's Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center (SPAWAR) reported detection of energetic neutrons using a heavy water electrolysis setup and a CR-39 detector, Without quantitative analysis of the number, energy, and timing of the neutrons and exclusion of other potential sources, this interpretation is unlikely to find acceptance by the wider scientific community. ==Patents== Although details have not surfaced, it appears that the University of Utah forced the 23 March 1989 Fleischmann and Pons announcement to establish priority over the discovery and its patents before the joint publication with Jones. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) now rejects patents claiming cold fusion. When asked about the resemblance to cold fusion, the patent holder said that it used nuclear processes involving "new nuclear physics" unrelated to cold fusion. The episode explores its potential benefits and viability within the ongoing post-apocalyptic global warming scenario of the series. In the 2023 video game Atomic Heart, cold fusion is responsible for nearly all of the technological advances. The video game and television series Fallout also features cold fusion as a major source of energy.	[ "Accountability in Research", "Texas A&M University", "John Bockris", "Peer-reviewed journal", "Google", "Ministry of International Trade and Industry", "activation energy", "deuterium", "United States House Committee on Armed Services", "Stanford University", "Princeton University Press", "University of Utah", "The Saint (1997 film)", "Bubble fusion", "Steven E. Koonin", "CBS", "Robert Duncan (physicist)", "room temperature", "Greenwood Publishing Group", "CR-39", "University of Southampton", "electrochemistry", "U.S. Patent and Trademark Office", "Georgia Institute of Technology", "United States Secretary of Defense", "George H. Miley", "American Chemical Society", "David Goodstein", "Yoshiaki Arata", "Cold fission", "scientific journal", "hydrogen", "Spencer Abraham", "Pepsi Max", "Adobe ColdFusion", "University of Minnesota", "Out-of-pocket expenses", "palladium hydride", "Physical Review", "Nernst equation", "Thomas Graham (chemist)", "MIT", "gamma ray", "Scientific American", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "Life Force (TV series)", "nickel", "perpetual motion machine", "Houston Chronicle", "zeppelin", "Gary Taubes", "BBC", "planetary core", "Howard Kent Birnbaum", "Reproducibility", "neutron", "Widom–Larsen theory", "National Institute of Standards and Technology", "Muon-catalyzed fusion", "Johann Rafelski", "John R. Huizenga", "metallic crystal", "peer review", "Robert Huggins", "Current Science", "New Scientist", "electrolysis", "Nature (journal)", "neutron flux", "Alpha particle", "Journal of Informetrics", "heavy water", "Wired (magazine)", "International Conference on Cold Fusion", "Bhabha Atomic Research Centre", "American Physical Society", "International Journal of Hydrogen Energy", "Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche", "Oxford University Press", "gamma particle", "Fallout (franchise)", "Murphy Brown", "First law of thermodynamics", "Manual of Patent Examining Procedure", "60 Minutes", "Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development", "Incredible utility", "Il Nuovo Cimento", "University of Missouri", "Bohr model", "Journal of Physical Chemistry", "Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center", "patent", "Peter L. Hagelstein", "collective identity", "Practising Law Institute", "neutrons", "Catalysis", "Bart Simon", "European Patent Office", "Lattice confinement fusion", "nuclear fusion", "Steven E. Jones", "Douglas R. O. Morrison", "SPAWAR", "euphemism", "acid rain", "Indian Institute of Technology", "Amanda Walker", "muon-catalyzed fusion", "Faraday-efficiency effect", "1973 oil crisis", "Routledge", "American Scientist", "Martin Fleischmann", "chemical reaction", "nuclear reaction", "nucleon", "National Institute of Advanced Studies", "scientific publications", "Nuclear isomer", "Infinite Energy Magazine", "Wired Magazine", "Naval Surface Warfare Center", "Electrochemistry", "Brigham Young University", "strip mining", "Patterson power cell", "Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research", "gamma rays", "Sidney Kimmel", "IEEE Spectrum", "Reaction intermediate", "Compton edge", "Kinetic energy", "Michael Winner", "atmospheric pressure", "Main sequence", "palladium", "Paul Palmer (physicist)", "Isomeric transition", "nuclear transmutation", "Effective nuclear charge", "global warming", "pathological science", "Nuclear fusion", "Nuclear transmutation", "United States Department of Energy", "greenhouse effect", "Friedrich Paneth", "Indian Head Naval Surface Warfare Center", "thermonuclear fusion", "Pamela Mosier-Boss", "Standard atmosphere (unit)", "Richard Oriani", "Joule heating", "Fusion power", "Exxon Valdez oil spill", "Energy Catalyzer", "tritium", "Physics Today", "Stanley Pons", "Branching fraction", "Tadahiko Mizuno", "Physics Letters A", "Lawrence Berkeley National Lab", "Utility (patentability requirement)", "Mössbauer effect", "P. K. Iyengar", "FedEx", "media sensation", "conjecture", "Coulomb's law", "Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry", "U.S. Secretary of Energy", "Isotopes of hydrogen", "ENEA (Italy)", "electrode", "Julian Schwinger", "Nobel Laureate", "Bullseye! (1990 film)", "MeV", "high-temperature superconductivity", "Roger Moore", "Atomic Heart (video game)", "Science (journal)", "Doubleday (publisher)", "Luis Walter Alvarez", "Physical Review Letters", "Crank (person)", "Celsius", "Kevin Wolf", "Michael McKubre", "proton", "calorimeter", "The Simpsons", "The Washington Post", "Caltech", "The Times of India", "Thermonuclear weapon", "Agence France-Presse", "anti-nuclear movement", "Quantitative analysis (chemistry)", "Oppenheimer–Phillips process", "California Institute of Technology", "Chase N. Peterson", "Michael Caine", "Utah", "watt", "Nathan Lewis (chemist)", "Pyroelectric fusion", "CERN", "electrolytic cell", "platinum group", "Naturwissenschaften", "The New York Times", "Skeptical Inquirer", "Frank Close", "Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare", "Toyota Motor Corporation", "Institute for Scientific Information", "Tritium", "Ny Teknika", "Kurt Peters (chemist)", "Helium-3", "Chennai", "momentum" ]
7,466	Coal tar	Coal tar is a thick dark liquid which is a by-product of the production of coke and coal gas from coal. It is a type of creosote. It has both medical and industrial uses. Industrially it is a railroad tie preservative and used in the surfacing of roads. Coal tar was discovered circa 1665 and used for medical purposes as early as the 1800s. Circa 1850, the discovery that it could be used as the main raw material for the synthesis of dyes engendered an entire industry. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Coal tar is available as a generic medication and over the counter. Side effects include skin irritation, sun sensitivity, allergic reactions, and skin discoloration. The exact mechanism of action is unknown. It demonstrates antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-itch, and antiparasitic properties. == Composition == Coal tar is produced through thermal destruction (pyrolysis) of coal. Its composition varies with the process and type of coal used – lignite, bituminous or anthracite. Coal tar is a mixture of approximately 10,000 chemicals, of which only about 50% have been identified. Most of the chemical compounds are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (4-rings: chrysene, fluoranthene, pyrene, triphenylene, naphthacene, benzanthracene, 5-rings: picene, [[Benzo(a)pyrene\|benzo[a]pyrene]], [[Benzo(e)pyrene\|benzo[e]pyrene]], benzofluoranthenes, perylene, 6-rings: dibenzopyrenes, dibenzofluoranthenes, benzoperylenes, 7-rings: coronene) methylated and polymethylated derivatives, mono- and polyhydroxylated derivatives, and heterocyclic compounds. Others: benzene, toluene, xylenes, cumenes, coumarone, indene, benzofuran, naphthalene and methyl-naphthalenes, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenol, cresols, pyridine, picolines, phenanthracene, carbazole, quinolines, fluoranthene. ===Derivatives=== Various phenolic coal tar derivatives have analgesic (pain-killer) properties. These included acetanilide, phenacetin, and paracetamol aka acetaminophen. Paracetamol may be the only coal-tar derived analgesic still in use today. Industrial phenol is now usually synthesized from crude oil rather than coal tar. Coal tar derivatives are contra-indicated for people with the inherited red cell blood disorder glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (G6PD deficiency), as they can cause oxidative stress leading to red blood cell breakdown. == Mechanism of action == The exact mechanism of action is unknown. Named brands include Denorex, Balnetar, Psoriasin, Tegrin, T/Gel, and Neutar. When used in the extemporaneous preparation of topical medications, it is supplied in the form of coal tar topical solution USP, which consists of a 20% w/v solution of coal tar in alcohol, with an additional 5% w/v of polysorbate 80 USP; this must then be diluted in an ointment base, such as petrolatum. === Construction === Coal tar was a component of the first sealed roads. In its original development by Edgar Purnell Hooley, tarmac was tar covered with granite chips. Later the filler used was industrial slag. Today, petroleum derived binders and sealers are more commonly used. These sealers are used to extend the life and reduce maintenance cost associated with asphalt pavements, primarily in asphalt road paving, car parks and walkways. Coal tar is incorporated into some parking-lot sealcoat products used to protect the structural integrity of the underlying pavement. Sealcoat products that are coal-tar based typically contain 20 to 35 percent coal-tar pitch. shows it is used throughout the United States of America, however several areas have banned its use in sealcoat products, including the District of Columbia; the city of Austin, Texas; Dane County, Wisconsin; the state of Washington; and several municipalities in Minnesota and others. === Industry === In modern times, coal tar is mostly traded as fuel and an application for tar, such as roofing. The total value of the trade in coal tar is around US$20 billion each year. As a fuel. In the manufacture of paints, synthetic dyes (notably tartrazine/Yellow #5), and photographic materials. For heating or to fire boilers. Like most heavy oils, it must be heated before it will flow easily. As a source of carbon black. As a binder in manufacturing graphite; a considerable portion of the materials in "green blocks" is coke oven volatiles (COV). During the baking process of the green blocks as a part of commercial graphite production, most of the coal tar binders are vaporised and are generally burned in an incinerator to prevent release into the atmosphere, as COV and coal tar can be injurious to health. As a main component of the electrode paste used in electric arc furnaces. Coal tar pitch act as the binder for solid filler that can be either coke or calcined anthracite, forming electrode paste, also widely known as Söderberg electrode paste. As a feed stock for higher-value fractions, such as naphtha, creosote and pitch. In the coal gas era, companies distilled coal tar to separate these out, leading to the discovery of many industrial chemicals. Some British companies included: Bonnington Chemical Works British Tar Products Lancashire Tar Distillers Midland Tar Distillers Newton, Chambers & Company (owners of Izal brand disinfectant) Sadlers Chemicals == Safety == Side effects of coal tar products include skin irritation, sun sensitivity, allergic reactions, and skin discoloration. According to the National Psoriasis Foundation, coal tar is a valuable, safe and inexpensive treatment option for millions of people with psoriasis and other scalp or skin conditions. According to the FDA, coal tar concentrations between 0.5% and 5% are considered safe and effective for psoriasis. === Cancer === Long-term, consistent exposure to coal tar likely increases the risk of non-melanoma skin cancers. Evidence is inconclusive whether medical coal tar, which does not remain on the skin for the long periods seen in occupational exposure, causes cancer, because there is insufficient data to make a judgment. While coal tar consistently causes cancer in cohorts of workers with chronic occupational exposure, animal models, and mechanistic studies, It's possible that the skin can repair itself from this damage after short-term exposure to PAHs but not after long-term exposure. The International Agency for Research on Cancer lists coal tars as Group 1 carcinogens, meaning they directly cause cancer. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services lists coal tars as known human carcinogens. In response to public health concerns regarding the carcinogenicity of PAHs some municipalities, such as the city of Milwaukee, have banned the use of common coal tar-based road and driveway sealants citing concerns of elevated PAH content in groundwater. === Other === Coal tar causes increased sensitivity to sunlight, so skin treated with topical coal tar preparations should be protected from sunlight. The residue from the distillation of high-temperature coal tar, primarily a complex mixture of three or more membered condensed ring aromatic hydrocarbons, was listed on 13 January 2010 as a substance of very high concern by the European Chemicals Agency. === Regulation === Exposure to coal tar pitch volatiles can occur in the workplace by breathing, skin contact, or eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the permissible exposure limit) to 0.2 mg/m3 benzene-soluble fraction over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.1 mg/m3 cyclohexane-extractable fraction over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 80 mg/m3, coal tar pitch volatiles are immediately dangerous to life and health. When used as a medication in the United States, coal tar preparations are considered over-the-counter drug pharmaceuticals and are subject to regulation by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).	[ "distillation", "head lice", "indene", "picene", "WHO Model List of Essential Medicines", "Edgar Purnell Hooley", "Exposure assessment", "substance of very high concern", "picoline", "perylene", "dibenzopyrenes", "sealcoat", "Food and Drug Administration", "glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency", "chrysene", "acetanilide", "antifungal", "benzene", "breastfeeding", "anthracite", "fluoranthene", "squamous cell carcinoma", "chimney sweeps' carcinoma", "creosote", "National Psoriasis Foundation", "pyridine", "coal gas", "Pitch (resin)", "Methylnaphthalene", "pregnancy", "aromatic hydrocarbon", "International Agency for Research on Cancer", "shampoo", "ointment", "benzofluoranthene", "Mass concentration (chemistry)", "bituminous coal", "carcinogen", "antipruritic", "paracetamol", "health system", "polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons", "railroad tie", "xylene", "dandruff", "acenaphthene", "graphite", "seborrheic dermatitis", "benzofuran", "naphthalene", "benzoperylene", "allergic reactions", "coke (fuel)", "Tarmacadam", "triphenylene", "polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon", "National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health", "distill", "Education in Chemistry", "European Chemicals Agency", "tartrazine", "phenacetin", "coal", "dye", "cresol", "arc furnace", "keratin", "Coal oil", "FDA", "naphtha", "antiparasitic", "pyrene", "cumene", "phenols", "generic medication", "IDLH", "sun poisoning", "Bonnington Chemical Works", "heterocyclic compound", "Newton, Chambers & Company", "coronene", "Human skin", "carbazole", "Benzofuran", "over the counter", "pyrolysis", "Asphalt concrete", "United States Pharmacopeia", "polysorbate 80", "phenol", "acetaminophen", "keratolytic", "benzanthracene", "Wrights Coal Tar Soap", "boilers", "naphthacene", "World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines", "United States of America", "List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens", "electrode paste", "carbon black", "anti-inflammatory", "Royal Society of Chemistry", "fluorene", "recommended exposure limit", "lignite", "slag", "petrolatum", "topical medication", "quinoline", "ethanol", "Wood tar", "cyclohexane", "ultraviolet light therapy", "toluene", "tar warts", "permissible exposure limit", "skin cancer", "Samuel Sadler", "immunosenescence", "WebMD", "analgesic", "National Toxicology Program", "Occupational Safety and Health Administration", "over-the-counter drug", "psoriasis" ]
7,467	Cobbler	Cobbler(s) may refer to: A person who repairs shoes Cobbler (food), a type of pie ==Places== The Cobbler, a mountain located near the head of Loch Long in Scotland Mount Cobbler, Australia ==Art, entertainment and media== The Cobbler (1923 film), a short comedy by Hal Roach The Cobbler (2014 film), a comedy-drama starring Adam Sandler "Cobbler" (Better Call Saul), an episode of the TV series Better Call Saul ==Animals== Cobbler or river cobbler, a marketing name in the UK for Southeast Asian Pangasius bocourti and Pangasius pangasius (also marketed as "basa", "pangasius" and "panga") Cobbler, a common name for Cnidoglanis macrocephalus, a species of catfish found along the coasts of Australia Cobbler, a common name for the South Australian cobbler, a brown fish found in estuaries in southern Australia Cobbler (Condica sutor), a North American moth in the family Noctuidae ==Other uses== Sherry cobbler, a type of cocktail Cobbler (software), a network-oriented install server for Linux , a United States Navy ship name , a former submarine in the United States Navy "The Cobblers", a nickname for the English association football club Northampton Town F.C. Cobblers, a slang term for "nonsense" Hoboken Squat Cobbler, a fictitious fetish in Better Call Saul	[ "South Australian cobbler", "The Cobbler (2014 film)", "Pangasius pangasius", "Sherry cobbler", "Shoemaking", "Cobbler (food)", "Load of old cobblers", "Basa fish", "Condica sutor", "Northampton Town F.C.", "Cnidoglanis macrocephalus", "Cobble (disambiguation)", "Cobbler (software)", "Mount Cobbler", "Pangasius bocourti", "The Cobbler", "The Cobbler (1923 film)", "Cobbler (Better Call Saul)" ]
7,471	Catherine of Siena	Caterina di Jacopo di Benincasa (25 March 1347 – 29 April 1380), known as Catherine of Siena, was an Italian mystic and pious laywoman who engaged in papal and Italian politics through extensive letter-writing and advocacy. Canonized in 1461, she is revered as a saint and as a Doctor of the Church due to her extensive theological authorship. She is also considered to have influenced Italian literature. Born and raised in Siena, Catherine wanted from an early age to devote herself to God, against the will of her parents. She joined the "mantellates", a group of pious women, primarily widows, informally devoted to Dominican spirituality; later these types of urban pious groups would be formalized as the Third Order of the Dominicans, but not until after Catherine's death. Her influence with Pope Gregory XI played a role in his 1376 decision to leave Avignon for Rome. The Pope then sent Catherine to negotiate peace with the Florentine Republic. After Gregory XI's death (March 1378) and the conclusion of peace (July 1378), she returned to Siena. She dictated to secretaries her set of spiritual treatises, The Dialogue of Divine Providence. The Great Schism of the West led Catherine of Siena to go to Rome with the pope. She sent numerous letters to princes and cardinals to promote obedience to Pope Urban VI and to defend what she calls the "vessel of the Church". She died on 29 April 1380, exhausted by her rigorous fasting. Urban VI celebrated her funeral and burial in the Basilica of Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome. Devotion around Catherine of Siena developed rapidly after her death. Pope Pius II canonized her in 1461; she was declared a patron saint of Rome in 1866 by Pope Pius IX, and of Italy (together with Francis of Assisi) in 1939 by Pope Pius XII. She was the second woman to be declared a Doctor of the Church, on 4 October 1970 by Pope Paul VI – only days after Teresa of Ávila. In 1999 Pope John Paul II proclaimed her a Patron Saint of Europe. Catherine of Siena is one of the outstanding figures of medieval Catholicism due to the strong influence she had in the history of the papacy and her extensive authorship. She was behind the return of the Pope from Avignon to Rome, and then carried out many missions entrusted to her by the pope, something quite rare for a woman in the Middle Ages. Her Dialogue, hundreds of letters, and dozens of prayers also give her a prominent place in the history of Italian literature. ==Early life== Caterina di Jacopo di Benincasa was born on 25 March 1347 (shortly before the Black Death ravaged Europe) in Siena, Republic of Siena (today Italy), to Lapa Piagenti, the daughter of a local poet, and Jacopo di Benincasa, a cloth dyer who ran his enterprise with the help of his sons. The house where Catherine grew up still exists. Lapa was about forty years old when she gave birth prematurely to her 23rd and 24th children, twin daughters, named Catherine and Giovanna. After birth, Giovanna was handed over to a wet nurse and died soon after. Catherine was nursed by her mother and developed into a healthy child. She was two years old when Lapa had her 25th child, another daughter named Giovanna. As a child, Catherine was so merry that the family gave her the pet name of "Euphrosyne", which is Greek for "joy", and the name of an Euphrosyne of Alexandria. Catherine is said by her confessor and biographer Raymond of Capua's Life to have had her first vision of Christ when she was five or six years old: she and a brother were on the way home from visiting a married sister when she is said to have experienced a vision of Christ seated in glory with the Apostles Peter, Paul, and John. Raymond continues that at age seven, Catherine vowed to give her whole life to God. When Catherine was 16, her older sister Bonaventura died in childbirth; already anguished by this, Catherine soon learned that her parents wanted her to marry Bonaventura's widower. She was absolutely opposed and started a strict fast. She had learned this from Bonaventura, whose husband had been far from considerate but had changed his attitude after his wife refused to eat until he showed better manners. Besides fasting, Catherine further disappointed her mother by cutting off her long hair in protest of being encouraged to improve her appearance to attract a husband. Catherine would later advise Raymond of Capua to do during times of trouble what she did now as a teenager: "Build a cell inside your mind, from which you can never flee." In this inner cell, she made her father into a representation of Christ, her mother into the Blessed Virgin Mary, and her brothers into the Apostles in the New Testament. Serving them humbly became an opportunity for spiritual growth. Catherine resisted the accepted course of marriage and motherhood on the one hand, or a nun's veil on the other. She chose to live an active and prayerful life outside a convent's walls, following the model of the Dominicans. Eventually, her parents gave up and permitted her to live as she pleased and stay unmarried. A vision of Dominic de Guzmán gave strength to Catherine, but her wish to join his order was no comfort to Lapa, who took her daughter with her to the baths in Bagno Vignoni to improve her health. Catherine fell seriously ill with a violent rash, fever and pain, which conveniently made her mother accept her wish to join the "Mantellate", the local association of devout women. The Mantellate taught Catherine how to read, and she lived in almost total silence and solitude in the family home. == Later life == According to Raymond of Capua, at the age of twenty-one (), Catherine experienced what she described in her letters as a "Mystical Marriage" with Jesus, later a popular subject in art as the Mystic marriage of Saint Catherine. Caroline Walker Bynum imagines one surprising and controversial aspect of this marriage: "Underlining the extent to which the marriage was a fusion with Christ's physicality[...] Catherine received, not the ring of gold and jewels that her biographer reports in his bowdlerized version, but the ring of Christ's foreskin." Catherine herself mentions the ring ‘of flesh’ motif in one of her letters (#221), equating the wedding ring of a virgin with the flesh of Jesus; she typically claimed that her own wedding ring to Christ was simply invisible. She wrote in a letter (to encourage a nun who seems to have been undergoing a prolonged period of spiritual trial and torment): "Bathe in the blood of Christ crucified. See that you don't look for or want anything but the crucified, as a true bride ransomed by the blood of Christ crucified – for that is my wish. You see very well that you are a bride and that he has espoused you – you and everyone else – and not with a ring of silver but with a ring of his own flesh." Raymond of Capua also records that she was told by Christ to leave her withdrawn life and enter the public life of the world. Catherine rejoined her family and began helping the ill and the poor, where she took care of them in hospitals or homes. Her early pious activities in Siena attracted a group of followers, women and men, who gathered around her. With her help in the Hospital of Santa Maria della Scala and within the neighborhood that she was living, Catherine's acts of charity became well-known. This led to her being known as , or a holy woman. This reputation of holiness eventually led to her involvement in politics and a hearing with the pope. As social and political tensions mounted in Siena, Catherine found herself drawn to intervene in wider politics. She made her first journey to Florence in 1374, probably to be interviewed by the Dominican authorities at the General Chapter held in Florence in May 1374, though this is disputed (if she was interviewed, then the absence of later evidence suggests she was deemed sufficiently orthodox). In June 1376 Catherine went to Avignon as ambassador of the Republic of Florence to make peace with the Papal States (on 31 March 1376 Gregory XI had placed Florence under interdict). She was unsuccessful and was disowned by the Florentine leaders, who sent ambassadors to negotiate on their own terms as soon as Catherine's work had paved the way for them. Catherine sent an appropriately scorching letter back to Florence in response. While in Avignon, Catherine also tried to convince Pope Gregory XI, the last Avignon Pope, to return to Rome. Gregory did indeed return his administration to Rome in January 1377; to what extent this was due to Catherine's influence is a topic of much modern debate. Catherine returned to Siena and spent the early months of 1377 founding a women's monastery of strict observance outside the city in the old fortress of Belcaro. She spent the rest of 1377 at Rocca d'Orcia, about from Siena, on a local mission of peace-making and preaching. During this period, in autumn 1377, she had the experience which led to the writing of her Dialogue and learned to write, although she still seems to have chiefly relied upon her secretaries for her correspondence. Late in 1377 or early in 1378 Catherine again travelled to Florence, at the order of Gregory XI, to seek peace between Florence and Rome. Following Gregory's death in March 1378 riots, the revolts of the Ciompi broke out in Florence on June 18, and in the ensuing violence Catherine was nearly assassinated. Eventually, in July 1378, peace was agreed between Florence and Rome and Catherine returned quietly to Florence. She received the Holy Eucharist almost daily. This extreme fasting appeared unhealthy in the eyes of the clergy and her own sisterhood. Her confessor, Raymond, ordered her to eat properly. However, Catherine replied that she was unable to, describing her inability to eat as an (illness). From the beginning of 1380, Catherine could neither eat nor swallow water. On February 26, she lost the use of her legs. Catherine died in Rome on April 29, 1380, at the age of thirty-three, having suffered a massive stroke eight days earlier, which paralyzed her from the waist down. Her last words were, "Father, into Your Hands I commend my soul and my spirit." ==Works== Three genres of work by Catherine survive: Her major treatise is The Dialogue of Divine Providence, which is thought to have been begun in October 1377 and finished by November 1378. Contemporaries of Catherine are united in asserting that much of the book was dictated while Catherine was in ecstasy, though it also seems possible that Catherine herself may then have re-edited many passages in the book. This text is described as a dialogue between God and a soul. Other correspondents include her various confessors, among them Raymond of Capua, the kings of France and Hungary, the infamous mercenary John Hawkwood, the Queen of Naples, members of the Visconti family of Milan, and numerous religious figures. 26 prayers of Catherine of Siena also survive, mostly composed in the last 18 months of her life. The University of Alcalá conserves a unique handwritten Spanish manuscript, while other available texts are printed copies collected by the National Library of France. ==Theology== Catherine's theology can be described as mystical, and was employed toward practical ends for her own spiritual life or those of others. She used the language of medieval scholastic philosophy to elaborate her experiential mysticism. Interested mainly with achieving an incorporeal union with God, Catherine practiced extreme fasting and asceticism, eventually to the extent of living solely on the Eucharist every day. For Catherine, this practice was the means to fully realize her love of Christ in her mystical experience, with a large proportion of her ecstatic visions relating to the consumption or rejection of food during her life. She viewed Christ as a "bridge" between the soul and God and transmitted that idea, along with her other teachings, in her book The Dialogue. The Dialogue is highly systematic and explanatory in its presentation of her mystical ideas; however, these ideas themselves are not so much based on reason or logic as they are based in her ecstatic mystical experience. Her work was widely read across Europe, and survives in a Middle English translation called The Orchard of Syon. In one of her letters she sent to her confessor, Raymond of Capua, she recorded this revelation from her conversation with Christ, in which he said: "Do you know what you are to Me, and what I am to you, my daughter? I am He who is, you are she who is not". This mystical concept of God as the wellspring of being is seen in the works and ideas of Aquinas and can be seen as a simplistic rendering of apotheosis and a more rudimentary form of the doctrine of divine simplicity. She describes God in her work, The Dialogue (which she referred to simply as "her book"), as a "sea, in which we are the fish", the point being that the relationship between God and man should not be seen as man contending against the Divine and vice versa, but as God being the endless being that supports all things. According to the writings attributed to Catherine, in 1377 she had a vision in which the Virgin confirmed to her a thesis supported by the Dominican Order, to which Catherine belonged: the Virgin said that she had been conceived the original sin. The Virgin thus contradicted the future dogma of the Immaculate Conception. Cardinal Lambertini (later Pope Benedict XIV) in his treatise , 1734–1738, cites theologians who believed that Catherine's directors or editors had falsified her words; he also cites Father Lancicius, who believed that Catherine had made a mistake as a result of preconceived ideas. ==Veneration== Catherine was initially buried in the (Roman) cemetery of Santa Maria sopra Minerva which lies near the Pantheon. After miracles were reported to take place at her grave, Raymond moved her inside Santa Maria sopra Minerva, where she lies to this day. Her head, however, was parted from her body and inserted in a gilt bust of bronze. This bust was later taken to Siena, and carried through that city in a procession to the Dominican church. Behind the bust walked Lapa, Catherine's mother, who lived until she was 89 years old. By then she had seen the end of the wealth and the happiness of her family, and followed most of her children and several of her grandchildren to the grave. She helped Raymond of Capua write his biography of her daughter, and said, "I think God has laid my soul athwart in my body, so that it can't get out." The incorrupt head and thumb were entombed in the Basilica of San Domenico at Siena, where they remain. Pope Pius II himself canonized Catherine on 29 June 1461. On 4 October 1970, Pope Paul VI named Catherine a Doctor of the Church; making them the first women to receive this honour. In the 1969 revision of the calendar, it was decided to leave the celebration of the feast of St Peter of Verona to local calendars, because he was not as well known worldwide, and Catherine's feast was restored to 29 April. Catherine is remembered in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 29 April. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) also commemorates Catherine of Siena on 29 April. === Legacy === Catherine ranks high among the mystics and spiritual writers of the Catholic Church. ===Severed head=== The people of Siena wished to have Catherine's body. A story is told of a miracle whereby they were partially successful: knowing that they could not smuggle her whole body out of Rome, they decided to take only her head which they placed in a bag. When stopped by the Roman guards, they prayed to Catherine to help them, confident that she would rather have her body (or at least part thereof) in Siena. When they opened the bag to show the guards, it appeared no longer to hold her head but to be full of rose petals. ==Biographical sources== There is some internal evidence of Catherine's personality, teaching and work in her nearly four hundred letters, her Dialogue, and her prayers. Details about her life have also been drawn from the various sources written shortly after her death to promote her cult and canonization. Though much of the material is heavily hagiographic, written to promote her sanctity, it is an important early source for historians seeking to reconstruct Catherine's life. Various sources are particularly important, especially the works of Raymond of Capua, who was Catherine's spiritual director and close friend from 1374 to her death and himself became Master General of the Order in 1380. Raymond wrote what is known as the , his Life of Catherine which was completed in 1395, fifteen years after Catherine's death. It was soon translated into other European languages, including German and English. Another important work written after Catherine's death was (Little Supplement Book), written between 1412 and 1418 by Tommaso d'Antonio Nacci da Siena (commonly called Thomas of Siena, or Tommaso Caffarini); the work is an expansion of Raymond's making heavy use of the notes of Catherine's first confessor, Tommaso della Fonte, that do not survive anywhere else. Caffarini later published a more compact account of Catherine's life, the . From 1411 onward, Caffarini also coordinated the compiling of the of Venice, the set of documents submitted as part of the process of canonisation of Catherine, which provides testimony from nearly all of Catherine's disciples. There is also an anonymous piece, (Miracle of Blessed Catherine), written by an anonymous Florentine. A few other relevant pieces survive. ==Main sanctuaries== The main churches in honor of Catherine of Siena are: Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome, where her body is preserved. Basilica of San Domenico in Siena, where her incorrupt head is preserved. ==Images== File:St Catherine of Siena.jpg\|A statue of St. Catherine of Siena at the Parish of St. Catherine of Siena Church in Trumbull, Connecticut File:CatherineSienaMeo.jpg\|Michele de Meo, Catherine of Siena, Patroness of Europe, 2003, Chapel of St. James, Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva File:CatherineCommunionBeccafumi.jpg\|Domenico Beccafumi, The Miraculous Communion of St. Catherine of Siena, c. 1513–1515, Getty Center, Los Angeles, California File:CSienaStigmataBeccafumi.jpg\|Domenico Beccafumi, St. Catherine of Siena Receiving the Stigmata, c. 1513–1515, Getty Center, Los Angeles, California File:RosaryStaAgata.jpg\|The Virgin Mary Giving the Rosary to St. Dominic and St. Catherine of Siena, Church of Santa Agata in Trastevere, Rome (Bottom of painting: the souls in Purgatory await the prayers of the faithful) File:Franceschini, Baldassare - St Catherine of Siena - Google Art Project.jpg\|Baldassare Franceschini, Saint Catherine of Siena, 17th century, Dulwich Picture Gallery File:Giovanni di paolo, St Catherine of Siena.jpg\|Giovanni di Paolo, St. Catherine of Siena, c. 1475, tempera and gold on panel. Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, England. File:Lesser Poland St. Catherine of Siena.jpg\|St Catherine and the Demons by an unknown artist, c. 1500, tempera on panel. National Museum, Warsaw. File:Revelación del Santísimo Rosario a Santo Domingo de Guzmán.jpg\|This painting depicts the Virgin giving the rosary to St. Dominic; in the scene also appear Fray Pedro de Santa María Ulloa, Saint Catherine of Siena and Servant of God, Mary of Jesus de León y Delgado. The fresco is located in the Church of Santo Domingo in San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain. File:San Domenico74.jpg\|St Catherine's mystic communion by Francesco Brizzi	[ "Catholic Church", "Teresa of Ávila", "s:Life of Saint Catharine of Sienna", "Pope John Paul II", "Papal States", "General Roman Calendar", "Pope Pius XII", "Italian literature", "Agape", "Philippines", "Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya", "Republic of Florence", "Western Schism", "Mantellate Sisters", "Mysterii Paschalis", "San Cristóbal de La Laguna", "Pantheon, Rome", "nun", "TAN Books", "Apostles in the New Testament", "Avignon", "Francis of Assisi", "University of California Press", "Calendar of saints (Church of England)", "Bridget of Sweden", "Bruges Public Library", "hagiography", "Caroline Walker Bynum", "Saint Dominic", "Republic of Siena", "Spain", "Basilica of Santa Maria sopra Minerva", "Eucharist", "Pope Pius IX", "Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies", "Baldassare Franceschini", "scholastic philosophy", "Tenerife", "National Library of France", "Saint Peter", "Macmillan Publishers", "Lucca", "clergy", "Domenico Beccafumi", "Anglican Communion", "The New York Times Magazine", "Dulwich Picture Gallery", "Papacy", "Christian mysticism", "Thomas Bowdler", "Theta Phi Alpha", "apotheosis", "divine simplicity", "Christ in Majesty", "Francesco Brizzi", "University of Kentucky", "Holy Prepuce", "Giovanni di Paolo", "Aquinas", "Giovanni Battista Tiepolo", "St. Catherine of Siena Church (Trumbull, Connecticut)", "Lutheranism", "Servant of God", "St. Catherine of Siena's Church (disambiguation)", "Pope Benedict XIV", "Religious ecstasy", "John the Apostle", "Raymond of Capua", "Samal, Bataan", "feast day", "Black Death", "Immaculate Conception", "Feast of Saint Catherine", "Neroccio di Bartolomeo de' Landi", "John Hawkwood", "canonisation", "Classics of Western Spirituality", "Urban VI", "Rome", "National Museum, Warsaw", "Italy", "Bagno Vignoni", "Visconti of Milan", "lily", "Virgin (title)", "The Guardian", "Jesus", "University of Alcalá", "War of the Eight Saints", "Doctor of the Church", "The Daily Beast", "Mystic marriage of Saint Catherine", "Basilica of San Domenico, Siena", "Patron Saint of Europe", "Pope Pius II", "Ciompi", "Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)", "Blessed Virgin Mary", "Master of the Order of Preachers", "cherubim", "Pope Paul VI", "Phyllis Hodgson", "Ecclesiastical heraldry", "Third Order of Saint Dominic", "Edith Stein", "Paul of Tarsus", "bronze", "Santa Maria sopra Minerva", "Canonization", "canonized", "crown of thorns", "death in childbirth", "Euphrosyne of Alexandria", "patron saint", "Florentine Republic", "The Courier-Tribune", "Ascetical theology", "Florence", "Avignon Papacy", "Pope Urban VI", "stigmata", "Mary of Jesus de León y Delgado", "Pope Gregory XI", "Basilica of San Domenico (Siena)", "Bridal theology", "wet nurse", "Siena", "Peter of Verona", "Church of England", "Middle Ages" ]
7,472	Charles Lyell	Sir Charles Lyell, 1st Baronet, (14 November 1797 – 22 February 1875) was a Scottish geologist who demonstrated the power of known natural causes in explaining the earth's history. He is best known today for his association with Charles Darwin and as the author of Principles of Geology (1830–33), which presented to a wide public audience the idea that the earth was shaped by the same natural processes still in operation today, operating at similar intensities. The philosopher William Whewell dubbed this gradualistic view "uniformitarianism" and contrasted it with catastrophism, which had been championed by Georges Cuvier and was better accepted in Europe. The combination of evidence and eloquence in Principles convinced a wide range of readers of the significance of "deep time" for understanding the earth and environment. Lyell's scientific contributions included a pioneering explanation of climate change, in which shifting boundaries between oceans and continents could be used to explain long-term variations in temperature and rainfall. Lyell also gave influential explanations of earthquakes and developed the theory of gradual "backed up-building" of volcanoes. In stratigraphy his division of the Tertiary period into the Pliocene, Miocene, and Eocene was highly influential. He incorrectly conjectured that icebergs were the impetus behind the transport of glacial erratics, and that silty loess deposits might have settled out of flood waters. His creation of a separate period for human history, entitled the 'Recent', is widely cited as providing the foundations for the modern discussion of the Anthropocene. Building on the innovative work of James Hutton and his follower John Playfair, Lyell favoured an indefinitely long age for the earth, despite evidence suggesting an old but finite age. He was a close friend of Charles Darwin, and contributed significantly to Darwin's thinking on the processes involved in evolution. As Darwin wrote in On the Origin of Species, "He who can read Sir Charles Lyell's grand work on the Principles of Geology, which the future historian will recognise as having produced a revolution in natural science, yet does not admit how incomprehensibly vast have been the past periods of time, may at once close this volume." Lyell helped to arrange the simultaneous publication in 1858 of papers by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace on natural selection, despite his personal religious qualms about the theory. He later published evidence from geology of the time man had existed on the earth. ==Biography== Lyell was born into a wealthy family, on 14 November 1797, at the family's estate house, Kinnordy House, near Kirriemuir in Forfarshire. He was the eldest of ten children. Lyell's father, also named Charles Lyell, was noted as a translator and scholar of Dante. An accomplished botanist, it was he who first exposed his son to the study of nature. Lyell's grandfather, also Charles Lyell, had made the family fortune supplying the Royal Navy at Montrose, enabling him to buy Kinnordy House. The family seat is located in Strathmore, near the Highland Boundary Fault. Round the house, in the strath, is good farmland, but within a short distance to the north-west, on the other side of the fault, are the Grampian Mountains in the Highlands. His family's second country home was in a completely different geological and ecological area: he spent much of his childhood at Bartley Lodge in the New Forest, in Hampshire in southern England. Lyell entered Exeter College, Oxford, in 1816, and attended William Buckland's geological lectures. He graduated with a BA Hons. second class degree in classics, in December 1819, and gained his M.A. 1821. After graduation he took up law as a profession, entering Lincoln's Inn in 1820. He completed a circuit through rural England, where he could observe geological phenomena. In 1821 he attended Robert Jameson's lectures in Edinburgh, and visited Gideon Mantell at Lewes, in Sussex. In 1823 he was elected joint secretary of the Geological Society. As his eyesight began to deteriorate, he turned to geology as a full-time profession. His first paper, "On a recent formation of freshwater limestone in Forfarshire", was presented in 1826. By 1827, he had abandoned law and embarked on a geological career that would result in fame and the general acceptance of uniformitarianism, a working out of the ideas proposed by James Hutton a few decades earlier. In 1832, Lyell married Mary Horner in Bonn, daughter of Leonard Horner (1785–1864), also associated with the Geological Society of London. The new couple spent their honeymoon in Switzerland and Italy on a geological tour of the area. During the 1840s, Lyell travelled to the United States and Canada, and wrote two popular travel-and-geology books: Travels in North America (1845) and A Second Visit to the United States (1849). In 1866, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. After the Great Chicago Fire in 1871, Lyell was one of the first to donate books to help found the Chicago Public Library. In 1841, Lyell was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society. Lyell's wife died in 1873, and two years later (in 1875) Lyell himself died as he was revising the twelfth edition of Principles. He is buried in Westminster Abbey where there is a bust to him by William Theed in the north aisle. Lyell was knighted (Kt) in 1848, and later, in 1864, made a baronet (Bt), which is an hereditary honour. He was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1858 and the Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society in 1866. Mount Lyell, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park, is named after him; the crater Lyell on the Moon and a crater on Mars were named in his honour; Mount Lyell in western Tasmania, Australia, located in a profitable mining area, bears Lyell's name; and the Lyell Range in north-west Western Australia is named after him as well. In Southwest Nelson in the South Island of New Zealand, the Lyell Range, Lyell River and the gold mining town of Lyell (now only a camping site) were all named after Lyell. Lyall Bay in Wellington, New Zealand was possibly named after Lyell. The jawless fish Cephalaspis lyelli, from the Old Red Sandstone of southern Scotland, was named by Louis Agassiz in honour of Lyell. Sir Charles Lyell was buried at Westminster Abbey on 27 February 1875. The pallbearers included T. H. Huxley, the Rev. W. S. Symonds and Mr John Carrick Moore. ==Career and major writings== Lyell had private means, and earned further income as an author. He came from a prosperous family, worked briefly as a lawyer in the 1820s, and held the post of Professor of Geology at King's College London in the 1830s. From 1830 onward his books provided both income and fame. Each of his three major books was a work continually in progress. All three went through multiple editions during his lifetime, although many of his friends (such as Darwin) thought the first edition of the Principles was the best written. Lyell used each edition to incorporate additional material, rearrange existing material, and revisit old conclusions in light of new evidence. Throughout his life, Lyell kept a remarkable series of nearly three hundred manuscript notebooks and diaries. These span Lyell's long scientific career (1825–1874), and offer an unrivalled insight into personal influences, field observations, thoughts and relationships. They were acquired in 2019 by the University of Edinburgh's Heritage Collections, thanks to a fundraising campaign, with many generous individual and institutional donors from the UK and overseas. Highlights include his travels throughout Europe and the United States of America, the drafts of his correspondence with the likes of Charles Darwin, his geological and landscape sketches and his constant gathering of evidence and refinement of his theories. Lyell's collection held at the University of Edinburgh, including digital images of his five series of notebooks, and with links to other Lyell material held elsewhere, is now available on a dedicated website. Principles of Geology, Lyell's first book, was also his most famous, most influential, and most important. First published in three volumes in 1830–33, it established Lyell's credentials as an important geological theorist and propounded the doctrine of uniformitarianism. It was a work of synthesis, backed by his own personal observations on his travels. The central argument in Principles was that the present is the key to the past – a concept of the Scottish Enlightenment which David Hume had stated as "all inferences from experience suppose ... that the future will resemble the past", and James Hutton had described when he wrote in 1788 that "from what has actually been, we have data for concluding with regard to that which is to happen thereafter." Geological remains from the distant past can, and should, be explained by reference to geological processes now in operation and thus directly observable. Lyell's interpretation of geological change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was a powerful influence on the young Charles Darwin. Lyell asked Robert FitzRoy, captain of HMS Beagle, to search for erratic boulders on the survey voyage of the Beagle, and just before it set out FitzRoy gave Darwin Volume 1 of the first edition of Lyell's Principles. When the Beagle made its first stop ashore at St Jago in the Cape Verde islands, Darwin found rock formations which seen "through Lyell's eyes" gave him a revolutionary insight into the geological history of the island, an insight he applied throughout his travels. While in South America Darwin received Volume 2 which considered the ideas of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in some detail. Lyell rejected Lamarck's idea of organic evolution, proposing instead "Centres of Creation" to explain diversity and territory of species. However, as discussed below, many of his letters show he was fairly open to the idea of evolution. In geology Darwin was very much Lyell's disciple, and brought back observations and his own original theorising, including ideas about the formation of atolls, which supported Lyell's uniformitarianism. On the return of the Beagle (October 1836) Lyell invited Darwin to dinner and from then on they were close friends. Although Darwin discussed evolutionary ideas with him from 1842, Lyell continued to reject evolution in each of the first nine editions of the Principles. He encouraged Darwin to publish, and following the 1859 publication of On the Origin of Species, Lyell finally offered a tepid endorsement of evolution in the tenth edition of Principles. Elements of Geology began as the fourth volume of the third edition of Principles: Lyell intended the book to act as a suitable field guide for students of geology. The systematic, factual description of geological formations of different ages contained in Principles grew so unwieldy, however, that Lyell split it off as the Elements in 1838. The book went through six editions, eventually growing to two volumes and ceasing to be the inexpensive, portable handbook that Lyell had originally envisioned. Late in his career, therefore, Lyell produced a condensed version titled Student's Elements of Geology that fulfilled the original purpose. Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man brought together Lyell's views on three key themes from the geology of the Quaternary Period of earth history: glaciers, evolution, and the age of the human race. First published in 1863, it went through three editions that year, with a fourth and final edition appearing in 1873. The book was widely regarded as a disappointment because of Lyell's equivocal treatment of evolution. Lyell, a highly religious man with a strong belief in the special status of human reason, had great difficulty reconciling his beliefs with natural selection. ==Scientific contributions== Lyell's geological interests ranged from volcanoes and geological dynamics through stratigraphy, palaeontology, and glaciology to topics that would now be classified as prehistoric archaeology and paleoanthropology. He is best known, however, for his role in elaborating the doctrine of uniformitarianism. He played a critical role in advancing the study of loess. ===Uniformitarianism=== From 1830 to 1833 his multi-volume Principles of Geology was published. The work's subtitle was "An attempt to explain the former changes of the earth's surface by reference to causes now in operation", and this explains Lyell's impact on science. He drew his explanations from field studies conducted directly before he went to work on the founding geology text. He was, along with the earlier John Playfair, the major advocate of James Hutton's idea of uniformitarianism, that the earth was shaped entirely by slow-moving forces still in operation today, acting over a very long time. This was in contrast to catastrophism, an idea of abrupt geological changes, which had been adapted in England to explain landscape features—such as rivers much smaller than their associated valleys—that seemed impossible to explain other than through violent action. Criticizing the reliance of his contemporaries on what he argued were ad hoc explanations, Lyell wrote, Never was there a doctrine more calculated to foster indolence, and to blunt the keen edge of curiosity, than this assumption of the discordance between the former and the existing causes of change... The student was taught to despond from the first. Geology, it was affirmed, could never arise to the rank of an exact science... [With catastrophism] we see the ancient spirit of speculation revived, and a desire manifestly shown to cut, rather than patiently untie, the Gordian Knot.-Sir Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology, 1854 edition, p. 196; quoted by Stephen Jay Gould. Lyell saw himself as "the spiritual saviour of geology, freeing the science from the old dispensation of Moses." The two terms, uniformitarianism and catastrophism, were both coined by William Whewell; in 1866 R. Grove suggested the simpler term continuity for Lyell's view, but the old terms persisted. In various revised editions (12 in all, through 1872), Principles of Geology was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century and did much to put geology on a modern footing. ===Geological surveys=== Lyell noted the "economic advantages" geological surveys could provide, citing their felicity in mineral-rich countries and provinces. Modern surveys, like the British Geological Survey (founded in 1835), and the US Geological Survey (founded in 1879), map and exhibit the natural resources within their countries. Over time, these surveys have been used extensively by modern extractive industries, such as nuclear, coal, and oil. ===Volcanoes and geological dynamics=== Before Lyell's work, phenomena's such as earthquakes were understood by the destruction that they brought. One of the contributions that Lyell made in Principles was to explain the cause of earthquakes. Lyell, in contrast, focused on more recent earthquakes (150 yrs), evidenced by surface irregularities such as faults, fissures, stratigraphic displacements and depressions. Lyell's work on volcanoes focused largely on Vesuvius and Etna, both of which he had earlier studied. His conclusions supported gradual building of volcanoes, so-called "backed up-building", as opposed to the upheaval argument supported by other geologists. ===Stratigraphy and human history=== Lyell was a key figure in establishing the classification of more recent geological deposits, long known as the Tertiary period. From May 1828, until February 1829, he travelled with Roderick Impey Murchison (1792–1871) to the south of France (Auvergne volcanic district) and to Italy. In these areas he concluded that the recent strata (rock layers) could be categorised according to the number and proportion of marine shells encased within. Based on this the third volume of his Principles of Geology, published in 1833, proposed dividing the Tertiary period into four parts, which he named the Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene, and Recent. In 1839, Lyell termed the Pleistocene epoch, distinguishing a more recent fossil layer from the Pliocene. The Recent epoch renamed the Holocene by French paleontologist Paul Gervais in 1867 included all deposits from the era subject to human observation. In recent years Lyell's subdivisions have been widely discussed with debates about the Anthropocene. ===Glaciers=== In Principles of Geology (first edition, vol. 3, ch. 2, 1833) Lyell proposed that icebergs could be the means of transport for erratics. During periods of global warming, ice breaks off the poles and floats across submerged continents, carrying debris with it, he conjectured. When the iceberg melts, it rains down sediments upon the land. Because this theory could account for the presence of diluvium, the word drift became the preferred term for the loose, unsorted material, today called till. Furthermore, Lyell believed that the accumulation of fine angular particles covering much of the world (today called loess) was a deposit settled from mountain flood water. Today some of Lyell's mechanisms for geological processes have been disproven, though many have stood the test of time. His observational methods and general analytical framework remain in use today as foundational principles in geology. ===Evolution=== Lyell initially accepted the conventional view of other men of science, that the fossil record indicated a directional geohistory in which species went extinct. Around 1826, when he was on circuit, he read Lamarck's Zoological Philosophy and on 2 March 1827 wrote to Mantell, expressing admiration, but cautioning that he read it "rather as I hear an advocate on the wrong side, to know what can be made of the case in good hands".: I devoured Lamarck... his theories delighted me... I am glad that he has been courageous enough and logical enough to admit that his argument, if pushed as far as it must go, if worth anything, would prove that men may have come from the Ourang-Outang. But after all, what changes species may really undergo!... That the earth is quite as old as he supposes, has long been my creed... He struggled with the implications for human dignity, and later in 1827 wrote private notes on Lamarck's ideas. Lyell reconciled transmutation of species with natural theology by suggesting that it would be as much a "remarkable manifestation of creative Power" as creating each species separately. He countered Lamarck's views by rejecting continued cooling of the earth in favour of "a fluctuating cycle", a long-term steady-state geohistory as proposed by James Hutton. The fragmentary fossil record already showed "a high class of fishes, close to reptiles" in the Carboniferous period which he called "the first Zoological era", and quadrupeds could also have existed then. In November 1827, after William Broderip found a Middle Jurassic fossil of the early mammal Didelphis, Lyell told his father that "There was everything but man even as far back as the Oolite." Lyell inaccurately portrayed Lamarckism as a response to the fossil record, and said it was falsified by a lack of progress. He said in the second volume of Principles that the occurrence of this one fossil of the higher mammalia "in these ancient strata, is as fatal to the theory of successive development, as if several hundreds had been discovered." In the first edition of Principles, the first volume briefly set out Lyell's concept of a steady state with no real progression of fossils. The sole exception was the advent of humanity, with no great physical distinction from animals, but with absolutely unique intellectual and moral qualities. The second volume dismissed Lamarck's claims of animal forms arising from habits, continuous spontaneous generation of new life, and man having evolved from lower forms. Lyell explicitly rejected Lamarck's concept of transmutation of species, drawing on Cuvier's arguments, and concluded that species had been created with stable attributes. He discussed the geographical distribution of plants and animals, and proposed that every species of plant or animal was descended from a pair or individual, originated in response to differing external conditions. Species would regularly go extinct, in a "struggle for existence" between hybrids, or a "war one with another" due to population pressure. He was vague about how replacement species formed, portraying this as an infrequent occurrence which could rarely be observed. The leading man of science Sir John Herschel wrote from Cape Town on 20 February 1836, thanking Lyell for sending a copy of Principles and praising the book as opening a way for bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others" – by analogy with other intermediate causes, "the origination of fresh species, could it ever come under our cognizance, would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process". Lyell replied: "In regard to the origination of new species, I am very glad to find that you think it probable that it may be carried on through the intervention of intermediate causes. I left this rather to be inferred, not thinking it worth while to offend a certain class of persons by embodying in words what would only be a speculation." Whewell subsequently questioned this topic, and in March 1837 Lyell told him: If I had stated... the possibility of the introduction or origination of fresh species being a natural, in contradistinction to a miraculous process, I should have raised a host of prejudices against me, which are unfortunately opposed at every step to any philosopher who attempts to address the public on these mysterious subjects... As a result of his letters and, no doubt, personal conversations, Huxley and Ernst Haeckel were convinced that, at the time he wrote Principles, he believed new species had arisen by natural methods. Adam Sedgwick wrote worried letters to him about this. By the time Darwin returned from the Beagle survey expedition in 1836, he had begun to doubt Lyell's ideas about the permanence of species. He continued to be a close personal friend, and Lyell was one of the first scientists to support On the Origin of Species, though he did not subscribe to all its contents. Lyell was also a friend of Darwin's closest colleagues, Joseph Dalton Hooker and Huxley, but unlike them he struggled to square his religious beliefs with evolution. This inner struggle has been much commented on. He had particular difficulty in believing in natural selection as the main motive force in evolution. Lyell and Hooker were instrumental in arranging the peaceful co-publication of the theory of natural selection by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in 1858: each had arrived at the theory independently. Lyell's views on gradual change and the power of a long time scale were important because Darwin thought that populations of an organism changed very slowly. Although Lyell rejected evolution at the time of writing the Principles, after the Darwin–Wallace papers and the Origin Lyell wrote in one of his notebooks on 3 May 1860: Mr. Darwin has written a work which will constitute an era in geology & natural history to show that... the descendants of common parents may become in the course of ages so unlike each other as to be entitled to rank as a distinct species, from each other or from some of their progenitors... Lyell's acceptance of natural selection, Darwin's proposed mechanism for evolution, was equivocal, and came in the tenth edition of Principles. The Antiquity of Man (published in early February 1863, just before Huxley's Man's place in nature) drew these comments from Darwin to Huxley: "I am fearfully disappointed at Lyell's excessive caution" and "The book is a mere 'digest'".Quite strong remarks: no doubt Darwin resented Lyell's repeated suggestion that he owed a lot to Lamarck, whom he (Darwin) had always specifically rejected. Darwin's daughter Henrietta (Etty) wrote to her father: "Is it fair that Lyell always calls your theory a modification of Lamarck's?" In other respects Antiquity was a success. It sold well, and it "shattered the tacit agreement that mankind should be the sole preserve of theologians and historians". But when Lyell wrote that it remained a profound mystery how the huge gulf between man and beast could be bridged, Darwin wrote "Oh!" in the margin of his copy. ==Legacy== Places named after Lyell: Lyell, New Zealand Lyell Butte, in the Grand Canyon Lyell Canyon in Yosemite National Park Lyell Fork, one of two large forks of the Tuolumne River Lyell Land (Greenland) Lyell Glacier Lyell Glacier, South Georgia Mount Lyell (California) Mount Lyell (Canada) Mount Lyell (Tasmania) Lyell Avenue (Rochester, NY)	[ "Old Red Sandstone", "Charles Darwin", "Carboniferous", "glacial erratic", "American Philosophical Society", "William Buckland", "Middle Jurassic", "Santiago, Cape Verde", "family seat", "estate house", "Lyell Glacier", "Exeter College, Oxford", "Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man", "John Murray (publishing house)", "iceberg", "Strathmore, Angus", "Robert FitzRoy", "volcano", "Chicago Public Library", "Lyell, New Zealand", "catastrophism", "Eocene", "Quaternary Period", "Lyell Canyon", "Glacial erratic", "Mount Lyell (Canada)", "Copley Medal", "Mars", "Baronet", "Leonard Horner", "Ipswich Museum", "Lyell (lunar crater)", "The Antiquity of Man", "Georges Cuvier", "transmutation of species", "Mount Etna", "Mary Horner Lyell", "Tertiary", "archaeology", "HMS Beagle", "Ernst Haeckel", "Pliocene", "Burials and memorials in Westminster Abbey", "Lincoln's Inn", "Scottish Enlightenment", "Mary Horner", "Joseph Dalton Hooker", "James Hutton", "Moon", "spontaneous generation", "Martin J. S. Rudwick", "Harley Street", "Second voyage of HMS Beagle", "Roderick Impey Murchison", "Montrose, Angus", "Lamarck", "Stephen Jay Gould", "Robert Jameson", "Charles Lyell (botanist)", "James A. Secord", "Orangutan", "strath", "Royal Society", "Great Chicago Fire", "Lyell Baronets", "William Samuel Symonds", "glaciology", "Adam Sedgwick", "Westminster Abbey", "Bartley Lodge", "King's College London", "William Whewell", "Mount Lyell (Tasmania)", "Scottish Highlands", "US Geological Survey", "Henry De la Beche", "palaeontology", "Royal Medal", "Vesuvius", "Anthropocene", "deep time", "William Broderip", "Grand Canyon", "gradualism", "Lewes", "Sussex", "Geological Society", "Pleistocene", "Lyell Glacier, South Georgia", "s:Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man", "British Geological Survey", "Cape Verde", "Tuolumne River", "Paul Gervais", "Royal Navy", "evolution", "Highland Boundary Fault", "Jean-Baptiste Lamarck", "William Theed", "Principles of Geology", "David Hume", "Lyall Bay", "Yosemite National Park", "atoll", "Linda Hall Library", "Miocene", "Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle", "Physical law", "John Herschel", "Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin)", "Kinnordy House", "Louis Agassiz", "Gorner Glacier", "Lyell Butte", "John Playfair", "Dante", "natural selection", "natural theology", "Cape Town", "Holocene", "Impact crater", "Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences", "loess", "paleoanthropology", "Thomas Henry Huxley", "Geological Society of London", "University of Edinburgh", "Knight Bachelor", "Mount Lyell (California)", "Uniformitarianism (science)", "Phascolotherium", "uniformitarianism", "age of the human race", "Grampian Mountains", "Alfred Russel Wallace", "On the Origin of Species", "Lyell Land", "Gideon Mantell", "Kirriemuir", "New Forest", "Thomas Nelson (publisher)", "John Carrick Moore", "Uniformitarianism", "stratigraphy", "Wollaston Medal", "Cephalaspis" ]
7,473	Chelsea F.C.	Chelsea Football Club is a professional football club based in Fulham, West London, England. Named after neighbouring area Chelsea, they compete in the Premier League, the top tier of English football. Founded in 1905, Chelsea play their home games at Stamford Bridge. The club won their first major honour, the League championship, in 1955. They won the FA Cup for the first time in 1970, won their first European honour, the Cup Winners' Cup, in 1971, and became the third English club to win the Club World Cup in 2022. Chelsea is one of five clubs and the first English club to have won all three pre-1999 main European club competitions, the "European Treble" of the European Cup/UEFA Champions League, European/UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, and UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League. They are also the first and only club to win all three pre-1999 main UEFA club competitions more than once each. In addition, Chelsea is the only London club to have won the Champions League and the Club World Cup. Domestically, the club has won six league titles, eight FA Cups, five League Cups, and four FA Community Shields. Internationally, they have won the UEFA Champions League, the UEFA Europa League, the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and the UEFA Super Cup twice each, and the FIFA Club World Cup once. In terms of overall trophies won, Chelsea is the fifth-most successful club in English football. The club has rivalries with fellow London teams Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur, and a historic rivalry with Leeds United. In terms of club value, Chelsea is the ninth-most-valuable football club in the world (), worth $3.13 billion, and is the ninth-highest-earning football club in the world. ==History== === Founding and early years (1905–1952) === In 1904, Gus Mears acquired the Stamford Bridge athletics stadium in Fulham with the aim of turning it into a football ground. An offer to lease it to nearby Fulham F.C. was turned down, so Mears opted to found his own club to use the stadium. As there was already a team named Fulham in the borough, the name of the adjacent borough of Chelsea was chosen for the new club; names like Kensington FC, Stamford Bridge FC and London FC were considered. Chelsea F.C. was founded on 10 March 1905 at The Rising Sun pub (now The Butcher's Hook), opposite the present-day main entrance to the ground on Fulham Road, and were elected to the Football League shortly afterwards. Chelsea won promotion to the First Division in their second season, and yo-yoed between the First and Second Divisions in its early years. The team reached the 1915 FA Cup final, where they lost to Sheffield United at Old Trafford, and finished third in the First Division in 1920, the club's best league campaign to that point. Chelsea had a reputation for signing star players and attracted large crowds. The club had the highest average attendance in English football in ten separate seasons including 1907–08, 1909–10, 1911–12, 1912–13, 1913–14 and 1919–20. They were FA Cup semi-finalists in 1920 and 1932 and remained in the First Division throughout the 1930s, but success eluded the club in the inter-war years. === Modernisation and the first league championship (1952–1983) === Former Arsenal and England centre-forward Ted Drake was appointed manager in 1952 and proceeded to modernise the club. He removed the club's Chelsea pensioner crest, improved the youth set-up and training regime, rebuilt the side with shrewd signings from the lower divisions and amateur leagues, and led Chelsea to their first major trophy success – the League championship – in 1954–55. The following season saw UEFA create the European Champions' Cup, but after objections from The Football League, Chelsea were persuaded to withdraw from the competition before it started. Chelsea failed to build on this success, and spent the remainder of the 1950s in mid-table. Drake was dismissed in 1961 and replaced by player-coach Tommy Docherty. Docherty built a new team around the group of talented young players emerging from the club's youth set-up, and Chelsea challenged for honours throughout the 1960s, enduring several near-misses. They were on course for a treble of League, FA Cup and League Cup going into the final stages of the 1964–65 season, winning the League Cup but faltering late on in the other two. In three seasons the side were beaten in three major semi-finals and were FA Cup runners-up. Under Docherty's successor, Dave Sexton, Chelsea won the FA Cup in 1970, beating Leeds United 2–1 in a final replay. The following year, Chelsea took their first European honour, a UEFA Cup Winners' Cup triumph, with another replayed win, this time over Real Madrid in Athens. === Redevelopment and financial crisis (1983–2003) === The late 1970s through to the '80s was a turbulent period for Chelsea. An ambitious redevelopment of Stamford Bridge threatened the financial stability of the club, star players were sold and the team were relegated. Further problems were caused by a notorious hooligan element among the support, which was to plague the club throughout the decade. In 1982, at the nadir of their fortunes, Chelsea were acquired by Ken Bates from Mears' great-nephew Brian Mears, for the nominal sum of £1. Bates bought a controlling stake in the club and floated Chelsea on the AIM stock exchange in March 1996 although by now the Stamford Bridge freehold had been sold to property developers, meaning the club faced losing their home. On the pitch, the team had fared little better, coming close to relegation to the Third Division for the first time, but in 1983 manager John Neal put together an impressive new team for minimal outlay. Chelsea won the Second Division title in 1983–84 and established themselves in the top division with two top-six finishes, before being relegated again in 1988. The club bounced back immediately by winning the Second Division championship in 1988–89. After a long-running legal battle, Bates reunited the stadium freehold with the club in 1992 by doing a deal with the banks of the property developers, who had been bankrupted by a market crash. In the mid-1990s Chelsea fan and businessman Matthew Harding became a director and loaned the club £26 million to build the new North Stand and invest in new players. Chelsea's form in the new Premier League was unconvincing, although they did reach the 1994 FA Cup final. The appointment of Ruud Gullit as player-manager in 1996 began an upturn in the team's fortunes. He added several top international players to the side and led the club to their first major honour since 1971, the FA Cup. Gullit was replaced by Gianluca Vialli, whose reign saw Chelsea win the League Cup, the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and the UEFA Super Cup in 1998, and the FA Cup in 2000. They mounted a strong title challenge in 1998–99, finishing four points behind champions Manchester United, and made their first appearance in the UEFA Champions League. Vialli was sacked in favour of Claudio Ranieri, who guided Chelsea to the 2002 FA Cup final and Champions League qualification in 2002–03. === Abramovich ownership (2003–2022) === With the club facing an apparent financial crisis, Bates unexpectedly sold Chelsea F.C. in June 2003 for £60 million. In so doing, he reportedly recognised a personal profit of £17 million on the club he had bought for £1 in 1982 (his stake had been diluted to just below 30% over the years). The club's new owner was Russian oligarch and billionaire Roman Abramovich, who took on responsibility for the club's £80 million of debt, quickly paying some of it. Sergei Pugachev alleged Chelsea was bought on Putin's orders, an allegation Abramovich has denied. Bates mentioned that Abramovich was in talks to buy Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur before he bought Chelsea in a deal sealed in a day. Over £100 million was spent on new players, but Ranieri was unable to deliver any trophies, and was replaced by José Mourinho. Under Mourinho, Chelsea became the fifth English team to win back-to-back league championships since the Second World War (2004–05 and 2005–06), in addition to winning an FA Cup (2007) and two League Cups (2005 and 2007). After a poor start to the 2007–08 season, Mourinho was replaced by Avram Grant, who led the club to their first UEFA Champions League final, which they lost on penalties to Manchester United. The club did not turn a profit in the first nine years of Abramovich's ownership, and made record losses of £140m in June 2005. In 2009, under caretaker manager Guus Hiddink, Chelsea won another FA Cup. In 2009–10, his successor Carlo Ancelotti led them to their first Premier League and FA Cup Double, becoming the first English top-flight club to score 100 league goals in a season since 1963. In 2012, Roberto Di Matteo led Chelsea to their seventh FA Cup, and their first UEFA Champions League title, beating Bayern Munich 4–3 on penalties, the first London club to win the trophy. The following year the club won the UEFA Europa League, making them the first club to hold two major European titles simultaneously and one of five clubs to have won the three main UEFA trophies. Mourinho returned as manager in 2013 and led Chelsea to League Cup success in March 2015, and the Premier League title two months later. Mourinho was sacked after four months of the following season after a poor start. In November 2012, Chelsea announced a profit of £1.4 million for the year ending 30 June 2012, the first time the club had made a profit under Abramovich's ownership. This was followed by a loss in 2013 and then their highest ever profit of £18.4 million for the year to June 2014. In 2018 Chelsea announced a record after-tax profit of £62 million. In 2017, under new coach Antonio Conte, Chelsea won their sixth English title and the following season won their eighth FA Cup. In 2018 Conte was sacked after a fifth-place finish and replaced with Maurizio Sarri, under whom Chelsea reached the League Cup final, which they lost on penalties to Manchester City and won the Europa League for a second time, beating Arsenal 4–1 in the final. Sarri then left the club to become manager of Juventus and was replaced by former Chelsea player Frank Lampard. In Lampard's first season, he guided Chelsea to fourth place in the Premier League and reached the FA Cup final, losing 2–1 to Arsenal. Lampard was dismissed in January 2021 and replaced with Thomas Tuchel. Under Tuchel, Chelsea reached the FA Cup final, losing 1–0 to Leicester City, and won their second UEFA Champions League title with a 1–0 win over Manchester City in Porto. The club subsequently won the 2021 UEFA Super Cup for the second time by defeating Villarreal 6–5 in a penalty shootout, after it had ended 1–1 in Belfast after extra time, and the 2021 FIFA Club World Cup (the first for the club) in Abu Dhabi after beating Brazilian Palmeiras 2–1. On 18 April 2021, Chelsea announced it would be joining a new European Super League, a league competition comprising the biggest European clubs. After a backlash from supporters, the club announced their withdrawal days later. The club opted against furloughing their non-matchday staff during the COVID-19 pandemic, with the decision reportedly coming from Abramovich himself. Chelsea, one of the first clubs to help the National Health Service, lent the club-owned Millennium Hotel for the NHS staff. Amidst financial sanctions leveled at Russian oligarchs by Western governments in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Abramovich stated on 26 February that he would hand over the stewardship of Chelsea to the trustees of the Chelsea Foundation. The trustees did not immediately agree, due to legal concerns regarding the rules of the Charity Commission for England and Wales. A week later, Abramovich wrote-off the £1.5 billion the club owed him, and put the club up for sale, pledging to donate net proceeds from it to the victims of the war in Ukraine. On 10 March 2022, the British government announced sanctions on Abramovich with Chelsea allowed to operate under a special license until 31 May. In the following weeks, reports emerged of Abramovich's involvement in brokering a peace deal between Ukraine and Russia and securing safe evacuation corridors in besieged Ukrainian cities. An American government official revealed that the Ukrainian president, Volodymyr Zelenskyy had requested that the US government not levy sanctions against Abramovich given his importance to war relief efforts. === BlueCo ownership (2022–present) === On 7 May 2022, Chelsea confirmed that terms had been agreed for a new ownership group, led by Todd Boehly, Clearlake Capital, Mark Walter and Hansjörg Wyss, to acquire the club. The group was later known as BlueCo. The UK government approved the £4.25bn takeover, ending Abramovich's 19-year ownership of the club. Bruce Buck, who served as chairman since 2003, was replaced by Boehly, while long-serving club director and de facto sporting director Marina Granovskaia left, as did Petr Čech from the role of technical and performance advisor. The club brought in Graham Potter from Brighton & Hove Albion to replace Tuchel on 8 September 2022. Chelsea won six of the first 11 games of the 2022–23 season, but only five of the remaining 27. Potter would be sacked on 2 April 2023 and eventually be replaced by Frank Lampard as caretaker manager. Under Lampard the club would only win one of their last 11 matches resulting in a 9% win percentage. Lampard's win percentage was the worst for any Chelsea manager who managed three games or more. Chelsea scored a record-low 38 goals across the entire season and finished in the bottom half of the table for the first time since 1995–96. Mauricio Pochettino was announced as Lampard's replacement in 2023. He led Chelsea to a 6th-place finish, and a place in the Conference League play-off round qualification. He also led Chelsea to the 2024 EFL Cup final, narrowly losing 0–1 to Liverpool. After clashing with the sporting directors Laurence Stewart and Paul Winstanley over strategy and management of the young squad, Pochettino agreed to leave the club at the end of the season. On 3 June 2024, Enzo Maresca was announced as Pochettino's replacement, with the Italian beginning his term as manager on 1 July 2024. ===League history=== ==Stadium== Chelsea have only had one home ground, Stamford Bridge, where they have played since the team's foundation. The stadium was officially opened on 28 April 1877 and for the next 28 years it was used by the London Athletic Club as an arena for athletics meetings. In 1904, the ground was acquired by businessman Gus Mears and his brother Joseph, who had purchased nearby land (formerly a large market garden) with the aim of staging football matches on the now 12.5 acre (51,000 m2) site. Most football clubs were founded first, and then sought grounds in which to play, but Chelsea were founded for Stamford Bridge. Starting with an open bowl-like design and one grandstand with seating, Stamford Bridge had an original capacity of around 100,000, making it the second biggest stadium in England after Crystal Palace. In 1939, another small seated stand was added, the North Stand, which remained until its demolition in 1975. When Stamford Bridge was redeveloped in the Bates era many additional features were added to the complex including two Millennium & Copthorne hotels, apartments, bars, restaurants, the Chelsea Megastore, and an interactive visitor attraction called Chelsea World of Sport. The intention was that these facilities would provide extra revenue to support the football side of the business, but they were less successful than hoped and before the Abramovich takeover in 2003 the debt taken on to finance them was a major burden on the club. Soon after the takeover a decision was taken to drop the "Chelsea Village" brand and refocus on Chelsea as a football club. However, the stadium is sometimes still referred to as part of "Chelsea Village" or "The Village". The Stamford Bridge freehold, the pitch, the turnstiles and Chelsea's naming rights are now owned by Chelsea Pitch Owners, a non-profit organisation in which fans are the shareholders. The CPO was created to ensure the stadium could never again be sold to developers. As a condition for using the Chelsea FC name, the club has to play its first team matches at Stamford Bridge, which means that if the club moves to a new stadium, they may have to change their name. Chelsea's training ground is located in Cobham, Surrey. Chelsea moved to Cobham in 2004. Their previous training ground in Harlington was taken over by QPR in 2005. The new training facilities in Cobham were completed in 2007. Stamford Bridge hosted the FA Cup final from 1920 to 1922, has held 10 FA Cup Semi-finals (most recently in 1978), ten FA Charity Shield matches (the last in 1970), and three England international matches, the last in 1932; it was the venue for an unofficial Victory International in 1946. The 2013 UEFA Women's Champions League final was played at Stamford Bridge as well. The stadium has been used for a variety of other sports. In October 1905 it hosted a rugby union match between the All Blacks and Middlesex, and in 1914 hosted a baseball match between the touring New York Giants and the Chicago White Sox. It was the venue for a boxing match between world flyweight champion Jimmy Wilde and Joe Conn in 1918. The running track was used for dirt track racing between 1928 and 1932, greyhound racing from 1933 to 1968, and Midget car racing in 1948. In 1980, Stamford Bridge hosted the first international floodlit cricket match in the UK, between Essex and the West Indies. It was the home stadium of the London Monarchs American Football team for the 1997 season. The previous owner Abramovich and the club's then executive board determined that a larger stadium is necessary in order for Chelsea to stay competitive with rival clubs who have significantly larger stadia, such as Arsenal and Manchester United. Owing to its location next to a main road and two railway lines, fans can only enter Stamford Bridge via the Fulham Road, which places constraints on expansion due to health and safety regulations. The club have consistently affirmed their desire to keep Chelsea at their current home, but have nonetheless been linked with a move to various nearby sites, including the Earls Court Exhibition Centre, Battersea Power Station and the Chelsea Barracks. In October 2011, a proposal from the club to buy back the freehold to the land on which Stamford Bridge sits was voted down by Chelsea Pitch Owners shareholders. In May 2012, the club made a formal bid to purchase Battersea Power Station, with a view to developing the site into a new stadium, but lost out to a Malaysian consortium. The club subsequently announced plans to redevelop Stamford Bridge into a 60,000-seater stadium, and in January 2017 these plans were approved by Hammersmith and Fulham council. However, on 31 May 2018, the club released a statement saying that the new stadium project had been put on hold indefinitely, citing "the current unfavourable investment climate". In July 2022, it was reported that the club's new owner Todd Boehly had appointed American architect Janet Marie Smith to oversee the renovation of the stadium. ==Identity== ===Crest=== Chelsea has had four main crests, which all underwent minor variations. The first, adopted when the club was founded, was the image of a Chelsea Pensioner, the army veterans who reside at the nearby Royal Hospital Chelsea. This contributed to the club's original "pensioner" nickname, and remained for the next half-century, though it never appeared on the shirts. When Ted Drake became Chelsea manager in 1952, he began to modernise the club. Believing the Chelsea pensioner crest to be old-fashioned, he insisted that it be replaced. A stop-gap badge which comprised the initials C.F.C. was adopted for a year. In 1953, the club crest was changed to an upright blue lion looking backwards and holding a staff. It was based on elements in the coat of arms of the Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea with the "lion rampant regardant" taken from the arms of then club president Viscount Chelsea and the staff from the Abbots of Westminster, former Lords of the Manor of Chelsea. It featured three red roses, to represent England, and two footballs. In 1986, with Ken Bates owner of the club, Chelsea's crest was changed again as part of another attempt to modernise and because the old rampant lion badge could not be trademarked. The new badge featured a more naturalistic non-heraldic lion, in white and not blue, standing over the C.F.C. initials. This lasted for the next 19 years, with some modifications such as the use of different colours, including red from 1987 to 1995, and yellow from 1995 until 1999, before the white returned. With the new ownership of Roman Abramovich, and the club's centenary approaching, combined with demands from fans for the popular 1950s badge to be restored, it was decided that the crest should be changed again in 2005. The new crest was officially adopted for the start of the 2005–06 season and marked a return to the older design, used from 1953 to 1986, featuring a blue heraldic lion holding a staff. For the centenary season this was accompanied by the words '100 Years' and 'Centenary 2005–2006' on the top and bottom of the crest respectively. ===Colours=== Chelsea have always worn blue shirts, although they originally used the paler eton blue, which was taken from the racing colours of then club president, Earl Cadogan, and was worn with white shorts and dark blue or black socks. The light blue shirts were replaced by a royal blue version in around 1912. In the 1960s Chelsea manager Tommy Docherty changed the kit again, switching to blue shorts (which have remained ever since) and white socks, believing it made the club's colours more modern and distinctive, since no other major side used that combination; this kit was first worn during the 1964–65 season. Since then Chelsea have always worn white socks with their home kit apart from a short spell from 1985 to 1992, when blue socks were reintroduced. Chelsea's away colours are usually all yellow or all white with blue trim. More recently, the club have had a number of black or dark blue away kits which alternate every year. As with most teams, they have had some more unusual ones. At Docherty's behest, in the 1966 FA Cup semi-final they wore blue and black stripes, based on Inter Milan's kit. In the mid-1970s, the away strip was a red, white and green kit inspired by the Hungarian national side of the 1950s. Other away kits include an all jade strip worn from 1986 to 1989, red and white diamonds from 1990 to 1992, graphite and tangerine from 1994 to 1996, and luminous yellow from 2007 to 2008. === Songs and fan chants === The song "Blue is the Colour" was released as a single in the build-up to the 1972 League Cup final, with all members of Chelsea's first team squad singing; it reached number five in the UK Singles Chart. The song has since been adopted by a number of other sports teams around the world, including the Vancouver Whitecaps (as "White is the Colour") and the Saskatchewan Roughriders (as "Green is the Colour"). Chelsea released the song "No One Can Stop Us Now" in 1994 for reaching the 1994 FA Cup final. It reached number 23 in the UK Singles Chart. In the build-up to the 1997 FA Cup final, the song "Blue Day", performed by Suggs and members of the Chelsea squad, reached number 22 in the UK chart. In 2000, Chelsea released the song "Blue Tomorrow". It reached number 22 in the UK Singles Chart. "Ten Men Went to Mow", "We All Follow the Chelsea" (to the tune of "Land of Hope and Glory"), "Zigga Zagga", and the celebratory "Celery". The latter is often accompanied by fans throwing celery at each other, although the vegetable was banned inside Stamford Bridge after an incident involving midfielder Cesc Fàbregas at the 2007 League Cup final. Popular fan chants include, "Super Chelsea", "Super Frank" (dedicated to all-time leading goal scorer Frank Lampard), "We love you Chelsea" and "Come on Chelsea". There are situation-specific or team-specific chants meant to rile up opposition teams, managers or players. ==Support== Chelsea is among the most widely supported football clubs in the world. It has the sixth-highest average attendance in the history of English football, and regularly attract over 40,000 fans to Stamford Bridge; they were the ninth best-supported Premier League team in the 2023–24 season, with an average gate of 39,700. Chelsea's traditional fanbase comes from all over the Greater London area including working-class parts such as Hammersmith and Battersea, wealthier areas like Chelsea and Kensington, and from the home counties. There are numerous official supporters clubs in the United Kingdom and all over the world. Between 2007 and 2012, Chelsea were ranked fourth worldwide in annual replica kit sales, with an average of 910,000. As of 2023, Chelsea has 118.9 million followers on social media, the fourth highest among football clubs. During the 1970s and 1980s in particular, Chelsea supporters were associated with football hooliganism. The club's "football firm", originally known as the Chelsea Shed Boys, and subsequently as the Chelsea Headhunters, were nationally notorious for football violence, alongside hooligan firms from other clubs such as West Ham United's Inter City Firm and Millwall's Bushwackers, before, during and after matches. The increase of hooligan incidents in the 1980s led chairman Ken Bates to propose erecting an electric fence to deter them from invading the pitch, a proposal that the Greater London Council rejected. Since the 1990s, there has been a marked decline in crowd trouble at matches, as a result of stricter policing, CCTV in grounds and the advent of all-seater stadia. In 2007, the club launched the Back to the Shed campaign to improve the atmosphere at home matches, with notable success. According to Home Office statistics, 126 Chelsea fans were arrested for football-related offences during the 2009–10 season, the third highest in the division, and 27 banning orders were issued, the fifth-highest in the division. ===Rivalries=== Chelsea have long-standing rivalries with North London clubs Arsenal and Tottenham Hotspur. A strong rivalry with Leeds United dates back to several heated and controversial matches in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly the 1970 FA Cup final. More recently a rivalry with Liverpool has grown following repeated clashes in cup competitions. Fellow West London clubs Brentford, Fulham and Queens Park Rangers are considered rivals, but less so in recent times as matches have only taken place intermittently due to the teams often being in separate divisions. A 2004 survey by Planetfootball.com found that Chelsea fans consider their main rivalries to be with (in descending order): Arsenal, Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester United. In the same survey, fans of Arsenal, Fulham, Leeds United, QPR, Tottenham, and West Ham United named Chelsea as one of their three main rivals. A 2012 survey, conducted among 1,200 supporters of the top four league divisions across the country, found that many clubs' main rivals had changed since 2003 and reported that Chelsea fans consider Tottenham to be their main rivals, above Arsenal and Manchester United. Additionally, fans of Arsenal, Brentford, Fulham, Liverpool, Manchester United, QPR, Tottenham and West Ham identified Chelsea as one of their top three rivals. == Records and statistics == Chelsea's highest appearance-maker is ex-captain Ron Harris, who played in 795 competitive games for the club between 1961 and 1980. Five other players made more than 500 appearances for the club: Peter Bonetti (729; 1959–79), John Terry (717; 1998–2017), Frank Lampard (648; 2001–2014), John Hollins (592; 1963–1975 and 1983–1984), and César Azpilicueta (508; 2012–2023). With 103 caps (101 while at the club) for England, Lampard is Chelsea's most capped international player. Every starting player in Chelsea's 57 games of the 2013–14 season was a full international – a new club record. Lampard is Chelsea's all-time top goalscorer, having scored 211 goals in 648 games (2001–2014); Eight other players have scored over 100 goals for Chelsea: George Hilsdon (1906–1912), George Mills (1929–1939), Roy Bentley (1948–1956), Jimmy Greaves (1957–1961), Peter Osgood (1964–1974 and 1978–1979), Kerry Dixon (1983–1992), Didier Drogba (2004–2012 and 2014–2015), and Eden Hazard (2012–2019). Greaves holds the club record for the most goals scored in one season (43 in 1960–61). While a Chelsea player, Greaves became the youngest ever player to score 100 goals in the English top-flight, at 20 years and 290 days. Chelsea's biggest winning scoreline in a competitive match is 13–0, achieved against Jeunesse Hautcharage in the Cup Winners' Cup in 1971. The club's biggest top-flight win was an 8–0 victory against Wigan Athletic in 2010, which was matched in 2012 against Aston Villa. Chelsea's biggest loss was an 8–1 reverse against Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1953. The club's 21–0 aggregate victory over Jeunesse Hautcharage in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1971 is a record in European competition. Officially, Chelsea's highest home attendance is 82,905 for a First Division match against Arsenal on 12 October 1935. However, an estimated crowd of over 100,000 attended a friendly match against Soviet team Dynamo Moscow on 13 November 1945. From 20 March 2004 to 26 October 2008, Chelsea went a record 86 consecutive league matches at home without defeat, beating the previous record of 63 matches unbeaten set by Liverpool between 1978 and 1980. Chelsea hold the English record for the fewest goals conceded during a league season (15), the highest number of clean sheets overall in a Premier League season (25) (both set during the 2004–05 season), and the most consecutive clean sheets from the start of a league season (6, set during the 2005–06 season). Chelsea is the only Premier League side to have won its opening nine league games of the season, doing so in 2005–06. From 2009 to 2013, Chelsea were unbeaten in a record 29 consecutive FA Cup matches (excluding penalty shoot-outs). On 25 August 1928, Chelsea, along with Arsenal, became the first club to play with shirt numbers, in their match against Swansea Town. They were the first English side to travel by aeroplane to a domestic away match, when they visited Newcastle United on 19 April 1957, and the first First Division side to play a match on a Sunday, when they faced Stoke City on 27 January 1974. On 26 December 1999, Chelsea became the first British side to field an entirely foreign starting line-up (no British or Irish players) in a Premier League match against Southampton. In May 2007, Chelsea were the first team to win the FA Cup at the new Wembley Stadium, having been the last to win it at the old Wembley. They were the first English club to be ranked No. 1 under UEFA's five-year coefficient system in the 21st century. They were the first Premier League team, and the first team in the English top flight since 1962–63, to score at least 100 goals in a single season, reaching the milestone during the 2009–10 season. Upon winning the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League, Chelsea became the first English club to win all four UEFA club trophies and the only club to hold the Champions League and the Europa League at the same time. Chelsea have broken the record for the highest transfer fee paid by a British club three times. Their £30.8 million purchase of Andriy Shevchenko from A.C. Milan in June 2006 was a British record until surpassed by the £32.5 million paid by Manchester City for Robinho in September 2008. The club's £50 million purchase of Fernando Torres from Liverpool in January 2011 held the record until Ángel Di María signed for Manchester United in August 2014 for £59.7 million. The club's £71 million purchase of Kepa Arrizabalaga in August 2018 remains a world record fee paid for a goalkeeper. On 12 February 2022, Chelsea became the first London club to win the FIFA Club World Cup. In the final it beat Palmeiras with Kai Havertz scoring a late penalty. Chelsea broke the spending record in the winter transfer window with a £289 million spending spree on eight new signings, with the £107 million signing of Enzo Fernandez breaking the British transfer record. ==Ownership and finances== Chelsea Football Club was founded by Gus Mears in 1905. After his death in 1912, his descendants continued to own the club until 1982, when Ken Bates bought the club from Mears' great-nephew Brian Mears for £1. Bates bought a controlling stake in the club and floated Chelsea on the AIM stock exchange in March 1996. At the time of the Abramovich takeover, the club had debts of around £100 million, which included a 10-year £75 million Eurobond taken out in 1997 by the Bates regime to buy the freehold of Stamford Bridge and finance the redevelopment of the stadium. The 9% interest on the loan cost the club around £7 million a year and according to Bruce Buck, Chelsea were struggling to pay an instalment due in July 2003. Abramovich paid off some of that debt immediately, but the outstanding £36 million on the Eurobond was not fully repaid until 2008. Since then, the club had no external debt. Abramovich changed the ownership name to Chelsea FC plc, whose ultimate parent company was Fordstam Limited, which was controlled by him. Chelsea were additionally funded by Abramovich via interest free soft loans channelled through his holding company Fordstam Limited. The loans stood at £709 million in December 2009, when they were all converted to equity by Abramovich, leaving the club themselves debt free, although the debt remained with Fordstam. Chelsea did not turn a profit in the first nine years of Abramovich's ownership, and made record losses of £140m in June 2005. In 2016, Forbes magazine ranked Chelsea the seventh most valuable football club in the world, at £1.15 billion ($1.66 billion). , Chelsea was ranked eighth in the Deloitte Football Money League with an annual commercial revenue of £322.59 million. As of May 2022, Chelsea was ranked the eighth-most valuable club in the world according to Forbes, and eighth according to Deloitte, with an annual commercial revenue of €493.1 million. The club's recent accounting records highlight £26.6m they lost in compensation to former head coach Antonio Conte for sacking and to pay off his backroom staff and the legal costs that followed. On 26 February 2022, during the Russo-Ukrainian War, Abramovich handed over "stewardship and care" of Chelsea FC to the Chelsea Charitable Foundation. Abramovich released an official statement on 2 March 2022 confirming that he was selling the club due to the ongoing situation in Ukraine. Although the UK government froze Abramovich's assets in United Kingdom on 10 March due to his "close ties with Kremlin", it was made clear that the Chelsea club will be allowed to operate in terms of activities which are football related. On 12 March, the Premier League disqualified Abramovich as a director of Chelsea Football Club. On 19 March 2022, there were five confirmed bids to acquire Chelsea FC: submitted to Raine Capital which was handling the sale of the club. Some of these were a consortium led by ex-Liverpool chairman Sir Martin Broughton, a group of investors led by the Ricketts family (among them Joe and Pete Ricketts), Swiss and American businessmen Hansjörg Wyss and Todd Boehly, Aethel Partners headed by Portuguese Ricardo Santos Silva and British businessman Nick Candy, supported by former Chelsea striker Gianluca Vialli. On 7 May, the club finally confirmed that "terms have been agreed" for a new ownership group led by Todd Boehly and Clearlake Capital. On 30 May, it was confirmed that the Boehly consortium had completed the purchase of the club. The consortium includes Wyss and Mark Walter. Walter and Boehly are also owners of the Los Angeles Dodgers, the Los Angeles Lakers, and the Los Angeles Sparks. The consortium was later known as BlueCo. The transaction had received all necessary approvals from the governments of the United Kingdom and, the Premier League, and other authorities. ===Sponsorship=== Chelsea's kit has been manufactured by Nike since July 2017. Previously, the kit was manufactured by Adidas, which was originally contracted to supply the club's kit from 2006 to 2018. The partnership was extended in October 2010 in a deal worth £160 million over eight years. This deal was again extended in June 2013 in a deal worth £300 million over another 10 years. In May 2016, Adidas announced that by mutual agreement, the kit sponsorship would end six years early on 30 June 2017. Chelsea had to pay £40m in compensation to Adidas. In October 2016, Nike was announced as the new kit sponsor, in a deal worth £900m over 15 years, until 2032. Previously, the kit was manufactured by Umbro (1975–81), Le Coq Sportif (1981–86), The Chelsea Collection (1986–87), Umbro (1987–2006), and Adidas (2006–2017). Chelsea's first shirt sponsor was Gulf Air, agreed during the 1983–84 season. The club was then sponsored by Grange Farms, Bai Lin Tea and Simod before a long-term deal was signed with Commodore International in 1989; Amiga, an offshoot of Commodore, appeared on the shirts. Chelsea was subsequently sponsored by Coors beer (1994–97), Autoglass (1997–2001), Emirates (2001–05), Samsung Mobile (2005–08), Samsung (2008–15) and Yokohama Tyres (2015–20). From July 2020, Chelsea's sponsor was Three; however, it temporarily suspended its sponsorship in March 2022 in response to sanctions leveled by the UK government against Abramovich. It restored its sponsorship after the change of ownership of the club. Following the introduction of sleeve sponsors in the Premier League, Chelsea had Alliance Tyres as its first sleeve sponsor in the 2017–18 season, followed by Hyundai Motor Company in 2018–19 season. In 2022–23 season, Amber Group became the new sleeve sponsor, with the flagship digital asset platform WhaleFin appearing on the sleeves of both men's and women's teams. The club has a variety of other sponsors and official partners, which include Cadbury, EA Sports, FICO, Hilton Worldwide, 3 (company), Levy Restaurants, MSC Cruises, Oman Air, Parimatch, Rexona, Singha, The St. James, Trivago and BingX. ==== Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors ==== ==Popular culture== In 1930, Chelsea featured in one of the earliest football films, The Great Game. One-time Chelsea centre forward, Jack Cock, who by then was playing for Millwall, was the star of the film and several scenes were shot at Stamford Bridge, including on the pitch, the boardroom, and the dressing rooms. It included guest appearances by then-Chelsea players Andrew Wilson, George Mills, and Sam Millington. Owing to the notoriety of the Chelsea Headhunters, a football firm associated with the club, Chelsea have featured in films about football hooliganism, including 2004's The Football Factory. Chelsea appeared in the Hindi film Jhoom Barabar Jhoom. In April 2011, Montenegrin comedy series Nijesmo mi od juče made an episode in which Chelsea played against FK Sutjeska Nikšić for qualification of the UEFA Champions League. Up until the 1950s, the club had a long-running association with the music halls; their underachievement often provided material for comedians such as George Robey. It culminated in comedian Norman Long's release of a comic song in 1933, ironically titled "On the Day That Chelsea Went and Won the Cup", the lyrics of which describe a series of bizarre and improbable occurrences on the hypothetical day when Chelsea finally won a trophy. Scenes in a 1980 episode of Minder were filmed during a real match at Stamford Bridge between Chelsea and Preston North End with Terry McCann (Dennis Waterman) standing on the terraces. ==Players== ===First-team squad=== ===Development Squad and Academy=== Players to have at least one first-team appearance for Chelsea. ===Out on loan=== ==Management== ===Coaching staff=== ===Club personnel=== {\|class="wikitable" \|- !Position !Name \|- \|Chairman\|\| Todd Boehly \|- \|Life president\|\| Richard Attenborough (1923–2014) \|- \|rowspan="9"\|Directors\|\| David Barnard \|- \| Barbara Charone \|- \| Behdad Eghbali \|- \| José E. Feliciano \|- \| Daniel Finkelstein \|- \| Jonathan Goldstein \|- \| James Pade \|- \| Mark Walter \|- \| Hansjörg Wyss \|- \|Chief executive officer\|\| Chris Jurasek \|- \|President of business\|\| Tom Glick \|- \|Director of football operations\|\| David Barnard \|- \|rowspan="3"\|Vice presidents\|\| Joe Hemani \|- \| Anthony Reeves \|- \| Alan Spence \|- ==Honours== Upon winning the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League, Chelsea became the fourth club in history to have won the "European Treble" of European Cup/UEFA Champions League, UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League, and European Cup Winners' Cup/UEFA Cup Winners' Cup after Juventus, Ajax and Bayern Munich. Chelsea is the first English club to have won all three major UEFA trophies. {\| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="font-size:95%; text-align:center;" \|+Chelsea F.C. Honours !style="width: 1%;"\|Type !style="width: 5%;"\|Competition !style="width: 1%;"\|Titles !style="width: 21%;"\|Seasons \|- \|rowspan="6" \|Domestic ! scope=col\| First Division/Premier League \|align="center"\|6 \|align="left"\|1954–55, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2009–10, 2014–15, 2016–17 \|- ! scope=col\|Second Division and are part of the club's Community Development programme. They play their home games at Kingsmeadow, formerly the home ground of the EFL League Two club AFC Wimbledon. The club were promoted to the Premier Division for the first time in 2005 as Southern Division champions and won the Surrey County Cup nine times between 2003 and 2013. In 2010, Chelsea Ladies were one of the eight founder members of the FA Women's Super League. In 2015, Chelsea Ladies won the FA Women's Cup for the first time, beating Notts County Ladies at Wembley Stadium, and a month later clinched their first FA WSL title to complete a league and cup double. In 2018, they won a second league and FA Cup double. Two years later, in 2020, they repeated their double success by winning the third league title and the FA Women's League Cup for the first time. In the 2020–21 season, Chelsea won a domestic treble by winning the league, FA Cup and League Cup. They reached the final of the UEFA Women's Champions League for the first time, losing to Barcelona 4–0. John Terry, former captain of the Chelsea men's team, is the president of Chelsea Women.	[ "Jimi Tauriainen", "West London derby", "Occupational safety and health", "2007 Football League Cup final", "Martin Broughton", "2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine", "Aggregate score", "2014–15 Football League Cup", "EFL League Two", "1989–90 Full Members' Cup", "Kepa Arrizabalaga", "Fee simple", "Novelty song", "European Super League", "UEFA club competition records", "Leeds United A.F.C.", "A.C. Milan", "2009 FA Cup final", "Stoke City F.C.", "Dennis Waterman", "2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season", "Benoît Badiashile", "Levi Colwill", "Charity Commission for England and Wales", "Los Angeles Lakers", "Mykhailo Mudryk", "Pete Ricketts", "Shrewsbury Town F.C.", "Jadon Sancho", "2020 FA Cup final", "Willy Caballero", "Ben Chilwell", "heraldic badge", "Full Members Cup", "Association football pitch", "Portsmouth F.C.", "football chants", "2005–06 FA Premier League", "Guus Hiddink", "West Indies cricket team", "2007 FA Cup final", "Football (soccer) hooliganism", "music hall", "The Football League", "Chris Jurasek", "Liverpool F.C.", "European football records", "2018–19 EFL Cup", "Emirates Stadium", "boxing", "Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras", "FIFA Club World Cup", "2020–21 Chelsea F.C. Women season", "2000 FA Charity Shield", "BSkyB", "hooliganism", "Royal Hospital Chelsea", "1998 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup final", "Joseph Mears", "Double (association football)", "American Football", "Todd Boehly", "Carlo Cudicini", "UEFA Cup Winners' Cup", "Alfie Gilchrist", "Mauricio Pochettino", "Gianluca Vialli", "Manchester City F.C.", "Chelsea F.C.–Liverpool F.C. rivalry", "English Football League", "Marc Guiu", "Earl Cadogan", "2008–09 FA Cup", "2004–05 in English football", "Alliance Tire Company", "Live Nation Entertainment", "Montenegro", "1996–97 FA Cup", "1911–12 in English football", "Back to the Shed campaign", "George Hilsdon", "Jimmy-Jay Morgan", "Kensington", "1970 FA Cup final", "Clearlake Capital", "1912–13 in English football", "1997–98 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup", "2004–05 Football League Cup", "2008 UEFA Champions League final", "Leicester City F.C.", "Russia", "1994 FA Cup final", "The Football Factory (film)", "Reece James (footballer, born 1999)", "2011–12 in English football", "Fernando Torres", "2005 Football League Cup final", "2005–06 in English football", "Millwall F.C.", "Everton F.C.", "SE Palmeiras", "Los Angeles Dodgers", "Tommy Docherty", "The 39 Steps (1935 film)", "Chelsea Pensioner", "Blue Day (Suggs song)", "FC Dynamo Moscow", "Burton Albion F.C.", "Russian oligarchs", "2010 FA Cup final", "home counties", "Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.", "List of Chelsea F.C. players (25–99 appearances)", "Juventus F.C.", "1999–2000 FA Cup", "Thomas Tuchel", "Wesley Fofana (footballer)", "UEFA Europa League", "Jimmy Greaves", "Cesc Fàbregas", "Parimatch", "Samuel Rak-Sakyi", "banning order", "UEFA Champions League", "Maurizio Sarri", "No One Can Stop Us Now", "Chelsea pensioner", "Sky Sports", "1919–20 in English football", "Dave Sexton", "AFC Ajax", "UEFA coefficient", "Women's association football", "Hyundai Motor Group", "Matthew Harding", "Roy Bentley", "2009 FA Community Shield", "1907–08 in English football", "2004–05 FA Premier League", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Football in London", "FA Women's Premier League Southern Division", "Home Office", "1909–10 in English football", "sporting director", "Shim Mheuka", "Ron Harris (English footballer)", "Brian Mears", "Levy Restaurants", "Chelsea F.C.–Leeds United F.C. rivalry", "Ato Ampah", "Hampton & Richmond Borough F.C.", "1915 FA Cup final", "Greater London", "Deivid Washington", "1985–86 Full Members' Cup", "Nero", "Blue Is the Colour (song)", "2009–10 Premier League", "Football in England", "Greater London Council", "AC Milan", "Trevoh Chalobah", "National Health Service", "European Cup and UEFA Champions League records and statistics", "Hyundai Motor Company", "2002 FA Cup final", "English football league system", "Rafael Benítez", "Roberto Vitiello", "Wigan Athletic F.C.", "HiT Entertainment", "CNN", "Chelsea Pitch Owners", "Bobby Tambling", "Old Trafford", "eton blue", "2024–25 UEFA Conference League qualifying phase and play-off round", "EFL Championship", "Burnley F.C.", "Marina Granovskaia", "Marcus Bettinelli", "Fulham Road", "2014–15 Premier League", "The Original All Blacks", "UEFA Women's Champions League", "Vancouver Whitecaps (1986–2010)", "2014–15 FA Women's Cup", "3 (telecommunications)", "Millwall Bushwackers", "Barcelona Femeni", "2021 FIFA Club World Cup", "coat of arms", "Ken Bates", "2014–15 in English football", "Claudio Ranieri", "1971–72 European Cup Winners' Cup", "FA Cup 1931-32", "Battersea Power Station", "MSC Cruises", "soft loan", "1997 FA Cup final", "1971 European Cup Winners' Cup final", "1998 Football League Cup final", "starting line-up", "Arsenal F.C.", "Simod", "List of most expensive association football transfers", "1954–55 Chelsea F.C. season", "FA Women's Super League", "Yokohama Tyres", "Enzo Maresca", "ESPN", "Armando Broja", "FA Women's Premier League National Division", "EFL Cup", "FK Sutjeska Nikšić", "Renato Veiga", "Deloitte Football Money League", "Guinness Book of British Hit Singles & Albums", "The Guardian", "flyweight", "John Terry", "Southampton F.C.", "Captain (association football)", "Frank Lampard", "Daniel Finkelstein", "Peter Bonetti", "Samsung", "Enzo Fernández", "Carefree (chant)", "2006–07 in English football", "Noni Madueke", "Mathis Amougou", "Kiano Dyer", "1955 FA Charity Shield", "stewardship", "FC Bayern Munich", "Rexona", "Football League First Division", "Antonio Conte", "Mark Walter", "Graham Potter", "Archibald Leitch", "FA Cup", "Trivago", "Battersea", "2012 FA Cup final", "greyhound racing", "Brentford F.C.", "Eden Hazard", "Tyrique George", "1977–78 FA Cup", "2006–07 FA Cup", "Kai Havertz", "Gus Mears", "Hampden Park", "Raheem Sterling", "Newcastle United F.C.", "Russo-Ukrainian War", "List of Roman emperors", "Official Charts Company", "Chelsea, London", "Josh Acheampong", "Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea", "Bruce Buck", "Max Merrick", "Peter Foster", "Hammersmith", "1997–98 Football League Cup", "BlueCo", "2021 FA Cup final", "Sheffield United F.C.", "RC Strasbourg Alsace", "Cap (sport)", "Alfred Hitchcock", "Equity (finance)", "The Times", "Cobham Training Centre", "1997 London Monarchs season", "Manchester United F.C.", "1913–14 in English football", "Leeds United F.C.", "Chelsea Barracks", "2021 FIFA Club World Cup final", "Debt relief", "Willie Isa", "2022–23 Chelsea F.C. season", "List of football clubs in England by competitive honours won", "Volodymyr Zelenskyy", "1983–84 Football League", "Cole Palmer", "Queens Park Rangers F.C.", "Kiernan Dewsbury-Hall", "Tottenham Hotspur F.C.", "1997–98 in English football", "Inter City Firm", "List of English football champions", "England national football team", "John Neal (footballer, born 1932)", "Football hooliganism", "BBC", "João Félix", "FA Cup Semi-finals", "2012–13 UEFA Europa League", "Teddy Sharman-Lowe", "Barbara Charone", "Zak Sturge", "George Robey", "George Mills (footballer)", "1954–55 Football League", "Doncaster Rovers F.C.", "Nike, Inc.", "naming rights", "Borussia Dortmund", "Abu Dhabi", "1998 UEFA Super Cup", "Cobham, Surrey", "Arsenal F.C.–Chelsea F.C. rivalry", "2005 FA Community Shield", "Ben Roberts (footballer)", "Premier League", "1972 Football League Cup final", "Didier Drogba", "3 (company)", "EFL League One", "Suggs (singer)", "Jhoom Barabar Jhoom", "2013 UEFA Women's Champions League final", "2018–19 UEFA Europa League", "Forbes", "1964–65 Football League Cup", "Closed-circuit television", "London Athletic Club", "Minder (TV series)", "Watford F.C.", "2006–07 Football League Cup", "Inter Milan", "Fulham", "Samsung Group", "Bernardo Cueva", "dirt track racing", "Saskatchewan Roughriders", "Millennium & Copthorne Hotels", "Crest (sports)", "Jimmy Wilde", "The Wall Street Journal", "Chelsea F.C.–Tottenham Hotspur F.C. rivalry", "2019–20 Premier League", "Petr Čech", "Blue Tomorrow", "2011–12 FA Cup", "John Hollins", "Essex County Cricket Club", "Notts County Ladies F.C.", "Sergei Pugachev", "Autoglass", "Oman Air", "Janet Marie Smith", "rugby union", "Robert Sánchez", "Marc Cucurella", "1969–70 FA Cup", "Nick Candy", "UK Singles Chart", "List of world champion football clubs", "Sam Millington", "FA Cup final", "The Athletic", "Christopher Nkunku", "List of Chelsea F.C. players", "AFC Bournemouth", "Progression of British football transfer fee record", "FA Women's League Cup", "Crystal Palace National Sports Centre", "2012 UEFA Champions League final", "César Azpilicueta", "Hindi", "Moisés Caicedo", "2021 UEFA Champions League final", "FA Community Shield", "Association football", "Le Coq Sportif", "Swansea City A.F.C.", "Wembley Stadium", "Alternative Investment Market", "Roméo Lavia", "Hilário (footballer, born 1975)", "1988–89 Football League", "2000 FA Cup final", "Tosin Adarabioyo", "AFC Wimbledon", "Bashir Humphreys", "Singha", "Carney Chukwuemeka", "Football League Cup", "Nicolas Jackson", "2019 UEFA Europa League final", "Fulham F.C.", "Emirates (airline)", "Exhibition game", "Jack Cock", "Omari Kellyman", "FA Cup 1919-20", "football firm", "cricket", "Đorđe Petrović (footballer)", "Preston North End F.C.", "Floodlights (sport)", "2021 UEFA Super Cup", "Brighton & Hove Albion F.C.", "Ted Drake", "Commodore International", "Craven Cottage", "FICO", "2009–10 FA Cup", "2013 UEFA Europa League final", "Midget car racing", "Chicago White Sox", "Gillingham F.C.", "Football League Third Division", "David Datro Fofana", "Golden Team", "College of Arms", "Ibrox Stadium", "Juventus FC", "dressing room", "Andriy Shevchenko", "trophies", "Ukraine", "2018–19 Chelsea F.C. season", "List of Chelsea F.C. players (1–24 appearances)", "Kingsmeadow, Kingston upon Thames", "Eurobond (external bond)", "2017–18 FA Cup", "Earls Court Exhibition Centre", "Real Madrid CF", "Forbes list of the most valuable football clubs", "Caleb Wiley", "Jeunesse Hautcharage", "Genesis Antwi", "Villarreal CF", "UEFA", "Alex Matos", "Harrison Murray-Campbell", "The Great Game (1930 film)", "Chelsea Headhunters", "European Cup Winners' Cup", "All-seater stadium", "Coors Brewing Company", "Westminster Abbey", "Samsung Mobile", "Stamford Bridge (stadium)", "2020–21 UEFA Champions League", "Government of the United Kingdom", "Bobby Campbell (footballer born 1937)", "Chelsea L.F.C.", "Andrey Santos", "blazon", "Andrew Nesbit Wilson", "Pedro Neto", "Freehold (law)", "UEFA club competition records and statistics", "Gulf Air", "Los Angeles Sparks", "Behdad Eghbali", "Carlo Ancelotti", "1962–63 in English football", "Umbro", "Roman Abramovich", "Dylan Williams (footballer, born 2003)", "José E. Feliciano", "Infinite Athlete", "José Mourinho", "The St. James (sports complex)", "Santos FC", "2009–10 in English football", "Land of Hope and Glory", "Avram Grant", "Yokohama Rubber Company", "2016–17 Premier League", "Cadbury", "West Ham United F.C.", "Kerry Dixon", "Jonathan Goldstein (businessman)", "Crystal Palace F.C.", "Jimmy Smith (footballer, born 1987)", "EA Sports", "Malo Gusto", "Harlington, London", "UEFA Super Cup", "1970–71 European Cup Winners' Cup", "Hilton Worldwide", "Roberto Di Matteo", "1970 FA Charity Shield", "London Monarchs", "Adidas", "Amiga", "Lesley Ugochukwu", "Ruud Gullit", "2024 EFL Cup final", "Richard Attenborough", "Charles Cadogan, 8th Earl Cadogan", "Leo Castledine", "Axel Disasi", "Joe Ricketts", "Football League Second Division", "Filip Jörgensen", "Hansjörg Wyss", "Lucas Bergström", "Robinho", "New York Giants (NL)", "crosier", "Aaron Anselmino", "Lord of the Dance (hymn)", "Full Members' Cup", "Peter Osgood", "Oxford United F.C.", "2015 Football League Cup final", "Ángel Di María", "Gary Neville", "2011–12 UEFA Champions League", "Aston Villa F.C." ]
7,475	CANDU reactor	The CANDU (CANada Deuterium Uranium) is a Canadian pressurized heavy-water reactor design used to generate electric power. targeting the development of small modular reactors (SMRs). In response, SNC-Lavalin developed a 300 MWe SMR version of the CANDU, the CANDU SMR, which it began to highlight on its website. In 2020, the CANDU SMR was not selected for further design work for a Canadian demonstration project. SNC-Lavalin is still looking at marketing a 300 MW SMR in part due to projected demand due to climate change mitigation. == Design and operation== The basic operation of the CANDU design is similar to other nuclear reactors. Fission reactions in the reactor core heat pressurized water in a primary cooling loop. A heat exchanger, also known as a steam generator, transfers the heat to a secondary cooling loop, which powers a steam turbine with an electric generator attached to it (for a typical Rankine thermodynamic cycle). The exhaust steam from the turbines is then cooled, condensed and returned as feedwater to the steam generator. The final cooling often uses cooling water from a nearby source, such as a lake, river, or ocean. Newer CANDU plants, such as the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station near Toronto, Ontario, use a diffuser to spread the warm outlet water over a larger volume and limit the effects on the environment. Although all CANDU plants to date have used open-cycle cooling, modern CANDU designs can use cooling towers instead. Where the CANDU design differs from most other designs is in the details of the fissile core and the primary cooling loop. Natural uranium consists of a mix of mostly uranium-238 with small amounts of uranium-235 and trace amounts of other isotopes. Fission in these elements releases high-energy neutrons, which can cause other 235U atoms in the fuel to undergo fission as well. This process is more effective when the neutron energies are lower than what the reactions release naturally. Most reactors use some form of neutron moderator to lower the energy of the neutrons, or "thermalize" them, which makes the reaction more efficient. The energy lost by the neutrons during this moderation process heats the moderator, and this heat is extracted for power. Most commercial reactor designs use normal water as the moderator. Water absorbs some of the neutrons, enough that it is not possible to keep the reaction going in natural uranium. CANDU replaces this "light" water with heavy water. Heavy water's extra neutron decreases its ability to absorb excess neutrons, resulting in a better neutron economy. This allows CANDU to run on unenriched natural uranium, or uranium mixed with a wide variety of other materials such as plutonium and thorium. This was a major goal of the CANDU design; by operating on natural uranium the cost of enrichment is removed. This also presents an advantage in nuclear proliferation terms, as there is no need for enrichment facilities, which might also be used for weapons. ===Calandria and fuel design=== In conventional light-water reactor (LWR) designs, the entire fissile core is placed in a large pressure vessel. The amount of heat that can be removed by a unit of a coolant is a function of the temperature; by pressurizing the core, the water can be heated to much greater temperatures before boiling, thereby removing more heat and allowing the core to be smaller and more efficient. Building a pressure vessel of the required size is a significant challenge, and at the time of the CANDU's design, Canada's heavy industry lacked the requisite experience and capability to cast and machine reactor pressure vessels of the required size. This problem is amplified by natural uranium fuel's lower fissile density, which requires a larger reactor core. This issue was so major that even the relatively small pressure vessel originally intended for use in the NPD prior to its mid-construction redesign could not be fabricated domestically and had to be manufactured in Scotland instead. Domestic development of the technology required to produce pressure vessels of the size required for commercial-scale heavy water moderated power reactors was thought to be very unlikely. In CANDU the fuel bundles of about 10 cm diameter are composed of many smaller metal tubes. The bundles are contained in pressure tubes within a larger vessel containing additional heavy water acting as a moderator. This larger vessel, known as a calandria, is not pressurized and remains at lower temperatures, making it easier to fabricate. In order to prevent the heat from the pressure tubes from leaking into the surrounding moderator, each pressure tube is enclosed in a calandria tube. Carbon dioxide gas in the gap between the two tubes acts as an insulator. The moderator tank also acts as a large heat sink that provides an additional safety feature. In a conventional pressurized water reactor, refuelling the system requires to shut down the core and to open the pressure vessel. In CANDU reactors, the tube being refuelled remains pressurized. This allows the CANDU system to be continually refuelled without shutting down, another major design goal. In modern systems, two robotic machines attach to the reactor faces and open the end caps of a pressure tube. One machine pushes in the new fuel, whereby the depleted fuel is pushed out and collected at the other end. A significant operational advantage of online refuelling is that a failed or leaking fuel bundle can be removed from the core once it has been located, thus reducing the radiation levels in the primary cooling loop. Each fuel bundle is a cylinder assembled from thin tubes filled with ceramic pellets of uranium oxide fuel (fuel elements). In older designs, the bundle had 28 or 37 half-meter-long fuel elements with 12–13 such assemblies lying end-to-end in a pressure tube. The newer CANFLEX bundle has 43 fuel elements, with two element sizes (so the power rating can be increased without melting the hottest fuel elements). It is about in diameter, long, weighs about , and is intended to eventually replace the 37-element bundle. To allow the neutrons to flow freely between the bundles, the tubes and bundles are made of neutron-transparent zircaloy (zirconium + 2.5% wt niobium). === Purpose of using heavy water === Natural uranium is a mix of isotopes: approximately 99.28% uranium-238 and 0.72% uranium-235 by atom fraction. Nuclear power reactors are usually operated at constant power for long periods of time, which requires a constant rate of fission over time. In order to keep the fission rate constant, the neutrons released by fission must produce an equal number of fissions in other fuel atoms. This balance is referred to as "criticality." Neutrons released by nuclear fission are fairly energetic and are not readily absorbed (or "captured") by the surrounding fissile material. In order to improve the capture rate, the neutron energy must be reduced, or "moderated", to be as low as possible. In practice, the lower energy limit is the energy where the neutrons are in thermal equilibrium with the moderator. When neutrons approach this lower energy limit, they are referred to as "thermal neutrons." During moderation it helps to separate the neutrons and uranium, since 238U has a large affinity for intermediate-energy neutrons ("resonance" absorption), but is only easily fissioned by the few energetic neutrons above ≈1.5–2 MeV. Since most of the fuel material is usually 238U, most reactor designs are based on thin fuel rods separated by moderator, allowing the neutrons to travel in the moderator before entering the fuel again. More neutrons are released than the minimum needed to maintain the chain reaction; when uranium-238 absorbs neutrons, plutonium is created, which helps to make up for the depletion of uranium-235. Eventually the build-up of fission products that are more neutron-absorbing than 238U slows the reaction and calls for refuelling. Light water makes an excellent moderator: the light hydrogen atoms are very close in mass to a neutron and can absorb a lot of energy in a single collision (like a collision of two billiard balls). However, light hydrogen can absorb neutrons, reducing the number available to react with the small amount of 235U in natural uranium, preventing criticality. In order to allow criticality, the fuel must be enriched, increasing the amount of 235U to a usable level. In light-water reactors, the fuel is typically enriched to between 2% and 5% 235U (the leftover fraction with less 235U is called depleted uranium). Enrichment facilities are expensive to build and operate. They may also pose a proliferation concern, as they can be used to enrich the 235U much further, up to weapons-grade material (90% or more 235U). This can be remedied if the fuel is supplied and reprocessed by an internationally approved supplier. The main advantage of heavy water moderator over light water is the reduced absorption of the neutrons that sustain the chain reaction, allowing a lower concentration of fissile atoms (to the point of using unenriched natural uranium fuel). Deuterium ("heavy hydrogen") already has the extra neutron that light hydrogen would absorb, reducing the tendency to capture neutrons. Deuterium has twice the mass of a single neutron (vs light hydrogen, which has about the same mass); the mismatch means that more collisions are needed to moderate the neutrons, requiring a larger thickness of moderator between the fuel rods. This increases the size of the reactor core and the leakage of neutrons. It is also the practical reason for the calandria design, otherwise, a very large pressure vessel would be needed. The low 235U density in natural uranium also implies that less of the fuel will be consumed before the fission rate drops too low to sustain criticality, because the ratio of 235U to fission products + 238U is lower. In CANDU most of the moderator is at lower temperatures than in other designs, reducing the spread of speeds and the overall speed of the moderator particles. This means that most of the neutrons will end up at a lower energy and be more likely to cause fission, so CANDU not only "burns" natural uranium, but it does so more effectively as well. Overall, CANDU reactors use 30–40% less mined uranium than light-water reactors per unit of electricity produced. This is a major advantage of the heavy-water design; it not only requires less fuel, but as the fuel does not have to be enriched, it is much less expensive as well. A further unique feature of heavy-water moderation is the greater stability of the chain reaction. This is due to the relatively low binding energy of the deuterium nucleus (2.2 MeV), leading to some energetic neutrons and especially gamma rays breaking the deuterium nuclei apart to produce extra neutrons. Both gammas produced directly by fission and by the decay of fission fragments have enough energy, and the half-lives of the fission fragments range from seconds to hours or even years. The slow response of these gamma-generated neutrons delays the response of the reactor and gives the operators extra time in case of an emergency. Since gamma rays travel for meters through water, an increased rate of chain reaction in one part of the reactor will produce a response from the rest of the reactor, allowing various negative feedbacks to stabilize the reaction. On the other hand, the fission neutrons are thoroughly slowed down before they reach another fuel rod, meaning that it takes neutrons a longer time to get from one part of the reactor to the other. Thus if the chain reaction accelerates in one section of the reactor, the change will propagate itself only slowly to the rest of the core, giving time to respond in an emergency. The independence of the neutrons' energies from the nuclear fuel used is what allows such fuel flexibility in a CANDU reactor, since every fuel bundle will experience the same environment and affect its neighbors in the same way, whether the fissile material is uranium-235, uranium-233 or plutonium. Canada developed the heavy-water-moderated design in the post–World War II era to explore nuclear energy while lacking access to enrichment facilities. War-era enrichment systems were extremely expensive to build and operate, whereas the heavy water solution allowed the use of natural uranium in the experimental ZEEP reactor. A much less expensive enrichment system was developed, but the United States classified work on the cheaper gas centrifuge process. The CANDU was therefore designed to use natural uranium. ==Safety features== The CANDU includes several active and passive safety features in its design. Some of these are a side effect of the physical layout of the system. CANDU designs have a positive void coefficient, as well as a small power coefficient, normally considered bad in reactor design. This implies that steam generated in the coolant will increase the reaction rate, which in turn would generate more steam. This is one of the many reasons for the cooler mass of moderator in the calandria, as even a serious steam incident in the core would not have a major impact on the overall moderation cycle. Only if the moderator itself starts to boil would there be any significant effect, and the large thermal mass ensures that this will occur slowly. The deliberately "sluggish" response of the fission process in CANDU allows controllers more time to diagnose and deal with problems. The fuel channels can only maintain criticality if they are mechanically sound. If the temperature of the fuel bundles increases to the point where they are mechanically unstable, their horizontal layout means that they will bend under gravity, shifting the layout of the bundles and reducing the efficiency of the reactions. Because the original fuel arrangement is optimal for a chain reaction, and the natural uranium fuel has little excess reactivity, any significant deformation will stop the inter-fuel pellet fission reaction. This will not stop heat production from fission product decay, which would continue to supply a considerable heat output. If this process further weakens the fuel bundles, the pressure tube they are in will eventually bend far enough to touch the calandria tube, allowing heat to be transferred into the moderator tank. The moderator vessel has a considerable thermal capability on its own and is normally kept relatively cool. == Fuel cycle == A heavy-water design can sustain a chain reaction with a lower concentration of fissile atoms than light-water reactors, allowing it to use some alternative fuels; for example, "recovered uranium" (RU) from used LWR fuel. CANDU was designed for natural uranium with only 0.7% 235U, so reprocessed uranium with 0.9% 235U is a comparatively rich fuel. This extracts a further 30–40% energy from the uranium. The Qinshan CANDU reactor in China has used recovered uranium. The DUPIC (Direct Use of spent PWR fuel in CANDU) process under development can recycle it even without reprocessing. The fuel is sintered in air (oxidized), then in hydrogen (reduced) to break it into a powder, which is then formed into CANDU fuel pellets. CANDU reactors can also breed fuel from the more abundant thorium. This is being investigated by India to take advantage of its natural thorium reserves. Even better than LWRs, CANDU can utilize a mix of uranium and plutonium oxides (MOX fuel), the plutonium either from dismantled nuclear weapons or reprocessed reactor fuel. The mix of isotopes in reprocessed plutonium is not attractive for weapons, but can be used as fuel (instead of being simply nuclear waste), while consuming weapons-grade plutonium eliminates a proliferation hazard. If the aim is explicitly to utilize plutonium or other actinides from spent fuel, then special inert-matrix fuels are proposed to do this more efficiently than MOX. Since they contain no uranium, these fuels do not breed any extra plutonium. ==Economics== The neutron economy of heavy-water moderation and precise control of on-line refueling allow CANDU to use a wide range of fuels other than enriched uranium, e.g., natural uranium, reprocessed uranium, thorium, plutonium, and used LWR fuel. Given the expense of enrichment, this can make fuel much cheaper. There is an initial investment into the tonnes of 99.75% pure heavy water to fill the core and heat-transfer system. In the case of the Darlington plant, costs released as part of a freedom of information act request put the overnight cost of the plant (four reactors totalling 3,512 MWe net capacity) at $5.117 billion CAD (about US$4.2 billion at early-1990s exchange rates). Total capital costs including interest were $14.319 billion CAD (about US$11.9 billion) with the heavy water accounting for $1.528 billion, or 11%, of this. Since heavy water is less efficient than light water at slowing neutrons, CANDU needs a larger moderator-to-fuel ratio and a larger core for the same power output. Although a calandria-based core is cheaper to build, its size increases the cost for standard features like the containment building. Generally nuclear plant construction and operations are ≈65% of overall lifetime cost; for CANDU, costs are dominated by construction even more. Fueling CANDU is cheaper than other reactors, costing only ≈10% of the total, so the overall price per kWh electricity is comparable. The next-generation Advanced CANDU reactor (ACR) mitigates these disadvantages by having light-water coolant and using a more compact core with less moderator. When first introduced, CANDUs offered much better capacity factor (ratio of power generated to what would be generated by running at full power, 100% of the time) than LWRs of a similar generation. The light-water designs spent, on average, about half the time being refueled or maintained. Since the 1980s, dramatic improvements in LWR outage management have narrowed the gap, with several units achieving capacity factors ~90% and higher, with an overall US fleet performance of 92% in 2010. The latest-generation CANDU 6 reactors have an 88–90% CF, but overall performance is dominated by the older Canadian units with CFs on the order of 80%. Refurbished units had historically demonstrated poor performance, on the order of 65%. This has since improved with the return of Bruce units A1 and A2 to operation, which have post-refurbishment (2013+) capacity factors of 90.78% and 90.38%, respectively. Some CANDU plants suffered from cost overruns during construction, often from external factors such as government action. For instance, imposed construction delays led to roughly a doubling of the cost of the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station near Toronto, Ontario. Technical problems and redesigns added about another billion to the resulting $14.4 billion price. In 2002 two CANDU 6 reactors at Qinshan in China were completed on-schedule and on-budget, an achievement attributed to tight control over scope and schedule. ==Nuclear nonproliferation== In terms of safeguards against nuclear weapons proliferation, CANDUs meet a similar level of international certification as other reactors. The plutonium for India's first nuclear detonation, Operation Smiling Buddha in 1974, was produced in a CIRUS reactor supplied by Canada and partially paid for by the Canadian government using heavy water supplied by the United States. In addition to its two PHWR reactors, India has some safeguarded pressurised heavy-water reactors (PHWRs) based on the CANDU design, and two safeguarded light-water reactors supplied by the US. Plutonium has been extracted from the spent fuel from all of these reactors; India mainly relies on an Indian designed and built military reactor called Dhruva. The design is believed to be derived from the CIRUS reactor, with the Dhruva being scaled-up for more efficient plutonium production. It is this reactor which is thought to have produced the plutonium for India's more recent (1998) Operation Shakti nuclear tests. Although heavy water is relatively immune to neutron capture, a small amount of the deuterium turns into tritium in this way. This tritium is extracted from some CANDU plants in Canada, mainly to improve safety in case of heavy-water leakage. The gas is stockpiled and used in a variety of commercial products, notably "powerless" lighting systems and medical devices. In 1985 what was then Ontario Hydro sparked controversy in Ontario due to its plans to sell tritium to the United States. The plan, by law, involved sales to non-military applications only, but some speculated that the exports could have freed American tritium for the United States nuclear weapons program. Future demands appear to outstrip production, in particular the demands of future generations of experimental fusion reactors like ITER, with up to 10kg of tritium being required in order to start up a fusion reactor and so dozens of kilograms being required for a fleet. Between of tritium were recovered annually at the Darlington separation facility by 2003, of which a minor fraction was sold. Consequently, the Canadian Nuclear Laboratories in 2024 announced a decades-long program to refurbish existing CANDU plants and equip them with tritium breeding facilities. The 1998 Operation Shakti test series in India included one bomb of about yield that India has publicly claimed was a hydrogen bomb. An offhand comment in the BARC publication Heavy Water – Properties, Production and Analysis appears to suggest that the tritium was extracted from the heavy water in the CANDU and PHWR reactors in commercial operation. Janes Intelligence Review quotes the Chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission as admitting to the tritium extraction plant, but refusing to comment on its use. India is also capable of creating tritium more efficiently by irradiation of lithium-6 in reactors. ==Tritium production== Tritium, 3H, is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, with a half-life of 12.3 years. It is produced in small amounts in nature (about 4 kg per year globally) by cosmic ray interactions in the upper atmosphere. Tritium is considered a weak radionuclide because of its low-energy radioactive emissions (beta particle energy up to 18.6 keV). The beta particles travel 6 mm in air and only penetrate skin up to 6 micrometers. The biological half-life of inhaled, ingested, or absorbed tritium is 10–12 days. (for example, the maximal permitted drinking-water concentration for tritium in Canada, 7,000 Bq/L, corresponds to 1/10 of the ICRP's dose limit for members of the public). Tritium emissions from other CANDU plants are similarly low. In general, there is significant public controversy about radioactive emissions from nuclear power plants, and for CANDU plants one of the main concerns is tritium. In 2007 Greenpeace published a critique of tritium emissions from Canadian nuclear power plants by Ian Fairlie. by Richard Osborne. ==History== The CANDU development effort has gone through four major stages over time. The first systems were experimental and prototype machines of limited power. These were replaced by a second generation of machines of 500 to 600 MWe (the CANDU 6), a series of larger machines of 900 MWe, and finally developing into the CANDU 9 and ACR-1000 effort. ===Early efforts=== The first heavy-water-moderated design in Canada was the ZEEP, which started operation just after the end of World War II. ZEEP was joined by several other experimental machines, including the NRX in 1947 and NRU in 1957. These efforts led to the first CANDU-type reactor, the Nuclear Power Demonstration (NPD), in Rolphton, Ontario. It was intended as a proof-of-concept and rated for only 22 MWe, a very low power for a commercial power reactor. NPD produced the first nuclear-generated electricity in Canada and ran successfully from 1962 to 1987. The second CANDU was the Douglas Point reactor, a more powerful version rated at roughly 200 MWe and located near Kincardine, Ontario. It went into service in 1968 and ran until 1984. Uniquely among CANDU stations, Douglas Point had an oil-filled window with a view of the east reactor face, even when the reactor was operating. Douglas Point was originally planned to be a two-unit station, but the second unit was cancelled because of the success of the larger 515 MWe units at Pickering. Gentilly-1, in Bécancour, Quebec, near Trois-Rivières, Quebec, was also an experimental version of CANDU, using a boiling light-water coolant and vertical pressure tubes, but was not considered successful and closed after seven years of fitful operation. Gentilly-2, a CANDU-6 reactor, began operating in 1983. Following statements from the in-coming Parti Québécois government in September 2012 that Gentilly would close, the operator, Hydro-Québec, decided to cancel a previously announced refurbishment of the plant and announced its shutdown at the end of 2012, citing economic reasons for the decision. The company has started a 50-year decommissioning process estimated to cost $1.8 billion. In parallel with the classic CANDU design, experimental variants were being developed. WR-1, located at the AECL's Whiteshell Laboratories in Pinawa, Manitoba, used vertical pressure tubes and organic oil as the primary coolant. The oil used has a higher boiling point than water, allowing the reactor to operate at higher temperatures and lower pressures than a conventional reactor. WR-1's outlet temperature was about 490 °C compared to the CANDU 6's nominal 310 °C; the higher temperature and thus thermodynamic efficiency offsets to some degree the fact that oils have about half the heat capacity of water. The higher temperatures also result in more efficient conversion to steam, and ultimately, electricity. WR-1 operated successfully for many years and promised a significantly higher efficiency than water-cooled versions. ===600 MWe designs === The successes at NPD and Douglas Point led to the decision to construct the first multi-unit station in Pickering, Ontario. Pickering A, consisting of Units 1 to 4, went into service in 1971. Pickering B with units 5 to 8 came online in 1983, giving a full-station capacity of 4,120 MWe. The station is very close to the city of Toronto, in order to reduce transmission costs. A series of improvements to the basic Pickering design led to the CANDU 6 design, which first went into operation in the early 1980s. CANDU 6 was essentially a version of the Pickering power plant that was redesigned to be able to be built in single-reactor units. CANDU 6 was used in several installations outside Ontario, including the Gentilly-2 in Quebec, and Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station in New Brunswick. CANDU 6 forms the majority of foreign CANDU systems, including the designs exported to Argentina, Romania, China and South Korea. Only India operates a CANDU system that is not based on the CANDU 6 design. ===900 MWe designs=== The economics of nuclear power plants generally scale well with size. This improvement at larger sizes is offset by the sudden appearance of large quantities of power on the grid, which leads to a lowering of electricity prices through supply and demand effects. Predictions in the late 1960s suggested that growth in electricity demand would overwhelm these downward pricing pressures, leading most designers to introduce plants in the 1000 MWe range. Pickering A was quickly followed by such an upscaling effort for the Bruce Nuclear Generating Station, constructed in stages between 1970 and 1987. It is the largest nuclear facility in North America and second largest in the world (after Kashiwazaki-Kariwa in Japan), with eight reactors at around 800 MWe each, in total 6,232 MW (net) and 7,276 MW (gross). Another, smaller, upscaling led to the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station design, similar to the Bruce plant, but delivering about 880 MWe per reactor in a four-reactor station. As was the case for the development of the Pickering design into the CANDU 6, the Bruce design was also developed into the similar CANDU 9. Like the CANDU 6, the CANDU 9 is essentially a repackaging of the Bruce design, so that it can be built as a single-reactor unit. No CANDU 9 reactors have been built. ===Generation III+ designs=== Through the 1980s and 1990s the nuclear power market suffered a major crash, with few new plants being constructed in North America or Europe. Design work continued throughout, and new design concepts were introduced that dramatically improved safety, capital costs, economics and overall performance. These generation III+ and generation IV machines became a topic of considerable interest in the early 2000s, as it appeared that a nuclear renaissance was underway and large numbers of new reactors would be built over the next decade. AECL had been working on a design known as the ACR-700, using elements of the latest versions of the CANDU 6 and CANDU 9, with a design power of 700 MWe. The design also requires the use of slightly enriched uranium, enriched by about 1 or 2%. The main reason for this is to increase the burn-up ratio, allowing bundles to remain in the reactor longer, so that only a third as much spent fuel is produced. This also has effects on operational costs and timetables, as the refuelling frequency is reduced. As is the case with earlier CANDU designs, the ACR-1000 also offers online refuelling. ===Sales efforts in Canada=== By most measures, the CANDU is "the Ontario reactor". The system was developed almost entirely in Ontario, and only two experimental designs were built in other provinces. Of the 29 commercial CANDU reactors built, 22 are in Ontario. Of these 22, a number of reactors have been removed from service. Two new CANDU reactors have been proposed for Darlington with Canadian government help with financing, but these plans ended in 2009 due to high costs. AECL has heavily marketed CANDU within Canada, but has found a limited reception. To date, only two non-experimental reactors have been built in other provinces, one each in Quebec and New Brunswick, other provinces have concentrated on hydro and coal-fired plants. Several Canadian provinces have developed large amounts of hydro power. Alberta and Saskatchewan do not have extensive hydro resources, and use mainly fossil fuels to generate electric power. Interest has been expressed in Western Canada, where CANDU reactors are being considered as heat and electricity sources for the energy-intensive oil sands extraction process, which currently uses natural gas. Energy Alberta Corporation announced 27 August 2007 that they had applied for a licence to build a new nuclear plant at Lac Cardinal (30 km west of the town of Peace River, Alberta), with two ACR-1000 reactors going online in 2017 producing 2.2 gigawatts (electric). A 2007 parliamentary review suggested placing the development efforts on hold. The company was later purchased by Bruce Power, who proposed expanding the plant to four units of a total 4.4 gigawatts. These plans were upset and Bruce later withdrew its application for the Lac Cardinal, proposing instead a new site about 60 km away. The plans are currently moribund after a wide consultation with the public demonstrated that while about of the population were open to reactors, were opposed. ===Foreign sales=== During the 1970s, the international nuclear sales market was extremely competitive, with many national nuclear companies being supported by their governments' foreign embassies. In addition, the pace of construction in the United States had meant that cost overruns and delayed completion was generally over, and subsequent reactors would be cheaper. Canada, a relatively new player on the international market, had numerous disadvantages in these efforts. The CANDU was deliberately designed to reduce the need for very large machined parts, making it suitable for construction by countries without a major industrial base. Sales efforts have had their most success in countries that could not locally build designs from other firms. In the late 1970s, AECL noted that each reactor sale would employ 3,600 Canadians and result in $300 million in balance-of-payments income. These sales efforts were aimed primarily at countries being run by dictatorships or similar, a fact that led to serious concerns in parliament. These efforts also led to a scandal when it was discovered millions of dollars had been given to foreign sales agents, with little or no record of who they were, or what they did to earn the money. This led to a Royal Canadian Mounted Police investigation after questions were raised about sales efforts in Argentina, and new regulations on full disclosure of fees for future sales. CANDU's first success was the sale of early CANDU designs to India. In 1963, an agreement was signed for export of a 200 MWe power reactor based on the Douglas Point reactor. The success of the deal led to the 1966 sale of a second reactor of the same design. The first reactor, then known as RAPP-1 for "Rajasthan Atomic Power Project", began operation in 1972. A serious problem with cracking of the reactor's end shield led to the reactor being shut down for long periods, and the reactor was finally downrated to 100 MW. Construction of the RAPP-2 reactor was still underway when India detonated its first atomic bomb in 1974, leading to Canada ending nuclear dealings with the country. Part of the sales agreement was a technology transfer process. When Canada withdrew from development, India continued construction of CANDU-like plants across the country. By 2010, CANDU-based reactors were operational at the following sites: Kaiga (3), Kakrapar (2), Madras (2), Narora (2), Rajasthan (6), and Tarapur (2). In Pakistan, the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant with a gross capacity of 137 MWe was built between 1966 and 1971. In 1972, AECL submitted a design based on the Pickering plant to Argentina's Comision Nacional de Energia Atomica process, in partnership with the Italian company Italimpianti. High inflation during construction led to massive losses, and efforts to re-negotiate the deal were interrupted by the March 1976 coup led by General Videla. The Embalse Nuclear Power Station began commercial operation in January 1984. There have been ongoing negotiations to open more CANDU 6 reactors in the country, including a 2007 deal between Canada, China and Argentina, but to date no firm plans have been announced. A licensing agreement with Romania was signed in 1977, selling the CANDU 6 design for $5 million per reactor for the first four reactors, and then $2 million each for the next twelve. In addition, Canadian companies would supply a varying amount of equipment for the reactors, about $100 million of the first reactor's $800 million price tag, and then falling over time. In 1980, Nicolae Ceaușescu asked for a modification to provide goods instead of cash, in exchange the amount of Canadian content was increased and a second reactor would be built with Canadian help. Economic troubles in the country worsened throughout the construction phase. The first reactor of the Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant only came online in April 1996, a decade after its December 1985 predicted startup. Further loans were arranged for completion of the second reactor, which went online in November 2007. In January 1975, a deal was announced for a single CANDU 6 reactor to be built in South Korea, now known as the Wolsong-1 Power Reactor. Construction started in 1977 and commercial operation began in April 1983. In December 1990 a further deal was announced for three additional units at the same site, which began operation in the period 1997–1999. South Korea also negotiated development and technology transfer deals with Westinghouse for their advanced System-80 reactor design, and all future development is based on locally built versions of this reactor. In June 1998, construction started on a CANDU 6 reactor in Qinshan China Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant, as Phase III (units 4 and 5) of the planned 11 unit facility. Commercial operation began in December 2002 and July 2003, respectively. These are the first heavy water reactors in China. Qinshan is the first CANDU-6 project to use open-top reactor building construction, and the first project where commercial operation began earlier than the projected date. CANDU Energy is continuing marketing efforts in China. In addition, China and Argentina have agreed a contract to build a 700 MWe CANDU-6 derived reactor. Construction is planned to start in 2018 at Atucha. ===Economic performance=== The cost of electricity from any power plant can be calculated by roughly the same selection of factors: capital costs for construction or the payments on loans made to secure that capital, the cost of fuel on a per-watt-hour basis, and fixed and variable maintenance fees. In the case of nuclear power, one normally includes two additional costs, the cost of permanent waste disposal, and the cost of decommissioning the plant when its useful lifetime is over. Generally, the capital costs dominate the price of nuclear power, as the amount of power produced is so large that it overwhelms the cost of fuel and maintenance. The World Nuclear Association calculates that the cost of fuel, including all processing, accounts for less than one cent (US$0.01) per kWh. Information on economic performance on CANDU is somewhat lopsided; the majority of reactors are in Ontario, which is also the "most public" among the major CANDU operators. Several anti-nuclear organizations like the Ontario Clean Air Alliance (OCAA) and Pembina have claimed that every CANDU design in Ontario went over budget by at least 25%, and average over 150% higher than estimated. However, this is predicated on using "dollar of the day" figures that are not adjusted for inflation. With inflation accounted for, all plants were on or under budget with the exception of Darlington. Even accounting for inflation, Darlington went far over budget, at almost double the original estimate, but this project was stopped in-progress thereby incurring additional interest charges during a period of high interest rates, which is a special situation that was not expected to repeat itself. In the 1980s, the pressure tubes in the Pickering A reactors were replaced ahead of design life due to unexpected deterioration caused by hydrogen embrittlement. Extensive inspection and maintenance has avoided this problem in later reactors. All the Pickering A and Bruce A reactors were shut down in 1999 in order to focus on restoring operational performance in the later generations at Pickering, Bruce, and Darlington. Before restarting the Pickering A reactors, OPG undertook a limited refurbishment program. The original cost and time estimates based on inadequate project scope development were greatly below the actual time and cost and it was determined that Pickering units 2 and 3 would not be restarted for commercial reasons. These overruns were repeated at Bruce, with Units 3 and 4 running 90% over budget. and Gentilly-2 plant was shut down on 28 December 2012. Based on the projected capital costs, and the low cost of fuel and in-service maintenance, in 1994 power from CANDU was predicted to be well under 5 cents/kWh. In 1999, Ontario Hydro was broken up and its generation facilities re-formed into Ontario Power Generation (OPG). In order to make the successor companies more attractive for private investors, $19.4 billion in "stranded debt" was placed in the control of the Ontario Electricity Financial Corporation. This debt is slowly paid down through a variety of sources, including a 0.7-cent/kWh tariff on all power, all income taxes paid by all operating companies, and all dividends paid by the OPG and Hydro One. As of October 2022, Darlington is into the final half of the 10-year major refurbishment project of all four units, having reached their design mid-life. The budget is set at $12.5 billion, and planned to produce power at 6 to 8 cents/kWh. The project is currently on-time and on-budget. Darlington Units 1, 3 and 4 have operated with an average lifetime annual capacity factor of 85% and Unit 2 with a capacity factor of 78%, As of 2010, refurbished units at Pickering and Bruce had lifetime capacity factors between 59 and 69%. This includes periods of several years while the units were shut down for the retubing and refurbishing. Post-refurbishment capacity factors are much higher with Bruce A1 at 90.78%, Bruce A2 at 90.38% (2013+), In 2009, Bruce A units 3 and 4 had capacity factors of 80.5% and 76.7% respectively, in a year when they had a major Vacuum Building outage. ==Active CANDU reactors== Today there are 31 CANDU reactors in use around the world, and 18 "CANDU-derivatives" in India, developed from the CANDU design. After India detonated a nuclear bomb in 1974, Canada stopped nuclear dealings with India. The breakdown is: Canada: 19 and 5 decommissioned. South Korea: 3, and 1 shutdown. China: 2 India: 2, 18 active CANDU-derivatives, and 6 CANDU-derivatives under construction. Argentina: 1 Romania: 2, and 3 dormant part-constructed. Pakistan: 1 shutdown.	[ "deuterium", "atomic bomb", "Containment building", "capacity factor", "zirconium", "Nuclear power in India", "enriched uranium", "half-life", "turbine", "Nuclear Power Demonstration", "Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario", "actinide", "thermal neutron", "uranium-238", "Toronto", "critical mass", "gigawatt", "hydrogen", "Nuclear fission products", "Operation Shakti", "Embalse Nuclear Power Station", "Natural Resources Canada", "pressurized water reactor", "Steam generator (nuclear power)", "climate change mitigation", "void coefficient", "chain reaction", "Nuclear power in South Korea", "light-water reactor", "New Brunswick", "Whiteshell Laboratories", "neutron economy", "Nuclear power in Canada", "pump", "Karachi Nuclear Power Complex", "neutron", "nuclear weapon", "Rankine cycle", "fissile material", "Greenpeace", "niobium", "AtkinsRéalis", "pressure vessel", "Peace River, Alberta", "Neutron moderator", "heavy water", "Atomic Energy of Canada Limited", "Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant", "nuclear renaissance", "gadolinium nitrate", "Bhabha Atomic Research Centre", "thorium", "Energy Alberta Corporation", "Pinawa, Manitoba", "Western Canada", "cosmic ray", "ITER", "isotope", "International Atomic Energy Agency", "Zhejiang", "nuclear reactor", "Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant", "International Commission on Radiological Protection", "Operation Smiling Buddha", "tar sands", "NRX", "Water", "Bruce Nuclear Generating Station", "electric power transmission", "Nuclear power in Argentina", "Tritium illumination", "pressurized heavy-water reactor", "CIRUS reactor", "uranium-235", "economics of nuclear power plants", "Photodisintegration", "small modular reactor", "Candu Energy", "CANFLEX", "thorium fuel cycle", "reprocessed uranium", "National Research Universal reactor", "heat sink", "Nuclear chain reaction", "Natural uranium", "ZEEP", "boiling point", "CANDU Owners Group", "containment building", "Ontario", "Douglas Point", "uranium", "Nuclear meltdown", "Royal Canadian Mounted Police", "nuclear fission", "hydrogen embrittlement", "Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant", "Quebec", "Generation IV reactor", "Dhruva reactor", "nuclear decommissioning", "uranium-233", "Calandria (nuclear reactor)", "neutron capture", "Nuclear power in Romania", "nuclear safety", "zirconium alloy", "fusion reactor", "Rajasthan Atomic Power Station", "Carbon dioxide", "Petroleum", "steam turbine", "plutonium", "nuclear proliferation", "Ian Fairlie", "List of nuclear reactors", "weapons-grade plutonium", "tritium", "neutron moderator", "radionuclide", "natural uranium", "World Nuclear Association", "Next Big Future", "World War II", "beta particle", "Trois-Rivières", "Atucha Nuclear Power Plant", "Ontario Power Generation", "Nuclear power in China", "Becquerel", "Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station", "Canadian General Electric", "Hydro One", "China National Nuclear Corporation", "MeV", "MWe", "Kincardine, Ontario", "steam generator (nuclear power)", "McGill-Queen's University Press", "Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant", "natural gas", "fission product", "Darlington Nuclear Generating Station", "Watt", "electric generator", "pressurised heavy-water reactor", "overnight cost", "MOX fuel", "Pickering Nuclear Generating Station", "Generation III reactor", "heat exchanger", "Advanced CANDU reactor", "Deuterium", "Nuclear power in Pakistan", "WR-1", "n,2n", "depleted uranium", "Parti Québécois", "Bécancour, Quebec", "weapons-grade", "Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station", "freedom of information act", "Canadian Nuclear Laboratories Research Facilities", "reinforced concrete", "Nicolae Ceaușescu", "Canadian Broadcasting Corporation", "Tritium", "Hydro-Québec", "Zippe-type centrifuge" ]
7,477	Cuitláhuac	Cuitláhuac (, ) (c. 1476 – 1520) or Cuitláhuac (in Spanish orthography; , , honorific form: Cuitlahuatzin) was the 10th Huey Tlatoani (emperor) of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan for 80 days during the year Two Flint (1520). He is credited with leading the resistance to the Spanish and Tlaxcalteca conquest of the Mexica Empire, following the death of his kinsman Moctezuma II. ==Biography== Cuitláhuac was the eleventh son of the ruler Axayacatl and a younger brother of Moctezuma II, the late Emperor of Tenochtitlan, who died during the Spanish occupation of the city. His mother's father, also called Cuitlahuac, had been ruler of Iztapalapa, and the younger Cuitláhuac also ruled there initially. Cuitláhuac was an experienced warrior and an adviser to Moctezuma, warning him not to allow the Spaniards to enter Tenochtitlan. Hernán Cortés imprisoned both Moctezuma and Cuitláhuac. Cortes had to leave the city in order to meet a Spanish force sent by Diego Velasquez, Spanish governor of Cuba. Following the massacre of Aztec elites when Cortés was away from Tenochtitlan, the Mexica besieged the Spanish and their indigenous allies. Cuitláhuac was released on the pretense to reopen the market to get food to the invaders. Moctezuma was stoned to death after trying to tell his people to withdraw from the battle between the Aztecs and the Spanish, and Cuitláhuac was elected tlatoani following the flight of the Spaniards and their allies from Tenochtitlan on June 30, 1520. Some sources claim he was serving in that role even before Moctezuma's death. Cuitláhuac was ritually married to Moctezuma's eldest daughter, a ten- or eleven-year-old girl, who later was called Isabel Moctezuma. Cuitláhuac ruled just 80 days, perhaps dying from smallpox Immediately after Cuitláhuac's death, Cuauhtémoc was made the next tlatoani. ==Legacy== The modern Mexican municipality of Cuitláhuac, Veracruz and the Mexico City Metro station Metro Cuitláhuac are named in honor of Cuitláhuac. The asteroid 2275 Cuitláhuac is also named after this ruler. There is an Avenue in Mexico City Called Cuitláhuac (Eje 3 Norte) that runs from Avenue Insurgentes to Avenue Mexico-Tacuba and that is part of an inner ring; also many streets in other towns and villages in Mexico are so called.	[ "New World", "Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan", "Tlatoani", "Primeros Memoriales", "Tenochtitlan", "Ixhuetzcatocatzin", "Montezuma II", "Cuitlahuatzin I", "Arthur J.O. Anderson", "Isabel Moctezuma", "Moctezuma II", "Hernán Cortés", "Rémi Siméon", "List of Tenochtitlan rulers", "Metro Cuitláhuac", "Aztec", "Itztapalapan", "municipio (Mexico)", "Iztapalapa", "Pánfilo de Narváez", "Aztec Empire", "Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire", "Mexico City Metro", "University of Oklahoma Press", "Axayacatl", "Aztec calendar", "asteroid", "Cuauhtémoc", "smallpox", "Mexica", "Cuitláhuac, Veracruz", "Huey Tlatoani" ]
7,478	Cuauhtémoc	Cuauhtémoc (, ), also known as Cuauhtemotzín, Guatimozín, or Guatémoc, was the Aztec ruler (tlatoani) of Tenochtitlan from 1520 to 1521, and the last Aztec Emperor. The name Cuauhtemōc means "one who has descended like an eagle", and is commonly rendered in English as "Descending Eagle", as in the moment when an eagle folds its wings and plummets down to strike its prey; the name thus implies aggressiveness and determination. Cuauhtémoc took power in 1520 as successor of Cuitláhuac and was a cousin of the late emperor Moctezuma II. His young wife, who was later known as Isabel Moctezuma, was one of Moctezuma's daughters. He ascended to the throne when he was around 25 years old, while Tenochtitlan was being besieged by the Spanish and devastated by an epidemic of smallpox brought to the Americas by Spanish conquerors. After the killings in the Great Temple, there were probably few Aztec captains available to take the position. ==Early life== Cuauhtemoc's date of birth is unknown, as he does not enter the historical record until he became emperor. He was the eldest legitimate son of Emperor Ahuitzotl and may well have attended the last New Fire ceremony, marking the beginning of a new 52-year cycle in the Aztec calendar. According to several sources his mother, Tiyacapantzin, was a Tlatelolcan princess. Like the rest of Cuauhtemoc's early biography, that is inferred from knowledge of his age, and the likely events and life path of someone of his rank. Following education in the calmecac, the school for elite boys, and then his military service, he was named ruler of Tlatelolco, with the title cuauhtlatoani ("eagle ruler") in 1515. To have reached this position of rulership, Cuauhtemoc had to be a male of high birth and a warrior who had captured enemies for sacrifice. Cuauhtemoc married the Aztec princess who later became known as Isabel Moctezuma. ==Rule== When Cuauhtemoc was elected tlatoani in 1520, Tenochtitlan had already been rocked by the invasion of the Spanish and their indigenous allies, the death of Moctezuma II, and the death of Moctezuma's brother Cuitlahuac, who succeeded him as ruler, but died of smallpox shortly afterwards. In keeping with traditional practice, the most able candidate among the high noblemen was chosen by vote of the highest noblemen, and Cuauhtemoc assumed the rulership. Although under Cuitlahuac Tenochtitlan began mounting a defense against the invaders, it was increasingly isolated militarily and largely faced the crisis alone, as the numbers of Spanish allies increased with the desertion of many polities previously under its control. According to the same Spanish accounts, Cortés refused the offer and treated his foe magnanimously. "You have defended your capital like a brave warrior," he declared. "A Spaniard knows how to respect valor, even in an enemy." At Cuauhtémoc's request, Cortés also allowed the defeated Mexica to depart the city unmolested. Subsequently, however, when the booty found did not measure up to the Spaniards' expectations, Cuauhtémoc was subjected to "torture by fire", whereby the soles of his bare feet were slowly broiled over red-hot coals, in an unsuccessful attempt to discover its whereabouts. On the statue to Cuauhtemoc, on the Paseo de la Reforma in Mexico City, there is a bas relief showing the Spaniards' torture of the emperor. Eventually, some gold was recovered but far less than Cortés and his men expected. Cuauhtémoc, now baptized as Fernando Cuauhtémotzín, continued to hold his position under the Spanish, keeping the title of tlatoani, but he was no longer the sovereign ruler. ==Execution== In 1525, Cortés took Cuauhtémoc and several other indigenous nobles on his expedition to Honduras, as he feared that Cuauhtémoc could have led an insurrection in his absence. While the expedition was stopped in the Chontal Maya capital of Itzamkanac, known as Acalan in Nahuatl, Cortés had Cuauhtémoc executed for allegedly conspiring to kill him and the other Spaniards. There are a number of discrepancies in the various accounts of the event. According to Cortés himself, on 27 February 1525, he learned from a citizen of Tenochtitlan, Mexicalcingo, that Cuauhtémoc, Coanacoch (the ruler of Texcoco), and Tetlepanquetzal, the ruler of Tlacopan, were plotting his death. Cortés interrogated them until each confessed and then had Cuauhtémoc, Tetlepanquetzal, and another lord, Tlacatlec, hanged. Cortés wrote that the other lords would be too frightened to plot against him again, as they believed he had uncovered the plan through magic powers. Cortés's account was accepted by contemporary historian Francisco López de Gómara. According to Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a conquistador serving under Cortés who recorded his experiences in his book The True History of the Conquest of New Spain, the supposed plot was revealed by two men, named Tapia and Juan Velásquez. Díaz portrays the executions as unjust and based on no evidence, and he admits to having liked Cuauhtémoc personally. He also records Cuauhtémoc giving the following speech to Cortés through his interpreter Malinche: Díaz wrote that afterwards, Cortés suffered from insomnia because of guilt and badly injured himself while he was wandering at night. Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxóchitl, a castizo historian and descendant of Coanacoch, wrote an account of the executions in the 17th century partly based on Texcocan oral tradition. Tlacotzin, Cuauhtémoc's cihuacoatl, was appointed his successor as tlatoani. He died the next year before he could return to Tenochtitlan. ==Bones== The modern-day town of Ixcateopan in the state of Guerrero is home to an ossuary purportedly containing Cuauhtémoc's remains. Archeologist Eulalia Guzmán, a "passionate indigenista", excavated the bones in 1949, which were discovered shortly after bones of Cortés, found in Mexico City, had been authenticated by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH). Initially, Mexican scholars congratulated Guzmán, but after a similar examination by scholars at INAH, their authenticity as Cuauhtemoc's was rejected, as the bones in the ossuary belonged to several different persons, several of them seemingly women. The finding caused a public uproar. A panel assembled by Guzmán gave support to the initial contention. The Secretariat of Public Education (SEP) had another panel examine the bones, which gave support to INAH's original finding, but did not report on the finding publicly. A scholarly study of the controversy was published in 2011 and argued that the available data suggests that the grave is an elaborate hoax prepared by a local of Ichcateopan as a way of generating publicity, and that subsequently supported by Mexican nationalists such as Guzman who wished to use the find for political purposes. ==Legacy== Cuauhtemoc is the embodiment of indigenist nationalism in Mexico, being the only Aztec emperor who survived the conquest by the Spanish Empire (and their native allies). He is honored by a monument on the Paseo de la Reforma, his face has appeared on Mexican coins, banknotes, and he is celebrated in paintings, music, and popular culture. Many places in Mexico are named in honour of Cuauhtémoc. These include Ciudad Cuauhtémoc in Chihuahua and the Cuauhtémoc borough of Mexico City. Smaller towns include Ciudad Cuauhtémoc, Veracruz and Ciudad Cuauhtémoc, Chiapas. The Cuauhtémoc is a vessel of the Mexican Navy that serves as a cultural ambassador with frequent visits to world ports. There is a Cuauhtémoc station on Line 1 of the Mexico City metro as well as one for Moctezuma. There is also a metro station in Monterrey named after him. Cuauhtémoc is also one of the few non-Spanish given names for Mexican boys that is perennially popular. Individuals with this name include the politician Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas and footballer Cuauhtémoc Blanco. In the Aztec campaign of the PC game Age of Empires II: The Conquerors, the player plays as Cuauhtémoc, despite the name Montezuma for the campaign itself, and Cuauhtémoc narrates the openings and closings to each scenario. In the next installment to the series, Age of Empires 3: The War Chiefs, Cuauhtémoc is the leader of Aztecs. In the 1996 Rage Against the Machine single People of the Sun, lyricist Zack De La Rocha rhymes "Tha fifth sun sets get back reclaim. Tha spirit of Cuahtemoc alive an untamed." Cuauhtémoc, in the name Guatemoc, is portrayed sympathetically in the adventure novel Montezuma's Daughter, by H. Rider Haggard. First appearing in Chapter XIV, he becomes friends with the protagonist after they save each other's lives. His coronation, torture, and death are described in the novel.	[ "Spanish Empire", "Ciudad Cuauhtémoc, Veracruz", "Tetlepanquetzal", "bas relief", "Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua", "Mexican state", "Cuauhtémoc (Monterrey Metro)", "Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxóchitl", "Tlacotzin", "Henry Rider Haggard", "Hernán Cortés", "Cuitláhuac", "ossuary", "given name", "Metro Cuauhtémoc", "Cuitlahuac", "University of Oklahoma Press", "Brazil", "Aztec calendar", "Personal computer game", "Malinche", "Montezuma's Daughter", "Juan Velázquez Tlacotzin", "Ciudad Cuauhtémoc, Chiapas", "conquistador", "Spain", "University of Texas School of Law", "Brazilian independence", "People of the Sun", "Tenochtitlan", "Lake Texcoco", "Francisco López de Gómara", "cihuacoatl (position)", "pipiltin", "ARM Cuauhtémoc (BE01)", "Isabel Moctezuma", "Oxford University Press", "tlatoani", "oral tradition", "Chihuahua (state)", "List of Tenochtitlan rulers", "Aztec", "Texcoco (altepetl)", "torture", "Nahuatl", "Chontal Maya", "Diego Velázquez Tlacotzin", "Acalan", "Rage Against the Machine", "Zack De La Rocha", "Cuauhtémoc Blanco", "Secretariat of Public Education (Mexico)", "guilt (emotion)", "Tlatelolco (altepetl)", "Ahuitzotl", "insomnia", "Mexico City metro", "Tenochtitlán", "Moctezuma II", "execution", "Monument to Cuauhtémoc", "Guerrero", "calmecac", "Age of Empires 3: The War Chiefs", "Bernal Díaz del Castillo", "Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas", "Tlacopan", "smallpox", "Huey Tlatoani", "Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia", "Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan", "interpreting", "Miguel León-Portilla", "Aubin Codex", "Ixcateopan", "The True History of the Conquest of New Spain", "Cuauhtémoc, D.F.", "Paseo de la Reforma", "Massacre in the Great Temple", "Coanacoch", "Mexican Navy", "Eulalia Guzmán", "Ixcateopan de Cuauhtémoc", "castizo", "Aztec Empire", "Age of Empires II: The Conquerors", "Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest", "Indigenismo in Mexico", "Mexico City", "Spanish conquest of Honduras" ]
7,480	Cross section (physics)	In physics, the cross section is a measure of the probability that a specific process will take place in a collision of two particles. For example, the Rutherford cross-section is a measure of probability that an alpha particle will be deflected by a given angle during an interaction with an atomic nucleus. Cross section is typically denoted (sigma) and is expressed in units of area, more specifically in barns. In a way, it can be thought of as the size of the object that the excitation must hit in order for the process to occur, but more exactly, it is a parameter of a stochastic process. When two discrete particles interact in classical physics, their mutual cross section is the area transverse to their relative motion within which they must meet in order to scatter from each other. If the particles are hard inelastic spheres that interact only upon contact, their scattering cross section is related to their geometric size. If the particles interact through some action-at-a-distance force, such as electromagnetism or gravity, their scattering cross section is generally larger than their geometric size. When a cross section is specified as the differential limit of a function of some final-state variable, such as particle angle or energy, it is called a differential cross section (see detailed discussion below). When a cross section is integrated over all scattering angles (and possibly other variables), it is called a total cross section or integrated total cross section. For example, in Rayleigh scattering, the intensity scattered at the forward and backward angles is greater than the intensity scattered sideways, so the forward differential scattering cross section is greater than the perpendicular differential cross section, and by adding all of the infinitesimal cross sections over the whole range of angles with integral calculus, we can find the total cross section. Scattering cross sections may be defined in nuclear, atomic, and particle physics for collisions of accelerated beams of one type of particle with targets (either stationary or moving) of a second type of particle. The probability for any given reaction to occur is in proportion to its cross section. Thus, specifying the cross section for a given reaction is a proxy for stating the probability that a given scattering process will occur. The measured reaction rate of a given process depends strongly on experimental variables such as the density of the target material, the intensity of the beam, the detection efficiency of the apparatus, or the angle setting of the detection apparatus. However, these quantities can be factored away, allowing measurement of the underlying two-particle collisional cross section. Differential and total scattering cross sections are among the most important measurable quantities in nuclear, atomic, and particle physics. With light scattering off of a particle, the cross section specifies the amount of optical power scattered from light of a given irradiance (power per area). Although the cross section has the same units as area, the cross section may not necessarily correspond to the actual physical size of the target given by other forms of measurement. It is not uncommon for the actual cross-sectional area of a scattering object to be much larger or smaller than the cross section relative to some physical process. For example, plasmonic nanoparticles can have light scattering cross sections for particular frequencies that are much larger than their actual cross-sectional areas. == Collision among gas particles == In a gas of finite-sized particles there are collisions among particles that depend on their cross-sectional size. The average distance that a particle travels between collisions depends on the density of gas particles. These quantities are related by \sigma = \frac{1}{n \lambda}, where is the cross section of a two-particle collision (SI unit: m2), is the mean free path between collisions (SI unit: m), is the number density of the target particles (SI unit: m−3). If the particles in the gas can be treated as hard spheres of radius that interact by direct contact, as illustrated in Figure 1, then the effective cross section for the collision of a pair is \sigma = \pi \left(2r\right)^2 If the particles in the gas interact by a force with a larger range than their physical size, then the cross section is a larger effective area that may depend on a variety of variables such as the energy of the particles. Cross sections can be computed for atomic collisions but also are used in the subatomic realm. For example, in nuclear physics a "gas" of low-energy neutrons collides with nuclei in a reactor or other nuclear device, with a cross section that is energy-dependent and hence also with well-defined mean free path between collisions. == Attenuation of a beam of particles == If a beam of particles enters a thin layer of material of thickness , the flux of the beam will decrease by according to \frac{\mathrm d \Phi}{\mathrm d z} = -n \sigma \Phi, where is the total cross section of all events, including scattering, absorption, or transformation to another species. The volumetric number density of scattering centers is designated by . Solving this equation exhibits the exponential attenuation of the beam intensity: \Phi = \Phi_0 e^{-n \sigma z}, where is the initial flux, and is the total thickness of the material. For light, this is called the Beer–Lambert law. == Differential cross section == Consider a classical measurement where a single particle is scattered off a single stationary target particle. Conventionally, a spherical coordinate system is used, with the target placed at the origin and the axis of this coordinate system aligned with the incident beam. The angle is the scattering angle, measured between the incident beam and the scattered beam, and the is the azimuthal angle. The impact parameter is the perpendicular offset of the trajectory of the incoming particle, and the outgoing particle emerges at an angle . For a given interaction (coulombic, magnetic, gravitational, contact, etc.), the impact parameter and the scattering angle have a definite one-to-one functional dependence on each other. Generally the impact parameter can neither be controlled nor measured from event to event and is assumed to take all possible values when averaging over many scattering events. The differential size of the cross section is the area element in the plane of the impact parameter, i.e. . The differential angular range of the scattered particle at angle is the solid angle element . The differential cross section is the quotient of these quantities, . It is a function of the scattering angle (and therefore also the impact parameter), plus other observables such as the momentum of the incoming particle. The differential cross section is always taken to be positive, even though larger impact parameters generally produce less deflection. In cylindrically symmetric situations (about the beam axis), the azimuthal angle is not changed by the scattering process, and the differential cross section can be written as \frac{\mathrm{d} \sigma}{\mathrm{d}(\cos \theta)} =\int_0^{2\pi} \frac{\mathrm{d} \sigma}{\mathrm{d} \Omega} \,\mathrm{d}\varphi . In situations where the scattering process is not azimuthally symmetric, such as when the beam or target particles possess magnetic moments oriented perpendicular to the beam axis, the differential cross section must also be expressed as a function of the azimuthal angle. For scattering of particles of incident flux off a stationary target consisting of many particles, the differential cross section at an angle is related to the flux of scattered particle detection in particles per unit time by \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \Omega}(\theta,\varphi) = \frac{1}{n t \Delta\Omega} \frac{F_\text{out}(\theta,\varphi)}{F_\text{inc}}. Here is the finite angular size of the detector (SI unit: sr), is the number density of the target particles (SI unit: m−3), and is the thickness of the stationary target (SI unit: m). This formula assumes that the target is thin enough that each beam particle will interact with at most one target particle. The total cross section may be recovered by integrating the differential cross section over the full solid angle ( steradians): \sigma = \oint_{4\pi} \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \Omega} \, \mathrm d \Omega = \int_0^{2\pi} \int_0^\pi \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \Omega} \sin \theta \, \mathrm d \theta \, \mathrm d \varphi. It is common to omit the "differential" qualifier when the type of cross section can be inferred from context. In this case, may be referred to as the integral cross section or total cross section. The latter term may be confusing in contexts where multiple events are involved, since "total" can also refer to the sum of cross sections over all events. The differential cross section is extremely useful quantity in many fields of physics, as measuring it can reveal a great amount of information about the internal structure of the target particles. For example, the differential cross section of Rutherford scattering provided strong evidence for the existence of the atomic nucleus. Instead of the solid angle, the momentum transfer may be used as the independent variable of differential cross sections. Differential cross sections in inelastic scattering contain resonance peaks that indicate the creation of metastable states and contain information about their energy and lifetime. == Quantum scattering == In the time-independent formalism of quantum scattering, the initial wave function (before scattering) is taken to be a plane wave with definite momentum : \phi_-(\mathbf r) \;\stackrel{r \to \infty}{\longrightarrow}\; e^{i k z}, where and are the relative coordinates between the projectile and the target. The arrow indicates that this only describes the asymptotic behavior of the wave function when the projectile and target are too far apart for the interaction to have any effect. After scattering takes place it is expected that the wave function takes on the following asymptotic form: \phi_+(\mathbf r) \;\stackrel{r \to \infty}{\longrightarrow}\; f(\theta,\phi) \frac{e^{i k r}}{r}, where is some function of the angular coordinates known as the scattering amplitude. This general form is valid for any short-ranged, energy-conserving interaction. It is not true for long-ranged interactions, so there are additional complications when dealing with electromagnetic interactions. The full wave function of the system behaves asymptotically as the sum \phi(\mathbf r) \;\stackrel{r \to \infty}{\longrightarrow}\; \phi_-(\mathbf r) + \phi_+(\mathbf r). The differential cross section is related to the scattering amplitude: \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \Omega}(\theta, \phi) = \bigl\|f(\theta, \phi)\bigr\|^2. This has the simple interpretation as the probability density for finding the scattered projectile at a given angle. A cross section is therefore a measure of the effective surface area seen by the impinging particles, and as such is expressed in units of area. The cross section of two particles (i.e. observed when the two particles are colliding with each other) is a measure of the interaction event between the two particles. The cross section is proportional to the probability that an interaction will occur; for example in a simple scattering experiment the number of particles scattered per unit of time (current of scattered particles ) depends only on the number of incident particles per unit of time (current of incident particles ), the characteristics of target (for example the number of particles per unit of surface ), and the type of interaction. For we have \begin{align} I_\text{r} &= I_\text{i}N\sigma, \\ \sigma &= \frac{I_\text{r}}{I_\text{i}} \frac{1}{N} \\ &= \text{probability of interaction} \times \frac{1}{N}. \end{align} === Relation to the S-matrix === If the reduced masses and momenta of the colliding system are , and , before and after the collision respectively, the differential cross section is given by \frac{\mathrm d\sigma}{\mathrm d\Omega} = \left(2\pi\right)^4 m_\text{i} m_\text{f} \frac{p_\text{f}}{p_\text{i}} \bigl\|T_{\text{f}\text{i}}\bigr\|^2, where the on-shell matrix is defined by S_{\text{f}\text{i}} = \delta_{\text{f}\text{i}} - 2\pi i \delta\left(E_\text{f} - E_\text{i}\right) \delta\left(\mathbf{p}_\text{i} - \mathbf{p}_\text{f}\right) T_{\text{f}\text{i}} in terms of the S-matrix. Here is the Dirac delta function. The computation of the S-matrix is the main goal of the scattering theory. == Units == Although the SI unit of total cross sections is m2, a smaller unit is usually used in practice. In nuclear and particle physics, the conventional unit is the barn b, where 1 b = 10−28 m2 = 100 fm2. Smaller prefixed units such as mb and μb are also widely used. Correspondingly, the differential cross section can be measured in units such as mb/sr. When the scattered radiation is visible light, it is conventional to measure the path length in centimetres. To avoid the need for conversion factors, the scattering cross section is expressed in cm2, and the number concentration in cm−3. The measurement of the scattering of visible light is known as nephelometry, and is effective for particles of 2–50 μm in diameter: as such, it is widely used in meteorology and in the measurement of atmospheric pollution. The scattering of X-rays can also be described in terms of scattering cross sections, in which case the square ångström is a convenient unit: 1 Å2 = 10−20 m2 = = 108 b. The sum of the scattering, photoelectric, and pair-production cross-sections (in barns) is charted as the "atomic attenuation coefficient" (narrow-beam), in barns. == Scattering of light == For light, as in other settings, the scattering cross section for particles is generally different from the geometrical cross section of the particle, and it depends upon the wavelength of light and the permittivity, shape, and size of the particle. The total amount of scattering in a sparse medium is proportional to the product of the scattering cross section and the number of particles present. In the interaction of light with particles, many processes occur, each with their own cross sections, including absorption, scattering, and photoluminescence. The sum of the absorption and scattering cross sections is sometimes referred to as the attenuation or extinction cross section. \sigma = \sigma_\text{abs} + \sigma_\text{sc} + \sigma_\text{lum}. The total extinction cross section is related to the attenuation of the light intensity through the Beer–Lambert law, which says that attenuation is proportional to particle concentration: A_\lambda = C l \sigma, where is the attenuation at a given wavelength , is the particle concentration as a number density, and is the path length. The absorbance of the radiation is the logarithm (decadic or, more usually, natural) of the reciprocal of the transmittance : A_\lambda = -\log \mathcal{T}. Combining the scattering and absorption cross sections in this manner is often necessitated by the inability to distinguish them experimentally, and much research effort has been put into developing models that allow them to be distinguished, the Kubelka-Munk theory being one of the most important in this area. === Cross section and Mie theory === Cross sections commonly calculated using Mie theory include efficiency coefficients for extinction Q_\text{ext}, scattering Q_\text{sc}, and Absorption Q_\text{abs} cross sections. These are normalized by the geometrical cross sections of the particle \sigma_\text{geom} = \pi a^2 as Q_\alpha = \frac{\sigma_\alpha}{\sigma_\text{geom}}, \qquad \alpha = \text{ext}, \text{sc}, \text{abs}. The cross section is defined by \sigma_\alpha = \frac{W_\alpha}{I_{\text{inc}}} where \left[W_\alpha \right] = \left[ \text{W} \right] is the energy flow through the surrounding surface, and \left[I_{\text{inc}}\right] = \left[ \frac{\text{W}}{\text{m}^2} \right] is the intensity of the incident wave. For a plane wave the intensity is going to be I_{\text{inc}} = \|\mathbf{E}\|^2 / (2 \eta), where \eta = \sqrt{\mu \mu_0 / (\varepsilon \varepsilon_0)} is the impedance of the host medium. The main approach is based on the following. Firstly, we construct an imaginary sphere of radius r (surface A) around the particle (the scatterer). The net rate of electromagnetic energy crosses the surface A is W_\text{a} = - \oint_A \mathbf{\Pi} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{r}} dA where \mathbf{\Pi} = \frac{1}{2} \operatorname{Re} \left[ \mathbf{E}^* \times \mathbf{H} \right] is the time averaged Poynting vector. If W_\text{a} > 0 energy is absorbed within the sphere, otherwise energy is being created within the sphere. We will not consider this case here. If the host medium is non-absorbing, the energy must be absorbed by the particle. We decompose the total field into incident and scattered parts \mathbf{E} = \mathbf{E}_\text{i} + \mathbf{E}_\text{s}, and the same for the magnetic field \mathbf{H}. Thus, we can decompose W_a into the three terms W_\text{a} = W_\text{i} - W_\text{s} + W_{\text{ext}} , where W_\text{i} = - \oint_A \mathbf{\Pi}_\text{i} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{r}} dA \equiv 0, \qquad W_\text{s} = \oint_A \mathbf{\Pi}_\text{s} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{r}} dA, \qquad W_{\text{ext}} = \oint_A \mathbf{\Pi}_{\text{ext}} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{r}} dA. where \mathbf{\Pi}_\text{i} = \frac{1}{2} \operatorname{Re} \left[ \mathbf{E}_\text{i}^* \times \mathbf{H}_\text{i} \right] , \mathbf{\Pi}_\text{s} = \frac{1}{2} \operatorname{Re} \left[ \mathbf{E}_\text{s}^* \times \mathbf{H}_\text{s} \right] , and \mathbf{\Pi}_{\text{ext}} = \frac{1}{2} \operatorname{Re} \left[ \mathbf{E}_s^* \times \mathbf{H}_i + \mathbf{E}_i^* \times \mathbf{H}_s \right] . All the field can be decomposed into the series of vector spherical harmonics (VSH). After that, all the integrals can be taken. In the case of a uniform sphere of radius a, permittivity \varepsilon, and permeability \mu, the problem has a precise solution. The scattering and extinction coefficients are Q_\text{sc} = \frac{2}{k^2a^2}\sum_{n=1}^\infty (2n+1)(\|a_{n}\|^2+\|b_{n}\|^2) Q_\text{ext} = \frac{2}{k^2a^2}\sum_{n=1}^\infty (2n+1)\Re(a_{n}+b_{n}) Where k = n_\text{host} k_0. These are connected as \sigma_\text{ext} = \sigma_\text{sc} + \sigma_\text{abs} \qquad \text{or} \qquad Q_\text{ext} = Q_\text{sc} + Q_\text{abs} === Dipole approximation for the scattering cross section === Let us assume that a particle supports only electric and magnetic dipole modes with polarizabilities \mathbf{p} = \alpha^e \mathbf{E} and \mathbf{m} = (\mu \mu_0)^{-1}\alpha^m \mathbf{H} (here we use the notation of magnetic polarizability in the manner of Bekshaev et al. rather than the notation of Nieto-Vesperinas et al.) expressed through the Mie coefficients as \alpha^e = 4 \pi \varepsilon_0 \cdot i \frac{3 \varepsilon}{2 k^3} a_1, \qquad \alpha^m = 4 \pi \mu_0 \cdot i \frac{3 \mu}{2 k^3} b_1. Then the cross sections are given by \sigma_{\text{ext}} = \sigma_{\text{ext}}^{\text{(e)}} + \sigma_{\text{ext}}^{\text{(m)}} = \frac{1}{4\pi \varepsilon \varepsilon_0} \cdot 4\pi k \Im(\alpha^e) + \frac{1}{4\pi \mu \mu_0} \cdot 4\pi k \Im(\alpha^m) \sigma_{\text{sc}} = \sigma_{\text{sc}}^{\text{(e)}} + \sigma_{\text{sc}}^{\text{(m)}} = \frac{1}{(4\pi \varepsilon \varepsilon_0)^2} \cdot \frac{8\pi}{3} k^4 \|\alpha^e\|^2 + \frac{1}{(4\pi \mu \mu_0)^2} \cdot \frac{8\pi}{3} k^4 \|\alpha^m\|^2 and, finally, the electric and magnetic absorption cross sections \sigma_{\text{abs}} = \sigma_{\text{abs}}^{\text{(e)}} + \sigma_{\text{abs}}^{\text{(m)}} are \sigma_{\text{abs}}^{\text{(e)}} = \frac{1}{4 \pi \varepsilon \varepsilon_0} \cdot 4\pi k \left[ \Im(\alpha^e) - \frac{k^3}{6 \pi \varepsilon \varepsilon_0} \|\alpha^e\|^2\right] and \sigma_{\text{abs}}^{\text{(m)}} = \frac{1}{4 \pi \mu \mu_0} \cdot 4\pi k \left[ \Im(\alpha^m) - \frac{k^3}{6 \pi \mu \mu_0} \|\alpha^m\|^2\right] For the case of a no-inside-gain particle, i.e. no energy is emitted by the particle internally (\sigma_{\text{abs}} > 0), we have a particular case of the Optical theorem \frac{1}{4\pi \varepsilon \varepsilon_0} \Im(\alpha^e) + \frac{1}{4\pi \mu \mu_0} \Im(\alpha^m) \geq \frac{2 k^3}{3} \left[ \frac{\|\alpha^e\|^2}{(4\pi \varepsilon \varepsilon_0)^2} + \frac{\|\alpha^m\|^2}{(4\pi \mu \mu_0)^2} \right] Equality occurs for non-absorbing particles, i.e. for \Im(\varepsilon) = \Im(\mu) = 0. === Scattering of light on extended bodies === In the context of scattering light on extended bodies, the scattering cross section, , describes the likelihood of light being scattered by a macroscopic particle. In general, the scattering cross section is different from the geometrical cross section of a particle, as it depends upon the wavelength of light and the permittivity in addition to the shape and size of the particle. The total amount of scattering in a sparse medium is determined by the product of the scattering cross section and the number of particles present. In terms of area, the total cross section () is the sum of the cross sections due to absorption, scattering, and luminescence: \sigma = \sigma_\text{abs} + \sigma_\text{sc} + \sigma_\text{lum}. The total cross section is related to the absorbance of the light intensity through the Beer–Lambert law, which says that absorbance is proportional to concentration: , where is the absorbance at a given wavelength , is the concentration as a number density, and is the path length. The extinction or absorbance of the radiation is the logarithm (decadic or, more usually, natural) of the reciprocal of the transmittance : == Examples == === Elastic collision of two hard spheres === The following equations apply to two hard spheres that undergo a perfectly elastic collision. Let and denote the radii of the scattering center and scattered sphere, respectively. The differential cross section is \frac{d\sigma}{d\Omega} = \frac{R^2}{4}, and the total cross section is \sigma_\text{tot} = \pi \left(r + R\right)^2. In other words, the total scattering cross section is equal to the area of the circle (with radius ) within which the center of mass of the incoming sphere has to arrive for it to be deflected. === Rutherford scattering === In Rutherford scattering, an incident particle with charge and energy scatters off a fixed particle with charge . The differential cross section is \frac{d \sigma}{d \Omega} = \left(\frac{q \, Q}{16\pi\varepsilon_0 E \sin^2(\theta/2)} \right)^2 where \varepsilon_0 is the vacuum permittivity. The total cross section is infinite unless a cutoff for small scattering angles \theta is applied. This is due to the long range of the 1/r Coulomb potential. === Scattering from a 2D circular mirror === The following example deals with a beam of light scattering off a circle with radius and a perfectly reflecting boundary. The beam consists of a uniform density of parallel rays, and the beam-circle interaction is modeled within the framework of geometric optics. Because the problem is genuinely two-dimensional, the cross section has unit of length (e.g., metre). Let be the angle between the light ray and the radius joining the reflection point of the ray with the center point of the mirror. Then the increase of the length element perpendicular to the beam is \mathrm dx = r \cos \alpha \,\mathrm d \alpha. The reflection angle of this ray with respect to the incoming ray is , and the scattering angle is \theta = \pi - 2 \alpha. The differential relationship between incident and reflected intensity is I \,\mathrm d \sigma = I \,\mathrm dx(x) = I r \cos \alpha \,\mathrm d \alpha = I \frac{r}{2} \sin \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right) \,\mathrm d \theta = I \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \theta} \,\mathrm d \theta. The differential cross section is therefore () \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \theta} = \frac{r}{2} \sin \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right). Its maximum at corresponds to backward scattering, and its minimum at corresponds to scattering from the edge of the circle directly forward. This expression confirms the intuitive expectations that the mirror circle acts like a diverging lens. The total cross section is equal to the diameter of the circle: \sigma = \int_0^{2 \pi} \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \theta} \,\mathrm d \theta = \int_0^{2 \pi} \frac{r}{2} \sin \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right) \,\mathrm d \theta = 2 r. === Scattering from a 3D spherical mirror === The result from the previous example can be used to solve the analogous problem in three dimensions, i.e., scattering from a perfectly reflecting sphere of radius . The plane perpendicular to the incoming light beam can be parameterized by cylindrical coordinates and . In any plane of the incoming and the reflected ray we can write (from the previous example): \begin{align} r &= a \sin \alpha,\\ \mathrm dr &= a \cos \alpha \,\mathrm d \alpha, \end{align} while the impact area element is \mathrm d \sigma = \mathrm d r(r) \times r \,\mathrm d \varphi = \frac{a^2}{2} \sin \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right) \cos \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right) \,\mathrm d \theta \,\mathrm d \varphi. In spherical coordinates, \mathrm d\Omega = \sin \theta \,\mathrm d \theta \,\mathrm d \varphi. Together with the trigonometric identity \sin \theta = 2 \sin \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right) \cos \left(\frac{\theta}{2}\right), we obtain \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \Omega} = \frac{a^2}{4}. The total cross section is \sigma = \oint_{4 \pi} \frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \Omega} \,\mathrm d \Omega = \pi a^2.	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7,482	Christian mythology	Christian mythology is the body of myths associated with Christianity. The term encompasses a broad variety of legends and narratives, especially those considered sacred narratives. Mythological themes and elements occur throughout Christian literature, including recurring myths such as ascending a mountain, the axis mundi, myths of combat, descent into the Underworld, accounts of a dying-and-rising god, a flood myth, stories about the founding of a tribe or city, and myths about great heroes (or saints) of the past, paradises, and self-sacrifice. Various authors have also used it to refer to other mythological and allegorical elements found in the Bible, such as the story of the Leviathan. The term has been applied to myths and legends from the Middle Ages, such as the story of Saint George and the Dragon, the stories of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table, and the legends of the Parsival. Multiple commentators have classified John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost as a work of Christian mythology. The term has also been applied to modern stories revolving around Christian themes and motifs, such as the writings of C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Madeleine L'Engle, and George MacDonald. Over the centuries, Christianity has divided into many denominations. Not all of these denominations hold the same set of sacred traditional narratives. For example, the books of the Bible accepted by the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox churches include a number of texts and stories (such as those narrated in the Book of Judith and Book of Tobit) that many Protestant denominations do not accept as canonical. ==Attitudes== Christian theologian and professor of New Testament, Rudolf Bultmann wrote that: The cosmology of the New Testament is essentially mythical in character. The world is viewed as a three storied structure, with the earth in the center, the heaven above, and the underworld beneath. Heaven is the abode of God and of celestial beings – the angels. The underworld is hell, the place of torment. Even the earth is more than the scene of natural, everyday events, of the trivial round and common task. It is the scene of the supernatural activity of God and his angels on the one hand, and of Satan and his demons on the other. These supernatural forces intervene in the course of nature and in all that men think and will and do. Miracles are by no means rare. Man is not in control of his own life. Evil spirits may take possession of him. Satan may inspire him with evil thoughts. Alternatively, God may inspire his thought and guide his purposes. He may grant him heavenly visions. He may allow him to hear his word of succor or demand. He may give him the supernatural power of his Spirit. History does not follow a smooth unbroken course; it is set in motion and controlled by these supernatural powers. This æon is held in bondage by Satan, sin, and death (for "powers" is precisely what they are), and hastens towards its end. That end will come very soon, and will take the form of a cosmic catastrophe. It will be inaugurated by the "woes" of the last time. Then the Judge will come from heaven, the dead will rise, the last judgment will take place, and men will enter into eternal salvation or damnation. ===Myths as traditional or sacred stories=== In its broadest academic sense, the word myth simply means a traditional story. However, many scholars restrict the term "myth" to sacred stories. Folklorists often go further, defining myths as "tales believed as true, usually sacred, set in the distant past or other worlds or parts of the world, and with extra-human, inhuman, or heroic characters". In classical Greek, muthos, from which the English word myth derives, meant "story, narrative." By the time of Christ, muthos had started to take on the connotations of "fable, fiction," and early Christian writers often avoided calling a story from canonical scripture a "myth". Paul warned Timothy to have nothing to do with "godless and silly myths" (bebēthous kai graōdeis muthous). This negative meaning of "myth" passed into popular usage. Some modern Christian scholars and writers have attempted to rehabilitate the term "myth" outside academia, describing stories in canonical scripture (especially the Christ story) as "true myth"; examples include C. S. Lewis and Andrew Greeley. Several modern Christian writers, such as C. S. Lewis, have described elements of Christianity, particularly the story of Christ, as "myth" which is also "true" ("true myth"). Others object to associating Christianity with "myth" for a variety of reasons: the association of the term "myth" with polytheism, the use of the term "myth" to indicate falsehood or non-historicity, and the lack of an agreed-upon definition of "myth". Christian tradition contains many stories that do not come from canonical Christian texts yet still illustrate Christian themes. These non-canonical Christian myths include legends, folktales, and elaborations on canonical Christian mythology. Christian tradition has produced a rich body of legends that were never incorporated into the official scriptures. Legends were a staple of medieval literature. Examples include hagiographies such as the stories of Saint George or Saint Valentine. A case in point is the historical and canonized Brendan of Clonfort, a 6th-century Irish churchman and founder of abbeys. Round his authentic figure was woven a tissue that is arguably legendary rather than historical: the Navigatio or "Journey of Brendan". The legend discusses mythic events in the sense of supernatural encounters. In this narrative, Brendan and his shipmates encounter sea monsters, a paradisal island and a floating ice island and a rock island inhabited by a holy hermit: literal-minded devotés still seek to identify "Brendan's islands" in actual geography. This voyage was recreated by Tim Severin, suggesting that whales, icebergs and Rockall were encountered. Folktales form a major part of non-canonical Christian tradition. Folklorists define folktales (in contrast to "true" myths) as stories that are considered purely fictitious by their tellers and that often lack a specific setting in space or time. Christian-themed folktales have circulated widely among peasant populations. One widespread folktale genre is that of the Penitent Sinner (classified as Type 756A, B, C, in the Aarne-Thompson index of tale types); another popular group of folktales describe a clever mortal who outwits the Devil. Not all scholars accept the folkloristic convention of applying the terms "myth" and "folktale" to different categories of traditional narrative. Christian tradition produced many popular stories elaborating on canonical scripture. According to an English folk belief, certain herbs gained their current healing power from having been used to heal Christ's wounds on Mount Calvary. In this case, a non-canonical story has a connection to a non-narrative form of folklore — namely, folk medicine. Arthurian legend contains many elaborations upon canonical mythology. For example, Sir Balin discovers the Lance of Longinus, which had pierced the side of Christ. According to a tradition widely attested in early Christian writings, Adam's skull lay buried at Calvary; when Christ was crucified, his blood fell over Adam's skull, symbolizing humanity's redemption from Adam's sin. ==Christ== The Gospel accounts of Jesus Christ, his life and death. Here the narrative is combined by the author with a story of how all Christian theology "came to be". For example, the story of Jesus as the "word" or "Logos" (John 1:1), the Incarnation of the Logos or Son of God as the man Jesus (e.g., Luke 1:35), and Christ's atonement for humanity's sins (e.g., Matthew 26:28). Important narratives within the Gospel accounts include: Christ's miraculous conception and birth from the Virgin Mary The baptism of Jesus Satan's temptation of Christ The Transfiguration of Jesus Parables of Jesus The Last Supper The death and resurrection of Jesus The Ascension The Acts of the Apostles – the story of the Early Christian church, the ministry of the Twelve Apostles and of Paul the Apostle. The descent of the Holy Spirit on Jesus' disciples after the Ascension. ==Eschatology== The coming of the Antichrist The Second Coming The resurrection of the dead Judgement Day The final and total establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth ==Other examples== Examples of (1) Christian myths not mentioned in canon and (2) literary and traditional elaborations on canonical Christian mythology: Versions of Christian mythology used by Gnostic Christianity The Valentinian creation myth involving Sophia and the demiurge. The Manichaean creation myth. The Gnostic accounts of Jesus, some of which present a Docetic view of Jesus; see Gnostic Gospels. Literary treatments of Christian canon or theology John Milton's Paradise Lost, which describes Satan's rebellion against God and the Fall of Man, and his Paradise Regained, which describes Satan's temptation of Christ. Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, a literary allegory that describes a visit to Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven. John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, a Christian spiritual allegory. C. S. Lewis's The Pilgrim's Regress, a more modern Christian spiritual allegory. According to some interpretations, Aslan's role in C. S. Lewis's The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe allegorically represents Christ's death and resurrection (although Lewis denies that the story is a direct allegory; see section on "Mythopoeia" above). Legends about Christian saints and heroes. Examples include Abgarus of Edessa, John the Dwarf, and Saint George. Legends about saints are commonly called hagiographies. Some such stories are heavily miraculous, such as those found in Jacobus de Voragine's Golden Legend; others, less so. Stories about artifacts such as the Holy Grail, Holy Lance, and Shroud of Turin. Names and biographical details supplied for unnamed Biblical characters; see List of names for the Biblical nameless The legends of King Arthur and Charlemagne as Christian kings, notably the Quest for the Holy Grail. Legendary history of the Christian churches, such as the tales from the Crusades or the paladins in medieval romance. Legends of the Knights Templar and the Priory of Sion. Medieval Christian stories about angels and guardian angels. Non-canonical elaborations or amendments to Biblical tales, such as the tales of Salomé, the Three Wise Men, or St. Dismas. ==Connections to other belief systems== === Jewish mythology=== Cosmogony The 7-day creation week narrative (Genesis 1:1—2:3) The Eden narrative (Genesis 2:4—3:24) Origins The Fall of Man: Although the Book of Genesis does not mention original sin, many Christians interpret the Fall as the origin of sin. Noah's Ark The Tower of Babel: the origin and division of nations and languages The life of Abraham The Exodus of the Hebrews from Egypt The Hebrews' conquest of the Promised Land The period of the Hebrew prophets. One example is the apocryphal part of the Book of Daniel (14:1–30; excluded from the Hebrew and Protestant canon) that tells the story of Bel and the dragon. ===Zoroastrianism=== Some scholars believe that many elements of Christian mythology, particularly its linear portrayal of time, originated with the Persian religion of Zoroastrianism. Mary Boyce, an authority on Zoroastrianism, writes: Mircea Eliade believes the Hebrews had a sense of linear time before Zoroastrianism influenced them. However, he argues, "a number of other [Jewish] religious ideas were discovered, revalorized, of systematized in Iran". These ideas include a dualism between good and evil, belief in a future savior and resurrection, and "an optimistic eschatology, proclaiming the final triumph of Good". The Zoroastrian concepts of Ahriman, Amesha Spentas, Yazatas, and Daevas probably gave rise to the Christian understanding of Satan, archangels, angels, and demons. ===Other connections=== In Buddhist mythology, the demon Mara tries to distract the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, before he can reach enlightenment. Huston Smith, a professor of philosophy and a writer on comparative religion, notes the similarity between Mara's temptation of the Buddha before his ministry and Satan's temptation of Christ before his ministry. In the Book of Revelation, the author sees a vision of a pregnant woman in the sky being pursued by a huge red dragon. The dragon tries to devour her child when she gives birth, but the child is "caught up to God and his throne". This appears to be an allegory for the triumph of Christianity: the child presumably represents Christ; the woman may represent God's people of the Old and New Testaments (who produced Christ); and the Dragon symbolizes Satan, who opposes Christ. According to Catholic scholars, the images used in this allegory may have been inspired by pagan mythology: ==Mythical themes and types== Academic studies of mythology often define mythology as deeply valued stories that explain a society's existence and world order: those narratives of a society's creation, the society's origins and foundations, their god(s), their original heroes, mankind's connection to the "divine", and their narratives of eschatology (what happens in the "after-life"). This is a very general outline of some of the basic sacred stories with those themes. ===Cosmogonic myths=== The Christian texts use the same creation myth as Jewish mythology as written in the Old Testament. According to the Book of Genesis, the world was created out of a darkness and water in seven days. (Unlike a Jew, a Christian might include the miracle of Jesus' birth as a sort of second cosmogonic event) Canonical Christian scripture incorporates the two Hebrew cosmogonic myths found in Genesis 1:1—2:2 and Genesis 2:4—3:24. ====Genesis 1:1—2:3==== In the first text on the creation (Genesis 1:1—2:3), the Creator is called Elohim (commonly translated simply as "God"). He creates the universe over a six-day period, creating a new feature each day: first he creates day and night; then he creates the firmament to separate the "waters above" from the "waters below"; then he separates the dry land from the water; then he creates plants on the land; then he places the Sun, Moon, and stars in the sky; then he creates swimming and flying animals; then he creates land animals; and finally he creates man and woman together, "in his own image". On the seventh day, God rests, providing the rationale for the custom of resting on Sabbath. ==== Genesis 2:4—3:24 ==== The second creation myth in Genesis differs from the first in a number of important elements. Here the Creator is called Yahweh elohim (commonly translated "Lord God" or "LORD God" (with small caps), although Yahweh is in fact the personal name of the God of Israel and does not literally mean "Lord"). This myth begins with the words, "When the LORD God made the earth and the heavens, and no shrub of the field was yet in the earth, and no plant of the field had yet sprouted, for the LORD God had not sent rain upon the earth …" (Genesis 2:4–5 NASB). It then proceeds to describe Yahweh creating a man called Adam out of dust. Yahweh creates the Garden of Eden as a home for Adam, and tells Adam not to eat the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil in the center of the Garden (next to the Tree of Life). Yahweh also creates animals, and shows them to man, who names them. Yahweh sees that there is no suitable companion for the man among the beasts, and he subsequently puts Adam to sleep and takes out one of Adam's ribs, creating from it a woman whom Adam names Eve. A talking serpent tempts Eve to eat from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, and she succumbs, offering the fruit to Adam as well. As a punishment, Yahweh banishes the couple from the Garden and "placed on the east side of the Garden of Eden the cherubim with a fiery revolving sword to guard the way to the Tree of Life". The Lord says he must banish humans from the Garden because they have become like him, knowing good and evil (because of eating the forbidden fruit), and now only immortality (which they could get by eating from the Tree of Life) stands between them and godhood: "The man has now become like one of us, knowing good and evil. He must not be allowed to reach out his hand and take also from the tree of life and eat, and live forever" (Genesis 3:22). Although the text of Genesis does not identify the tempting serpent with Satan, Christian tradition equates the two. This tradition has made its way into non-canonical Christian "myths" such as John Milton's Paradise Lost. ===Ascending the mountain=== According to Lorena Laura Stookey, many myths feature sacred mountains as "the sites of revelations": "In myth, the ascent of the holy mountain is a spiritual journey, promising purification, insight, wisdom, or knowledge of the sacred". As examples of this theme, Stookey includes the revelation of the Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai, Christ's ascent of a mountain to deliver his Sermon on the Mount, and Christ's ascension into Heaven from the Mount of Olives. A number of scholars have connected the Christian story of the crucifixion at Golgotha with this theme of a cosmic center. In his Creation Myths of the World, David Leeming argues that, in the Christian story of the crucifixion, the cross serves as "the axis mundi, the center of a new creation". George Every discusses the connection between the cosmic center and Golgotha in his book Christian Mythology, noting that the image of Adam's skull beneath the cross appears in many medieval representations of the crucifixion. A number of scholars have argued that the ancient Israelites incorporated the combat myth into their religious imagery, such as the figures of Leviathan and Rahab, the Song of the Sea, The idea of Satan as God's opponent may have developed under the influence of the combat myth. Scholars have also suggested that the Book of Revelation uses combat myth imagery in its descriptions of cosmic conflict. ===Descent to the underworld=== According to David Leeming, writing in The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, the harrowing of hell is an example of the motif of the hero's descent to the underworld, which is common in many mythologies. ===Dying God=== Many myths, particularly from the Near East, feature a God who dies and is resurrected; this figure is sometimes called the "dying god". An important study of this figure is James George Frazer's The Golden Bough, which traces the dying God theme through a large number of myths. The dying God is often associated with fertility. A number of scholars, including Frazer, have suggested that the Christ story is an example of the "dying God" theme. In the article "Dying God" in The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, David Leeming notes that Christ can be seen as bringing fertility, though of a spiritual as opposed to physical kind. ===Flood myths=== Many cultures have myths about a flood that cleanses the world in preparation for rebirth. Such stories appear on every inhabited continent on earth. In The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, David Leeming notes that, in the Bible story, as in other flood myths, the flood marks a new beginning and a second chance for creation and humanity. Frankiel claims that these founding myths are "structurally equivalent" to the creation myths in other religions, because they are "the pivot around which the religion turns to and which it returns", establishing the "meaning" of the religion and the "essential Christian practices and attitudes". Christian mythology of their society's founding would start with Jesus and his many teachings, and include the stories of Christian disciples starting the Christian Church and congregations in the 1st century. This might be considered the stories in the four canonical gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. The heroes of the first Christian society would start with Jesus and those chosen by Jesus, the twelve apostles including Peter, John, James, as well as Paul and Mary (mother of Jesus). ===Hero myths=== In his influential 1909 work The Myth of the Birth of the Hero, Otto Rank argued that the births of many mythical heroes follow a common pattern. Rank includes the story of Christ's birth as a representative example of this pattern. An example from the Late Middle Ages comes from Dieudonné de Gozon, third Grand Master of the Knights of Rhodes, famous for slaying the dragon of Malpasso. Eliade writes: "Legend, as was natural, bestowed upon him the attributes of St. George, famed for his victorious fight with the monster. [...] In other words, by the simple fact that he was regarded as a hero, de Gozon was identified with a category, an archetype, which [...] equipped him with a mythical biography from which it was impossible to omit combat with a reptilian monster." calling the Christ story "a particularly complete example of the heroic monomyth". in which the resurrected heroes often become sources of "material or spiritual food for their people"; in this connection, Leeming notes that Christians regard Jesus as the "bread of life". ===Sacrifice=== Sacrifice is an element in many religious traditions and often represented in myths. In The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, David Leeming lists the story of Abraham and Isaac and the story of Christ's death as examples of this theme. Wendy Doniger describes the gospel accounts as a "meta-myth" in which Jesus realizes that he is part of a "new myth […] of a man who is sacrificed in hate" but "sees the inner myth, the old myth of origins and acceptance, the myth of a god who sacrifices himself in love". ===Eucharist=== Related to the doctrine of transsubstantiation, the Christian practice of eating the flesh and blood of Jesus Christ during the Eucharist is an instance of theophagy. ===Transference of evil=== The theological concept of Jesus being born to atone for original sin is central to the Christian narrative. According to Christian theology, by Adam disobeying God in the Garden of Eden, humanity acquired an ingrained flaw that keeps humans in a state of moral imperfection, generally called "original sin". According to Paul the Apostle, Adam's sin brought sin and death to all humanity: "Through one man, sin entered the world, and through sin, death" (Romans 5:12). According to the orthodox Christian view, Jesus saved humanity from final death and damnation by dying for them. Most Christians believe that Christ's sacrifice supernaturally reversed death's power over humanity, proved when he was resurrected, and abolished the power of sin on humanity. According to Paul, "if the many died by the trespass of the one man, how much more did God's grace and the gift that came by the grace of the one man, Jesus Christ, overflow to the many" (Romans 5:15). For many Christians, atonement doctrine leads naturally into the eschatological narratives of Christian people rising from the dead and living again, or immediately entering heaven to join Jesus. ====Atonement in canonical scripture==== Paul's theological writings lay out the basic framework of the atonement doctrine in the New Testament. However, Paul's letters contain relatively little mythology (narrative). The majority of narratives in the New Testament are in the Gospels and the Book of Revelation. Although the Gospel stories do not lay out the atonement doctrine as fully as does Paul, they do have the story of the Last Supper, crucifixion, death and resurrection. Atonement is also suggested in the parables of Jesus in his final days. According to Matthew's gospel, at the Last Supper, Jesus calls his blood "the blood of the new covenant, which will be poured out for the forgiveness of many" (Matthew 26:28). John's gospel is especially rich in atonement parables and promises: Jesus speaks of himself as "the living bread that came down from heaven"; "and the bread that I shall give is My flesh, which I shall give for the life of the world" (John 6:51); "Truly, truly, I say to you, unless a grain of wheat falls to the ground and dies, it remains alone; but if it dies, it bears much fruit" (John 12:24). ====Atonement in non-canonical literature==== The sacrifice and atonement narrative appears explicitly in many non-canonical writings as well. For instance, in Book 3 of Milton's Paradise Lost, the Son of God offers to become a man and die, thereby paying mankind's debt to God the Father. The Harrowing of Hell is a non-canonical myth extrapolated from the atonement doctrine. According to this story, Christ descended into the land of the dead after his crucifixion, rescuing the righteous souls that had been cut off from heaven due to the taint of original sin. The story of the harrowing was popular during the Middle Ages. An Old English poem called "The Harrowing of Hell" describes Christ breaking into Hell and rescuing the Old Testament patriarchs. (The Harrowing is not the only explanation that Christians have put forth for the fate of the righteous who died before Christ accomplished the atonement.) In modern literature, atonement continues to be theme. In the first of C. S. Lewis's Narnia novels, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, a boy named Edmund is condemned to death by a White Witch, and the magical lion-king Aslan offers to die in Edmund's place, thereby saving him. Aslan's life is sacrificed on an altar, but returns to life again. Aslan's self-sacrifice for Edmund is often interpreted as an allegory for the story of Christ's sacrifice for humanity; although Lewis denied that the novel is a mere allegory. ===Eschatological myths=== Christian eschatological myths include stories of the afterlife: the narratives of Jesus Christ rising from the dead and now acting as a saviour of all generations of Christians, and stories of heaven and hell. Eschatological myths would also include the prophesies of end of the world and a new millennium in the Book of Revelation, and the story that Jesus will return to earth some day. The major features of Christian eschatological mythology include afterlife beliefs, the Second Coming, the resurrection of the dead, and the final judgment. ====Immediate afterlife (heaven and hell)==== Most Christian denominations hold some belief in an immediate afterlife when people die. Christian scripture gives a few descriptions of an immediate afterlife and a heaven and hell; however, for the most part, both New and Old Testaments focus much more on the myth of a final bodily resurrection than any beliefs about a purely spiritual afterlife away from the body. Much of the Old Testament does not express a belief in a personal afterlife of reward or punishment:"All the dead go down to Sheol, and there they lie in sleep together–whether good or evil, rich or poor, slave or free (Job 3:11–19). It is described as a region "dark and deep," "the Pit," and "the land of forgetfulness," cut off from both God and human life above (Psalms 6:5; 88:3–12). Though in some texts Yahweh's power can reach down to Sheol (Psalms 139:8), the dominant idea is that the dead are abandoned forever. This idea of Sheol is negative in contrast to the world of life and light above, but there is no idea of judgment or of reward and punishment." Later Old Testament writings, particularly the works of the Hebrew prophets, describe a final resurrection of the dead, often accompanied by spiritual rewards and punishments:"Many who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake. Some shall live forever; others shall be in everlasting contempt. But the wise shall shine brightly like the splendor of the firmament, and those who lead the many to justice shall be like the stars forever" (Daniel 12:2). However, even here, the emphasis is not on an immediate afterlife in heaven or hell, but rather on a future bodily resurrection. The New Testament also devotes little attention to an immediate afterlife. Its primary focus is the resurrection of the dead. Some New Testament passages seem to mention the (non-resurrected) dead experiencing some sort of afterlife (for example, the parable of rich man and Lazarus); yet the New Testament includes only a few myths about heaven and hell. Specifically, heaven is a place of peaceful residence, where Jesus goes to "prepare a home" or room for his disciples (John 14:2). Drawing on scriptural imagery (John 10:7, John 10:11–14), many Christian narratives of heaven include a nice green pasture land and a meeting with a benevolent God. Some of the earliest Christian art depicts heaven as a green pasture where people are sheep led by Jesus as "the good shepherd" as in interpretation of heaven. As the doctrines of heaven and hell (and also Catholic purgatory) developed, non-canonical Christian literature began to develop an elaborate mythology about these locations. Dante's three-part Divine Comedy is a prime example of such afterlife mythology, describing Hell (in Inferno), Purgatory (in Purgatorio), and Heaven (in Paradiso). Nowadays, conceptualizations of hell differ quite widely across various denominations. ====Second Coming==== The Second Coming of Christ holds a central place in Christian mythology. The Second Coming is the return of Christ to Earth during the period of transformation preceding the end of this world and the establishment of the Kingdom of Heaven on Earth. According to Matthew's gospel, when Jesus is on trial before the Roman and Jewish authorities, he claims, "In the future you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven." The legend of the Wandering Jew concerns a Jew who taunted Jesus on the way to the Crucifixion and was then cursed to walk the earth until the Second Coming. ====Resurrection and final judgment==== Christian mythology incorporates the Old Testament's prophecies of a future resurrection of the dead. Like the Hebrew prophet Daniel (e.g., Daniel 12:2), the Christian Book of Revelation (among other New Testament scriptures) describes the resurrection: "The sea gave up the dead that were in it, and death and Hades gave up the dead that were in them; and they were judged, every one of them according to their deeds." The righteous and/or faithful enjoy bliss in the earthly Kingdom of Heaven, but the evil and/or non-Christian are "cast into the lake of fire". ====The Kingdom of Heaven on Earth==== Christian eschatological myths feature a total world renovation after the final judgment. According to the Book of Revelation, God "will wipe every tear from their eyes, and there will be no more death or mourning, wailing or pain, for the old order has passed away". According to Old and New Testament passages, a time of perfect peace and happiness is coming: "They will beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks. One nation will not raise the sword against another; nor will they train for war again." Certain scriptural passages even suggest that God will abolish the current natural laws in favor of immortality and total peace: "Then the wolf will be a guest of the lamb, and the leopard will lie down with the kid. The calf and the young lion will browse together, with a little child to guide them. […] There will be no harm or ruin on all my holy mountain, for the earth will be filled with knowledge of the LORD as water fills the sea." "On this mountain, [God] will destroy the veil that veils all peoples, the web that is woven over all nations: he will destroy Death forever." "The trumpet will sound, and the dead will be raised imperishable, and we will be changed." "Night will be no more, nor will they need light from lamp or sun, for the Lord God shall give them light, and they shall reign forever and ever." ====Millennialism and amillennialism==== When Christianity was a new and persecuted religion, many Christians believed the end times were imminent. Scholars debate whether Jesus was an apocalyptic preacher; however, his early followers, "the group of Jews who accepted him as messiah in the years immediately after his death, understood him in primarily apocalyptic terms". Prevalent in the early church and especially during periods of persecution, this Christian belief in an imminent end is called "millennialism". (It takes its name from the thousand-year ("millennial") reign of Christ that, according to the Book of Revelation, will precede the final world renovation; similar beliefs in a coming paradise are found in other religions, and these phenomena are often also called "millennialism") Millennialism comforted Christians during times of persecution, for it predicted an imminent deliverance from suffering. From the perspective of millennialism, human action has little significance: millennialism is comforting precisely because it predicts that happiness is coming no matter what humans do: "The seeming triumph of Evil made up the apocalyptic syndrome which was to precede Christ's return and the millennium." However, as time went on, millennialism lost its appeal. Christ had not returned immediately, as earlier Christians had predicted. Moreover, many Christians no longer needed the comfort that millennialism provided, for they were no longer persecuted: "With the triumph of the Church, the Kingdom of Heaven was already present on earth, and in a certain sense the old world had already been destroyed." (Millennialism has revived during periods of historical stress, In the Roman Church's condemnation of millennialism, Eliade sees "the first manifestation of the doctrine of [human] progress" in Christianity. Thus, after taking the amillennial position, the Church not only waited for God to renovate the world (as millennialists had) but also believed itself to be improving the world through human action. Major works in Christian demonology, such as Malleus Maleficarum, were dedicated to the implementation of Exodus 22:18 of the Old Testament: "You shall not permit a sorceress to live." The concept of witches' sabbath was well articulated by the 17th century. Theologian Martin Delrio was one of the first to provide a vivid description in his influential Disquisitiones magicae: There, on most occasions, once a foul, disgusting fire has been lit, an evil spirit sits on a throne as president of the assembly. His appearance is terrifying, almost always that of a male goat or a dog. The witches come forward to worship him in different ways. Sometimes they supplicate him on bended knee; sometimes they stand with their back turned to him. They offer candles made of pitch or a child's umbilical cord, and kiss him on the anal orifice as a sign of homage. Sometimes they imitate the sacrifice of the Mass (the greatest of all their crimes), as well as purifying with water and similar Catholic ceremonies. After the feast, each evil spirit takes by the hand the disciple of whom he has charge, and so that they may do everything with the most absurd kind of ritual, each person bends over backwards, joins hands in a circle, and tosses his head as frenzied fanatics do. Then they begin to dance. They sing very obscene songs in his [Satan's] honour. They behave ridiculously in every way, and in every way contrary to accepted custom. Then their demon-lovers copulate with them in the most repulsive fashion. ===Legend and folklore=== Legendary Prester John Saint George and the Dragon Wandering Jew ====Legendary creatures==== Numerous legendary creatures are attested in Christian mythology. These include the Behemoth, Leviathan, Angels, Demons, Nephilim, Re'em, Ziz and dragons. ==Attitudes toward time== According to Mircea Eliade, many traditional societies have a cyclic sense of time, periodically reenacting mythical events. Through this reenactment, these societies achieve an "eternal return" to the mythical age. According to Eliade, Christianity retains a sense of cyclical time, through the ritual commemoration of Christ's life and the imitation of Christ's actions; Eliade calls this sense of cyclical time a "mythical aspect" of Christianity. However, Judeo-Christian thought also makes an "innovation of the first importance", Eliade says, because it embraces the notion of linear, historical time; in Christianity, "time is no longer [only] the circular Time of the Eternal Return; it has become linear and irreversible Time". Summarizing Eliade's statements on this subject, Eric Rust writes, "A new religious structure became available. In the Judaeo-Christian religions — Judaism, Christianity, Islam — history is taken seriously, and linear time is accepted. […] The Christian myth gives such time a beginning in creation, a center in the Christ-event, and an end in the final consummation." In contrast, the myths of many traditional cultures present a cyclic or static view of time. In these cultures, all the "[important] history is limited to a few events that took place in the mythical times". In other words, these cultures place events into two categories, the mythical age and the present, between which there is no continuity. Everything in the present is seen as a direct result of the mythical age: "Just as modern man considers himself to be constituted by [all of] History, the man of the archaic societies declares that he is the result of [only] a certain number of mythical events." Because of this view, Eliade argues, members of many traditional societies see their lives as a constant repetition of mythical events, an "eternal return" to the mythical age: "In imitating the exemplary acts of a god or of a mythical hero, or simply by recounting their adventures, the man of an archaic society detaches himself from profane time and magically re-enters the Great Time, the sacred time." According to Eliade, Christianity shares in this cyclic sense of time to an extent. "By the very fact that it is a religion", he argues, Christianity retains at least one "mythical aspect" — the repetition of mythical events through ritual. Eliade gives a typical church service as an example:"Just as a church constitutes a break in plane in the profane space of a modern city, [so] the service celebrated inside [the church] marks a break in profane temporal duration. It is no longer today's historical time that is present — the time that is experienced, for example, in the adjacent streets — but the time in which the historical existence of Jesus Christ occurred, the time sanctified by his preaching, by his passion, death, and resurrection." Heinrich Zimmer also notes Christianity's emphasis on linear time; he attributes this emphasis specifically to the influence of Augustine of Hippo's theory of history. Zimmer does not explicitly describe the cyclical conception of time as itself "mythical" per se, although he notes that this conception "underl[ies] Hindu mythology". Neil Forsyth writes that "what distinguishes both Jewish and Christian religious systems […] is that they elevate to the sacred status of myth narratives that are situated in historical time". ==Legacy== ===Concepts of progress=== According to Carl Mitcham, "the Christian mythology of progress toward transcendent salvation" created the conditions for modern ideas of scientific and technological progress. Hayden White describes "the myth of Progress" as the "secular, Enlightenment counterpart" of "Christian myth". Reinhold Niebuhr described the modern idea of ethical and scientific progress as "really a rationalized version of the Christian myth of salvation". According to Irwin, from the perspective of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), "history is a tale of progress". Christianity inherited the Hebrew sense of history through the Old Testament. Thus, although most Christians believe that human nature is inherently "fallen" (see original sin) and cannot become perfected without divine grace, they do believe that the world can and will change for the better, either through human and divine action or through divine action alone. ===Political and philosophical ideas=== According to Mircea Eliade, the medieval "Gioacchinian myth […] of universal renovation in a more or less imminent future" has influenced a number of modern theories of history, such as those of Lessing (who explicitly compares his views to those of medieval "enthusiasts"), Fichte, Hegel, and Schelling; and has also influenced a number of Russian writers. In his article "The Christian Mythology of Socialism", Will Herberg argues that socialism inherits the structure of its ideology from the influence of Christian mythology upon western thought. In The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, David Leeming claims that Judeo-Christian messianic ideas have influenced 20th-century totalitarian systems, citing the state ideology of the Soviet Union as an example. According to Hugh S. Pyper, the biblical "founding myths of the Exodus and the exile, read as stories in which a nation is forged by maintaining its ideological and racial purity in the face of an oppressive great power", entered "the rhetoric of nationalism throughout European history", especially in Protestant countries and smaller nations. === Christmas stories in popular culture === Christmas stories have become prevalent in Western literature and culture. ==The Bible== ===Old Testament=== Mythic patterns such as the primordial struggle between good and evil appear in passages throughout the Hebrew Bible, including passages that describe historical events. A distinctive characteristic of the Hebrew Bible is the reinterpretation of myth on the basis of history, as in the Book of Daniel, a record of the experience of the Jews of the Second Temple period under foreign rule, presented as a prophecy of future events and expressed in terms of "mythic structures" with "the Hellenistic kingdom figured as a terrifying monster that cannot but recall [the Near Eastern pagan myth of] the dragon of chaos". For example, Eliade says, the portrayal of Nebuchadnezzar as a dragon in Jeremiah 51:34 is a case in which the Hebrews "interpreted contemporary events by means of the very ancient cosmogonico-heroic myth" of a battle between a hero and a dragon. According to scholars including Neil Forsyth and John L. McKenzie, the Old Testament incorporates stories, or fragments of stories, from extra-biblical mythology. According to the New American Bible, a Catholic Bible translation produced by the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, the story of the Nephilim in Genesis 6:1–4 "is apparently a fragment of an old legend that had borrowed much from ancient mythology", and the "sons of God" mentioned in that passage are "celestial beings of mythology". The New American Bible also says that Psalm 93 alludes to "an ancient myth" in which God battles a personified Sea. Some scholars have identified the biblical creature Leviathan as a monster from Canaanite mythology. According to Howard Schwartz, "the myth of the fall of Lucifer" existed in fragmentary form in Isaiah 14:12 and other ancient Jewish literature; Schwartz claims that the myth originated from "the ancient Canaanite myth of Athtar, who attempted to rule the throne of Ba'al, but was forced to descend and rule the underworld instead". Some scholars have argued that the calm, orderly, monotheistic creation story in Genesis 1 can be interpreted as a reaction against the creation myths of other Near Eastern cultures. In connection with this interpretation, David and Margaret Leeming describe Genesis 1 as a "demythologized myth", and John L. McKenzie asserts that the writer of Genesis 1 has "excised the mythical elements" from his creation story. Perhaps the most famous topic in the Bible that could possibly be connected with mythical origins is the topic of Heaven (or the sky) as the place where God (or angels, or the saints) resides, with stories such as the ascension of Elijah (who disappeared in the sky), war of man with an angel, flying angels. Even in the New Testament Paul the Apostle is said to have visited the third heaven, and Jesus was portrayed in several books as going to return from Heaven on a cloud, in the same way he ascended thereto. The official text repeated by the attendees during Roman Catholic mass (the Apostles' Creed) contains the words "He ascended into Heaven, and is Seated at the Right Hand of God, The Father. From thence He will come again to judge the living and the dead". ===New Testament and early Christianity=== According to a number of scholars, the Christ story contains mythical themes such as descent to the underworld, the heroic monomyth, and the "dying god" (see section above on "mythical themes and types"). Some scholars have argued that the Book of Revelation incorporates imagery from ancient mythology. According to the New American Bible, the image in Revelation 12:1–6 of a pregnant woman in the sky, threatened by a dragon, "corresponds to a widespread myth throughout the ancient world that a goddess pregnant with a savior was pursued by a horrible monster; by miraculous intervention, she bore a son who then killed the monster". Bernard McGinn suggests that the image of the two Beasts in Revelation stems from a "mythological background" involving the figures of Leviathan and Behemoth. The Pastoral Epistles contain denunciations of "myths" (muthoi). This may indicate that Rabbinic or Gnostic mythology was popular among the early Christians to whom the epistles were written and that the epistles' author was attempting to resist that mythology. The Sibylline oracles contain predictions that the dead Roman Emperor Nero, infamous for his persecutions, would return one day as an Antichrist-like figure. According to Bernard McGinn, these parts of the oracles were probably written by a Christian and incorporated "mythological language" in describing Nero's return. ==Historical development== ===From Roman Empire to Europe=== After Christian theology was accepted by the Roman Empire, promoted by St. Augustine in the 5th century, Christian mythology began to predominate the Roman Empire. Later the theology was carried north by Charlemagne and the Frankish people, and Christian themes began to weave into the framework of European mythologies. The pre-Christian Germanic and Celtic mythology that were native to the tribes of Northern Europe were denounced and submerged, while saint myths, Mary stories, Crusade myths, and other Christian myths took their place. However, pre-Christian myths never went entirely away, they mingled with the (Roman Catholic) Christian framework to form new stories, like myths of the mythological kings and saints and miracles, for example (Eliade 1963:162–181). Stories such as that of Beowulf and Icelandic, Norse, and Germanic sagas were reinterpreted somewhat, and given Christian meanings. The legend of King Arthur and the quest for the Holy Grail is a striking example. The thrust of incorporation took on one of two directions. When Christianity was on the advance, pagan myths were Christianized; when it was in retreat, Bible stories and Christian saints lost their mythological importance to the culture. ===Middle Ages=== According to Mircea Eliade, the Middle Ages witnessed "an upwelling of mythical thought" in which each social group had its own "mythological traditions". Often a profession had its own "origin myth" which established models for members of the profession to imitate; for example, the knights tried to imitate Lancelot or Parsifal. In many cases, medieval mythology appears to have inherited elements from myths of pagan gods and heroes. According to Every, one example may be "the myth of St. George" and other stories about saints battling dragons, which were "modelled no doubt in many cases on older representations of the creator and preserver of the world in combat with chaos". Eliade notes that some "mythological traditions" of medieval knights, namely the Arthurian cycle and the Grail theme, combine a veneer of Christianity with traditions regarding the Celtic Otherworld. According to Eliade, "eschatological myths" became prominent during the Middle Ages during "certain historical movements". These eschatological myths appeared "in the Crusades, in the movements of a Tanchelm and an Eudes de l'Etoile, in the elevation of Fredrick II to the rank of Messiah, and in many other collective messianic, utopian, and prerevolutionary phenomena". ===Renaissance and Reformation=== During the Renaissance, there arose a critical attitude that sharply distinguished between apostolic tradition and what George Every calls "subsidiary mythology"—popular legends surrounding saints, relics, the cross, etc.—suppressing the latter. The works of Renaissance writers often included and expanded upon Christian and non-Christian stories such as those of creation and the Fall. Rita Oleyar describes these writers as "on the whole, reverent and faithful to the primal myths, but filled with their own insights into the nature of God, man, and the universe". An example is John Milton's Paradise Lost, an "epic elaboration of the Judeo-Christian mythology" and also a "veritable encyclopedia of myths from the Greek and Roman tradition". Every argues that "the disparagement of myth in our own civilization" stems partly from objections to perceived idolatry, objections which intensified in the Reformation, both among Protestants and among Catholics reacting against the classical mythology revived during the Renaissance. ===Enlightenment=== The philosophes of the Enlightenment used criticism of myth as a vehicle for veiled criticisms of the Bible and the church. According to Bruce Lincoln, the philosophes "made irrationality the hallmark of myth and constituted philosophy—rather than the Christian kerygma—as the antidote for mythic discourse. By implication, Christianity could appear as a more recent, powerful, and dangerous instance of irrational myth". Since the end of the 18th century, the biblical stories have lost some of their mythological basis to western society, owing to the scepticism of the Enlightenment, 19th-century freethinking, and 20th century modernism. Most westerners no longer found Christianity to be their primary imaginative and mythological framework by which they understand the world. However other scholars believe mythology is in our psyche, and that mythical influences of Christianity are in many of our ideals, for example the Judeo-Christian idea of an after-life and heaven. The book Virtual Faith: The Irreverent Spiritual Quest of Generation X by Tom Beaudoin explores the premise that Christian mythology is present in the mythologies of pop-culture, such as Madonna's Like a Prayer or Soundgarden's Black Hole Sun. Modern myths are strong in comic book stories (as stories of culture heroes) and detective novels as myths of good versus evil. ===Modern period=== Some commentators have categorized a number of modern fantasy works as "Christian myth" or "Christian mythopoeia". Examples include the fiction of C. S. Lewis, Madeleine L'Engle, J.R.R. Tolkien, and George MacDonald. In The Eternal Adam and the New World Garden, written in 1968, David W. Noble argued that the Adam figure had been "the central myth in the American novel since 1830". As examples, he cites the works of Cooper, Hawthorne, Melville, Twain, Hemingway, and Faulkner.	[ "Eternal return (Eliade)", "Death or departure of the gods", "Enuma Elish", "guardian angel", "Jacobus de Voragine", "Hebrew Bible", "Katabasis", "mythopoeia", "Ascension of Christ", "romance (love)", "Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil", "Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling", "incarnation (Christianity)", "Ziz", "Folklorists", "legend", "whale", "Mytheme", "allegory", "trouveres", "Pentecost", "Christmas stories", "mythology", "Gnostic Christianity", "John 1:1", "monomyth", "Mary (mother of Jesus)", "Black Hole Sun", "Book of Judith", "Genesis creation narrative", "Daeva", "Last Judgment", "Ahriman", "Eve", "Christian church", "el Cid", "Valentinus (Gnostic)", "Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Jesus Christ", "Biblical Mount Sinai", "theomachy", "God the Father", "paradise", "Biblical cosmology", "sacrifice", "Jesus", "Persian religions", "Aslan", "Logos", "Resurrection of Jesus", "John the Dwarf", "Mormon folklore", "Charlemagne", "New American Bible", "millennialism", "Scholasticism", "Lord's Prayer", "apocalypse", "Resurrection of the dead", "hero", "hagiographies", "Early modern Europe", "Priory of Sion", "Lancelot", "Re'em", "archetype", "Marxism", "Ravenna", "Bernard McGinn (theologian)", "Book of Daniel", "Esoteric Christianity", "Howard Schwartz", "Lance of Longinus", "Knights of the Round Table", "Tanchelm", "Woman of the Apocalypse", "Gospel of Nicodemus", "Celtic mythology", "folk medicine", "eschatological myth", "Like a Prayer (song)", "Binding of Isaac", "Tim Severin", "Roman Catholic Church", "Adam and Eve", "Eudes de l'Etoile", "Pilgrim's Progress", "Sir Balin", "theophagy", "The Pilgrim's Regress", "Prophet", "miracle", "Sermon on the Mount", "mosaic", "Christian eschatology", "Gnosticism", "Antichrist", "John L. McKenzie", "Ezekiel", "Eternal Return (Eliade)", "Book of Tobit", "Elohim", "Carl Mitcham", "Noah's Ark", "Folk religion", "Promised Land", "Nero", "hagiography", "Confraternity of Christian Doctrine", "George MacDonald", "Saint George and the Dragon", "Kingdom of God", "Aarne-Thompson classification system", "Dismas", "eschatology", "J. R. R. Tolkien", "Bruce Lincoln", "White Witch", "John Milton", "Saint George", "Bible", "resurrection", "The Chronicles of Narnia", "Arthurian legend", "Christ", "Protestantism", "Jewish mythology", "self-sacrifice", "Dualistic cosmology", "Corpus Christi (feast)", "Islamic mythology", "books of the Bible", "Gospel", "Christianity", "Rudolf Bultmann", "enlightenment age", "Saint Timothy", "Gustave Doré", "J.R.R. Tolkien", "Tree of Life (Judeo-Christian)", "transsubstantiation", "Pastoral Epistles", "Charles Webster Leadbeater", "state ideology of the Soviet Union", "freethinkers", "flood myth", "Bel and the dragon", "Second Coming", "Narrative", "Beowulf", "Adam", "The Myth of the Birth of the Hero", "myth", "demiurge", "Demon", "Carl Bloch", "Knights of Rhodes", "Wendy Doniger", "Superstitions in Muslim societies", "Dieudonné de Gozon", "Manichaean", "saint", "Brendan the Navigator", "Song of Roland", "Book of Revelation", "Abelard", "Tolkien and the Invention of Myth", "Gustave Moreau", "angel", "Middle Ages", "folklore", "Heaven (Christianity)", "Sibylline oracles", "Augustine of Hippo", "Fall of man", "apocryphal", "Joseph of Arimathea", "Sacred Tradition", "The Exodus", "Parsival", "Percival", "Biblical canon", "purgatory", "Virgin Mary", "Ascension of Jesus Christ", "Garden of Eden", "Harrowing of Hell", "Fallen angel", "Nephilim", "Hayden White", "paladin", "Madeleine L'Engle", "immortality", "Eastern Orthodoxy", "Mount Calvary", "Rolland Hein", "Reinhold Niebuhr", "Paul the Apostle", "Pomors", "Parables of Jesus", "Malleus Maleficarum", "Zoroastrianism", "Angel", "Walter Burkert", "Siddhartha Gautama", "Christian mysticism", "Rockall", "original sin", "Holy Grail", "King Arthur", "Panbabylonism", "Golden Legend", "axis mundi", "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe", "Dante Alighieri", "proletariat", "Christian denomination", "kerygma", "Celtic Otherworld", "Täby", "Andrew Greeley", "baptism of Jesus", "Crusades", "Virtual Faith: The Irreverent Spiritual Quest of Generation X", "Founding myth", "Knights Templar", "Magi", "Mara (demon)", "Paradise Lost", "Docetic", "witches' sabbath", "founding myth", "Western literature", "Song of the Sea", "theogony", "C. S. Lewis", "Wandering Jew", "doctrines", "descent to the underworld", "Rahab (term)", "Son of god", "Revelation 12", "George Arundale", "Time Quartet", "fall of man", "sirin", "Saint Valentine", "Yahweh", "Mircea Eliade", "illuminated manuscript", "Franks", "last judgment", "Paradise Regained", "dragon", "Abraham", "Last Supper", "Shroud of Turin", "temptation of Christ", "modernism", "War in Heaven", "Book of Exodus", "iceberg", "Transfiguration of Jesus", "Heinrich Zimmer", "Quest", "rich man and Lazarus", "Life-death-rebirth deity", "Crusade", "Satan", "Buddhist mythology", "Rabbinic literature", "The Tower of Babel", "Canaanite religion", "Christian demonology", "Yazata", "Late Middle Ages", "Tom Beaudoin", "Gnostic Gospels", "Eucharist", "mythological kings", "Martin Delrio", "Hegel", "Matter of France", "James George Frazer", "John Bunyan", "New Testament", "Acts of the Apostles", "Joachim of Fiore", "David W. Noble", "Heaven", "Divine Comedy", "Mary Boyce", "Behemoth", "creation myth", "List of names for the Biblical nameless", "Judeo-Christian", "culture hero", "Leviathan", "dying-and-rising god", "Old Testament", "Fichte", "Virgin birth of Jesus", "Holy Lance", "saints", "Salome (disciple)", "Witch trials in the early modern period", "Abraham Abulafia", "Abgarus of Edessa", "Prester John", "sacred mountains", "Amesha Spentas", "Serpent (Bible)", "philosophes", "Mount of Olives", "Uranus (mythology)", "Otto Rank", "Biblical Sabbath", "Continental Germanic mythology", "forbidden fruit", "Sophia (wisdom)", "The Acts of the Apostles", "Atonement in Christianity", "Ancient Greek language", "Allegory in the Middle Ages", "Huston Smith", "Legendary (hagiography)", "Gary Dorrien", "Nebuchadnezzar", "The Golden Bough", "Will Herberg" ]
7,484	Company (disambiguation)	A company is a legal entity representing an association of people. Company may also refer to: ==Organizations== Company (military unit), military unit of 100–250 soldiers Opera company, an instituted company that performs operas Theatre company, of touring actors, singers and/or dancers ==Arts, entertainment, and media== ===Literature=== Company (novel), a 2006 novel by Max Barry Company (novella), a 1979 novella by Samuel Beckett ===Music=== ====Groups==== Company (band) Company (free improvisation group), a jazz collective founded in 1968 ====Albums==== Company (Bluejuice album), (2011) Company (Andy Burrows album) (2012) Company (The Drink album) (2014) ====Songs==== "Company" (Broadway song), a song from Sondheim and Furth's musical Company "Company" (Justin Bieber song) (2015) "Company" (Tinashe song) (2016) "Company" (24kGoldn song) (2021) "Company", a song by Drake from If You're Reading This It's Too Late "Company", a song by Third Eye Blind from Out of the Vein Company, the subtitle of String Quartet No. 2 by Philip Glass ===Periodicals=== Company (British magazine) Company (LGBT magazine), a magazine in Hungary ===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media=== Company (2002 film), a Hindi film by Ram Gopal Varma Company (musical), a 1970 musical by Stephen Sondheim and George Furth Company (2011 film), a 2011 filmed version of the 1970 musical	[ "Out of the Vein", "Company (Bluejuice album)", "Company (novella)", "Company (band)", "Company (24kGoldn song)", "Company (2002 film)", "Company (The Drink album)", "Theatre company", "String Quartet No. 2 (Glass)", "Kompany (disambiguation)", "Company (musical)", "Company (military unit)", "Company (Broadway song)", "Company (free improvisation group)", "Company (British magazine)", "Company (Andy Burrows album)", "If You're Reading This It's Too Late", "Company (2011 film)", "Company (novel)", "Opera company", "company", "La Compagnie", "Kompanie", "The Company (disambiguation)", "Company (LGBT magazine)", "Company (Tinashe song)", "Company (Justin Bieber song)" ]
7,485	Corporation	A corporation or body corporate is an individual or a group of people, such as an association or company, that has been authorized by the state to act as a single entity (a legal entity recognized by private and public law as "born out of statute"; a legal person in a legal context) and recognized as such in law for certain purposes. Early incorporated entities were established by charter (i.e., by an ad hoc act granted by a monarch or passed by a parliament or legislature). Most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. Corporations come in many different types but are usually divided by the law of the jurisdiction where they are chartered based on two aspects: whether they can issue stock, or whether they are formed to make a profit. Depending on the number of owners, a corporation can be classified as aggregate (the subject of this article) or sole (a legal entity consisting of a single incorporated office occupied by a single natural person). Registered corporations have legal personality recognized by local authorities and their shares are owned by shareholders whose liability is generally limited to their investment. One of the attractive early advantages business corporations offered to their investors, compared to earlier business entities like sole proprietorships and joint partnerships, was limited liability. Limited liability separates control of a company from ownership and means that a passive shareholder in a corporation will not be personally liable either for contractually agreed obligations of the corporation, or for torts (involuntary harms) committed by the corporation against a third party (acts done by the controllers of the corporation). Where local law distinguishes corporations by their ability to issue stock, corporations allowed to do so are referred to as stock corporations; one type of investment in the corporation is through stock, and owners of stock are referred to as stockholders or shareholders. Corporations not allowed to issue stock are referred to as non-stock corporations; i.e. those who are considered the owners of a non-stock corporation are persons (or other entities) who have obtained membership in the corporation and are referred to as a member of the corporation. Corporations chartered in regions where they are distinguished by whether they are allowed to be for-profit are referred to as for-profit and not-for-profit corporations, respectively. Shareholders do not typically actively manage a corporation; shareholders instead elect or appoint a board of directors to control the corporation in a fiduciary capacity. In most circumstances, a shareholder may also serve as a director or officer of a corporation. Countries with co-determination employ the practice of workers of an enterprise having the right to vote for representatives on the board of directors in a company. == History == The word "corporation" derives from corpus, the Latin word for body, or a "body of people". By the time of Justinian (reigned 527–565), Roman law recognized a range of corporate entities under the names Universitas, corpus or collegium. Following the passage of the Lex Julia during the reign of Julius Caesar as Consul and Dictator of the Roman Republic (49–44 BC), and their reaffirmation during the reign of Caesar Augustus as Princeps senatus and Imperator of the Roman Army (27 BC–14 AD), collegia required the approval of the Roman Senate or the Emperor in order to be authorized as legal bodies. These included the state itself (the Populus Romanus), municipalities, and such private associations as sponsors of a religious cult, burial clubs, political groups, and guilds of craftsmen or traders. Such bodies commonly had the right to own property and make contracts, to receive gifts and legacies, to sue and be sued, and, in general, to perform legal acts through representatives. Private associations were granted designated privileges and liberties by the emperor. The concept of the corporation was revived in the Middle Ages with the recovery and annotation of Justinian's by the glossators and their successors the commentators in the 11th–14th centuries. Particularly important in this respect were the Italian jurists Bartolus de Saxoferrato and Baldus de Ubaldis, the latter of whom connected the corporation to the metaphor of the body politic to describe the state. Early entities which carried on business and were the subjects of legal rights included the collegium of ancient Rome and the sreni of the Maurya Empire in ancient India. In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the City of London Corporation. The point was that the incorporation would survive longer than the lives of any particular member, existing in perpetuity. The alleged oldest commercial corporation in the world, the Stora Kopparberg mining community in Falun, Sweden, obtained a charter from King Magnus Eriksson in 1347. In medieval times, traders would do business through common law constructs, such as partnerships. Whenever people acted together with a view to profit, the law deemed that a partnership arose. Early guilds and livery companies were also often involved in the regulation of competition between traders. === Mercantilism === Dutch and English chartered companies, such as the Dutch East India Company (also known by its Dutch initials: VOC) and the Hudson's Bay Company, were created to lead the colonial ventures of European nations in the 17th century. Acting under a charter sanctioned by the Dutch government, the Dutch East India Company defeated Portuguese forces and established itself in the Moluccan Islands in order to profit from the European demand for spices. Investors in the VOC were issued paper certificates as proof of share ownership, and were able to trade their shares on the original Amsterdam Stock Exchange. Shareholders were also explicitly granted limited liability in the company's royal charter. In England, the government created corporations under a royal charter or an Act of Parliament with the grant of a monopoly over a specified territory. The best-known example, established in 1600, was the East India Company of London. Queen Elizabeth I granted it the exclusive right to trade with all countries to the east of the Cape of Good Hope. Some corporations at this time would act on the government's behalf, bringing in revenue from its exploits abroad. Subsequently, the company became increasingly integrated with English and later British military and colonial policy, just as most corporations were essentially dependent on the Royal Navy's ability to control trade routes. Labeled by both contemporaries and historians as "the grandest society of merchants in the universe", the English East India Company would come to symbolize the dazzlingly rich potential of the corporation, as well as new methods of business that could be both brutal and exploitative. On 31 December 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted the company a 15-year monopoly on trade to and from the East Indies and Africa. By 1711, shareholders in the East India Company were earning a return on their investment of almost 150 per cent. Subsequent stock offerings demonstrated just how lucrative the company had become. Its first stock offering in 1713–1716 raised £418,000, its second in 1717–1722 raised £1.6 million. A similar chartered company, the South Sea Company, was established in 1711 to trade in the Spanish South American colonies, but met with less success. The South Sea Company's monopoly rights were supposedly backed by the Treaty of Utrecht, signed in 1713 as a settlement following the War of the Spanish Succession, which gave Great Britain an asiento to trade in the region for thirty years. In fact, the Spanish remained hostile and let only one ship a year enter. Unaware of the problems, investors in Britain, enticed by extravagant promises of profit from company promoters bought thousands of shares. By 1717, the South Sea Company was so wealthy (still having done no real business) that it assumed the public debt of the British government. This accelerated the inflation of the share price further, as did the Bubble Act 1720, which (possibly with the motive of protecting the South Sea Company from competition) prohibited the establishment of any companies without a royal charter. The share price rose so rapidly that people began buying shares merely in order to sell them at a higher price, which in turn led to higher share prices. This was the first speculative bubble the country had seen, but by the end of 1720, the bubble had "burst", and the share price sank from £1,000 to under £100. As bankruptcies and recriminations ricocheted through government and high society, the mood against corporations and errant directors was bitter. In the late 18th century, Stewart Kyd, the author of the first treatise on corporate law in English, defined a corporation as: === Development of modern company law === Due to the late 18th century abandonment of mercantilist economic theory and the rise of classical liberalism and laissez-faire economic theory due to a revolution in economics led by Adam Smith and other economists, corporations transitioned from being government or guild affiliated entities to being public and private economic entities free of governmental directions. Smith wrote in his 1776 work The Wealth of Nations that mass corporate activity could not match private entrepreneurship, because people in charge of others' money would not exercise as much care as they would with their own. ==== Deregulation ==== The British Bubble Act 1720's prohibition on establishing companies remained in force until its repeal in 1825. By this point, the Industrial Revolution had gathered pace, pressing for legal change to facilitate business activity. The repeal was the beginning of a gradual lifting on restrictions, though business ventures (such as those chronicled by Charles Dickens in Martin Chuzzlewit) under primitive companies legislation were often scams. Without cohesive regulation, proverbial operations like the "Anglo-Bengalee Disinterested Loan and Life Assurance Company" were undercapitalized ventures promising no hope of success except for richly paid promoters. The process of incorporation was possible only through a royal charter or a private act and was limited, owing to Parliament's jealous protection of the privileges and advantages thereby granted. As a result, many businesses came to be operated as unincorporated associations with possibly thousands of members. Any consequent litigation had to be carried out in the joint names of all the members and was almost impossibly cumbersome. Though Parliament would sometimes grant a private act to allow an individual to represent the whole in legal proceedings, this was a narrow and necessarily costly expedient, allowed only to established companies. Then, in 1843, William Gladstone became the chairman of a Parliamentary Committee on Joint Stock Companies, which led to the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844, regarded as the first modern piece of company law. The Act created the Registrar of Joint Stock Companies, empowered to register companies by a two-stage process. The first, provisional, stage cost £5 and did not confer corporate status, which arose after completing the second stage for another £5. For the first time in history, it was possible for ordinary people through a simple registration procedure to incorporate. The advantage of establishing a company as a separate legal person was mainly administrative, as a unified entity under which the rights and duties of all investors and managers could be channeled. ==== Limited liability ==== However, there was still no limited liability and company members could still be held responsible for unlimited losses by the company. The next, crucial development, then, was the Limited Liability Act 1855, passed at the behest of the then Vice President of the Board of Trade, Robert Lowe. This allowed investors to limit their liability in the event of business failure to the amount they invested in the company – shareholders were still liable directly to creditors, but just for the unpaid portion of their shares. (The principle that shareholders are liable to the corporation had been introduced in the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844). The 1855 Act allowed limited liability to companies of more than 25 members (shareholders). Insurance companies were excluded from the act, though it was standard practice for insurance contracts to exclude action against individual members. Limited liability for insurance companies was allowed by the Companies Act 1862. This prompted the English periodical The Economist to write in 1855 that "never, perhaps, was a change so vehemently and generally demanded, of which the importance was so much overrated." The major error of this judgment was recognised by the same magazine more than 70 years later, when it claimed that, "[t]he economic historian of the future... may be inclined to assign to the nameless inventor of the principle of limited liability, as applied to trade corporations, a place of honour with Watt and Stephenson, and other pioneers of the Industrial Revolution. " These two features – a simple registration procedure and limited liability – were subsequently codified into the landmark 1856 Joint Stock Companies Act. This was subsequently consolidated with a number of other statutes in the Companies Act 1862, which remained in force for the rest of the century, up to and including the time of the decision in Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd. The legislation quickly led to a railway boom, resulting in a surge in the formation of companies. However, in the later nineteenth century, a period of depression set in, causing many of these companies to collapse and become insolvent. Strong academic, legislative, and judicial opinions emerged, opposing the notion that businessmen could escape accountability for their role in the failing businesses. ==== Further developments ==== In 1892, Germany introduced the with a separate legal personality and limited liability even if all the shares of the company were held by only one person. This inspired other countries to introduce corporations of this kind. The last significant development in the history of companies was the 1897 decision of the House of Lords in Salomon v. Salomon & Co., where the House of Lords confirmed the separate legal personality of the company, and that the liabilities of the company were separate and distinct from those of its owners. In the United States, forming a corporation usually required an act of legislation until the late 19th century. Many private firms, such as Carnegie's steel company and Rockefeller's Standard Oil, avoided the corporate model for this reason (as a trust). State governments began to adopt more permissive corporate laws from the early 19th century, although these were all restrictive in design, often with the intention of preventing corporations from gaining too much wealth and power. In 1896, New Jersey was the first state to adopt an "enabling" corporate law, with the goal of attracting more business to the state. In 1899, Delaware followed New Jersey's lead by enacting an enabling corporate statute. However, Delaware only emerged as the leading corporate state after the enabling provisions of the 1896 New Jersey corporate law were repealed in 1913. The day-to-day activities of a corporation are typically controlled by individuals appointed by the members. In some cases, this will be a single individual but more commonly corporations are controlled by a committee or by committees. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of committee structure. A single committee known as a board of directors is the method favored in most common law countries. Under this model, the board of directors is composed of both executive and non-executive directors, the latter being meant to supervise the former's management of the company. A two-tiered committee structure with a supervisory board and a managing board is common in civil law countries. In countries with co-determination (such as in Germany), workers elect a fixed fraction of the corporation's board. === Formation === Historically, corporations were created by a charter granted by the government. As explained above, such charters were often enacted as private bills. Today, a corporation is formed, or incorporated, by registering with the state, province, or national government and regulated by the laws enacted by that government. Registration is the main prerequisite to the corporation's assumption of limited liability. The law sometimes requires the corporation to designate its principal address, as well as a registered agent (a person or company designated to receive legal service of process). It may also be required to designate an agent or other legal representatives of the corporation. Generally, a corporation files articles of incorporation with the government, laying out the general nature of the corporation, the amount of stock it is authorized to issue, and the names and addresses of directors. Once the articles are approved, the corporation's directors meet to create bylaws that govern the internal functions of the corporation, such as meeting procedures and officer positions. In theory, a corporation cannot own its own stock. An exception is treasury stock, where the company essentially buys back stock from its shareholders, which reduces its outstanding shares. This essentially becomes the equivalent of unissued capital, where it is not classified as an asset on the balance sheet (passive capital). Under the internal affairs doctrine, the law of the jurisdiction in which a corporation is incorporated will govern its internal activities—that is, conflicts between shareholders and managers such as the board of directors and corporate officers. If a corporation operates outside its home state, it is usually required to register with other governments as a foreign corporation and must formally appoint a registered agent to accept service of process within such other jurisdictions. Nowadays, corporations in most jurisdictions have a distinct name that does not need to make reference to the members of their boards. In Canada, this possibility is taken to its logical extreme: many smaller Canadian corporations have no names at all, merely numbers based on a registration number (for example, "12345678 Ontario Limited"), which is assigned by the provincial or territorial government where the corporation incorporates. In most countries, corporate names include a term or an abbreviation that denotes the corporate status of the entity (for example, "Incorporated" or "Inc." in the United States) or the limited liability of its members (for example, "Limited", "Ltd.", or "LLC"). These terms vary by jurisdiction and language. In some jurisdictions, they are mandatory, and in others, such as California, they are not. Their use puts everybody on constructive notice that they are dealing with an entity whose liability is limited: one can only collect from whatever assets the entity still controls when one obtains a judgment against it. Corporate names are supposed to be unique to the jurisdiction in which the corporation is registered. Governments will not allow another corporation or any other kind of legal entity to register a name that is too similar to the name of an existing corporation. and they can themselves be responsible for human rights violations. Corporations can be "dissolved" either by statutory operation, the order of the court, or voluntary action on the part of shareholders. Insolvency may result in a form of corporate failure, when creditors force the liquidation and dissolution of the corporation under court order, but it most often results in a restructuring of corporate holdings. Corporations can even be convicted of special criminal offenses in the UK, such as fraud and corporate manslaughter. However, corporations are not considered living entities in the way that humans are. Legal scholars and others, such as Joel Bakan, have observed that a business corporation created as a "legal person" has a psychopathic personality because it is required to elevate its own interests above those of others even when this inflicts major risks and grave harms on the public or on other third-parties. Such critics note that the legal mandate of the corporation to focus exclusively on corporate profits and self-interest often victimizes employees, customers, the public at large, and/or the natural resources. The political theorist David Runciman notes that corporate personhood forms a fundamental part of the 21st century conception state, and believes the idea of the corporation as legal persons can help to clarify the role of citizens as political stakeholders, and to break down the sharp conceptual dichotomy between the state and the people or the individual, a distinction that, on his account, is "increasingly unable to meet the demands placed on the state in the modern world".	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Rockefeller", "Corporatism", "Magnus Eriksson", "Corporation sole", "legal personality", "Martin Chuzzlewit", "technology", "The Economist", "Mergers and acquisitions", "Limited Liability Act 1855", "Unlimited company", "Joint Stock Companies Act 1856", "Commercial law", "Latin", "Bartolus de Saxoferrato", "William Ewart Gladstone", "Bubble Act 1720", "tort", "Adam Tooze", "bureaucracy", "Lawsuit", "Charles Dickens", "Cooperative", "credit union", "Princeps senatus", "collegium", "United States antitrust law", "War of the Spanish Succession", "Corporate group", "Cape of Good Hope", "History of company law in the United Kingdom", "Robert Sobel", "incorporation (business)", "Megacorporation", "East India Company", "Roman emperor", "laissez-faire", "joint partnership", "worker cooperative", "treasury stock", "corporation sole", "postglossators", "Joint Stock Companies Act 1844", "creditor", "share capital", "civil law (legal system)", "perpetual succession", "Mercantilism", "Ernst Freund", "Julius Caesar", "German company law", "Registrar of Companies", "Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd", "Nationalization", "economics", "East Indies", "Sweden", "articles of incorporation", "limited liability", "company rule in India", "royal charter", "Co-determination", "environmental economics", "Bubble Companies, etc. Act 1825", "Insolvency", "fiduciary", "s:Martin Chuzzlewit/Chapter 27", "classical liberalism", "New Jersey", "Treaty of Utrecht", "President and Fellows of Harvard College", "Conglomerate (company)", "Robert Lowe", "Charter", "Middle Ages", "corporate manslaughter" ]
7,487	Fairchild Channel F	{{Infobox computer \| aka = Fairchild Video Entertainment System \| logo = Channel_F_Logo.svg \| image = Fairchild-Channel-F.jpg \| caption = Channel F and its two controllers \| developer = Jerry Lawson \| manufacturer = Fairchild Camera and Instrument \| type = Home video game console \| generation = Second \| release date = \| lifespan = 1976–1983 \| price = \| discontinued = 1983 \| units sold = (as of 1979) Lawson worked with industrial designer Nick Talesfore and mechanical engineer Ronald A. Smith to turn the prototype into a viable project. Jerry Lawson replaced the 8080 with Fairchild's own F8 CPU; while Nick Talesfore and Ron Smith were responsible for adapting the prototype's complex keyboard controls into a single control stick, and encasing the ROM circuit boards into plastic cartridges reminiscent of 8-track tapes. It was released as the Video Entertainment System (VES) at the price of $169.95, but renamed to the Channel F the next year. Channel F was unable to compete against Atari's Video Computer System (VCS) as the console only had 22 games compared to Atari's 187. Marketing for the console included an event featuring Ken Uston playing Video Blackjack and commercials starring Milton Berle. The console was licensed in Europe to television manufacturers and led to the clone consoles of Ingelen Telematch Processor in Austria, Barco Challenger in Belgium, ITT Telematch-Processor and Nordmende Color Teleplay μP in Germany, Dumont Videoplay System and Emerson Videoplay System in Italy, Luxor TV-Datorspel and Luxor Video Entertainment Computer in Sweden, and Grandstand Video Entertainment Computer in the United Kingdom. Both models of the Saba Videoplay were sold in Germany and Italy. ===Channel F System II=== Lawson moved on to form his own company, Video Soft in 1980. Talesfore continued working on the system at Fairchild, and eventually a number of these improvements resulted in the improved System II. The major changes were that the controllers were now removable, using the Atari joystick port connector (not Atari compatible), and their storage was moved to the back of the machine. The sound was now mixed into the RF modulator so the user could adjust it on their TV set instead of a fixed volume internal speaker. The internal electronics were also simplified, with two custom logic chips replacing the standard TTL logic chips. This resulted in a much smaller motherboard which allowed for a smaller, simpler and more modern-looking case design. Fairchild left the video game market in April 1979. Zircon International acquired the rights to the system and related assets in 1979. The company redesigned the console into the Channel F System II. This featured removable controllers and audio coming from the TV rather than a speaker within the console. It was sold at the price point of $99.95 or $69.95 if the previous console was traded in. Zircon released an additional four games for a final library of 26 games on the console. ==Design== The Channel F is based on the Fairchild F8 microprocessor, which was innovative compared to other contemporary processors and integrated circuits. Because chip packaging was not initially available with enough pins, a few pins were used to communicate with other chips in the system. At least two chips were necessary to set up an F8 processor system to be able run any code. The savings from using standard pin layout enabled the inclusion of 64 bytes of internal scratchpad RAM in the CPU. The VES/Channel F, as well as the System II, had one CPU and two storage chips (PSU:s). (A single-chip variant of the F8 was used by the VideoBrain computer system). The Channel F is able to use one plane of graphics and one of four background colors per line, with three plot colors to choose from (red, green, and blue) that turns white if the background is set to black, at a resolution of 128 × 64, with approximately 104 × 60 pixels visible on the TV screen. This VRAM or framebuffer was "write only" and not usable for anything else. 64 bytes of scratchpad RAM are available for general use - half the amount of the later Atari 2600. ===Controllers=== The controllers for the system were conceived by Lawson and built by Nicholas Talesfore. Unlike the Atari 2600 joystick, Channel F controllers lack a base. Instead, the main body is a large handgrip with a triangular "cap" on top, which can move in eight directions. It could be used as both a joystick and paddle (twist), and not only could it be pushed down to operate as a fire button, it could be pulled up as well. Refresh rate: 60 Hz == Reception == The Channel F had beaten the Atari VCS to the market, but once the VCS was released, sales of the Channel F fell, attributed to the types of games that were offered. Most of the Channel F titles were slow-paced educational and intellectual games, compared to the action-driven games that launched with the VCS. Even with the redesigned Channel F II in 1978, Fairchild was unable to meet the sales that the VCS and its games were generating. By the time Fairchild sold the technology to Zircon in 1979, around 350,000 total units had been sold.	[ "Reno Gazette-Journal", "Fairchild Channel F Videocarts", "scratchpad memory", "pixel", "MAME", "Internet Archive", "Second generation of video game consoles", "home video game console", "Intel 8080", "1977 in video gaming", "Static random-access memory", "Display resolution", "Ken Uston's Guide to Buying and Beating the Home Video Games", "Centipede (video game)", "Federal Communications Commission", "United States Patent and Trademark Office", "Indiana University Press", "joystick", "Milton Berle", "TV", "RF modulator", "Wayne State University Press", "Ken Uston", "Newspapers.com", "San Francisco Examiner", "Player versus environment", "VideoBrain", "8-bit computing", "Clock rate", "DRAM", "United States", "1976 in video gaming", "Jerry Lawson (engineer)", "Atari 2600", "razor and blades model", "kilobyte", "Consumer Electronics Show", "Creative Computing", "YouTube", "Home video game console", "Fairchild F8", "The Ultimate History of Video Games", "Looper (website)", "Random-access memory", "The A.V. Club", "8 track cartridge", "Oakland Tribune", "Refresh rate", "Artificial intelligence in video games", "CNBC", "TV Powww", "framebuffer", "Atari joystick port", "Central processing unit", "megahertz", "SABA (electronics manufacturer)", "Ogilvy (agency)", "Pong", "CRC Press", "microprocessor", "ROM cartridge", "List of color palettes", "NTSC", "Pulse-frequency modulation", "bytes", "Fast Company", "video game collecting", "Fairchild Camera and Instrument", "VRAM", "Zircon (company)", "PAL", "colorburst" ]
7,489	Collation	Collation is the assembly of written information into a standard order. Many systems of collation are based on numerical order or alphabetical order, or extensions and combinations thereof. Collation is a fundamental element of most office filing systems, library catalogs, and reference books. Collation differs from classification in that the classes themselves are not necessarily ordered. However, even if the order of the classes is irrelevant, the identifiers of the classes may be members of an ordered set, allowing a sorting algorithm to arrange the items by class. Formally speaking, a collation method typically defines a total order on a set of possible identifiers, called sort keys, which consequently produces a total preorder on the set of items of information (items with the same identifier are not placed in any defined order). A collation algorithm such as the Unicode collation algorithm defines an order through the process of comparing two given character strings and deciding which should come before the other. When an order has been defined in this way, a sorting algorithm can be used to put a list of any number of items into that order. The main advantage of collation is that it makes it fast and easy for a user to find an element in the list, or to confirm that it is absent from the list. In automatic systems this can be done using a binary search algorithm or interpolation search; manual searching may be performed using a roughly similar procedure, though this will often be done unconsciously. Other advantages are that one can easily find the first or last elements on the list (most likely to be useful in the case of numerically sorted data), or elements in a given range (useful again in the case of numerical data, and also with alphabetically ordered data when one may be sure of only the first few letters of the sought item or items). ==Ordering== ===Numerical and chronological=== Strings representing numbers may be sorted based on the values of the numbers that they represent. For example, "−4", "2.5", "10", "89", "30,000". Pure application of this method may provide only a partial ordering on the strings, since different strings can represent the same number (as with "2" and "2.0" or, when scientific notation is used, "2e3" and "2000"). A similar approach may be taken with strings representing dates or other items that can be ordered chronologically or in some other natural fashion. ===Alphabetical=== Alphabetical order is the basis for many systems of collation where items of information are identified by strings consisting principally of letters from an alphabet. The ordering of the strings relies on the existence of a standard ordering for the letters of the alphabet in question. (The system is not limited to alphabets in the strict technical sense; languages that use a syllabary or abugida, for example Cherokee, can use the same ordering principle provided there is a set ordering for the symbols used.) To decide which of two strings comes first in alphabetical order, initially their first letters are compared. The string whose first letter appears earlier in the alphabet comes first in alphabetical order. If the first letters are the same, then the second letters are compared, and so on, until the order is decided. (If one string runs out of letters to compare, then it is deemed to come first; for example, "cart" comes before "carthorse".) The result of arranging a set of strings in alphabetical order is that words with the same first letter are grouped together, and within such a group words with the same first two letters are grouped together, and so on. Capital letters are typically treated as equivalent to their corresponding lowercase letters. (For alternative treatments in computerized systems, see Automated collation, below.) Certain limitations, complications, and special conventions may apply when alphabetical order is used: When strings contain spaces or other word dividers, the decision must be taken whether to ignore these dividers or to treat them as symbols preceding all other letters of the alphabet. For example, if the first approach is taken then "car park" will come after "carbon" and "carp" (as it would if it were written "carpark"), whereas in the second approach "car park" will come before those two words. The first rule is used in many (but not all) dictionaries, the second in telephone directories (so that Wilson, Jim K appears with other people named Wilson, Jim and not after Wilson, Jimbo). Abbreviations may be treated as if they were spelt out in full. For example, names containing "St." (short for the English word Saint) are often ordered as if they were written out as "Saint". There is also a traditional convention in English that surnames beginning Mc and M' are listed as if those prefixes were written Mac. Strings that represent personal names will often be listed by alphabetical order of surname, even if the given name comes first. For example, Juan Hernandes and Brian O'Leary should be sorted as "Hernandes, Juan" and "O'Leary, Brian" even if they are not written this way. Very common initial words, such as The in English, are often ignored for sorting purposes. So The Shining would be sorted as just "Shining" or "Shining, The". When some of the strings contain numerals (or other non-letter characters), various approaches are possible. Sometimes such characters are treated as if they came before or after all the letters of the alphabet. Another method is for numbers to be sorted alphabetically as they would be spelled: for example 1776 would be sorted as if spelled out "seventeen seventy-six", and as if spelled "vingt-quatre..." (French for "twenty-four"). When numerals or other symbols are used as special graphical forms of letters, as in 1337 for leet or Se7en for the movie title Seven, they may be sorted as if they were those letters. Languages have different conventions for treating modified letters and certain letter combinations. For example, in Spanish the letter ñ is treated as a basic letter following n, and the digraphs ch and ll were formerly (until 1994) treated as basic letters following c and l, although they are now alphabetized as two-letter combinations. A list of such conventions for various languages can be found at . In several languages the rules have changed over time, and so older dictionaries may use a different order than modern ones. Furthermore, collation may depend on use. For example, German dictionaries and telephone directories use different approaches. == Root sorting == Some Arabic dictionaries, such as Hans Wehr's bilingual A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, group and sort Arabic words by semitic root. For example, the words kitāba ( 'writing'), kitāb ( 'book'), kātib ( 'writer'), maktaba ( 'library'), maktab ( 'office'), maktūb ( 'fate,' or 'written'), are agglomerated under the triliteral root k-t-b (), which denotes 'writing'. ==Radical-and-stroke sorting== See also Chinese characters and Chinese character orders Another form of collation is radical-and-stroke sorting, used for non-alphabetic writing systems such as the hanzi of Chinese and the kanji of Japanese, whose thousands of symbols defy ordering by convention. In this system, common components of characters are identified; these are called radicals in Chinese and logographic systems derived from Chinese. Characters are then grouped by their primary radical, then ordered by number of pen strokes within radicals. When there is no obvious radical or more than one radical, convention governs which is used for collation. For example, the Chinese character 妈 (meaning "mother") is sorted as a six-stroke character under the three-stroke primary radical 女 (meaning "woman"). The radical-and-stroke system is cumbersome compared to an alphabetical system in which there are a few characters, all unambiguous. The choice of which components of a logograph comprise separate radicals and which radical is primary is not clear-cut. As a result, logographic languages often supplement radical-and-stroke ordering with alphabetic sorting of a phonetic conversion of the logographs. For example, the kanji word Tōkyō (東京) can be sorted as if it were spelled out in the Japanese characters of the hiragana syllabary as "to-u-ki-yo-u" (とうきょう), using the conventional sorting order for these characters. In addition, Chinese characters can also be sorted by stroke-based sorting. In Greater China, surname stroke ordering is a convention in some official documents where people's names are listed without hierarchy. ==Automation== When information is stored in digital systems, collation may become an automated process. It is then necessary to implement an appropriate collation algorithm that allows the information to be sorted in a satisfactory manner for the application in question. Often the aim will be to achieve an alphabetical or numerical ordering that follows the standard criteria as described in the preceding sections. However, not all of these criteria are easy to automate. The simplest kind of automated collation is based on the numerical codes of the symbols in a character set, such as ASCII coding (or any of its supersets such as Unicode), with the symbols being ordered in increasing numerical order of their codes, and this ordering being extended to strings in accordance with the basic principles of alphabetical ordering (mathematically speaking, lexicographical ordering). So a computer program might treat the characters a, b, C, d, and $ as being ordered $, C, a, b, d (the corresponding ASCII codes are $ = 36, a = 97, b = 98, C = 67, and d = 100). Therefore, strings beginning with C, M, or Z would be sorted before strings with lower-case a, b, etc. This is sometimes called ASCIIbetical order. This deviates from the standard alphabetical order, particularly due to the ordering of capital letters before all lower-case ones (and possibly the treatment of spaces and other non-letter characters). It is therefore often applied with certain alterations, the most obvious being case conversion (often to uppercase, for historical reasons) before comparison of ASCII values. In many collation algorithms, the comparison is based not on the numerical codes of the characters, but with reference to the collating sequence – a sequence in which the characters are assumed to come for the purpose of collation – as well as other ordering rules appropriate to the given application. This can serve to apply the correct conventions used for alphabetical ordering in the language in question, dealing properly with differently cased letters, modified letters, digraphs, particular abbreviations, and so on, as mentioned above under Alphabetical order, and in detail in the Alphabetical order article. Such algorithms are potentially quite complex, possibly requiring several passes through the text. Problems are nonetheless still common when the algorithm has to encompass more than one language. For example, in German dictionaries the word ökonomisch comes between offenbar and olfaktorisch, while Turkish dictionaries treat o and ö as different letters, placing oyun before öbür. A standard algorithm for collating any collection of strings composed of any standard Unicode symbols is the Unicode Collation Algorithm. This can be adapted to use the appropriate collation sequence for a given language by tailoring its default collation table. Several such tailorings are collected in Common Locale Data Repository. ===Sort keys=== In some applications, the strings by which items are collated may differ from the identifiers that are displayed. For example, The Shining might be sorted as Shining, The (see Alphabetical order above), but it may still be desired to display it as The Shining. In this case two sets of strings can be stored, one for display purposes, and another for collation purposes. Strings used for collation in this way are called sort keys. ===Issues with numbers=== Sometimes, it is desired to order text with embedded numbers using proper numerical order. For example, "Figure 7b" goes before "Figure 11a", even though '7' comes after '1' in Unicode. This can be extended to Roman numerals. This behavior is not particularly difficult to produce as long as only integers are to be sorted, although it can slow down sorting significantly. For example, Microsoft Windows does this when sorting file names. Sorting decimals properly is a bit more difficult, because different locales use different symbols for a decimal point, and sometimes the same character used as a decimal point is also used as a separator, for example "Section 3.2.5". There is no universal answer for how to sort such strings; any rules are application dependent. ==Labeling of ordered items== In some contexts, numbers and letters are used not so much as a basis for establishing an ordering, but as a means of labeling items that are already ordered. For example, pages, sections, chapters, and the like, as well as the items of lists, are frequently "numbered" in this way. Labeling series that may be used include ordinary Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, ...), Roman numerals (I, II, III, ... or i, ii, iii, ...), or letters (A, B, C, ... or a, b, c, ...). (An alternative method for indicating list items, without numbering them, is to use a bulleted list.) When letters of an alphabet are used for this purpose of enumeration, there are certain language-specific conventions as to which letters are used. For example, the Russian letters Ъ and Ь (which in writing are only used for modifying the preceding consonant), and usually also Ы, Й, and Ё, are omitted. Also in many languages that use extended Latin script, the modified letters are often not used in enumeration.	[ "Kaph", "abugida", "hanzi", "Unicode", "Ь", "1776 (film)", "surname stroke order", "ASCIIbetical order", "Chinese language", "reference book", "Unicode collation algorithm", "Roman numeral", "German (language)", "Unicode equivalence", "space (character)", "Microsoft Windows", "given name", "hiragana", "total order", "Seven (1995 film)", "kanji", "Roman numerals", "syllabary", "enumeration", "Turkish language", "Alphabetical order", "decimal separator", "Latin script", "file name", "Bet (letter)", "calendar date", "A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic", "letter (alphabet)", "Saint", "alphabet", "binary search algorithm", "24 heures du Mans", "sorting", "algorithm", "telephone directory", "numerical digit", "character string", "Mac and Mc together", "Spanish language", "character set", "Taxonomic sequence", "alphabetical order", "lexicographical order", "consonant", "Sorting", "Hans Wehr", "Arabic numerals", "telegraph", "Classification (general theory)", "leet", "Cherokee language", "Dictionary", "Chinese character orders", "Ы", "dictionary", "sorting algorithm", "library catalog", "radical (Chinese character)", "Arabic", "bulleted list", "Ъ", "number", "Natural sort order", "Ё", "Russian alphabet", "Triliteral root", "scientific notation", "modified letter", "Chinese characters", "Unicode Collation Algorithm", "Japanese language", "ASCII", "superset", "semitic root", "The Shining (novel)", "International Components for Unicode", "Taw", "Capital letter", "Common Locale Data Repository", "library classification", "Cascading Style Sheet", "total preorder", "digraph (orthography)", "Й", "stroke-based sorting", "interpolation search", "Decimal mark" ]
7,490	Civil Rights Act	Civil Rights Act may refer to several civil right acts in the United States. These acts of the United States Congress are meant to protect rights to ensure individuals' freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. The first wave of civil rights acts were passed during the Reconstruction era after the American Civil War. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 extends the rights of emancipated slaves by stating that any person born in the United States regardless of race is an American citizen. The Enforcement Acts of 1870-1871 allows the President to protect Black American men’s right to vote, to hold office, to serve on juries, and for Black men and women to receive equal protection of laws, including protection from racist violence. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 prohibited discrimination in "public accommodations" until it was found unconstitutional in 1883 by the Supreme Court of the United States. The Jim Crow Laws were established during the 19th century and served to block African American votes, ban integration in public facilities such as schools, and forbid interracial marriage in the South. The enactment of these laws was able to vastly undermine the progress toward equality which was made during the Reconstruction era. Civil Rights Acts would not be passed for 82 more years until the success of the Civil rights movement which aimed to abolish legalized racial segregation, discrimination, and disenfranchisement in the country, which was most commonly employed against African Americans. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 established the Civil Rights Commission and the Civil Rights Act of 1960 established federal inspection of local voter registration polls. The landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin by federal and state governments as well as public places. The Civil Rights Act of 1968 prohibits discrimination in sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, creed, and national origin. The Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 specifies that recipients of federal funds must comply with civil rights laws in all areas, not just in the particular program or activity that received federal funding. The Civil Rights Act of 1990 was a bill that would have made it easier for plaintiffs to win civil rights cases which was vetoed by President George H. W. Bush. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 prohibits discrimination based on disability. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 provides the right to trial by jury on discrimination claims and introducing the possibility of emotional distress damages, while limiting the amount that a jury could award. ==Background== The first shift towards equality for African Americans occurred when President Abraham Lincoln passed the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, which declared that "all persons held as slaves... shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free...". As initially ratified, the United States Constitution granted each state complete discretion to determine voter qualifications for its residents. In American history, the Reconstruction era was the period from 1865-1877 following the end of the American Civil War. This period was marked by various attempts made to redress the inequities imposed on African Americans through slavery. Three Reconstruction Amendments were ratified and limited this discretion. The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) prohibits slavery "except as a punishment for crime"; the Fourteenth Amendment (1868) grants citizenship to anyone "born or naturalized in the United States" and guarantees every person due process and equal protection rights; and the Fifteenth Amendment (1870) provides that "[t]he right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." These amendments were established to provide African Americans the same civil rights as white Americans, and also empower Congress to enforce their provisions through "appropriate legislation". This time period marked the beginnings of the Civil Rights Movement. To enforce the Reconstruction Amendments, Congress passed the Enforcement Acts in the 1870s. The acts criminalized the obstruction of a citizen's voting rights and provided for federal supervision of the electoral process, including voter registration. By 1873, Supreme Court decisions began to limit the scope of Reconstruction legislation, and many whites resorted to intimidation and violence to undermine African Americans' voting rights. The Compromise of 1877, an informal agreement to resolve a political dispute, marked the end of the Reconstruction era. After the Reconstruction Era ended in 1877, enforcement of these civil rights laws ceased, and in 1894, Congress repealed most of their provisions. From 1888 to 1908, Southern states legalized disenfranchisement by enacting Jim Crow laws; they amended their constitutions and passed legislation to impose various voting restrictions, including literacy tests, poll taxes, property-ownership requirements, moral character tests, requirements that voter registration applicants interpret particular documents, and grandfather clauses that allowed otherwise-ineligible persons to vote if their grandfathers voted (which excluded many African Americans whose grandfathers had been slaves or otherwise ineligible). It was mainly intended, in the wake of the American Civil War, to protect the civil rights of persons of African descent born in or brought to the United States. The Act was passed by Congress in 1866 and vetoed by U.S. President Andrew Johnson. In April 1866, Congress again passed the bill to support the Thirteenth Amendment, and Johnson again vetoed it, but a two-thirds majority in each chamber overrode the veto to allow it to become law without presidential signature. John Bingham and other congressmen argued that Congress did not yet have sufficient constitutional power to enact this law. Following passage of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868, Congress ratified the 1866 Act in 1870. The act had three primary objectives for the integration of African Americans into the American society following the Civil War: 1.) a definition of American citizenship 2.) the rights which come with this citizenship and 3.) the unlawfulness to deprive any person of citizenship rights "on the basis of race, color, or prior condition of slavery or involuntary servitude." The act accomplished these three primary objectives. Congressman James F. Wilson summarized what he considered to be the purpose of the act as follows, when he introduced the legislation in the House of Representatives: During the subsequent legislative process, the following key provision was deleted: "there shall be no discrimination in civil rights or immunities among the inhabitants of any State or Territory of the United States on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." John Bingham was an influential supporter of this deletion, on the ground that courts might construe the term "civil rights" more broadly than people like Wilson intended. Weeks later, Senator Trumbull described the bill's intended scope: On April 5, 1866, the Senate overrode President Andrew Johnson's veto. This marked the first time that the U.S. Congress ever overrode a presidential veto for a major piece of legislation. ===Content=== With an incipit of "An Act to protect all Persons in the United States in their Civil Rights, and furnish the Means of their vindication", the act declared that all people born in the United States who are not subject to any foreign power are entitled to be citizens, without regard to race, color, or previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 also said that any citizen has the same right that a white citizen has to make and enforce contracts, sue and be sued, give evidence in court, and inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real and personal property. Additionally, the act guaranteed to all citizens the "full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property, as is enjoyed by white citizens, and ... like punishment, pains, and penalties..." Persons who denied these rights on account of race or previous enslavement were guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction faced a fine not exceeding $1,000, or imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both. Parts of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 are enforceable into the 21st century, according to the United States Code: One section of the United States Code (42 U.S.C. §1981), is §1 of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 as revised and amended by subsequent Acts of Congress. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was reenacted by the Enforcement Act of 1870, ch. 114, § 18, 16 Stat. 144, codified as sections 1977 and 1978 of the Revised Statutes of 1874, and appears now as 42 U.S.C. §§ 1981–82 (1970). Section 2 of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, as subsequently revised and amended, appears in the US Code at 18 U.S.C. §242. After the fourteenth amendment became effective, the 1866 Act was reenacted as an addendum to the Enforcement Act of 1870 in order to dispel any possible doubt as to its constitutionality. Act of May 31, 1870, ch. 114, § 18, 16 Stat. 144. ===Enactment, constitutionalization, and reenactment=== Senator Lyman Trumbull was the Senate sponsor of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, and he argued that Congress had power to enact it in order to eliminate a discriminatory "badge of servitude" prohibited by the Thirteenth Amendment. Congressman John Bingham, principal author of the first section of the Fourteenth Amendment, was one of several Republicans who believed (prior to that Amendment) that Congress lacked power to pass the 1866 Act. In the 20th century, the U.S. Supreme Court ultimately adopted Trumbull's Thirteenth Amendment rationale for congressional power to ban racial discrimination by states and by private parties, as the Thirteenth Amendment does not require a state actor. In any event, there is currently no consensus that the language of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 actually purports to confer any legal benefits upon white citizens. Representative Samuel Shellabarger said that it did not. After enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 by overriding a presidential veto, some members of Congress supported the Fourteenth Amendment in order to eliminate doubts about the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, or to ensure that no subsequent Congress could later repeal or alter the main provisions of that Act. Thus, the Citizenship Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment parallels citizenship language in the Civil Rights Act of 1866, and likewise the Equal Protection Clause parallels nondiscrimination language in the 1866 Act; the extent to which other clauses in the Fourteenth Amendment may have incorporated elements of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 is a matter of continuing debate. Ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment was completed in 1868, 2 years after, the 1866 Act was reenacted, as Section 18 of the Enforcement Act of 1870. After Johnson's veto was overridden, the measure became law. Despite this victory, even some Republicans who had supported the goals of the Civil Rights Act began to doubt that Congress possessed the constitutional power to turn those goals into laws. The experience encouraged both radical and moderate Republicans to seek Constitutional guarantees for black rights, rather than relying on temporary political majorities. The activities of groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) undermined the act, meaning that it failed to immediately secure the civil rights of African Americans. While it has been de jure illegal in the U.S. to discriminate in employment and housing on the basis of race since 1866, federal penalties were not provided for until the second half of the 20th century (with the passage of related civil rights legislation), which meant remedies were left to the individuals involved: because those being discriminated against had limited or no access to legal assistance, this often left many victims of discrimination without recourse. There have been an increasing number of remedies provided under this act since the second half of the 20th century, including the landmark Jones v. Mayer and Sullivan v. Little Hunting Park, Inc. decisions in 1968. == Enforcement Acts of 1870-1871 == The Enforcement Acts were three bills that were passed by the United States Congress between 1870 and 1871. They were criminal codes that protected African Americans’ right to vote, to hold office, to serve on juries, and receive equal protection of laws. Passed under the presidency of Ulysses S. Grant, the laws also allowed the federal government to intervene when states did not act to protect these rights. The acts passed following the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution, which gave full citizenship to anyone born in the United States or freed slaves, and the Fifteenth Amendment, which banned racial discrimination in voting. At the time, the lives of all newly freed slaves, as well as their political and economic rights, were being threatened. This threat led to the creation of the Enforcement Acts. The main goal in creating these acts was to improve conditions for black people and freed slaves. The main target was the Ku Klux Klan, a white supremacy organization, which was targeting black people, and, later, other groups. Although this act was meant to fight the KKK and help black people and freedmen, many states were reluctant to take such relatively extreme actions, for several reasons. Some politicians at the state and federal levels were either members of the Klan, or did not have enough strength to fight the Klan. Another goal of these acts was to achieve national unity, by creating a country where all races were considered equal under the law. The Enforcement Acts did many things to help freedmen. The main purpose under the act was the prohibited use of violence or any form of intimidation to prevent the freedmen from voting and denying them that right. There were many provisions placed under the act, many with serious consequences. The Enforcement Acts were created as part of the Reconstruction era following the American Civil War. To allow full national unity, all citizens must be accepted and viewed equally, with violence prohibited. Other laws banned the KKK entirely. Hundreds of KKK members were arrested and tried as common criminals and terrorists. The first Klan was all but eradicated within a year of federal prosecution. ===Enforcement Act of 1871=== The Second Enforcement Act of 1871 (formally, "an Act to enforce the rights of citizens of the United States to vote in the several states of this union"), permitted federal oversight of local and state elections if any two citizens in a town with more than twenty-thousand inhabitants desired it. The Enforcement Act of 1871 (second act) and the Civil Rights Act of 1875 are very similar to the original act as they all have the same goal, but revised the first act with the intention of being more effective. The Act of 1871 has more severe punishments with larger fines for disregarding the regulations, and the prison sentences vary in length. The final act, and the most effective, was also a revision. Although the fines lowered again, and the prison sentences remained approximately the same, The Enforcement Acts were a series of acts, but it was not until the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871, the third Enforcement Act, that their regulations to protect black Americans, and to enforce the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution were really enforced and followed. It was only after the creation of the third Enforcement Act that trials were conducted, and perpetrators were convicted for any crimes they had committed in violation of the Enforcement Acts. ===Judicial interpretations=== After the Colfax massacre in Louisiana, the federal government brought a civil rights case against nine men (out of 97 indicted) who were accused of paramilitary activity intended to stop black people from voting. In United States v. Cruikshank (1876), the Court ruled that the federal government did not have the authority to prosecute the men because the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments provide only for redress against state actors. However, in Ex Parte Yarbrough (1884) the Court allowed individuals who were not state actors to be prosecuted because Article I Section 4 of the Constitution gives Congress the power to regulate federal elections. In Hodges v. United States (1906) the Court addressed a possible Thirteenth Amendment rationale for the Enforcement Acts, and found that the federal government did not have the authority to punish a group of men for interfering with black workers through whitecapping. Hodges v. United States would be overruled in Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. some 50 years later, stating for the first time since Reconstruction that the federal government could criminalize racist acts by private actors. == Civil Rights Act of 1875 == The Civil Rights Act of 1875, sometimes called the Enforcement Act or the Force Act, was a United States federal law enacted during the Reconstruction era in response to civil rights violations against African Americans. The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875. The act was designed to "protect all citizens in their civil and legal rights", providing for equal treatment in public accommodations and public transportation and prohibiting exclusion from jury service. It was originally drafted by Senator Charles Sumner in 1870, but was not passed until shortly after Sumner's death in 1875. The law was not effectively enforced, partly because President Grant had favored different measures to help him suppress election-related violence against blacks and Republicans in the Southern United States. The Reconstruction era ended with the resolution of the 1876 presidential election, and the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last federal civil rights law enacted until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957. In 1883, the Supreme Court ruled in the Civil Rights Cases that the public accommodation sections of the act were unconstitutional, saying Congress was not afforded control over private persons or corporations under the Equal Protection Clause. Parts of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later re-adopted in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, both of which cited the Commerce Clause as the source of Congress's power to regulate private actors. ===Legislative history=== The drafting of the bill was performed early in 1870 by United States Senator Charles Sumner, a dominant Radical Republican in the Senate, with the assistance of John Mercer Langston, a prominent African American who established the law department at Howard University. The bill was proposed by Senator Sumner and co-sponsored by Representative Benjamin F. Butler, both Republicans from Massachusetts, in the 41st Congress of the United States in 1870. Congress removed the coverage of public schools that Sumner had included. The act was passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875 as a memorial to honor Sumner, who had just died. It was signed into law by United States President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875. ===Enforcement=== President Grant had wanted an entirely different law to help him suppress election-related violence against blacks and Republicans in the South. Congress did not give him that, but instead wrote a law for equal rights to public accommodations that was passed as a memorial to Grant's bitterest enemy, the late Senator Charles Sumner. Grant never commented on the 1875 law, and did nothing to enforce it, says historian John Hope Franklin. Grant's Justice Department ignored it and did not send copies to US attorneys, says Franklin, while many federal judges called it unconstitutional before the Supreme Court shut it down. Franklin concludes regarding Grant and Hayes administrations, "The Civil Rights Act was never effectively enforced." Public opinion was opposed, with the black community in support. Historian Rayford Logan looking at newspaper editorials finds the press was overwhelmingly opposed. ===Case law=== The Supreme Court, in an 8–1 decision, declared sections of the act unconstitutional in the Civil Rights Cases on October 15, 1883, thus stripping the Civil Rights Act of 1875 of much of its ability to protect civil rights. Justice John Marshall Harlan provided the lone dissent. The Court held the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination by the state and local government, but it does not give the federal government the power to prohibit discrimination by private individuals and organizations. The Court also held that the Thirteenth Amendment was meant to eliminate "the badge of slavery," but not to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last federal civil rights bill signed into law until the Civil Rights Act of 1957, enacted during the Civil Rights Movement. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the legal justification for voiding the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was part of a larger trend by the United States Supreme Court majorities to invalidate most government regulations of the private sector, except when dealing with laws designed to protect traditional public morality. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 is notable as the last major piece of legislation related to Reconstruction that was passed by Congress during the Reconstruction era. These include the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the four Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and 1868, the three Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871, and the three Constitutional Amendments adopted between 1865 and 1870. Provisions contained in the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later readopted by Congress during the Civil Rights Movement as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. The 1964 and 1968 acts relied upon the Commerce Clause contained in Article One of the Constitution of the United States rather than the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment. == Civil Rights Act of 1957 == The Civil Rights Act of 1957, signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on September 9, 1957, was the first federal civil rights legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to become law. After the Supreme Court ruled school segregation unconstitutional in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education, Southern Democrats began a campaign of "massive resistance" against desegregation, and even the few moderate white leaders shifted to openly racist positions. Partly in an effort to defuse calls for more far-reaching reforms, Eisenhower proposed a civil rights bill that would increase the protection of African American voting rights. The Supreme Court's 1954 ruling in the case of Brown v. Board of Education brought the issue of school desegregation to the fore of public attention, as Southern Democratic leaders began a campaign of "massive resistance" against desegregation. In the midst of this campaign, President Eisenhower proposed a civil rights bill designed to provide federal protection for African American voting rights; most African Americans in the Southern United States had been disenfranchised by state and local laws. Though the civil rights bill passed Congress, opponents of the act were able to remove or weaken several provisions via the Anderson–Aiken amendment and the O'Mahoney jury trial amendment, significantly watering down its immediate impact. During the debate over the law, Senator Strom Thurmond conducted the longest one-person filibuster in Senate history. Under the direction of Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas, the Senate passed a watered-down, yet also passable, version of the House bill which removed stringent voting protection clauses. Despite having a limited impact on African-American voter participation, at a time when black voter registration from 0% (in 11 counties) to less than 5% (in 97 counties) despite being majority-Black counties, the Civil Rights Act of 1957 did establish the United States Commission on Civil Rights and the United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division. By 1960, black voting had increased by only 3%, and Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1960, which eliminated certain loopholes left by the 1957 Act. Congress would later pass far more effective civil rights laws in the form of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. ===Background=== Following the Supreme Court ruling in Brown, which eventually led to the integration of public schools, Southern whites began a campaign of "Massive Resistance". Violence against black people rose; in Little Rock, Arkansas where President Dwight D. Eisenhower ordered U.S. paratroopers of the 101st Airborne Division to protect nine black teenagers integrating into a public school, the first time federal troops were deployed in the South to settle civil rights issues since the Reconstruction Era. There had been continued physical assaults against suspected activists and bombings of schools and churches in the South. Partly in an effort to defuse calls for more far-reaching reforms, President Eisenhower proposed a civil rights bill that would increase the protection of African American voting rights. By 1957, only about 20% of black people were registered to vote. Despite being the majority in numerous counties and congressional districts in the South, most black people had been effectively disfranchised by discriminatory voter registration rules and laws in those states since the late 19th and early 20th centuries that were heavily instituted and propagated by Southern Democrats. Civil rights organizations had collected evidence of discriminatory practices, such as the administration of literacy and comprehension tests and poll taxes. While the states had the right to establish rules for voter registration and elections, the federal government found an oversight role in ensuring that citizens could exercise the constitutional right to vote for federal officers: electors for president and vice president and members of the US Congress. ===Legislative history=== The Democratic Senate majority leader, Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas, who would play a vital role in the bill's passage in the Senate, realized that the bill and its journey through Congress could tear apart his party, as southern Democrats vehemently opposed civil rights, and its northern members were strongly in favor of them. Southern Democratic senators occupied chairs of numerous important committees because of their long seniority. As, in the near-century between the end of Reconstruction and the 1960s, white Southerners voted solidly as a bloc for the Democrats, Southern Democrats in Congress rarely lost their seats in elections, ensuring that they had more seniority than Democratic members of Congress from other parts of the country. Johnson sent the bill to the Senate Judiciary Committee, led by Democratic Senator James Eastland of Mississippi, who drastically altered the bill. Democratic Senator Richard Russell Jr., of Georgia had denounced the bill as an example of the federal government seeking to impose its laws on states. Johnson sought recognition from civil rights advocates for passing the bill as well as recognition from the anti-civil rights Democrats for weakening the bill so much as to make it toothless. As well as a general if vague support for civil rights as the party of Lincoln, Republicans saw that this could be an effective way to increase the number of Black Republican voters as the blocking of the Bill by the Democrats in the Southern Caucus would become obvious. They, like Johnson, also saw the potential for dividing the Democratic party's Northern and Southern wings. This meant that the (on this issue) liberal but hardball Republican operators like the Vice President, Richard Nixon, who had a constitutional right to chair the Senate took a great interest in the Bill. Conservative Republican Senators who were sympathetic to Southern arguments on States rights were more likely to vote on a party basis. On the other hand, the Republicans were willing to quietly allow Democratic Southern obstruction if this meant that African-American and liberal voters would be more likely to see the culprits as Democrats. ==== Anderson–Aiken amendment ==== A bipartisan group of Senators realized that Southerners would not allow passage of the act with Title III, which authorized the US Attorney General to seek preventive relief in civil rights cases. Majority Leader Johnson convinced Senator Clinton Anderson (D-NM) to introduce an amendment to strip out the enforcement provisions of Title III. Later President Eisenhower in answer to a direct question on Russell's charges distanced himself from the "exact language" of Title III. The vote on the amendment did not split purely along partisan or ideological lines; it was opposed by conservative William Knowland (R-CA) and supported by liberal Frank Church (D-ID). Alleged violators of civil rights injunctions are normally entitled to jury trials, with the exception of civil contempt actions. A jury trial amendment that included the guarantee of jury trials in civil contempt actions would, in the South, result in perpetrators of voter suppression being acquitted by an all-white jury, thus ensuring no resulted accomplishment to enfranchise blacks. There was also support from some unions, particularly the Railroad brotherhoods and the United Mine Workers of America who agreed that this would also stop injunctions in union cases. Their support was seen as a major reason why Senators in mining states such as West Virginia and mid western Republican senators where the railroads were strong became less hostile to the amendment. Following the vote, many Republicans were visible in their bitterness, having failed in an opportunity to spearhead the cause of civil rights against a deceitful, partisan Democratic effort. According to Johnson biographer Robert A. Caro: ==== Filibuster ==== Then-Democratic Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina, an ardent segregationist, sustained the longest one-person filibuster in history in an attempt to keep the bill from becoming law. His one-man filibuster lasted 24 hours and 18 minutes; he began with readings of every US state's election laws in alphabetical order. He later read from the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, and George Washington's Farewell Address. Thurmond pointed out that there was already a federal statute that prosecuted citizens who denied or intimidated voters at voting booths under a fine and/or imprisonment but that the bill then under consideration could legally deny trial by jury to those that continued to do so. Democratic Representative Charles A. Boyle of Illinois, a member of the powerful Appropriations Subcommittee of Defense, pushed the bill through the House of Representatives. ==== Final passage ==== The bill passed 285–126 in the House of Representatives with a majority of both parties' support (Republicans 167–19, Democrats 118–107). It then passed 72–18 in the Senate, again with a majority of both parties (Republicans 43–0, Democrats 29–18). Despite large opposition from Southern Democrats, the Democratic U.S. Senators from Tennessee and Texas would support the law. President Eisenhower signed the bill on September 9, 1957. The act established both the Commission on Civil Rights and the office of Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights. Subsequently, on December 9, 1957, the Civil Rights Division was established within the Justice Department by order of US Attorney General William P. Rogers, giving the Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights a distinct division to command. Previously, civil rights lawyers had enforced Reconstruction-era civil rights laws from within the Department's Criminal Division. == Civil Rights Act of 1960 == The Civil Rights Act of 1960 () is a United States federal law that established federal inspection of local voter registration polls and introduced penalties for anyone who obstructed someone's attempt to register to vote. It dealt primarily with discriminatory laws and practices in the segregated South, by which African-Americans and Tejanos had been effectively disenfranchised since the late 19th and start of the 20th century. This was the fifth Civil Rights Act to be enacted in United States history. Over an 85-year period, it was preceded only by the Civil Rights Act of 1957, whose shortcomings largely influenced its creation. This law served to more effectively enforce what was set forth in the 1957 act through eliminating certain loopholes in it, and to establish additional provisions. Aside from addressing voting rights, the Civil Rights Act of 1960 also imposed criminal penalties for obstruction of court orders to limit resistance to the Supreme Court's school desegregation decisions, arranged for free education for military members' children, and banned the act of fleeing to avoid prosecution for property damage. The Civil Rights Act of 1960 was signed into law by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. == Civil Rights Act of 1964 == The Civil Rights Act of 1964 () is a landmark civil rights and labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin. It prohibits unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools and public accommodations, and employment discrimination. The act "remains one of the most significant legislative achievements in American history". Initially, powers given to enforce the act were weak, but these were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its enumerated power to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause of Article I, Section 8, its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the 14th Amendment, and its duty to protect voting rights under the 15th Amendment. The legislation was proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but it was opposed by filibuster in the Senate. After Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward. The United States House of Representatives passed the bill on February 10, 1964, and after a 72-day filibuster, it passed the United States Senate on June 19, 1964. The final vote was 290–130 in the House of Representatives and 73–27 in the Senate. After the House agreed to a subsequent Senate amendment, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was signed into law by President Johnson at the White House on July 2, 1964. ===Legislative history=== On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy met with Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening. Two days later, Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield both voiced support for the president's bill, except for provisions guaranteeing equal access to places of public accommodations. This led to several Republican Representatives drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, saying legislative action was "imperative". The president's bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by New York Democrat Emanuel Celler. After a series of hearings on the bill, Celler's committee strengthened the act, adding provisions to ban racial discrimination in employment, providing greater protection to black voters, eliminating segregation in all publicly owned facilities (not just schools), and strengthening the anti-segregation clauses regarding public facilities such as lunch counters. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U.S. law. In essence, this was the controversial "Title III" that had been removed from the 1957 Act and 1960 Act. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality and suppression of free speech rights. Lobbying support for the Civil Rights Act was coordinated by the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, a coalition of 70 liberal and labor organizations. The principal lobbyists for the Leadership Conference were civil rights lawyer Joseph L. Rauh Jr. and Clarence Mitchell Jr. of the NAACP. After the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, on August 28, 1963, the organizers visited Kennedy to discuss the civil rights bill. Roy Wilkins, A. Philip Randolph, and Walter Reuther attempted to persuade him to support a provision establishing a Fair Employment Practices Commission that would ban discriminatory practices by all federal agencies, unions, and private companies. Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October 1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The bill was reported out of the Judiciary Committee in November 1963 and referred to the Rules Committee, whose chairman, Howard W. Smith, a Democrat and staunch segregationist from Virginia, indicated his intention to keep the bill bottled up indefinitely. The assassination of United States President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, changed the political situation. Kennedy's successor as president, Lyndon B. Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. In his first address to a joint session of Congress on November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long." Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee which required the support of a majority of House members to move the bill to the floor. Initially, Celler had a difficult time acquiring the signatures necessary, with many Representatives who supported the civil rights bill itself remaining cautious about violating normal House procedure with the rare use of a discharge petition. By the time of the 1963 winter recess, 50 signatures were still needed. After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill and that the petition would acquire the necessary signatures. To avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee. Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, ensured that it would be quickly considered by the Senate. Normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, which was chaired by James O. Eastland, a Democrat from Mississippi, whose firm opposition made it seem impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the Judiciary Committee from keeping the bill in limbo: initially waiving a second reading immediately after the first reading, which would have sent it to the Judiciary Committee, he took the unprecedented step of giving the bill a second reading on February 26, 1964, thereby bypassing the Judiciary Committee, and sending it to the Senate floor for immediate debate. When the bill came before the full Senate for debate on March 30, 1964, the "Southern Bloc" of 18 southern Democratic Senators and lone Republican John Tower of Texas, led by Richard Russell (D-GA), launched a filibuster to prevent its passage. Russell proclaimed, "We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would tend to bring about social equality and intermingling and amalgamation of the races in our [Southern] states." Strong opposition to the bill also came from Senator Strom Thurmond, who was still a Democrat at the time: "This so-called Civil Rights Proposals [sic], which the President has sent to Capitol Hill for enactment into law, are unconstitutional, unnecessary, unwise and extend beyond the realm of reason. This is the worst civil-rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals and actions of the radical Republican Congress." After the filibuster had gone on for 54 days, Senators Mansfield, Hubert Humphrey, Everett Dirksen, and Thomas Kuchel introduced a substitute bill that they hoped would overcome it by combining a sufficient number of Republicans as well as core liberal Democrats. The compromise bill was weaker than the House version as to the government's power in regulating the conduct of private business, but not weak enough to make the House reconsider it. Senator Robert Byrd ended his filibuster in opposition to the bill on the morning of June 10, 1964, after 14 hours and 13 minutes. Up to then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, including six Saturdays. The day before, Humphrey, the bill's manager, concluded that he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four-vote victory margin, the final tally stood at 71 to 29. Never before in its entire history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to defeat a filibuster on a civil rights bill, and only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure. The most dramatic moment during the cloture vote came when Senator Clair Engle (D-CA) was wheeled into the chamber. Suffering from terminal brain cancer, unable to speak, he pointed to his left eye, signifying his affirmative "Aye" vote when his name was called. He died seven weeks later. On June 19, the compromise bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73–27, quickly passed through the conference committee, which adopted the Senate version of the bill, then was passed by both houses of Congress and signed into law by Johnson on July 2, 1964. ===Aspects=== ====Women's rights==== One year earlier, the same Congress had passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which prohibited wage differentials based on sex. The prohibition on sex discrimination was added to the Civil Rights Act by Howard W. Smith, a powerful Virginia Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee and strongly opposed the legislation. Smith's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133. Historians debate whether Smith cynically attempted to defeat the bill because he opposed civil rights for Black people and women or attempted to support their rights by broadening the bill to include women. Smith expected that Republicans, who had included equal rights for women in their party's platform since 1944, would probably vote for the amendment. Historians speculate that Smith was trying to embarrass northern Democrats who opposed civil rights for women because labor unions opposed the clause. Representative Carl Elliott of Alabama later said, "Smith didn't give a damn about women's rights", as "he was trying to knock off votes either then or down the line because there was always a hard core of men who didn't favor women's rights", and according to the Congressional Record, laughter greeted Smith when he introduced the amendment. Smith asserted that he was not joking and sincerely supported the amendment. Along with Representative Martha Griffiths, he was the amendment's chief spokesperson. Griffiths argued that the new law would protect black women but not white women, and that that was unfair to white women. Black feminist lawyer Pauli Murray wrote a supportive memorandum at the behest of the National Federation of Business and Professional Women. Griffiths also argued that the laws "protecting" women from unpleasant jobs were actually designed to enable men to monopolize those jobs, and that that was unfair to women who were not allowed to try out for those jobs. The amendment passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The final law passed with the votes of Republicans and Northern Democrats. Thus, as Justice William Rehnquist wrote in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, "The prohibition against discrimination based on sex was added to Title VII at the last minute on the floor of the House of Representatives [...] the bill quickly passed as amended, and we are left with little legislative history to guide us in interpreting the Act's prohibition against discrimination based on 'sex. ====Desegregation==== One of the bill's opponents' most damaging arguments was that once passed, the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain racial quotas in schools. The bill's proponents, such as Emanuel Celler and Jacob Javits, said it would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Hubert Humphrey wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Senator Richard Russell, Jr. later warned President Johnson that his strong support for the civil rights bill "will not only cost you the South, it will cost you the election". Johnson, however, went on to win the 1964 election by one of the biggest landslides in American history. The South, which had five states swing Republican in 1964, became a stronghold of the Republican Party by the 1990s. Although majorities in both parties voted for the bill, there were notable exceptions. Though he opposed forced segregation, Republican 1964 presidential candidate, Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona, voted against the bill, remarking, "You can't legislate morality." Goldwater had supported previous attempts to pass civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 as well as the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax. He stated that the reason for his opposition to the 1964 bill was Title II, which in his opinion violated individual liberty and states' rights. Democrats and Republicans from the Southern states opposed the bill and led an unsuccessful 60 working day filibuster, including Senators Albert Gore, Sr. (D-TN) and J. William Fulbright (D-AR), as well as Senator Robert Byrd (D-WV), who personally filibustered for 14 hours straight. There were white business owners who claimed that Congress did not have the constitutional authority to ban segregation in public accommodations. For example, Moreton Rolleston, the owner of a motel in Atlanta, Georgia, said he should not be forced to serve black travelers, saying, "the fundamental question [...] is whether or not Congress has the power to take away the liberty of an individual to run his business as he sees fit in the selection and choice of his customers". Rolleston claimed that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a breach of the Fourteenth Amendment and also violated the Fifth and Thirteenth Amendments by depriving him of "liberty and property without due process". When local college students in Orangeburg, South Carolina, attempted to desegregate a bowling alley in 1968, they were violently attacked, leading to rioting and what became known as the "Orangeburg massacre." Resistance by school boards continued into the next decade, with the most significant declines in black-white school segregation only occurring at the end of the 1960s and the start of the 1970s in the aftermath of the Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (1968) court decision. In June 2020, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in three cases (Bostock v. Clayton County, Altitude Express, Inc. v. Zarda, and R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, which barred employers from discriminating on the basis of sex, precluded employers from discriminating on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. Afterward, USA Today stated that in addition to LGBTQ employment discrimination, "[t]he court's ruling is likely to have a sweeping impact on federal civil rights laws barring sex discrimination in education, health care, housing and financial credit." == Voting Rights Act of 1965 == The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is a landmark piece of federal legislation in the United States that prohibits racial discrimination in voting. It was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson during the height of the civil rights movement on August 6, 1965, and Congress later amended the Act five times to expand its protections. The National Archives and Records Administration stated: "The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was the most significant statutory change in the relationship between the federal and state governments in the area of voting since the Reconstruction period following the Civil War". The act contains numerous provisions that regulate elections. The act's "general provisions" provide nationwide protections for voting rights. Section 2 is a general provision that prohibits state and local government from imposing any voting rule that "results in the denial or abridgement of the right of any citizen to vote on account of race or color" or membership in a language minority group. Other general provisions specifically outlaw literacy tests and similar devices that were historically used to disenfranchise racial minorities. The act also contains "special provisions" that apply to only certain jurisdictions. A core special provision is the Section 5 preclearance requirement, which prohibited certain jurisdictions from implementing any change affecting voting without first receiving confirmation from the U.S. attorney general or the U.S. District Court for D.C. that the change does not discriminate against protected minorities. Another special provision requires jurisdictions containing significant language minority populations to provide bilingual ballots and other election materials. Section 5 and most other special provisions applied to jurisdictions encompassed by the "coverage formula" prescribed in Section 4(b). The coverage formula was originally designed to encompass jurisdictions that engaged in egregious voting discrimination in 1965, and Congress updated the formula in 1970 and 1975. In Shelby County v. Holder (2013), the U.S. Supreme Court struck down the coverage formula as unconstitutional, reasoning that it was obsolete. The court did not strike down Section 5, but without a coverage formula, Section 5 is unenforceable. The jurisdictions which had previously been covered by the coverage formula massively increased the rate of voter registration purges after the Shelby decision. In 2021, the Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee Supreme Court ruling reinterpreted Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, substantially weakening it. The Act has also been linked to concrete outcomes, such as greater public goods provision (such as public education) for areas with higher black population shares, more members of Congress who vote for civil rights-related legislation, and greater Black representation in local offices. === Background === Prior to the enactment of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 there were several efforts to stop the disenfranchisement of black voters by Southern states,. In the 1950s the Civil Rights Movement increased pressure on the federal government to protect the voting rights of racial minorities. In 1957, Congress passed the first civil rights legislation since Reconstruction: the Civil Rights Act of 1957. This legislation authorized the attorney general to sue for injunctive relief on behalf of persons whose Fifteenth Amendment rights were denied, created the Civil Rights Division within the Department of Justice to enforce civil rights through litigation, and created the Commission on Civil Rights to investigate voting rights deprivations. Further protections were enacted in the Civil Rights Act of 1960, which allowed federal courts to appoint referees to conduct voter registration in jurisdictions that engaged in voting discrimination against racial minorities. However, despite lobbying from civil rights leaders, the Act did not prohibit most forms of voting discrimination. President Lyndon B. Johnson recognized this, and shortly after the 1964 elections in which Democrats gained overwhelming majorities in both chambers of Congress, he privately instructed Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach to draft "the goddamndest, toughest voting rights act that you can". and other civil rights leaders organized several peaceful demonstrations in Selma, which were violently attacked by police and white counter-protesters. Throughout January and February, these protests received national media coverage and drew attention to the issue of voting rights. King and other demonstrators were arrested during a march on February 1 for violating an anti-parade ordinance; this inspired similar marches in the following days, causing hundreds more to be arrested. Spurred by this event, and at the initiation of Bevel, on March 7 SCLC and SNCC began the first of the Selma to Montgomery marches, in which Selma residents intended to march to Alabama's capital, Montgomery, to highlight voting rights issues and present Governor George Wallace with their grievances. On the first march, demonstrators were stopped by state and county police on horseback at the Edmund Pettus Bridge near Selma. The police shot tear gas into the crowd and trampled protesters. Televised footage of the scene, which became known as "Bloody Sunday", generated outrage across the country. The worst injured was Reverend James Reeb from Boston, who died on Thursday, March 11. In the wake of the events in Selma, President Johnson, addressing a televised joint session of Congress on March 15, called on legislators to enact expansive voting rights legislation. In his speech, he used the words "we shall overcome", adopting the rallying cry of the civil rights movement. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was introduced in Congress two days later while civil rights leaders, now under the protection of federal troops, led a march of 25,000 people from Selma to Montgomery.}} In South Carolina v. Katzenbach (1966) the Supreme Court also held that Congress had the power to pass the Voting Rights Act of 1965 under its Enforcement Powers stemming from the Fifteenth Amendment: ===Original bill=== ====Senate==== The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was introduced in Congress on March 17, 1965, as S. 1564, and it was jointly sponsored by Senate majority leader Mike Mansfield (D-MT) and Senate minority leader Everett Dirksen (R-IL), both of whom had worked with Attorney General Katzenbach to draft the bill's language. Although Democrats held two-thirds of the seats in both chambers of Congress after the 1964 Senate elections, The bill contained several special provisions that targeted certain state and local governments: a "coverage formula" that determined which jurisdictions were subject to the Act's other special provisions ("covered jurisdictions"); a "preclearance" requirement that prohibited covered jurisdictions from implementing changes to their voting procedures without first receiving approval from the U.S. attorney general or the U.S. District Court for D.C. that the changes were not discriminatory; and the suspension of "tests or devices", such as literacy tests, in covered jurisdictions. The bill also authorized the assignment of federal examiners to register voters, and of federal observers to monitor elections, to covered jurisdictions that were found to have engaged in egregious discrimination. The bill set these special provisions to expire after five years. The scope of the coverage formula was a matter of contentious congressional debate. The coverage formula reached a jurisdiction if (1) the jurisdiction maintained a "test or device" on November 1, 1964, and (2) less than 50 percent of the jurisdiction's voting-age residents either were registered to vote on November 1, 1964, or cast a ballot in the November 1964 presidential election. The bill also included provisions allowing a covered jurisdiction to "bail out" of coverage by proving in federal court that it had not used a "test or device" for a discriminatory purpose or with a discriminatory effect during the 5 years preceding its bailout request. The bill was first considered by the Senate Judiciary Committee, whose chair, Senator James Eastland (D-MS), opposed the legislation with several other Southern senators on the committee. To prevent the bill from dying in committee, Mansfield proposed a motion to require the Judiciary Committee to report the bill out of committee by April 9, which the Senate overwhelmingly passed by a vote of 67 to 13. On May 26, the Senate passed the bill by a 77–19 vote (Democrats 47–16, Republicans 30–2); only senators representing Southern states voted against it. ====House of Representatives==== Emanuel Celler (D-NY), Chair of the House Judiciary Committee, introduced the Voting Rights Act in the House of Representatives on March 19, 1965, as H.R. 6400. Later that night, the House passed the Voting Rights Act by a 333–85 vote (Democrats 221–61, Republicans 112–24). ====Conference committee==== The chambers appointed a conference committee to resolve differences between the House and Senate versions of the bill. A major contention concerned the poll tax provisions; the Senate version allowed the attorney general to sue states that used poll taxes to discriminate, while the House version outright banned all poll taxes. Initially, the committee members were stalemated. To help broker a compromise, Attorney General Katzenbach drafted legislative language explicitly asserting that poll taxes were unconstitutional and instructed the Department of Justice to sue the states that maintained poll taxes. To assuage concerns of liberal committee members that this provision was not strong enough, Katzenbach enlisted the help of Martin Luther King Jr., who gave his support to the compromise. King's endorsement ended the stalemate, and on July 29, the conference committee reported its version out of committee. and the Senate passed it on August 4 by a 79–18 vote (Democrats 49–17, Republicans 30–1). On August 6, President Johnson signed the Act into law with King, Rosa Parks, John Lewis, and other civil rights leaders in attendance at the signing ceremony. To ease the burdens of the reauthorized special provisions, Congress liberalized the bailout procedure in 1982 by allowing jurisdictions to escape coverage by complying with the Act and affirmatively acting to expand minority political participation. Congress amended various provisions, such as the preclearance requirement and Section 2's general prohibition of discriminatory voting laws, to prohibit discrimination against language minorities. Congress also enacted a bilingual election requirement in Section 203, which requires election officials in certain jurisdictions with large numbers of English-illiterate language minorities to provide ballots and voting information in the language of the language minority group. Originally set to expire after 10 years, Congress reauthorized Section 203 in 1982 for seven years, expanded and reauthorized it in 1992 for 15 years, and reauthorized it in 2006 for 25 years. The bilingual election requirements have remained controversial, with proponents arguing that bilingual assistance is necessary to enable recently naturalized citizens to vote and opponents arguing that the bilingual election requirements constitute costly unfunded mandates. which interpreted the Section 5 preclearance requirement to prohibit only voting changes that were enacted or maintained for a "retrogressive" discriminatory purpose instead of any discriminatory purpose, and Georgia v. Ashcroft (2003), which established a broader test for determining whether a redistricting plan had an impermissible effect under Section 5 than assessing only whether a minority group could elect its preferred candidates. Since the Supreme Court struck down the coverage formula as unconstitutional in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), several bills have been introduced in Congress to create a new coverage formula and amend various other provisions; none of these bills have passed. ===Provisions=== The act contains two types of provisions: "general provisions", which apply nationwide, and "special provisions", which apply to only certain states and local governments. "The Voting Rights Act was aimed at the subtle, as well as the obvious, state regulations which have the effect of denying citizens their right to vote because of their race. Moreover, compatible with the decisions of this Court, the Act gives a broad interpretation to the right to vote, recognizing that voting includes "all action necessary to make a vote effective." 79 Stat. 445, 42 U.S.C. § 19731(c)(1) (1969 ed., Supp. I). See Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U. S. 533, 377 U. S. 555 (1964)." Most provisions are designed to protect the voting rights of racial and language minorities. The term "language minority" means "persons who are American Indian, Asian American, Alaskan Natives or of Spanish heritage." Section 2 of the law contains two separate protections against voter discrimination for laws which, in contrast to Section 5 of the law, are already implemented. The first protection is a prohibition of intentional discrimination based on race or color in voting. The second protection is a prohibition of election practices that result in the denial or abridgment of the right to vote based on race or color. In Mobile v. Bolden (1980), the Supreme Court held that as originally enacted in 1965, Section 2 simply restated the Fifteenth Amendment and thus prohibited only those voting laws that were intentionally enacted or maintained for a discriminatory purpose. In 1982, Congress amended Section 2 to create a "results" test, which prohibits any voting law that has a discriminatory effect irrespective of whether the law was intentionally enacted or maintained for a discriminatory purpose. In Thornburg v. Gingles (1986) the United States Supreme Court explained with respect to the 1982 amendment for section 2 that the "essence of a Section 2 claim is that a certain electoral law, practice, or structure interacts with social and historical conditions to cause an inequality in the opportunities enjoyed by black and white voters to elect their preferred representatives." The United States Department of Justice declared that section 2 is not only a permanent and nationwide-applying prohibition against discrimination in voting to any voting standard, practice, or procedure that results in the denial or abridgement of the right of any citizen to vote on account of race, color, or membership in a language minority group, but also a prohibition for state and local officials to adopt or maintain voting laws or procedures that purposefully discriminate on the basis of race, color, or membership in a language minority group. Under the amended statute, proof of intent is no longer required to prove a § 2 violation. Now plaintiffs can prevail under § 2 by demonstrating that a challenged election practice has resulted in the denial or abridgement of the right to vote based on color or race. Congress not only incorporated the results test in the paragraph that formerly constituted the entire § 2, but also designated that paragraph as subsection (a) and added a new subsection (b) to make clear that an application of the results test requires an inquiry into "the totality of the circumstances." Section 2(a) adopts a results test, thus providing that proof of discriminatory intent is no longer necessary to establish any violation of the section. Section 2(b) provides guidance about how the results test is to be applied. There is a statutory framework to determine whether a jurisdiction's election law violates the general prohibition from Section 2 in its amended form: Section 2 prohibits voting practices that "result[] in a denial or abridgment of the right * * * to vote on account of race or color [or language-minority status]," and it states that such a result "is established" if a jurisdiction’s "political processes * * * are not equally open" to members of such a group "in that [they] have less opportunity * * * to participate in the political process and to elect representatives of their choice." 52 U.S.C. 10301. [...] Subsection (b) states in relevant part: A violation of subsection (a) is established if, based on the totality of circumstances, it is shown that the political processes leading to nomination or election in the State or political subdivision are not equally open to participation by members of a class of citizens protected by subsection (a) in that its members have less opportunity than other members of the electorate to participate in the political process and to elect representatives of their choice. In Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee (2021) the United States Supreme Court introduced the means to review Section 2 challenges. The Court laid out these guideposts used to evaluate the state regulations in context of Section 2, which included: the size of the burden created by the rule, the degree which the rule deviates from past practices, the size of the racial imbalance, and the overall level of opportunity afforded voters in considering all election rules. When determining whether a jurisdiction's election law violates the general prohibition from Section 2 of the VRA, courts have relied on factors enumerated in the Senate Judiciary Committee report associated with the 1982 amendments ("Senate Factors"), including: Section 2 prohibits two types of discrimination: "vote denial", in which a person is denied the opportunity to cast a ballot or to have their vote properly counted, and "vote dilution", in which the strength or effectiveness of a person's vote is diminished. Most Section 2 litigation has concerned vote dilution, especially claims that a jurisdiction's redistricting plan or use of at-large/multimember elections prevents minority voters from casting sufficient votes to elect their preferred candidates. Redistricting plans can be gerrymandered to dilute votes cast by minorities by "packing" high numbers of minority voters into a small number of districts or "cracking" minority groups by placing small numbers of minority voters into a large number of districts. In Thornburg v. Gingles (1986), the Supreme Court used the term "vote dilution through submergence" to describe claims that a jurisdiction's use of an at-large/multimember election system or gerrymandered redistricting plan diluted minority votes, and it established a legal framework for assessing such claims under Section 2. Under the Gingles test, plaintiffs must show the existence of three preconditions: The racial or language minority group "is sufficiently numerous and compact to form a majority in a single-member district"; The minority group is "politically cohesive" (meaning its members tend to vote similarly); and The "majority votes sufficiently as a bloc to enable it ... usually to defeat the minority's preferred candidate." The first precondition is known as the "compactness" requirement and concerns whether a majority-minority district can be created. The second and third preconditions are collectively known as the "racially polarized voting" or "racial bloc voting" requirement, and they concern whether the voting patterns of the different racial groups are different from each other. If a plaintiff proves these preconditions exist, then the plaintiff must additionally show, using the remaining Senate Factors and other evidence, that under the "totality of the circumstances", the jurisdiction's redistricting plan or use of at-large or multimember elections diminishes the ability of the minority group to elect candidates of its choice. the Supreme Court held that the first Gingles precondition can be satisfied only if a district can be drawn in which the minority group comprises a majority of voting-age citizens. This means that plaintiffs cannot succeed on a submergence claim in jurisdictions where the size of the minority group, despite not being large enough to comprise a majority in a district, is large enough for its members to elect their preferred candidates with the help of "crossover" votes from some members of the majority group. In contrast, the Supreme Court has not addressed whether different protected minority groups can be aggregated to satisfy the Gingles preconditions as a coalition, and lower courts have split on the issue.{{efn\|The Courts of Appeals in the Fifth Circuit, Eleventh Circuit, and Ninth Circuit have either explicitly held that coalition suits are allowed under Section 2 or assumed that such suits are permissible, while those in the Sixth Circuit and Seventh Circuit have rejected such suits. The opinion also distinguished the proportionality of majority-minority districts, which allows minorities to have a proportional opportunity to elect their candidates of choice, from the proportionality of election results, which Section 2 explicitly does not guarantee to minorities. Since Gingles, lower courts have split on the issue. Although most Section 2 litigation has involved claims of vote dilution through submergence, the Supreme Court held that claims that minority votes are diluted by the small size of a governing body, such as a one-person county commission, may not be brought under Section 2. A plurality of the court reasoned that no uniform, non-dilutive "benchmark" size for a governing body exists, making relief under Section 2 impossible. Another type of vote dilution may result from a jurisdiction's requirement that a candidate be elected by a majority vote. A majority-vote requirement may cause a minority group's candidate of choice, who would have won the election with a simple plurality of votes, to lose after a majority of voters unite behind another candidate in a runoff election. The Supreme Court has not addressed whether such claims may be brought under Section 2, and lower courts have reached different conclusions on the issue. In addition to claims of vote dilution, courts have considered vote denial claims brought under Section 2. The Supreme Court, in Richardson v. Ramirez (1974), held that felony disenfranchisement laws cannot violate Section 2 because, among other reasons, Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment permits such laws. Starting in 2013, lower federal courts began to consider various challenges to voter ID laws brought under Section 2. ====Specific prohibitions==== The act contains several specific prohibitions on conduct that may interfere with a person's ability to cast an effective vote. One of these prohibitions is prescribed in Section 201, which prohibits any jurisdiction from requiring a person to comply with any "test or device" to register to vote or cast a ballot. The term "test or device" is defined as literacy tests, educational or knowledge requirements, proof of good moral character, and requirements that a person be vouched for when voting. Before the Act's enactment, these devices were the primary tools used by jurisdictions to prevent racial minorities from voting. Originally, the Act suspended tests or devices temporarily in jurisdictions covered by the Section 4(b) coverage formula, but Congress subsequently expanded the prohibition to the entire country and made it permanent. Several further protections for voters are contained in Section 11. Section 11(a) prohibits any person acting under color of law from refusing or failing to allow a qualified person to vote or to count a qualified voter's ballot. Similarly, Section 11(b) prohibits any person from intimidating, harassing, or coercing another person for voting or attempting to vote. Finally, under Section 208, a jurisdiction may not prevent anyone who is English-illiterate or has a disability from being accompanied into the ballot box by an assistant of the person's choice. The only exceptions are that the assistant may not be an agent of the person's employer or union. During the Act's early history, Section 3(c) was little used; no jurisdictions were bailed in until 1975. Between 1975 and 2013, 18 jurisdictions were bailed in, including 16 local governments and the states of Arkansas and New Mexico. Although the Supreme Court held the Section 4(b) coverage formula unconstitutional in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), it did not hold Section 3(c) unconstitutional. Therefore, jurisdictions may continue to be bailed-in and subjected to Section 3(c) preclearance. In the months following Shelby County, courts began to consider requests by the attorney general and other plaintiffs to bail in the states of Texas and North Carolina, and in January 2014 a federal court bailed in Evergreen, Alabama. A more narrow bail-in process pertaining to federal observer certification is prescribed in Section 3(a). Under this provision, a federal court may certify a non-covered jurisdiction to receive federal observers if the court determines that the jurisdiction violated the voting rights guaranteed by the Fourteenth or Fifteenth Amendments. Jurisdictions certified to receive federal observers under Section 3(a) are not subject to preclearance. ====Special provisions==== =====Coverage formula===== thumb\|upright=1.2\|alt=Map depicting states and counties encompassed by the act's coverage formula in January 2008 (excluding bailed-out jurisdictions)\|States and counties encompassed by the Act's coverage formula in January 2008 (excluding bailed-out jurisdictions). Several counties subsequently bailed out, As Congress added new triggering dates to the coverage formula, new jurisdictions were brought into coverage. The 1965 coverage formula included the whole of Alabama, Alaska, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Virginia; and some subdivisions (mostly counties) in Arizona, Hawaii, Idaho, and North Carolina. The other special provisions that are dependent on the coverage formula, such as the Section 5 preclearance requirement, remain valid law. However, without a valid coverage formula, these provisions are unenforceable. =====Preclearance requirement===== Section 5 requires that covered jurisdictions receive federal approval, known as "preclearance", before implementing changes to their election laws. A covered jurisdiction has the burden of proving that the change does not have the purpose or effect of discriminating on the basis of race or language minority status; if the jurisdiction fails to meet this burden, the federal government will deny preclearance and the jurisdiction's change will not go into effect. The Supreme Court broadly interpreted Section 5's scope in Allen v. State Board of Election (1969), holding that any change in a jurisdiction's voting practices, even if minor, must be submitted for preclearance. The court also held that if a jurisdiction fails to have its voting change precleared, private plaintiffs may sue the jurisdiction in the plaintiff's local district court before a three-judge panel. In these Section 5 "enforcement actions", a court considers whether the jurisdiction made a covered voting change, and if so, whether the change had been precleared. If the jurisdiction improperly failed to obtain preclearance, the court will order the jurisdiction to obtain preclearance before implementing the change. However, the court may not consider the merits of whether the change should be approved. Jurisdictions may seek preclearance through either an "administrative preclearance" process or a "judicial preclearance" process. If a jurisdiction seeks administrative preclearance, the attorney general will consider whether the proposed change has a discriminatory purpose or effect. After the jurisdiction submits the proposed change, the attorney general has 60 days to interpose an objection to it. The 60-day period may be extended an additional 60 days if the jurisdiction later submits additional information. If the attorney general interposes an objection, then the change is not precleared and may not be implemented. The attorney general's decision is not subject to [[Judicial review in the United States\|judicial review, but if the attorney general interposes an objection, the jurisdiction may independently seek judicial preclearance, and the court may disregard the attorney general's objection at its discretion. Private parties may intervene in judicial preclearance lawsuits. the court held that for a voting change to have a prohibited discriminatory effect, it must result in "retrogression" (backsliding). Under this standard, a voting change that causes discrimination, but does not result in more discrimination than before the change was made, cannot be denied preclearance for having a discriminatory effect. For example, replacing a poll tax with an equally expensive voter registration fee is not a "retrogressive" change because it causes equal discrimination, not more. Relying on the Senate report for the Act, the court reasoned that the retrogression standard was the correct interpretation of the term "discriminatory effect" because Section 5's purpose is " 'to insure that [the gains thus far achieved in minority political participation] shall not be destroyed through new [discriminatory] procedures' ". Uncertainty remains as to what this language precisely means and how courts may interpret it. =====Federal examiners and observers===== Until the 2006 amendments to the Act, Because of time and resource constraints, federal observers are not assigned to every certified jurisdiction for every election. The 1982 amendment to the bailout eligibility standard went into effect on August 5, 1984. which held that local governments that do not register voters have the ability to bail out. After this ruling, jurisdictions succeeded in at least 20 bailout actions before the Supreme Court held in Shelby County v. Holder (2013) that the coverage formula was unconstitutional. Congress enacted the provisions to break down language barriers and combat pervasive language discrimination against the protected groups. ===Impact=== "The Voting Rights Act had an immediate impact. By the end of 1965, a quarter of a million new Black voters had been registered, one-third by federal examiners. By the end of 1966, only four out of 13 southern states had fewer than 50 percent of African Americans registered to vote." After its enactment in 1965, the law immediately decreased racial discrimination in voting. The suspension of literacy tests and the assignments of federal examiners and observers allowed for high numbers of racial minorities to register to vote. In covered jurisdictions, less than one-third (29.3 percent) of the African American population was registered in 1965; by 1967, this number increased to more than half (52.1 percent), Nationwide, the number of African American elected officials increased from 1,469 in 1970 to 4,912 in 1980. Similarly, registration rates for language minority groups increased after Congress enacted the bilingual election requirements in 1975 and amended them in 1992. In 1973, the percent of Hispanics registered to vote was 34.9 percent; by 2006, that amount nearly doubled. The number of Asian Americans registered to vote in 1996 increased 58 percent by 2006. By enfranchising racial minorities, the Act facilitated a political realignment of the Democratic and Republican parties. Between 1890 and 1965, Black disenfranchisement enabled the Democratic Party to dominate Southern politics. After Johnson signed the Act into law, newly enfranchised Black voters began to push the Democratic Party to the left throughout the South; this in turn pushed Southern white conservatives to switch their support from the Democratic to Republican party. This trend caused the two parties to ideologically polarize, with the Democratic Party becoming more Liberal and the Republican Party becoming more Conservative. Over the subsequent decades, the creation of majority-minority districts to remedy racial vote dilution claims also contributed to these developments. By packing liberal-leaning racial minorities into small numbers of majority-minority districts, large numbers of surrounding districts became more solidly white, conservative, and Republican. While this increased the elected representation of racial minorities as intended, it also decreased white Democratic representation and increased the representation of Republicans overall. A 2016 study in the American Journal of Political Science found "that members of Congress who represented jurisdictions subject to the preclearance requirement were substantially more supportive of civil rights-related legislation than legislators who did not represent covered jurisdictions." A 2013 Quarterly Journal of Economics study found that the Act boosted voter turnout and increases in public goods transfers from state governments to localities with higher black population. A 2019 study in the American Economic Journal found that preclearance substantially increased turnout among minorities, even as far as to 2012 (the year prior to the Supreme Court ruling ending preclearance). The study estimates that preclearance led to an increase in minority turnout of 17 percentage points. Another 2020 study found that VRA coverage halved the incidence and the onset of political violence. In a 5–4 decision in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), the Supreme Court struck down Section 4(b) as unconstitutional. Research has shown that the coverage formula and the requirement of preclearance substantially increased turnout among racial minorities, even as far as the year before Shelby County. On July 1, 2021, the Act's preclearance requirements were further weakened at the state and local level following the Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee in a 6-3 Supreme Court ruling which held that Section 2 preclearance provisions could not apply to out-of-precinct voting or ballot collecting. (That Act appears today in Title 25, sections 1301 to 1303 of the United States Code). Titles VIII and IX are commonly known as the Fair Housing Act, which was meant as a follow-up to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. (This is different legislation than the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968, which expanded housing funding programs.) While the Civil Rights Act of 1866 prohibited discrimination in housing, there were no federal enforcement provisions. The 1968 act expanded on previous acts and prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, national origin, and since 1974, sex. Since 1988, the act protects people with disabilities and families with children. Pregnant women are also protected from illegal discrimination because they have been given familial status with their unborn child being the other family member. Victims of discrimination may use both the 1968 act and the 1866 act's section 1983 to seek redress. The 1968 act provides for federal solutions while the 1866 act provides for private solutions (i.e., civil suits). The act also made it a federal crime to "by force or by threat of force, injure, intimidate, or interfere with anyone... by reason of their race, color, religion, or national origin, handicap or familial status." Title X, commonly known as the Anti-Riot Act, makes it a felony to "travel in interstate commerce...with the intent to incite, promote, encourage, participate in and carry on a riot." That provision has been criticized for "equating organized political protest with organized violence." ===Legislative history and components === In 1966, President Johnson proposed a new civil rights bill, but it was not passed through by the Senate. On February 17, 1967, the bill was introduced in the House by Rep. Manny Celler and in the Senate by Senator Philip A. Hart. The House Judiciary Committee cleared HR 2516 (civil rights bill) and HR 10805 (extended life of Civil Rights Commission for another five years). House Judiciary Subcommittee No. 5 June 22 approved a package combining HR 2516 and HR 421 (Administration bill) in order to strengthen protections for civil rights workers. The initial vote in the House of Representatives was 327–92 (161–25 in the House Republican Conference and 166–67 in the House Democratic Caucus) with 12 members voting present or abstaining, while in the Senate the final vote with amendments was 71–20 (29–3 in the Senate Republican Conference and 42–17 in the Senate Democratic Caucus) with 5 members voting present or abstaining. The House agreed to the Senate amendments by a vote of 250–172 (100–84 in the House Republican Conference and 150–88 in the House Democratic Caucus) with 10 members voting present or abstaining. Bill H.R. 2516 was passed by the 90th United States Congress and signed by the 36th President of the United States, Lyndon B. Johnson on April 11, 1968. ====Title I: Hate crimes==== The Civil Rights Act of 1968 also enacted (b)(2), which permits federal prosecution of anyone who "willingly injures, intimidates or interferes with another person, or attempts to do so, by force because of the other person's race, color, religion or national origin" because of the victim's attempt to engage in one of six types of federally protected activities, such as attending school, patronizing a public place/facility, applying for employment, acting as a juror in a state court or voting. Persons violating this law face a fine or imprisonment of up to one year or both. If bodily injury results or if such acts of intimidation involve the use of firearms, explosives or fire, individuals can receive prison terms of up to 10 years, while crimes involving kidnapping, sexual assault, or murder can be punishable by life in prison or the death penalty. Though sexual orientation and gender identity were also excluded from this law, they are included in a more recent Federal hate-crime law, the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act. ====Title II–VII: Indian Civil Rights Act==== The Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 granted Native Americans full access to the United States Bill of Rights. The first minor section focuses on re-establishing amendments now granted to Native Americans. The main portion of the section focuses on Native Americans in the United States legal system. The last section of this act points out other materials related to more constitutional rights of Native Americans, such as the "Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties" doctrine. ====Title VIII–IX: Fair Housing Act==== =====Housing discrimination===== Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 is commonly referred to as the Fair Housing Act of 1968. Since 1968 its protections have been expanded significantly by amendment. The Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity within the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development is charged with administering and enforcing this law. =====Types of banned discrimination===== The Civil Rights Act of 1968 prohibited the following forms of housing discrimination: Refusal to sell or rent a dwelling to any person because of their race, color, religion or national origin. Discrimination on the basis of sex was added in 1974, and people with disabilities and families with children were added to the list of protected classes in 1988. Discrimination against a person in the terms, conditions or privilege of the sale or rental of a dwelling. Advertising the sale or rental of a dwelling indicating preference of discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin. This provision was also amended to include sex, disability, and having children. Coercing, threatening, intimidating, or interfering with a person's enjoyment or exercise of housing rights based on discriminatory reasons or retaliating against a person or organization that aids or encourages the exercise or enjoyment of fair housing rights. Neglecting maintenance and repairs of the units rented by people based on race, religion, sex, or any other discriminatory demographic. Restricting access to services and amenities on the basis of the renter's race, gender, religion, or nationality. In 2012, the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity issued a regulation prohibiting LGBT discrimination in federally assisted housing programs. The Supreme Court ruled in 2020 that discrimination on the basis of "sex" includes discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. It was not until February 2021 that Housing and Urban Development issued a rule change under President Joe Biden to implement this decision. In addition, many states, cities and towns have passed laws prohibiting discrimination in housing based on sexual orientation and gender identity. =====Types of allowed discrimination===== Only certain kinds of discrimination are covered by fair housing laws. Landlords are not required by law to rent to any tenant who applies for a property. Landlords can select tenants based on objective business criteria, such as the applicant's ability to pay the rent and take care of the property. Landlords can lawfully discriminate against tenants with bad credit histories or low incomes, and (except in some areas) do not have to rent to tenants who will be receiving Section 8 vouchers. Landlords must be consistent in the screening, treat tenants who are inside and outside the protected classes in the same manner, and should document any legitimate business reason for not renting to a prospective tenant. The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development has stated that buyers and renters may discriminate and may request real estate agents representing them to limit home searches to parameters that are discriminatory. The primary purpose of the Fair Housing Act is to protect the buyer's (and renter's) right to seek a dwelling anywhere they choose. It protects the buyer's right to discriminate by prohibiting certain discriminatory acts by sellers, landlords, and real estate agents. ===== People with disabilities ===== The Fair Housing Act defines a person with a disability in the same manner as the Americans with Disabilities Act – "a person with a physical or mental impairment which substantially limits one or more major life activities; a record of such an impairment; or being regarded as having such an impairment." The Fair Housing Act provides several specific protections for buyers and tenants with disabilities. Landlords and sellers cannot make a dwelling unit unavailable or deny a dwelling to a buyer or renter because of their disability or the disability of any person who intends to reside in the dwelling or because of the disability of anyone with whom they are associated. Landlords cannot deny a person with a disability all of the privileges provided in connection with the dwelling, because of the person's disability. The Fair Housing Act (FHA) provides some specific protections for people with disabilities that facilitate independence and community living. First, the FHA allows tenants to make reasonable modifications to the existing premises. It makes it illegal for landlords to not allow people with disabilities to make reasonable modifications to the premises, at their own expense, if they need the modification to have full enjoyment of the premises. For example, an individual with a disability may require grab bars installed in order to have access to take a shower. The landlord must allow the tenant to install the grab bars to allow access to take a shower. However, technically, the landlord may require the tenant remove the grab bars at the end of the tenancy, at the tenant's own expense. However, the regulations specify that in rental housing, a landlord may not condition widening a bathroom doorway to provide wheelchair access, to its return to its former narrow state upon the end of the tenancy, since it will not interfere with the next tenants use and enjoyment of the premises. The second protection offered by the FHA includes the requirement that no one can refuse to make reasonable accommodations to "rules, policies, practices, or services, when the accommodation is necessary to afford" a person with a disability "equal opportunity to use and enjoy a dwelling unit," including the amenities of the dwelling, which may involve common areas. For example, a building with a "No Pets" policy would violate the FHA if it did not allow a blind person to have their seeing eye dog live with them as a reasonable accommodation to the policy. Similarly, a wheelchair user could request an assigned, accessible parking space as a reasonable accommodation in a "first come first serve" parking lot attached to an apartment complex. ====Title X: Anti-Riot Act==== The Act included the "Anti-Riot Act," enacted at (with its key terms, "riot" and "incite a riot," defined in ), which makes it a federal crime to use interstate or foreign commerce routes or facilities (such as by crossing state lines or through mail, use of the Internet, or phone calls) to incite a riot, organize, promote or participate in a riot or to extend activities of a riot, or to aid and abet any person performing such activities. The provision has been informally referred to as the "H. Rap Brown Law" since the arrest and trial of H. Rap Brown in 1967 for carrying a gun across state lines. Rulings by the 4th Circuit in 2020 and 9th Circuit in 2021 struck down in those circuits the portions of the law which prohibit "urging" a riot on the grounds of freedom of speech, leaving in place bans on inciting and participation in riots. == Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 == The Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987, or'Grove City Bill, is a United States legislative act that specifies that entities receiving federal funds must comply with civil rights legislation in all of their operations, not just in the program or activity that received the funding. The Act overturned the precedent set by the Supreme Court decision in Grove City College v. Bell, 465 U.S. 555 (1984), which held that only the particular program in an educational institution receiving federal financial assistance was required to comply with the anti-discrimination provisions of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, not the institution as a whole. The Act was proposed as a response to the Grove City College v. Bell Supreme Court decision in 1984. The decision held that only the particular program in an educational institution receiving federal financial assistance was required to comply with anti-discrimination provisions of Title IX. This decision created loopholes for educational institutions to continue discriminatory practices in other areas, which had a significant impact on minority communities, women, and people with disabilities. === Legislative history === The Act was first passed by the House in June 1984 (375–32) but stalled for several years after divisions over its potential effects on Title IX regulations prohibiting discrimination relating to abortion impeded the effectiveness of a civil rights coalition. In January 1988, the Senate accepted an amendment by Senator John Danforth (R-MO). He is described as "abortion neutral" and clarified that the Act does not impose a requirement for entities receiving federal funding to pay or provide for abortions and that it prohibits discrimination against women who use or seek abortion services. The amendment was opposed by the National Organization for Women and other pro-choice groups but ultimately resulted in passage of the bill in both the House and the Senate. The final vote in the Senate, on January 28, 1988, was 75–14 (48–0 in the Senate Democratic Caucus and 27–14 in the Senate Republican Conference), with 11 members voting present or abstaining. The final vote in the House of Representatives on March 2, 1988, was 315–98 (242–4 in the House Democratic Caucus and 73–94 in the House Republican Conference) with 20 members voting present or abstaining. On March 16, 1988, President Ronald Reagan vetoed the bill by arguing that the Act represented an overexpansion of governmental power over private organizational decision-making and "would diminish substantially the freedom and independence of religious institutions in our society." On March 22, 1988, the Senate overrode Reagan's veto by a vote of 73–24 (52–0 in the Senate Democratic Caucus and 21–24 in the Senate Republican Conference) with 3 members voting present or abstaining. On the same day, the House voted in favor of the bill with a vote of 292–133 (240–10 in the House Democratic Caucus and 52–123 in the House Republican Conference), with 7 members voting present or abstaining. Reagan's veto was the first veto of a civil rights act since Andrew Johnson vetoed the Civil Rights Act of 1866. === Provisions === In addition to Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 (which prohibits sex discrimination in educational institutions), the Act applies to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (which prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability), Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (which prohibits racial discrimination), and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (which prohibits age discrimination in employment). With the passage of the act, educational institutions receiving any federal funding were required to comply with all federal civil rights laws, including those relating to gender, race, and disability, throughout the institution (not only in the parts of the institution receiving the funding). The act also extended protection against discrimination in educational institutions to a wider range of individuals, including students, faculty, and staff. == Civil Rights Act of 1990 == The Civil Rights Act of 1990' was a bill that, had it been signed into law, would have made it easier for litigants in race or sex discrimination cases to win. It was introduced into the 101st United States Congress on February 7, 1990, by Senator Edward Kennedy (D-MA) in the United States Senate, and by Augustus Hawkins (D-CA) in the House of Representatives. Soon before the bill made it to the desk of then-President of the United States George H. W. Bush, it was criticized by the Harvard Law School professor Charles Fried. In a New York Times op-ed, Fried (a ranking member of the Federalist Society who served as Solicitor General in the Reagan Administration from 1985-1989), wrote that descriptions of the bill as the most important civil rights legislation in a quarter-century were "a public relations flimflam perpetrated by a cabal of overzealous civil rights plaintiffs' lawyers." He concluded by saying that Bush should "veto this bill in its present form." On October 22, 1990, President Bush vetoed the bill, claiming that it "employs a maze of highly legalistic language to introduce the destructive force of quotas into our national employment system." The Bush administration argued that the bill's provisions were strict enough that they would give employers "powerful incentives" to adopt quotas. Supporters of the bill argued that, contrary to Bush's claims, the bill would not have led employers to adopt quotas. For example, Benjamin Hooks, the then-executive director of the NAACP, said he was "at a loss" as to why Bush described the legislation as a quota bill. Congress attempted to override his veto on October 24, but their attempt failed in the Senate by one vote to achieve the two-thirds majority required. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 is a United States labor law, passed in response to United States Supreme Court decisions that limited the rights of employees who had sued their employers for discrimination. The Act represented the first effort since the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to modify some of the basic procedural and substantive rights provided by federal law in employment discrimination cases. It provided the right to trial by jury on discrimination claims and introduced the possibility of emotional distress damages and limited the amount that a jury could award. It added provisions to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protections expanding the rights of women to sue and collect compensatory and punitive damages for sexual discrimination or harassment. U.S. President George H. W. Bush had used his veto against the more comprehensive Civil Rights Act of 1990. He feared racial quotas would be imposed but later approved the 1991 version of the bill. The 1991 Act was intended to strengthen the protections afforded by 2 different civil rights acts: the Civil Rights Act of 1866, better known by the number assigned to it in the codification of federal laws as Section 1981, and the employment-related provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, generally referred to as Title VII. The two statutes, passed nearly a century apart, approached the issue of employment discrimination very differently: Section 1981 prohibited only discrimination based on race or color, but Title VII also prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex, religion, and national origin. Section 1981, which had lain dormant and unenforced for a century after its passage, allowed plaintiffs to seek compensatory damages and trial by jury. Title VII, passed in the 1960s when it was assumed that Southern juries could not render a fair verdict, allowed only trial by the court and provided for only traditional equitable remedies: back pay, reinstatement, and injunctions against future acts of discrimination. By the time the 1991 Act was passed, both allowed for an award of attorneys' fees. The 1991 Act expanded the remedies available to victims of discrimination by amending Title VII of the 1964 Act. ===Background=== Congress had amended Title VII once before, in 1972, when it broadened the coverage of the Act. It was moved to overhaul Title VII in 1991 and to harmonize it with Section 1981 jurisprudence, as a result of a series of controversial Supreme Court decisions: Patterson v. McLean Credit Union, , which held that an employee could not sue for damages caused by racial harassment on the job because even if the employer's conduct were discriminatory, the employer had not denied the employee the "same right... to make and enforce contracts... as is enjoyed by white citizens," the language that Congress chose in passing the law in 1866. Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio, , which made it more difficult for employees of Wards Cove Packing Company to prove that an employer's personnel practices, neutral on their face, had an unlawful disparate impact on them by requiring that they identify the particular policy or requirement that allegedly produced inequalities in the workplace and show that it, in isolation, had that effect. Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, , which held that the burden of proof shifted, once an employee had proved that an unlawful consideration had played a part in the employer's personnel decision, to the employer to prove that it would have made the same decision if it had not been motivated by that unlawful factor, but such proof by the employer would constitute a complete defense for the employer. Martin v. Wilks, , which permitted white firefighters who had not been party to the litigation, establishing a consent decree governing hiring and promotion of black firefighters in the Birmingham, Alabama, Fire Department, to bring suit to challenge the decree. United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc., , which held that Title VII prohibits gender-specific fetal protection policies. ===Changes=== Patterson had attracted much criticism since it appeared to leave employees victimized by racial harassment on the job with no effective remedies, as they could not prove a violation of Section 1981 and could rarely show any wage losses that they could recover under Title VII. In addition, the Court's narrow reading of the phrase "make or enforce contracts" eliminated any liability under Section 1981 for lost promotions and most other personnel decisions that did not constitute a refusal to hire on the basis of race or color. Congress addressed the issue by redefining the phrase "make and enforce contracts" to include "the making, performance, modification, and termination of contracts, and the enjoyment of all benefits, privileges, terms, and conditions of the contractual relationship." Congress also clarified that Section 1981 applied to both governmental and private discrimination, the issue that the Supreme Court originally announced it would decide in Patterson. Congress also believed that the Wards Cove case made it too difficult to prove disparate impact claims under Title VII. While the amended Act still generally requires that a plaintiff identify particular employment practice(s) allegedly causing a disparate impact, Congress added that an employer's decisionmaking process may be analyzed as a whole if the plaintiff can show that "the elements of [an employer's] decisionmaking process are not capable of separation for analysis." Congress also established that the employer has the burden of proof on the business necessity defense and restored the meaning of "business necessity" to how it was interpreted before Wards Cove. Congress did not, however, alter the portion of Wards Cove describing the plaintiff's burden with respect to statistical proof, in which the court had held: "The mere existence of a statistical imbalance in an employer's workforce on account of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin is not alone sufficient to establish a prima facie case of disparate impact violation." While the majority in Congress supported the burden-shifting rule in Price Waterhouse, it was uncomfortable with how that case gave the employer the ability to prove that it would have made the same decision in any event, as a complete defense in a case in which it had been shown that race or gender or another unlawful factor played a significant role in its decision. Congress amended the Act to provide that the employer's proof that it would have made the same decision in any case was a defense to back pay, reinstatement and other remedies but not to liability per se. The practical effect of this change was to allow a party that proved that the employer discriminated but could not show that it made any practical difference to the outcome could still recover attorney's fees after showing that the employer discriminated, even if no other remedy was awarded. Finally, Congress limited the rights of non-parties to attack consent decrees by barring any challenges by parties who knew or should have known of the decree or who were adequately represented by the original parties. The Act also authorized jury trials on Title VII claims and allowed Title VII plaintiffs to recover emotional distress and punitive damages, while imposing caps on such relief. The 1991 Act also made technical changes affecting the length of time allowed to challenge unlawful seniority provisions, to sue the federal government for discrimination, and to bring age discrimination claims, but it allowed successful plaintiffs to recover expert witness fees as part of an award of attorney's fees and to collect interest on any judgment against the federal government.	[ "Senator Richard Russell", "at-large", "James Bonard Fowler", "Benjamin Butler (politician)", "Federalist Society", "Jim Crow laws", "Richard Russell Jr.", "Congressional power of enforcement", "Hubert Humphrey", "Shelby County v. Holder", "South Carolina v. 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William Fulbright", "Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee", "Southern Democrats", "US state", "Solicitor General of the United States", "Vice President of the United States", "ballot", "Southern Christian Leadership Conference", "Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution", "unfunded mandate", "United States Congress", "Joint session of the United States Congress", "veto", "Solid South", "Reconstruction era of the United States", "redistricting", "Virginia", "Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins", "Martha Griffiths", "Everett Dirksen", "Voting Rights Act of 1965", "Clinton Anderson", "Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act", "Charles Sumner", "Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson", "people with disabilities", "voter fraud", "United States Congress Conference committee", "New York (state)", "William Moore McCulloch", "annexation", "democracy", "State governments of the United States", "two-round system", "National Organization for Women", "John Danforth", "House Republican Conference", "President of the United States", "gerrymander", "Ogg", "James Forman", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Freedmen's Bureau bills", "McDonald v. Chicago", "Civil Rights Act of 1964", "101st Airborne Division", "Hugo Black", "Ted Sorensen", "Seniority in the United States Senate", "inequality in the workplace", "county commission", "Speaker of the United States House of Representatives", "NAACP", "African-American", "incipit", "Civil Rights Act of 1991", "Federal government of the United States", "Marion, Alabama", "the party of Lincoln", "Little Rock, Arkansas", "Martin Luther King Jr.", "plaintiff", "Malcolm X", "Senate Judiciary Committee", "Barry Goldwater", "Business and Professional Women's Foundation", "Clarence Mitchell Jr.", "statutory law", "political realignment", "Civil Rights Act of 1960", "equity (law)", "Herbert Brownell Jr.", "Northwest Austin Municipal Utility District No. 1 v. Holder", "violence", "Lyndon B. Johnson", "US", "Native Americans in the United States", "The Washington Post", "slavery in the United States", "civil rights law", "United States Constitution", "Mike Mansfield", "41st United States Congress", "Citizenship Clause", "NPR", "political participation", "John F. Kennedy", "Department of Health, Education and Welfare", "employment discrimination", "Reconstruction Amendments", "Frank Church", "Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era", "The New York Times", "Judicial opinion", "Robert Byrd", "state actor", "Privileges and Immunities Clause", "James Reeb", "Radical Republicans", "Equal Rights Amendment", "William Rehnquist", "McGowan v. Maryland", "Brown v Board", "Evergreen, Conecuh County, Alabama", "bilingual", "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Senate Majority Leader", "federal judiciary of the United States", "Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987", "United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit", "Henry Dworshak", "William Lawrence (Ohio Republican)", "Ted Kennedy", "government", "Equal Pay Act of 1963", "states' rights", "Wards Cove Packing Company", "Grove City College v. Bell", "Los Angeles Times", "abortion", "James Bevel", "right to vote", "Law school", "Civil Rights Act of 1990", "Admission to the Union", "United States Department of Housing and Urban Development", "Wrecking amendment", "101st United States Congress", "social organization", "injunction", "Unitarian Universalism", "Giles v. Harris", "congressional delegation", "voting rights", "United States Declaration of Independence", "Alice Paul", "plurality (voting)", "Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity", "Jacob Javits", "The Boston Globe", "Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964", "Sam Ervin", "Rosalind Rosenberg", "CNN", "One Man, One Vote", "Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio", "desegregation busing in the United States", "declaratory judgment", "Commission on Civil Rights", "Senate Minority Leader", "Nick Kotz", "disability", "State constitution (United States)", "John Bingham", "Railroad brotherhoods", "Orangeburg massacre", "United States federal government", "Tejanos", "individual", "Commerce Clause", "Reynolds v. Sims", "Bartlett v. Strickland", "Race (classification of human beings)", "John Lewis", "Boston", "social equality", "bully pulpit", "acts of the United States Congress", "Joseph L. Rauh Jr.", "United States v. Reese", "racial segregation", "U.S. attorney general", "Jones v. Mayer", "legislation", "literacy test", "Amos T. Akerman", "Wesberry v. Sanders", "William Knowland", "electoral roll", "Motion (parliamentary procedure)", "Idaho", "Charles Fried", "Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights", "Civil Rights Act of 1957", "Lyman Trumbull", "Texas", "White American", "John Tower", "Slavery in the United States", "women's rights", "Mother Jones (magazine)", "Mobile v. Bolden", "United States v. Darby Lumber Co.", "United States labor law", "Reconstruction era", "Enumerated powers (United States)", "injunctive relief", "United States Bill of Rights", "political campaign", "Black Republicanism in the United States", "Strom Thurmond", "Congress of the United States", "List of presidents of the United States", "Jim Clark (sheriff)", "rebuttable presumption", "Section 8 (housing)", "U.S. Supreme Court", "Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development", "United States Assistant Attorney General", "Roy Wilkins", "Southern politics", "A. Philip Randolph", "freedom of speech", "intervention (law)", "Civil Rights Movement", "Charles A. Boyle", "Samuel Shellabarger (congressman)", "Senate Republican Conference", "Modern liberalism in the United States", "Enforcement Acts", "Augustus Hawkins", "color of law", "Harvard Law School", "Ronald Reagan", "George H. W. Bush", "politicians", "James F. Wilson", "Gerald Ford", "government services", "Terry Golway", "Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States", "King assassination riots", "National Journal", "Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States", "majority vote", "Bourke Hickenlooper", "Richard Nixon", "sexual orientation", "John Mercer Langston", "Radical Republican", "United States Department of Justice Criminal Division", "Title 42 of the United States Code", "Indian reservation", "Georgia v. Ashcroft", "poll tax (United States)", "whitecapping", "Pauli Murray", "Ferris State University", "felony disenfranchisement", "H. Rap Brown", "Republican Party (United States)", "conference report", "Benjamin Hooks", "Clair Engle", "James O. Eastland", "habeas corpus", "Albert Gore Sr.", "political freedom", "William M. Tuck", "majority-minority district", "Equal Protection Clause", "Deep South", "United States constitution", "United Press International", "Jimmie Lee Jackson", "Law of agency", "United States Senate elections, 1964", "United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division", "National Woman's Party", "Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee", "Jury selection in the United States", "Civil Rights Cases", "John William McCormack", "U.S. District Court for D.C.", "Ann Devroy", "brain cancer", "Massachusetts", "Katzenbach v. McClung", "op-ed", "United States", "James Eastland", "voter ID laws in the United States", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "Carl Elliott", "voter registration", "John Marshall Harlan", "Strom Thurmond filibuster of the Civil Rights Act of 1957", "Judicial review in the United States", "massive resistance", "George Aiken", "Lynne Olson", "Ku Klux Klan Act", "civil right acts in the United States", "Little Rock Nine", "Southern United States", "90th United States Congress", "Reconstruction Acts", "South Carolina", "Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Coyle v. Smith", "Ku Klux Klan", "Voice vote", "George H.W. Bush", "sovereignty", "Due Process Clause", "Arkansas", "Robert D. Loevy", "Rehabilitation Act of 1973", "civil and political rights", "racial quotas", "2010 United States Census", "tear gas", "Altitude Express, Inc. v. Zarda", "States rights", "election day", "Emancipation Proclamation", "43rd United States Congress", "House Democratic Caucus", "United States Department of Justice", "Rosa Parks", "United States federal law", "Race and ethnicity in the United States", "Chief Justice of the United States", "Earl Warren", "Time (magazine)", "Vox (website)", "Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era", "1876 United States presidential election", "United States House Committee on the Judiciary", "African Americans", "R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission", "USA Today", "American Civil War", "United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit", "Montgomery, Alabama", "disparate impact", "Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Civil Rights Act of 1875", "Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990", "Ex Parte Yarbrough", "Second Enforcement Act", "Southern strategy", "Enforcement Act of 1870", "totality of the circumstances", "United States House Committee on Rules", "Abraham Lincoln", "John Hope Franklin", "United States House of Representatives", "Congressional Record", "Selma, Alabama", "civil rights movement", "civil rights", "United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc.", "United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary", "Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "Martin v. Wilks", "Hells Canyon Dam", "George W. Bush", "discrimination", "House Minority Leader", "bullet voting", "History of Education Quarterly", "Great Society", "Compromise of 1877", "United States Senate", "Reconstruction Era", "Ulysses S. Grant", "Race (human categorization)", "Arizona Attorney General", "National Constitution Center", "Richardson v. Ramirez", "Article One of the United States Constitution", "Alabama", "Morris v. Gressette", "Thornburg v. Gingles", "United States district court", "Hodges v. United States", "filibuster", "Nicholas Katzenbach", "New York Times", "Housing discrimination in the United States", "Jo Freeman", "United States Code", "Georgia (U.S. state)", "citizenship in the United States", "William P. Rogers", "Master of the Senate: The Years of Lyndon Johnson", "death penalty", "Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968", "Title IX", "national origin", "Lists of landmark court decisions", "Civil right acts in the United States", "s:Civil Rights Act of 1866", "White House", "United States Supreme Court", "Civil rights movement", "Slate (magazine)", "Howard W. Smith", "New Mexico", "white supremacist", "Southern Caucus", "Civil Rights Act of 1968", "Selma to Montgomery marches", "disfranchisement after Reconstruction era", "Education Amendments of 1972", "Assassination of John F. Kennedy", "electoral district", "single-member district", "Federalism in the United States", "Hathorn v. Lovorn", "racial discrimination", "Edward Kennedy", "United States Commission on Civil Rights", "Howard University", "we shall overcome", "Massive Resistance", "Person of color", "Joseph C. O'Mahoney", "Racial segregation in the United States", "Senate majority leader", "racial quota", "public accommodations", "Southern caucus", "Supreme Court Justice", "39th United States Congress", "Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.", "cloture", "Edmund Pettus Bridge", "Colfax massacre", "election law", "discharge petition", "1964 United States presidential election", "grandfather clause", "U.S. Department of Justice", "Mississippi", "Poll tax (United States)", "Illinois", "gender identity", "George Washington's Farewell Address", "Voting rights in the United States", "United States v. Cruikshank", "Thomas Kuchel", "local ordinance", "Cynthia Harrison", "Bostock v. Clayton County", "United States Capitol", "Patterson v. McLean Credit Union", "electoral fraud", "miscegenation", "United Mine Workers of America", "United States District Court for the District of Columbia", "SCOTUSblog", "proportional representation", "Populism in the United States", "Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967", "George Wallace", "assassination of John F. Kennedy", "Allen v. State Bd. of Elections", "voting", "National Archives and Records Administration", "conference committee", "Master of the Senate", "Frank McCulloch", "Green v. County School Board of New Kent County", "Suffrage", "Robert A. Caro", "March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom", "plurality opinion" ]
7,491	Cola	Cola is a carbonated soft drink flavored with vanilla, cinnamon, citrus oils, and other flavorings. Cola became popular worldwide after the American pharmacist John Stith Pemberton invented Coca-Cola, a trademarked brand, in 1886, which was imitated by other manufacturers. Most colas originally contained caffeine from the kola nut (Cola acuminata), leading to the drink's name, though other sources of caffeine are generally used in modern formulations. The Pemberton cola drink also contained a coca plant extract. His non-alcoholic recipe was inspired by the coca wine of pharmacist Angelo Mariani, created in 1863. Most modern colas have a dark caramel color and are sweetened with sugar, high-fructose corn syrup or artificial sweeteners. There are numerous different brands, of cola, with Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola being among the most popular. These two colas have been competitors since the 1890s, a rivalry that has intensified since the 1980s. ==Flavorings== The primary modern flavorings in a cola drink are citrus oils (from orange, lime, and lemon peels), cinnamon, vanilla, and an acidic flavoring. Manufacturers of cola drinks add trace flavorings to create distinctive tastes for each brand. Trace flavorings may include a wide variety of ingredients, such as spices like nutmeg or coriander. Acidity is often provided by phosphoric acid, sometimes accompanied by citric or other isolated acids. Coca-Cola's recipe is maintained as a corporate trade secret. A variety of different sweeteners may be used in cola, often influenced by local agricultural policy. High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is predominantly used in the United States due to the lower cost of government-subsidized corn. In Europe, however, HFCS is subject to production quotas designed to encourage the production of sugar; sugar is thus preferentially used to sweeten sodas. In addition, stevia or an artificial sweetener may be used; "sugar-free" or "diet" colas typically contain artificial sweeteners only. In Japan, there is a burgeoning craft cola industry, with small-scale local production methods and highly unique cola recipes using locally sourced fruits, herbs, and spices. ==Clear cola== In the 1940s, Coca-Cola produced White Coke at the request of Marshal of the Soviet Union Georgy Zhukov. Clear colas were again produced during the clear craze of the early 1990s. Brands included Crystal Pepsi, Tab Clear, and 7 Up Ice Cola. Crystal Pepsi was repeatedly reintroduced in the 2010s. In Denmark, a popular clear cola was made by the Cooperative FDB in 1976. It was especially known for being the "Hippie Cola" because of the focus on the harmful effects the color additive could have on children and the boycott of multinational brands. It was inspired by a campaign on harmful additives in Denmark by the Environmental-Organization NOAH, an independent Danish division of Friends of the Earth. This was followed up with a variety of sodas without artificial coloring. Today many organic colas are available in Denmark, but, for nostalgic reasons, clear cola has still maintained its popularity to a certain degree. In June 2018, Coca-Cola introduced Coca-Cola Clear in Japan. ==Health effects== A 2007 study claimed that consumption of colas, both those with natural sweetening and those with artificial sweetening, was associated with an increased risk of chronic kidney disease. The phosphoric acid used in colas was thought to be a possible cause. A link has been shown between long-term regular cola intake and osteoporosis in older women (but not men). This was thought to be due to the presence of phosphoric acid, though the risk for women was found to be greater for sugared and caffeinated colas than diet and decaffeinated variants, with a higher intake of cola correlating with lower bone density. One 2005 study indicated that soda and sweetened drinks are the main source of calories in the American diet and that of those who drink more sweetened drinks, obesity rates were higher. Most nutritionists advise that Coca-Cola and other soft drinks can be harmful if consumed excessively, particularly to young children whose soft drink consumption competes with, rather than complements, a balanced diet. Studies have shown that regular soft drink users have a lower intake of calcium, magnesium, vitamin C, riboflavin, and vitamin A. The drink has also aroused criticism for its use of caffeine, which can cause physical dependence (caffeine dependence), and can reduce sleep quality. Many soft drinks in North America are sweetened mostly or entirely with high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), rather than white sugar. Some nutritionists caution against the consumption of corn syrup because it may aggravate obesity and type-2 diabetes more than cane sugar. , there is no high-quality evidence that replacing cane sugar (sucrose) with HFCS causes any difference in health effects. ==Regional brands== ===Asia=== Air Koryo Cocoa Honeydew, a 'Coca-Cola-style product' manufactured by the national airline in North Korea Amrat Cola, popular in Pakistan Big/Real/Royal Cola, popular in Indonesia, Thailand, Nigeria and throughout South America Campa Cola, India's most popular brand prior to the reintroduction of Coca-Cola and Pepsi to the Indian market in 1991 Chi Forest (formerly known as Genki Forest) sparkling water cola flavor, a local brand in China Est Cola, a local brand in Thailand Future Cola, a local brand in China KIK Cola, a local brand in Sri Lanka Laoshan Cola, a local brand in China Mecca-Cola, sold in the Middle East, North Africa, as well as parts of Europe Meadows Classic Cola, a DFI brand in Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and Kampuchea Mojo, a local brand in Bangladesh MyCola, a local brand in Sri Lanka Pakola, popular in Pakistan Parsi Cola, popular in Iran Red Bull Cola, popular in Thailand Sparkling Super Cola, sold by the A.S. Watson Group (PARKnSHOP, Watsons) of Hong Kong Terelj Cola, sold in Mongolia. Thums Up, popular in India Topsia Cola, popular in Iran Vita Cola, produced by Vitasoy of Hong Kong Zamzam Cola, popular in Iran and parts of the Arab world ===Europe=== Afri-Cola, a German brand, was relaunched in April 2006 with the original formulation with the higher caffeine content. Baikal, a cola-like drink popular in Russia Barr Cola made by A.G. Barr (the makers of the popular Irn-Bru drink) in the United Kingdom Breizh Cola is a local brand from Brittany (France). Brisa Cola is a local brand from Madeira, Portugal and produced by Empresa de Cervejas da Madeira. Cola Turka is a local brand in Turkey Cockta is a local brand from former Yugoslavia, which does not contain any caffeine or phosphoric acid. Corsica Cola is a regional cola distributed by the Corsican brewery Pietra. Cuba Cola is a brand from Sweden. Dobry Cola, a Russian brand which replaced Coca-Cola after the departure of global companies from Russia in 2022, produced in the same factories as the original products. Evoca Cola is a cola made with mineral water made by Evoca Drinks. Fentimans Curiosity Cola, is an upmarket botanically brewed cola produced by Fentimans, from the UK. Fritz-Kola, a cola soft drink from Hamburg, Germany, uses the highest possible concentration of caffeine for beverages allowed by German law. Green Cola is a brand from Greece that is available also in Germany, Spain, Cyprus, the Baltic states, Romania, the Middle East, Slovenia etc. Hofmuhl Cola is a local brand from Bavaria, made by a regional brewery. Jolly Cola, which had a 40% share of the cola drink market in Denmark from the mid-1960s to the late 1980s. Kofola is the primary rival to Coca-Cola and Pepsi in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, and does not contain phosphoric acid. Kristal Kola is a local brand in Turkey LOCKWOODS Cola, a UK cola brand introduced in the 1960s produced by Lockwoods Foods Limited at their canning factory site in Long Sutton, England, the drink is not on the market anymore, it was sold nationally and also exported. Maxi-Cola was sold by Mac's Brewery in England as a rival to Coke and Pepsi. Production ended in the early 90s. Polo-Cockta, a Polish brand. Qibla Cola was a British cola brand active from 2003 to 2005. Red Bull Simply Cola has been available throughout Europe since 2008. Sinalco cola is a German cola brand sold and produced in Europe Tøyen-Cola is a Norwegian cola brand, based on the open Cube cola recipe. Ubuntu Cola is a fair trade cola from the United Kingdom available in parts of Western Europe. Virgin Cola was popular in South Africa and Western Europe in the 1990s but has waned in availability. Vita-Cola is a German cola brand with a distinct citrus flavor; nowadays it is mostly sold in eastern Germany. XL Cola was a Swedish cola brand introduced in 1985, but the drink is not at the market anymore. ===North America=== Coca-Cola, often referred to simply as Coke, is produced and manufactured by The Coca-Cola Company. It is one of the most popular cola brands in North America and worldwide, as well as being the original cola. Pepsi, produced and manufactured by PepsiCo, is also one of the most popular cola brands in North America and worldwide. Pepsi is the main competitor and rival of Coca-Cola. RC Cola, short for Royal Crown Cola, is now produced by Keurig Dr Pepper Bec Cola is produced in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, sold across Quebec and Ontario. It is sweetened with primarily maple syrup Big 8 Cola is a brand of colas and other flavored sodas that can be found in Atlantic Canada Cott produces many house brand beverages as well as its own line of products, most notably its Black Cherry and Bubba cola. The Double Cola Company, Double Cola Faygo Cola is distributed in the Eastern United States and can be found in some regions of Canada. Fentimans Curiosity Cola, originating from the United Kingdom in 1905, now sold across Europe and North America Jarritos Cola is a brand of cola from Mexico, native to Mexico and widely distributed in the United States. Jolt Cola is sold by Wet Planet Beverages of Rochester, New York. Jones Soda also makes a cola using cane sugar. Polar Beverages of Worcester, MA produces its own brand of cola under the Polar name. Red Bull Simply Cola was available in the United States from 2008 to 2011. Red Cola, a Mexican soft drink brand produced by Consorcio AGA, which also distributes Jarritos' products in certain regions in Mexico. Shasta Cola, produced by Shasta TuKola and Tropicola are brands from Cuba (also sold widely in Italy). Zevia Cola is a zero-calorie soft drink sweetened with Stevia. ===South America=== Inca Kola, created by Lindley bottler to compete with Coca-Cola. It is still the best selling cola in Perú. Big Cola, a cola produced by Peruvian company Ajegroup which operates in 14 countries in Latin America. Perú Cola, created by Peruvian bottler Embotelladora Don Jorge S.A.C. to compete with Coca-Cola and Kola Real. Kola Román, a cola that was invented in the city of Cartagena, Colombia in 1865 by Don Carlos Román. ===Oceania=== Export Cola was an Australian carbonated cola drink Manufactured by Cadbury Schweppes (now Cadbury plc) during the 1970s and early 1980s. A series of TV advertisements for the drink featured the Australian cricketer Jeff Thomson. It enjoyed a brief resurgence in popularity when it was re-launched in 1993, but the drink was discontinued in 1999. LA Ice Cola is an Australian cola owned by Tru Blu Beverages, similar to Coca-Cola and Pepsi, its rivals. Billson's produces a Heritage Cola, inspired by recipes dating back to the Temperance movement in Australia. Foxton Fizz is a New Zealand soft drink company which produces a cola-flavored soft drink beverage, manufactured in Foxtown. Tahiti Cola from French Polynesia == Defunct brands == Hansen's Natural Soda, Original Cola, made with cane sugar	[ "The Sydney Morning Herald", "Bec Cola", "Thums Up", "Tropicola", "Montreal", "Cory Doctorow", "Afri-Cola", "Madeira Brewery", "France", "Wet Planet Beverages", "Kola Real", "Carbonation", "Big Cola", "calcium", "Caramel", "Billson's Brewery", "Shasta Cola", "Future Cola", "Marshal of the Soviet Union", "Western Europe", "Cola wars", "vitamin A", "Denmark", "Poland", "citrus", "Est Cola", "Stevia", "coriander", "Cockta", "type-2 diabetes", "Corsica Cola", "Georgy Zhukov", "physical dependence", "Jarritos", "Irn-Bru", "maple syrup", "Peel (fruit)", "Middle East", "Lime (fruit)", "Pepsi", "Cott", "Vitasoy", "Cuba Cola", "Fentimans Curiosity Cola", "caramel color", "Lockwoods Foods Limited", "Greece", "Jolt Cola", "Kofola", "Rochester, New York", "Coop amba", "Soft drink", "Coca-Cola Clear", "LA Ice Cola", "brand", "Germany", "Campa Cola", "Qibla Cola", "Sri Lanka", "nutmeg", "Double Cola", "Shasta (soft drink)", "Hansen's", "Red Bull Simply Cola", "Perú Cola", "Coca-Cola", "Portugal", "Crystal Pepsi", "vanilla", "osteoporosis", "United States", "TuKola", "high-fructose corn syrup", "Virgin Cola", "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "A.G. Barr", "Dobryj Cola", "Czech Republic", "Slovakia", "John Stith Pemberton", "Kola Román", "United Kingdom", "Zamzam (soft drink)", "Cola Turka", "Pietra Brewery", "Vita-Cola", "Kola nut", "Mecca-Cola", "Green Cola", "Jolly Cola", "exported", "Maxi-Cola", "Corporate responses to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine", "Center for Science in the Public Interest", "Amrat Cola", "High-fructose corn syrup", "trade secret", "PepsiCo", "Laoshan Cola", "Ubuntu Cola", "lemon", "cane sugar", "Keurig Dr Pepper", "Ontario", "Friends of the Earth", "citric acid", "Jeff Thomson", "Tru Blu Beverages", "sugar", "Quebec", "Pakola", "color additive", "caffeine dependence", "corn syrup", "caffeine", "stevia", "fair trade", "Angelo Mariani (chemist)", "Fritz-kola", "soft drink", "Baikal (drink)", "Brisa drink", "Hamburg", "obesity", "Mac's Brewery (UK)", "Pepsi-Cola", "Fentimans", "coca leaves", "Hofmuhl Cola", "Coca-Cola formula", "Madeira", "Breizh Cola", "Maize", "Indre", "Big 8 Beverages", "vitamin C", "Polo-Cockta", "Inca Kola", "Tab Clear", "RC Cola", "Faygo", "Long Sutton, Lincolnshire", "White Coke", "Cooperative", "Jones Soda", "South Africa", "Evoca Cola", "Parsi Cola", "acid", "magnesium", "Brittany", "Foxton Fizz", "Russian language", "Zevia", "Open-source cola", "essential oil", "Epidemiology (journal)", "riboflavin", "Embotelladora Don Jorge S.A.C.", "ice cube", "cinnamon", "The Coca-Cola Company", "Tøyen-Cola", "the Coca-Cola Company", "Cuba", "white sugar", "non-alcoholic", "artificial sweetener", "Cola acuminata", "A.S. Watson Group", "Orange (fruit)", "Red Bull Cola", "Topsia Cola", "Sweden", "Barr Cola", "XL Cola", "house brand", "Polar Beverages", "Cadbury plc", "coca wine", "kola nut", "Atlantic Canada", "7 Up", "Japan", "Ajegroup", "Sinalco", "phosphoric acid", "Dairy Farm" ]
7,492	Capability Maturity Model	The Capability Maturity Model (CMM) is a development model created in 1986 after a study of data collected from organizations that contracted with the U.S. Department of Defense, who funded the research. The term "maturity" relates to the degree of formality and optimization of processes, from ad hoc practices, to formally defined steps, to managed result metrics, to active optimization of the processes. The model's aim is to improve existing software development processes, but it can also be applied to other processes. In 2006, the Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University developed the Capability Maturity Model Integration, which has largely superseded the CMM and addresses some of its drawbacks. ==Overview== The Capability Maturity Model was originally developed as a tool for objectively assessing the ability of government contractors' processes to implement a contracted software project. The model is based on the process maturity framework first described in IEEE Software and, later, in the 1989 book Managing the Software Process by Watts Humphrey. It was later published as an article in 1993 and as a book by the same authors in 1994. Though the model comes from the field of software development, it is also used as a model to aid in business processes generally, and has also been used extensively worldwide in government offices, commerce, and industry. ==History== ===Prior need for software processes=== In the 1980s, the use of computers grew more widespread, more flexible and less costly. Organizations began to adopt computerized information systems, and the demand for software development grew significantly. Many processes for software development were in their infancy, with few standard or "best practice" approaches defined. As a result, the growth was accompanied by growing pains: project failure was common, the field of computer science was still in its early years, and the ambitions for project scale and complexity exceeded the market capability to deliver adequate products within a planned budget. Individuals such as Edward Yourdon, Larry Constantine, Gerald Weinberg, Tom DeMarco, and David Parnas began to publish articles and books with research results in an attempt to professionalize the software-development processes. In the 1980s, several US military projects involving software subcontractors ran over-budget and were completed far later than planned, if at all. In an effort to determine why this was occurring, the United States Air Force funded a study at the Software Engineering Institute (SEI). ===Precursor=== The first application of a staged maturity model to IT was not by CMU/SEI, but rather by Richard L. Nolan, who, in 1973 published the stages of growth model for IT organizations. Watts Humphrey began developing his process maturity concepts during the later stages of his 27-year career at IBM. ===Development at Software Engineering Institute=== Active development of the model by the US Department of Defense Software Engineering Institute (SEI) began in 1986 when Humphrey joined the Software Engineering Institute located at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania after retiring from IBM. At the request of the U.S. Air Force he began formalizing his Process Maturity Framework to aid the U.S. Department of Defense in evaluating the capability of software contractors as part of awarding contracts. The result of the Air Force study was a model for the military to use as an objective evaluation of software subcontractors' process capability maturity. Humphrey based this framework on the earlier Quality Management Maturity Grid developed by Philip B. Crosby in his book "Quality is Free". Humphrey's approach differed because of his unique insight that organizations mature their processes in stages based on solving process problems in a specific order. Humphrey based his approach on the staged evolution of a system of software development practices within an organization, rather than measuring the maturity of each separate development process independently. The CMMI has thus been used by different organizations as a general and powerful tool for understanding and then improving general business process performance. Watts Humphrey's Capability Maturity Model (CMM) was published in 1988 and as a book in 1989, in Managing the Software Process. Organizations were originally assessed using a process maturity questionnaire and a Software Capability Evaluation method devised by Humphrey and his colleagues at the Software Engineering Institute. The full representation of the Capability Maturity Model as a set of defined process areas and practices at each of the five maturity levels was initiated in 1991, with Version 1.1 being published in July 1993. In 2016, the responsibility for CMMI was transferred to the Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA). ISACA subsequently released CMMI v2.0 in 2021. It was upgraded again to CMMI v3.0 in 2023. CMMI now places a greater emphasis on the process architecture which is typically realized as a process diagram. Copies of CMMI are available now only by subscription. ===Adapted to other processes=== The CMMI was originally intended as a tool to evaluate the ability of government contractors to perform a contracted software project. Though it comes from the area of software development, it can be, has been, and continues to be widely applied as a general model of the maturity of process (e.g., IT service management processes) in IS/IT (and other) organizations. ==Model topics== ===Maturity models=== A maturity model can be viewed as a set of structured levels that describe how well the behaviors, practices and processes of an organization can reliably and sustainably produce required outcomes. A maturity model can be used as a benchmark for comparison and as an aid to understanding - for example, for comparative assessment of different organizations where there is something in common that can be used as a basis for comparison. In the case of the CMM, for example, the basis for comparison would be the organizations' software development processes. ===Structure=== The model involves five aspects: Maturity Levels: a 5-level process maturity continuum - where the uppermost (5th) level is a notional ideal state where processes would be systematically managed by a combination of process optimization and continuous process improvement. Key Process Areas: a Key Process Area identifies a cluster of related activities that, when performed together, achieve a set of goals considered important. Goals: the goals of a key process area summarize the states that must exist for that key process area to have been implemented in an effective and lasting way. The extent to which the goals have been accomplished is an indicator of how much capability the organization has established at that maturity level. The goals signify the scope, boundaries, and intent of each key process area. Common Features: common features include practices that implement and institutionalize a key process area. There are five types of common features: commitment to perform, ability to perform, activities performed, measurement and analysis, and verifying implementation. Key Practices: The key practices describe the elements of infrastructure and practice that contribute most effectively to the implementation and institutionalization of the area. ===Levels=== There are five levels defined along the continuum of the model and, according to the SEI: "Predictability, effectiveness, and control of an organization's software processes are believed to improve as the organization moves up these five levels. While not rigorous, the empirical evidence to date supports this belief". Initial (chaotic, ad hoc, individual heroics) - the starting point for use of a new or undocumented repeat process. Repeatable - the process is at least documented sufficiently such that repeating the same steps may be attempted. Defined - the process is defined/confirmed as a standard business process Capable - the process is quantitatively managed in accordance with agreed-upon metrics. Efficient - process management includes deliberate process optimization/improvement. Within each of these maturity levels are Key Process Areas which characterise that level, and for each such area there are five factors: goals, commitment, ability, measurement, and verification. These are not necessarily unique to CMMI, representing — as they do — the stages that organizations must go through on the way to becoming mature. The model provides a theoretical continuum along which process maturity can be developed incrementally from one level to the next. Skipping levels is not allowed/feasible. Level 1 - Initial: It is characteristic of processes at this level that they are (typically) undocumented and in a state of dynamic change, tending to be driven in an ad hoc, uncontrolled and reactive manner by users or events. This provides a chaotic or unstable environment for the processes. (Example - a surgeon performing a new operation a small number of times - the levels of negative outcome are not known). Level 2 - Repeatable: It is characteristic of this level of maturity that some processes are repeatable, possibly with consistent results. Process discipline is unlikely to be rigorous, but where it exists it may help to ensure that existing processes are maintained during times of stress. Level 3 - Defined: It is characteristic of processes at this level that there are sets of defined and documented standard processes established and subject to some degree of improvement over time. These standard processes are in place. The processes may not have been systematically or repeatedly used - sufficient for the users to become competent or the process to be validated in a range of situations. This could be considered a developmental stage - with use in a wider range of conditions and user competence development the process can develop to next level of maturity. Level 4 - Managed (Capable): It is characteristic of processes at this level that, using process metrics, effective achievement of the process objectives can be evidenced across a range of operational conditions. The suitability of the process in multiple environments has been tested and the process refined and adapted. Process users have experienced the process in multiple and varied conditions, and are able to demonstrate competence. The process maturity enables adaptions to particular projects without measurable losses of quality or deviations from specifications. Process Capability is established from this level. (Example - surgeon performing an operation hundreds of times with levels of negative outcome approaching zero). Level 5 - Optimizing (Efficient):It is a characteristic of processes at this level that the focus is on continually improving process performance through both incremental and innovative technological changes/improvements. At maturity level 5, processes are concerned with addressing statistical common causes of process variation and changing the process (for example, to shift the mean of the process performance) to improve process performance. This would be done at the same time as maintaining the likelihood of achieving the established quantitative process-improvement objectives. Between 2008 and 2019, about 12% of appraisals given were at maturity levels 4 and 5. ===Critique=== The model was originally intended to evaluate the ability of government contractors to perform a software project. It has been used for and may be suited to that purpose, but critics pointed out that process maturity according to the CMM was not necessarily mandatory for successful software development. ===Software process framework=== The software process framework documented is intended to guide those wishing to assess an organization's or project's consistency with the Key Process Areas. For each maturity level there are five checklist types:	[ "Addison-Wesley Professional", "Gerald Weinberg", "Communications of the ACM", "U.S. Department of Defense", "Addison-Wesley", "Tom DeMarco", "New American Library", "United States Air Force", "Edward Yourdon", "ad hoc", "Watts Humphrey", "Quality Management Maturity Grid", "The Open Group", "stages of growth model", "Software Engineering Institute", "computer science", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania", "Testing Maturity Model", "maturity model", "Dorset House Pub.", "Capability Immaturity Model", "David Parnas", "IEEE Software", "Dr Bill Curtis", "Carnegie Mellon University", "optimization", "IEEE", "IT service management", "software development", "business process", "process area", "Richard L. Nolan", "Capability Maturity Model Integration", "Philip B. Crosby", "Larry Constantine", "Prentice Hall.", "People Capability Maturity Model", "best practice" ]
7,499	RDX	{{Chembox \| Verifiedimages = changed \| Watchedfields = changed \| verifiedrevid = 455176538 \| ImageFileL1_Ref = \| Name = \| ImageFile = \| ImageFileL1 = RDX.svg \| ImageClassL1 = skin-invert-image \| ImageFileR1 = RDX_3D_BallStick.png \| ImageClassR1 = bg-transparent \| ImageFile2 = RDX crystal.jpg \| ImageCaption2 = RDX crystal \| PIN = 1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-triazinane \| SystematicName = \| OtherNames = 1,3,5-Trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazineRDXcyclonite, hexogen1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-triazacyclohexane1,3,5-Trinitrohexahydro-s-triazineCyclotrimethylenetrinitramineHexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-s-triazineTrimethylenetrinitraminehexolite \| IUPACName = \| Section1 = \| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties \| C=3 \|H=6 \|O=6 \|N=6 \| Appearance = Colorless or yellowish crystals \| Density = 1.806 g/cm3 \| MeltingPtC = 205.5 \| BoilingPtC = 234 \| Solubility = insoluble \| IDLH = N.D. among other names, is an organic compound with the formula (CH2N2O2)3. It is white, odorless, and tasteless, widely used as an explosive. Chemically, it is classified as a nitroamine alongside HMX, which is a more energetic explosive than TNT. It was used widely in World War II and remains common in military applications. RDX is often used in mixtures with other explosives and plasticizers or phlegmatizers (desensitizers); it is the explosive agent in C-4 plastic explosive and a key ingredient in Semtex. It is stable in storage and is considered one of the most energetic and brisant of the military high explosives, The term RDX appeared in the United States in 1946. The first public reference in the United Kingdom to the name RDX, or R.D.X., to use the official title, appeared in 1948; its authors were the managing chemist, ROF Bridgwater, the chemical research and development department, Woolwich, and the director of Royal Ordnance Factories, Explosives. The Tallboy and Grand Slam bombs designed by Barnes Wallis also used Torpex. RDX is believed to have been used in many bomb plots, including terrorist plots. RDX is the base for a number of common military explosives: Composition A: Granular explosive consisting of RDX and plasticizing wax, such as composition A-3 (91% RDX coated with 9% wax) and composition A-5 (98.5 to 99.1% RDX coated with 0.95 to 1.54% stearic acid). Composition B: Castable mixtures of 59.5% RDX and 39.4% TNT with 1% wax as desensitizer. Composition C: The original composition C was used in World War II, but there have been subsequent variations including C-2, C-3, and C-4. C-4 consists of RDX (91%); a plasticizer, dioctyl sebacate (5.3%); and a binder, which is usually polyisobutylene (2.1%); and oil (1.6%). Composition CH-6: 97.5% RDX, 1.5% calcium stearate, 0.5% polyisobutylene, and 0.5% graphite as the supply of RDX became more adequate, however, the mixture was shelved Cyclotol: Castable mixture of RDX (50–80%) with TNT (20–50%) designated by the amount of RDX/TNT, such as Cyclotol 70/30 HBX: Castable mixtures of RDX, TNT, powdered aluminium, and D-2 wax with calcium chloride H-6: Castable mixture of RDX, TNT, powdered aluminum, and paraffin wax (used as a phlegmatizing agent) PBX: RDX is also used as a major component of many polymer-bonded explosives (PBX); RDX-based PBXs typically consist of RDX and at least thirteen different polymer/co-polymer binders. Examples of RDX-based PBX formulations include, but are not limited to: PBX-9007, PBX-9010, PBX-9205, PBX-9407, PBX-9604, PBXN-106, PBXN-3, PBXN-6, PBXN-10, PBXN-201, PBX-0280, PBX Type I, PBXC-116, PBXAF-108, etc. Semtex (trade name): Plastic demolition explosive containing RDX and PETN as major energetic components Torpex: 42% RDX, 40% TNT, and 18% powdered aluminium; the mixture was designed during World War II and used mainly in underwater ordnance Outside military applications, RDX is also used in controlled demolition to raze structures. The demolition of the Jamestown Bridge in the U.S. state of Rhode Island was one instance where RDX shaped charges were used to remove the span. ==Synthesis== RDX is classified by chemists as a hexahydro-1,3,5-triazine derivative. In laboratory settings (industrial routes are described below separately) it is obtained by treating hexamine with white fuming nitric acid. This nitrolysis reaction also produces methylene dinitrate, ammonium nitrate, and water as by-products. The overall reaction is: ==History== RDX was used by both sides in World War II. The US produced about per month during WWII and Germany about per month. RDX had the major advantages of possessing greater explosive force than TNT and required no additional raw materials for its manufacture. Thus, it was also extensively used in World War I In this patent, only the medical properties of RDX were mentioned. and another for its use as an explosive, noting its excellent characteristics. The German military hadn't considered its adoption during the war due to the expense of production but started investigating its use in 1920, referring to it as hexogen. described as an Austrian and later a German citizen, rediscovered the explosive properties of RDX SH-Salz (SH salt) was from Schnurr, who developed a batch-process in 1937–38 based on nitrolysis of hexamine. The K-method, from Knöffler, involved addition of ammonium nitrate to the hexamine/nitric acid process. The E-method, developed by Ebele, proved to be identical to the Ross and Schiessler process described below. The KA-method, also developed by Knöffler, turned out to be identical to the Bachmann process described below. The explosive shells fired by the MK 108 cannon and the warhead of the R4M rocket, both used in Luftwaffe fighter aircraft as offensive armament, both used hexogen as their explosive base. ===UK=== In the United Kingdom (UK), RDX was manufactured from 1933 by the research department in a pilot plant at the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich, London, a larger pilot plant being built at the RGPF Waltham Abbey just outside London in 1939. By 1942 the Royal Air Force's annual requirement was forecast to be of RDX, much of which came from North America (Canada and the US). RDX had been tested by Picatinny Arsenal in 1929, and it was regarded as too expensive and too sensitive. At that time, this works had the largest nitric acid plant in the world. By early 1941, the NDRC was researching new processes. At least three laboratories with no previous explosive experience were instructed to develop better production methods for RDX; they were based at Cornell, Michigan, and Pennsylvania State universities. ====Bachmann process==== The National Defence Research Committee (NDRC) instructed three companies to develop pilot plants. They were the Western Cartridge Company, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, and Tennessee Eastman Company, part of Eastman Kodak. The Bachmann process yields both RDX and HMX, with the major product determined by the specific reaction conditions. ===Military compositions=== The United Kingdom's intention in World War II was to use "desensitised" RDX. In the original Woolwich process, RDX was phlegmatized with beeswax, but later paraffin wax was used, based on the work carried out at Bruceton. In the event the UK was unable to obtain sufficient RDX to meet its needs, some of the shortfall was met by substituting amatol, a mixture of ammonium nitrate and TNT. Nonetheless, by May 1942 Wellington bombers began to deploy depth charges containing Torpex, a mixture of RDX, TNT, and aluminium, which had up to 50 percent more destructive power than TNT-filled depth charges. ===Terrorism=== A Semtex bomb was used in the Pan Am Flight 103 (known also as the Lockerbie) bombing in 1988. A belt laden with of RDX explosives tucked under the dress of the assassin was used in the assassination of former Indian prime minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1991. The 1993 Bombay bombings used RDX placed into several vehicles as bombs. RDX was the main component used for the 2006 Mumbai train bombings and the Jaipur bombings in 2008. It also is believed to be the explosive used in the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings. Traces of RDX were found on pieces of wreckage from 1999 Russian apartment bombings and 2004 Russian aircraft bombings. FSB reports on the bombs used in the 1999 apartment bombings indicated that while RDX was not a part of the main charge, each bomb contained plastic explosive used as a booster charge. Ahmed Ressam, the al-Qaeda Millennium Bomber, used a small quantity of RDX as one of the components in the bomb that he prepared to detonate in Los Angeles International Airport on New Year's Eve 1999–2000; the bomb could have produced a blast forty times greater than that of a devastating car bomb. In July 2012, the Kenyan government arrested two Iranian nationals and charged them with illegal possession of of RDX. According to the Kenyan Police, the Iranians planned to use the RDX for "attacks on Israeli, US, UK and Saudi Arabian targets". RDX was used in the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri on February 14, 2005. In the 2019 Pulwama attack in India, 250 kg of high-grade RDX was used by Jaish-e-Mohammed. The attack resulted in the deaths of 44 Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) personnel as well as the attacker. Two letter bombs sent to journalists in Ecuador were disguised as USB flash drives which contained RDX that would detonate when plugged in. ==Stability== RDX has a high nitrogen content and a high oxygen to carbon ratio, (O:C ratio), both of which indicate its explosive potential for formation of N2 and CO2. RDX undergoes a deflagration to detonation transition (DDT) in confinement and certain circumstances. The velocity of detonation of RDX at a density of 1.80 g/cm3 is 8750 m/s. It starts to decompose at approximately 170 °C and melts at 204 °C. At room temperature, it is very stable. It burns rather than explodes. It detonates only with a detonator, being unaffected even by small arms fire. This property makes it a useful military explosive. It is less sensitive than pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN). Under normal conditions, RDX has a Figure of Insensitivity of exactly 80 (RDX defines the reference point). RDX sublimes in vacuum, which restricts or prevents its use in some applications. RDX, when exploded in air, has about 1.5 times the explosive energy of TNT per unit weight and about 2.0 times per unit volume. RDX is insoluble in water, with solubility 0.05975 g/L at temperature of 25 °C. ==Toxicity== The substance's toxicity has been studied for many years. RDX has caused convulsions (seizures) in military field personnel ingesting it, and in munition workers inhaling its dust during manufacture. At least one fatality was attributed to RDX toxicity in a European munitions manufacturing plant. During the Vietnam War, at least 40 American soldiers were hospitalized with composition C-4 (which is 91% RDX) intoxication from December 1968 to December 1969. C-4 was frequently used by soldiers as a fuel to heat food, and the food was generally mixed by the same knife that was used to cut C-4 into small pieces prior to burning. Soldiers were exposed to C-4 either due to inhaling the fumes, or due to ingestion, made possible by many small particles adhering to the knife having been deposited into the cooked food. The symptom complex involved nausea, vomiting, generalized seizures, and prolonged postictal confusion and amnesia; which indicated toxic encephalopathy. Oral toxicity of RDX depends on its physical form; in rats, the LD50 was found to be 100 mg/kg for finely powdered RDX, and 300 mg/kg for coarse, granular RDX. The substance has low to moderate toxicity with a possible human carcinogen classification. Further research is ongoing, however, and this classification may be revised by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Remediating RDX-contaminated water supplies has proven to be successful. It is known to be a kidney toxin in humans and highly toxic to earthworms and plants, thus army testing ranges where RDX was used heavily may need to undergo environmental remediation. Concerns have been raised by research published in late 2017 indicating that the issue has not been addressed correctly by U.S. officials. ==Civilian use== RDX has been used as a rodenticide because of its toxicity. ==Biodegradation== RDX is degraded by the organisms in sewage sludge as well as the fungus Phanaerocheate chrysosporium. Both wild and transgenic plants can phytoremediate explosives from soil and water. One by-product of the environmental decomposition is R-salt. ==Alternatives== FOX-7 is considered to be approximately a 1-to-1 replacement for RDX in almost all applications.	[ "RAF Metheringham", "Grand Slam (bomb)", "Polymer-bonded explosive", "Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi", "toxic encephalopathy", "Luftwaffe", "depth charge", "Jaish-e-Mohammed", "room temperature", "Oak Ridge National Laboratory", "11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings", "Vickers Wellington", "Rossiyskaya Gazeta", "Los Angeles International Airport", "List of UN numbers 0401 to 0500", "Military science", "calcium stearate", "History of the Second World War", "Cyclotol", "mercury fulminate", "Ahmed Ressam", "Semtex", "Tallboy (bomb)", "brisance", "hexamine", "His Majesty's Stationery Office", "Barnes Wallis", "explosive booster", "Bureau of Ordnance", "Woolwich", "New Year's Eve", "Central Reserve Police Force", "2004 Russian aircraft bombings", "Nazi Germany", "High Blast Explosive", "nitronium ion", "PETN", "Trinitrotoluene", "possible human carcinogen", "MK 108 cannon", "Tizard Mission", "Germany", "Royal Ordnance Factories", "sulfamic acid", "Composition CH-6", "shaped charge", "U-boat", "Tennessee Eastman", "2019 Pulwama attack", "graphite", "Canada", "James B. Conant", "World War I", "Hercules Inc.", "Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills", "wax", "rodenticide", "Imperial Chemical Industries", "List of UN numbers 0001 to 0100", "U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine", "hexamethylenetetramine", "self-sufficient", "Bruceton, Pennsylvania", "New York State Department of Transportation", "Newport Chemical Depot", "plasticizer", "Figure of Insensitivity", "McGill University", "torpedo", "National Defense Research Committee", "hexahydro-1,3,5-triazine", "phytoremediation", "polyisobutylene", "patent", "car bomb", "phlegmatized", "United Kingdom", "nitroamine", "al-Qaeda", "amatol", "Picatinny Arsenal", "bouncing bomb", "ammonium picrate", "conveyor belt", "polymer-bonded explosive", "United States Bureau of Mines", "Office of Scientific Research and Development", "List of UN numbers 0301 to 0400", "Phanerochaete", "white fuming nitric acid", "trinitrotoluene", "2010 Moscow Metro bombings", "stearic acid", "terrorist", "HMX", "plastic explosive", "The Economic Times", "Royal Arsenal", "explosive", "USB flash drive", "duPont", "TNT", "Pan Am Flight 103", "Werner Emmanuel Bachmann", "Holston Ordnance Works", "C-4 (explosive)", "R4M rocket", "sublimation (chemistry)", "relative effectiveness factor", "Torpex", "London", "Frankfurt", "University of Michigan", "FOX-7", "nitration", "Composition H-6", "World War II", "Explosive velocity", "Mole (animal)", "dioctyl sebacate", "Cornell University", "R-salt", "sewage sludge", "acetic anhydride", "2000 millennium attack plots", "nitric acid", "Pennsylvania State University", "Karl Dönitz", "demolition", "nitrolysis", "Letter bomb", "Neubabelsberg", "postictal state", "William H. P. Blandy", "Royal Society of Chemistry", "organic compound", "assassination of Rafic Hariri", "ROF Bridgwater", "small arms", "deflagration to detonation transition", "1993 Bombay bombings", "vacuum", "British Empire", "beeswax", "Eastman Chemical Company", "Rajiv Gandhi", "ammonium nitrate", "The Times of India", "munition", "Ecuador", "Kenyan Police", "smokeless propellant", "Federal Security Service", "paraffin wax", "United States Environmental Protection Agency", "1999 Russian apartment bombings", "Rhode Island", "high explosive", "Operation Chastise", "Composition B", "Royal Air Force", "Jaipur bombings", "Composition A", "Hexahydro-1,3,5-triazine", "English Heritage", "Jamestown Bridge", "Composition C", "status epilepticus", "desensitizer", "detonator", "Vietnam War" ]
7,500	Celebes (disambiguation)	Celebes is the western name of Sulawesi, an island in Indonesia. Celebes may also refer to: Celebes Sea, western Pacific Ocean Celebes TV, a local news television station in South Sulawesi, Indonesia The Elephant Celebes, a 1921 Surrealist work by Max Ernst HMS Celebes (1806), originally the Batavian Republic frigate Pallas Celebes papeda, Citrus celebica, a tree species native to Sulawesi	[ "The Elephant Celebes", "Celebes", "HMS Celebes (1806)", "Celebes TV", "Celebes Sea", "Celebes papeda", "Sulawesi" ]
7,501	Chairman of the board (disambiguation)	RedirectChairman of the Board (disambiguation)	[ "Chairman of the Board (disambiguation)" ]
7,502	Christianity and Judaism	Christianity began as a movement within Second Temple Judaism and the two religions gradually diverged over the first few centuries of the Christian era. Today, differences in opinion vary between denominations in both religions, but the most important distinction is Christian acceptance and Jewish non-acceptance of Jesus as the Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible and Jewish tradition. Early Christianity distinguished itself by determining that observance of Halakha (Jewish law) was not necessary for non-Jewish converts to Christianity (see Pauline Christianity). Another major difference is the two religions' conceptions of God. Depending on the denomination followed, the Christian God is either believed to consist of three persons of one essence (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), with the doctrine of the incarnation of the Son in Jesus being of special importance, or like Judaism, believes in and emphasizes the Oneness of God. Judaism, however, rejects the Christian concept of God in human form. Christianity recognizes the Hebrew Bible (called the Old Testament by Christians) as part of its scriptural canon; Judaism does not recognize the Christian New Testament. The relative importance of belief and practice constitute an important area of difference. Most forms of Protestant Christianity emphasize correct belief (or orthodoxy), focussing on the New Covenant as mediated through Jesus Christ, as recorded in the New Testament. Judaism has traditionally been thought to emphasize correct conduct (or orthopraxy), focussing on the Mosaic covenant, as recorded in the Torah and discussed in the Talmud. Mainstream Roman Catholicism occupies a middle ground , stating both faith and works are factors in a person's salvation. Some schools of thought within Catholicism, such as Franciscanism and liberation theology, explicitly favor orthopraxy over orthodoxy. Praxis is of central importance to Eastern Christianity as well, with Maximus the Confessor going as far as to say that "theology without action is the theology of demons." Christian conceptions of right practice (i.e., orthopraxy) vary (e.g., Catholic social teaching and its preferential option for the poor; the Eastern Orthodox Church's practices of fasting, hesychasm, and asceticism; and the Protestant work ethic of Calvinists and others) but differ from Judaism in that they are not based on Halakha or any other interpretation of the Mosaic covenant. While more liberal Jewish denominations may not mandate observance of Halakha, Jewish life remains centred on individual and collective participation in an eternal dialogue with God through tradition, rituals, prayers and ethical actions. ==Jewish self-identification== Judaism's purpose is to carry out what it holds to be the covenant between God and the Jewish people. The Torah (), both written and oral, tells the story of this covenant and provides Jews with the terms of the covenant. The Oral Torah is the primary guide for Jews to abide by these terms, as expressed in tractate Gittin 60b ("the Holy One, Blessed be He, did not make His covenant with Israel except by virtue of the Oral Law") to help them learn how to live a holy life, and to bring holiness, peace and love into the world and into every part of life, so that life may be elevated to a high level of kedusha, originally through study and practice of the Torah, and since the destruction of the Second Temple, through prayer as expressed in tractate Sotah 49a: "Since the destruction of the Temple, every day is more cursed than the preceding one; and the existence of the world is assured only by the kedusha...and the words spoken after the study of Torah." Since the adoption of the Amidah, the acknowledgement of God through the declaration from Isaiah 6:3: "Kadosh [holy], kadosh, kadosh, is HaShem, Master of Legions; the whole world is filled with His glory". as a replacement for the study of Torah, which is a daily obligation for Jews, and sanctifies God in itself. This continuous maintenance of the relationship between the individual Jew and God through study or prayer repeated three times daily is the confirmation of the original covenant. This allows the Jewish people as a community to strive and fulfill the prophecy "I, the Lord, have called you in righteousness, and will hold your hand and keep you. And I will establish you as a covenant of the people, for a light unto the nations." (i.e., a role model) over the course of history, and a part of the divine intent of bringing about an age of peace and sanctity where ideally a faithful life and good deeds should be ends in themselves, not means (see also Jewish principles of faith). According to Christian theologian Alister McGrath, the Jewish Christians affirmed every aspect of then-contemporary Second Temple Judaism with the addition of the belief that Jesus was the Messiah, with Isaiah 49:6, "an explicit parallel to 42:6" quoted by Paul the Apostle in Acts 13:47 and reinterpreted by Justin Martyr. According to Christian writers, most notably Paul, the Bible teaches that people are, in their current state, sinful, and the New Testament reveals that Jesus is both the Son of man and the Son of God, united in the hypostatic union, God the Son, God made incarnate; that Jesus' death by crucifixion was a sacrifice to atone for all of humanity's sins, and that acceptance of Jesus as Savior and Lord saves one from Divine Judgment, giving Eternal life. Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant. to be the proclamation of the New Covenant ethics, in contrast to the Mosaic Covenant of Moses from Mount Sinai. Some scholars, like Margaret Barker, propose that early Christianity has roots in First Temple Israelite religion, which is dubbed as the "Temple Theology". Baker's work has been criticized for engaging in parallelomania and failing to engage in the broader scholarly literature, but it has gained some religious and academic support. ==Sacred texts== The Hebrew Bible is composed of three parts: the Torah ('instruction'; the Septuagint translated the Hebrew to nomos or Law), the Nevi'im (Prophets) and the Ketuvim (Writings). Collectively, these are known as the Tanakh. According to Rabbinic Judaism the Torah was revealed by God to Moses; within it, Jews find 613 mitzvot (commandments). Rabbinic tradition asserts that God revealed two Torahs to Moses, one that was written down, and one that was transmitted orally. Whereas the written Torah has a fixed form, the Oral Torah is a living tradition that includes not only specific supplements to the written Torah (for instance, what is the proper manner of shechita and what is meant by "Frontlets" in the Shema), but also procedures for understanding and talking about the written Torah (thus, the Oral Torah revealed at Sinai includes debates among rabbis who lived long after Moses). The Oral Law elaborations of narratives in the Bible and stories about the rabbis are referred to as aggadah. It also includes elaboration of the 613 commandments in the form of laws referred to as halakha. Elements of the Oral Torah were committed to writing and edited by Judah HaNasi in the Mishnah in 200 CE; much more of the Oral Torah were committed to writing in the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds, which were edited around 600 CE and 450 CE, respectively. The Talmuds are notable for the way they combine law and lore, for their explication of the midrashic method of interpreting texts, and for their accounts of debates among rabbis, which preserve divergent and conflicting interpretations of the Bible and legal rulings. Since the transcription of the Talmud, notable rabbis have compiled law codes that are generally held in high regard: the Mishneh Torah, the Tur, and the Shulchan Aruch. The latter, which was based on earlier codes and supplemented by the commentary by Moshe Isserles that notes other practices and customs practiced by Jews in different communities, especially among Ashkenazim, is generally held to be authoritative by Orthodox Jews. The Zohar, which was written in the 13th century, is generally held as the most important esoteric treatise of the Jews. All contemporary Jewish movements consider the Tanakh, and the Oral Torah in the form of the Mishnah and Talmuds as sacred, although movements are divided as to claims concerning their divine revelation, and also their authority. For Jews, the Torah—written and oral—is the primary guide to the relationship between God and man, a living document that has unfolded and will continue to unfold whole new insights over the generations and millennia. A saying that captures this goes, "Turn it [the Torah's words] over and over again, for everything is in it." Christians accept the Written Torah and other books of the Hebrew Bible (alternatively called Old Testament) as Scripture, although they generally give readings from the Koine Greek Septuagint translation instead of the Biblical Hebrew/Biblical Aramaic Masoretic Text. Two notable examples are: Isaiah 7:14 – "virgin" instead of "young woman" Psalm 22:16 – "they have pierced my hands and feet" instead of "like a lion, (they are at) my hands and feet" Instead of the traditional Jewish order and names for the books, Christians organize and name the books closer to that found in the Septuagint. Some Christian denominations (such as Anglican, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox), include a number of books that are not in the Hebrew Bible (the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books or Anagignoskomena, see Development of the Old Testament canon) in their biblical canon that are not in today's Jewish canon, although they were included in the Septuagint. Christians reject the Jewish Oral Torah, which was still in oral, and therefore unwritten, form in the time of Jesus. ==Covenant theology== Christians believe that God has established a New Covenant with people through Jesus, as recorded in the Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, Epistles, and other books collectively called the New Testament (the word testament attributed to Tertullian is commonly interchanged with the word covenant). For some Christians, such as Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians, this New Covenant includes authoritative sacred traditions and canon law. Others, especially Protestants, reject the authority of such traditions and instead hold to the principle of sola scriptura, which accepts only the Bible itself as the final rule of faith and practice. Anglicans do not believe in sola scriptura. For them, scripture is the longest leg of a 3-legged stool: scripture, tradition, and reason. Scripture cannot stand on its own since it must be interpreted in the light of the Church's patristic teaching and ecumenical creeds. Additionally, some denominations include the "oral teachings of Jesus to the Apostles", which they believe have been handed down to this day by apostolic succession. Christians refer to the canonized books about Jesus as the New Testament and to the canon of the Hebrew Bible as the Old Testament. Judaism does not accept the retronymic labeling of its sacred texts as the "Old Testament", and some Jews refer to the New Testament as the Christian Testament or Christian Bible. Judaism rejects all claims that the Christian New Covenant supersedes, abrogates, fulfills, or is the unfolding or consummation of the covenant expressed in the Written and Oral Torahs. Therefore, just as Christianity does not accept that Mosaic law has any authority over Christians, Judaism does not accept that the New Testament has any religious authority over Jews. ==Law== Many Jews view Christians as having quite an ambivalent view of the Torah and the laws contained in it: on one hand, Christians speak of it as God's absolute word, but on the other, they apply its commandments with a certain selectivity. Some Jews contend that Christians cite commandments from the Hebrew Bible to support one point of view but then ignore other commandments of a similar class and equal weight. Examples of this are certain commandments that God states explicitly to be a "lasting covenant." Some translate the Hebrew as a "perpetual covenant." Christians explain that such selectivity is based on rulings made by early Jewish Christians in the Book of Acts, at the Council of Jerusalem, that, while believing gentiles did not need to convert to Judaism fully, they should follow some aspects of Torah like avoiding idolatry, fornication, and blood. This view is also reflected by modern Judaism, in that righteous gentiles need not convert to Judaism and need to observe only the Noahide laws, which also contain prohibitions against idolatry and fornication and blood. Some Christians agree that Jews who accept Jesus should still observe all of the Torah—see, for example dual-covenant theology—based on warnings by Jesus to Jews not to use him as an excuse to disregard it, and they support efforts of those such as Messianic Jews (Messianic Judaism is considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity) to do that, but some Protestant forms of Christianity oppose all observance of the Mosaic law, even by Jews, which Luther criticised as antinomianism. A minority view in Christianity, known as Christian Torah-submission, holds that the Mosaic law as it is written is binding on all followers of God under the New Covenant, even for gentiles, because it views God's commands as "everlasting" and "good." ==Concepts of God== Traditionally, both Judaism and Christianity believe in the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, for Jews the God of the Tanakh, for Christians the God of the Old Testament, the creator of the universe. Judaism and major sects of Christianity reject the view that God is entirely immanent and within the world as a physical presence (although Christians believe in the incarnation of God). Both religions reject the view that God is entirely transcendent, and thus separate from the world, as the pre-Christian Greek Unknown God. Both religions reject atheism on one hand and polytheism on the other. Both religions agree that God shares both transcendent and immanent qualities. How these religions resolve this issue is where the religions differ. Christianity posits that God exists as a Trinity; in this view God exists as three distinct persons who share a single divine essence, or substance. In those three there is one, and in that one there are three; the one God is indivisible, while the three persons are distinct and unconfused, God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. It teaches that God became especially immanent in physical form through the Incarnation of God the Son who was born as Jesus of Nazareth, who is believed to be at once fully God and fully human. There are denominations self-describing as Christian who question one or more of these doctrines, however, see Nontrinitarianism. By contrast, Judaism sees God as a single entity, and views trinitarianism as both incomprehensible and a violation of the Bible's teaching that God is one. It rejects the notion that Jesus or any other object or living being could be 'God', that God could have a literal 'son' in physical form or is divisible in any way, or that God could be made to be joined to the material world in such fashion. Although Judaism provides Jews with a word to label God's transcendence (Ein Sof, without end) and immanence (Shekhinah, in-dwelling), these are merely human words to describe two ways of experiencing God; God is one and indivisible. ===Shituf=== A minority Jewish view maintains that while Christian worship is polytheistic (due to the multiplicity of the Trinity), it is permissible for them to swear in God's name, since they are referring to the one God. This theology is referred to in Hebrew as Shituf (literally "partnership" or "association"). Although worship of a trinity is considered to be not different from any other form of idolatry for Jews, it may be an acceptable belief for non-Jews (according to the ruling of some Rabbinic authorities). ==Right action== ===Faith versus good deeds=== Judaism teaches that the purpose of the Torah is to teach us how to act correctly. God's existence is a given in Judaism, and not something that most authorities see as a matter of required belief. Although some authorities see the Torah as commanding Jews to believe in God, Jews see belief in God as a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for a Jewish life. The quintessential verbal expression of Judaism is the Shema Yisrael, the statement that the God of the Bible is their God, and that this God is unique and one. The quintessential physical expression of Judaism is behaving in accordance with the 613 Mitzvot (the commandments specified in the Torah), and thus live one's life in God's ways. Thus fundamentally in Judaism, one is enjoined to bring holiness into life (with the guidance of God's laws), rather than removing oneself from life to be holy. Much of Christianity also teaches that God wants people to perform good works, but all branches hold that good works alone will not lead to salvation, which is called Legalism, the exception being dual-covenant theology. Some Christian denominations hold that salvation depends upon transformational faith in Jesus, which expresses itself in good works as a testament (or witness) to ones faith for others to see (primarily Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism), while others (including most Protestants) hold that faith alone is necessary for salvation. Some argue that the difference is not as great as it seems, because it really hinges on the definition of "faith" used. The first group generally uses the term "faith" to mean "intellectual and heartfelt assent and submission". Such a faith will not be salvific until a person has allowed it to effect a life transforming conversion (turning towards God) in their being (see Ontotheology). The Christians that hold to "salvation by faith alone" (also called by its Latin name "sola fide") define faith as being implicitly ontological—mere intellectual assent is not termed "faith" by these groups. Faith, then, is life-transforming by definition. ===Sin=== In both religions, offenses against the will of God are called sin. These sins can be thoughts, words, or deeds. Catholicism categorizes sins into various groups. A wounding of the relationship with God is often called venial sin; a complete rupture of the relationship with God is often called mortal sin. Without salvation from sin (see below), a person's separation from God is permanent, causing such a person to enter Hell in the afterlife. Both the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church define sin more or less as a "macula", a spiritual stain or uncleanliness that constitutes damage to man's image and likeness of God. Hebrew has several words for sin, each with its own specific meaning. The word pesha, or "trespass", means a sin done out of rebelliousness. The word aveira means "transgression". And the word avone, or "iniquity", means a sin done out of moral failing. The word most commonly translated simply as "sin", het, literally means "to go astray". Just as Jewish law, halakha provides the proper "way" (or path) to live, sin involves straying from that path. Judaism teaches that humans are born with free will, and morally neutral, with both a yetzer hatov, (literally, "the good inclination", in some views, a tendency towards goodness, in others, a tendency towards having a productive life and a tendency to be concerned with others) and a yetzer hara, (literally "the evil inclination", in some views, a tendency towards evil, and in others, a tendency towards base or animal behavior and a tendency to be selfish). In Judaism all human beings are believed to have free will and can choose the path in life that they will take. It does not teach that choosing good is impossible—only at times more difficult. There is almost always a "way back" if a person wills it. (Although texts mention certain categories for whom the way back will be exceedingly hard, such as the slanderer, the habitual gossip, and the malicious person) The rabbis recognize a positive value to the yetzer hara: one tradition identifies it with the observation on the last day of creation that God's accomplishment was "very good" (God's work on the preceding days was just described as "good") and explain that without the yetzer ha'ra there would be no marriage, children, commerce or other fruits of human labor; the implication is that yetzer ha'tov and yetzer ha'ra are best understood not as moral categories of good and evil but as selfless versus selfish orientations, either of which used rightly can serve God's will. In contrast to the Jewish view of being morally balanced, Original Sin refers to the idea that the sin of Adam and Eve's disobedience (sin "at the origin") has passed on a spiritual heritage, so to speak. Christians teach that human beings inherit a corrupted or damaged human nature in which the tendency to do bad is greater than it would have been otherwise, so much so that human nature would not be capable now of participating in the afterlife with God. This is not a matter of being "guilty" of anything; each person is only personally guilty of their own actual sins. However, this understanding of original sin is what lies behind the Christian emphasis on the need for spiritual salvation from a spiritual Saviour, who can forgive and set aside sin even though humans are not inherently pure and worthy of such salvation. Paul the Apostle in Romans and I Corinthians placed special emphasis on this doctrine, and stressed that belief in Jesus would allow Christians to overcome death and attain salvation in the hereafter. Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and some Protestants teach the Sacrament of Baptism is the means by which each person's damaged human nature is healed and sanctifying grace (capacity to enjoy and participate in the spiritual life of God) is restored. This is referred to as "being born of water and the Spirit", following the terminology in the Gospel of St. John. Most Protestants believe this salvific grace comes about at the moment of personal decision to follow Jesus, and that baptism is a symbol of the grace already received. ===Love=== The Hebrew word for "love", ahavah (אהבה), is used to describe intimate or romantic feelings or relationships, such as the love between parent and child in Genesis 22:2; 25: 28; 37:3; the love between close friends in I Samuel 18:2, 20:17; or the love between a young man and young woman in Song of Songs. Christians will often use the Greek of the Septuagint to make distinctions between the types of love: philia for brotherly, eros for romantic and agape for self-sacrificing love. Like many Jewish scholars and theologians, literary critic Harold Bloom understands Judaism as fundamentally a religion of love. But he argues that one can understand the Hebrew conception of love only by looking at one of the core commandments of Judaism, Leviticus 19:18, "Love your neighbor as yourself", also called the second Great Commandment. Talmudic sages Hillel and Rabbi Akiva commented that this is a major element of the Jewish religion. Also, this commandment is arguably at the center of the Jewish faith. As the third book of the Torah, Leviticus is literally the central book. Historically, Jews have considered it of central importance: traditionally, children began their study of the Torah with Leviticus, and the midrashic literature on Leviticus is among the longest and most detailed of midrashic literature. Bernard Jacob Bamberger considers Leviticus 19, beginning with God's commandment in verse 3—"You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God, am holy"—to be "the climactic chapter of the book, the one most often read and quoted" (1981:889). Leviticus 19:18 is itself the climax of this chapter. ===Abortion=== The only statements in the Tanakh about the status of a fetus state that killing an unborn infant does not have the same status as killing a born human being, and mandates a much lesser penalty. (Although this interpretation is disputed, the passage could refer to an injury to a woman that causes a premature, live birth). The Talmud states that the fetus is not yet a full human being until it has been born (either the head or the body is mostly outside of the woman), therefore killing a fetus is not murder, and abortion—in restricted circumstances—has always been legal under Jewish law. Rashi, the great 12th century commentator on the Bible and Talmud, states clearly of the fetus lav nefesh hu: "it is not a person". The Talmud contains the expression ubar yerech imo—the fetus is as the thigh of its mother,' i.e., the fetus is deemed to be part and parcel of the pregnant woman's body." The Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 69b states that: "the embryo is considered to be mere water until the fortieth day." Afterwards, it is considered subhuman until it is born. Christians who agree with these views may refer to this idea as abortion before the quickening of the fetus. Judaism unilaterally supports, in fact mandates, abortion if doctors believe that it is necessary to save the life of the woman. Many rabbinic authorities allow abortions on the grounds of gross genetic imperfections of the fetus. They also allow abortion if the woman were suicidal because of such defects. However, Judaism holds that abortion is impermissible for family planning or convenience reasons. Each case must be decided individually, however, and the decision should lie with the pregnant woman, the man who impregnated her, and their Rabbi. ===War, violence and pacifism=== Jews and Christians accept as valid and binding many of the same moral principles taught in the Torah. There is a great deal of overlap between the ethical systems of these two faiths. Nonetheless, there are some highly significant doctrinal differences. Judaism has many teachings about peace and compromise, and its teachings make physical violence the last possible option. Nonetheless, the Talmud teaches that "If someone comes with the intention to murder you, then one is obligated to kill in self-defense [rather than be killed]". The clear implication is that to bare one's throat would be tantamount to suicide (which Jewish law forbids) and it would also be considered helping a murderer kill someone and thus would "place an obstacle in front of a blind man" (i.e., makes it easier for another person to falter in their ways). The tension between the laws dealing with peace, and the obligation to self-defense, has led to a set of Jewish teachings that have been described as tactical-pacifism. This is the avoidance of force and violence whenever possible, but the use of force when necessary to save the lives of one's self and one's people. Although killing oneself is forbidden under normal Jewish law as being a denial of God's goodness in the world, under extreme circumstances when there has seemed no choice but to either be killed or forced to betray their religion, Jews have committed suicide or mass suicide (see Masada, First French persecution of the Jews, and York Castle for examples). As a grim reminder of those times, there is even a prayer in the Jewish liturgy for "when the knife is at the throat", for those dying "to sanctify God's Name". These acts have received mixed responses by Jewish authorities. Where some Jews regard them as examples of heroic martyrdom, but others saying that while Jews should always be willing to face martyrdom if necessary, it was wrong for them to take their own lives. Because Judaism focuses on this life, many questions to do with survival and conflict (such as the classic moral dilemma of two people in a desert with only enough water for one to survive) were analysed in great depth by the rabbis within the Talmud, in the attempt to understand the principles a godly person should draw upon in such a circumstance. The Sermon on the Mount records that Jesus taught that if someone comes to harm you, then one must turn the other cheek. This has led four Protestant Christian denominations to develop a theology of pacifism, the avoidance of force and violence at all times. They are known historically as the peace churches, and have incorporated Christ's teachings on nonviolence into their theology so as to apply it to participation in the use of violent force; those denominations are the Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, and the Church of the Brethren. Many other churches have people who hold to the doctrine without making it a part of their doctrines, or who apply it to individuals but not to governments, see also Evangelical counsels. The vast majority of Christian nations and groups have not adopted this theology, nor have they followed it in practice. See also But to bring a sword. ===Capital punishment=== Although the Hebrew Bible has many references to capital punishment, the Jewish sages used their authority to make it nearly impossible for a Jewish court to impose a death sentence. Even when such a sentence might have been imposed, the Cities of Refuge and other sanctuaries, were at hand for those unintentionally guilty of capital offences. It was said in the Talmud about the death penalty in Judaism, that if a court killed more than one person in seventy years, it was a barbarous (or "bloody") court and should be condemned as such. Christianity usually reserved the death penalty for heresy, the denial of the orthodox view of God's view, and witchcraft or similar non-Christian practices. For example, in Spain, unrepentant Jews were exiled, and it was only those crypto-Jews who had accepted baptism under pressure but retained Jewish customs in private, who were punished in this way. It is presently acknowledged by most of Christianity that these uses of capital punishment were deeply immoral. ===Taboo food and drink=== Orthodox Jews, unlike most Christians, still practice a restrictive diet that has many rules. Most Christians believe that the kosher food laws have been superseded. For example, they cite what Jesus taught in Mark 7: what you eat doesn't make you unclean but what comes out of a man's heart makes him unclean—although Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy have their own set of dietary observances. Eastern Orthodoxy, in particular has very elaborate and strict rules of fasting, and continues to observe the Council of Jerusalem's apostolic decree of Act 15. Some Christian denominations observe some biblical food laws, for example, the practice of Ital in Rastafari. Jehovah's Witnesses do not eat blood products and are known for their refusal to accept blood transfusions based on not "eating blood". ==Salvation== Judaism does not see human beings as inherently flawed or sinful and needful of being saved from it, but rather capable with a free will of being righteous, and unlike Christianity does not closely associate ideas of "salvation" with a New Covenant delivered by a Jewish messiah, although in Judaism Jewish people will have a renewed national commitment of observing God's commandments under the New Covenant, and the Jewish Messiah will also be ruling at a time of global peace and acceptance of God by all people. Judaism holds instead that proper living is accomplished through good works and heartfelt prayer, as well as a strong faith in God. Judaism also teaches that gentiles can receive a share in "the world to come". This is codified in the Mishna Avot 4:29, the Babylonian Talmud in tractates Avodah Zarah 10b, and Ketubot 111b, and in Maimonides's 12th century law code, the Mishneh Torah, in Hilkhot Melachim (Laws of Kings) 8.11. The Protestant view is that every human is a sinner, and being saved by God's grace, not simply by the merit of one's own actions, pardons a damnatory sentence to Hell. ===Forgiveness=== In Judaism, one must go to those he has harmed to be entitled to forgiveness. This means that in Judaism a person cannot obtain forgiveness from God for wrongs the person has done to other people. This also means that, unless the victim forgave the perpetrator before he died, murder is unforgivable in Judaism, and they will answer to God for it, though the victims' family and friends can forgive the murderer for the grief they caused them. Thus the "reward" for forgiving others is not God's forgiveness for wrongs done to others, but rather help in obtaining forgiveness from the other person. Sir Jonathan Sacks, Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth, summarized: "it is not that God forgives, while human beings do not. To the contrary, we believe that just as only God can forgive sins against God, so only human beings can forgive sins against human beings." ===Judgment=== Both Christianity and Judaism believe in some form of judgment. Most Christians (the exception is Full Preterism) believe in the future Second Coming of Jesus, which includes the Resurrection of the Dead and the Last Judgment. Those who have accepted Jesus as their personal saviour will be saved and live in God's presence in the Kingdom of Heaven, those who have not accepted Jesus as their saviour, will be cast into the Lake of fire (eternal torment, finite torment, or simply annihilated), see for example The Sheep and the Goats. In Jewish liturgy there is significant prayer and talk of a "book of life" that one is written into, indicating that God judges each person each year even after death. This annual judgment process begins on Rosh Hashanah and ends with Yom Kippur. Additionally, God sits daily in judgment concerning a person's daily activities. Upon the anticipated arrival of the Messiah, God will judge the nations for their persecution of Israel during the exile. Later, God will also judge the Jews over their observance of the Torah. ===Heaven and Hell=== There is little Jewish literature on heaven or hell as actual places, and there are few references to the afterlife in the Hebrew Bible. One is the ghostly apparition of Samuel, called up by the Witch of Endor at King Saul's command. Another is a mention by the Prophet Daniel of those who sleep in the earth rising to either everlasting life or everlasting abhorrence. Early Hebrew views were more concerned with the fate of the nation of Israel as a whole, rather than with individual immortality. A stronger belief in an afterlife for each person developed during the Second Temple period but was contested by various Jewish sects. Pharisees believed that in death, people rest in their graves until they are physically resurrected with the coming of the Messiah, and within that resurrected body the soul would exist eternally. Maimonides also included the concept of resurrection in his Thirteen Principles of Faith. Judaism's view is summed up by a biblical observation about the Torah: in the beginning God clothes the naked (Adam), and at the end God buries the dead (Moses). The Children of Israel mourned for 40 days, then got on with their lives. In Judaism, Heaven is sometimes described as a place where God debates Talmudic law with the angels, and where Jews spend eternity studying the Written and Oral Torah. Jews do not believe in "Hell" as a place of eternal torment. Gehenna is a place or condition of purgatory where Jews spend up to twelve months purifying to get into heaven, depending on how sinful they have been, although some suggest that certain types of sinners can never be purified enough to go to heaven and rather than facing eternal torment, simply cease to exist. Therefore, some violations like suicide would be punished by separation from the community, such as not being buried in a Jewish cemetery (in practice, rabbis often rule suicides to be mentally incompetent and thus not responsible for their actions). Judaism also does not have a notion of hell as a place ruled by Satan since God's dominion is total and Satan is only one of God's angels. Catholics also believe in a purgatory for those who are going to heaven, but Christians in general believe that Hell is a fiery place of torment that never ceases, called the Lake of Fire. A small minority believe this is not permanent, and that those who go there will eventually either be saved or cease to exist. Heaven for Christians is depicted in various ways. As the Kingdom of God described in the New Testament and particularly the Book of Revelation, Heaven is a new or restored earth, a World to Come, free of sin and death, with a New Jerusalem led by God, Jesus, and the most righteous of believers starting with 144,000 Israelites from every tribe, and all others who received salvation living peacefully and making pilgrimages to give glory to the city. In Christianity, promises of Heaven and Hell as rewards and punishments are often used to motivate good and bad behavior, as threats of disaster were used by prophets like Jeremiah to motivate the Israelites. Modern Judaism generally rejects this form of motivation, instead teaching to do the right thing because it's the right thing to do. As Maimonides wrote: "A man should not say: I shall carry out the precepts of the Torah and study her wisdom in order to receive all the blessings written therein or in order to merit the life of the World to Come and I shall keep away from the sins forbidden by the Torah in order to be spared the curses mentioned in the Torah or in order not to be cut off from the life of the World to Come. It is not proper to serve God in this fashion. For one who serves thus serves out of fear. Such a way is not that of the prophets and sages. Only the ignorant, and the women and children serve God in this way. These are trained to serve out of fear until they obtain sufficient knowledge to serve out of love. One who serves God out of love studies the Torah and practices the precepts and walks in the way of wisdom for no ulterior motive at all, neither out of fear of evil nor in order to acquire the good, but follows the truth because it is true and the good will follow the merit of attaining to it. It is the stage of Abraham our father whom the Holy One, blessed be God, called "My friend" (Isaiah 41:8 – ohavi = the one who loves me) because he served out of love alone. It is regarding this stage that the Holy One, Blessed be God, commanded us through Moses, as it is said: "You shall love the Lord your God" (Deuteronomy 6:5). When man loves God with a love that is fitting he automatically carries out all the precepts of love. (Maimonides Yad Chapter 10, quoted in Jacobs 1973: 159) ===The Messiah=== Jews believe that a descendant of King David will one day appear to restore the Kingdom of Israel and usher in an era of peace, prosperity, and spiritual understanding for Israel and all the nations of the world. Jews refer to this person as Moshiach or "anointed one", translated as messiah in English. The traditional Jewish understanding of the messiah is that he is fully human and born of human parents without any supernatural element. The messiah is expected to have a relationship with God similar to that of the prophets of the Tanakh. In his commentary on the Talmud, Maimonides (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon) wrote: All of the people Israel will come back to Torah; The people of Israel will be gathered back to the land of Israel; The Temple in Jerusalem will be rebuilt; Israel will live among the nations as an equal, and will be strong enough to defend herself; Eventually, war, hatred and famine will end, and an era of peace and prosperity will come upon the Earth. He adds: "And if a king shall stand up from among the House of David, studying Torah and indulging in commandments like his father David, according to the written and oral Torah, and he will coerce all Israel to follow it and to strengthen its weak points, and will fight The Lord's wars, this one is to be treated as if he were the anointed one. If he succeeded [and won all nations surrounding him. Old prints and mss.] and built a Holy Temple in its proper place and gathered the strayed ones of Israel together, this is indeed the anointed one for certain, and he will mend the entire world to worship the Lord together ... But if he did not succeed until now, or if he was killed, it becomes known that he is not this one of whom the Torah had promised us, and he is indeed like all [other] proper and wholesome kings of the House of David who died." He also clarified the nature of the Messiah: "Do not imagine that the anointed King must perform miracles and signs and create new things in the world or resurrect the dead and so on. The matter is not so: For Rabbi Akiba was a great scholar of the sages of the Mishnah, and he was the assistant-warrior of the king Ben Coziba Simon bar Kokhba... He and all the Sages of his generation deemed him the anointed king, until he was killed by sins; only since he was killed, they knew that he was not. The Sages asked him neither a miracle nor a sign..." The Christian view of Jesus as Messiah goes beyond such claims and is the fulfillment and union of three anointed offices; a prophet like Moses who delivers God's commands and covenant and frees people from bondage, a High Priest in the order of Melchizedek overshadowing the Levite priesthood and a king like King David ruling over Jews, and like God ruling over the whole world and coming from the line of David. For Christians, Jesus is also fully human and fully divine as the Word of God who sacrifices himself so that humans can receive salvation. Jesus sits in Heaven at the Right Hand of God and will judge humanity in the end times when he returns to earth. Christian readings of the Hebrew Bible find many references to Jesus. This can take the form of specific prophesy, and in other cases of foreshadowing by types or forerunners. Traditionally, most Christian readings of the Bible maintained that almost every prophecy was actually about the coming of Jesus, and that the entire Old Testament of the Bible is a prophecy about the coming of Jesus. ====Catholic views==== Catholicism teaches Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus ("Outside the Church there is no salvation"), which some, like Fr. Leonard Feeney, interpreted as limiting salvation to Catholics only. At the same time, it does not deny the possibility that those not visibly members of the Church may attain salvation as well. In recent times, its teaching has been most notably expressed in the Vatican II council documents Unitatis Redintegratio (1964), Lumen gentium (1964), Nostra aetate (1965), an encyclical issued by Pope John Paul II: Ut unum sint (1995), and in a document issued by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Dominus Iesus in 2000. The latter document has been criticised for claiming that non-Christians are in a "gravely deficient situation" as compared to Catholics, but also adds that "for those who are not formally and visibly members of the Church, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally part of the Church, but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation." Pope John Paul II on 2 October 2000 emphasized that this document did not say that non-Christians were actively denied salvation: "...this confession does not deny salvation to non-Christians, but points to its ultimate source in Christ, in whom man and God are united". On 6 December the Pope issued a statement to further emphasize that the Church continued to support its traditional stance that salvation was available to believers of other faiths: "The gospel teaches us that those who live in accordance with the Beatitudes—the poor in spirit, the pure of heart, those who bear lovingly the sufferings of life—will enter God's kingdom." He further added, "All who seek God with a sincere heart, including those who do not know Christ and his church, contribute under the influence of Grace to the building of this Kingdom." On 13 August 2002 American Catholic bishops issued a joint statement with leaders of Reform and Conservative Judaism, called "Reflections on Covenant and Mission", which affirmed that Christians should not target Jews for conversion. The document stated: "Jews already dwell in a saving covenant with God" and "Jews are also called by God to prepare the world for God's Kingdom." However, many Christian denominations still believe it is their duty to reach out to "unbelieving" Jews. In December 2015, the Vatican released a 10,000-word document that, among other things, stated that Jews do not need to be converted to find salvation, and that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism. ====Eastern Orthodox views==== Eastern Orthodox Christianity emphasizes a continuing life of repentance or metanoia, which includes an increasing improvement in thought, belief and action. Regarding the salvation of Jews, Muslims, and other non-Christians, the Orthodox have traditionally taught that there is no salvation outside the church. Orthodoxy recognizes that other religions may contain truth, to the extent that they are in agreement with Christianity. God is thought to be good, just, and merciful; it would not seem just to condemn someone because they never heard the Gospel message, or were taught a distorted version of the Gospel by heretics. Therefore, the reasoning goes, they must at some point have an opportunity to make a genuine informed decision. Ultimately, those who persist in rejecting God condemn themselves, by cutting themselves off from the ultimate source of all Life, and from the God who is Love embodied. Jews, Muslims, and members of other faiths, then, are expected to convert to Christianity in the afterlife. ===Proselytizing=== Judaism is not a proselytizing religion. Orthodox Judaism deliberately makes it very difficult to convert and become a Jew, and requires a significant and full-time effort in living, study, righteousness, and conduct over several years. The final decision is by no means a foregone conclusion. A person cannot become Jewish by marrying a Jew, or by joining a synagogue, nor by any degree of involvement in the community or religion, but only by explicitly undertaking intense, formal, and supervised work over years aimed towards that goal. Some less strict versions of Judaism have made this process somewhat easier but it is still far from common. In the past, scholars understood Judaism to have an evangelistic drive, but today's scholars are inclined to the view that it was often more akin just to "greater openness to converts" rather than active soliciting of conversions. Since Jews believe that one need not be a Jew to approach God, there is no religious pressure to convert non-Jews to their faith. Indeed, Scholars have revisited the traditional claims about Jewish proselytizing and have brought forward a variety of new insights. McKnight and Goodman have argued persuasively that a distinction ought to be made between the passive reception of converts or interested Pagans, and an active desire or intent to convert the non-Jewish world to Judaism. The Chabad-Lubavitch branch of Hasidic Judaism has been an exception to this non-proselytizing standard, since in recent decades it has been actively promoting Noahide Laws for gentiles as an alternative to Christianity. By contrast, Christianity is an explicitly evangelistic religion. Christians are commanded by Jesus to "Therefore, go and make disciples of all nations". Historically, evangelism has on rare occasions led to forced conversion under threat of death or mass expulsion. ==Mutual views== ===Common Jewish views of Christianity=== Many Jews view Jesus as one in a long list of failed Jewish claimants to be the Messiah, none of whom fulfilled the tests of a prophet specified in the Law of Moses. Others see Jesus as a teacher who worked with the gentiles and ascribe the messianic claims that Jews find objectionable to his later followers. Because much physical and spiritual violence was done to Jews in the name of Jesus and his followers, and because evangelism is still an active aspect of many churches' activities, many Jews are uncomfortable with discussing Jesus and treat him as a non-person. In answering the question "What do Jews think of Jesus", philosopher Milton Steinberg claims, for Jews, Jesus cannot be accepted as anything more than a teacher. "In only a few respects did Jesus deviate from the Tradition," Steinberg concludes, "and in all of them, Jews believe, he blundered." Judaism does not believe that God requires the sacrifice of any human. This is emphasized in Jewish traditions concerning the story of the Akedah, the binding of Isaac. In the Jewish explanation, this is a story in the Torah whereby God wanted to test Abraham's faith and willingness, and Isaac was never going to be actually sacrificed. Thus, Judaism rejects the notion that anyone can or should die for anyone else's sin. Judaism is more focused on the practicalities of understanding how one may live a sacred life in the world according to God's will, rather than a hope of a future one. Judaism does not believe in the Christian concept of hell but does have a punishment stage in the afterlife (i.e. Gehenna, a term that also appears in the New Testament and translated as hell) as well as a Heaven (Gan Eden), but the religion does not intend it as a focus. Judaism views the worship of Jesus as inherently polytheistic, and rejects the Christian attempts to explain the Trinity as a complex monotheism. Christian festivals have no religious significance in Judaism and are not celebrated, but some secular Jews in the West treat Christmas as a secular holiday. ===Common Christian views of Judaism=== Christians believe that Christianity is the fulfillment and successor of Judaism, retaining much of its doctrine and many of its practices including monotheism, the belief in a Messiah, and certain forms of worship like prayer and reading from religious texts. Christians believe that Judaism requires blood sacrifice to atone for sins, and believe that Judaism has abandoned this since the destruction of the Second Temple. Most Christians consider the Mosaic Law to have been a necessary intermediate stage, but that once the crucifixion of Jesus occurred, adherence to civil and ceremonial Law was superseded by the New Covenant. Some Christians adhere to New Covenant theology, which states that with the arrival of his New Covenant, Jews have ceased being blessed under his Mosaic covenant. This position has been softened or disputed by other Christians, where Jews are recognized to have a special status under the Abrahamic covenant. New Covenant theology is thus in contrast to Dual-covenant theology. Some Christians who view the Jewish people as close to God seek to understand and incorporate elements of Jewish understanding or perspective into their beliefs as a means to respect their "parent" religion of Judaism, or to more fully seek out and return to their Christian roots. Christians embracing aspects of Judaism are sometimes criticized as Biblical Judaizers by Christians when they pressure gentile Christians to observe Mosaic teachings rejected by most modern Christians. Commonwealth Theology (CT) asserts that Judeo-Christian tensions were exacerbated in the fall of Jerusalem and by the subsequent Jewish Revolt. As a result, early Christian theologies formulated in the Roman capitals of Rome and Constantinople began to include antisemitic attitudes, which have been carried forward and embraced by the Protestant Reformers. Dispensation Theology, formalized in the 1830s by John Darby, holds that "God has not rejected His people whom He foreknew." Dispensationalism, however, maintains that God's special dealings with Israel have been interrupted by the Church Age. Commonwealth Theology, on the other hand, recognizes the continuity of God's "congregation in the wilderness" as presently consisting of the Jews (house of Judah) and the Nations (Gentiles), among whom are abiding the historically scattered Northern Kingdom (house of Israel). Commonwealth Theology views the Jews as already included in Commonwealth of Israel even while in unbelief, but nevertheless unsaved in their unbelieving state. is a process that began on the Day of Pentecost. The full realization of the "one new man" created through the peace (between the Jews and "you Gentiles") made by his cross will take place in Ezekiel's two sticks made one, when both houses of Israel will be united under the Kingdom of David. === Messianic Judaism === === Jewish Christians === Some scholars have found evidence of continuous interactions between Jewish-Christian and rabbinic movements from the mid- to late second century CE to the fourth century CE. Of particular importance is the figure of James the brother of Jesus, the leader of the Christian Church in Jerusalem until he was killed in the year 62, who was known for his righteous behavior as a Jew, and set the terms of the relationship between Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians in dialogue with Paul. To him is attributed a letter which emphasizes the view that faith must be expressed in works. The neglect of this mediating figure has often damaged Christian-Jewish relations. Modern scholarship is engaged in an ongoing debate over which term should be used as the proper designation for Jesus' first followers. Many scholars believe that the term Jewish Christians is anachronistic given the fact that there is no consensus on the date of the birth of Christianity. The very concepts of Christianity and Judaism can be seen as essentializing, since these are changing and plural traditions. Clearly, the first Christians would not have believed that they were exchanging one religion for another, because they believed that the resurrection of Jesus was the fulfillment of Jewish prophecies, and they believed that the mission to the gentiles which was initiated by Saul (Paul of Tarsus) was a secondary activity. Some modern scholars have suggested that the designations "Jewish believers in Jesus" and "Jewish followers of Jesus" better reflect the original context. ==Inter-faith relationship== In addition to Christianity and Judaism's varying views on each other as religions, there has also been a long and often painful history of conflict, persecution and at times, tolerance, reconciliation, between the two religions, which have influenced their mutual views of their relationship with each other over time. Since the end of the Second World War and The Holocaust, Christianity has embarked on a process of introspection with regard to its Jewish roots and its attitudes toward Judaism. The eradication of the anti-Jewish tendencies is but one dimension of this ongoing Christian introspection, that attempts to engage a variety of legacies that disturb modern believers (Antisemitism, slavery, racial and ethnic prejudice, colonialism, sexism, homophobia and religious persecution). Since the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church upheld (Formal Statement on the Jews), which stated Persecution, forcible conversion, and forcible displacement of Jews (i.e. hate crimes) occurred for many centuries, along with occasional gestures at reconciliation which also occurred from time to time. Pogroms were a common occurrence throughout Christian Europe, including organized violence, restrictions on land ownership and professional lives, forcible relocation and ghettoization, mandatory dress codes, and at times, humiliating actions and torture. All of these actions and restrictions had major effects on Jewish cultures. From the fifth century onward, Church councils imposed ever-increasing burdens and limitations on the Jews. Among the decrees: marriages between a Jew and a Christian were forbidden (Orleans, 533 and 538; Clermont, 535; Toledo, 589 and 633). Jews and Christians were forbidden to eat together (Vannes, 465; Agde, 506; Epaone, 517; Orleans, 538; Macon, 583; Clichy, 626–7) Jews were banned from public office (Clermont, 535; Toledo, 589; Paris, 614–5; Clichy, 626–7; Toledo, 633). Jews were forbidden to appear in public during Easter (Orleans, 538; Macon, 583) and to work on Sunday (Narbonne, 589). By the end of the first millennium, the Jewish population in the Christian lands had been decimated, expelled, forced into conversion or worse. Only a few small and scattered communities survived. There have also been non-coercive outreach and missionary efforts such as the Church of England's Ministry Among Jewish People, founded in 1809. For Martin Buber, Judaism and Christianity were variations on the same theme of messianism. Buber made this theme the basis of a famous definition of the tension between Judaism and Christianity: Pre-messianically, our destinies are divided. Now to the Christian, the Jew is the incomprehensibly obdurate man who declines to see what has happened; and to the Jew, the Christian is the incomprehensibly daring man who affirms in an unredeemed world that its redemption has been accomplished. This is a gulf which no human power can bridge. The Nazi Party was known for its persecution of Christian Churches; many of them, such as the Protestant Confessing Church and the Catholic Church, as well as Quakers and Jehovah's Witnesses, aided and rescued Jews who were being targeted by the régime. Following the Holocaust, attempts have been made to construct a new Jewish-Christian relationship of mutual respect for differences, through the inauguration of the interfaith body the Council of Christians and Jews in 1942 and International Council of Christians and Jews. The Seelisberg Conference in 1947 established 10 points relating to the sources of Christian antisemitism. The ICCJ's "Twelve points of Berlin" sixty years later aim to reflect a recommitment to interreligious dialogue between the two communities. Pope Paul VI wrote that "the Jewish people, who still retain the religion of the Old Testament, ... are indeed worthy of our respect and love". Pope John Paul II and the Catholic Church have "upheld the Church's acceptance of the continuing and permanent election of the Jewish people" as well as a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and the Jews. In December 2015, the Vatican released a 10,000-word document which, among other things, stated that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism. He concludes by writing, as to Judeo-Christian values, that "the hyphen between Jewish and Christian values is Jesus himself." On 3 December 2015, the Center for Jewish-Christian Understanding and Cooperation (CJCUC) spearheaded a petition of Orthodox rabbis from around the world calling for increased partnership between Jews and Christians. The unprecedented Orthodox Rabbinic Statement on Christianity, entitled "To Do the Will of Our Father in Heaven: Toward a Partnership between Jews and Christians", was initially signed by over 25 prominent Orthodox rabbis in Israel, the United States, and Europe, ===Between Jerusalem and Rome=== On 31 August 2017, representatives of the Conference of European Rabbis, the Rabbinical Council of America, and the Commission of the Chief Rabbinate of Israel issued and presented the Holy See with a statement entitled Between Jerusalem and Rome. The document pays particular tribute to the Second Vatican Council's Declaration Nostra Aetate, whose fourth chapter represents the "Magna Carta" of the Holy See's dialogue with the Jewish world. The Statement Between Jerusalem and Rome does not hide the theological differences that exist between the two faith traditions while all the same it expresses a firm resolve to collaborate more closely, now and in the future.	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7,504	Cesare Borgia	Cesare Borgia (13 September 1475 – 12 March 1507) was a Roman Catholic deacon—cardinal and later an Italian condottiero (mercenary). He was the illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI of the Aragonese House of Borgia and was a sibling to Lucrezia Borgia. After initially entering the Church and becoming a cardinal on his father's election to the papacy, he resigned his diaconal profession after the death of his brother in 1498. He was employed as a condottiero for King Louis XII of France around 1500, and occupied both Milan and Naples during the Italian Wars. At the same time, he carved out a state for himself in Central Italy, but he was unable to retain power for long after his father's death. His quest for political power was a major inspiration for The Prince by the renowned Florentine historian, Niccolò Machiavelli. ==Early life== Like many aspects of Cesare Borgia's life, the date of his birth is a subject of dispute. He was born in Subiaco in Lazio, Italy Cesare's father, Pope Alexander VI, was the first pope who openly recognized his children born out of wedlock. The Italian historian Stefano Infessura writes that Cardinal Borgia falsely claimed Cesare to be the legitimate son of another man—Domenico d'Arignano, the nominal husband of Vannozza dei Cattanei. More likely, Pope Sixtus IV granted Cesare a release from the necessity of proving his birth in a papal bull of 1 October 1480. ==Career== ===Diaconate=== Cesare was initially groomed for a career in the Roman Catholic Church. Following school in Perugia and Pisa, Cesare studied law at the Studium Urbis (today as the Sapienza University of Rome). He was made Bishop of Archdiocese of Pamplona and Tudela (aged 15) and Archbishop of Valencia (aged 17). In 1493, he had also been appointed bishop of both Castres and Elne. In 1494, he also received the title of abbot of the abbey of Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa. Along with his father's elevation to Pope, Cesare was made Cardinal at the age of 18. as Giovanni's disappearance could finally open to him a long-awaited military career and also solve the jealousy over Sancha of Aragon, wife of Cesare's younger brother, Gioffre, and mistress of both Cesare and Giovanni. Cesare's role in the act has never been clear. However, he had no definitive motive, as he was likely to be given a powerful secular position, whether or not his brother lived. It is possible that Giovanni was killed as a result of a sexual liaison. On 17 August 1498, Cesare resigned from the cardinalate, in order to pursue a military career. On the same day, Louis XII of France named Cesare Duke of Valentinois. This random title was selected as being homophonous with his nickname Il Valentino ("The Valencian"), derived from his father's papal epithet in Latin Valentinus ("The Valencian") indicating his birth in Xàtiva in the Kingdom of Valencia under the Crown of Aragon, and along with Cesare's former position as Cardinal of Valencia. On 6 September 1499, he was released from all ecclesiastical duties and laicised from his diaconal orders (because he only was ordained deacon on 26 March 1494 and never received other major orders as priesthood and bishop consecration). ===Military=== Cesare's career was founded upon his father's ability to distribute patronage, along with his alliance with France (reinforced by his marriage with Charlotte d'Albret, sister of John III of Navarre), in the course of the Italian Wars. Louis XII invaded Italy in 1499; after Gian Giacomo Trivulzio had ousted its duke Ludovico Sforza, Cesare accompanied the king in his entrance into Milan. At this point, Alexander decided to profit from the favourable situation and carve out for Cesare a state of his own in northern Italy. To this end, he declared that all his vicars in Romagna and Marche were deposed. Though in theory subject directly to the pope, these rulers had been practically independent or dependent on other states for generations. In the view of the citizens, these vicars were cruel and petty. When Cesare eventually took power, he was viewed by the citizens as a great improvement. Cesare was appointed commander of the papal armies with a number of Italian mercenaries, supported by 300 cavalry and 4,000 Swiss infantry sent by the king of France. Alexander sent him to capture Imola and Forlì, ruled by Caterina Sforza (mother of the Medici condottiero Giovanni dalle Bande Nere). Despite being deprived of his French troops after the conquest of those two cities, Borgia returned to Rome to celebrate a triumph and to receive the title of Papal Gonfalonier from his father. In 1500 the creation of twelve new cardinals granted Alexander enough money for Cesare to hire the condottieri, Vitellozzo Vitelli, Gian Paolo Baglioni, Giulio and Paolo Orsini, and Oliverotto Euffreducci, who resumed his campaign in Romagna. Giovanni Sforza, first husband of Cesare's sister Lucrezia, was soon ousted from Pesaro; Pandolfo Malatesta lost Rimini; Faenza surrendered, its young lord Astorre III Manfredi being later drowned in the Tiber by Cesare's order. In May 1501 the latter was created duke of Romagna. Hired by Florence, Cesare subsequently added the lordship of Piombino to his new lands. While his condottieri took over the siege of Piombino which ended in 1502, Cesare commanded the French troops in the sieges of Naples and Capua, defended by Prospero and Fabrizio Colonna. On 24 June 1501, Borgia's troops stormed the latter to end the siege of Capua. In June 1502, he set out for Marche, where he was able to capture Urbino and Camerino by treason. He planned to conquer Bologna next. However, his condottieri, most notably Vitellozzo Vitelli and the Orsini brothers (Giulio, Paolo and Francesco), feared Cesare's cruelty and set up a plot against him. Guidobaldo da Montefeltro and Giovanni Maria da Varano returned to Urbino and Camerino, and Fossombrone revolted. The fact that his subjects had enjoyed his rule thus far meant that his opponents had to work much harder than they would have liked. He eventually recalled his loyal generals to Imola, where he waited for his opponents' loose alliance to collapse. Cesare called for a reconciliation, but imprisoned his condottieri in Senigallia, then called Sinigaglia, a feat described as a "wonderful deceiving" by historian Paolo Giovio, and had them strangled. In 1503 he conquered the Republic of San Marino. ==Later years and death== Although he was an immensely capable general and statesman, Cesare had trouble maintaining his domain without continued papal patronage. Niccolò Machiavelli cites Cesare's dependence on the goodwill of the papacy, under the control of his father, as being the principal disadvantage of his rule. Machiavelli argued that, had Cesare been able to win the favour of the new Pope, he would have been a very successful ruler. The news of his father's death in 1503 arrived when Cesare was planning the conquest of Tuscany. While he was convalescing in Castel Sant'Angelo from an attack of malarial fever (likely contracted on the same occasion when Alexander contracted his fatal illness), his troops controlled the September 1503 papal conclave. The new pope, Pope Pius III, supported Cesare Borgia and reconfirmed him as Gonfaloniere, but after a brief pontificate of twenty-six days, he died. Borgia's deadly enemy, Giuliano Della Rovere, then succeeded by dexterous diplomacy in tricking the weakened Cesare Borgia into supporting him by offering him money and continued papal backing for Borgia policies in the Romagna; promises which he disregarded upon his election as Pope Julius II by the near-unanimous vote of the cardinals in the October 1503 papal conclave. Realizing his mistake by then, Cesare tried to correct the situation in his favour, but Pope Julius II made sure of its failure at every turn. Cesare was for example forced by Julius to give up San Marino, after occupying the republic for six months. was betrayed while in Naples by Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, a man he had considered his ally, and imprisoned there, while his lands were retaken by the papacy. In 1504 he was transferred to Spain and imprisoned first in the Castle of Chinchilla de Montearagón in La Mancha, but after an attempted escape he was moved north to the Castle of La Mota, Medina del Campo, near Segovia. who was missing an experienced military commander, ahead of the feared Castilian invasion. Borgia recaptured Viana, Navarre, which had been in the hands of forces loyal to Louis de Beaumont, the count of Lerín and Ferdinand II of Aragon's conspiratorial ally in Navarre, but not the castle, which he then besieged. In the early morning of 11 March 1507, an enemy party of knights fled from the castle during a heavy storm. Outraged at the ineffectiveness of the siege, Borgia chased them, only to find himself on his own. The party of knights, discovering that he was alone, trapped him in an ambush, where he received a fatal injury from a spear. He was then stripped of all his luxurious garments, valuables, and a leather mask covering half his face (disfigured, possibly by syphilis, during his late years). Borgia was left lying naked, with just a red tile covering his genitals. Borgia was an old enemy of Ferdinand of Aragon, and he was fighting the count who paved the way for Ferdinand's 1512 invasion against John III and Catherine of Navarre. While the circumstances are not well known, the tomb was destroyed sometime between 1523 and 1608, during which time Santa María was undergoing renovation and expansion. Tradition goes that a Bishop of Calahorra considered it inappropriate to have the remains of "that degenerate" lying in the church, so the opportunity was taken to tear down the monument and expel Borgia's bones to where they were reburied under the street in front of the church to be trodden on by all who walked through the town. Vicente Blasco Ibáñez, in A los pies de Venus, writes that the then Bishop of Santa María had Borgia expelled from the church because his own father had died after being imprisoned under Alexander VI. It was held for many years that the bones were lost, although in fact local tradition continued to mark their place quite accurately and folklore sprung up around Borgia's death and ghost. The bones were in fact dug up twice and reburied once by historians (both local and international—the first dig in 1886 involved the French historian Charles Yriarte, who also published works on the Borgias) seeking the resting place of the infamous Cesare Borgia. After Borgia was unearthed for the second time in 1945 his bones were taken for a rather lengthy forensic examination by Victoriano Juaristi, a surgeon by trade and Borgia aficionado, and the tests concurred with the preliminary ones carried out in the 19th century. There was evidence that the bones belonged to Borgia. Cesare Borgia's remains then were sent to Viana's town hall, directly across from Santa María, where they remained until 1953. They were then reburied immediately outside of the Church of Santa María, no longer under the street and in direct danger of being stepped on. A memorial stone was placed over it which, translated into English, declared Borgia the Generalissimo of the papal as well as the Navarrese forces. A movement was made in the late 1980s to have Borgia dug up once more and put back into Santa María, but this proposal was ultimately rejected by church officials due to a recent ruling against the interment of anyone who did not hold the title of pope or cardinal. Since Borgia had renounced the cardinalate it was decided that it would be inappropriate for his bones to be moved into the church. It was reported that Fernando Sebastián Aguilar, the Archbishop of Pamplona, would acquiesce after more than 50 years of petitions and Borgia would finally be moved back inside the church on 11 March 2007, the day before the 500th anniversary of his death, but an Archbishopric spokesman declared that the church doesn't authorize any such practice. Machiavelli's use of Borgia is subject to controversy. Some scholars see Machiavelli's Borgia as the precursor of state crimes in the 20th century. Others, including Macaulay and Lord Acton, have historicized Machiavelli's Borgia, explaining the admiration for such violence as an effect of the general criminality and corruption of the time. ==Leonardo da Vinci== Cesare Borgia briefly employed the artisan Leonardo da Vinci as a military architect and engineer between 1502 and 1503. Cesare provided Leonardo with an unlimited pass to inspect and direct all ongoing and planned construction in his domain. While in Romagna, Leonardo built the canal from Cesena to the Porto Cesenatico. Before meeting Cesare, Leonardo had worked at the Milanese court of Ludovico Sforza for many years, until Louis XII of France drove Sforza out of Italy. After Cesare, Leonardo was unsuccessful in finding another patron in Italy. King Francis I of France was able to convince Leonardo to enter his service, and the last three years of Leonardo's life were spent working in France. ==Personal life== On 10 May 1499, Cesare married Charlotte of Albret (1480 – 11 March 1514), a sister of King John III of Navarre. The arrangement was part of a plan by the Navarrese monarchs to ease tensions with the newly proclaimed French King Louis XII by offering a royal blood bride in his dealings with the Holy See. They were parents to a daughter, Louise Borgia (1500–1553). Cesare was also the father to at least 11 illegitimate children. Among them are Girolamo Borgia who married Isabella Contessa di Carpi and Camilla Lucrezia Borgia (the younger) who, after Cesare's death, was moved to Ferrara to the court of her aunt Lucrezia Borgia (the elder). There are accounts recorded by Machiavelli during his time spent with Cesare Borgia during his diplomatic trips. Machiavelli found that he could be at times secretive and taciturn, at other times loquacious and boastful. He alternated bursts of demonic activity when he stayed up all night receiving and dispatching messengers, with moments of unaccountable sloth when he remained in bed refusing to see anyone. He was quick to take offence and rather remote from his immediate entourage, yet he was very open with his subjects, loving to join local sports and cutting a dashing figure. However, at other times, Machiavelli observed Cesare as having "inexhaustible" energy and an unrelenting genius in military matters, and also diplomatic affairs, and he would go days and nights on end without seemingly requiring sleep. ==Character discussed in works of philosophy== The Prince (1532) by Niccolò Machiavelli The Antichrist (1895) by Friedrich Nietzsche Beyond Good and Evil (1886) by Friedrich Nietzsche Twilight of the Idols (1889) by Friedrich Nietzsche Minima Moralia (1951) by Theodor Adorno The Philosophy of the Encounter (2006) by Louis Althusser Egoism and Freedom Movements: On the Anthropology of the Bourgeois Era (1982) by Max Horkheimer ==Non-fiction literature== The Life of Cesare Borgia (1912) by Rafael Sabatini Cesare Borgia: The Machiavellian Prince (1942) by Carlo Beuf A Triptych of Poisoners (1958) by Jean Plaidy Cesare Borgia (1976) by Sarah Bradford The Borgias (1981) by Sarah Bradford and John Prebble The Artist, The Philosopher and the Warrior (2009) by Paul Strathern The Borgias: The Hidden History (2013) by G. J. Meyer Cesare Borgia in a Nutshell (2016) by Samantha Morris ==Fictional portrayals== Cesare is a character in Prince of Foxes, a 1947 historical fiction novel by Samuel Shellabarger. In the 1949 film adaptation of the story, he is portrayed by Orson Welles. In the 1981 BBC TV series The Borgias, Cesare is portrayed by Oliver Cotton. Cesare appears as the main antagonist of the 2010 video game Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood. He is voiced by Andreas Apergis. The game was developed primarily by Ubisoft Montreal with contributions by four other Ubisoft branches: Annecy, Singapore, Bucharest, and Quebec City. In The Borgias, a 2011 American TV series, Cesare is portrayed by Francois Arnaud. In Borgia, a 2011 European TV series, Cesare is portrayed by Mark Ryder. In series 4 of Horrible Histories, the cast performed a parody of The Addams Family about the lives of the Borgia family. Mathew Baynton portrayed Cesare Borgia. The Hatsune Miku & KAITO song "Cantarella" is based on Cesare Borgia and his sister Lucrezia Borgia. The Cantarella manga by You Higuri is a dark fantasy historical fiction on Cesare's life with some supernatural elements. Cesare: Il Creatore che ha distrutto is a manga by Fuyumi Soryo that chronicles his life from the age of 15. A musical adaptation premiered in 2023. Cesare was portrayed by Akinori Nakagawa in the original cast. Cesare is a character in The Family, a historical fiction novel created by The Godfather author Mario Puzo. In Brazilian literature, César Borgia is one of the main characters in the novel The Devil's Strip, by Miguel M. Abrahão	[ "The Prince", "Forlì", "Paolo Giovio", "Vannozza dei Cattanei", "Crown of Aragon", "File:Roma, alessandro VI, 5 ducati, 1492-1503.jpg", "Holy See", "Minima Moralia", "John Prebble", "Captain-General of the Church", "Tuscany", "Italian Wars", "Gian Paolo Baglioni", "September 1503 papal conclave", "Pope Callixtus III", "Papal States", "manga", "Ottaviano Riario", "Subiaco, Lazio", "Romagna", "Horrible Histories (2009 TV series)", "Antonio II Ordelaffi", "Sarah Bradford", "Aragonese people", "Gian Giacomo Trivulzio", "Jean Plaidy", "Captain General of the Church", "Ludovico Sforza", "Pandolfo IV Malatesta", "The Family (Puzo novel)", "Fuyumi Soryo", "Paolo Orsini (condottiero, born 1450)", "Duke of Romagna", "Friedrich Nietzsche", "Oliverotto Euffreducci", "Orson Welles", "Roman Catholic", "Giuliano Della Rovere", "Astorre III Manfredi", "The Borgias: The Hidden History", "Camerino", "Theodor Adorno", "Bishop of Mondoñedo", "Spain", "dark fantasy", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Albi", "John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton", "Charlotte of Albret", "condottieri", "Cantarella (manga)", "Prince of Foxes (film)", "Rimini", "Duke of Urbino", "Pope Julius II", "Navarre", "Antonio de Guevara", "Sine anno", "Twilight of the Idols", "Kingdom of Valencia", "Marche", "Bishops in the Catholic Church", "Catholic Cardinal", "Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood", "The Daily Telegraph", "Guidobaldo da Montefeltro", "Francis I of France", "Lucrezia Borgia", "Beyond Good and Evil", "The Addams Family", "La Mancha", "Castle of La Mota", "Capua", "Venafro", "Giulio Orsini", "Faenza", "Francesco Maria I della Rovere", "Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre", "Giovanni Maria da Varano", "John III of Navarre", "Akinori Nakagawa", "Segovia", "Camino de Santiago", "Altobello Melone", "Italians", "Charles Yriarte", "Central Italy", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Pamplona y Tudela", "Rocca di Borgia", "Cardinal (Catholic Church)", "Giovanni Borgia, 2nd Duke of Gandia", "Mathew Baynton", "Miguel M. Abrahão", "Cesare (manga)", "Rafael Sabatini", "Milan", "Castel Sant'Angelo", "Oliver Cotton", "Route of the Borgias", "Gonfalonier of the Church", "Fernando Sebastián Aguilar", "October 1503 papal conclave", "G. J. Meyer", "Gioffre Borgia", "Bologna", "Castle of Chinchilla", "Kingdom of Navarre", "Louis Althusser", "Senigallia", "malaria", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Calahorra y La Calzada-Logroño", "Loss of clerical state", "House of Borgia", "Andria", "Sancha of Aragon", "Pisa", "The Borgias (2011 TV series)", "Louise Borgia", "Pesaro", "Priesthood in the Catholic Church", "Italy", "You Higuri", "San Marino", "Kaito (software)", "deacon", "Pope Sixtus IV", "Hatsune Miku", "Vitellozzo Vitelli", "Fabrizio Colonna", "Giovanni dalle Bande Nere", "Sapienza University of Rome", "Vicente Blasco Ibáñez", "Urbino", "Louis de Beaumont, 2nd Count de Lerín", "Charlotte d'Albret", "Gipuzkoa", "abbey of Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa", "Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay", "The Borgias (1981 TV series)", "Perugia", "Tiber", "The Godfather", "Paul Strathern", "Mario Puzo", "Durango, Biscay", "Duke of Valentinois", "Caterina Sforza", "Santander, Spain", "papal bull", "Ferdinand II of Aragon", "Imola", "Pamplona", "Pope Alexander VI", "Mark Ryder", "Juan de Borja Lanzol de Romaní, el menor", "The Antichrist (book)", "Lazio", "Giovanni Sforza", "Leonardo da Vinci", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Perpignan-Elne", "Piombino", "Max Horkheimer", "Louis XII of France", "Borgia", "Viana, Spain", "Florence", "Niccolò Machiavelli", "François Arnaud (actor)", "Prospero Colonna", "Astorre IV Manfredi", "syphilis", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Valencia in Spain", "Prince of Foxes", "Borgia (TV series)", "Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba", "Samuel Shellabarger", "Stefano Infessura", "Fossombrone", "Roman Catholic Church", "Giovanni Borgia, 2nd Duke of Gandía", "Pope Pius III", "Medina del Campo", "Palazzo Venezia" ]
7,507	Chronicle	A chronicle (, from Greek chroniká, from , chrónos – "time") is a historical account of events arranged in chronological order, as in a timeline. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and local events, the purpose being the recording of events that occurred, seen from the perspective of the chronicler. A chronicle which traces world history is a universal chronicle. This is in contrast to a narrative or history, in which an author chooses events to interpret and analyze and excludes those the author does not consider important or relevant. The information sources for chronicles vary. Some are written from the chronicler's direct knowledge, others from witnesses or participants in events, still others are accounts passed down from generation to generation by oral tradition. Some used written material, such as charters, letters, and earlier chronicles. \| width = 20% \| title_bg = none \| tstyle = text-align: left; \| qalign = left }} Scholars categorize the genre of chronicle into two subgroups: live chronicles, and dead chronicles. A dead chronicle is one where the author assembles a list of events up to the time of their writing, but does not record further events as they occur. A live chronicle is where one or more authors add to a chronicle in a regular fashion, recording contemporary events shortly after they occur. Because of the immediacy of the information, historians tend to value live chronicles, such as annals, over dead ones. The term often refers to a book written by a chronicler in the Middle Ages describing historical events in a country, or the lives of a nobleman or a clergyman, although it is also applied to a record of public events. The earliest medieval chronicle to combine both retrospective (dead) and contemporary (live) entries, is the Chronicle of Ireland, which spans the years 431 to 911. Chronicles are the predecessors of modern "time lines" rather than analytical histories. They represent accounts, in prose or verse, of local or distant events over a considerable period of time, both the lifetime of the individual chronicler and often those of several subsequent continuators. If the chronicles deal with events year by year, they are often called annals. Unlike the modern historian, most chroniclers tended to take their information as they found it, and made little attempt to separate fact from legend. The point of view of most chroniclers is highly localised, to the extent that many anonymous chroniclers can be sited in individual abbeys. It is impossible to say how many chronicles exist, as the many ambiguities in the definition of the genre make it impossible to draw clear distinctions of what should or should not be included. However, the Encyclopedia of the Medieval Chronicle lists some 2,500 items written between 300 and 1500 AD. ==Citation of entries== Entries in chronicles are often cited using the abbreviation s.a., meaning sub anno (under the year), according to the year under which they are listed. For example, "ASC MS A, s.a. 855" means the entry for the year 855 in manuscript A of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The same event may be recorded under a different year in another manuscript of the chronicle, and may be cited for example as "ASC MS D, s.a. 857". ==English chronicles== The most important English chronicles are the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, started under the patronage of King Alfred in the 9th century and continued until the 12th century, and the Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland (1577–87) by Raphael Holinshed and other writers; the latter documents were important sources of materials for Elizabethan drama. Later 16th century Scottish chronicles, written after the Reformation, shape history according to Catholic or Protestant viewpoints. ==Cronista== A cronista is a term for a historical chronicler, a role that held historical significance in the European Middle Ages. Until the European Enlightenment, the occupation was largely equivalent to that of a historian, describing events chronologically that were of note in a given country or region. As such, it was often an official governmental position rather than an independent practice. The appointment of the official chronicler often favored individuals who had distinguished themselves by their efforts to study, investigate and disseminate population-related issues. The position was granted on a local level based on the mutual agreements of a city council in plenary meetings. Often, the occupation was honorary, unpaid, and stationed for life. In modern usage, the term usually refers to a type of journalist who writes chronicles as a form of journalism or non-professional historical documentation. ===Cronista in the Middle Ages=== Before the development of modern journalism and the systematization of chronicles as a journalistic genre, cronista were tasked with narrating chronological events considered worthy of remembrance that were recorded year by year. Unlike writers who created epic poems regarding living figures, cronista recorded historical events in the lives of individuals in an ostensibly truthful and reality-oriented way. Even from the time of early Christian historiography, cronistas were clearly expected to place human history in the context of a linear progression, starting with the creation of man until the second coming of Christ, as prophesied in biblical texts. == Lists of chronicles == Babylonian Chronicles (loosely-defined set of 25 clay tablets) Burmese chronicles Cambodian Royal Chronicles (loosely-defined collection) List of collections of Crusader sources (most of them chronicles) List of Danish chronicles List of English chronicles List of Hungarian chronicles List of Rus' chronicles Muslim chronicles for Indian history Chronicles of Nepal Serbian chronicles === Alphabetical list of notable chronicles === History of Alam Aray Abbasi – Safavid dynasty Alamgirnama – Mughal Empire ''Alexandrian World Chronicle - Greek history of the world until 392 AD Altan Tobchi - Mongol Empire Anglo-Saxon Chronicle – England Annales Bertiniani – West Francia Annales Cambriae – Wales Annales Posonienses – Kingdom of Hungary Annales seu cronicae incliti Regni Poloniae – Poland Annals of Inisfallen – Ireland Annals of Lough Cé – Ireland Annals of the Four Masters – Ireland Annals of Spring and Autumn – China Annals of Thutmose III – Ancient Egypt The Annals of the Choson Dynasty – Korea Babylonian Chronicles – Mesopotamia Anonymous Bulgarian Chronicle – Bulgaria Barnwell Chronicle - England Bodhi Vamsa – Sri Lanka Books of Chronicles attributed to Ezra – Israel Buranji – Ahoms, Assam, India Bychowiec Chronicle Lithuania Cāmadevivaṃsa – Northern Thailand Culavamsa – Sri Lanka (Chronica Polonorum): see Cheitharol Kumbaba – Manipur, India Chronica Gentis Scotorum Chronica Hungarorum – History of Hungary Chronica seu originale regum et principum Poloniae – Poland Chronicle of 754 - Spain Chronicle (Crònica) by Ramon Muntaner – 13th/14th-century Crown of Aragon. Third and longest of the Grand Catalan Chronicles. Chronicle of Finland (Chronicon Finlandiae) by Johannes Messenius – Finland Chronicle of Fredegar - France Chronicle of the Slavs – Europe Chronicle of Greater Poland – Poland Chronicle of Jean de Venette – France Chronicle of the Bishops of England (De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum) by William of Malmesbury Chronicle of the Kings of Alba - Scotland Chronicle of the Kings of England (De Gestis Regum Anglorum) by William of Malmesbury Chronicles of Mann - Isle of Man Chronicon of Eusebius Chronicon Scotorum – Ireland Chronicon of Thietmar of Merseburg Chronicon Paschale - 7th century Greek chronicle of the world Chronicon Pictum – History of Hungary Chronographia – 11th century History of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) by Michael Psellos Comentarios Reales de los Incas Conversion of Kartli – Georgia Cronaca- Chronicle of Cyprus from the 4th up to the 15th century by Cypriot chronicler Leontios Machairas Cronaca fiorentina – Chronicle of Florence up to the end of the 14th Century by Baldassarre Bonaiuti Cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum – Poland Crónica Mexicayotl — History of the Incas Croyland Chronicle – England Dawn-Breakers (Nabil's Narrative) – Baháʼí Faith and Middle East Dioclean Priest's Chronicle – Europe Dipavamsa – Sri Lanka Divan of the Abkhazian Kings – Georgia Epic of Sundiata - West Africa Epitome rerum Hungarorum – History of Hungary Eric's Chronicle – Sweden Eusebius Chronicle – Mediterranean and Middle East Fragmentary Annals of Ireland – Ireland Froissart's Chronicles – France and Western Europe Galician-Volhynian Chronicle – Ukraine Georgian Chronicles – Georgia Gesta Hungarorum – History of Hungary Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum – History of Hungary Gesta Normannorum Ducum – Normandy Grandes Chroniques de France – France General Estoria by Alfonso X – c. 1275-1284 Castile, Spain. Henry of Livona Chronicle – Eastern Europe Historia Ecclesiastica – Norman England Historia Scholastica by Petrus Comestor - 12th century France The Historie and Chronicles of Scotland, Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie História da Província Santa Cruz a que vulgarmente chamamos Brasil – Brazil History of the Prophets and Kings – Middle East and Mediterranean Hustyn Chronicle – Eastern Europe Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani - Universal history Jans der Enikel – Europe and Mediterranean Jerome's Chronicle – Mediterranean and Middle East Jinakalamali – Northern Thailand Joannis de Czarnkow chronicon Polonorum – Poland Kaiserchronik – Central and southern Europe, Germany Kano Chronicle – Nigeria Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh by Sujan Rai - History of India Khwaday-Namag - History of Persia Kilwa Chronicle - East Africa Kojiki - Japan Lethrense Chronicle – Denmark Livonian Chronicle of Henry - Livonia Livonian Rhymed Chronicle - Livonia Libre dels Feyts – Book of the Deeds by James I of Aragon, first of the Grand Catalan Chronicles Madala Panji – Chronicle of the Jagannath Temple in Puri, India, related to the History of Odisha Mahavamsa – Sri Lanka Maronite Chronicle – The Levant, anonymous annalistic chronicle in the Syriac language completed shortly after 664. Manx Chronicle – Isle of Man Nabonidus Chronicle – Mesopotamia Nihon Shoki - Japan Novgorod First Chronicle - Russia Nuova Cronica – Florence Nuremberg Chronicle Old Tibetan Chronicle - History of Tibet Parian Chronicle - Ancient Greece Paschale Chronicle – Mediterranean Pictish Chronicle - Scotland Primary Chronicle – Eastern Europe Puranas – India Rajatarangini – Kashmir Roit and Quheil of Tyme – Scotland, Adam Abell Roskildense Chronicle – Denmark Royal Frankish Annals – Frankish Empire Scotichronicon – by the Scottish historian Walter Bower Shahnama-yi-Al-i Osman by Fethullah Arifi Çelebi – Ottoman empire (1300 ac – the end of Sultan Suleyman I's reign) which is the fifth volume of it Süleymanname Skibby Chronicle – Danish Latin chronicle from the 1530s Swiss illustrated chronicles – Switzerland Timbuktu Chronicles – Mali Zizhi Tongjian – China === Rhymed chronicles === Rhymed or poetic chronicles, as opposed to prosaic chronicles, include: Rhymed Chronicle of Armenia Minor ("Chronicle of L'Aquila"), both in prose and verse form Brabantsche Yeesten ( 1315–1351) by Jan van Boendale (continued by an anonymous author) Cornicke van Brabant (1415) by Hennen van Merchtenen Cronijck van Brabant ( 1435–1460), anonymous, until 1430 by Gottfried Hagen Chronicle of Dalimil Erik's Chronicle Rhymed Chronicle of Flanders, part of the . It is unique as all other surviving Dutch-language chronicles of Flanders were written in prose. Die olde Freesche cronike (1474), anonymous history of Friesland until 1248 Rhymed Chronicle of Holland by Melis Stoke Rhymed Chronicle of Kastl (Kastler Reimchronik) , notorious 17th-century forgery pretending to be written in the 12th century Livonian Rhymed Chronicle Rhymed Chronicle of Mecklenburg by Ernest of Kirchberg Chronique métrique de Philippe le Bel or Chronique rimée (1316) by Geoffrey of Paris Chronique rimée ( 1250) by Philippe Mouskes New Prussian Chronicle by Wigand of Marburg Roman de Brut by Wace Spieghel Historiael by Jacob van Maerlant Rhymed Chronicle of Utrecht ( 1378) Rhyming Chronicle of Worringen	[ "Mongol Empire", "Jami' al-tawarikh", "History of Russia", "Gesta principum Polonorum", "Maronite Chronicle", "The Bible", "Zizhi Tongjian", "Georgian Chronicles", "L'Aquila", "Chronica Polonorum", "Chronicon Lethrense", "Crown of Aragon", "Holy Roman Empire", "France", "Nihon Shoki", "Frankish Empire", "Chronicle of Muntaner", "Chronicon (Eusebius)", "Nuremberg Chronicle", "Galician-Volhynian Chronicle", "History of Sri Lanka", "Madala Panji", "Kano Chronicle", "Ezra", "Johannes Messenius", "History of Normandy", "Annals of Thutmose III", "Chronographia (Psellos)", "Friesland", "History of the Mediterranean region", "Chronicle Machairas", "Brabantsche Yeesten", "Jans der Enikel", "Chronicle of the Bishops of England", "Scotichronicon", "Kingdom of Hungary", "Rus' chronicle", "Chronicle of 754", "Mughal Empire", "critical edition", "Annals of Lough Cé", "Livonian Rhymed Chronicle", "Alfonso X", "Ancient Greece", "History of Jammu and Kashmir", "Süleymanname", "Wigand of Marburg", "Ottoman empire", "Middle East", "Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja", "Israel", "Puri, India", "Bodhi Vamsa", "Chronica Hungarorum", "Greek language", "History of Lithuania", "History of Assam", "Baháʼí Faith", "History of East Africa", "History of Switzerland", "Universal history (genre)", "History of the Prophets and Kings", "Nuova Cronica", "Anonymous Bulgarian Chronicle", "Cāmadevivaṃsa", "Rashid-al-Din Hamadani", "Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh", "Khwaday-Namag", "Swiss illustrated chronicles", "Gesta Hungarorum", "Rhyming Chronicle of Worringen", "Froissart's Chronicles", "Epitome rerum Hungarorum", "Cheitharol Kumbaba", "Annals of the Four Masters", "Spain", "Encyclopedia of the Medieval Chronicle", "List of Hungarian chronicles", "abbey", "Chronicon Slavorum", "Nabonidus Chronicle", "Serbian chronicles", "History of China", "History of Mesopotamia", "Mesopotamia", "Altan Tobchi", "Jacob van Maerlant", "periodical literature", "charter", "History of Wales", "Suleyman I", "History of Brazil", "Chronicon Pictum", "History of Ukraine", "Annales Posonienses", "Chronicle of Greater Poland", "Annales seu cronicae incliti Regni Poloniae", "Hustyn Chronicle", "Croyland Chronicle", "History of the Middle East", "History of the Isle of Man", "History of Mali", "Chronicle (Jean de Venette)", "Jagannath Temple, Puri", "History of Finland", "History of Europe", "History of the Incas", "Grandes Chroniques de France", "Ancient Near East", "Puranas", "Books of Chronicles", "Walter Bower", "oral tradition", "Alexandrian World Chronicle", "Philippe Mouskes", "Babylonian Chronicles", "List of English chronicles", "History of the British Isles", "Leontios Machairas", "Skibby Chronicle", "letter (message)", "Chronicon Scotorum", "Chronica Gentis Scotorum", "Kilwa Chronicle", "Syriac language", "Lan Na", "History of Korea", "The Annals of the Choson Dynasty", "Chronicle of Fredegar", "Michael Psellos", "Joannis de Czarnkow chronicon Polonorum", "Livonian Chronicle of Henry", "journalism", "Annales Cambriae", "History of Poland during the Piast dynasty", "Scottish Reformation", "Chronicon Roskildense", "Fethullah Arifi Çelebi", "time line", "Buranji", "Chronicle of Finland", "doi:10.1111/emed.12025", "historian", "population", "Culavamsa", "Ramon Muntaner", "Muslim chronicles for Indian history", "Chronicle of the Grey Friars of London", "Royal Frankish Annals", "Gesta Normannorum Ducum", "Safavid dynasty", "annals", "narrative", "Barnwell Chronicle", "Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum", "Novgorod First Chronicle", "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", "Cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum", "Bychowiec Chronicle", "Livonia", "history", "History of Sweden", "Kojiki", "West Francia", "Levant", "Divan of the Abkhazian Kings", "Gottfried Hagen", "Old Tibetan Chronicle", "Rajatarangini", "Conversion of Kartli (chronicle)", "journalist", "History of Ireland", "History of the Eastern Roman Empire", "History of England", "History of India", "Fragmentary Annals of Ireland", "Manx Chronicle", "Chronicon Paschale", "História da Província Santa Cruz a que vulgarmente chamamos Brasil", "Age of Enlightenment", "History of Georgia (country)", "Llibre dels fets", "Isle of Man", "Comentarios Reales de los Incas", "Timbuktu Chronicles", "Geoffrey of Paris", "Raphael Holinshed", "Eric's Chronicle", "Cronaca fiorentina", "Crónica Mexicayotl", "History of Poland", "History of Nigeria", "List of collections of Crusader sources", "Melis Stoke", "Historia Scholastica", "General Estoria", "Second Coming", "Dipavamsa", "Chronicles of Nepal", "Alamgirnama", "Chronica seu originale regum et principum Poloniae", "Chronicon (Jerome)", "Chronicle of Dalimil", "Orderic Vitalis", "History of Persia", "Kaiserchronik", "History of Alam Aray Abbasi", "Erik's Chronicle", "continuator", "Ahoms", "John Gough Nichols", "Wace", "Annals of Inisfallen", "History of Bulgaria", "Annals of Spring and Autumn", "Adam Abell", "History of Spain", "Greek Cypriots", "Epic of Sundiata", "Annals", "Jinakalamali", "Burmese chronicles", "annal", "Parian Chronicle", "myth", "Castile (historical region)", "Chronicle of Henry of Livonia", "newspaper", "Cambodian Royal Chronicles", "William of Malmesbury", "Shahnama-yi-Al-i Osman", "Thietmar of Merseburg", "Chronicle of Ireland", "History of Odisha", "Scotland", "Ancient Egypt", "The Dawn-Breakers", "Mahavamsa", "Pictish Chronicle", "Roman de Brut", "chronology", "History of Denmark", "Primary Chronicle", "Florence", "timeline", "Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie", "Chronicle of the Kings of England", "Medieval Chronicle Society", "Annales Bertiniani", "History of Japan", "History of Hungary", "Chronicles of Mann", "Baldassarre Bonaiuti", "Jan van Boendale", "Petrus Comestor", "History of Scotland", "Epic Poetry", "List of Danish chronicles", "History of West Africa", "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba", "generation", "Middle Ages", "History of Tibet", "James I of Aragon", "History of France" ]
7,512	Concentration	In chemistry, concentration is the abundance of a constituent divided by the total volume of a mixture. Several types of mathematical description can be distinguished: mass concentration, molar concentration, number concentration, and volume concentration. The concentration can refer to any kind of chemical mixture, but most frequently refers to solutes and solvents in solutions. The molar (amount) concentration has variants, such as normal concentration and osmotic concentration. Dilution is reduction of concentration, e.g. by adding solvent to a solution. The verb to concentrate means to increase concentration, the opposite of dilute. ==Etymology== Concentration-, concentratio, action or an act of coming together at a single place, bringing to a common center, was used in post-classical Latin in 1550 or earlier, similar terms attested in Italian (1589), Spanish (1589), English (1606), French (1632). ==Qualitative description== Often in informal, non-technical language, concentration is described in a qualitative way, through the use of adjectives such as "dilute" for solutions of relatively low concentration and "concentrated" for solutions of relatively high concentration. To concentrate a solution, one must add more solute (for example, alcohol), or reduce the amount of solvent (for example, water). By contrast, to dilute a solution, one must add more solvent, or reduce the amount of solute. Unless two substances are miscible, there exists a concentration at which no further solute will dissolve in a solution. At this point, the solution is said to be saturated. If additional solute is added to a saturated solution, it will not dissolve, except in certain circumstances, when supersaturation may occur. Instead, phase separation will occur, leading to coexisting phases, either completely separated or mixed as a suspension. The point of saturation depends on many variables, such as ambient temperature and the precise chemical nature of the solvent and solute. Concentrations are often called levels, reflecting the mental schema of levels on the vertical axis of a graph, which can be high or low (for example, "high serum levels of bilirubin" are concentrations of bilirubin in the blood serum that are greater than normal). ==Quantitative notation== There are four quantities that describe concentration: ===Mass concentration=== The mass concentration \rho_i is defined as the mass of a constituent m_i divided by the volume of the mixture V: \rho_i = \frac {m_i}{V}. The SI unit is kg/m3 (equal to g/L). ===Molar concentration=== The molar concentration c_i is defined as the amount of a constituent n_i (in moles) divided by the volume of the mixture V: c_i = \frac {n_i}{V}. The SI unit is mol/m3. However, more commonly the unit mol/L (= mol/dm3) is used. ===Number concentration=== The number concentration C_i is defined as the number of entities of a constituent N_i in a mixture divided by the volume of the mixture V: C_i = \frac{N_i}{V}. The SI unit is 1/m3. ===Volume concentration=== The volume concentration \sigma_i (not to be confused with volume fraction) is defined as the volume of a constituent V_i divided by the volume of the mixture V: \sigma_i = \frac {V_i}{V}. Being dimensionless, it is expressed as a number, e.g., 0.18 or 18%. There seems to be no standard notation in the English literature. The letter \sigma_i used here is normative in German literature (see Volumenkonzentration). ==Related quantities== Several other quantities can be used to describe the composition of a mixture. These should not be called concentrations. ===Normality=== Normality is defined as the molar concentration c_i divided by an equivalence factor f_\mathrm{eq}. Since the definition of the equivalence factor depends on context (which reaction is being studied), the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and National Institute of Standards and Technology discourage the use of normality. ===Molality=== The molality of a solution b_i is defined as the amount of a constituent n_i (in moles) divided by the mass of the solvent m_\mathrm{solvent} (not the mass of the solution): b_i = \frac{n_i}{m_\mathrm{solvent}}. The SI unit for molality is mol/kg. ===Mole fraction=== The mole fraction x_i is defined as the amount of a constituent n_i (in moles) divided by the total amount of all constituents in a mixture n_\mathrm{tot}: x_i = \frac {n_i}{n_\mathrm{tot}}. The SI unit is mol/mol. However, the deprecated parts-per notation is often used to describe small mole fractions. ===Mole ratio=== The mole ratio r_i is defined as the amount of a constituent n_i divided by the total amount of all other constituents in a mixture: r_i = \frac{n_i}{n_\mathrm{tot}-n_i}. If n_i is much smaller than n_\mathrm{tot}, the mole ratio is almost identical to the mole fraction. The SI unit is mol/mol. However, the deprecated parts-per notation is often used to describe small mole ratios. ===Mass fraction=== The mass fraction w_i is the fraction of one substance with mass m_i to the mass of the total mixture m_\mathrm{tot}, defined as: w_i = \frac {m_i}{m_\mathrm{tot}}. The SI unit is kg/kg. However, the deprecated parts-per notation is often used to describe small mass fractions. ===Mass ratio=== The mass ratio \zeta_i is defined as the mass of a constituent m_i divided by the total mass of all other constituents in a mixture: \zeta_i = \frac{m_i}{m_\mathrm{tot}-m_i}. If m_i is much smaller than m_\mathrm{tot}, the mass ratio is almost identical to the mass fraction. The SI unit is kg/kg. However, the deprecated parts-per notation is often used to describe small mass ratios. ==Dependence on volume and temperature== Concentration depends on the variation of the volume of the solution with temperature, due mainly to thermal expansion. == Table of concentrations and related quantities ==	[ "supersaturation", "Solution (chemistry)", "solute", "molar concentration", "miscible", "Neo-Latin", "solvent", "Wikt:concentrate", "Reference ranges for blood tests", "mass", "Solvent", "Abundance (chemistry)", "amount of substance", "thermal expansion", "osmotic concentration", "chart", "parts-per notation", "IUPAC", "serum (blood)", "International System of Units", "suspension (chemistry)", "qualitative data", "bilirubin", "volume concentration", "normal concentration", "de:Volumenkonzentration", "number concentration", "chemistry", "ordinate", "mass concentration (chemistry)", "schema (psychology)", "height", "NIST", "Saturated solution", "volume fraction", "Phase (matter)" ]
7,514	Christine Lavin	Christine Lavin (born January 2, 1952) is a New York City–based singer-songwriter and promoter of contemporary folk music. She has recorded numerous solo albums, and has also recorded under the name Four Bitchin' Babes with three bandmates. She is known for her sense of humor, which is expressed in both her music and her onstage performances. Many of her songs alternate between comedy and emotional reflections on romance. Lavin worked at Caffe Lena in Saratoga Springs, New York, until Dave Van Ronk convinced her to move to New York City and make a career as a singer-songwriter. She followed his advice and accepted his offer of guitar lessons. She was the original host of Sunday Breakfast on WFUV in New York City and a founding member of the Four Bitchin' Babes when they were formed in 1990. She is a lifelong astrophysics hobbyist and has included those themes in her music. ==Awards== The ASCAP 43rd Annual Deems Taylor Award for her book Cold Pizza For Breakfast: A Mem-Wha??, 2011 The ASCAP Foundation Jamie deRoy and Friends Award, 2010 World Folk Music Association Kate Wolf Memorial Award 1990 ==Discography== Absolutely Live (1981; re-issued by Winthrop, 2000) Future Fossils (Philo, 1984) Beau Woes and Other Problems of Modern Life (Philo, 1986) Another Woman's Man (Philo, 1987) Good Thing He Can't Read My Mind (Philo, 1988) Attainable Love (Philo, 1990) Compass (Philo, 1991) Live at the Cactus Cafe: What Was I Thinking? (Philo, 1993) Please Don't Make Me Too Happy (Shanachie, 1995) Shining My Flashlight on the Moon (Shanachie, 1997) One Wild Night in Concert (1998) Getting in Touch With My Inner Bitch (Christine Lavin, 1999) The Bellevue Years (Philo, 2000) The Subway Series (Christine Lavin, 2001) Final Exam (2001) I Was in Love With a Difficult Man (Redwing, 2002) The Runaway Christmas Tree (2003) Sometimes Mother Really Does Know Best [Live] (Appleseed, 2004) folkZinger (Appleseed, 2005) One Meat Ball (Appleseed, 2006) The Runaway Christmas Tree (Appleseed, 2006) Happydance of the Xenophobe (2007) I Don't Make This Stuff Up, I Just Make It Rhyme (2008) Cold Pizza for Breakfast (Yellow Tail Records, 2009) If You're Drunk You Cannot Buy A Puppy (Christine Lavin, 2014) Spaghettification (Christine Lavin, 2017) On My Way To Hooterville (2020)	[ "Saratoga Springs, New York", "Four Bitchin' Babes", "World Folk Music Association", "Caffe Lena", "American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers", "WFUV", "Dave Van Ronk" ]
7,515	Cutter Expansive Classification	The Cutter Expansive Classification system is a library classification system devised by Charles Ammi Cutter. The system was the basis for the top categories of the Library of Congress Classification. == History of the Expansive Classification == Charles Ammi Cutter (1837–1903), inspired by the decimal classification of his contemporary Melvil Dewey, and with Dewey's initial encouragement, developed his own classification scheme for the Winchester, Massachusetts town library and then the Boston Athenaeum, at which he served as librarian for twenty-four years. He began work on it around the year 1880, publishing an overview of the new system in 1882. The same classification would later be used, but with a different notation, also devised by Cutter, at the Cary Library in Lexington, Massachusetts. Many libraries found this system too detailed and complex for their needs, and Cutter received many requests from librarians at small libraries who wanted the classification adapted for their collections. While numbers and letters are required in large library classifications, small libraries did not need their classification system to be too specific. He devised the Expansive Classification in response, to meet the needs of growing libraries, and to address some of the complaints of his critics. Cutter completed and published an introduction and schedules for the first six classifications of his new system (Expansive Classification: Part I: The First Six Classifications), but his work on the seventh was interrupted by his death in 1903. The Cutter Expansive Classification, although adopted by comparatively few libraries, has been called one of the most logical and scholarly of American classifications. Library historian Leo E. LaMontagne wrote: Cutter produced the best classification of the nineteenth century. While his system was less "scientific" than that of J. P. Lesley, its other key features – notation, specificity, and versatility – make it deserving of the praise it has received. Its top level divisions served as a basis for the Library of Congress classification, which also took over some of its features. It did not catch on as did Dewey's system because Cutter died before it was completely finished, making no provision for the kind of development necessary as the bounds of knowledge expanded and scholarly emphases changed throughout the twentieth century. == Structure of the Expansive Classification == The Expansive Classification uses seven separate schedules, each designed to be used by libraries of different sizes. After the first, each schedule was an expansion of the previous one, and Cutter provided instructions for how a library might change from one expansion to another as it grows. == Summary of the Expansive Classification schedules == === First classification === The first classification is meant for very small libraries. The first classification has only seven top-level classes, and only eight classes in total: A Works of reference and general works which include several of the following sections, and so could not go in any one. B Philosophy and Religion E Biography F History and Geography and Travels H Social sciences L Natural sciences and Arts Y Language and Literature YF Fiction === Further classifications === Further expansions add more top-level classes and subdivisions. Many subclasses arranged systematically, with common divisions, such as those by geography and language, following a consistent system throughout. By the fifth classification all the letters of the alphabet are in use for top-level classes. These are: A General Works B Philosophy C Christianity and Judaism D Ecclesiastical History E Biography F History, Universal History G Geography and Travels H Social Sciences I Demotics, Sociology J Civics, Government, Political Science K Legislation L Science and Arts together M Natural History N Botany O Zoology P Anthropology and Ethnology Q Medicine R Useful arts, Technology S Constructive arts (Engineering and Building) T Manufactures and Handicrafts U Art of War V Recreative arts, Sports, Games, Festivals W Art X English Language Y English and American literature Z Book arts These schedules were not meant to be fixed, but were to be adapted to meet the needs of each library. For example, books on the English language may be put in X, and books on language in general in a subclass of X, or this can be reversed. The first option is less logical, but results in shorter marks for most English language libraries. == Construction of call numbers == Most call numbers in the Expansive Classification follow conventions offering clues to the book's subject. The first line represents the subject, the second the author (and perhaps title), the third and fourth dates of editions, indications of translations, and critical works on particular books or authors. All numbers in the Expansive Classification are (or should be) shelved as if in decimal order. Size of volumes is indicated by points (.), pluses (+), or slashes (/ or //). For some subjects a numerical geographical subdivision follows the classification letters on the first line. The number 83 stands for the United States—hence, F83 is U.S. history, G83 U.S. travel, JU83 U.S. politics, WP83 U.S. painting. Geographical numbers are often further expanded decimally to represent more specific areas, sometimes followed by a capital letter indicating a particular city. The second line usually represents the author's name by a capital letter plus one or more numbers arranged decimally. This may be followed by the first letter or letters of the title in lower-case, and/or sometimes the letters a, b, c indicating other printings of the same title. When appropriate, the second line may begin with a 'form' number—e.g., 1 stands for history and criticism of a subject, 2 for a bibliography, 5 for a dictionary, 6 for an atlas or maps, 7 for a periodical, 8 for a society or university publication, 9 for a collection of works by different authors. On the third line a capital Y indicates a work about the author or book represented by the first two lines, and a capital E (for English—other letters are used for other languages) indicates a translation into English. If both criticism and translation apply to a single title, the number expands into four lines. === Cutter numbers (Cutter codes) === One of the features adopted by other systems, including Library of Congress, is the Cutter number. It is an alphanumeric device to code text so that it can be arranged in alphabetical order using the fewest characters. It contains one or two initial letters and Arabic numbers, treated as a decimal. To construct a Cutter number, a cataloguer consults a Cutter table as required by the classification rules. Although Cutter numbers are mostly used for coding the names of authors, the system can be used for titles, subjects, geographic areas, and more. Initial letters Qa–Qt are assigned Q2–Q29, while entries beginning with numerals have a Cutter number A12–A19, therefore sorting before the first A entry. So to make the three-digit Cutter number for "Cutter", one would start with "C", then looking under other consonants, find that "u" gives the number 8, and under additional letters, "t" is 8, giving a Cutter number of "C88".	[ "Outline of zoology", "Outline of social science", "Outline of Christianity", "Outline of sports", "Allen Kent", "Lexington, Massachusetts", "Outline of history", "Library of Congress Classification", "Outline of fiction", "Winchester, Massachusetts", "Outline of technology", "Outline of construction", "Boston Athenaeum", "J. P. Lesley", "Library of Congress classification", "Ralph R. Shaw (Librarian)", "Outline of medicine", "Outline of literature", "The arts", "Outline of philosophy", "Outline of botany", "Cary Memorial Library", "Outline of geography", "Outline of Judaism", "Outline of political science", "Outline of the visual arts", "Outline of natural science", "Outline of religion", "Outline of anthropology", "library classification", "Outline of military science and technology", "Charles Ammi Cutter", "Melvil Dewey", "Outline of sociology", "Outline of linguistics", "Outline of science", "Outline of manufacturing", "Outline of engineering", "Outline of games", "Outline of festivals" ]
7,516	Cem Karaca	Muhtar Cem Karaca (5 April 1945 – 8 February 2004) was a Turkish legendary rock musician and one of the most important figures in the Anatolian rock movement. He was a graduate of Robert College. He worked with various Turkish rock bands such as Apaşlar, Kardaşlar, Moğollar and Dervişan. With these bands, he brought a new understanding and interpretation to Turkish rock. ==Biography== He was the only child of Mehmet İbrahim Karaca, a theatre actor of Azerbaijani origin, and İrma Felekyan, a popular opera, theatre, and movie actress His first group was called Dynamites and was a classic rock cover band. Later he joined Jaguars, an Elvis Presley cover band. In 1967, he started to write his own music, joining the band Apaşlar (The Rowdies), his first Turkish language group. The same year, he participated in the Golden Microphone () contest, a popular music contest in which he won second place with his song Emrah. In 1969, Karaca and bass-player Serhan Karabay left Apaşlar and started an original Anatolian group called Kardaşlar (The Brothers). In 1972, Karaca joined the group Moğollar (The Mongols) and wrote one of his best-known songs, "Namus Belası". However, Cahit Berkay, the leader of Moğollar, wanted an international reputation for his band, and he left for France to take the group to the next level. Karaca, who wanted to continue his Anatolian beat sound, left Moğollar and started his own band Dervişan (Dervishes) in 1974. Karaca and Dervişan sang poetic and progressive songs. In the 1970s, Turkey was dealing with political violence between supporters of the left and the right, separatist movements and the rise of Islamism. As the country fell into chaos, the government suspected Cem Karaca of involvement in rebel organisations. He was accused of treason for being a separatist thinker and a Marxist-Leninist. The Turkish government tried to portray Karaca as a man who was unknowingly writing songs to start a revolution. One politician was quoted as saying, "Karaca is simply calling citizens to a bloody war against the state." Dervişan was ultimately dissolved at the end of 1977. In 1978, he founded Edirdahan, an acronym for "from Edirne to Ardahan"; the westernmost and the easternmost provinces of Turkey. He recorded one LP with Edirdahan called "Safinaz". In early 1979, Karaca left for Cologne, West Germany for business reasons. In 1980 he began singing in German with the song Nazim Hikmet - Kız Çocuğu (Little girl): Cem performed the German verses alternating with his best friend, manager, producer, arranger and bandleader/bass player/keyboarder/drummer, guitar player Ralf Mähnhöfer accompanying him on grand piano, solo or with the band Anatology, singing the song in the Turkish language. Turkey continued to spin out of control with military curfews and the 1980 Turkish coup d'état on September 12, 1980. General Kenan Evren took over the government and temporarily banned all the nation's political parties. After the coup, many intellectuals, including writers, artists and journalists, were arrested. A warrant was issued for the arrest of Karaca by the government of Turkey. The state invited Karaca back several times, but Karaca, not knowing what would happen upon his return, decided not to come back. While Karaca was in Germany his father died, but he could not return to attend the funeral. After some time, the Turkish government decided to strip Cem Karaca of his Turkish citizenship, keeping the arrest warrant active. Several years later, in 1987, the prime minister and leader of the Turkish Motherland Party, Turgut Özal, issued an amnesty for Karaca. Shortly afterwards, he returned to Turkey. His return also brought a new album with it, which released in September 12 of that year, Merhaba Gençler ve Her Zaman Genç Kalanlar ("Hello, The Young and The Young at Heart"), one of his most influential works. His return home was received cheerfully by his fans, but during his absence Karaca had lost the young audience and acquired only a few new listeners. He died of a heart attack on February 8, 2004, and was interred at Karacaahmet Cemetery in the Üsküdar district of Istanbul. ==Musical Style== The appreciation towards Cem Karaca won't be easy while at the same time he is also one of the most powerful voices of the Turkish rock scene. But the music styles audience will find him singing however will range very much, from severe mellowness chanson until powerful progressive song-based rock music. His first records were surely progressive, in a rock-sense, and Safinaz is symphonic piece comparable to a more western progressive rock albums. It remains rock music. Especially the period with Mogollar should appeal to collectors. ==Discography== ===45s=== Emrah/Karacaoğlan (1967) (with Apaşlar) Hudey / Vahşet / Bang Bang / Shakin' All Over (1967) (with Apaşlar) Emrah / Hücum / Karacaoğlan / Ayşen (1967) (with Apaşlar) Ümit Tarlaları/Anadolu Oyun Havası/Suya Giden Allı Gelin/Nasıl Da Geçtin (1967) (with Apaşlar) İstanbul'u Dinliyorum/Oy Bana Bana (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Oy Babo/Hikaye (1968) (with Apaşlar) İstanbul/Why (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Emrah 1970/Karanlık Yollar (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Resimdeki Gözyaşları/Emrah (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Resimdeki Gözyaşları/Şans Çocuğu (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Tears/No, No, No (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Ayrılık Günümüz/Gılgamış (1969) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Zeyno/Niksar (1969) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Bu Son Olsun/Felek Beni (1969) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Emmioğlu/O Leyli (1970) (with Ferdy Klein Band) Kendim Ettim kendim Buldum/Erenler (1970) (with Ferdy Klein Band) Adsız/Unut Beni (1970) (with Ferdy Klein Band) Muhtar/Baba (1970) (with Ferdy Klein Band) Dadaloğlu/Kalender (1970) (with Kardaşlar) Oy Gülüm Oy/Kara Sevda (1971) (with Kardaşlar) Tatlı Dillim/Demedim Mi (1971) (with Kardaşlar) Kara Yılan/Lümüne (1971) (with Kardaşlar) Acı Doktor (Kısım 1)/Acı Doktor (Kısım 2) (1971) (with Kardaşlar) Kara Üzüm/Mehmet'e Ağıt (1971) (with Kardaşlar) Askaros Deresi/Üryan Geldim (1972) (with Kardaşlar) Obur Dünya/El Çek Tabib (1973) (with Moğollar) Gel Gel/Üzüm Kaldı (1973) (with Moğollar) Namus Belası/Gurbet (1974) (with Moğollar) Beyaz Atlı/Yiğitler (1974) (with Dervişan) Tamirci Çırağı/Nerdesin? (1975) (with Dervişan) Mutlaka Yavrum/Kavga (1975) (with Dervişan) Beni Siz Delirttiniz/Niyazi (1975) (with Dervişan) Parka/İhtarname (1976) (with Dervişan) Mor Perşembe/Bir Mirasyediye Ağıt (1977) (with Dervişan) 1 Mayıs/Durduramayacaklar Halkın Coşkun Akan Selini (1977) (with Dervişan) ===LPs=== Apaşlar-Kardaşlar (1972) Cem Karaca'nın Apaşlar, Kardaşlar, Moğollar ve Ferdy Klein Orkestrasına Teşekkürleriyle (1974) Nem Kaldı (1975) Parka (1977) Yoksulluk Kader Olamaz (1977) (1) Safinaz (1978) (2) Hasret (1980) (It was sold as LP and tape) Bekle Beni (1982) (It was sold as tape only) Die Kanaken (1984) Merhaba Gençler ve Her Zaman Genç Kalanlar (1987) (CD, cassette, LP) ===Other albums=== Töre (1988) (It was sold as CD) by Oğuz Abadan Orchestra Yiyin Efendiler (1990) Nerde Kalmistik (1992) Bindik Bir Alamete (1999) Kahpe Bizans (2000) Hayvan Terli (2004) (Single) ===Collection albums=== The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 1 (1996) The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 2 (1997) The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 3 (2000) The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 4 (2001) The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 5 (2002) Ölümsüzler (Immortals) (2004) (posthumously) Ölümsüzler 2 (Immortals 2) (2005) (posthumously) Mutlaka Yavrum (Absolutely, baby) (2006) (posthumously)	[ "Ardahan", "1980 Turkish coup d'état", "Kurtalan Ekspres", "Armenians in Turkey", "Anatolian rock", "West Germany", "Germany", "Prime Minister of Turkey", "France", "Shakin' All Over", "Kenan Evren", "Elvis Presley", "Turgut Özal", "Istanbul", "Robert College", "Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down)", "Azerbaijanis in Turkey", "Vocal", "Bakırköy", "Cahit Berkay", "Turkish language", "hard rock", "Nazim Hikmet", "Marxism-Leninism", "symphonic rock", "Golden Microphone", "Toto Karaca", "Islamism", "Ralf Mähnhöfer", "Motherland Party (Turkey)", "Üsküdar", "Karacaahmet Cemetery", "Moğollar", "Apaşlar", "grand piano", "Oğuz Abadan", "psychedelic rock", "Cologne", "guitar", "progressive rock", "Edirne", "protest song", "Anatology", "rock music" ]
7,517	Calista Flockhart	Calista Kay Flockhart (born November 11, 1964) is an American actress. She is best known for portraying the title character on the Fox television series Ally McBeal (1997–2002), for which she received a Golden Globe Award in 1998 and was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series three times. From 2006 to 2011, she starred as Kitty Walker on the ABC drama series Brothers & Sisters, and between 2015 and 2021, Flockhart appeared as Cat Grant on the superhero drama Supergirl. In film, she is known for roles in The Birdcage (1996), A Midsummer Night's Dream (1999), and Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her (2000). ==Early life== Flockhart was born in Freeport, Illinois, the daughter of Kay Calista, an English teacher, and Ronald Flockhart, a Kraft Foods executive. Her parents retired to Morristown, Tennessee, where her father lived until his death and her mother continues to reside. She has one older brother, Gary. Her mother reversed her own first and middle names in naming her Calista Kay. Flockhart attended Mason Gross School of the Arts at Rutgers University–New Brunswick. People began recognizing Flockhart's acting ability when William Esper (Mason Gross theater director and Flockhart's acting teacher) made an exception to policy by allowing Flockhart to perform on the main stage. Though this venue usually is reserved for juniors and seniors, Harold Scott insisted that Flockhart perform there in his production of William Inge's Picnic. Flockhart graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in theater in 1988 from Rutgers as one of the few students who successfully completed the acting course. Rutgers inducted her into the Hall of Distinguished Alumni on May 3, 2003. ==Career== ===Early career=== In spring 1989, Flockhart made her first television appearance in a minor role in an episode of Guiding Light as a babysitter. She also appeared in a one-hour afternoon special for Lifestories: Families in Crisis, playing a teenager battling an eating disorder. Flockhart made her professional debut on the New York stage, appearing in Beside Herself alongside Melissa Joan Hart, at the Circle Repertory Theatre. Two years later, Flockhart appeared in the television movie Darrow. Though she later appeared in films Naked in New York (1993) and Getting In (1994), her first substantial speaking part in a film was in Quiz Show, directed by Robert Redford. Flockhart debuted on Broadway in 1994, as Laura in The Glass Menagerie. Flockhart received a Clarence Derwent Award for her performance. In 1995, Flockhart became acquainted with actors such as Dianne Wiest and Faye Dunaway when she appeared in the movie Drunks. In 1996, Flockhart appeared as the daughter of Dianne Wiest and Gene Hackman's characters in The Birdcage. Later that year, Flockhart starred in Jane Doe as a drug addict, though it was not released until 1999, over three years after filming ended. Throughout that year, she continued to work on Broadway, playing the role of Natasha in Anton Chekhov's Three Sisters. ===Ally McBeal=== In 1997, Flockhart was asked to audition for the starring role in David E. Kelley's Fox television series Ally McBeal. Kelley, having heard of Flockhart, wanted her to audition for the contract part. Though she hesitated due to the necessary commitment to the show in a negotiable contract, she was swayed by the script and traveled to Los Angeles to audition for the part, which she won. She earned a Golden Globe Award for the role in 1998. Flockhart also appeared on the June 29, 1998, cover of Time magazine, placed as the newest iteration in the evolution of feminism, relating to the ongoing debate about the role depicted by her character. Flockhart starred on the show until it was canceled in 2002. ===Brothers & Sisters=== Flockhart performed in a starring role as Kitty Walker, opposite Sally Field, Rachel Griffiths and Matthew Rhys, in the critically acclaimed ABC prime time series Brothers & Sisters, which premiered in September 2006 in the time slot after Desperate Housewives. The show was cancelled in May 2011 after running for five years. Flockhart's character was significant throughout the series' first four years, but her appearances were reduced for the 2010–2011 season, coinciding with the departure of TV husband Rob Lowe. ===Other work=== Flockhart played the role of Helena in A Midsummer Night's Dream, a 1999 film version of Shakespeare's play. In 2000, she appeared in Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her and Bash: Latter-Day Plays, later accompanying Eve Ensler to Kenya in order to protest violence against women, particularly female genital mutilation. Flockhart also starred in the off-Broadway production of Ensler's The Vagina Monologues. In 2004, Flockhart appeared as Matthew Broderick's deranged girlfriend in The Last Shot. In the same year, Flockhart traveled to Spain for the filming of Fragile, which premiered in September 2005 at the Venice Film Festival. She was offered the role of Susan Mayer on Desperate Housewives but declined, and the role later went to Teri Hatcher. In 2014, Flockhart landed a role in Full Circle second season, as mob boss Ellen. It was expected to air in 2015. This had been Flockhart's first acting role in three years, after her hiatus when Brothers & Sisters ended. In 2015, Flockhart was cast in the television series Supergirl as Cat Grant, a "self-made media magnate and founder of CatCo" and boss to Kara (Supergirl's alter ego). The series premiered on October 26, 2015, on CBS. Due to the network's wish to reduce the show's budget, it was moved to sister network The CW after its first season, along with a move to filming in Vancouver. Flockhart remained with the show (albeit as a recurring character), despite her previous aversion to working outside Los Angeles. In 2022, she played the role of Martha opposite Zachary Quinto in Edward Albee's Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? at the Geffen Playhouse in Los Angeles. The production was directed by Gordon Greenberg and also starred Aimee Carrero and Graham Phillips. In 2024, Flockhart appeared as Lee Radziwill in Capote vs. The Swans, the second season of the anthology series Feud. Regarding playing Radziwill in an interview with The New York Times, Flockhart said, “Truman Capote recognized that she was living in her sister’s shadow... and he would say things: ‘You’re so much prettier. You’re so much smarter. You’re more interesting. You have better style.’ She really needed to hear that. I think it made her really love Truman. He was fun, and she confided in him, like they all did.” ==Personal life== In January 2001, Flockhart announced that she had adopted a baby boy. Flockhart is married to actor Harrison Ford, whom she first met at the Golden Globe Awards on January 20, 2002. They became engaged on Valentine's Day in 2009, and were married on June 15, 2010, in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The ceremony was presided over by New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson and New Mexico Supreme Court Chief Justice Charles W. Daniels. From 2004 to 2014, Flockhart served as the national spokeswoman for Peace Over Violence. == Filmography == ===Film=== ===Television=== ==Awards and nominations==	[ "Matthew Broderick", "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?", "Feud: Capote vs. The Swans", "Rob Lowe", "Mason Gross School of the Arts", "Simpatico (play)", "Kenya", "Kevin Kilner", "Rachel Griffiths", "Brothers & Sisters (TV series)", "CBS", "Zachary Quinto", "The Birdcage", "Sally Field", "Dianne Wiest", "Robert Redford", "Web Therapy", "Theatre World Award", "59th Golden Globe Awards", "Robot Chicken", "Circle Repertory Theatre", "The Penguins of Madagascar", "A Midsummer Night's Dream (1999 film)", "People (magazine)", "Bash: Latter-Day Plays", "Supergirl (TV series)", "Saturday Night Live", "Morristown, Tennessee", "Lifestories: Families in Crisis", "Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television", "Peace Over Violence", "Desperate Housewives", "David E. Kelley", "Melissa Joan Hart", "Eve Ensler", "Lee Radziwill", "Los Angeles", "Spain", "feminism", "off-Broadway", "Satellite Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy", "The Vagina Monologues", "Edward Albee", "Santa Fe, New Mexico", "Venice Film Festival", "The CW", "Naked in New York", "Gordon Greenberg", "Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her", "Telling Lies in America", "Cat Grant", "CNN", "Fragile (film)", "William Inge", "Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series", "Faye Dunaway", "Feud (TV series)", "Geffen Playhouse", "Primetime Emmy Award", "Gene Hackman", "Truman Capote", "Milk & Money", "American Broadcasting Company", "Ally McBeal (character)", "English studies", "Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child", "Anton Chekhov", "Susan Mayer", "Quiz Show (film)", "Kitty Walker", "The Last Shot", "Ally McBeal", "List of The Practice episodes", "Satellite Award", "Matthew Rhys", "Helena (A Midsummer Night's Dream)", "female genital mutilation", "Bill Richardson", "Kraft Foods", "Bachelor of Fine Arts", "Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy", "Screen Actors Guild Award", "Invincible (TV series)", "Full Circle (2013 TV series)", "Broadway theatre", "Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series", "42nd Saturn Awards", "Graham Phillips (actor)", "AOL Television", "The Glass Menagerie", "Associated Press", "TV Guide", "Getting In", "Time (magazine)", "Aimee Carrero", "Freeport, Illinois", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "Golden Globe Awards", "Harrison Ford", "Golden Globe Award", "People's Choice Awards", "Guiding Light", "Charles W. Daniels", "The New York Times", "Rutgers University–New Brunswick", "Three Sisters (play)", "Picnic (play)", "Clarence Derwent Award", "Shakespeare", "Drunks (film)", "Beverly D'Angelo", "Teri Hatcher", "Brothers & Sisters (2006 TV series)" ]
7,519	Convolution	In mathematics (in particular, functional analysis), convolution is a mathematical operation on two functions (f and g) that produces a third function (fg), as the integral of the product of the two functions after one is reflected about the y-axis and shifted. The term convolution refers to both the resulting function and to the process of computing it. The integral is evaluated for all values of shift, producing the convolution function. The choice of which function is reflected and shifted before the integral does not change the integral result (see commutativity). Graphically, it expresses how the 'shape' of one function is modified by the other. Some features of convolution are similar to cross-correlation: for real-valued functions, of a continuous or discrete variable, convolution differs from cross-correlation (f \star g) only in that either f(x) or g(x) is reflected about the y-axis in convolution; thus it is a cross-correlation of g(-x) and f(x), or f(-x) and g(x). For complex-valued functions, the cross-correlation operator is the adjoint of the convolution operator. Convolution has applications that include probability, statistics, acoustics, spectroscopy, signal processing and image processing, geophysics, engineering, physics, computer vision and differential equations. The convolution can be defined for functions on Euclidean space and other groups (as algebraic structures). For example, periodic functions, such as the discrete-time Fourier transform, can be defined on a circle and convolved by periodic convolution. (See row 18 at .) A discrete convolution can be defined for functions on the set of integers. Generalizations of convolution have applications in the field of numerical analysis and numerical linear algebra, and in the design and implementation of finite impulse response filters in signal processing. Computing the inverse of the convolution operation is known as deconvolution. == Definition == The convolution of f and g is written f g, denoting the operator with the symbol . It is defined as the integral of the product of the two functions after one is reflected about the y-axis and shifted. As such, it is a particular kind of integral transform: (f g)(t) := \int_{-\infty}^\infty f(\tau) g(t - \tau) \, d\tau. An equivalent definition is (see commutativity): (f * g)(t) := \int_{-\infty}^\infty f(t - \tau) g(\tau)\, d\tau. While the symbol t is used above, it need not represent the time domain. At each t, the convolution formula can be described as the area under the function f(\tau) weighted by the function g(-\tau) shifted by the amount t. As t changes, the weighting function g(t-\tau) emphasizes different parts of the input function f(\tau); If t is a positive value, then g(t-\tau) is equal to g(-\tau) that slides or is shifted along the \tau-axis toward the right (toward +\infty) by the amount of t, while if t is a negative value, then g(t-\tau) is equal to g(-\tau) that slides or is shifted toward the left (toward -\infty) by the amount of \|t\|. For functions f, g supported on only [0,\infty) (i.e., zero for negative arguments), the integration limits can be truncated, resulting in: (f * g)(t) = \int_{0}^{t} f(\tau) g(t - \tau)\, d\tau \quad \ \text{for } f, g : [0, \infty) \to \mathbb{R}. For the multi-dimensional formulation of convolution, see domain of definition (below). === Notation === A common engineering notational convention is: f(t) * g(t) \mathrel{:=} \underbrace{\int_{-\infty}^\infty f(\tau) g(t - \tau)\, d\tau}_{(f * g )(t)}, which has to be interpreted carefully to avoid confusion. For instance, f(t) * g(t-t_0) is equivalent to (fg)(t-t_0), but f(t-t_0) g(t-t_0) is in fact equivalent to (f * g)(t-2t_0). === Relations with other transforms === Given two functions f(t) and g(t) with bilateral Laplace transforms (two-sided Laplace transform) F(s) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-su} \ f(u) \ \text{d}u and G(s) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-sv} \ g(v) \ \text{d}v respectively, the convolution operation (f * g)(t) can be defined as the inverse Laplace transform of the product of F(s) and G(s) . More precisely, \begin{align} F(s) \cdot G(s) &= \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-su} \ f(u) \ \text{d}u \cdot \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-sv} \ g(v) \ \text{d}v \\ &= \int_{-\infty}^\infty \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-s(u + v)} \ f(u) \ g(v) \ \text{d}u \ \text{d}v \end{align} Let t = u + v , then \begin{align} F(s) \cdot G(s) &= \int_{-\infty}^\infty \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-st} \ f(u) \ g(t - u) \ \text{d}u \ \text{d}t \\ &= \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-st} \underbrace{\int_{-\infty}^\infty f(u) \ g(t - u) \ \text{d}u}_{(f * g)(t)} \ \text{d}t \\ &= \int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-st} (f * g)(t) \ \text{d}t. \end{align} Note that F(s) \cdot G(s) is the bilateral Laplace transform of (f * g)(t) . A similar derivation can be done using the unilateral Laplace transform (one-sided Laplace transform). The convolution operation also describes the output (in terms of the input) of an important class of operations known as linear time-invariant (LTI). See LTI system theory for a derivation of convolution as the result of LTI constraints. In terms of the Fourier transforms of the input and output of an LTI operation, no new frequency components are created. The existing ones are only modified (amplitude and/or phase). In other words, the output transform is the pointwise product of the input transform with a third transform (known as a transfer function). See Convolution theorem for a derivation of that property of convolution. Conversely, convolution can be derived as the inverse Fourier transform of the pointwise product of two Fourier transforms. == Visual explanation == == Historical developments == One of the earliest uses of the convolution integral appeared in D'Alembert's derivation of Taylor's theorem in Recherches sur différents points importants du système du monde, published in 1754. Also, an expression of the type: \int f(u)\cdot g(x - u) \, du is used by Sylvestre François Lacroix on page 505 of his book entitled Treatise on differences and series, which is the last of 3 volumes of the encyclopedic series: , Chez Courcier, Paris, 1797–1800. Soon thereafter, convolution operations appear in the works of Pierre Simon Laplace, Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier, Siméon Denis Poisson, and others. The term itself did not come into wide use until the 1950s or 1960s. Prior to that it was sometimes known as Faltung (which means folding in German), composition product, superposition integral, and Carson's integral. Yet it appears as early as 1903, though the definition is rather unfamiliar in older uses. The operation: \int_0^t \varphi(s)\psi(t - s) \, ds,\quad 0 \le t < \infty, is a particular case of composition products considered by the Italian mathematician Vito Volterra in 1913. == Circular convolution == When a function g_T is periodic, with period T, then for functions, f, such that f * g_T exists, the convolution is also periodic and identical to: (f * g_T)(t) \equiv \int_{t_0}^{t_0+T} \left[\sum_{k=-\infty}^\infty f(\tau + kT)\right] g_T(t - \tau)\, d\tau, where t_0 is an arbitrary choice. The summation is called a periodic summation of the function f. When g_T is a periodic summation of another function, g, then fg_T is known as a circular or cyclic convolution of f and g. And if the periodic summation above is replaced by f_T, the operation is called a periodic convolution of f_T and g_T. == Discrete convolution == For complex-valued functions f and g defined on the set \Z of integers, the discrete convolution of f and g is given by: (f g)[n] = \sum_{m=-\infty}^\infty f[m] g[n - m], or equivalently (see commutativity) by: (f * g)[n] = \sum_{m=-\infty}^\infty f[n-m] g[m]. The convolution of two finite sequences is defined by extending the sequences to finitely supported functions on the set of integers. When the sequences are the coefficients of two polynomials, then the coefficients of the ordinary product of the two polynomials are the convolution of the original two sequences. This is known as the Cauchy product of the coefficients of the sequences. Thus when has finite support in the set \{-M,-M+1,\dots,M-1,M\} (representing, for instance, a finite impulse response), a finite summation may be used: (f * g)[n]=\sum_{m=-M}^M f[n-m]g[m]. === Circular discrete convolution === When a function g_{_N} is periodic, with period N, then for functions, f, such that fg_{_N} exists, the convolution is also periodic and identical to: (f g_{_N})[n] \equiv \sum_{m=0}^{N-1} \left(\sum_{k=-\infty}^\infty {f}[m + kN]\right) g_{_N}[n - m]. The summation on k is called a periodic summation of the function f. If g_{_N} is a periodic summation of another function, g, then fg_{_N} is known as a circular convolution of f and g. When the non-zero durations of both f and g are limited to the interval [0,N-1], fg_{_N} reduces to these common forms: The notation f _N g for cyclic convolution denotes convolution over the cyclic group of integers modulo . Circular convolution arises most often in the context of fast convolution with a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm. === Fast convolution algorithms === In many situations, discrete convolutions can be converted to circular convolutions so that fast transforms with a convolution property can be used to implement the computation. For example, convolution of digit sequences is the kernel operation in multiplication of multi-digit numbers, which can therefore be efficiently implemented with transform techniques (; ). requires arithmetic operations per output value and operations for outputs. That can be significantly reduced with any of several fast algorithms. Digital signal processing and other applications typically use fast convolution algorithms to reduce the cost of the convolution to O( log ) complexity. The most common fast convolution algorithms use fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms via the circular convolution theorem. Specifically, the circular convolution of two finite-length sequences is found by taking an FFT of each sequence, multiplying pointwise, and then performing an inverse FFT. Convolutions of the type defined above are then efficiently implemented using that technique in conjunction with zero-extension and/or discarding portions of the output. Other fast convolution algorithms, such as the Schönhage–Strassen algorithm or the Mersenne transform, use fast Fourier transforms in other rings. The Winograd method is used as an alternative to the FFT. It significantly speeds up 1D, 2D, and 3D convolution. If one sequence is much longer than the other, zero-extension of the shorter sequence and fast circular convolution is not the most computationally efficient method available. Instead, decomposing the longer sequence into blocks and convolving each block allows for faster algorithms such as the overlap–save method and overlap–add method. A hybrid convolution method that combines block and FIR algorithms allows for a zero input-output latency that is useful for real-time convolution computations. == Domain of definition == The convolution of two complex-valued functions on is itself a complex-valued function on , defined by: (f g )(x) = \int_{\mathbf{R}^d} f(y)g(x-y)\,dy = \int_{\mathbf{R}^d} f(x-y)g(y)\,dy, and is well-defined only if and decay sufficiently rapidly at infinity in order for the integral to exist. Conditions for the existence of the convolution may be tricky, since a blow-up in at infinity can be easily offset by sufficiently rapid decay in . The question of existence thus may involve different conditions on and : === Compactly supported functions === If and are compactly supported continuous functions, then their convolution exists, and is also compactly supported and continuous . More generally, if either function (say ) is compactly supported and the other is locally integrable, then the convolution is well-defined and continuous. Convolution of and is also well defined when both functions are locally square integrable on and supported on an interval of the form (or both supported on ). === Integrable functions === The convolution of and exists if and are both Lebesgue integrable functions in (), and in this case is also integrable . This is a consequence of Tonelli's theorem. This is also true for functions in , under the discrete convolution, or more generally for the convolution on any group. Likewise, if () and () where , then (), and \\|{f}* g\\|_p\le \\|f\\|_1\\|g\\|_p. In the particular case , this shows that is a Banach algebra under the convolution (and equality of the two sides holds if and are non-negative almost everywhere). More generally, Young's inequality implies that the convolution is a continuous bilinear map between suitable spaces. Specifically, if satisfy: \frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}=\frac{1}{r}+1, then \left\Vert fg\right\Vert_r\le\left\Vert f\right\Vert_p\left\Vert g\right\Vert_q,\quad f\in L^p,\ g\in L^q, so that the convolution is a continuous bilinear mapping from to . The Young inequality for convolution is also true in other contexts (circle group, convolution on ). The preceding inequality is not sharp on the real line: when , there exists a constant such that: \left\Vert fg\right\Vert_r\le B_{p,q}\left\Vert f\right\Vert_p\left\Vert g\right\Vert_q,\quad f\in L^p,\ g\in L^q. The optimal value of was discovered in 1975 and independently in 1976, see Brascamp–Lieb inequality. A stronger estimate is true provided : \\|f * g\\|_r\le C_{p,q}\\|f\\|_p\\|g\\|_{q,w} where \\|g\\|_{q,w} is the weak norm. Convolution also defines a bilinear continuous map L^{p,w}\times L^{q,w}\to L^{r,w} for 1< p,q,r<\infty, owing to the weak Young inequality: \\|f * g\\|_{r,w}\le C_{p,q}\\|f\\|_{p,w}\\|g\\|_{r,w}. === Functions of rapid decay === In addition to compactly supported functions and integrable functions, functions that have sufficiently rapid decay at infinity can also be convolved. An important feature of the convolution is that if f and g both decay rapidly, then f∗g also decays rapidly. In particular, if f and g are rapidly decreasing functions, then so is the convolution f∗g. Combined with the fact that convolution commutes with differentiation (see #Properties), it follows that the class of Schwartz functions is closed under convolution . === Distributions === If f is a smooth function that is compactly supported and g is a distribution, then f∗g is a smooth function defined by \int_{\mathbb{R}^d} {f}(y)g(x-y)\,dy = (fg)(x) \in C^\infty(\mathbb{R}^d) . More generally, it is possible to extend the definition of the convolution in a unique way with \varphi the same as f above, so that the associative law f (g* \varphi) = (f* g)* \varphi remains valid in the case where f is a distribution, and g a compactly supported distribution . === Measures === The convolution of any two Borel measures μ and ν of bounded variation is the measure \mu\nu defined by \int_{\mathbf{R}^d} f(x) \, d(\mu\nu)(x) = \int_{\mathbf{R}^d}\int_{\mathbf{R}^d}f(x+y)\,d\mu(x)\,d\nu(y). In particular, (\mu\nu)(A) = \int_{\mathbf{R}^d\times\mathbf R^d}1_A(x+y)\, d(\mu\times\nu)(x,y), where A\subset\mathbf R^d is a measurable set and 1_A is the indicator function of A. This agrees with the convolution defined above when μ and ν are regarded as distributions, as well as the convolution of L1 functions when μ and ν are absolutely continuous with respect to the Lebesgue measure. The convolution of measures also satisfies the following version of Young's inequality \\|\mu \nu\\|\le \\|\mu\\|\\|\nu\\| where the norm is the total variation of a measure. Because the space of measures of bounded variation is a Banach space, convolution of measures can be treated with standard methods of functional analysis that may not apply for the convolution of distributions. == Properties == === Algebraic properties === The convolution defines a product on the linear space of integrable functions. This product satisfies the following algebraic properties, which formally mean that the space of integrable functions with the product given by convolution is a commutative associative algebra without identity . Other linear spaces of functions, such as the space of continuous functions of compact support, are closed under the convolution, and so also form commutative associative algebras. Commutativity: f * g = g * f Proof: By definition: (f * g)(t) = \int^\infty_{-\infty} f(\tau)g(t - \tau)\, d\tau Changing the variable of integration to u = t - \tau the result follows. Associativity: f * (g * h) = (f * g) * h Proof: This follows from using Fubini's theorem (i.e., double integrals can be evaluated as iterated integrals in either order). Distributivity: f * (g + h) = (f * g) + (f * h) Proof: This follows from linearity of the integral. Associativity with scalar multiplication: a (f * g) = (a f) * g for any real (or complex) number a. Multiplicative identity: No algebra of functions possesses an identity for the convolution. The lack of identity is typically not a major inconvenience, since most collections of functions on which the convolution is performed can be convolved with a delta distribution (a unitary impulse, centered at zero) or, at the very least (as is the case of L1) admit approximations to the identity. The linear space of compactly supported distributions does, however, admit an identity under the convolution. Specifically, f * \delta = f where δ is the delta distribution. Inverse element: Some distributions S have an inverse element S−1 for the convolution which then must satisfy S^{-1} * S = \delta from which an explicit formula for S−1 may be obtained.The set of invertible distributions forms an abelian group under the convolution. Complex conjugation: \overline{f * g} = \overline{f} * \overline{g} Time reversal: If q(t) = r(t)s(t), then q(-t) = r(-t)s(-t). Proof (using convolution theorem): q(t) \ \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\ \ Q(f) = R(f)S(f) q(-t) \ \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\ \ Q(-f) = R(-f)S(-f) \begin{align} q(-t) &= \mathcal{F}^{-1}\bigg\{R(-f)S(-f)\bigg\}\\ &= \mathcal{F}^{-1}\bigg\{R (-f)\bigg\} * \mathcal{F}^{-1}\bigg\{S(-f)\bigg\}\\ &= r(-t) * s(-t) \end{align} Relationship with differentiation: (f * g)' = f' * g = f * g' Proof: \begin{align} (f * g)' & = \frac{d}{dt} \int^\infty_{-\infty} f(\tau) g(t - \tau) \, d\tau \\ & =\int^\infty_{-\infty} f(\tau) \frac{\partial}{\partial t} g(t - \tau) \, d\tau \\ & =\int^\infty_{-\infty} f(\tau) g'(t - \tau) \, d\tau = f* g'. \end{align} Relationship with integration: If F(t) = \int^t_{-\infty} f(\tau) d\tau, and G(t) = \int^t_{-\infty} g(\tau) \, d\tau, then (F * g)(t) = (f * G)(t) = \int^t_{-\infty}(f * g)(\tau)\,d\tau. === Integration === If f and g are integrable functions, then the integral of their convolution on the whole space is simply obtained as the product of their integrals: \int_{\mathbf{R}^d}(f * g)(x) \, dx=\left(\int_{\mathbf{R}^d}f(x) \, dx\right) \left(\int_{\mathbf{R}^d}g(x) \, dx\right). This follows from Fubini's theorem. The same result holds if f and g are only assumed to be nonnegative measurable functions, by Tonelli's theorem. === Differentiation === In the one-variable case, \frac{d}{dx}(f * g) = \frac{df}{dx} * g = f * \frac{dg}{dx} where \frac{d}{dx} is the derivative. More generally, in the case of functions of several variables, an analogous formula holds with the partial derivative: \frac{\partial}{\partial x_i}(f * g) = \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_i} * g = f * \frac{\partial g}{\partial x_i}. A particular consequence of this is that the convolution can be viewed as a "smoothing" operation: the convolution of f and g is differentiable as many times as f and g are in total. These identities hold for example under the condition that f and g are absolutely integrable and at least one of them has an absolutely integrable (L1) weak derivative, as a consequence of Young's convolution inequality. For instance, when f is continuously differentiable with compact support, and g is an arbitrary locally integrable function, \frac{d}{dx}(f* g) = \frac{df}{dx} * g. These identities also hold much more broadly in the sense of tempered distributions if one of f or g is a rapidly decreasing tempered distribution, a compactly supported tempered distribution or a Schwartz function and the other is a tempered distribution. On the other hand, two positive integrable and infinitely differentiable functions may have a nowhere continuous convolution. In the discrete case, the difference operator D f(n) = f(n + 1) − f(n) satisfies an analogous relationship: D(f * g) = (Df) * g = f * (Dg). === Convolution theorem === The convolution theorem states that \mathcal{F}\{f * g\} = \mathcal{F}\{f\}\cdot \mathcal{F}\{g\} where \mathcal{F}\{f\} denotes the Fourier transform of f. ==== Convolution in other types of transformations ==== Versions of this theorem also hold for the Laplace transform, two-sided Laplace transform, Z-transform and Mellin transform. ==== Convolution on matrices ==== If \mathcal W is the Fourier transform matrix, then \mathcal W\left(C^{(1)}x \ast C^{(2)}y\right) = \left(\mathcal W C^{(1)} \bull \mathcal W C^{(2)}\right)(x \otimes y) = \mathcal W C^{(1)}x \circ \mathcal W C^{(2)}y, where \bull is face-splitting product, \otimes denotes Kronecker product, \circ denotes Hadamard product (this result is an evolving of count sketch properties). This can be generalized for appropriate matrices \mathbf{A},\mathbf{B}: \mathcal W\left((\mathbf{A}x) \ast (\mathbf{B}y)\right) = \left((\mathcal W \mathbf{A}) \bull (\mathcal W \mathbf{B})\right)(x \otimes y) = (\mathcal W \mathbf{A}x) \circ (\mathcal W \mathbf{B}y) from the properties of the face-splitting product. === Translational equivariance === The convolution commutes with translations, meaning that \tau_x (f * g) = (\tau_x f) * g = f * (\tau_x g) where τxf is the translation of the function f by x defined by (\tau_x f)(y) = f(y - x). If f is a Schwartz function, then τxf is the convolution with a translated Dirac delta function τxf = f ∗ τx δ. So translation invariance of the convolution of Schwartz functions is a consequence of the associativity of convolution. Furthermore, under certain conditions, convolution is the most general translation invariant operation. Informally speaking, the following holds Suppose that S is a bounded linear operator acting on functions which commutes with translations: S(τxf) = τx(Sf) for all x. Then S is given as convolution with a function (or distribution) gS; that is Sf = gS ∗ f. Thus some translation invariant operations can be represented as convolution. Convolutions play an important role in the study of time-invariant systems, and especially LTI system theory. The representing function gS is the impulse response of the transformation S. A more precise version of the theorem quoted above requires specifying the class of functions on which the convolution is defined, and also requires assuming in addition that S must be a continuous linear operator with respect to the appropriate topology. It is known, for instance, that every continuous translation invariant continuous linear operator on L1 is the convolution with a finite Borel measure. More generally, every continuous translation invariant continuous linear operator on Lp for 1 ≤ p < ∞ is the convolution with a tempered distribution whose Fourier transform is bounded. To wit, they are all given by bounded Fourier multipliers. == Convolutions on groups == If G is a suitable group endowed with a measure λ, and if f and g are real or complex valued integrable functions on G, then we can define their convolution by (f * g)(x) = \int_G f(y) g\left(y^{-1}x\right)\,d\lambda(y). It is not commutative in general. In typical cases of interest G is a locally compact Hausdorff topological group and λ is a (left-) Haar measure. In that case, unless G is unimodular, the convolution defined in this way is not the same as \int f\left(xy^{-1}\right)g(y) \, d\lambda(y). The preference of one over the other is made so that convolution with a fixed function g commutes with left translation in the group: L_h(f* g) = (L_hf)* g. Furthermore, the convention is also required for consistency with the definition of the convolution of measures given below. However, with a right instead of a left Haar measure, the latter integral is preferred over the former. On locally compact abelian groups, a version of the convolution theorem holds: the Fourier transform of a convolution is the pointwise product of the Fourier transforms. The circle group T with the Lebesgue measure is an immediate example. For a fixed g in L1(T), we have the following familiar operator acting on the Hilbert space L2(T): T {f}(x) = \frac{1}{2 \pi} \int_{\mathbf{T}} {f}(y) g( x - y) \, dy. The operator T is compact. A direct calculation shows that its adjoint T* is convolution with \bar{g}(-y). By the commutativity property cited above, T is normal: T* T = TT* . Also, T commutes with the translation operators. Consider the family S of operators consisting of all such convolutions and the translation operators. Then S is a commuting family of normal operators. According to spectral theory, there exists an orthonormal basis {hk} that simultaneously diagonalizes S. This characterizes convolutions on the circle. Specifically, we have h_k (x) = e^{ikx}, \quad k \in \mathbb{Z},\; which are precisely the characters of T. Each convolution is a compact multiplication operator in this basis. This can be viewed as a version of the convolution theorem discussed above. A discrete example is a finite cyclic group of order n. Convolution operators are here represented by circulant matrices, and can be diagonalized by the discrete Fourier transform. A similar result holds for compact groups (not necessarily abelian): the matrix coefficients of finite-dimensional unitary representations form an orthonormal basis in L2 by the Peter–Weyl theorem, and an analog of the convolution theorem continues to hold, along with many other aspects of harmonic analysis that depend on the Fourier transform. == Convolution of measures == Let G be a (multiplicatively written) topological group. If μ and ν are Radon measures on G, then their convolution μ∗ν is defined as the pushforward measure of the group action and can be written as (\mu * \nu)(E) = \iint 1_E(xy) \,d\mu(x) \,d\nu(y) for each measurable subset E of G. The convolution is also a Radon measure, whose total variation satisfies \\|\mu * \nu\\| \le \left\\|\mu\right\\| \left\\|\nu\right\\|. In the case when G is locally compact with (left-)Haar measure λ, and μ and ν are absolutely continuous with respect to a λ, so that each has a density function, then the convolution μ∗ν is also absolutely continuous, and its density function is just the convolution of the two separate density functions. In fact, if either measure is absolutely continuous with respect to the Haar measure, then so is their convolution. If μ and ν are probability measures on the topological group then the convolution μ∗ν is the probability distribution of the sum X + Y of two independent random variables X and Y whose respective distributions are μ and ν. == Infimal convolution == In convex analysis, the infimal convolution of proper (not identically +\infty) convex functions f_1,\dots,f_m on \mathbb R^n is defined by: (f_1\cdotsf_m)(x)=\inf_x \{ f_1(x_1)+\cdots+f_m(x_m) \| x_1+\cdots+x_m = x\}. It can be shown that the infimal convolution of convex functions is convex. Furthermore, it satisfies an identity analogous to that of the Fourier transform of a traditional convolution, with the role of the Fourier transform is played instead by the Legendre transform: \varphi^(x) = \sup_y ( x\cdot y - \varphi(y)). We have: (f_1\cdots f_m)^(x) = f_1^(x) + \cdots + f_m^(x). == Bialgebras == Let (X, Δ, ∇, ε, η) be a bialgebra with comultiplication Δ, multiplication ∇, unit η, and counit ε. The convolution is a product defined on the endomorphism algebra End(X) as follows. Let φ, ψ ∈ End(X), that is, φ, ψ: X → X are functions that respect all algebraic structure of X, then the convolution φ∗ψ is defined as the composition X \mathrel{\xrightarrow{\Delta}} X \otimes X \mathrel{\xrightarrow{\phi\otimes\psi}} X \otimes X \mathrel{\xrightarrow{\nabla}} X. The convolution appears notably in the definition of Hopf algebras . A bialgebra is a Hopf algebra if and only if it has an antipode: an endomorphism S such that S * \operatorname{id}_X = \operatorname{id}_X * S = \eta\circ\varepsilon. == Applications == Convolution and related operations are found in many applications in science, engineering and mathematics. Convolutional neural networks apply multiple cascaded convolution kernels with applications in machine vision and artificial intelligence. Though these are actually cross-correlations rather than convolutions in most cases. In non-neural-network-based image processing In digital image processing convolutional filtering plays an important role in many important algorithms in edge detection and related processes (see Kernel (image processing)) In optics, an out-of-focus photograph is a convolution of the sharp image with a lens function. The photographic term for this is bokeh. In image processing applications such as adding blurring. In digital data processing In analytical chemistry, Savitzky–Golay smoothing filters are used for the analysis of spectroscopic data. They can improve signal-to-noise ratio with minimal distortion of the spectra In statistics, a weighted moving average is a convolution. In acoustics, reverberation is the convolution of the original sound with echoes from objects surrounding the sound source. In digital signal processing, convolution is used to map the impulse response of a real room on a digital audio signal. In electronic music convolution is the imposition of a spectral or rhythmic structure on a sound. Often this envelope or structure is taken from another sound. The convolution of two signals is the filtering of one through the other. In electrical engineering, the convolution of one function (the input signal) with a second function (the impulse response) gives the output of a linear time-invariant system (LTI). At any given moment, the output is an accumulated effect of all the prior values of the input function, with the most recent values typically having the most influence (expressed as a multiplicative factor). The impulse response function provides that factor as a function of the elapsed time since each input value occurred. In physics, wherever there is a linear system with a "superposition principle", a convolution operation makes an appearance. For instance, in spectroscopy line broadening due to the Doppler effect on its own gives a Gaussian spectral line shape and collision broadening alone gives a Lorentzian line shape. When both effects are operative, the line shape is a convolution of Gaussian and Lorentzian, a Voigt function. In time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy, the excitation signal can be treated as a chain of delta pulses, and the measured fluorescence is a sum of exponential decays from each delta pulse. In computational fluid dynamics, the large eddy simulation (LES) turbulence model uses the convolution operation to lower the range of length scales necessary in computation thereby reducing computational cost. In probability theory, the probability distribution of the sum of two independent random variables is the convolution of their individual distributions. In kernel density estimation, a distribution is estimated from sample points by convolution with a kernel, such as an isotropic Gaussian. In radiotherapy treatment planning systems, most part of all modern codes of calculation applies a convolution-superposition algorithm. In structural reliability, the reliability index can be defined based on the convolution theorem. The definition of reliability index for limit state functions with nonnormal distributions can be established corresponding to the joint distribution function. In fact, the joint distribution function can be obtained using the convolution theory. In Smoothed-particle hydrodynamics, simulations of fluid dynamics are calculated using particles, each with surrounding kernels. For any given particle i, some physical quantity A_i is calculated as a convolution of A_j with a weighting function, where j denotes the neighbors of particle i: those that are located within its kernel. The convolution is approximated as a summation over each neighbor. In Fractional calculus convolution is instrumental in various definitions of fractional integral and fractional derivative.	[ "Taylor's theorem", "physics", "Schönhage–Strassen algorithm", "random variable", "periodic function", "Dirichlet convolution", "Kernel (image processing)", "cyclic group", "linear space", "locally compact", "machine vision", "Character (mathematics)", "modular arithmetic", "Polynomial multiplication", "multiplication", "Smoothed-particle hydrodynamics", "two-sided Laplace transform", "Radon–Nikodym theorem", "count sketch", "topological group", "identity element", "edge detection", "compact operator on Hilbert space", "Time-resolved spectroscopy", "moving average", "locally integrable function", "waveform", "linear operator", "bokeh", "Convolution power", "Convolution theorem", "circulant matrices", "periodic convolution", "Hopf algebra", "signal processing", "probability distribution", "circular convolution", "optics", "algebraic structure", "Inverse function", "Laplace transform", "Savitzky–Golay smoothing filter", "Titchmarsh convolution theorem", "resistor-capacitor circuit", "convex function", "Circulant matrix", "Young's convolution inequality", "Multidimensional discrete convolution", "integral transform", "finite impulse response", "geophysics", "Fubini's theorem", "Two-sided Laplace transform", "computer vision", "overlap–save method", "Lebesgue integral", "functional analysis", "integral", "Mellin transform", "continuous linear operator", "analytical chemistry", "Advances in Mathematics", "large eddy simulation", "Toeplitz matrix", "spectral line shape", "Hilbert space", "Multiplicative identity", "Banach space", "signal-to-noise ratio", "List of convolutions of probability distributions", "Discrete Fourier transform", "topology", "compact support", "continuous function", "unit impulse", "Salman Khan (educator)", "Schwartz function", "indicator function", "discrete Fourier transform", "ring (mathematics)", "distribution (mathematics)", "engineering", "artificial intelligence", "Generalized signal averaging", "Moving-average model", "cross-correlation", "Sylvestre François Lacroix", "numerical linear algebra", "Euclidean space", "kernel density estimation", "Distributivity", "rapidly decreasing function", "Nascent delta function", "Hadamard product (matrices)", "Radon measure", "Wavelet transform", "time-invariant system", "locally compact abelian group", "algorithm", "integer", "operation (mathematics)", "Free variables and bound variables", "image processing", "Scaled correlation", "Hausdorff space", "Cauchy distribution", "inverse Laplace transform", "Brascamp–Lieb inequality", "differential equation", "reverberation", "artificial neural network", "Haar measure", "linear time-invariant system", "R. Tyrrell Rockafellar", "Springer-Verlag", "electrical engineering", "Digital signal processing", "Normal distribution", "multiplication operator", "convolution-superposition algorithm", "face-splitting product", "inverse element", "statistics", "Group action (mathematics)", "Analog signal processing", "Linear time-invariant system", "abelian group", "LTI system theory", "independent (probability)", "Jean le Rond d'Alembert", "Convolutional neural network", "absolute continuity", "Vito Volterra", "spectroscopy", "Distribution (mathematics)", "polynomial", "echo (phenomenon)", "Z-transform", "Commutativity", "partial derivative", "endomorphism algebra", "even function", "fast Fourier transform", "Spectrum", "Khatri–Rao product", "discrete-time Fourier transform", "Hermitian adjoint", "Lp space", "Peter–Weyl theorem", "circle", "derivative", "probability", "John Renshaw Carson", "Support (mathematics)", "Fourier transform", "German language", "convolution theorem", "halftone", "autocorrelation", "MathWorld", "computational fluid dynamics", "Kronecker product", "overlap–add method", "associative algebra", "Fourier multiplier", "Associativity", "superposition principle", "deconvolution", "Pierre Simon Laplace", "numerical analysis", "bounded variation", "Borel measure", "Banach algebra", "probability theory", "Cauchy product", "unitary representation", "acoustics", "electronic music", "statistical independence", "periodic summation", "closure (mathematics)", "Convolution quotient", "probability measure", "difference operator", "measure (mathematics)", "joint distribution function", "circle group", "Convolution for optical broad-beam responses in scattering media", "iarchive:Lectures on Image Processing", "unimodular group", "group (mathematics)", "linear system", "bialgebra", "Dirac delta", "total variation", "Fractional calculus", "digital image processing", "impulse response", "transfer function", "normal operator", "Voigt function", "DFT matrix", "convex analysis", "pushforward measure", "Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier", "Siméon Denis Poisson", "Legendre transform", "Signal (electrical engineering)", "function (mathematics)", "harmonic analysis", "turbulence model", "mathematics" ]
7,521	Calico	Calico (; in British usage since 1505) is a heavy plain-woven textile made from unbleached, and often not fully processed, cotton. It may also contain unseparated husk parts. The fabric is far coarser than muslin, but less coarse and thick than canvas or denim. However, it is still very cheap owing to its unfinished and undyed appearance. The fabric was originally from the city of Calicut in southwestern India. It was made by the traditional weavers called cāliyans. The raw fabric was dyed and printed in bright hues, and calico prints became popular in Europe. ==History== ===Origins=== Calico originated in Calicut, from which the name of the textile came, in South India, now Kerala, during the 11th century, It was mentioned in Indian literature by the 12th century when the polymath and writer Hemachandra described calico fabric prints with a lotus design. Calico was woven using Gujarati cotton from Surat for both the warp and weft. By the 15th century, calico from Gujarat made its appearance in Cairo, then capital of the Egypt Eyalet under the Ottoman Empire. Cheap calico prints, imported by the East India Company from Hindustān (India), had become popular. In 1700 the first of the Calico Acts was passed to prevent the import of dyed or printed calicoes from India, China or Persia. This caused demand to switch to imported grey cloth instead — calico that had not been finished-dyed or printed. These were printed with popular patterns in southern England. Also, Lancashire businessmen produced grey cloth with linen warp and cotton weft, known as fustian, which they sent to London for finishing. The Woollen, etc., Manufactures Act 1720 was passed, enacting fines against anyone caught wearing printed or stained calico muslins, but neckcloths and fustians were exempted. The Lancashire manufacturers exploited this exemption; coloured cotton weft with linen warp were specifically permitted by the 1736 Manchester Act. In 1764, of cottonwool was imported. ===Calico printing=== Early Indian chintz, that is, glazed calico with a large floral pattern, was primarily produced using painting techniques. Later, the hues were applied by wooden blocks, and the cloth manufacturers in Britain printed calico using wooden block printing. Calico printers at work are depicted in one of the stained glass windows made by Stephen Adam for the Maryhill Burgh Halls, Glasgow. Confusingly, linen and silk printed this way were known as linen calicoes and silk calicoes. Early European calicoes (1680) were cheap plain weave white cotton fabric, or cream or unbleached cotton, with a design block-printed using a single alizarin dye fixed with two mordants, giving a red and black pattern. Polychromatic prints were possible, using two sets of blocks and an additional blue dye. The Indian taste was for dark printed backgrounds, while the European market preferred a pattern on a cream base. As the century progressed the European preference moved from the large chintz patterns to smaller, tighter patterns. After 1888, block printing was only used for short-run specialized jobs. After 1880, profits from printing fell due to overcapacity and the firms started to form combines. In the first, three Scottish firms formed the United Turkey Red Co. Ltd in 1897, and the second, in 1899, was the much larger Calico Printers' Association 46 printing concerns and 13 merchants combined, representing 85% of the British printing capacity. Some of this capacity was removed and in 1901 Calico had 48% of the printing trade. In 1916, they and the other printers formed and joined a trade association, which then set minimum prices for each 'price section' of the industry. The trade association remained in operation until 1954, when the arrangement was challenged by the government Monopolies Commission. Over the intervening period much trade had been lost overseas. ==Terminology== In the UK, Australia and New Zealand: Calico – simple, cheap equal weft and warp plain weave fabric in white, cream or unbleached cotton Calico bag - a bag made of calico used by banks and other financial institutions Muslin – a very fine, light plain weave cotton fabric Muslin gauze – US: muslin – simple, cheap equal weft and warp plain weave fabric in white, cream or unbleached cotton and/or a very fine, light plain weave cotton fabric Gauze – extremely soft and fine cotton fabric with a very open plain weave Cheesecloth – US: gauze – any very light fabric, generally with a plain weave Tote bag - sometimes made of calico In the US: Calico – cotton fabric with a small, all-over floral print Muslin – UK: muslin gauze – simple, cheap equal weft and warp plain weave fabric in white, cream or unbleached cotton and/or a very fine, light plain weave cotton fabric Muslin gauze – the very lightest, most open weave of muslin Gauze – UK: cheesecloth – any very light fabric, generally with a plain weave Cheesecloth – extremely soft and fine cotton fabric with a very open plain weave Printed calico was imported into the United States from Lancashire in the 1780s, and here a linguistic separation occurred. While Europe maintained the word calico for the fabric, in the States it was used to refer to the printed design.	[ "Gujarat", "Woollen, etc., Manufactures Act 1720", "overcapacity", "woollen", "denim", "Muslin", "Hindustan", "Calico Acts", "Calico Jack", "chintz", "Livesey, Hargreaves and Company", "Surat", "worsted", "Gauze", "East India Company", "Egypt Eyalet", "warp and weft", "Manchester Act 1736", "Bafta cloth", "John Potts (engraver)", "Europe", "Stephen Adam (stained glass designer)", "Calico (goldfish)", "Lancashire", "centimetre", "Glasgow", "linen", "calico cat", "New Mills", "Walton-le-Dale", "Calico cat", "South India", "Ovalipes ocellatus", "canvas", "sacred lotus in religious art", "textile", "Linda Hall Library", "Thomas Bell (printer)", "plain weave", "polymath", "Norwich", "Kerala", "Business group", "Calico Printers' Association", "India", "Coventry", "stained glass", "Maryhill Burgh Halls", "Rose madder", "United Kingdom", "Woodblock printing", "Chintz", "Kozhikode", "weft", "Cheesecloth", "Monopolies Commission", "Greige goods", "fustian", "Saliya", "cotton", "Hemachandra", "Derbyshire", "Piece goods", "muslin" ]
7,522	Calorimetry	In chemistry and thermodynamics, calorimetry () is the science or act of measuring changes in state variables of a body for the purpose of deriving the heat transfer associated with changes of its state due, for example, to chemical reactions, physical changes, or phase transitions under specified constraints. Calorimetry is performed with a calorimeter. Scottish physician and scientist Joseph Black, who was the first to recognize the distinction between heat and temperature, is said to be the founder of the science of calorimetry. Indirect calorimetry calculates heat that living organisms produce by measuring either their production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste (frequently ammonia in aquatic organisms, or urea in terrestrial ones), or from their consumption of oxygen. Lavoisier noted in 1780 that heat production can be predicted from oxygen consumption this way, using multiple regression. The dynamic energy budget theory explains why this procedure is correct. Heat generated by living organisms may also be measured by direct calorimetry, in which the entire organism is placed inside the calorimeter for the measurement. A widely used modern instrument is the differential scanning calorimeter, a device which allows thermal data to be obtained on small amounts of material. It involves heating the sample at a controlled rate and recording the heat flow either into or from the specimen. ==Classical calorimetric calculation of heat== ===Cases with differentiable equation of state for a one-component body=== ====Basic classical calculation with respect to volume==== Calorimetry requires that a reference material that changes temperature have known definite thermal constitutive properties. The classical rule, recognized by Clausius and Kelvin, is that the pressure exerted by the calorimetric material is fully and rapidly determined solely by its temperature and volume; this rule is for changes that do not involve phase change, such as melting of ice. There are many materials that do not comply with this rule, and for them, the present formula of classical calorimetry does not provide an adequate account. Here the classical rule is assumed to hold for the calorimetric material being used, and the propositions are mathematically written: The thermal response of the calorimetric material is fully described by its pressure p\ as the value of its constitutive function p(V,T)\ of just the volume V\ and the temperature T\ . All increments are here required to be very small. This calculation refers to a domain of volume and temperature of the body in which no phase change occurs, and there is only one phase present. An important assumption here is continuity of property relations. A different analysis is needed for phase change When a small increment of heat is gained by a calorimetric body, with small increments, \delta V\ of its volume, and \delta T\ of its temperature, the increment of heat, \delta Q\ , gained by the body of calorimetric material, is given by \delta Q\ =C^{(V)}_T(V,T)\, \delta V\,+\,C^{(T)}_V(V,T)\,\delta T where C^{(V)}_T(V,T)\ denotes the latent heat with respect to volume, of the calorimetric material at constant controlled temperature T. The surroundings' pressure on the material is instrumentally adjusted to impose a chosen volume change, with initial volume V\ . To determine this latent heat, the volume change is effectively the independently instrumentally varied quantity. This latent heat is not one of the widely used ones, but is of theoretical or conceptual interest. C^{(T)}_V(V,T)\ denotes the heat capacity, of the calorimetric material at fixed constant volume V\ , while the pressure of the material is allowed to vary freely, with initial temperature T\ . The temperature is forced to change by exposure to a suitable heat bath. It is customary to write C^{(T)}_V(V,T)\ simply as C_V(V,T)\ , or even more briefly as C_V\ . This latent heat is one of the two widely used ones. The latent heat with respect to volume is the heat required for unit increment in volume at constant temperature. It can be said to be 'measured along an isotherm', and the pressure the material exerts is allowed to vary freely, according to its constitutive law p=p(V,T)\ . For a given material, it can have a positive or negative sign or exceptionally it can be zero, and this can depend on the temperature, as it does for water about 4 C. The concept of latent heat with respect to volume was perhaps first recognized by Joseph Black in 1762. The term 'latent heat of expansion' is also used. The latent heat with respect to volume can also be called the 'latent energy with respect to volume'. For all of these usages of 'latent heat', a more systematic terminology uses 'latent heat capacity'. The heat capacity at constant volume is the heat required for unit increment in temperature at constant volume. It can be said to be 'measured along an isochor', and again, the pressure the material exerts is allowed to vary freely. It always has a positive sign. This means that for an increase in the temperature of a body without change of its volume, heat must be supplied to it. This is consistent with common experience. Quantities like \delta Q\ are sometimes called 'curve differentials', because they are measured along curves in the (V,T)\ surface. ====Classical theory for constant-volume (isochoric) calorimetry==== Constant-volume calorimetry is calorimetry performed at a constant volume. This involves the use of a constant-volume calorimeter. Heat is still measured by the above-stated principle of calorimetry. This means that in a suitably constructed calorimeter, called a bomb calorimeter, the increment of volume \delta V\ can be made to vanish, \delta V=0\ . For constant-volume calorimetry: \delta Q = C_V \delta T\ where \delta T\ denotes the increment in temperature and C_V\ denotes the heat capacity at constant volume. ====Classical heat calculation with respect to pressure==== From the above rule of calculation of heat with respect to volume, there follows one with respect to pressure. In a process of small increments, \delta p\ of its pressure, and \delta T\ of its temperature, the increment of heat, \delta Q\ , gained by the body of calorimetric material, is given by \delta Q\ =C^{(p)}_T(p,T)\, \delta p\,+\,C^{(T)}_p(p,T)\,\delta T where C^{(p)}_T(p,T)\ denotes the latent heat with respect to pressure, of the calorimetric material at constant temperature, while the volume and pressure of the body are allowed to vary freely, at pressure p\ and temperature T\ ; C^{(T)}_p(p,T)\ denotes the heat capacity, of the calorimetric material at constant pressure, while the temperature and volume of the body are allowed to vary freely, at pressure p\ and temperature T\ . It is customary to write C^{(T)}_p(p,T)\ simply as C_p(p,T)\ , or even more briefly as C_p\ . The new quantities here are related to the previous ones: C^{(p)}_T(p,T)=\frac{C^{(V)}_T(V,T)}{\left.\cfrac{\partial p}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)}} C^{(T)}_p(p,T)=C^{(T)}_V(V,T)-C^{(V)}_T(V,T) \frac{\left.\cfrac{\partial p}{\partial T}\right\|_{(V,T)}}{\left.\cfrac{\partial p}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)}} where \left.\frac{\partial p}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)} denotes the partial derivative of p(V,T)\ with respect to V\ evaluated for (V,T)\ and \left.\frac{\partial p}{\partial T}\right\|_{(V,T)} denotes the partial derivative of p(V,T)\ with respect to T\ evaluated for (V,T)\ . The latent heats C^{(V)}_T(V,T)\ and C^{(p)}_T(p,T)\ are always of opposite sign. It is common to refer to the ratio of specific heats as \gamma(V,T)=\frac{C^{(T)}_p(p,T)}{C^{(T)}_V(V,T)} often just written as \gamma=\frac{C_p}{C_V}. ===Calorimetry through phase change, equation of state shows one jump discontinuity=== An early calorimeter was that used by Laplace and Lavoisier, as shown in the figure above. It worked at constant temperature, and at atmospheric pressure. The latent heat involved was then not a latent heat with respect to volume or with respect to pressure, as in the above account for calorimetry without phase change. The latent heat involved in this calorimeter was with respect to phase change, naturally occurring at constant temperature. This kind of calorimeter worked by measurement of mass of water produced by the melting of ice, which is a phase change. ===Cumulation of heating=== For a time-dependent process of heating of the calorimetric material, defined by a continuous joint progression P(t_1,t_2)\ of V(t)\ and T(t)\ , starting at time t_1\ and ending at time t_2\ , there can be calculated an accumulated quantity of heat delivered, \Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\, . This calculation is done by mathematical integration along the progression with respect to time. This is because increments of heat are 'additive'; but this does not mean that heat is a conservative quantity. The idea that heat was a conservative quantity was invented by Lavoisier, and is called the 'caloric theory'; by the middle of the nineteenth century it was recognized as mistaken. Written with the symbol \Delta\ , the quantity \Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\, is not at all restricted to be an increment with very small values; this is in contrast with \delta Q\ . One can write \Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\ =\int_{P(t_1,t_2)} \dot Q(t)dt =\int_{P(t_1,t_2)} C^{(V)}_T(V,T)\, \dot V(t)\, dt\,+\,\int_{P(t_1,t_2)}C^{(T)}_V(V,T)\,\dot T(t)\,dt . This expression uses quantities such as \dot Q(t)\ which are defined in the section below headed 'Mathematical aspects of the above rules'. ===Mathematical aspects of the above rules=== The use of 'very small' quantities such as \delta Q\ is related to the physical requirement for the quantity p(V,T)\ to be 'rapidly determined' by V\ and T\ ; such 'rapid determination' refers to a physical process. These 'very small' quantities are used in the Leibniz approach to the infinitesimal calculus. The Newton approach uses instead 'fluxions' such as \dot V(t) = \left.\frac{dV}{dt}\right\|_t, which makes it more obvious that p(V,T)\ must be 'rapidly determined'. In terms of fluxions, the above first rule of calculation can be written \dot Q(t)\ =C^{(V)}_T(V,T)\, \dot V(t)\,+\,C^{(T)}_V(V,T)\,\dot T(t) where t\ denotes the time \dot Q(t)\ denotes the time rate of heating of the calorimetric material at time t\ \dot V(t)\ denotes the time rate of change of volume of the calorimetric material at time t\ \dot T(t)\ denotes the time rate of change of temperature of the calorimetric material. The increment \delta Q\ and the fluxion \dot Q(t)\ are obtained for a particular time t\ that determines the values of the quantities on the righthand sides of the above rules. But this is not a reason to expect that there should exist a mathematical function Q(V,T)\ . For this reason, the increment \delta Q\ is said to be an 'imperfect differential' or an 'inexact differential'. Some books indicate this by writing q\ instead of \delta Q\ . Also, the notation đQ is used in some books. Carelessness about this can lead to error. The quantity \Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\ is properly said to be a functional of the continuous joint progression P(t_1,t_2)\ of V(t)\ and T(t)\ , but, in the mathematical definition of a function, \Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\ is not a function of (V,T)\ . Although the fluxion \dot Q(t)\ is defined here as a function of time t\ , the symbols Q\ and Q(V,T)\ respectively standing alone are not defined here. ===Physical scope of the above rules of calorimetry=== The above rules refer only to suitable calorimetric materials. The terms 'rapidly' and 'very small' call for empirical physical checking of the domain of validity of the above rules. The above rules for the calculation of heat belong to pure calorimetry. They make no reference to thermodynamics, and were mostly understood before the advent of thermodynamics. They are the basis of the 'thermo' contribution to thermodynamics. The 'dynamics' contribution is based on the idea of work, which is not used in the above rules of calculation. ==Experimentally conveniently measured coefficients== Empirically, it is convenient to measure properties of calorimetric materials under experimentally controlled conditions. ===Pressure increase at constant volume=== For measurements at experimentally controlled volume, one can use the assumption, stated above, that the pressure of the body of calorimetric material is can be expressed as a function of its volume and temperature. For measurement at constant experimentally controlled volume, the isochoric coefficient of pressure rise with temperature, is defined by \alpha _V(V,T)\ = \frac{1}{p(V,T)}{\left.\cfrac{\partial p}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)}} ===Expansion at constant pressure=== For measurements at experimentally controlled pressure, it is assumed that the volume V\ of the body of calorimetric material can be expressed as a function V(T,p)\ of its temperature T\ and pressure p\ . This assumption is related to, but is not the same as, the above used assumption that the pressure of the body of calorimetric material is known as a function of its volume and temperature; anomalous behaviour of materials can affect this relation. The quantity that is conveniently measured at constant experimentally controlled pressure, the isobar volume expansion coefficient, is defined by \beta _p(T,p)\ = \frac{1}{V(T,p)}{\left.\cfrac{\partial V}{\partial T}\right\|_{(T,p)}} ===Compressibility at constant temperature=== For measurements at experimentally controlled temperature, it is again assumed that the volume V\ of the body of calorimetric material can be expressed as a function V(T,p)\ of its temperature T\ and pressure p\ , with the same provisos as mentioned just above. The quantity that is conveniently measured at constant experimentally controlled temperature, the isothermal compressibility, is defined by ==Connection between calorimetry and thermodynamics== Thermodynamics developed gradually over the first half of the nineteenth century, building on the above theory of calorimetry which had been worked out before it, and on other discoveries. According to Gislason and Craig (2005): "Most thermodynamic data come from calorimetry..." According to Kondepudi (2008): "Calorimetry is widely used in present day laboratories." In terms of thermodynamics, the internal energy U\ of the calorimetric material can be considered as the value of a function U(V,T)\ of (V,T)\ , with partial derivatives \frac{\partial U}{\partial V}\ and \frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\ . Then it can be shown that one can write a thermodynamic version of the above calorimetric rules: \delta Q\ =\left [p(V,T)\,+\,\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)}\right ]\, \delta V\,+\,\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\right\|_{(V,T)}\,\delta T with C^{(V)}_T(V,T)=p(V,T)\,+\,\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)}\ and C^{(T)}_V(V,T)=\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\right\|_{(V,T)}\ . Again, further in terms of thermodynamics, the internal energy U\ of the calorimetric material can sometimes, depending on the calorimetric material, be considered as the value of a function U(p,T)\ of (p,T)\ , with partial derivatives \frac{\partial U}{\partial p}\ and \frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\ , and with V\ being expressible as the value of a function V(p,T)\ of (p,T)\ , with partial derivatives \frac{\partial V}{\partial p}\ and \frac{\partial V}{\partial T}\ . Then, according to Adkins (1975), it can be shown that one can write a further thermodynamic version of the above calorimetric rules: \delta Q\ =\left [\left. \frac{\partial U}{\partial p}\right \|_{(p,T)}\,+\,p \left.\frac{\partial V}{\partial p}\right \|_{(p,T)}\right ]\delta p\,+\,\left [ \left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\right\|_{(p,T)}\,+\,p \left.\frac{\partial V}{\partial T}\right \|_{(p,T)}\right ]\delta T with C^{(p)}_T(p,T)=\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial p}\right\|_{(p,T)}\,+\,p\left.\frac{\partial V}{\partial p}\right\|_{(p,T)}\ and C^{(T)}_p(p,T)=\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\right\|_{(p,T)}\,+\,p\left.\frac{\partial V}{\partial T}\right\|_{(p,T)}\ . ==Special interest of thermodynamics in calorimetry: the isothermal segments of a Carnot cycle== Calorimetry has a special benefit for thermodynamics. It tells about the heat absorbed or emitted in the isothermal segment of a Carnot cycle. A Carnot cycle is a special kind of cyclic process affecting a body composed of material suitable for use in a heat engine. Such a material is of the kind considered in calorimetry, as noted above, that exerts a pressure that is very rapidly determined just by temperature and volume. Such a body is said to change reversibly. A Carnot cycle consists of four successive stages or segments: (1) a change in volume from a volume V_a\ to a volume V_b\ at constant temperature T^+\ so as to incur a flow of heat into the body (known as an isothermal change) (2) a change in volume from V_b\ to a volume V_c\ at a variable temperature just such as to incur no flow of heat (known as an adiabatic change) (3) another isothermal change in volume from V_c\ to a volume V_d\ at constant temperature T^-\ such as to incur a flow or heat out of the body and just such as to precisely prepare for the following change (4) another adiabatic change of volume from V_d\ back to V_a\ just such as to return the body to its starting temperature T^+\ . In isothermal segment (1), the heat that flows into the body is given by \Delta Q(V_a,V_b;T^+)\,=\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\int_{V_a}^{V_b} C^{(V)}_T(V,T^+)\, dV\ and in isothermal segment (3) the heat that flows out of the body is given by -\Delta Q(V_c,V_d;T^-)\,=\,-\int_{V_c}^{V_d} C^{(V)}_T(V,T^-)\, dV\ . Because the segments (2) and (4) are adiabats, no heat flows into or out of the body during them, and consequently the net heat supplied to the body during the cycle is given by \Delta Q(V_a,V_b;T^+;V_c,V_d;T^-)\,=\,\Delta Q(V_a,V_b;T^+)\,+\,\Delta Q(V_c,V_d;T^-)\,=\,\int_{V_a}^{V_b} C^{(V)}_T(V,T^+)\, dV\,+\,\int_{V_c}^{V_d} C^{(V)}_T(V,T^-)\, dV\ . This quantity is used by thermodynamics and is related in a special way to the net work done by the body during the Carnot cycle. The net change of the body's internal energy during the Carnot cycle, \Delta U(V_a,V_b;T^+;V_c,V_d;T^-)\ , is equal to zero, because the material of the working body has the special properties noted above. ==Special interest of calorimetry in thermodynamics: relations between classical calorimetric quantities== ===Relation of latent heat with respect to volume, and the equation of state=== The quantity C^{(V)}_T(V,T)\ , the latent heat with respect to volume, belongs to classical calorimetry. It accounts for the occurrence of energy transfer by work in a process in which heat is also transferred; the quantity, however, was considered before the relation between heat and work transfers was clarified by the invention of thermodynamics. In the light of thermodynamics, the classical calorimetric quantity is revealed as being tightly linked to the calorimetric material's equation of state p=p(V,T)\ . Provided that the temperature T\, is measured in the thermodynamic absolute scale, the relation is expressed in the formula C^{(V)}_T(V,T)=T \left.\frac{\partial p}{\partial T}\right\|_{(V,T)}\ . ===Difference of specific heats=== Advanced thermodynamics provides the relation C_p(p,T)-C_V(V,T)=\left [p(V,T)\,+\,\left.\frac{\partial U}{\partial V}\right\|_{(V,T)}\right ]\, \left.\frac{\partial V}{\partial T}\right\|_{(p,T)}. From this, further mathematical and thermodynamic reasoning leads to another relation between classical calorimetric quantities. The difference of specific heats is given by C_p(p,T)-C_V(V,T)=\frac{TV\,\beta _p^2(T,p)}{\kappa _T(T,p)}. ==Practical constant-volume calorimetry (bomb calorimetry) for thermodynamic studies== Constant-volume calorimetry is calorimetry performed at a constant volume. This involves the use of a constant-volume calorimeter. No work is performed in constant-volume calorimetry, so the heat measured equals the change in internal energy of the system. The heat capacity at constant volume is assumed to be independent of temperature. Heat is measured by the principle of calorimetry. q = C_V \Delta T = \Delta U \,, where ΔU is change in internal energy, ΔT is change in temperature and CV is the heat capacity at constant volume. In constant-volume calorimetry the pressure is not held constant. If there is a pressure difference between initial and final states, the heat measured needs adjustment to provide the enthalpy change. One then has \Delta H = \Delta U + \Delta (PV) = \Delta U + V \Delta P \,, where ΔH is change in enthalpy and V is the unchanging volume of the sample chamber.	[ "chemical reaction", "Calculus", "heat transfer", "thermodynamic work", "Joseph Black", "Isothermal titration calorimetry", "oxygen", "inexact differential", "Pierre-Simon Laplace", "Functional (mathematics)", "Work (thermodynamics)", "carbon dioxide", "Isothermal microcalorimetry (IMC)", "thermochemistry", "internal energy", "dynamic energy budget", "constant-volume calorimeter", "phase transition", "calorimeter", "Thermodynamics", "Carnot cycle", "Method of Fluxions", "pressure", "Isaac Newton", "Antoine Lavoisier", "enthalpy", "latent heat", "Indirect calorimetry", "line integral", "Thermodynamic state", "William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin", "Reaction calorimeter", "state variables", "thermodynamics", "partial derivative", "urea", "Sorption calorimetry", "chemistry", "heat", "Rudolf Clausius", "Function (mathematics)", "Gottfried Leibniz", "volume", "chemical change", "physical change", "multiple regression", "differential scanning calorimeter", "heat capacity", "ammonia", "caloric theory", "temperature" ]
7,525	Charles Evans Hughes	{{Infobox officeholder \| name = Charles Evans Hughes \| image = Charles Evans Hughes cph.3b15401.jpg \| caption = Hughes in 1931 \| order = 11th \| office = Chief Justice of the United States \| nominator = Herbert Hoover \| term_start = February 24, 1930 \| term_end = June 30, 1941 \| predecessor = William Howard Taft \| successor = Harlan F. Stone \| office1 = Judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice \| term_start1 = September 8, 1928 \| term_end1 = February 15, 1930 \| predecessor1 = John Bassett Moore \| successor1 = Frank B. Kellogg \| order2 = 44th \| office2 = United States Secretary of State \| president2 = \| term_start2 = March 5, 1921 \| term_end2 = March 4, 1925 \| predecessor2 = Bainbridge Colby \| successor2 = Frank B. Kellogg \| office3 = Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States \| nominator3 = William Howard Taft \| term_start3 = October 10, 1910 \| term_end3 = June 10, 1916 Charles Evans Hughes, the only child of David and Mary, was born in Glens Falls on April 11, 1862. The Hughes family moved to Oswego, New York, in 1866, but relocated soon after to Newark, New Jersey, and then to Brooklyn. With the exception of a brief period of attendance at Newark High School, Hughes received no formal education until 1874, instead being educated by his parents. In September 1874, he enrolled in New York City's prestigious Public School 35, graduating the following year. At the age of 14, Hughes entered Madison University (now Colgate University), where he studied for two years. He then transferred to Brown University. He graduated from Brown third in his class at the age of 19, having been elected to Phi Beta Kappa in his junior year. He was also a member of Delta Upsilon fraternity; he later served as its first international President. He then enrolled in Columbia Law School, graduating with a Bachelor of Laws in 1884 and ranked first in his class. That same year, he passed the New York bar exam with the highest score ever awarded. In 1888, Hughes married Antoinette Carter, the daughter of the senior partner of the law firm where he worked. Their first child, Charles Evans Hughes Jr., was born the following year, and Hughes purchased a house in Manhattan's Upper West Side neighborhood. Hughes and his wife had one son and three daughters. Their youngest child, Elizabeth Hughes, was one of the first humans injected with insulin, and later served as president of the Supreme Court Historical Society. ==Legal and academic career== Hughes took a position with the Wall Street law firm of Chamberlain, Carter & Hornblower in 1883, focusing primarily on matters related to contracts and bankruptcies. He was made a partner in the firm in 1888, and the firm changed its name to Carter, Hughes & Cravath (it later became known as Hughes Hubbard & Reed). Hughes left the firm and became a professor at Cornell Law School from 1891 to 1893. He returned to Carter, Hughes & Cravath in 1893. He also joined the board of Brown University and served on a special committee that recommended revisions to New York's Code of Civil Procedure. ===Exposing corrupt utilities=== Responding to newspaper stories run by the New York World, Governor Frank W. Higgins appointed a legislative committee to investigate the state's public utilities in 1905. On the recommendation of a former state judge who had been impressed by Hughes's performance in court, the legislative committee appointed Hughes to lead the investigation. Hughes was reluctant to take on the powerful utility companies, but Senator Frederick C. Stevens, the leader of the committee, convinced Hughes to accept the position. Hughes decided to center his investigation on Consolidated Gas, which controlled the production and sale of gas in New York City. Though few expected the committee to have any impact on public corruption, Hughes was able to show that Consolidated Gas had engaged in a pattern of tax evasion and fraudulent bookkeeping. To eliminate or mitigate those abuses, Hughes drafted and convinced the state legislature to pass bills that established a commission to regulate public utilities and lowered gas prices. ===Exposing corrupt insurance companies=== Hughes's success made him a popular public figure in New York, and he was appointed counsel to the Armstrong Insurance Commission, which investigated the major life insurance companies headquartered in New York. His examination of the insurance industry uncovered payments made to journalists and lobbyists as well as payments and other forms of compensation directed to legislators serving throughout the country. His investigation also showed that many top insurance executives had various conflicts of interest and had received huge raises at the same time that dividends to policyholders had fallen. Seeking to remove Hughes from the investigation, Republican leaders nominated him as the party's candidate for Mayor of New York City, but Hughes refused the nomination. His efforts ultimately resulted in the resignation or firing of most of the top-ranking officials in the three major life insurance companies in the United States. Following the investigation, Hughes convinced the state legislature to bar insurance companies from owning corporate stock, underwriting securities, or engaging in other banking practices. Roosevelt described Hughes as "a sane and sincere reformer, who really has fought against the very evils which Hearst denounces, ... [but is] free from any taint of demagogy." In his campaign for governor, Hughes attacked the corruption of specific companies but defended corporations as a necessary part of the economy. He also called for an eight-hour workday on public works projects and favored prohibitions on child labor. Hughes was not a charismatic speaker, but he campaigned vigorously throughout the state and won the endorsements of most newspapers. Ultimately, Hughes defeated Hearst in a close election, taking 52 percent of the vote. He also signed laws that barred younger workers from several dangerous occupations and established a maximum 48-hour workweek for manufacturing workers under the age of 16. To enforce those laws, Hughes reorganized the New York State Department of Labor. Hughes's labor policies were influenced by economist Richard T. Ely, who sought to improve working conditions for laborers, but rejected the more far-reaching reforms favored by union leaders like Samuel Gompers. ===Organizing the Baptists=== The busy governor found time to get involved in religious matters. A lifelong Northern Baptist, Hughes participated in the creation of the Northern Baptist Convention in May 1907. Hughes served the convention as its first president, beginning the task of unifying the thousands of independent Baptist churches across the North into one denomination. Previously, northern Baptists had only connected between local churches through mission societies and benevolent causes. The Northern Baptist Convention went on to become the historically important American Baptist Churches USA, which made this aspect of Hughes's life during his governorship a key part of his historical influence. ===Disappointing second term as governor=== However, Hughes's political role was changing. He had previously been close with Roosevelt, but relations between Hughes and the president cooled after a dispute over a minor federal appointment. Roosevelt chose not to seek re-election in 1908, instead endorsing Secretary of War William Howard Taft as his preferred successor. Taft won the Republican presidential nomination and asked Hughes to serve as his running mate, but Hughes declined the offer. Hughes also considered retiring from the governorship, but Taft and Roosevelt convinced him to seek a second term. Despite having little support among some of the more conservative leaders of the state party, Hughes won re-election in the 1908 election. Hughes's second term proved to be less successful than his first. His highest priority was a direct primary law, and it repeatedly failed to pass. He did obtain increased regulation over telephone and telegraph companies and won passage of the first workers' compensation bill in U.S. history. According to historian and journalist Henry F. Pringle, Hughes's sense of civic duty was a poor fit in a party-machine age, leaving "many faithful Republicans" with bitter memories of Hughes's "horrid notions of efficiency in government" that "ruthlessly disregarded necessary rewards for party workers." ==Associate Justice== By early 1910, Hughes was anxious to retire from his position as governor. A vacancy on the Supreme Court arose following the death of Associate Justice David J. Brewer, and Taft offered the position to Hughes, who quickly accepted the offer. Hughes was sworn in to the Supreme Court on October 10, 1910, and quickly struck up friendships with other members of the Court, including Chief Justice White, Associate Justice John Marshall Harlan, and Associate Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. In the disposition of cases, however, Hughes tended to align with Holmes. He voted to uphold state laws providing for minimum wages, workmen's compensation, and maximum work hours for women and children. He also wrote several opinions upholding the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause. His majority opinion in Baltimore & Ohio Railroad vs. Interstate Commerce Commission upheld the right of the federal government to regulate the hours of railroad workers. His majority opinion in the 1914 Shreveport Rate Case upheld the Interstate Commerce Commission's decision to void discriminatory railroad rates imposed by the Railroad Commission of Texas. The decision established that the federal government could regulate intrastate commerce when it affected interstate commerce, though Hughes avoided directly overruling the 1895 case of United States v. E. C. Knight Co. He also wrote a series of opinions that upheld civil liberties; in one such case, McCabe v. Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co., Hughes's majority opinion required railroad carriers to give African-Americans "equal treatment." Hughes's majority opinion in Bailey v. Alabama invalidated a state law that had made it a crime for a laborer to fail to complete obligations agreed to in a labor contract. Hughes held that this law violated the Thirteenth Amendment and discriminated against African-American workers. Hughes and Holmes were the only dissenters from the court's ruling that affirmed a lower court's decision to withhold a writ of habeas corpus from Leo Frank, a Jewish factory manager convicted of murder in the state of Georgia. ==Presidential candidate== Taft and Roosevelt endured a bitter split during Taft's presidency, and Roosevelt challenged Taft for the 1912 Republican presidential nomination. Taft won re-nomination, but Roosevelt ran on the ticket of a third party, the Progressive Party. With the split in the Republican Party, Democratic Governor Woodrow Wilson defeated Taft and Roosevelt in the 1912 presidential election and enacted his progressive New Freedom agenda. Seeking to bridge the divide in the Republican Party and limit Wilson to a single term, several Republican leaders asked Hughes to consider running in the 1916 presidential election. Hughes at first rebuffed those entreaties, but his potential candidacy became the subject of widespread speculation and polls showed that he was the preferred candidate of many Republican voters. By the time of the June 1916 Republican National Convention, Hughes had won two presidential primaries, and his backers had lined up the support of numerous delegates. Hughes led on the first presidential ballot of the convention and clinched the nomination on the third ballot. Hughes accepted the nomination, becoming the first and only sitting Supreme Court Justice to serve as a major party's presidential nominee, and submitted his resignation to President Wilson. Roosevelt, meanwhile, declined to run again on a third party ticket, leaving Hughes and Wilson as the only major candidates in the race. Because of the Republican Party's dominance in presidential elections held since the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, Hughes was widely regarded as the favorite even though Wilson was the incumbent. His candidacy was further boosted by his own reputation for intelligence, personal integrity, and moderation. Hughes also won the public support of both Taft and Roosevelt, though Roosevelt remained uneasy with Hughes, who he feared would be a "Wilson with whiskers." However, the 1912 split in Republican ranks remained a lingering issue, and Hughes damaged his campaign by deciding to base his California campaign with the conservative Republican regulars. Hiram Johnson, the Governor of California who had been Roosevelt's running mate in the 1912 election, endorsed Hughes but the Progressive forces ignored Hughes. Nationally, because of Hughes's opposition to the Adamson Act and the Sixteenth Amendment, most former Progressive Party leaders endorsed Wilson. By election day, Hughes was still generally considered to be the favorite. He performed strongly in the Northeast and early election returns looked good. Nevertheless, Woodrow Wilson, as expected, swept the Solid South while also winning several states in the Midwest and Great Plains, where his candidacy was boosted by a strong antiwar sentiment. Wilson ultimately prevailed after winning the decisive state of California by fewer than 4,000 votes. ===Return to law practice and political advising=== After the election, Hughes turned down offers from larger organizations and returned to his small law firm, now known as Hughes, Rounds, Schurman & Dwight. In March 1917, Hughes joined with many other Republican leaders in demanding that Wilson declare war on the Central Powers after Germany sank several American merchant ships. The next month, Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war, and the United States entered World War I. Hughes supported Wilson's military policies, including the imposition of the draft, and he served as chairman of New York City's draft appeals board. He also investigated the aircraft industry on behalf of the Wilson administration, exposing numerous inefficiencies. He once again returned to private practice after the war, serving a wide array of clients, including five Socialists who had been expelled from the New York legislature for their political beliefs. He sought to broker a compromise between President Wilson and Senate Republicans regarding US entrance into Wilson's proposed League of Nations, but the Senate rejected the League and the Treaty of Versailles. With Wilson's popularity declining, many Republican leaders believed that their party would win the 1920 presidential election. Hughes remained popular in the party, and many influential Republicans favored him as the party's candidate in 1920. Hughes was struck by personal tragedy when his daughter, Helen, died in 1920 of tuberculosis, and he refused to allow his name to be considered for the presidential nomination at the 1920 Republican National Convention. The party instead nominated a ticket consisting of Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio and Governor Calvin Coolidge of Massachusetts. The Republican ticket won in a landslide, taking 61 percent of the popular vote. ==Secretary of State== Shortly after Harding's victory in the 1920 election, Hughes accepted the position of Secretary of State. Harding granted Hughes a great deal of discretion in his leadership of the State Department and US foreign policy. Harding and Hughes frequently communicated, Hughes worked within some broad outlines, and the president remained well-informed. However, the President rarely overrode any of Hughes's decisions, with the big and obvious exception of the League of Nations. After taking office, President Harding hardened his stance on the League of Nations to deciding the US would not join even a scaled-down version. Another view is that Harding favored joining with reservations when he assumed office on March 4, 1921, but senators staunchly opposed (the "Irreconcilables"), per Ronald E. Powaski's 1991 book, "threatened to wreck the new administration." Hughes favored membership in the League. Early in his tenure as Secretary of State, he asked the Senate to vote on the Treaty of Versailles, but he yielded to either Harding's changing views and/or the political reality within the Senate. Instead, he convinced Harding of the necessity of a separate treaty with Germany, resulting in the signing and eventual ratification of the U.S.–German Peace Treaty. Hughes also favored US entrance into the Permanent Court of International Justice but was unable to convince the Senate to provide support. ===Washington Naval Treaty=== Hughes's major initiative in office was preventing an arms race among the three great naval powers of Britain, Japan, and the United States. After Senator William Borah led passage of a resolution calling on the Harding administration to negotiate an arms reduction treaty with Japan and Britain, Hughes convinced those countries as well as Italy and France to attend a naval conference in Washington. Hughes selected an American delegation consisting of himself, former Secretary of State Elihu Root, Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, and Democratic Senator Oscar Underwood. Hughes hoped that the selection of Underwood would ensure bipartisan support for any treaty arising from the conference. Prior to the conference, Hughes had carefully considered possible treaty terms since each side would seek terms that would provide its respective navy with subtle advantages. He decided to propose an arms reduction formula based on the immediate halting of all naval construction, with future construction limits based on the ship tonnage of each country. The formula would be based on the ship tonnage ratio of 1920, which stood at roughly 5:5:3 for the United States, Britain, and Japan, respectively. Knowing that US and foreign naval leaders would resist his proposal, he anxiously guarded it from the press, but he won the support of Root, Lodge, and Underwood. The Washington Naval Conference opened in November 1921, attended by five national delegations, and in the gallery by hundreds of reporters and dignitaries such as Chief Justice Taft and William Jennings Bryan. On the first day of the conference, Hughes unveiled his proposal to limit naval armaments. Hughes's ambitious proposal to scrap all US capital ships under construction stunned the delegates, as did his proposals for the Japanese and British Navies. The British delegation, led by Arthur Balfour, supported the proposal, but the Japanese delegation, under the leadership of Katō Tomosaburō, asked for several modifications. Katō asked for the ratio to be adjusted to 10:10:7 and refused to destroy the Mutsu, a dreadnought that many Japanese saw as a symbol of national pride. Katō eventually relented on the naval ratios, but Hughes acquiesced to the retention of the Mutsu, leading to protests from British leaders. Hughes clinched an agreement after convincing Balfour to agree to limit the size of the Admiral-class battlecruisers despite objections from the British Navy. Hughes also won agreement on the Four-Power Treaty, which called for a peaceful resolution of territorial claims in the Pacific Ocean, as well as the Nine-Power Treaty, which guaranteed the territorial integrity of China. News of the success of the conference was warmly received around the world. Franklin D. Roosevelt later wrote that the conference "brought to the world the first important voluntary agreement for limitation and reduction of armament." ===Other issues=== In the aftermath of World War I, the German economy struggled from the strain of postwar rebuilding and war reparations owed to the Entente, and the Entente powers in turn owed large war debts to the United States. Though many economists favored cancellation of all European war debts, French leaders were unwilling to cancel the reparations, and Congress refused to consider forgiving the war debts. Hughes helped organize the creation of an international committee of economists to study the possibility of lowering Germany's reparations, and Hughes selected Charles G. Dawes to lead that committee. The resulting Dawes Plan, which provided for annual payments by Germany, was accepted at a 1924 conference held in London. Hughes favored a closer relationship with the United Kingdom, and sought to coordinate US foreign policy with Great Britain concerning matters in Europe and Asia. Hughes sought better relations with the countries of Latin America, and he favored removing US troops when he believed that doing so was practicable. He formulated plans for the withdrawal of US soldiers from the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua but decided that instability in Haiti required the continued presence of US soldiers. He also settled a border dispute between Panama and Costa Rica by threatening to send soldiers into Panama. Hughes was the keynote speaker at the 1919 National Conference on Lynching. ==Return to private practice== Hughes stayed on as Secretary of State in the Coolidge administration after the death of Harding in 1923, but he left office in early 1925. He once again returned to his law firm, becoming one of the highest-earning lawyers in the country. He also served as a special master in a case concerning Chicago's sewage system, was elected president of the American Bar Association, and co-founded the National Conference on Christians and Jews. State party leaders asked him to run against Al Smith in New York's 1926 gubernatorial election, and some national party leaders suggested that he run for president in 1928, but Hughes declined to seek public office. After the 1928 Republican National Convention nominated Herbert Hoover, Hughes gave Hoover his full support and campaigned for him across the United States. Hoover won the election in a landslide and asked Hughes to serve as his Secretary of State, but Hughes declined the offer to keep his commitment to serve as a judge on the Permanent Court of International Justice. ==Judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice== Hughes served on the Permanent Court of International Justice from 1928 until 1930. ==Chief Justice== ===Rejoining the Supreme Court=== On February 3, 1930, President Hoover nominated Hughes to succeed Chief Justice Taft, who was gravely ill. Though many had expected Hoover to elevate his close friend, Associate Justice Harlan Stone, Hughes was the top choice of Taft and Attorney General William D. Mitchell. Though Hughes had compiled a progressive record during his tenure as an Associate Justice, by 1930 Taft believed that Hughes would be a consistent conservative on the court. The nomination faced resistance from progressive Republicans such as senators George W. Norris and William E. Borah, who were concerned that Hughes would be overly friendly to big business after working as a corporate lawyer. Many of those progressives, as well some Southern states' rights advocates, were outraged by the Taft Court's tendency to strike down state and federal legislation on the basis of the doctrine of substantive due process and feared that a Hughes Court would emulate the Taft Court. Adherents of the substantive due process doctrine held that economic regulations such as restrictions on child labor and minimum wages violated freedom of contract, which, they argued, could not be abridged by federal and state laws because of the Fifth Amendment and the Fourteenth Amendment. The Senate Judiciary Committee held no hearings, and voted to favorably report on Hughes's nomination by a 10–2 vote on February 10, 1930. On February 13, 1930, the Senate voted 31–49 against sending his nomination back to committee. After a brief but bitter confirmation battle, Hughes was confirmed by the Senate on February 13, 1930, in a 52–26 vote, and he took his judicial oath of office on February 24, 1930. Hughes quickly emerged as a leader of the Court, earning the admiration of his fellow justices for his intelligence, energy, and strong understanding of the law. Shortly after Hughes was confirmed, Hoover nominated federal judge John J. Parker to succeed deceased Associate Justice Edward Terry Sanford. The Senate rejected Parker, whose earlier rulings had alienated labor unions and the NAACP, but confirmed Hoover's second nominee, Owen Roberts. In early 1932, the other justices asked Hughes to request the resignation of Oliver Wendell Holmes, whose health had declined as he entered his nineties. Hughes privately asked his old friend to retire, and Holmes immediately sent a letter of resignation to President Hoover. To replace Holmes, Hoover nominated Benjamin N. Cardozo, who quickly won confirmation. The early Hughes Court was divided between the conservative "Four Horsemen" and the liberal "Three Musketeers". Hughes and Roberts were the swing justices between the two blocs for much of the 1930s.In one of the first major cases of his tenure, Hughes joined with Roberts and the Three Musketeers to strike down a piece of state legislation in the 1931 landmark case of Near v. Minnesota. In his majority opinion, Hughes held that the First Amendment barred states from violating freedom of the press. Hughes also wrote the majority opinion in Stromberg v. California, which represented the first time the Supreme Court struck down a state law on the basis of the incorporation of the Bill of Rights.{{efn\|Justice Edward Terry Sanford had laid out the doctrine of incorporation in the majority opinion of the 1925 case of Gitlow v. New York. In another early case, O'Gorman & Young, Inc. v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co., Hughes and Roberts joined with the liberal bloc in upholding a state regulation that limited commissions for the sale of fire insurance. ===Roosevelt takes office=== During Hoover's presidency, the country plunged into the Great Depression. As the country faced an ongoing economic calamity, Franklin D. Roosevelt decisively defeated Hoover in the 1932 presidential election. Responding to the Great Depression, Roosevelt passed a bevy of domestic legislation as part of his New Deal domestic program, and the response to the New Deal became one of the key issues facing the Hughes Court. In the Gold Clause Cases, a series of cases that presented some of the first major tests of New Deal laws, the Hughes Court upheld the voiding of the "gold clauses" in private and public contracts that was favored by the Roosevelt administration. The Hughes Court also continued to adjudicate major cases concerning the states. In the 1934 case of Home Building & Loan Ass'n v. Blaisdell, Hughes and Roberts joined the Three Musketeers in upholding a Minnesota law that established a moratorium on mortgage payments. Hughes's majority opinion in that case stated that "while an emergency does not create power, an emergency may furnish the occasion for the exercise of power."Beginning with the 1935 case of Railroad Retirement Board v. Alton Railroad Co., Roberts started siding with the Four Horsemen, creating a majority bloc that struck down New Deal laws. Hughes strongly criticized Roberts's majority opinion in his dissent, writing that "the power committed to Congress to govern interstate commerce does not require that its government should be wise, much less that it be perfect. The power implies a broad discretion." In the 1936 case of United States v. Butler, Hughes surprised many observers by joining with Roberts and the Four Horsemen in striking down the Agricultural Adjustment Act. In doing so, the court dismantled the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, the major New Deal agricultural program. In another 1936 case, Carter v. Carter Coal Co., the Supreme Court struck down the Guffey Coal Act, which regulated the bituminous coal industry. Hughes wrote a concurring opinion in Carter in which he agreed with the majority's holding that Congress could not use its Commerce Clause powers to "regulate activities and relations within the states which affect interstate commerce only indirectly." In the final case of the 1936 term, Morehead v. New York ex rel. Tipaldo, Roberts joined with the Four Horsemen in striking down New York's minimum wage law. President Roosevelt had held up the New York minimum wage law as a model for other states to follow, and many Republicans as well as Democrats attacked the decision for interfering with the states. In December 1936, the court handed down its near-unanimous opinion in United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., upholding a law that granted the president the power to place an arms embargo on Bolivia and Paraguay. Justice Sutherland's majority opinion, which Hughes joined, explained that the Constitution had granted the president broad powers to conduct foreign policy. ===Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937=== Roosevelt won re-election in a landslide in the 1936 presidential election, and congressional Democrats grew their majorities in both houses of Congress. As the Supreme Court had already struck down both the National Industrial Recovery Act and the Agricultural Adjustment Act, the president feared that the court would next strike down other key New Deal laws, including the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (also known as the Wagner Act) and the Social Security Act. In early 1937, Roosevelt proposed to increase the number of Supreme Court seats through the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937 (also known as the "court-packing plan"). Roosevelt argued that the bill was necessary because Supreme Court justices were unable to meet their case load. With large Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress, Roosevelt's bill had a strong chance of passage in early 1937. However, the bill was poorly received by the public, as many saw the bill as power grab or as an attack on a sacrosanct institution. Hughes worked behind the scenes to defeat the effort, rushing important New Deal legislation through the Supreme Court in an effort to quickly uphold the constitutionality of the laws. He also sent a letter to Senator Burton K. Wheeler, asserting that the Supreme Court was fully capable of handling its case load. Hughes's letter had a powerful impact in discrediting Roosevelt's argument about the practical need for more Supreme Court justices. While the debate over the court-packing plan continued, the Supreme Court upheld, in a 5–4 vote, the state of Washington's minimum wage law in the case of West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish. Joined by the Three Musketeers and Roberts, Hughes wrote the majority opinion, which overturned the 1923 case of Adkins v. Children's Hospital. In his majority opinion, Hughes wrote that the "Constitution does not speak of freedom of contract", and further held that the Washington legislature "was entitled to adopt measures to reduce the evils of the 'sweating system,' the exploiting of workers at wages so low as to be insufficient to meet the bare cost of living." Because Roberts had previously sided with the four conservative justices in Tipaldo, a similar case, it was widely perceived that Roberts agreed to uphold the constitutionality of minimum wage as a result of the pressure that was put on the Supreme Court by the court-packing plan (a theory referred to as "the switch in time that saved nine"). However, Hughes and Roberts both later indicated that Roberts had committed to changing his judicial stance on state minimum wage law months before Roosevelt announced his court-packing plan. Roberts had voted to grant certiorari to hear the Parrish case even before the 1936 presidential election, and oral arguments for the case had taken place in late 1936. In an initial conference vote held on December 19, 1936, Roberts had voted to uphold the law. Scholars continue to debate why Roberts essentially switched his vote with regards to state minimum wage laws, but Hughes may have played an important role in influencing Roberts to uphold the law. Weeks after the court handed down its decision in Parrish, Hughes wrote for the majority again in NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. Joined by Roberts and the Three Musketeers, Hughes upheld the constitutionality of the Wagner Act. The Wagner Act case marked a turning point for the Supreme Court, as the court began a pattern of upholding New Deal laws. Later in 1937, the court upheld both the old age benefits and the taxation system established by the Social Security Act. Meanwhile, conservative Associate Justice Willis Van Devanter announced his retirement, undercutting Roosevelt's arguments for the necessity of the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937. By the end of the year, the court-packing plan had died in the Senate, and Roosevelt had been dealt a serious political wound that emboldened the conservative coalition of Southern Democrats and Republicans. However, throughout 1937, Hughes had presided over a massive shift in jurisprudence that marked the end of the Lochner era, a period during which the Supreme Court had frequently struck down state and federal economic regulations. He was joined by Stanley Forman Reed, who succeeded Sutherland, the following year, leaving pro-New Deal liberals with a majority on the Supreme Court. ===Later tenure=== After 1937, the Hughes Court continued to uphold economic regulations, with McReynolds and Butler often being the lone dissenters. The liberal bloc was strengthened even further in 1940, when Butler was succeeded by another Roosevelt appointee, Frank Murphy. In the case of United States v. Carolene Products Co., Justice Stone's majority opinion articulated a broad theory of deference to economic regulations. Carolene Products established that the Supreme Court would conduct a "rational basis review" of economic regulations, meaning that the Court would only strike down a regulation if legislators lacked a "rational basis" for passing the regulation. The Supreme Court showed that it would defer to state legislators in the cases of Madden v. Kentucky and Olsen v. Nebraska. Hughes joined the majority in another case, United States v. Darby Lumber Co., which upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. The Hughes Court also faced several civil rights cases. Hughes wrote the majority opinion in Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, which required the state of Missouri to either integrate its law school or establish a separate law school for African-Americans. He joined and helped arrange unanimous support for Black's majority opinion in Chambers v. Florida, which overturned the conviction of a defendant who had been coerced into confessing a crime. In the 1940 case of Minersville School District v. Gobitis, Hughes joined the majority decision, which held that public schools could require students to salute the American flag despite the students' religious objections to these practices. Hughes began to consider retiring in 1940, partly due to the declining health of his wife. In June 1941, he informed Roosevelt of his impending retirement. Hughes suggested that Roosevelt elevate Stone to the position of Chief Justice, a suggestion that Roosevelt accepted. Hughes retired in 1941, and Stone was confirmed as the new Chief Justice, beginning the Stone Court. ==Retirement and death== During his retirement, Hughes generally refrained from re-entering public life or giving advice on public policy, but he agreed to review the United Nations Charter for Secretary of State Cordell Hull, and recommended that President Harry S. Truman appoint Fred M. Vinson as Chief Justice after the death of Stone. He lived in New York City with his wife, Antoinette, until she died in December 1945. On August 27, 1948, at the age of 86, Hughes died in what is now the Tiffany Cottage of the Wianno Club in Osterville, Massachusetts. When he died, Hughes was the last living Justice to have served on the White Court. He is interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City. ==Legacy== In the evaluation of historian Dexter Perkins, in domestic politics: Hughes was a happy mixture of the liberal and the conservative. He was wise enough to know that you cannot preserve a social order unless you eradicate its abuses, and so he was never a stand-patter. On the other side he could see that change carried perils as well as promises. Sometimes he stood out against these perils. He was not always wise, it is true. We do not have to agree with him in everything. But he stands a noble and constructive figure in American life. In the consensus view of scholars, Hughes as a diplomat was: an outstanding Secretary of State. He possessed a clear vision of America's position in the new international system. The United States would be a world leader, not only in terms of its ability to provide material progress, but also by its advocacy of diplomacy and arbitration over military force. Hughes was fully committed to the supremacy of negotiation and the maintenance of American foreign policy. This quality was combined with an ability to maintain a clear sense of the larger goals of American diplomacy ... He was able to maintain control over US foreign policy and take the country into a new role as a world power. Hughes has been honored in a variety of ways, including in the names of several schools, rooms, and events. Other things named for Hughes include the Hughes Range in Antarctica. On April 11, 1962, the 100th anniversary of Hughes's birth, the U.S. Post Office issued a commemorative stamp in his honor. The Charles Evans Hughes House, now the Burmese ambassador's residence, in Washington, D.C., was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972. Judge Learned Hand once observed that Hughes was the greatest lawyer he had ever known, "except that his son (Charles Evans Hughes Jr.) was even greater."	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7,527	Concept album	thumb\|upright=1.1\|alt=A concert stage in front of a wall with 2 levels. Five men stand on a balcony, including Roger Waters, who is saluting with his arm and is lit by a spotlight. On the lower level is a drum kit and a man playing guitar.\|[[Roger Waters (saluting on top) leading a live performance of Pink Floyd's The Wall, one of the best-known concept albums of all time In the 1960s several well-regarded concept albums were released by various rock bands, which eventually led to the birth of progressive rock and rock opera. ==Definitions== There is no clear definition of a "concept album". A precursor to this type of album can be found in the 19th-century song cycle, which ran into similar difficulties in classification. The extremely broad definitions of a "concept album" could potentially encompass all soundtracks, compilations, cast recordings, greatest hits albums, tribute albums, Christmas albums, and live albums. The most common definitions refer to an expanded approach to a rock album (as a story, play, or opus), or a project that either revolves around a specific theme or a collection of related materials. AllMusic writes, "A concept album could be a collection of songs by an individual songwriter or a particular theme – these are the concept LPs that reigned in the '50s ... the phrase 'concept album' is inextricably tied to the late 1960s, when rock & rollers began stretching the limits of their art form." Author Jim Cullen describes it as "a collection of discrete but thematically unified songs whose whole is greater than the sum of its parts ... sometimes [erroneously] assumed to be a product of the rock era." Author Roy Shuker defines concept albums and rock operas as albums that are "unified by a theme, which can be instrumental, compositional, narrative, or lyrical. ... In this form, the album changed from a collection of heterogeneous songs into a narrative work with a single theme, in which individual songs segue into one another." Speaking of concepts in albums during the 1970s, Robert Christgau wrote in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981), because "overall impression" of an album matters, "concept intensifies the impact" of certain albums "in more or less the way Sgt. Pepper intended", as well as "a species of concept that pushes a rhythmically unrelenting album like The Wild Magnolias or a vocally irresistible one like Shirley Brown's Woman to Woman, to a deeper level of significance." ==History== ===1940s–50s: Origins=== In the 2016 BBC documentary When Pop Went Epic: The Crazy World of the Concept Album, it is suggested that the first concept album is Woody Guthrie's 1940 album Dust Bowl Ballads. The Independent regards it as "perhaps" one of the first concept albums, consisting exclusively of semi-autobiographical songs about the hardships of American migrant labourers during the 1930s. In the late 1940s, the LP record was introduced, with space age pop composers producing concept albums soon after. Themes included exploring wild life and dealing with emotions, with some albums meant to be played while dining or relaxing. This was accompanied in the mid-1950s with the invention of the gatefold, which allowed room for liner notes to explain the concept. Singer Frank Sinatra recorded several concept albums prior to the 1960s rock era, including In the Wee Small Hours (1955) and Frank Sinatra Sings for Only the Lonely (1958). Sinatra is occasionally credited as the inventor of the concept album, beginning with The Voice of Frank Sinatra (1946), which led to similar work by Bing Crosby. According to biographer Will Friedwald, Sinatra "sequenced the songs so that the lyrics created a flow from track to track, affording an impression of a narrative, as in musical comedy or opera. ... [He was the] first pop singer to bring a consciously artistic attitude to recording." Singer/pianist Nat "King" Cole (who, along with Sinatra, often collaborated with arranger Nelson Riddle during this era) was also an early pioneer of concept albums, as with his Wild Is Love (1960), a suite of original songs about a man's search for love. ===1960s: Rock and country music=== In the early 1960s, concept albums became highly featured in American country music, but the fact went largely unacknowledged by rock/pop fans and critics, who would only begin noting "concept albums" as a phenomenon later in the decade, when albums became closely aligned with countercultural ideology, resulting in a recognised "album era" and the introduction of the rock concept album. The author Carys Wyn Jones writes that the Beach Boys' Pet Sounds (1966), the Beatles' Revolver (1966) and Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967), and the Who's Tommy (1969) are variously cited as "the first concept album", usually for their "uniform excellence rather than some lyrical theme or underlying musical motif". Other records have been claimed as "early" or "first" concept albums. The Beach Boys' first six albums, released over 1962–64, featured collections of songs unified respectively by a central concept, such as cars, surfing, and teenage lifestyles. Writing in 101 Albums That Changed Popular Music, Chris Smith commented: "Though albums such as Frank Sinatra's 1955 In the Wee Small Hours and Marty Robbins' 1959 Gunfighter Ballads and Trail Songs had already introduced concept albums, [the Beach Boys' 1963 album] Little Deuce Coupe was the first to comprise almost all original material rather than standard covers." Music historian Larry Starr, who identifies the Beach Boys' 1964 releases Shut Down Volume 2 and All Summer Long as heralding the album era, cites Pet Sounds as the first rock concept album on the basis that it had been "conceived as an integrated whole, with interrelated songs arranged in a deliberate sequence." The 100 Greatest Bands of All Time (2015) states that the Ventures "pioneered the idea of the rock concept album years before the genre is generally acknowledged to have been born". Writing in his Concise Dictionary of Popular Culture, Marcel Danesi identifies the Beatles' Rubber Soul (1965) and the Who's The Who Sell Out (1967) as other examples of early concept albums. Brian Boyd of The Irish Times names the Kinks' Face to Face (1966) as the first concept album: "Written entirely by Ray Davies, the songs were supposed to be linked by pieces of music, so that the album would play without gaps, but the record company baulked at such radicalism. It's not one of the band's finest works, but it did have an impact." "Popular consensus" for the first rock concept album, according to AllMusic, favours Sgt. Pepper. Music critic and journalist Neil Slaven stated that Frank Zappa's Absolutely Free, released the same day as Sgt. Pepper, was "very much a concept album, but The Beatles effortlessly stole his thunder", and subsequently Sgt. Pepper was hailed as "perhaps the first 'concept album' even though the songs were unrelated." ===1960s–70s: Rock operas, progressive rock, soul, and disco=== Author Bill Martin relates the assumed concept albums of the 1960s to progressive rock: Popmatters Sarah Zupko notes that while the Who's Tommy is "popularly thought of as the first rock opera, an extra-long concept album with characters, a consistent storyline, and a slight bit of pomposity", it is preceded by the shorter concept albums Ogdens' Nut Gone Flake (Small Faces, 1968) and S.F. Sorrow (The Pretty Things, 1968). Author Jim Cullen states: "The concept album reached its apogee in the 1970s in ambitious records like Pink Floyd's Dark Side of the Moon (1973) and the Eagles' Hotel California (1976)." In 2015, Rolling Stone ranked Dark Side of the Moon at number one among the 50 greatest progressive rock albums of all time, also noting the LP's stature as the second-best-selling album of all time. Pink Floyd's The Wall (1979), a semi-autobiographical story modeled after the band's Roger Waters and former member Syd Barrett, is one of the most famous concept albums by any artist. In addition to The Wall, Danesi highlights Genesis' The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway (1974) and Frank Zappa's Joe's Garage (1979) as other culturally significant concept albums. According to author Edward Macan, concept albums as a recurrent theme in progressive rock was directly inspired by the counterculture associated with "the proto-progressive bands of the 1960s", observing: "the consistent use of lengthy forms such as the programmatic song cycle of the concept album and the multimovement suite underscores the hippies' new, drug-induced conception of time." Progressive soul musicians inspired by this approach conceived concept albums during this era reflecting themes and concerns of the African-American experience, including Marvin Gaye (1971's What's Going On), George Clinton (the 1975 Parliament album Mothership Connection), and Stevie Wonder's Innervisions (1973) and Songs in the Key of Life (1976). By the mid-1970s, concept albums extended to disco music artists. Examples include Phylicia Rashad's 1978 album Josephine Superstar, which details the life of film star and activist Josephine Baker; Parliament's Mothership Connection (1975) featuring space disco elements such as sci-fi, UFOs, galactic exploration, and spaceflight; and The Undisputed Truth's Method to the Madness (1976) which is framed by the group's abduction by aliens and performance for "the Space Gods". ===1980s–present: Decline and return to popularity=== With the emergence of MTV as a music video network which valued singles over albums, concept albums became less dominant in the 1980s. My Chemical Romance’s The Black Parade (2006) is another example of a modern concept album. Dorian Lynskey, writing for GQ, noted a resurgence of concept albums in the 2010s due to streaming: "This is happening not in spite of the rise of streaming and playlists, but because of it. Threatened with redundancy in the digital era, albums have fought back by becoming more album-like." Cucchiara argues that concept albums should also describe "this new generation of concept albums, for one key reason. This is because the unison between the songs on a particular album has now been expanded into a broader field of visual and artistic design and marketing strategies that play into the themes and stories that form the album." A year later, Iron Maiden's, Seventh Son of a Seventh Son, released in 1988, would become one of the most notable examples of a heavy metal concept album at the time. Thus it could be argued that from the genre's inception, progressive metal has been a hotspot for concept albums, like its rock counterpart. Other notable progressive metal concept albums are Dream Theater's Metropolis Pt. 2: Scenes from a Memory, Opeth's Still Life, In the 21st century, the field of classical music has adopted the idea of the concept album, citing such historical examples as Schubert's Winterreise and Schumann's Liederkreis as prototypes for contemporary composers and musicians. Classical composers and performers increasingly adopt production and marketing strategies that unify otherwise disparate works into concept albums or concerts. Since 2019, the classical music magazine Gramophone has included a special category for "concept album" in its annual recordings of the year awards, to celebrate "albums where a creative mind has curated something visionary, a programme whose whole speaks more powerfully than its parts. A thought-through journey, which compels to be heard in one sitting." In a year-ending essay on the album in 2019, Ann Powers wrote for Slate that the year found the medium in a state of flux. In her observation, many recording artists revitalized the concept album around autobiographical narratives and personal themes, such as intimacy, intersectionality, African-American life, boundaries among women, and grief associated with death. She cited such albums as Brittany Howard's Jaime, Raphael Saadiq's Jimmy Lee, Jamila Woods' Legacy! Legacy!, Rapsody's Eve, Jenny Lewis' On the Line, Julia Jacklin's Crushing, Joe Henry's The Gospel According to Water, and Nick Cave's Ghosteen. EPIC: The Musical, a series of concept albums retelling The Odyssey, arose to massive popularity, with its first release in January 2023 surpassing three million streams within its first week of release and the musical remaining popular as subsequent "saga" albums were released.	[ "Freak Out!", "MTV", "Nazi salute", "Ultimate Guitar", "Orphaned Land", "Shut Down Volume 2", "Robert Christgau", "Frank Sinatra Sings for Only the Lonely", "country music", "Capitol Studios", "Joe's Garage", "Disco", "cast recording", "Rubber Soul", "Innervisions", "Julia Jacklin", "The Undisputed Truth", "Q (magazine)", "Capitol Records", "Wild Is Love", "Rolling Stone", "compilation albums", "space disco", "opera", "Queensrÿche", "Tim Riley (music critic)", "Winterreise", "EPIC: The Musical", "Joe Henry", "Parliament (band)", "Ticknor & Fields", "rock operas", "Marcel Danesi", "Nick Cave", "The Independent", "Guitar World", "On the Line (Jenny Lewis album)", "LP record", "Eagles (band)", "the Beach Boys", "The Dark Side of the Moon", "The Gospel According to Water", "BroadwayWorld", "the Mothers of Invention", "rock music", "Nelson Riddle", "Seventh Son of a Seventh Son", "Brittany Howard", "Nat \"King\" Cole", "BBC", "Songs for Swingin' Lovers!", "PopMatters", "Fates Warning", "Phylicia Rashad", "gatefold", "Robert Schumann", "Dust Bowl Ballads", "Raphael Saadiq", "Syd Barrett", "GQ", "Abigail (album)", "tribute album", "Leitmotif", "Interplanetary spaceflight", "Pet Sounds", "The Black Parade", "Bing Crosby", "Iron Maiden", "Progressive soul", "Smile (Beach Boys album)", "Pete Johnson (musician)", "Larry Starr", "What's Going On (Marvin Gaye album)", "The Who Sell Out", "AllMusic", "The Irish Times", "Dream Theater", "Metropolis Pt. 2: Scenes from a Memory", "Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies", "progressive metal", "music video", "Genesis (band)", "Franz Schubert", "My Chemical Romance", "Revolver (Beatles album)", "The Wall – Live in Berlin", "Frame story", "space age pop", "Pink Floyd", "Stevie Wonder", "Josephine Baker", "Single (music)", "Slate (magazine)", "progressive rock", "Green Day", "rock opera", "the Who", "Gunfighter Ballads and Trail Songs", "Songs in the Key of Life", "boogie-woogie", "The Beach Boys", "The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway", "rock and roll", "soundtrack albums", "Stride (music)", "Roger Waters", "S.F. Sorrow", "narrative", "Opeth", "Liederkreis, Op. 39 (Schumann)", "Small Faces", "music criticism", "Marty Robbins", "liner notes", "Shirley Brown", "In the Wee Small Hours", "The Voice of Frank Sinatra", "Crushing (album)", "Jamila Woods", "Eve (Rapsody album)", "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band", "Savatage", "Face to Face (The Kinks album)", "folk music", "intersectionality", "Ghosteen", "live album", "Mabool", "The Wild Magnolias", "Woody Guthrie", "Marvin Gaye", "proto-progressive", "Method to the Madness", "Science fiction", "Little Deuce Coupe", "album", "Peter Gabriel", "Josephine Superstar", "Hotel California (Eagles album)", "musical comedy", "George Clinton (funk musician)", "Absolutely Free", "Rick Wakeman", "101 Albums That Changed Popular Music", "the African-American experience", "Ann Powers", "Mothership Connection", "The Wall", "American Idiot", "The Pretty Things", "Sgt. Pepper", "Rapsody", "album era", "the Beatles", "Streaming media", "John Lennon", "Operation: Mindcrime", "Ray Davies", "All Summer Long (album)", "Jenny Lewis", "the Ventures", "Space exploration", "Odyssey", "song cycle", "Brian Boyd", "the Kinks", "List of concept albums", "heavy metal music", "Tommy (The Who album)", "Still Life (Opeth album)", "greatest hits album", "Visual album", "Frank Zappa", "Unidentified flying object", "Jaime (album)", "NME", "Jimmy Lee (album)", "Christmas album", "traditional pop", "Hall of the Mountain King (album)", "Legacy! Legacy!", "Popmatters", "King Diamond (band)", "Frank Sinatra", "Gramophone Classical Music Awards", "Cable television", "Gramophone (magazine)", "Ogdens' Nut Gone Flake" ]
7,530	Cro-hook	The cro-hook is a special double-ended crochet hook used to make double-sided crochet. It employs the use of a long double-ended hook, which permits the maker to work stitches on or off from either end. Because the hook has two ends, two alternating colors of thread can be used simultaneously and freely interchanged, working loops over the hook. Crafts using a double-ended hook are commercially marketed as Cro-hook and Crochenit. Cro-hook is a variation of Tunisian crochet and also shows similarities with the Afghan stitch used to make Afghan scarves, but the fabric is typically softer with greater elasticity.	[ "Tunisian crochet", "crochet hook", "crochet" ]
7,531	Clavichord	The clavichord is a stringed rectangular keyboard instrument that was used largely in the Late Middle Ages, through the Renaissance, Baroque and Classical eras. Historically, it was mostly used as a practice instrument and as an aid to composition, not being loud enough for larger performances. ==History and use== The clavichord was invented in the early fourteenth century. In 1404, the German poem "" mentions the terms clavicimbalum (a term used mainly for the harpsichord) and clavichordium, designating them as the best instruments to accompany melodies. One of the earliest references to the clavichord in England occurs in the privy-purse expenses of Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII, in an entry dated August 1502: Item. The same day, Hugh Denys for money by him delivered to a stranger that gave the queen a payre of clavycordes. In crowns form his reward iiii libres. The clavichord was very popular from the 16th century to the 18th century, but mainly flourished in German-speaking lands, Scandinavia, and the Iberian Peninsula in the latter part of this period. It had fallen out of use by 1850. In the late 1890s, Arnold Dolmetsch revived clavichord construction and Violet Gordon-Woodhouse, among others, helped to popularize the instrument. Although most of the instruments built before the 1730s were small (four octaves, four feet long), the latest instruments were built up to seven feet long with a six octave range.]] In the clavichord, strings run transversely from the hitchpin rail at the left-hand end to tuning pegs on the right. Towards the right end they pass over a curved wooden bridge. The action is simple, with the keys being levers with a small brass tangent, a small piece of metal similar in shape and size to the head of a flat-bladed screwdriver, at the far end. The strings, which are usually of brass, or else a combination of brass and iron, are usually arranged in pairs, like a lute or mandolin. When the key is pressed, the tangent strikes the strings above, causing them to sound in a similar fashion to the hammering technique on a guitar. Unlike in a piano action, the tangent does not rebound from the string; rather, it stays in contact with the string as long as the key is held, acting as both the nut and as the initiator of sound. The volume of the note can be changed by striking harder or softer, and the pitch can also be affected by varying the force of the tangent against the string (known as Bebung). When the key is released, the tangent loses contact with the string and the vibration of the string is silenced by strips of damping cloth. The action of the clavichord is unique among all keyboard instruments in that one part of the action simultaneously initiates the sound vibration while at the same time defining the endpoint of the vibrating string, and thus its pitch. Because of this intimate contact between the player's hand and the production of sound, the clavichord has been referred to as the most intimate of keyboard instruments. Despite its many (serious) limitations, including extremely low volume, it has considerable expressive power, the player being able to control attack, duration, and volume, and even provide certain subtle effects of swelling of tone and a type of vibrato unique to the clavichord. ==Fretting== Since the string vibrates from the bridge only as far as the tangent, multiple keys with multiple tangents can be assigned to the same string. This is called fretting. Early clavichords frequently had many notes played on each string, even going so far as the keyed monochord—an instrument with only one string—though most clavichords were triple- or double-fretted. Since only one note can be played at a time on each string, the fretting pattern is generally chosen so that notes rarely heard together (such as C and C) share a string pair. The advantages of this system compared with unfretted instruments (see below) include relative ease of tuning (with around half as many strings to keep in tune), greater volume (though still not really enough for use in chamber music), and a clearer, more direct sound. Among the disadvantages: temperament could not be re-set without bending the tangents; and playing required a further refinement of touch, since notes sharing a single string played in quick succession had to be slightly separated to avoid a disagreeable deadening of the sound, potentially disturbing a legato line. Some clavichords have been built with a single pair of strings for each note. The first known reference to one was by Johann Speth in 1693 and the earliest such extant signed and dated clavichord was built in 1716 by Johann Michael Heinitz. Such instruments are referred to as unfretted whereas instruments using the same strings for several notes are called fretted. Among the advantages to unfretted instruments are flexibility in tuning (the temperament can be easily altered) and the ability to play any music exactly as written without concern for "bad" notes. Disadvantages include a smaller volume, even though many or most unfretted instruments tend to be significantly larger than fretted instruments; and many more strings to keep in tune. Unfretted instruments tend to have a sweeter, less incisive tone due to the greater load on the bridge resulting from the greater number of strings, though the large, late (early 19th century) Swedish clavichords tend to be the loudest of any of the historic clavichords. ==Pedal clavichord== While clavichords were typically single manual instruments, they could be stacked, one clavichord on top of another, to provide multiple keyboards. With the addition of a pedal clavichord, which included a pedal keyboard for the lower notes, a clavichord could be used to practice organ repertoire. Most often, the addition of a pedal keyboard only involved connecting the keys of the pedalboard to the lower notes on the manual clavichord using string so the lower notes on the manual instrument could be operated by the feet. In the era of pipe organs, which used man-powered bellows that required several people to operate, and of churches only heated during church services if at all, organists used pedal harpsichords and pedal clavichords as practice instruments (see also: pedal piano). There is speculation that some works written for organ may have been intended for pedal clavichord. An interesting case is made by that Bach's "Eight Little Preludes and Fugues", now thought spurious, may actually be authentic. The keyboard writing seems unsuited to organ, but Speerstra argues that they are idiomatic on the pedal clavichord. As Speerstra and also note, the compass of the keyboard parts of Bach's six trio sonatas for organ (BWV 525–530) rarely go below the tenor C, so they could have been played on a single manual pedal clavichord, by moving the left hand down an octave, a customary practice in the 18th century. ==Repertoire== Much of the musical repertoire written for harpsichord and organ from the period circa 1400–1800 can be played on the clavichord; however, it does not have enough (unamplified) volume to participate in chamber music, with the possible exception of providing accompaniment to a soft baroque flute, recorder, or single singer. J. S. Bach's son Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach was a great proponent of the instrument, and most of his German contemporaries regarded it as a central keyboard instrument, for performing, teaching, composing and practicing. The fretting of a clavichord provides new problems for some repertoire, but scholarship suggests that these problems are not insurmountable in Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier. C. P. E. Bach, one of the leading representatives of the 'Empfindsamer stil' or 'Sensitive Style,' emphasized emotional depth and expressiveness in his compositions. The clavichord was very successful in conveying these characteristics. With its unique sound, touch sensitivity, and ability to convey the most delicate nuances, the clavichord became C. P. E. Bach's most preferred instrument. C. P. E. Bach also used the fortepiano in his compositions, but he was much more interested in the technical features provided by the clavichord. He mentioned this in his book (Versuch über die wahre, Art das Clavier zu spielen, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Berlin, 1759.): "Of the many keyboard instruments, many of which are little known because of defects, or because they have not yet been introduced everywhere, there are two which have been most widely acclaimed, the harpsichord and the clavichord. The former is used mainly in louder music, the latter alone. The more recent pianofortes, when they are durable and well built, have many advantages, although their touch must be carefully worked out, a task which is not without difficulties. They sound well by themselves and in small ensembles. Yet, I hold that a good clavichord, except for its weaker tone, shares equally in the attractiveness of the pianoforte and in addition features the vibrato (Bebung) and portato (Tragen der Töne) which I produce by means of added pressure after each stroke. It is at the clavichord that a keyboard player may be most exactly evaluated." Among recent clavichord recordings, those by Christopher Hogwood (The Secret Bach, The Secret Handel, and The Secret Mozart), break new ground. In his liner notes, Hogwood pointed out that these composers would typically have played the clavichord in the privacy of their homes. In England, the composer Herbert Howells (1892–1983) wrote two significant collections of pieces for clavichord (Lambert's Clavichord and Howells' Clavichord), and Stephen Dodgson (1924–2013) wrote two clavichord suites. In a note written by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's wife, Constanze Mozart (1761–1842), found inside Mozart's clavichord, it is mentioned that Mozart composed his works, including The Magic Flute, La Clemenza di Tito, The Requiem, and a Masonic Cantata, on this clavichord. Haydn composed the greater part of "The Creation", one of his masterpieces, on the clavichord. He used the clavichord to accompany the voice.	[ "Roman Numerals", "Volta (album)", "Heinrich Schütz", "Keith Jarrett", "Björk", "Latin", "Higher Ground (Stevie Wonder song)", "organ (music)", "Baroque music", "Belgium", "Herbert Howells", "Arnold Dolmetsch", "effect pedal", "Tangent (clavichord)", "Violet Gordon-Woodhouse", "Johann Sebastian Bach", "Julian Perkins", "Well-Tempered Clavier", "keyboard instrument", "Boys for Pele", "Oscar Peterson", "For No One", "pedal piano", "hitchpin rail", "All Is Full of Love", "Paul McCartney", "Tori Amos", "Metropolitan Museum of Art", "chamber music", "Journey to the Centre of the Earth (album)", "Eight Short Preludes and Fugues", "BBC Music Magazine", "Guy Sigsworth", "Hugh Denys", "funk", "The Beatles", "Musical tuning", "A Piano: The Collection", "instrument amplifier", "legato", "Renaissance music", "harpsichord", "Cité de la Musique", "box set", "Rick Wakeman", "Bebung", "sordino", "Nut (string instrument)", "chordophone", "pipe organ", "Pedal clavichord", "Superstition (song)", "Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach", "Organ Sonatas (Bach)", "Musical temperament", "Musical keyboard", "Friedrich Konrad Griepenkerl", "Stephen Dodgson", "Classical period (music)", "Stevie Wonder", "Thurston Dart", "Herbert Lambert", "Christopher Hogwood", "Iberian Peninsula", "monochord", "Johann Speth", "Clavinet", "Scandinavia", "Late Middle Ages", "American Doll Posse", "pedal keyboard", "disco", "Harpsichord", "pedal clavichord", "£sd" ]