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Roll the Union On: the National Labor Relations Act and the Rise of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) Students examine the many different programs Roosevelt created as a result of the Great Depression. They research the National Labor Relations Act and explore what working conditions were like during that time. 6 Views 8 Downloads - Activities & Projects - Graphics & Images - Handouts & References - Lab Resources - Learning Games - Lesson Plans - Primary Sources - Printables & Templates - Professional Documents - Study Guides - Graphic Organizers - Writing Prompts - Constructed Response Items - AP Test Preps - Lesson Planet Articles - Interactive Whiteboards - All Resource Types - Show All See similar resources: Bridge to the Future: Enlarging the European Union The political, social, and economic challenges the European Union faces as it enlarges is the focus of a six-lesson unit. Class members investigate and craft a presentation about a member country, the treaties member states must sign,... 9th - 12th Social Studies & History CCSS: Adaptable Voting Rights Speech Before Congress Is your class studying civil rights? Consider taking a look at President Lyndon B. Johnson's voting rights speech. This resource includes an abridged version and three related questions. Pupils consider Johnson's use of language and the... 8th - 12th Social Studies & History CCSS: Adaptable Childhood Lost: Child Labor in the United States, 1830-1930 Working in groups, middle and high schoolers describe and discuss photographs depicting working conditions experienced by child laborers in the 19th century. They then write a persuasive paragraph supporting an amendment to regulate the... 5th - 10th English Language Arts The Impact of Traumatic Brain Injury on Veterans and Their Families As far back as your scholars can remember, their country has been at war. Be sure they understand the various implications of this global conflict by presenting personal stories of veterans who have suffered traumatic brain injury (TBI)... 6th - 12th Social Studies & History CCSS: Designed A Lifetime of Responsibilities: Child Labor in Alabama Imagine children working long hours in factories, coal mines, and in the fields. Class members examine a series of pictures and read about early attempts to regulate child labor and current child labor laws. 6th - 11th Social Studies & History CCSS: Adaptable Industrial Revolution: A Definition America sure did have a few growing pains during the Industrial Revolution. Share the problems, causes, effects, and reformation that marked the turn of the century and shift in policy during US industrialization. This slide show... 8th - 10th Social Studies & History Child Labor in America Students investigate child labor during the Great Depression. In this US policy lesson, students evaluate multiple layers of the social, economic, and political affects of policy during the Great Depression. Students will engage in 5... 8th - Higher Ed Social Studies & History Labor Unions in the Cotton Mills To unionize or not to unionize? That is the question high schoolers consider in their investigation of the labor union movement of the 1920s. After a brief review of the Industrial Revolution and the importance of the textile industry in... 9th - 12th English Language Arts CCSS: Designed
Curricular applications of the Guides: There are several sequences of Guides in the Study Seven stages of writing assignments; etc. You are also construct your own, as with "Study strategies" or "Learning with others." These sequences can be developed and applied in one class session or over a period of time. Copy, paste, edit and print! - Select a Guide, copy and paste it into your word processor - Edit the text: adapt it with your class identifier, students' names, local resources, etc. - Reference and assign any interactive exercise on the Website my daily schedule - Print and distribute - Assign an (short paragraph) assignment about the topic on how they could apply one suggestion contained in the Guide - Cite both the exercise and the source Classroom topic of the week: - Demonstrate an SGS “study skill” using your interactive whiteboard or projector. Most of the topics provide interactive learning or another assignment to help students practice the skill. - Then have students work individually or with a partner to similarly explore a “topic of the week” and summarize their experience. (These life skills are so necessary, but hard to fit into the already crammed curriculum. SGS does a nice job of integrating the study skills with curriculum content. - Have students create their own multimedia projects about study skills using a current unit of study from your class. TeachersFirst Resource Listings, accessed June 8, 2010 Send me your curricular idea for using the Study Guides! All suggestions cited with your name and school! Curricular guides and resources:
Introducing basic letter sounds with the sandpaper letters helps your child start the process of reading. The movable alphabet set follows for introducing short vowel words. When you get to harder words, we have made it easier with our new intermediate DVD that is appropriately called "Tough Words." Click here to take a peek! These harder words include spelling combinations such as ch (ch as in peach), sh (as in sheep), th (as in three), and ou/ow (as in cloud and down). We also have a great book in Adobe PDF format to go with the DVD! Encourage Exploration and Creativity 6 years ago
Flowing Electrons Help Ocean Microbes Gulp Methane Good communication is crucial to any relationship, especially when partners are separated by distance. This also holds true for microbes in the deep sea that need to work together to consume large amounts of methane released from vents on the ocean floor. Recent work at Caltech has shown that these microbial partners can still accomplish this task, even when not in direct contact with one another, by using electrons to share energy over long distances. This is the first time that direct interspecies electron transport—the movement of electrons from a cell, through the external environment, to another cell type—has been documented in microorganisms in nature. The results were published in the September 16 issue of the journal Nature. "Our lab is interested in microbial communities in the environment and, specifically, the symbiosis—or mutually beneficial relationship—between microorganisms that allows them to catalyze reactions they wouldn't be able to do on their own," says Professor of Geobiology Victoria Orphan, who led the recent study. For the last two decades, Orphan's lab has focused on the relationship between a species of bacteria and a species of archaea that live in symbiotic aggregates, or consortia, within deep-sea methane seeps. The organisms work together in syntrophy (which means "feeding together") to consume up to 80 percent of methane emitted from the ocean floor—methane that might otherwise end up contributing to climate change as a greenhouse gas in our atmosphere. Previously, Orphan and her colleagues contributed to the discovery of this microbial symbiosis, a cooperative partnership between methane-oxidizing archaea called anaerobic methanotrophs (or "methane eaters") and a sulfate-reducing bacterium (organisms that can "breathe" sulfate instead of oxygen) that allows these organisms to consume methane using sulfate from seawater. However, it was unclear how these cells share energy and interact within the symbiosis to perform this task. Because these microorganisms grow slowly (reproducing only four times per year) and live in close contact with each other, it has been difficult for researchers to isolate them from the environment to grow them in the lab. So, the Caltech team used a research submersible, called Alvin, to collect samples containing the methane-oxidizing microbial consortia from deep-ocean methane seep sediments and then brought them back to the laboratory for analysis. The researchers used different fluorescent DNA stains to mark the two types of microbes and view their spatial orientation in consortia. In some consortia, Orphan and her colleagues found the bacterial and archaeal cells were well mixed, while in other consortia, cells of the same type were clustered into separate areas. Orphan and her team wondered if the variation in the spatial organization of the bacteria and archaea within these consortia influenced their cellular activity and their ability to cooperatively consume methane. To find out, they applied a stable isotope "tracer" to evaluate the metabolic activity. The amount of the isotope taken up by individual archaeal and bacterial cells within their microbial "neighborhoods" in each consortia was then measured with a high-resolution instrument called nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry (nanoSIMS) at Caltech. This allowed the researchers to determine how active the archaeal and bacterial partners were relative to their distance to one another. To their surprise, the researchers found that the spatial arrangement of the cells in consortia had no influence on their activity. "Since this is a syntrophic relationship, we would have thought the cells at the interface—where the bacteria are directly contacting the archaea—would be more active, but we don't really see an obvious trend. What is really notable is that there are cells that are many cell lengths away from their nearest partner that are still active," Orphan says. To find out how the bacteria and archaea were partnering, co-first authors Grayson Chadwick (BS '11), a graduate student in geobiology at Caltech and a former undergraduate researcher in Orphan's lab, and Shawn McGlynn, a former postdoctoral scholar, employed spatial statistics to look for patterns in cellular activity for multiple consortia with different cell arrangements. They found that populations of syntrophic archaea and bacteria in consortia had similar levels of metabolic activity; when one population had high activity, the associated partner microorganisms were also equally active—consistent with a beneficial symbiosis. However, a close look at the spatial organization of the cells revealed that no particular arrangement of the two types of organisms—whether evenly dispersed or in separate groups—was correlated with a cell's activity. To determine how these metabolic interactions were taking place even over relatively long distances, postdoctoral scholar and coauthor Chris Kempes, a visitor in computing and mathematical sciences, modeled the predicted relationship between cellular activity and distance between syntrophic partners that are dependent on the molecular diffusion of a substrate. He found that conventional metabolites—molecules previously predicted to be involved in this syntrophic consumption of methane—such as hydrogen—were inconsistent with the spatial activity patterns observed in the data. However, revised models indicated that electrons could likely make the trip from cell to cell across greater distances. "Chris came up with a generalized model for the methane-oxidizing syntrophy based on direct electron transfer, and these model results were a better match to our empirical data," Orphan says. "This pointed to the possibility that these archaea were directly transferring electrons derived from methane to the outside of the cell, and those electrons were being passed to the bacteria directly." Guided by this information, Chadwick and McGlynn looked for independent evidence to support the possibility of direct interspecies electron transfer. Cultured bacteria, such as those from the genus Geobacter, are model organisms for the direct electron transfer process. These bacteria use large proteins, called multi-heme cytochromes, on their outer surface that act as conductive "wires" for the transport of electrons. Using genome analysis—along with transmission electron microscopy and a stain that reacts with these multi-heme cytochromes—the researchers showed that these conductive proteins were also present on the outer surface of the archaea they were studying. And that finding, Orphan says, can explain why the spatial arrangement of the syntrophic partners does not seem to affect their relationship or activity. "It's really one of the first examples of direct interspecies electron transfer occurring between uncultured microorganisms in the environment. Our hunch is that this is going to be more common than is currently recognized," she says. Orphan notes that the information they have learned about this relationship will help to expand how researchers think about interspecies microbial interactions in nature. In addition, the microscale stable isotope approach used in the current study can be used to evaluate interspecies electron transport and other forms of microbial symbiosis occurring in the environment. These results were published in a paper titled, "Single cell activity reveals direct electron transfer in methanotrophic consortia." The work was funded by the Department of Energy Division of Biological and Environmental Research and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation Marine Microbiology Initiative.
Whether comparing a man and a woman or a parent and a baby, we can still see when two people of different age or sex are genetically related. How do we know that people are part of a family? Findings from a new study published in the Journal of Vision increases our understanding of the brain's ability to see through these underlying variations in facial structure. "Being able to see the family resemblance between faces that have some underlying difference, such as the difference between male and female faces, is an ability that is not well understood and merits further investigation to work out how visual information about faces is organized," says author Harry J. Griffin, PhD, of the Department of Cognitive, Perceptual and Brain Sciences at University College London. As described in the paper "Relative faces: Encoding of family resemblance relative to gender means in face space" researchers conducted two experiments using original and synthesized cross-gender "sibling" faces that resemble each other and "anti-sibling" faces that have the opposite characteristics of the original face. In the first experiment, participants were asked to identify male-female sibling pairs. Possible pairings included a face with its synthesised opposite-gender sibling, a face with its opposite-gender anti-sibling, and a face with a randomly selected opposite-gender face. Participants chose the sibling pair significantly more often than the randomly selected cross-gender pairings and the random pairings more often than the anti-face pairings. "This pattern of results shows that when we see a face, we compare it to an average face for that gender, allowing us to pick out only the face cues that tell us about family membership while disregarding the irrelevant gender cues," explains Griffin. In the second experiment, using the visual adaptation method of biasing an observer's perception of objects through prolonged exposure, participants were shown a male anti-sibling generated from a female face. The results indicate that adapting to the male face clearly influenced the perceived identity of a subsequent identity-ambiguous female face. According to the researchers, this implies that the cues underlying family resemblance for both male and female faces are processed within the same brain space. "We used this simple, non-invasive method to show that the facial appearance of men and women are processed by overlapping populations of brain cells," says Griffin. "This takes our understanding beyond the conceptual and gives a picture of how the brain actually works." The research team hopes their findings will prompt other researchers to investigate the perception of similarity in other aspects of facial appearance such as underlying differences in age or racial groups. They s also suggest the results may have an impact on the computer science industry. "Understanding how we encode faces can inform computer scientists who are building face recognition systems for security applications and computer graphics teams building synthetic faces for applications in the film and gaming industry and to enhance human computer interaction," added computer scientist and team member Peter McOwan from Queen Mary, University of London. The above post is reprinted from materials provided by Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. Cite This Page:
Reflection at smooth surfaces Figure 1: reflection at a mirror When a wave approaches a reflecting surface, such as a mirror, the wave that strikes the surface is called the incident wave, and the one that bounces back is called the reflected wave. An imaginary line perpendicular to the point at which the incident wave strikes the reflecting surface is called the normal, or the perpendicular. The angle between the incident wave and the normal is called the angle of incidence. The angle between the reflected wave and the normal is called the angle of reflection. If the surface of the medium contacted by the incident wave is smooth and polished, each reflected wave will be reflected back at the same angle as the incident wave. The Law of Reflection states: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. After reflection takes place, however, the waves are approximately 180 degrees out of phase from their initial relationship.
Translational and rotational motion, as well as bond stretching and bending, are the basic types of motion within molecules. Different molecules undergo different superpositions of the basic motions.Continue Reading All molecules are constantly in motion. The degrees of freedom of this motion depend on the molecules' phase of matter. Solids have the least range of motion, followed by liquids, then gases. The temperature of the molecules is an indication of their kinetic energy. Higher temperature directly increases the translational motion of the molecules, leading to higher velocity of motion in liquid and gas molecules and higher frequency and amplitude of vibration in solid molecules. The Boltzmann relation linearly relates macroscopic temperature to molecular kinetic energy through the Boltzmann constant. A linear increase in temperature is accompanied by a linear increase in the average kinetic energy of all molecules in a system. Rotational motion can involve the rotation of the entire molecule or the rotation of parts of the molecule relative to one another in torsional motion. Such motion can only occur in gas and liquid phases, as molecules are bonded in fixed positions in solids. The motions of molecules determine many physical properties including color, which is determined by photon absorption and re-emission through the bonds, and chemical reactivity, which is determined by the amount of energy needed to form or break the bonds.Learn more about Atoms & Molecules
Children are taught many ‘rules of thumb’ to help them identify animals, for example: mammals, are furry (or hairy), give birth to live young, make milk and take care of their children. So why does the furry platypus lay eggs? The discovery of this bizarre, egg-laying, duck-billed, web-footed mammal initially baffled naturalists, but now we understand them much better because we know much more about their special place in the tree of evolution. All animals on Earth are related, even though these relationships aren’t always obvious. The reason these relationships are hard to figure out is that despite the diversity of animals we see, they represent a mere fraction of the life that has ever existed on this planet. In fact, one famous palaeontologist estimated that we know of less then 1% of the Earth’s diversity through time. To understand the relationships between animals better, we have to look back in time, at the extinct ancestors of the animals alive today (animals living today are called ‘extant’). This diagram (called a cladogram) shows how the five major groups of vertebrate animals are related: -Fish gave rise to the first amphibians, which crawled on to land about 400 million years ago. -Amphibians and reptiles share a common ancestor about 350 million years ago. -Mammals and birds evolved from reptiles much later at different times during the Mesozoic Era. Each of these major transitions was slow. It must be understood that a fish doesn’t become an amphibian overnight. There were many different species of animals that formed that transitory stages between these groups and possessed a unique set of characteristics, a sort of ‘mosaic’ between the two groups. Now let’s look more closely at the evolution of mammals. Mammals evolved from mammal-like-reptiles, a very diverse groups of animals which are all (unfortunately) extinct. Through time three major groups of mammals evolved: Prototherians - which lay eggs (eg. platypuses and echidnas) Metatherians - which let young develop in pouches (marsupials such as kangaroos and koalas) Eutherians – ‘modern mammals’ which give birth to well-developed offspring (this includes many familiar species such as rabbits, elephants, horses, and humans) The platypus is a prototherian. This ancient group branched off of the mammal tree of life early on before the other two groups. There are many different prototherians in the fossil record but only platypuses and echidnas are still around. So the past there was a great diversity of egg-laying mammals, but sadly, all of those animals except for platypuses and echidnas) are now extinct. If you are interested in this topic I recommend visiting Date A Clade, which has an excellent (and more comprehensive) cladogram with detailed information on when major groups of animals split away from each other.
Craniopharymgioma: tumor near pituitary gland. Not malignant but can cause serious symptoms as they grow.include "header.inc";?> What are Craniopharyngiomas? Craniopharyngiomas are slow growing tumors that arise near the pituitary gland and stalk. They are derived from pituitary gland embryonic tissues. Usually the structure of craniopharyngioma tumors is a solid cyst. They are extra-axial, meaning they are within the skull, or intracranial, but outside the brain itself, and calcified cystic tumors. These tumors develop from the tooth-forming tissues present in the supracellar region. Therefore, they contain deposits of calcium, which are visible on x-rays. Craniopharyngiomas mostly occur in children, but they can also develop in adults over 50 years of age. These tumors are usually discovered when they start to interrupt surrounding structures. They are usually more than 3 cm in size by the time they are detected. Although these tumors are not malignant, they sometimes invade the surrounding organs and structures. For example, they may become adherent to the pituitary gland, optic nerves, intracranial arteries and to the brain. Causes of Craniopharyngiomas The causes of craniopharyngiomas are not yet fully known or understood. Doctors believe that it is primarily a congenital disorder. Embryonic cells are found in a part of the pituitary gland called Rathke's pouch. In the patients affected by craniopharyngiomas, the embryonic cells in the Rathke's pouch become cancerous. Over time, they can multiply to form a tumor. Symptoms of Craniopharyngiomas The symptoms of craniopharyngiomas can exhibit in three forms: - Increases in the pressure on the brain: Increased intracranial pressure can cause symptoms such as headache, nausea, vomiting, and difficulties in balance and coordination. - Changes in the function of the pituitary gland: If a craniopharyngioma starts to put pressure on the pituitary gland, it may disrupt its function and cause pituitary hormone deficiency. This can lead to symptoms such as delayed puberty, stunted growth, loss of sexual desire, sensitivity to cold, excessive thirst, constipation, excessive urination, dry skin, nausea, and depression. - Damages to the optic nerves: If the tumor causes damage to the optic nerves, vision problems might develop. These disorders are usually permanent and may worsen after surgery to treat the tumor. Other symptoms may include behavioral and learning problems. Obesity, increased sleepiness and temperature regulation abnormalities may occur if the tumor affects the area at the base of the brain. Diagnosis of Craniopharyngiomas Computed tomography, or CT, scan and magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI, are used to diagnose and evaluate these tumors. These techniques reveal the size of the tumor and outline the ventricular system. A complete evaluation of the pituitary hormonal blood may be performed to aid diagnosis of these tumors. Evaluation of the endocrine hormones may be needed to find out if any hormonal imbalance exists, since craniopharyngiomas can disrupt the function of pituitary gland and thus the hormonal balance. Neurological examination may help to highlight some of the symptoms of these tumors. Surgery is the traditional treatment option for craniopharyngiomas. The goal is to remove the cells affected the tumor. For some patients, radiation treatment is the best option. In such cases, radiation therapy is used instead of surgery or along with a smaller surgery. At times, it is not possible to completely remove the tumor surgically. In such cases, radiation therapy is usually imperative.
There's a map in your stomach. Scientists have reconstructed the ancestry of Helicobacter pylori, bacteria that live in half the human guts on Earth, and it corresponds to patterns of human migration. The discovery, published in the 7 March issue of Science, could help archaeologists confirm or revise what they know about prehistory. Humans who want to know where they came from have, quite naturally, focused on themselves. They have unearthed their ancestors' bones and old, broken pots, deciphered the relationships of their languages, and sequenced their chromosomes in search of an answer. But organisms living inside our bodies may also hold important clues, molecular biologist Mark Achtman of the Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology in Berlin and colleagues reasoned. The team, co-led by Sebastian Suerbaum, chose to study H. pylori, because it is not easily transmitted, has 50 times the genetic diversity of humans, and exchanges genes frequently with other members of its species. Those traits mean that strains of H. pylori might be very similar in the bellies of people who have lived together for generations but very different from strains in other groups. The researchers drew on H. pylori sequence data from 370 people in 27 populations, some from previous samples, others they collected themselves from Africans and American Indians. They plugged the sequences into an algorithm used for human population modeling, which co-author Daniel Falush modified to allow for hybridization among strains of bacteria. The model identified seven populations that closely match human migrations previously deduced from human artifacts, genes, and languages. For example, H. pylori, like humans, originally came from Africa. It went through a bottleneck during its spread to Polynesia and Micronesia, but not during the population of the Americas via the Bering land bridge. And H. pylori colonized Europe in two waves, one of them corresponding to the arrival of farmers from the Middle East. Finally, the bacteria show the traces of more recent migrations, such as European colonization and the African slave trade. "It is great to see that what we call the standard model of human evolution gets confirmation from entirely separate evidence," says population geneticist Luca Cavalli-Sforza of Stanford University in California, the first researcher to trace human migrations with DNA. As for future studies, "one cannot exclude that in time bacteria may add completely new evidence." Mark Achtman's lab
Creole is the language of Haiti, and the education system needs to reflect that SINCE THE devastating earthquake in Haiti in January, international agencies have committed billions of dollars to build a better educational system and create a level playing field. But one crucial aspect of Haitian history must be considered — one that revolves around language. Creole is the only language spoken and understood by all Haitians, and the majority speak Creole only. Yet, the language of instruction in schools is French. Schoolchildren are penalized for their use of Creole, even though the State’s national curriculum prescribes its use in primary schools and even though the Haitian Constitution states that “Creole and French are the official languages.’’ The use of French as the language of instruction excludes around 90 percent of Haitians for whom French is an inaccessible foreign tongue. Students are mostly taught and tested in French, and most textbooks are in French. Yet most teachers are not fluent in French. Creole bears many structural similarities with its French and West-African ancestors. Most Creole words have their etymological roots in French through a historical process somewhat similar to the evolution of French from Latin. But Creole and French have distinct word and sentence structure and distinct sound patterns, and many key words have distinct meanings in the two languages. The Creole-only speaker is hampered when instruction is in French. Haiti became independent from France in 1804. Even though Creole was, and still is, the only language available for nation building, the elites — mostly mulattoes — promoted the use of French for élite closure. Though he was a ruthless dictator, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, a former slave and the first president of the new nation, had certain egalitarian objectives: he favored land redistribution to former slaves, he defined all Haitians as “black’’ no matter their complexion, and he favored the use of Creole. After his assassination in 1806, mulatto political power and élite closure won their way. To this date, Haiti is a state of “linguistic apartheid.’’ Haitians who speak only Creole are often treated as second-class citizens. Nowadays, NGO cluster meetings, where the allocation of billions of dollars of international aid is under discussion, are conducted in French and English, excluding the majority of Haitians — those who need the most aid. As a linguist and native speaker of Creole, I know that the language can express complex and sophisticated concepts. The patterns of development of Creole structures find analogues in the history of languages such as English. Contrary to popular claims, Creole does not isolate Haitians from the rest of the world. In the Americas, more people speak Creole than French, and in the Caribbean, the language has the second-most speakers, after Spanish. Thus, it is French that would isolate Haitians from their neighbors, and it is Spanish or English, not French, that should be promoted as a link between Haiti and its neighbors. Besides, there are countries with populations smaller than Haiti’s, such as Albania, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, and Norway, whose native languages are the languages of discourse within these respective nations. French should be taught as a foreign language for Haitians, with Creole as the language of instruction. That way, all academic subjects could be adequately taught.There have been timid and unsuccessful efforts since the 1980s to use Creole in the schools. More recently, a few linguists and educators have been working with schools that already use Creole, alongside innovative technology as another indispensable tool. Our goal is to promote accessible, collaborative, child-friendly, child-centered, inquiry-based and hands-on learning as an overdue substitute for the age-old and oppressive rote-memorization of French texts that most students and teachers do not understand. This is an uphill battle. Without the design and enforcement of a well-structured array of Creole-based and technology-based curricular reforms and teacher training, billions of dollars of international aid will go into the rebuilding of schools that will enlarge the cruel divide between the few haves and the millions of have-nots. Michel DeGraff, who was born and raised in Haiti, is associate professor of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
In winter, North America's Arctic tundra appears to be a vast and desolate blanket of snow and ice. Appearances deceive. Your eyes wouldn't spot a speck of green anywhere. But despite the frigid temperatures, an unlimited quantity of nutritious lichens and moss thrives just a few inches beneath the landscape's frozen crust. Think of it as a salad buffet served up by Mother Nature especially for the vegetarian creatures -- herbivores -- that live on the frozen plain. Caribous and Reindeer Large relatives of the deer, caribous are iconic of Alaska and Canada's far north and are the same species as the reindeer of Scandinavia, Greenland and Russia. Every year in North America, vast herds consisting of 50,000 to 500,000 animals travel hundreds of miles between spring calving grounds on the tundra to wintering grounds in boreal forests. Female caribous, unlike female deer, have antlers, though they're not as massive as the males'. Similarly, bull caribous, which can weigh as little as 275 pounds and more than 600 pounds, are much larger than cows, which average 200 to 300 pounds. The musk ox resembles a bison but is more closely related to goats. It gets its name from the strong, musky odor emitted by males to attract mates. Its coat consists of a shaggy outer layer and a downy winter undercoat shed in blanket-size chunks every spring. Called qiviut, this fur is collected by people who follow the herds. Warmer and more finely textured than wool, yarn made from qiviut is comparable to cashmere; it can be knitted or woven in the same way. On average, musk oxen range from 6 feet to 7.5 feet long, measure 4 to 5 feet at the shoulder and weigh 400 to 900 pounds. In winter, the Arctic hare's thick fur is almost blindingly white, providing excellent camouflage against the ice and snow covering the tundra, Its black eyelashes act like sunglasses to shield the animal's eyes from glare. Since it doesn't hibernate, its roly-poly body shape and relatively short ears help it conserve heat. On average, this hare weighs 6.5 pounds to 11 pounds. With its long hind legs and snowshoelike back feet, the Arctic hare can clear up to 7 feet in a single bound and run at speeds of 40 miles per hour -- without sinking into the snow. The indigenous people of the north hunt the Arctic hare for its meat and fur. Pity the poor lemming, the tundra's smallest mammal and a favorite snack for almost every predator in the Arctic. Because this mouselike rodent weighing 2 ounces to 4 ounces is part of the staple diet of so many animals, changes in population can have serious repercussions. For unknown reasons, in four-year-cycles, lemming numbers fluctuate wildly between extremes, peaking to vast overpopulation before crashing to semi-extinction levels. The story that lemmings commit suicide en masse by running off cliffs isn't true; but in peak years, they are often seen in swarms on land and sea ice. Their colors vary during summer. In winter, their coats turn white, and they live in burrows under the snow. - Beyond Penguins and Polar Bears: Life in the Tundra - Wildlife Conservation Society: Caribou - The Canadian Encyclopedia: Caribou - National Geographic: Musk-Ox - Tundra Animals: Musk Ox - University of Alaska Fairbanks: Large Animal Research Station: What Is Qiviut? - National Geographic: Arctic Hare - Canadian Geographic Kids!: Animal Facts: Fast Facts: Arctic Hare - Canadian Polar Commission: Did You Know? The Mighty Lemming - Hinterland Who's Who: Lemmings - Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images
If you have gum (periodontal) disease, you are not alone. Many U.S. adults currently have some form of the disease. It ranges from simple gum inflammation, called gingivitis, to serious damage to the tissue and bone supporting the teeth. In the worst cases, you lose teeth. Whether your gum disease is stopped, slowed, or gets worse depends on how well you take care of your teeth and gums every day, from now on. Who gets gum disease? Generally, people don't show signs of gum disease until their 30s or 40s. Men are more likely to develop it than women. Although teenagers rarely develop the severe disease, periodontitis, they can have the milder gingivitis. Most commonly, gum disease develops when plaque is allowed to build up along and under the gum line. What causes gum disease? Our mouths are full of bacteria. Along with mucus and other particles, they constantly form a sticky, colorless "plaque" on teeth. Brushing and flossing help get rid of plaque. Plaque that is not removed can harden and form "tartar" that can only be removed by thorough cleaning by a dentist or dental hygienist. Gingivitis: Mild Gum Disease The longer plaque and tartar remain, the more harmful they become. The bacteria inflame the gums, which become red, swollen and can bleed easily. This is called gingivitis, a mild form of gum disease. Usually it can be reversed with daily brushing and flossing and regular cleaning by a dentist or dental hygienist. Typically, there is no loss of bone or tissue that hold teeth in place. Periodontitis: Severe Gum Disease Left untreated, gingivitis can advance to "periodontitis" (which means "inflammation around the tooth"). Here, gums pull away from the teeth, forming pockets that become infected. The body's immune system fights the bacteria as the plaque spreads and grows below the gum line. The infection starts to break down the bone and connective tissue holding the teeth. If not treated, the bones, gums, and tissue are destroyed. Eventually the teeth loosen and may have to be removed. Do you have gum disease? - Bad breath that won't go away - Red or swollen gums - Tender or bleeding gums - Painful chewing - Loose teeth - Sensitive teeth - Receding gums or longer-appearing teeth Any symptom may signal a serious problem and should be checked by a dental professional. The dentist or hygienist should: - Ask about your medical history to identify underlying conditions or risk factors (such as smoking). - Examine your gums and note any signs of inflammation. - Use a tiny ruler ('probe') to check for and measure any pockets between the gums and teeth. In healthy mouths, pocket depth is usually between 1 and 3 millimeters. (Three millimeters is about a tenth of an inch.) This test is usually painless. - The dentist or hygienist may also: - Take an x-ray to see if there is any bone loss. - Refer you to a periodontist—an expert at diagnosing and treating gum disease, who may recommend treatment options not offered by your dentist. How can I prevent gum disease? - Brush your teeth twice a day (with a fluoride toothpaste) - Floss daily - Visit the dentist regularly for a check-up and professional cleaning - Eat a balanced diet - Don't smoke
Measuring the Universe to Catch a Glimpse of our PastPeering into the very depths of the universe gives scientists a better understanding of its origins. Since the speed of light is finite, the objects we are seeing are from the distant past. A recently completed EU-funded project developed not only a new means of measuring these cosmic distances, but also discovered galaxies at the point of their creation. It is difficult to comprehend the sheer awe-inspiring enormity of the universe. It takes light eight minutes to travel from the sun to earth and four years for the light from the nearest star to reach our solar system. The light from more distant objects takes even longer to reach us, which in effect means that when we look at distant objects, we are looking at the universe – as it was – millions, sometimes billions of years ago. SOURCE: The European Commission Research and Innovation Information Centre In recent years, one of the most active fields of astronomy has been the study of 'black holes', which are formed when stars collapse at the end of their life cycle and have such a strong gravitational pull that nothing – including light – can escape. Every galaxy has a supermassive black hole at its centre, which was formed when the galaxy itself was born. Measuring the Universe The EU-funded BHMASS project, completed in 2012, focused on 'quasars'. These are compact regions that scientists believe are at the very centre of massive galaxies. Project researcher Marianne Vestergaard thinks that the project will enable more accurate measurements of both black-hole masses and cosmic distances to be made in the future. The project also uncovered what could be the first generation of quasars: a cluster with smaller black holes without centrally located hot dust was discovered, indicating that star formation has yet to take place. "Quasars reside at great distances – called 'cosmic distances' – because they are an early evolutionary phase of galaxies," she explains. "So, by studying quasars, their black holes, and how they relate to their environments, we can learn about the physical processes that took place when galaxies were young." The main aim of the project was to enable the astronomical community to study, at much higher precision than is currently possible, the role that black holes play in shaping the universe. Using quasars, the researchers developed a new method of measuring cosmic distances, independent from existing distance measurements. This breakthrough, claims Vestergaard, could have important implications for astronomy. "Why are distance measurements important? Well, we use cosmic distances to map the universe and its expansion history. A century ago, such measurements told Edwin Hubble that the universe is not static but is expanding. Just 15 years ago, similar precision measurements using supernovae showed us that not only is the universe expanding, but it is expanding at an increasing rate." Vestergaard says that the specific method developed by BHMASS is significant for several reasons. "First, it is important for the astronomical community to have another method to verify important measurements, because each method has its uncertainties, advantages and disadvantages. So the more independent methods we have to make these important measurements, the better." The second reason is that the method proposed by BHMASS can be applied to much longer distances than the current methods, offering a tool to probe into the very onset of the accelerated expansion and beyond. "I think there is a real opportunity for this new method to have quite a lasting impact," continues Vestergaard. Indeed, the researcher believes that the project has the potential to increase our understanding of how galaxies were formed, by identifying the first generation of quasars. "As quasars are born out of the densest concentrations of matter in the early universe, we can learn a lot about the first galaxies by studying these types of systems," she says. "Identifying the truly first galaxies is an important first step." Inspiring Future Science Stars Research like this can ultimately tell us where we came from and what our future will bring – profound questions which occupy us all at some level. "More immediately, I hope that these results – and the research that follows – will bring excitement to the general public about the natural sciences, physics and astrophysics. I also hope it will engage more young people to be curious and motivate them to follow an education within the natural sciences," says Vestergaard. In addition, the project brought home to her how important it is to think outside the box. "That is, to think little crazy thoughts once in a while on what is possible and what is not," she observes. "These projects and their results have opened up several new and important research paths that I'd like to follow up on, and I hope to be able to obtain additional funding in order to hire PhD students and postdocs to work on these new exciting studies. It has been fun – but it isn't over yet!"
Web Resources for Digital Literacy in the Classroom Digital literacy is the ability to use digital technology to create or analyze information. Students of all ages need to develop digital literacy skills for success in college and on the job, so teachers are using a variety of tools to bring technology into the classroom. From tweeting about historical events to blogging about science experiments, there are many opportunities for educators to introduce new technology and make it fun for students to learn the skills they need. This guide introduces a number of places where educators can find the resources they need to teach digital literacy alongside course subject matter. By the end of this guide, educators will not only know where to find digital literacy resources, they'll also be equipped with a wide range of actionable ideas for integrating technology with education. Lesson Plans for Teaching Digital Literacy Free lesson plans covering virtually every aspect of internet use and digital citizenship are available online. Three great places for finding lesson plans are: - Common Sense Education: more than 2,000 lesson plans are available covering a huge range of topics. Not all of the lesson plans cover digital literacy topics, but many do. For example, Introduction to Computer Programming is suitable for students in grades six through twelve and makes use of well-known programming training tools like the Khan Academy and Codecademy. - ReadWriteThink: free lesson plans can be sorted by grade level, plan type, and theme at ReadWriteThink. Select the "Digital Literacy" learning objective so see move than 100 lesson plans covering topics such as Creating an Online Community Through Electronic Portfolios, Book Report Alternative: Glog That Book!, and 3-2-1 Vocabulary: Learning Filmmaking Vocabulary by Making Films. - DigitalLiteracy.gov: this website is maitained by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration and provides a search tool which can be used to locate classroom resources by keyword, subject area, or skill. Classroom blogs give students extra opportunities to read and write, making them a valuable tool for any grade. They also encourage students to collaborate and provide opportunities for peer mentorship. Students who are hesitant to participate in class discussions may be more likely to participate when classroom blogs are used to share information. Teachers like classroom blogs because they are easily updated and serve as a central source of information for parents and students. Blogs also double as student portfolios, making it easy to see how a child is progressing from one grading period to the next. Edublogs is one of the most popular platforms for educators because it has content-filtering capabilities and does not display any advertising. The platform also comes with additional learning tools and student management capabilities, making it a valuable tool for educators. Additional platforms and resources to help you get the most out of your classroom blog include: - EdTechTeacher Blogging Platforms: this tool makes it easy to compare blogging platforms like Edublogs, Blogger, WordPress, and Tumblr. EdTechTeacher also provides a list of real classroom blogs so you can see how other educators are using blogging in the classroom. - Using Blogs in the Classroom (PDF): this guide lists eight different ways students can use blogs in the classroom and provides tips for using the right blogging platform. - Using Blogs to Improve Literacy: this article gives several examples of successful classroom blogs and discusses how blogging can help improve student literacy. - Blogs as Prewriting Tools: Dr Nicole Luongo discusses the use of classroom blogs by language arts educators. - Using Your Edublog to Teach: Edublogs gives ten different ways to use blogs in the classroom. - 7 Things to Know About Blogs (PDF): Educause explains why blogging is such a useful tool for educators. - Creating a Science Classroom Blog: this resource lists seven reasons science teachers should use classroom blogs and provides tips for setting up a basic blog within 20 minutes. You can safely assume that virtually all of your students are regularly exposed to or are active users of social media websites like Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook. Some educators are using social media to educate students beyond the walls of the classroom. If you want to find out how other educators are harnessing social media for education, take a look at these resources: - Utilizing Social Media Education in the classroom: a free lesson plan from Common Sense Education that uses Edmodo, a social network for classrooms, to teach literary criticism. - Current Events Using Social Media: teach students how to use social media to discuss current events and share their views with a larger audience in a responsible manner. - Four Reasons I Use Twitter in My Classroom: a short article explaining how a fifth grade teacher uses Twitter to enhance her work. - LinkedIn for Students: find or Be Found: managing your digital reputation is more important than ever and this article explains how to help students get a jumpstart on creating a robust and compelling digital footprint. - Using Instagram as a Classroom Tool: this article explores how one teacher uses Instagram to reinforce topics presented in class and to communicate with students. - Three Reasons Students Should Own Your Classroom's Twitter and Instagram Accounts: if you do create a Twitter or Instagram account for your class, don't forget to include your students in the process of curating the material that you post. - 10 Surprising Ways to Use Instagram in the Classroom: do you want to use Instagram in the classroom but aren't sure how to go about doing so? This post will give you lots of good ideas. Some teachers are turning their classroom blogs into video blogs, or vlogs. Video blogs have many uses in the educational world, from showcasing student projects to making lessons available outside the classroom. Students learn how to use recording tools, edit video files, and upload files to their school web servers, so they develop valuable digital literacy skills while having fun. Video blogs also enhance communication and make it easier for parents to see what their children have been doing in school. Students can use vlogs to showcase their musical talents, upload videos of their science experiments, and educate other students about social topics. There's a steeper technical learning curve for both teachers and students to overcome when it comes to video blogging. If you need help with the basics check out this guide to Video Blogging for Teachers. Once you have the technical side of the equation solved, the next hurdle is coming up with content ideas. If you're struggling to come up with good ideas, the article 5 Fun Vlogging Ideas for Every Teacher will surely stimulate your creativity. A wiki is simply a collaborative website created and edited by more than one user. Classroom wikis have many features that make them ideal for increasing digital literacy. Students can edit them quickly, make suggestions, and work together to create content. Teachers can use wikis to summarize lessons, disseminate important information, and post class notes. One of the best things about using classroom wikis is that wiki software does not prevent students from making mistakes; meaning they have the opportunity to find and correct errors, which is a good way to strengthen their skills. Students can use classroom wikis to create study guides, vocabulary lists, and summaries of research projects. If you're ready to jump on the wiki bandwagon, here are a few resources to get you started. - Collaboration Through Wikis: explains wikis in greater detail and provides examples of how wikis can improve the quality of education. - How to Use Wiki in the Classroom: this practical guide to wiki implementation introduces the three most popular providers of free wikis and offers a list of 8 tips for using a wiki in the classroom. - How and Why to Create a Class Wiki: sometimes you just want to see a real life example. This article will point out five excellent examples of classroom wikis and provide links where you can find hundreds of additional examples. - Wikispaces: if you're ready to sign up for a free classroom wiki, consider Wikispaces — one of the leading providers of classroom wikis. - PBworks Edu Hub: another popular provider of classroom wikis is PBworks. A free plan is available that supports a single wiki. Glogster is a tool for educators, but it is no less important than blogs and wikis. The Web-based tool allows teachers and students to create virtual posters and share them with other people. The posters combine audio, text, images, video, and hyperlinks, so students have the opportunity to develop several different technology skills. Glogster makes it easy to create posters addressing classroom policies, homework assignments, and even as an alternative way to present a book report. Teachers can also post photos and videos of students reading, working on math problems, playing musical instruments, or participating in physical education activities. There are many ways to use Glogster in the classroom, from creating interactive posters about school initiatives to sharing the results of a challenge-based project. Some teachers are even using Glogster to help their students create digital books that can be shared with parents and siblings. For more ideas on how you can use Glogster in the classroom take a look at Teaching with Glogster. A podcast is a type of digital media recorded by students and uploaded to syndication or streaming services such as iTunes. Students record classroom activities, edit the audio and video files, and upload the files for digital distribution, which helps them develop digital literacy. With just a computer and a good microphone, teachers can also record their lessons and make them available for students and parents to listen to at home. This makes it easier for students to study and gain a deeper understanding of the material taught in class. Science teachers are using podcasts to help students share what they have learned during experiments. Students can record their book reports and share them with other reading classes. Podcasting is so versatile it can be used for every subject. If you want to start a class podcast, here are two resources to help you get started: - Podcasting: this guide offers information about selecting a recording tool, hosting your podcast, and using podcasting in the classroom. - Podcasting Beyond the Classroom: this article explains how podcasting can motivate students to do their best work. Digital literacy is a skill that every student must learn to be successful when they go on to college or join the modern workforce, and building digital literacy education into every subject can help keep students engage with course content as critical skills are developed. A wealth of free resources is available online to help educators teach digital literacy, and in this article we've presented some of the best resources the web has to offer. Further Reading and Resources We have more guides, tutorials, and infographics related to technology and learning: - A+ Math Student Guide and Resources: tips and tools for learning math. - How Minecraft Can Be Used in Education: find out how this fun game can be used for serious learning in the classroom. - Educational Websites for Kids: a great list of websites to help kids learn. Fun Ways Kids Can Learn to Code Want to get your students interested in programming? Check out our infographic, Fun Ways Kids Can Learn to Code
The Y chromosome has been likened to a hall of mirrors because its sequence contains many sections that appear to be palindromes. These palindromes provide a clue to some interesting events that may have occurred during the course of the chromosome's evolution. Slippage during DNA replication can lead to expanding sections of repeating nucleotides. Watch this animation to see how this problem occurs. When two different strains of influenza infect a single cell, their genetic material can mix freely, resulting in a new third strain of influenza. Meiosis, the form of cell division unique to egg and sperm production, sets the stage for sex determination by creating sperm that carry either an X or a Y sex chromosome. But what is it about the X or Y that determines sex? This animation illustrates how mistakes made during DNA replication are repaired. PCR is a standard laboratory technique that allows amplification of specific segments of DNA based on complementarity. This animation shows how the protein MECP2, in conjuction with another protein complex, can act as an "on-off' switch for gene expression. DNA's chemical properties can be harnessed for a variety of biotechnology applications. General transcription factors, activators, and repressors interact to regulate the transcription of eukaryotic DNA into RNA. Adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T) are the components of nucleic acid that make up DNA. In 1950, Erwin Chargaff published a paper stating that in the DNA of any given species, the ratio of adenine to thymine is equal, as is the ratio of cytosine to guanine. This became known as Chargaff's ratio, and it was an important clue for solving the structure of DNA. Of the 3 billion letters in the human genome, only 1% directly code for proteins. Of the rest, about 25% make up genes and their regulatory elements. The functions of the remaining letters are still unclear. Reactive molecules, such as free radicals, and solar ultraviolet radiation can lead to mutations in DNA. Most mutations are corrected, but in rare cases mutations can accumulate and cause diseases such as cancer. A new gene can be inserted into a loop of bacterial DNA called a plasmid. This is done by cutting the plasmid DNA with a restriction enzyme, which allows a new piece of DNA to be inserted. The ends of the new piece of DNA are stitched together by an enzyme called DNA ligase. The genetically... The human genome is organized into structures called chromosomes, consisting of 22 matching pairs and one pair of sex chromosomes. The public Human Genome Project started by identifying unique marker sequences distributed throughout the genome. Then, many copies of a small section of DNA were randomly cleaved into smaller fragments, and each small fragment was sequenced. Because there were originally many copies of the DNA... DNA is tightly packed in the nucleus of every cell. DNA wraps around special proteins called histones, which form loops of DNA called nucleosomes. These nucleosomes coil and stack together to form fibers called chromatin. Chromatin in turn forms larger loops and coils to form chromosomes. DNA has a double helix structure. If untwisted, DNA looks like two parallel strands. Each strand has a linear sequence of A, C, G, and T. The precise order of the letters carries the coded instructions. One strand is a complementary image of the other: A always pairs with T, and C always pairs... One of the failed hypothetical models of DNA is Linus Pauling's triple helix model. This structure would be unstable under normal cellular conditions. Polymerase chain reaction, or PCR, is a technique for making many copies of a specific DNA sequence. DNA is repeatedly heated and cooled in the presence of primers that bracket the desired sequence and of the enzyme Tac polymerase. In as few as 30 cycles, a billion copies of the target sequence... The structure of DNA, discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick, suggests a mechanism of replication. The double helix unwinds, and each strand acts as a template for the construction of the new DNA molecule. Using information from molecular research, this 3-D animation shows how DNA is replicated at the molecular level. It involves an enzyme that unwinds the DNA, and other enzymes that copy the two resulting strands. Both strands of the DNA double helix act as templates for the new DNA strands. Incoming DNA is unraveled by the enzyme helicase, resulting in the 3' strand and the 5' strand. The 3' strands and the 5' strands are replicated by a DNA polymerase enzyme but in different ways. Fred Sanger developed the first technique for sequencing DNA. DNA is replicated in the presence of chemically altered versions of the A, C, G, and T bases. These bases stop the replication process when they are incorporated into the growing strand of DNA, resulting in varying lengths of short... In shotgun sequencing many copies of the entire genome are "blown up" into millions of small fragments. Each small fragment is sequenced. Powerful computers then assemble the individual fragments into the original configuration. Repeat sequences pose a problem for this approach because their...
The complement system is a part of the immune system, consists of a series of proteins that interact with one another in a highly regulated manner, in order to eliminate pathogens. It helps antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens and damaged cells; promote inflammation and attack pathogen’s plasma membrane. Proteins that take part in the complement system are called complements that collectively work as a biological cascade; the sequence of reactions, each being the catalyst for the next. Jules Bordet (1895) identified complements as heat-sensitive components in the blood, bearing non-specific antimicrobial activity. Complements are soluble proteins and glycoproteins mostly produced by hepatocytes. More than 20 types of complements are present in serum, found circulating normally in human body in inactive forms (called as zymogens or proenzymes). Complement activation is triggered by an antibody when it is bound to the antigen. It can also be triggered by some components of innate immunity. Thus the complement system works in both innate and acquired immunity. Complements are activated only during inflammatory reactions. During the inflammation, more amount of complements reaches to the interstitial area of the infected tissue through dilated blood vessels, which are then activated by proteolytic cleavage; this exposes the active site of the complements. Complements are mainly denoted by the capital letter C with numbers; like, C1, C2, C3, and so on. Some have only alphabet, like, B, D. Some are simply represented by names, like, homologous restriction factor. C1 has three sub-units; C1q, C1r and C1s. C2-C5 have two components, a and b. Larger subunits are denoted by b whereas the smaller are denoted by a (except C2a, which is larger than C2b). Complement Activation and cell lysis The complement activation occurs via three pathways; which are: - Classical pathway - Alternative pathway - Lectin pathway (or mannose binding lectin pathway) The early step of complement system varies in different pathways. However, all the pathways form enzyme complexes; C3 convertase, which cleaves C3 into C3a and C3b; and the C5 convertase, which cleaves C5 into C5a and C5b.C3b, thus formed, binds C3 convertase to form C5 convertase. C5 convertase, generated by the alternative, classical, or lectin pathway, initiates the activation of late components of the complement system to form membrane attack complex (MAC) and ultimately kills the pathogen. This occurs through three pathways; Classical pathway, activated by antigen-antibody reaction, Alternative pathway, activated on microbial cell surfaces, and Mannose binding Lectin pathway, activated by a plasma lectin that binds to mannose residues on microbes. - Classical Pathway The classical pathway begins with the formation of antigen-antibody complex (immune complex). When an antigen enters the body, the antibody (IgM/IgG) binds to it. This induces conformational changes in the Fc portion of the antibody which exposes a binding site for C1 protein. Hence, the antibody activates the complement system only when bound to an antigen. C1 is a large, multimeric, protein complex composed of one molecule of C1q and two molecules each of C1r and C1s subunits. C1q binds to the antigen bound antibody (Fc portion). C1r and C1s are proteases which help to cleave C4 and C2. The immune complex bound to C1 calls another protein C4 which is cleaved into C4a and C4b. C4a goes away whereas activated C4b attaches to the target surface near C1q. Now, C4b attracts C2 which is also cleaved into C2a and C2b. C2a binds C4b forming the C4b2a complex whereas C2b goes away. The active C4bC2a activates C3. The C4b2a complex is also known as C3 convertase as this converts C3 into an active form by separating C3a and C3b. One molecule of C4b2a can cleave a large number of C3 molecules. C3b binds to the microbial surface or to the convertase itself. C3b when binds to C3 convertase forms C4bC2aC3b (C5 convertase) which activates C5. C5 convertase cleaves C5 into C5a and C5b. C5a diffuses away but C5b is stabilized by binding C6. Then C5bC6 binds to C7. C5bC6C7 complex is then inserted into the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane which further binds C8. These all (C5b678) activate C9 to form a macromolecular structure called the membrane attack complex (MAC). This makes hole in the bacterium, as a result, the intracellular contents leak out and unwanted substances get in. Thus, the cell cannot maintain its osmotic stability and the lysis occurs by an influx of water and loss of electrolytes. This is more effective in Gram negative bacteria than in Gram positive bacteria because MAC formation is easy in the outer membrane in Gram negatives whereas it is difficult in the rigid thick layer of peptidoglycan in Gram positives. Some of the C3b molecules do not associate with C4b2a; instead these molecules coat immune complexes or microbial cell surfaces and work as opsonins. This process is called opsonization in which opsonin molecule binds one side to the particulate matter i.e. in bacteria, tumor cell, RBC and on the other side they bind to the receptor of phagocytic cell(like, neutrophils and macrophages) which enhance the process of phagocytosis. Smaller complement subunits diffuse from the site and can initiate localized inflammatory responses by binding to specific receptors. - Alternative Pathway Unlike classical pathway, alternative pathway, does not require Ag-Ab complex for the initiation of complement pathway. It is initiated by cell surface constituents that are foreign to the host. These surface molecules may be lipopolysaccharide etc. When a bacterium enters the host body, as a result of inflammation, complements reach towards the site, where C3 molecules directly touch antigen and become active. In this pathway, serum C3 containing an unstable thioester bond undergoes slow spontaneous hydrolysis to yield C3a and C3b. C3b binds the surface of foreign cell and then binds to another serum protein called factor B. Now the factor B exposes the site which serves as the substrate for enzymatically active serum protein D. Then factor D cleaves B into Ba and Bb forming C3 convertase (C3bBb). C3 convertase then forms C5 convertase which ultimately forms a MAC as in classical pathway. - Mannose binding Lectin (MBL) Pathway Some bacteria can activate complement system without having antibody and endotoxin. This occurs through MBL pathway which is activated when circulating lectin (MBL) binds to mannose residues on glycoproteins or carbohydrates on the surface of microorganisms. Microorganisms inducing MBL pathway are bacteria, such as Salmonella, Listeria, and Neisseria strains, some fungi and some viruses including HIV-1. MBL is an acute phase protein and its concentration increases during inflammation. The lectin recognizes and binds the carbohydrate of the target cell which then activates complements. MBL pathway resembles classical pathway as it proceeds through the action of C4 and C2 to produce activated proteins of the complement system. MBL works same as C1q which it resembles in structure. After the MBL binds to carbohydrate residues on the surface of a cell or pathogen, two components, MASP-1 and MASP-2 bind to MBL. MASP stands for MBL-associated serine proteases. Two proteases form a tetrameric complex similar to the one formed by C1r and C1s and cleaves C4 and C2 forming C3 convertase. The process now continues to form of C5 convertase and the MAC as in classical pathway. Functions of Complements Some major functions of complements are: - Opsonization and phagocytosis C3b, bound to immune complex or coated on the surface of pathogen, activate phagocytic cells. These proteins bind to specific receptors on the phagocytic cells to get engulfed. - Cell lysis Membrane attack complex formed by C5b6789 components ruptures the microbial cell surface which kills the cell. Complement fragments attract neutrophils and macrophages to the area where the antigen is present. These cell surfaces have receptors for complements, like C5a, C3a, thus, run towards the site of inflammation, i.e. chemotaxis. - Activation of mast cells and basophils and enhancement of inflammation The proteolytic complement fragments, C5a, C4a, and C3a induce acute inflammation by activating mast cells and neutrophils. All three peptides bind to mast cells and induce degranulation, with the release of vasoactive mediators such as histamine. These peptides are also called anaphylatoxins because the mast cell reactions they trigger are characteristic of anaphylaxis. Binding to specific complement receptors on cells of the immune system, they trigger specific cell functions, inflammation, and secretion of immunoregulatory molecules. - Production of antibodies B cells have receptor for C3b. When C3b binds to B-cell, it secretes more antibodies. Thus C3b is also an antibody producing amplifiers which converts it into an effective defense mechanism to destroy invading microorganism. - Immune clearance The complement system removes immune complexes from the circulation and deposits them in the spleen and liver. Thus it acts as anti-inflammatory function. Complement proteins promote the solubilization of these complexes and their clearance by phagocytes. The complement system has the potential to be extremely damaging to host tissues; hence regulatory mechanisms are required to restrict the complement pathway. Various plasma and cell membrane proteins regulate complement activation by inhibiting different steps in the cascade. The membrane of most mammalian cells has a high level of sialic acid, which contributes to the inactivation of complements. Complement related Diseases Diseases associated with complements can be due to the deficiencies in any of the protein components or in regulatory components. Some examples of complement protein deficiencies are: Deficiency of C2 and C4 can cause systemic lupus erythematosus; deficiency of C3 and factor D can cause pyogenic bacterial infection; and deficiency of C5-C9 (or MAC deficiency) may lead to the Neisserial infections like, gonorrhea and meningitis. Deficiencies of regulatory proteins lead to too much activation of complements in wrong time and place which leads to unwanted inflammation and cell lysis. Pyogenic bacterial infection and glomerulonephritis are the results of such deficiencies. Mutations in the complement regulators factors may lead to atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome, age-related macular degeneration, hereditary angioedema, etc. Complement system can also be stimulated by abnormal stimuli, like persistent microbes, antibody against self antigens or immune complexes deposited in tissues. Even when the system is properly regulated and activated, it can cause significant tissue damage. References and further study - Kindt TJ, Goldsby RA, Osborne BA, Kuby J (2007). Kuby Immunology. 6th W.H. Freeman, New York. pp. 168-188. - Abbas AK, Lichtman AH, Pillai S (2007). Cellular and Molecular Immunology. 6th Saunders/Elsevier, Philadelphia. pp. 329-347.
Integrating Writing with a Free Winter Journal Activity Winter is right around the corner or for many of you it feels like it has already begun. It's a great time to get outside with your students and see all the changes that happen when winter comes. Although not everyone experiences the cold and snow we all experience the shorter days and longer nights as well as cooler temperatures. As part of my new Winter Unit called "What Happens in Winter?" I've included this "My Winter Journal" Activity so that your students can go outside and draw and write about what they see and feel during the winter. There are 3 different journal pages included depending on your students' writing levels. You can do this for a few weeks or throughout the winter. What a great way to incorporate ELA CCSS into a Science activity. When your journals are complete you can have students compare and contrast the changes from the time they began their journals until they finished.You can talk about how these changes can affect animals and plants. Just click on the picture at the top of the post to download your free Winter Journal.You can also check out my Winter Unit which includes a Shared Reading Book called "What Happens in Winter?" and 3 Mini Make and Take Books about winter at the K, 1st and 2nd Grade levels . There are also 3 different levels of Comprehension Questions and Writing Activities. This unit is designed for K-2 and is perfect for the Differentiated Classroom, Multi-level Classrooms and ESL students. You can check it out by clicking on the picture below. You may also like my winter words edition of Don't Get Skunked which includes the winter vocabulary words from my Winter unit. You can see more my clicking on the picture below. Thanks for all you do to make a difference for your students. What winter activities do you enjoy doing with your students?
Intro - Do you read music? You can write "shorthand" versions of music, whether you read music or not, and I'll show you some examples here. But... Think about reading music for a moment. A junior high school band director can take a group of 30 or 40 kids and teach them to read simple music in just a few weeks. It's not rocket science, and I recommend that all musicians learn to read to at least a beginner level, because it opens many doors for you. Here are a few advantages you gain from reading music: - Visualization is widely known to be a very important mental tool for all kinds of people, including musicians. When you know the forms of music, and especially if you have also "seen them on paper", you'll have an additional way of visualizing music. That, in turn, leads to the ability to understand what you're hearing in such a way that you get the "big picture" of a piece of music. - There are many ways to write music that looks different, but sounds the same. Learning a bit of this interpretation (from a writer's point of view) will help you communicate with other musicians in a clear way. - Through the repetition of looking at written music, you learn what others have done before you. - Reading (and then writing) music gives you the ability to "take notes" about a performance, share them with others, etc.. Later, when you have an idea for a rhythmic concept or a musical composition, you can communicate it in a clear way. - You can study and understand the work of others, even if there's no audio recording - You can do studio work, shows, and other musical events that involve written music.
A fragment of a large bone, probably from a mammoth, Pat Shipman reports, was placed in this dog's mouth shortly after death. This finding suggests the animal was according special mortuary treatment, perhaps acknowledging its role in mammoth hunting. The fossil comes from the site of Predmosti, in the Czech republic, and is about 27,000 years B.P. old. This object is one of three canid skulls from Predmosti that were identified as dogs based on analysis of their morphology. Spectacular archaeological sites yielding stone tools and extraordinary numbers of dead mammoths -- some containing the remains of hundreds of individuals -- suddenly became common in central and eastern Eurasia between about 45,000 and 15,000 years ago, although mammoths previously had been hunted by humans and their extinct relatives and ancestors for at least a million years. Some of these mysterious sites have huts built of mammoth bones in complex, geometric patterns as well as piles of butchered mammoth bones. "One of the greatest puzzles about these sites is how such large numbers of mammoths could have been killed with the weapons available during that time," Shipman said. Many earlier studies of the age distribution of the mammoths at these sites found similarities with modern elephants killed by hunting or natural disasters, but Shipman's new analysis of the earlier studies found that they lacked the statistical evaluations necessary for concluding with any certainty how these animals were killed. Surprisingly, Shipman said, she found that "few of the mortality patterns from these mammoth deaths matched either those from natural deaths among modern elephants killed by droughts or by culling operations with modern weapons that kill entire family herds of modern elephants at once." This discovery suggested to Shipman that a successful new technique for killing such large animals had been developed and its repeated use over time could explain the mysterious, massive collections of mammoth bones in Europe. The key to Shipman's new hypothesis is recent work by a team led by Mietje Germonpré of the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, which has uncovered evidence that some of the large carnivores at these sites were early domesticated dogs, not wolves as generally had been assumed. Then, with this evidence as a clue, Shipman used information about how humans hunt with dogs to formulate a series of testable predictions about these mammoth sites. "Dogs help hunters find prey faster and more often, and dogs also can surround a large animal and hold it in place by growling and charging while hunters move in. Both of these effects would increase hunting success," Shipman said. "Furthermore, large dogs like those identified by Germonpré either can help carry the prey home or, by guarding the carcass from other carnivores, can make it possible for the hunters to camp at the kill sites." Shipman said that these predictions already have been confirmed by other analyses. In addition, she said, "if hunters working with dogs catch more prey, have a higher intake of protein and fat, and have a lower expenditure of energy, their reproductive rate is likely to rise." Another unusual feature of these large mammoth kill sites is the presence of extraordinary numbers of other predators, particularly wolves and foxes. "Both dogs and wolves are very alert to the presence of other related carnivores -- the canids -- and they defend their territories and food fiercely," Shipman explained. "If humans were working and living with domesticated dogs or even semi-domesticated wolves at these archaeological sites, we would expect to find the new focus on killing the wild wolves that we see there." Two other types of studies have yielded data that support Shipman's hypothesis. Hervé Bocherens and Dorothée Drucker of the University of Tubingen in Germany, carried out an isotopic analysis of the ones of wolves and purported dogs from the Czech site of Predmostí. They found that the individuals identified as dogs had different diets from those identified as wolves, possibly indicating feeding by humans. Also, analysis of mitochondrial DNA by Olaf Thalmann of the University of Turku in Finland, and others, showed that the individuals identified as dogs have a distinctive genetic signature that is not known from any other canid. "Since mitochondrial DNA is carried only by females, this finding may indicate that these odd canids did not give rise to modern domesticated dogs and were simply a peculiar, extinct group of wolves," Shipman said. "Alternatively, it may indicate that early humans did domesticate wolves into dogs or a doglike group, but the female canids interbred with wild wolf males and so the distinctive female mitochondrial DNA lineage was lost." As more information is gathered on fossil canids dated to between 45,000 and 15,000 years ago, Shipman's hunting-dog hypothesis will be supported "if more of these distinctive doglike canids are found at large, long-term sites with unusually high numbers of dead mammoths and wolves; if the canids are consistently large, strong individuals; and if their diets differ from those of wolves," Shipman said. "Dogs may indeed be man's best friend." Contacts and sources: Barbara K. Kennedy
Continuing on with the book, the student is pointed at several sources for genealogical information. Here is the introduction to that portion of Lesson Two on page 18: Sources of Information.Well, doesn't this all sound very familiar? Here is a link to the page, Identify What You Know in the FamilySearch Research Wiki. Hmm. This looks suspiciously like what was written back in 1912. Guess what? Nothing has really changed except the way to look at the records. The dramatic impact of technology has been to make the records more accessible. None of the real work, that is, the looking for information in various locations has really changed and when the records have yet to be digitized online, the methods have not changed at all. Sure, now we record the information in a computer program on a screen instead of a handwriting a notebook. But, you would probably not be surprised at the number of people who still use paper and a pencil or pen. What now shall be written in the notebook? Where and how shall the beginner secure his information, after he has prepared himself and his tools? There are several sources of information. First, there are the personal recollections of himself and of the members of the family which should be obtained and recorded carefully. Second, there are old Bible-records and other information found on loose sheets, old temple forms, etc. Third, there are the small and the great genealogical libraries. Fourth, there are the records which are found in county court houses, in parish churches, in state records, in war records, and the various national archives, both in America and Europe. We will consider these in their line of development. It looks like our own first lesson in genealogy is that the basic methodology for discovering relevant genealogical information has not changed and will likely not change in the future. What has changed is the speed and complexity of the process. I am impressed with one of the statements made by the Lessons in elaboration: After all personal information is recorded, then you should set down in writing all data in the possession of relatives or friends that can be reached personally. Old people especially should be visited and questioned, for these, generally, have a valuable fund of information, which if not secured will disappear when they die. Before it is too late, all information in the possession of grandfathers, uncles, etc., should be obtained.This is one very good reason for starting genealogical investigations before you are old and all your older relatives have died. It is starting to look like these old guys back in the early 1900s had a pretty good handle on the way things needed to be done. Surprisingly, except for the numbers, the following statement on page 20 of the Lessons is still applicable and accurate: Libraries.How much more valuable are these same libraries now with their vastly larger collections and there are many more that could be added! The more things change, the more they stay the same. The genealogical libraries in various parts of the world are storehouses of information, and this information is made easy of access because it is usually in the printed form, and the books are catalogued and indexed. There are some splendid collections of genealogical matter in a number of the big libraries of the world, such as the British Museum, the Congressional Library in Washington, the New England Historic and Genealogical Society's library in Boston, the Newberry Library in Chicago; but the library that concerns us most is the library of the Genealogical Society of Utah, for the reason that it is the most accessible to us. There are at present (1915) 3,000 volumes in this library and it is urged that this source of information be not overlooked nor neglected. A future lesson will deal more fully with this library and the work to be done in it. As this old Lesson book continues, I think you will be surprised at how relevant the information is and how we are still concerned about most, if not all, of the same issues and topics today.
The selection of Cryosat-2's orbit and basic characteristics have been entirely driven by the scientific requirements. Consequently, the orbit has a high inclination of 92°, taking it just 2° short of the poles and an altitude of 717 km. This orbit is non-sun-synchronous (commonly used for remote-sensing satellites). The spatial pattern of samples need not repeat, provided it retains a constant temporal and spatial sampling density. Sea ice is a moving mass field. Were the sample pattern to repeat itself, measurements would still observe different ice. The land ice measurement uses crossovers of the orbit, and in doing so removes the effect of the topography. The choice of orbit is a compromise, as a 90° orbit would be beneficial for the survey of surveying Arctic sea-ice, but would seriously degrade the monitoring of the Greenland and Antarctic ice masses. Such measurements are made at orbit crossovers, where the north-going satellite track crosses over an earlier (or later!) south-going track. With a 90° inclination orbit, crossovers would be few and the 2° offset from a true polar orbit is enough to ensure an adequate density of crossovers over the ice sheets. Further information : Cryosat mission overview (Esa website).
Punctuation is used to create sense, clarity and stress in sentences. You use punctuation marks to structure and organise your writing. The most common of these are: - . the period (or full stop in British English) - , the comma, - ! the exclamation mark - ? the question mark - : the colon - ; and semi-colon - “ the quote - ‘ the apostrophe - – the hyphen and dash - ( parentheses and brackets. Capital letters are also used to help us organise meaning and to structure the sense of our writing. Check here for more info: http://www.english4today.com/englishgrammar/punctuation/index.cfm
University of California, San Diego electrical engineers have managed to build a forest of tiny nanowire trees to capture solar energy and then use it for hydrogen fuel generation. The trees' vertical and branch structures are keys to capturing the maximum amount of solar energy, according to Wang. That's because the natural structure of trees grabs and adsorbs light while flat surfaces simply reflect it, Wang said, adding that it is also similar to retinal photoreceptor cells in the human eye. Water-splitting and hydrogen Wang's team has mimicked this structure in their "3D branched nanowire array," which then uses photoelectrochemical water-splitting to produce hydrogen gas. This process uses clean energy with no green-house gas byproduct. By comparison, the current conventional way of producing hydrogen relies on electricity from fossil fuels. "Hydrogen is considered to be clean compared to fossil fuels because there is no carbon emission, but the hydrogen currently used is not generated cleanly," said Ke Sun, a PhD student in electrical engineering who led the project. Also, by harvesting more sun light using the vertical nanotree structure, Wang's team has developed a way to produce more hydrogen fuel efficiently compared to planar counterparts. The vertical branch structure also maximizes hydrogen gas output, said Sun. For example, on the flat wide surface of a pot of boiling water, bubbles must become large to come to the surface. In the nanotree structure, very small gas bubbles of hydrogen can be extracted much faster. "Moreover, with this structure, we have enhanced, by at least 400,000 times, the surface area for chemical reactions," said Sun. Biomimicry and hydrocarbons In the long run, what Wang's team is aiming for is even bigger: photosynthesis. Wang's team hopes to mimic this process and capture CO2 from the atmosphere, reducing carbon emissions, and convert it into hydrocarbon fuel. The team is also studying alternatives to zinc oxide, which absorbs the sun's ultraviolet light, but has stability issues that affect the lifetime usage of the nanotree structure.
Auguste Pavie, French vice consul in Luang Prabang in 1886, was the chief agent in furthering French interests in Laos. His intrigues, which took advantage of Siamese weakness in the region and periodic invasions by Chinese rebels from Yunnan Province, increased tensions between Bangkok and Paris. When fighting broke out between French and Siamese forces in Laos in April 1893, the French sent gunboats to blockade Bangkok. At gunpoint, the Siamese agreed to the cession of Laos. Britain's acquiescence in French expansionism was evident in a treaty signed by the two countries in 1896 recognizing a border between French territory in Laos and British territory in Upper Burma.
Teaching compare contrast essay 5th grade Literacy consultant sarah tantillo shares more ideas about preparing students to succeed on common core assessment tests this time: compare and contrast essays. The compare and contrast essay is taught through modeling from the brainstorming phase through the first draft. Fifth grade reading comprehension worksheets compare and contrast activities have fun teaching access. Compare contrast lesson 5th grade compare and contrast chart the students then worked together to create a chart that focused on showing the similarities and. Teaching reading and compare and contrast common core grade compare & contrast texts practice 10 ways to compare and contrast (essays, t-charts. Teaching strategies: authentically compare use teaching strategies to compare and contrast the (5th grade language standards) compare and. Teaching the compare/contrast essay - steps a teacher has used to teach the compare/contrast essay writing a compare and contrast paper - [designed for 5th grade. Compare and contrast writing teaching the compare/contrast essay this lesson plan includes explanations, a timeline, and handouts at this site. Ms woodyard's compare contrast essays - page text content s: one of the required fifth grade writing products is a compare/contrast essay. 6th grade skills - compare and contrast compare and contrast 5th grade - duration: developing a thesis for compare-and-contrast essay. Improve your students’ reading comprehension with readworks access thousands of high-quality, free k-12 articles, and create online assignments with them for your. Students are introduced to comparing and contrasting through this writing process teaching model it includes a sample compare-and-contrast chart, a blank compare-and. Teaching fifth grade students to write a compare and contrast paper using a graphic organizer. This page contains a large collection of compare and contrast graphic essay questions, and a stw also has worksheets for teaching students about. Teacher resources by grade readwritethink’s comparison and contrast guide can be used to help “teaching the compare and contrast essay through. Ninth grade (grade 9) compare and contrast questions for your custom printable tests and worksheets in a hurry browse our pre-made printable worksheets library with. Compare and contrast common core lesson plan for successful in teaching how to compare and contrast reading on teaching literacy in fifth grade. Irubric jawab3: rubric title 5th grade compare/contrast essay built by mparks22 using irubriccom free rubric builder and. Tailor the pdf to your teaching needs by typing in the highlighted fields before printing five-paragraph essay five-paragraph essay compare and contrast. Browse compare and contrast essay resources on to teach compare and contrast compare and contrast essay by the time they reach the eighth grade. Lucy calkins units of study for teaching writing, grades 3-5 spend a few days having students read essays and compare them to literary essay: grade 5. Compare and contrast worksheets 5th grade modules five - eight essay writing compare and contrast worksheets 5th grade click heregrade give you a good. 5th grade comprehension 2: writing compare and contrast essays 3: (direct teaching example essay is provided below in teacher and student materials. Explore karen hathaway's board compare & contrast writing help essay writer teaching writing college essay compare and fifth grade: compare and contrast. Compare & contrast, fifth 5th grade english language arts standards, grade level help, internet 4 classrooms internet resources, teachers, students, children. Lesson: compare and contrast editorials direct teaching (i) or by writing a compare and contrast essay. Teach your students how to write compare-and-contrast essays with this lesson plan a text lesson is used to explain the components of comparing. 5th grade teaching the compare contrast essay steps a teacher has used to contrast 5th grade teach compare and contrast do you need new reference to. Doctorate degrees without dissertation teaching essay writing 5th grade write my reaserch paper writing a compare-and-contrast essay (gr 5)teaching essay writing. Scaffold the structure of a compare and contrast essay through each teaching children to compare & contrast using life in fifth grade: compare and contrast.
In multiple choice reading tasks in IELTS, you will answer questions about a reading passage. The questions will provide 3-4 possible options and you need to choose the correct answer. This involves using your scanning skills to locate the relevant information to answer the question, your comprehension skills to understand the text and your ability to paraphrase information. To help support you with the multiple choice tasks in IELTS, here are some of our top tips. - Read the question carefully. Be sure that you understand the question so that you don’t get caught out. - Locate the correct information in the passage and use this to select the best answer. - Do not spend too long on this task – each question is worth one mark only. - Remember, answers will usually be in order. - Make sure you know how to show your answer – do you need to provide a letter or number to show the option you are choosing? - Take the time to ensure you are answering the question – just because a number in one of the answers is also in the text doesn’t mean it is the CORRECT answer! As with any part of the IELTS test, practice makes perfect. So be sure to use our other Multiple Choice Practice Tasks to help develop your ability and skill. Climate change: Met Office says warming trend will continue in 2020 Next year will continue the global warming trend with temperatures again likely to rise more than one degree above pre-industrial levels. According to the Met Office, 2020 will likely be 1.11C warmer than the average between 1850-1900. The year ahead is set to extend the series of the warmest years on record to six in a row. Scientists say the strongest factor causing the rise is greenhouse gas emissions. The world first broke through one degree above pre-industrial temperatures back in 2015. Each year since then has seen temperatures close to or above this mark. The warmest year on record is 2016 when a strong El Niño made a significant difference. This weather phenomenon sees sea surface temperatures increase in the central and eastern Pacific and it’s associated with a range of impacts around the world, including the overall global level of warming. According to the Met Office, the chances of a strong El Niño in 2020 are low. They forecast that the global average temperature next year will be in the range of 0.99C to 1.23C with a central estimate of 1.11C. The researchers say that the key factor will be emissions of CO2 and other warming gases. “Natural events – such as El Niño-induced warming in the Pacific – influence the climate system, but in the absence of El Niño, this forecast gives a clear picture of the strongest factor causing temperatures to rise – greenhouse gas emissions,” said Professor Adam Scaife, the Met Office head of long-range prediction. According to researchers, carbon dioxide emissions this year have risen slightly, despite a drop in the use of coal. The Global Carbon Project’s annual analysis of emission trends suggests that CO2 will go up by 0.6% in 2019. The rise is due to continuing strong growth in the utilisation of oil and gas. The scale of emissions has a direct bearing on temperatures, scientists say. Provisional figures released earlier this month by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) suggest 2019 is on course to be the second or third warmest year ever. If those numbers hold, 2015-2019 would end up being the warmest five-year period on record. The Met Office say they have confidence in their prediction for 2020 based on what’s happened in previous years. This time last year they estimated that 2019 would be 1.10C above the 1850-1900 mark. The actual temperature recorded this year from January to October shows a global mean 1.11C. Text adapted from: https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-50839974 Choose the correct letter A-C. - Next year, meteorologists predict that temperatures will: - stay the same - If the temperature next year rises, it will be the ____ time this has happened continuously. - What is the likelihood of another El Niño happening next year? - Carbon dioxide, produced by the burning of coal, has _____ this year. - Increased significantly - These scientists are confident in their predictions because: - Their predictions for 2019 were correct - Their predictions for 2019 were very close - Their predictions have been correct for the past five years New Vocabulary to Learn! meteorologists = scientists who study the weather predict = to say or estimate that something will happen factor = something that contributes to a result emissions = the act of sending out gas, heat or light into the air phenomenon = something that exists or happens probable = something that is likely to happen
This report outlines actions that schools, government and industry can take to: - encourage girls to participate equally in engineering, maths and science lessons and discussions - promote women as role models in engineering, maths and science, to show children what’s possible - create learning environments around engineering where girls can feel a sense of belonging The report also recommends teaching engineering as a distinct learning area, not just as a part of maths and science.
It's safe to say that you can go ahead and tick the box entitled 'ticks' on your list of 'Insects To Be Wary Of'. Ticks are tiny arachnids, and just like their spider relatives, have 8 legs. Unlike adult spiders, ticks are ectoparasites, which means they stay alive by feeding on the blood of mammals, birds, and - you guessed it - humans. Ticks cannot jump or fly; instead, they climb vegetation and wait for a host to come into contact with them, when they attach themselves and begin feeding. Typically, ticks live in areas with high grass or plenty of woodpiles, like forested areas and the woods. Ticks are active all year round, but are most active in Spring and Fall. They begin biting whenever temperatures are consistently above 7 degrees. Tick Life Cycle Ticks have 4 life stages; egg, larvae, nymph, and adult. Female ticks lay thousands of eggs on the ground, which then hatch into larvae, known as 'seed ticks'. These seed ticks then climb up on to low vegetation so they can attach to small animals that pass by, such as mice, rabbits, or birds. In the larvae stage, ticks only have 6 legs. After feeding for 2 to 9 days on their chosen hosts, the larvae digest the blood and turn into nymphs, now with 8 legs. Nymphs then attach themselves to a second host and feed for a while before becoming adult ticks. This entire cycle can last up to 3 years. Types of Ticks There are dozens of tick species found across Canada, but two of the most common are American Dog Ticks and Blacklegged Ticks. American Dog Ticks are common around the Rocky Mountains, as well as Saskatchewan and the Atlantic provinces. Blacklegged Ticks are also known as Deer Ticks due to their affection for the white-tailed deer, and are particularly common in Ontario, Manitoba, and on the Pacific coast. Other types of ticks include; - Lone Star Ticks - Brown Dog Ticks - Rocky Mountain Wood Ticks Risks Associated With Ticks American Dog Ticks are a known transmitter of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever and Tularemia, while Blacklegged ticks are the main vector for Lyme Disease. Ticks as a whole are responsible for transmitting numerous infections around the world. Lyme Disease is particularly worrying for those of us in Canada. Spread by the bite of a Blacklegged Tick, Lyme Disease is an inflammatory infection caused by borrelia bacteria, which is passed onto ticks and then onto humans from infected animals. There are over 100 known symptoms of Lyme Disease, and while very treatable in early stages, once a person enters the Chronic Lyme stage (stage 3), symptoms can be especially hard to resolve. Patients with Chronic Lyme Disease often have symptoms lasting well beyond the course of their antibiotics, such as extreme muscle aches, headaches, and fatigue. Follow us on Facebook or subscribe to our blog to keep up to date with tick prevention tips and news, as well as tips on managing mosquitoes.
Safety protocols for entering and leaving a classroom Social Bubble Reminder If the people in your bubble are not social distancing, your bubble actually includes the people you are exposed to and all of the people those in your bubble have been exposed to. WEAR A MASK. KEEP YOUR DISTANCE. DON’T GATHER WITH ANYONE OUTSIDE OF YOUR SMALL BUBBLE. Influenza (also known as “flu”) is a contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses. It can cause mild to severe illness, and at times can lead to death. - CDC recommends a yearly flu vaccine as the first and most important step in protecting against flu viruses. Getting a flu vaccine during 2020-2021 will be more important than ever. - Flu vaccines will not prevent COVID-19, but they will reduce the burden of flu illnesses, hospitalizations and deaths on the health care system and conserve scarce medical resources for the care of people with COVID-19. - Everyone 6 months of age and older should get an annual flu vaccine by the end of October. - Vaccination of high risk persons is especially important to decrease their risk of severe flu illness. - People at high risk of serious flu complications include young children, pregnant women, people with certain chronic health conditions like asthma, diabetes or heart and lung disease and people 65 years and older. Many people at higher risk from flu also seem to be at higher risk from COVID-19. - Take everyday preventive actions that are always recommended to reduce the spread of flu. - Avoid close contact with people who are sick. - If you are sick, limit contact with others as much as possible to keep from infecting them. - Cover coughs and sneezes. - Cover your nose and mouth with the crook of your elbow. OR - Cover your nose and mouth with a tissue when you cough or sneeze. Throw the tissue in the trash after you use it and wash your hands. - Wash your hands often with soap and water. If soap and water are not available, use an alcohol-based hand rub. - Avoid touching your eyes, nose and mouth. Germs spread this way. - Clean and disinfect surfaces and objects that may be contaminated with viruses that cause flu. - Stay home if you are sick.
An extremely rare phenomenon, where a cloud produces a billowing wave pattern. They occur when there is a strong vertical shear between two air streams, causing winds to blow faster at the upper level than at the lower levels. - Height of base: Can be any height, but usually at higher levels. - Shape: A repeating breaking wave pattern. - Latin: These clouds are named after Hermann von Helmholtz and William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, physicists who studied turbulent airflow. There is no Latin etymology. - Precipitation: None. What are Kelvin-Helmholtz clouds? Resembling evenly spaced rolling ocean waves, Kelvin-Helmholtz are one of the most striking and rare cloud types. How do Kelvin-Helmholtz clouds form? They occur when two different layers of air in our atmosphere are moving at different speeds (a phenomenon known as shear). When the upper layer of air is moving at a higher speed than the lower-level air, it may scoop the top of an existing cloud layer into these wave-like rolling shapes. Kelvin Helmholtz instability is a scientific phenomenon not exclusively associated with clouds. It can occur wherever there is a velocity difference across the interface between two fluids. The most obvious example is wind blowing over water, in which fast-moving air can create the waves on the slower-moving water. What weather is associated with Kelvin-Helmholtz clouds? The clouds are more likely to occur on windy days. They are often good indicators of aircraft turbulence.
The Roman legions with which Ancient Rome conquered the Mediterranean world underwent many changes over the centuries. Originally, they were dense phalanxes that fought with spears like Ancient Greek hoplites. Hard experience in a series of bitter wars led to their transformation into the classic legions, whose men carried a squared curved shield and wielded a short sword, the gladius. Below are thirty things about that and other fascinating Roman history facts. 30. The Roman Legion’s Structure The legion was the Roman army’s largest military unit, and it underwent a series of changes in its centuries-long existence. In the mid-Roman Republic, it numbered about 3000 heavy infantry divided into maniples of 120 soldiers, each comprised of two 60-man centuries. There were also 1200 skirmishers and 300 cavalry, for a total of around 4500 legionaries. In the late Republic, the centuries were enlarged to 80 men, and six centuries were grouped into a cohort of 480 men. A legion contained nine such standard cohorts, plus a first cohort of the best soldiers, made of five double-strength centuries of 160 men each, for a total nominal legion strength of 5120 men. In practice, about 4500 men was the norm. In the early Roman Empire, Augustus retained 30 legions, stationed along the borders. They were supported by auxiliary troops of non-Roman citizens, who were granted citizenship at the end of their service. Each legion was led by a Legate, usually a senator appointed by the emperor. Beneath him were six tribunes, one from the senatorial class who served as the legion’s second in command, and five from the lower equestrian class. Third in command was the Camp Prefect, usually a veteran ranker from the lower classes. He had typically served 25 years, including a stint as a centurion of the first cohort. Next came centurions, officers promoted from the ranks to command the legion’s centuries and cohorts. Beneath them came optios, equivalent to First Sergeants, one for each century, assisted by guard commanders, one per optio, and the common legionaries.
Nowadays, binge-eating disorder (BED) is one of the most common diseases among feeding and eating disorders in DSM-5 classification (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition) . Its lifetime prevalence among the general population from United States is estimated to about 2,03% . BED manifests by recurrent episodes of eating large amounts of food in a discrete period (e. g. within 2 h), while experiencing a sense of lack of control . The binge-eating episodes are characterized by: (a) rapid pace of eating, (b) eating until feeling extremely full, (c) eating without a feeling of physical hunger, (d) feeling guilty and disgusted about oneself afterwards . Unlike bulimia nervosa (BN), inappropriate compensatory behaviors, such as purging, do not occur in BED . A recent study found that some specific metacognitive beliefs about food and eating may be a maintaining factor in binge-eating symptoms . Namely, three types of beliefs could be distinguished: negative beliefs (thoughts of having no control over one’s eating), positive beliefs (beliefs that eating improves one’s mood), and permissive beliefs (beliefs that one should allow oneself to binge-eat) . Furthermore, the dysfunctional mechanisms of emotion regulation seem to be one of the most problematic issues of the clinical picture of BED . Emotional regulation is a multidimensional construct that comprises all processes with which a person monitors, assesses, and modifies his or her emotional states . It can be regarded as the ability to inhibit impulsive, dysfunctional reactions to strong emotions regardless of their valence or refocusing attention while experiencing intense emotions or self-restraining physiological stimulation that accompanies them . The inability to regulate emotions adaptively seems to be important not only for the development but also for sustaining binge-eating [7, 8]. There are several models in which researchers have tried to explain these associations. One of the oldest models, the escape from self-awareness model by Heatherton and Baumeister , depicted overeating as an attempt to escape the aversive perception of oneself by narrowing the field of attention, which relates to the use of evasive coping strategies . Fairburn’s transdiagnostic theory of eating disorders raised an issue that intolerance of both positive and negative mood presents in some patients who overeat significantly hinders the effects of standard treatment (requiring additional interventions). However, the association between overeating episodes and the presence of negative emotions is particularly highlighted in the growing body of literature. The affect regulation model described by Polivy and Herman sees the function of binges in alleviating negative affect, which secondarily reinforces a maladaptive coping means that becomes increasingly learned and automated. This model stays in line with extensive scientific literature, as follows: the systematic review by Leehr and coworkers , the meta-analysis by Cardi et al. in conjunction with a significant part of the (electronic) diary studies [15,16,17,18]. According to the above-mentioned diary studies [15,16,17,18], negative affect in people with BED often becomes a trigger for overeating, which is not the case in people without this diagnosis, even in the case of obesity. However, Munsch et al. state that it is not so much the occurrence or accumulation of negative emotions that is important, but their rapid increase, causing considerable tension, and consequently the breakdown of insufficiently efficient processes of regulating emotions. Giel et al. , on the other hand, stress the role of positive emotions associated with food consumption and the pleasure it may provide. Thus, making it more difficult to face impulses, which is particularly difficult in stressful situations . There is a lack of consistency among empirical results on the impact of overeating on emotions and mood. According to some results, the affective state improves [15, 18], while, according to others, it worsens [10, 16, 21] after engaging in binge-eating. Researchers posit that especially in case of coping with aversive emotions, overeating appears a consequence of a lack of more adaptive strategies of emotion regulation . A wide range of possible strategies can be divided into adaptive and maladaptive ones, whereas the latter are related to psychopathology . Examples of adaptive emotional regulation strategies are: cognitive reappraisal (i.e. attempts to change emotions by changing the interpretation of a given situation) , acceptance of the situation, refocusing on planning actions to deal with it, positive refocusing (thinking of other, pleasant matters instead of the negative event), positive reappraisal (treating a difficult situation as an opportunity for development), or putting into perspective (associating the relativity of a difficult event with other events) . Maladaptive strategies of coping with difficult emotions would be, for example, overeating, , blaming oneself for a given situation or blaming others, catastrophic thinking, ruminating (persistent remembrance of a negative event and its consequences), or suppression . Rumination is a characteristic strategy engaged in the psychopathology of eating disorders, [22, 26,27,28] including binge-eating [22, 27]. Moreover, some studies found that individuals with BED tend to reappraise their emotions less in comparison to healthy controls [29, 30]. However, there is a paucity of research on certain emotion regulation strategies applied by BED patients. The aim of the present study was to identify various emotion regulation difficulties in individuals diagnosed with BED in comparison to a healthy control group. Previous research (e. g [31, 29].) focused mainly on a very few emotion regulation strategies in BED, such as rumination, suppression, and positive reappraisal. Therefore, little is known so far about the other strategies. To address this gap in the literature, this is the first study, to the authors’ best knowledge, which allowed to assess such a wide range of emotion regulation strategies (including self-blame, catastrophizing, others-blame, putting into perspective, acceptance, positive refocusing, refocus on planning, positive reappraisal), used by BED patients in comparison to healthy controls. Moreover, this study aimed to analyze a spectrum of potential correlative interactions between applied strategies and difficulties in emotion regulation, and clinical variables (severity of eating disorders, severity of anxiety and depression symptoms, and level of alexithymia) in both subject groups, as depression, anxiety, and alexithymia are often comorbid with BED and determine its course [32, 33]. To the best of authors’ knowledge, this is also the first study exploring associations between binge- eating-related beliefs (positive, negative, and permissive) and various emotional regulation strategies and difficulties in individuals diagnosed with BED. This is especially important as these beliefs seems to be maintaining factors in BED . In line with existing literature, we hypothesized that: (1) patients with BED report greater difficulties in emotion regulation than healthy controls, (2) patients with BED use more maladaptive strategies and less adaptive strategies than healthy controls, (3) various difficulties in emotion regulation and using of maladaptive strategies in BED group are positively correlated with the severity of eating disorders symptoms, depression, anxiety, and alexithymia, whereas (4) the use of adaptive strategies is negatively correlated with the severity of eating disorders symptoms, depression, anxiety, and alexithymia (5) abnormal food-related beliefs are associated with emotion regulation strategies and difficulties.
Sense of Smell An animal’s sense of smell is an important part of their facilities because they use it for more than just finding food and rats are no different. Their noses account for average smell as well as other chemicals that represent changes in the atmosphere and emotions of other rats. As they breathe through their nose, average smells run over a special patch of skin that is covered in smell receptors and olfactory neurons. These receptors are tipped with cilia to which smell particles (odorants) bind and elicit a neural response. They also have a secondary organ that allows them to pick up, primarily, pheromones of other rats. These pheromones are present in droppings, urine, and secretions from various glands of rats. This organ is called the vomeronasal organ (VNO) This organ is set in the nasal passage alongside the septum. When they smell and taste, scent molecules in the nose dissolve and make their way to this organ. These odors allow them to recognize issues in their environment and identify the mood and estrus of other rats of their species. Their sense of smell gives them important insight into their surroundings and what is going on in those surroundings.
Monkeys can point to objects they do not report seeing Are monkeys, like humans, able to ascertain where objects are located without much more than a sideways glance? Quite likely, says Lau Andersen of the Aarhus University in Denmark, lead author of a study conducted at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center of Emory University, published in Springer's journal Animal Cognition. The study finds that monkeys are able to localize stimuli they do not perceive. Humans are able to locate, and even side-step, objects in their peripheral vision, sometimes before they perceive the object even being present. Andersen and colleagues therefore wanted to find out if visually guided action and visual perception also occurred independently in other primates. The researchers trained five adult male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) to perform a short-latency, highly stereotyped localization task. Using a touchscreen computer, the animals learned to touch one of four locations where an object was briefly presented. The monkeys also learned to perform a detection task using identical stimuli, in which they had to report the presence or absence of an object by pressing one of two buttons. These techniques are similar to those used to test normal humans, and therefore make an especially direct comparison between humans and monkeys possible. A method called "visual masking" was used to systematically reduce how easily a visual target was processed. Andersen and his colleagues found that the monkeys were still able to locate targets that they could not detect. The animals performed the tasks very accurately when the stimuli were unmasked, and their performance dropped when visual masking was employed. But monkeys could still locate targets at masking levels for which they reported that no target had been presented. While these results cannot establish the existence of phenomenal vision in monkeys, the discrepancy between visually guided action and detection parallels the dissociation of conscious and unconscious vision seen in humans. "Knowing whether similar independent brain systems are present in humans and nonverbal species is critical to our understanding of comparative psychology and the evolution of brains," explains Andersen.
Our earth rotates on its axis every 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.1 seconds. For this reason, there is day on one part of the earth and night on the other. What if the earth stops turning? It will not only affect day and night, but the entire planet will be destroyed. There is no natural force that can do it, but according to James Gimbleman, a senior geologist who was with the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington, it is a discussion hypothetical. We do not feel the rotation of the earth, but the speed of this rotation at the equator is 1770 km / h while at the poles the speed of rotation becomes zero. Even if the earth comes to a stop, the air, water, and rocks on the equator will continue to rotate at the same speed due to angular momentum. Obviously, because of this, the surface will start to erode and things will first move upward into the atmosphere and then start to go into space. Gimbalman told Live Science that a fundamental principle of physics is the conservation of angular momentum. If something is moving, then the same force must be applied in the opposite direction to stop it. However, Gimbalman says that not all will end with the non-rotation of the Earth. According to him, the pieces coming out of the surface of the earth will also start to rotate and then the gravity of the earth will pull them. Isaac Newton’s theory says that moving objects will release energy that will heat them up. Like meteorites, the pieces that came out of the earth will start raining again in the form of fireballs. Because of this, the outer crust of the Earth will become like an ocean of molten rock. Gimbalman says the earth’s water will dry up in the process. Mangroves have become victims of human greed, defenders of the land are fighting for life What if the earth stops spinning?
Phonological awareness activities that teach rhyming. Your kindergarten and first-grade students will love these fun lessons ideas to reinforce rhymes. These phonological awareness activities are great to use for reading intervention during your small group RTI time. Teaching Phonological Awareness Activities As teachers, we all understand the importance of creating strong phonological awareness in students. It is the foundation in which we build upon to create independent readers and writers. Introducing Rhyming Words Books! We use them every day. Our libraries are full of rhyming books that can help teach phonological awareness to students. Start by teaching students that rhyming words sound alike at the end. While conducting a read aloud, engage students in identifying rhyming words they hear. Here are a few of my favorites to use! Catalina Magdalena Hoopensteiner Wallendiner Hogan Logan Bogan Was Her Name by Tedd Arnold Bear Wants More by Karma Wilson Giraffes Can’t Dance by Giles Andreae Mrs. Wishy-Washy’s Farm by Joy Cowley Listen and Repeat the Rhyming Words Students learn by listening and doing. Start building a reading and spelling foundation by incorporating phonological awareness activities in whole-group or small-group lessons. You could say a little something like this, “Listen as I say two words that rhyme. Repeat the two words.” Catchy Rhyme Time video that is nice and short but right on point. Do these two words rhyme? The next step is to give students two words or pictures. Students decide if the two words rhyme. “Listen as I say two words. If they rhyme, give me a thumbs up.” This fun rhyming video by Jack Hartmann is another interactive way for students to show if words rhyme. Which of these words rhyme? Students are given three pictures or words. “Words that rhyme, sound the same at the end, like hop and mop. (It is best to emphasize the ending chunk /0p/)Listen as we say the words. Which words rhyme? Tub, bug, sub” Another great Jack Hartmann video that engages students in identifying which words do and do not rhyme. Producing a Rhyming Word After students can repeat and identify rhymes, they are then ready to start producing a new word that rhymes. After showing students a card with two rhyming words, ask students to produce an additional word that would rhyme. You can find the Phonological and Phonemic Awareness unit I use by clicking: Phonological & Phonemic Awareness Program for Reading & Writing Success
In this course, you will learn the science behind how digital images and video are made, altered, stored, and used. We will look at the vast world of digital imaging, from how computers and digital cameras form images to how digital special effects are used in Hollywood movies to how the Mars Rover was able to send photographs across millions of miles of space. The course starts by looking at how the human visual system works and then teaches you about the engineering, mathematics, and computer science that makes digital images work. You will learn the basic algorithms used for adjusting images, explore JPEG and MPEG standards for encoding and compressing video images, and go on to learn about image segmentation, noise removal and filtering. Finally, we will end with image processing techniques used in medicine. This course consists of 7 basic modules and 2 bonus (non-graded) modules. There are optional MATLAB exercises; learners will have access to MATLAB Online for the course duration. Each module is independent, so you can follow your interests.
- Credit – money you receive that you must repay later – powers the economy. - More credit means more spending. More spending means more income, and more income means more credit is available from lenders. - Credit also creates debt: the borrowed money must be paid back, so spending must decrease later. - Governments raise and lower interest rates to keep the economy in check. The economy makes the world go round. It deeply affects each of us in our daily lives, so it’s certainly something worth understanding, even at a high level. Definitions of “the economy” vary, but, broadly speaking, an economy could be described as an area where goods are produced, consumed, and traded. Typically, you’ll see them discussed at the national level, with op-eds and news reporters referencing the U.S. economy, the Chinese economy, etc. However, we can also look at economic activity through a global lens by taking into account every country’s activities and affairs. Who makes up the economy? Let’s begin at a small scale before working our way up. Every day, we contribute to the economy by buying (i.e., groceries) and selling (i.e., working in exchange for payment). Other individuals, groups, governments, and businesses worldwide do the same across three market sectors. Measuring economic activity Broadly speaking, a rising GDP signifies an increase in production, income, and spending. Conversely, a falling GDP indicates decreasing production, income, and spending. Note that there are a couple of variations you can use: real GDP accounts for inflation, whereas nominal GDP does not. GDP is still only an approximation, but it carries tremendous weight in analyses at national and international levels. It’s used by everyone from small financial market participants to the International Monetary Fund to gain insight into countries’ economic health. Credit, debt, and interest rates Lenders and borrowers We touched on the fact that everything boils down to buying and selling. It’s worth noting that lending and borrowing are essential as well. Suppose that you’re sitting on a large amount of cash that isn’t currently doing anything. You might wish to put that money to work so that it can generate more money. Going with simple interest would mean that the other party owes you $1,000 every month until the money is returned. If it were repaid after three months, you’d expect to receive $103,000, plus whatever additional fee you specified. Banks and interest rates Banks are probably the most notable types of lenders in today’s world. You could think of them as middlemen (or brokers) between lenders and borrowers. These financial institutions actually take on the role of both. When you put money into the bank, you do so on the condition that they’ll give it back to you. Many others do the same. And, since the bank has such a large amount of cash on hand now, it lends it out to borrowers. Why is credit important? Credit could be seen as a kind of lubricant for the economy. It allows individuals, businesses, and governments to spend with money that they don’t have immediately available. To some economists, this is problematic, but many believe that increased spending is a sign of a thriving economy. If more money is being spent, more people receive an income. Banks are more inclined to lend to those with higher incomes, meaning that individuals now have access to more cash and credit. With more cash and credit, individuals can spend more, meaning that more people receive an income, and the cycle continues. More income → more credit → more spending → more income. Of course, this cycle can’t just continue indefinitely. By borrowing $100,000 today, you deprive yourself of $100,000+ tomorrow. So, while you can temporarily increase your spending, you’ll eventually have to decrease your spending to pay it back. In red is productivity, which grows over time. In green is the relative amount of credit available. So what are we looking at, exactly? Well, let’s first note that productivity is steadily increasing. Without credit, we’d expect that to be the only source of growth – after all, you would need to produce to receive income. Let’s explore this more in the next section. Central banks, inflation, and deflation Suppose that everyone has access to lots of credit (part one of the previous section’s graph). They can buy a lot more than they would be able to without it. But while spending is growing skyrocketing, production isn’t. In effect, the supply of goods and services does not materially increase, but its demand does. How does a central bank work? Increasing interest rates is something that central banks might do when inflation gets out of hand. When rates are increased, the interest owed is higher, so borrowing doesn’t seem as attractive. Since individuals also need to repay debts, spending is expected to decrease. Like inflation, deflation can be measured through a Consumer Price Index. What happens when the economic bubble bursts? The long-term debt cycle. When deleveraging occurs, incomes begin to drop, and credit dries up. Unable to repay debt, individuals attempt to sell their assets. But with so many doing the same thing, asset prices tumble due to an abundance of supply. So what can they do? Well, the most obvious way forward would be to decrease spending and forgive the debt. These bring other issues, though: reduced spending means that businesses won’t be as profitable, meaning that employees’ incomes will decrease. Industries will need to cut down on their workforce, leading to higher unemployment rates. When compared to the short-term cycles, the long-term debt cycle plays out across a much longer time frame, believed to occur every 50 to 75 years. How does it all tie together? We’ve covered quite a few topics here. Ultimately, Dalio’s model revolves around the availability of credit – with more credit, the economy booms. With less credit, it contracts. These events alternate to create short-term debt cycles, which, in turn, make up part of long-term debt cycles. Interest rates influence much of the behavior of the economy’s participants. When rates are high, saving makes more sense, as spending is not as much of a priority. When they’re lowered, spending appears to be the more rational decision. The economic machine is so colossal that it can be difficult to wrap your head around its various components. However, by looking closely, we can see the same patterns repeating themselves over and over as participants engage in transactions with each other. At this stage, you’ve hopefully got a better understanding of the relationship between lenders and borrowers, the importance of credit and debt, and the steps that central banks take to try and mitigate economic disaster.
It’s the 40th anniversary of the glycemic index (GI), which was first introduced in 1981. Despite its age, you may not know what it is and how it contributes to a healthy diet. Here, we review all you need to know about the glycemic index — including why you should pay attention to it, how to use it and how to determine what food items have a preferably low glycemic index number. What is the glycemic index? The glycemic index (GI) is one tool used to help manage blood sugar (glucose) levels. The purpose of the GI index is to assign carbohydrate foods a number so you can select foods that are less likely to cause spikes in your blood glucose levels, giving you better blood glucose control. The GI pre-assigns each food item a number based on several factors, including nutrient composition, cooking methods, and manufacturing process. Generally speaking, the lower the GI number, the metabolically healthier the food item. Glycemic index diets provide guidelines on what foods are best to choose. GI is related to, but different from, another important nutrition barometer — glycemic load (GL) — that tells you how quickly a food causes glucose to enter the bloodstream and how much glucose you’ll get per serving. Ideally, both GI and GL should be analyzed together. See our report on glycemic index vs glycemic load to learn more about how GI and GL can be analyzed concurrently for optimal nutritional guidance. Why does the glycemic index matter? Since the glycemic index measures each carbohydrate’s impact on blood glucose levels, it is an informative and useful tool to help you watch what you eat. For all of us, and especially people at risk of diabetes or living with diabetes, having an increase in blood glucose can lead to health complications. Repeated spikes in blood glucose can contribute to microvascular complications, including: - Diabetic nephropathy (deterioration of kidney health and function) - Neuropathy (nerve damage) - Retinopathy (damage to the back of the eyes) These complications are often silent, but deadly — and in combination with insulin resistance, they contribute to the pathogenesis of diabetes and diabetes-related complications/comorbidities such as kidney failure, nerve damage, cardiovascular disease, eye disease, foot damage, hearing impairment and skin disorders. The scary part is that these underlying complications often begin to cause damage years before we can detect any significant malfunction. (Learn more: The 7 Top Risk Factors For Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes.) Therefore, paying attention to your blood glucose levels and taking steps to keep them at healthy levels — through lifestyle modifications such as a healthier diet and more frequent exercise — can have a major impact on your long-term health and longevity. And the glycemic index tool is one way to measure the health of foods you consume. See also: 7 Simple Ways To Control Blood Sugar Spikes. How is the glycemic index calculated? Carbohydrates are a type of nutrient in foods. There are three basic forms of carbs: sugars, starches, and fiber. When you eat or drink sugars and starches, your body breaks them down into glucose, which is the preferred source of energy for cells. Only a small amount of fiber is metabolized; the rest passes through your gastrointestinal system and bulks up your stool. Thus, fibers cause minimal increases in blood glucose levels. The glycemic index of a specific food is determined in a lab and research setting. A food’s GI is determined by feeding individuals food with 50 grams of carbohydrates. Then, their blood glucose response is checked for the next two hours and graphed accordingly. The GI value is assigned based on the average response across all participants. For consumers, there are tables, lists, and resources containing GI values. The smaller the number, the less impact it has on blood glucose. The categories are: 55 or less = low GI food 56 – 69 = medium GI food 70+ = high GI food Reduce your intake of these high-GI foods Foods that have a high GI score can cause a sharp rise in insulin levels. Thus, you are better off if you can reduce your intake of these high-GI carbohydrates. Examples of high-GI foods: - white potatoes - white rice - white bread - cake and cookies One limitation of the glycemic impact ratings is that you may have a different response based on how much you eat. It also does not account for other nutrients in the food item. A special note: Pay attention to the glycemic index of fruits and fruit juices Eating well-balanced meals is part of a healthy diet. Fruits and vegetables are part of a healthy diet, even for those with diabetes or looking to manage their blood glucose levels. However, some fruits will have a higher GI than other fruits. Importantly, fruit juices consumed in quantity are associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes, whereas most whole fruits are associated with decreased risk. Several factors affect the glycemic rating of fruit, including: Acidity: Foods that are highly acidic have a lower GI rating than those with low acid. Grapefruit has a GI score of 25 and oranges have a score of 40. Both fruits are more acidic. Fiber Load: Fruits that are higher in fiber generally have lower glycemic ratings. One medium apple has 4.5 grams of dietary fiber and a glycemic index score of 39. Fruits that have edible skin typically have more fiber, as the fiber in the skin helps protect the fruit. Ripeness: Since the amount of sugar increases as a fruit ripens, the more ripe it is, the higher it is on the GI scale. Green bananas contain less sugar and are lower on the glycemic index than yellow or brown spotted bananas. What foods have a low glycemic index? The most accurate way to confirm the glycemic index for food is to review its score on a database such as this one from The University of Sydney. There are plenty of healthy and nutritious options to choose from if you’re following a low-GI diet. Examples of low-GI foods: - Fruit: apples, strawberries, peaches, pears, kiwi, oranges, cranberries, tomatoes, blueberries - Vegetables: broccoli, celery, zucchini, carrots, asparagus, artichokes, mushrooms, Brussels sprouts, bok choy - Beans and legumes: black-eyed peas, butter beans, chickpeas, green beans, snow peas, lentils, kidney beans - Grains: barley, whole wheat, oats, wild rice, bulgar, brown rice, quinoa, wheat bread - Dairy: milk, cheese, yogurt, non-dairy milks What’s the best low GI diet? Essentially, the best low glycemic index diet involves choosing: - whole grains over refined ones - fruits instead of sugary snacks - lean proteins such as chicken breast rather than fatty meats - vegetables with lower amounts of added sugars You may find some foods that list their GI index on their food label. More commonly, you’ll need to look it up. While carbohydrate-rich foods are part of a balanced diet and provide our bodies with essential nutrients, they affect blood glucose levels. If blood glucose levels spike repeatedly, indicating poor long-term glycemic control, health complications (such as diabetes, coronary artery disease and several other conditions mentioned above) can ensue. Therefore, it is advantageous to choose those carbohydrates that do not cause a sharp rise in blood glucose. Low glycemic index foods are a part of that solution, especially if you are at risk of or are living with diabetes. Thus, paying attention to which carbohydrates score low on the GI index — especially in conjunction with foods also scoring low for glycemic load (GL) — can contribute to better nutrition and lower your risk of becoming metabolically unhealthy.
What is an example of humanistic psychology? Humanistic Approaches to Therapy Instead of a medicine-centered or research-centered approach to therapy, the humanistic perspective encourages an approach that focuses on the individual person, their individual needs and improving self-awareness. ... Group therapy for families is an example of a humanistic approach. What are the key beliefs of humanism? - Humanists reject the idea or belief in a supernatural being such as God. ... - Humanists have no belief in an afterlife, and so they focus on seeking happiness in this life. ... - As a result, they believe that people should make the most of their lives while on Earth. What is the difference between humanism and secular humanism? Most humanist organisations identify with "humanism" without a pre-modifier (such a "secular" or "ethical") and assert humanism as a non-religious philosophy or approach to life. ... Secular Humanism is not so much a specific morality as it is a method for the explanation and discovery of rational moral principles. What does anti humanism mean? : someone who opposes or rejects the beliefs, principles, or assumptions of humanism Anti-humanists are not necessarily against human beings; they merely assert that a humanistic conception of life is untenable and may be morally dangerous.— What is a sentence for humanism? The new humanism agreed with the Renaissance in its unreserved recognition of the old classical world as a perfect pattern of culture. This return to the ideals of antiquity did not remain confined to Italy, but the humanism of the northern countries presents no close parallel to the Italian renaissance. What does humanism mean today? Humanism is a democratic and ethical life stance, which affirms that human beings have the right and responsibility to give meaning and shape to their own lives. When was humanism created? What was the most important subject of humanism? Answer. The subject of humanism was to study old Latin and Greek literature. What is the purpose of civic humanism? The advent of civic humanism marked for Baron the victory of secular economic, social, and political ideals versus the asceticism, religious obscurantism, and hierarchy of the Middle Ages. Civic humanism provided the vital vehicle for the translation of the exalted ancient idea of citizenship to the modern age. What is meant by the term civic humanism? Drawing on Aristotelian ideas about government, Roman Stoicism, and the political life of the Italian communes in the late Middle Ages, civic humanism is a form of classical republicanism that involves the fusion of participatory political engagement with classical learning as revived in the Renaissance. Where did civic humanism come from? “Civic humanism” describes a political culture and philosophy originating in Renaissance Italy in the 1400s but influential through the American War of Independence in the late 1700s and beyond. The term was originally developed in the first half of the twentieth century by the historian Hans Baron. What is civic humanism AP euro? Civic Humanism. Modeled on Cicero, the belief that it was an intellectual's civic duty to be involved in politics and help the communtiy. Leonardo Bruni. Humanist intellectual, Chancellor of Florence, wrote biography on Cicero advocating the fusion of politics and literary creation. What is humanism AP euro? humanism. a program of study designed by italians that emphasized the critical study of latin and greek literature with the goal of understanding human nature. What did Leonardo Bruni believe in? Bruni's Humanism. In 1955 historian Hans Baron described Bruni as the first "civic* humanist," meaning someone who blended classical studies with a commitment to political involvement. The ideals of civic humanism were classical learning, liberty, and devotion to the common good. What did Bruni do? Bruni was secretary to the papal chancery from 1405 and served as chancellor of Florence from 1427 until his death in 1444. His Historiarum Florentini populi libri XII (1610; “Twelve Books of Histories of the Florentine People”) is the first history of Florence based on a critical examination of the source material. Who was the first Italian humanist to gain a thorough knowledge of Greek? What is Leonardo Bruni known for? Leonardo Bruni (1370–1444), the leading civic humanist of the Italian Renaissance, served as apostolic secretary to four popes (1405–1414) and chancellor of Florence (1427–1444). He was famous in his day as a translator, orator, and historian, and was the best-selling author of the fifteenth century. - How do you explain the humanistic perspective? - How is humanism defined? - What is the best gun in the outer worlds? - When was the modernization theory developed? - Who gave the concept of modernization? - What are the weaknesses of the humanistic approach? - What does Hostile mean in history? - Why is humanistic theory important? - What is the humanistic perspective of psychology? - What is an example of an imagined community? You will be interested - Do you agree that a nation is an imagined community? - What is formed within imagined communities? - What do I do if I can't afford therapy? - What are the major nursing theories? - Why is nation imagined? - Is Humanism the same as atheism? - What is meant by imagined community? - How does history promote our identity? - What does historian Benedict Anderson mean when he describes the nation as an imagined community? - Is nation a community?
Oldest shoe in Norway, dating to 3,000 years ago, recovered from melting ice patch The oldest shoe in Norway — a 3,000-year-old bootie from the Bronze Age — is just one of thousands of ancient artifacts that were recovered from the country’s melting mountain ice patches in the past two decades, according to a new report from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). Unlike objects trapped in acidic soil or beneath gargantuan glaciers, the artifacts recovered from Norwegian ice patches are often found in impeccable condition, showing minimal decomposition and deformation, even after thousands of years of frozen slumber. That’s because ice patches are relatively stable, unmoving and free from corrosive compounds. Perfectly intact weapons, clothing, textiles, and plant and animal remains have all emerged from the ice, helping to bring thousands of years of Norwegian history to light. But now, the report authors said, climate change could bring that all to an end. Within just a few decades, vast swaths of Norway’s ice patches have begun to melt, exposing undiscovered artifacts to the elements and almost certain deterioration, the authors wrote. “A survey based on satellite images taken in 2020 shows that more than 40 percent of 10 selected ice patches with known finds have melted away,” report co-author Birgitte Skar, an archaeologist and associate professor at the NTNU University Museum, said in a statement. “These figures suggest a significant threat for preserving discoveries from the ice, not to mention the ice as a climate archive.” The melting past Ice patches form at high elevations, where snow and ice deposits accumulate and don’t completely melt in the summer. Unlike glaciers, ice patches don’t move, so objects deposited in ice patches can remain stable for hundreds or thousands of years. When the ice begins to melt, those objects return to the light of day, preserved just as they were when the ice swallowed them up. However, if scientists aren’t able to recover these objects soon after the melting begins, then they run the risk of losing the artifacts to the elements. Ice patch archaeology has been a tremendous boon to researchers studying the ancient cultures, plants and animals in frosty, elevated regions around the world. In Norway, researchers have uncovered thousands of artifacts belonging to the Bronze Age hunting tribes who hunted reindeer across Northern Europe and southern Scandinavia. According to the new report, reindeer are drawn to the region’s mountainous ice patches in summer months to seek relief from biting insects and the heat. Where the reindeer went, hunters followed, leaving troves of artifacts behind. The 3,000-year-old shoe, which was discovered in 2007 in the mountainous region of Jotunheimen in southern Norway, remains a standout find. The small leather shoe would be a size 4 or 5 in today’s U.S. sizes, suggesting it belonged either to a woman or a youth. The shoe was discovered alongside several arrows and a wooden spade, suggesting the site was an important hunting ground. Dated to approximately 1100 B.C., the shoe is not only the oldest shoe in Norway, but possibly the oldest article of clothing discovered in Scandinavia, according to the researchers who discovered it. Further surveys of the Jotunheimen site revealed even older artifacts, including a 6,100-year-old arrow shaft — the single oldest object discovered in a Norwegian ice patch, according to the researchers. Its presence near the shoe, suggests that the site was continuously used by humans over many millennia. Despite these remarkable finds, the report authors worry that countless other cultural artifacts could disappear before they are recovered, thanks to the effects of climate change. A 2022 report from the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate estimates that 140 square miles (364 square kilometers) of ice patches — an area roughly half the size of New York City — have melted since 2006. If artifacts are not recovered from these patches soon after they are exposed, they risk being lost, damaged or destroyed forever. Few ice patches in Norway have been systematically surveyed, especially in northern Norway, which remains mostly unstudied. To mitigate this, the researchers suggest launching a national ice patch monitoring program, using remote sensors to systematically survey ice patches and secure any objects that emerge from the melt. “We used to think of the ice as desolate and lifeless and therefore not very important. That’s changing now, but it’s urgent,” report co-author Jørgen Rosvold, a biologist and assistant research director at the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, said in the statement. “Large amounts of unique material are melting out and disappearing forever.” Originally published on Live Science.
Having established that no history exists in a vacuum, one should venture to explore the origins of what has become the primary term to describe, and sometimes to justify, American expansionism. However, there are many variation of American expansion. That phrase "Manifest Destiny, which is a belief that territorial expansion by the United States was both inevitable and divinely ordained, was first coined in the 1840s in print, but possibly dating from much before then. It literally arrived with the first white men, the Puritans who established their colonies along the shores of New England. Their profound belief in being the chosen people and having none of the problems of the Old World led to their expectation in becoming the "renovator of the world , leading other peoples down their path as well. If God and mission was the road to Manifest Destiny, imperialism, the policy of extending a nation's authority by territorial acquisition, was the light that lit the way (Doc. E). Between the late 1800 early 1900, the American businessman fueled the notion of International Destiny. By the late 1800s and early 1900s, the United States fulfilled its Manifest Destiny or also known as Imperialism of extending its borders from sea to shining sea, reached new technological heights through the industrial revolution and had bustling cities that rivaled many of the empires in Europe. Although the term "Manifest Destiny was not used until 1844, the belief that American nation was destined to eventually expand all the way to the Pacific Ocean, and to possibly embrace Canada to the North, and Mexico to the South, had been voiced for years by many who believed that American liberty and ideals should be shared with everyone possible, by force if necessary. The rising sense of nationalism, which fallowed the war of 1812, was fed by the rapidly expanding population, and to acquire new markets and recourses for burgeoning
Temporal range: Early–Late Cretaceous \|Carcharodontosaurus saharicus as it appeared in Planet Dinosaur\| \| †Carcharodontosaurus saharicus\| Depéret & Savornin, 1925 Carcharodontosaurus (car·char·o·don·to·saur·us) was one of the largest theropod carnivores alongside Giganotosaurus and Tyrannosaurus rex and likely smaller than Spinosaurus. It was likely the largest of the carcharodontosaurid theropod family, and it lived in North Africa. C. saharicus grew to be about 13 meters (43 feet) long and about 4 meters (13 feet) tall at the hip, and about 8 tonnes (8.8 tons) in weight. C. iguidensis was about 10 meters (33 feet) long, and weighed about 4 tonnes (4.4 tons).Paleontologists once thought that Carcharodontosaurus had the longest skull of any of the theropod dinosaurs. However, the premaxilla and quadrate bones were missing from the original African skull, which led to misinterpretion of its actual size by researchers. A more modest length of five feet, four inches (1.6 meters) has now been proposed. Thus, the honor of the largest theropod skull is now in question. Carcharodontosaurus fossils were first found by Charles Depéret and J. Savornin in North Africa in 1927. Originally called Megalosaurus saharicus, its name was changed in 1931 by Ernst Stromer von Reichenbach to that used today. These first fossils of Carcharodontosaurus were destroyed during World War II In an allied fighter bombing raid who destroyed the museum and every last piece of Carcharodontosaurus. However, cranial material from a Carcharodontosaurus was again discovered in North Africa in 1996 by paleontologist Paul Sereno. Stephen Brusatte and Paul Sereno (2005) reported a second species of Carcharodontosaurus differing from C. saharicus in some aspects of the maxilla and braincase. The new species, which was discovered in Niger, is called C.iguidensis but recently new studies have brought to light that this dinosaur was a chimera. Carcharodontosaurus was a carnivore, with enormous jaws and long, serrated teeth up to eight inches long. It probably hunted in packs like its much smaller cousin Allosaurus, but no fossil evidence of this exists. It may have been a scavenger as well as an active predator. It had a large head with over 60 8-inch (19 cm.), blade-like teeth, which were designed to pierce and tear apart the flesh of its prey, which mostly consisted of the large sauropod Paralititan and a hadrosaur called Ouranosaurus. It's arms were somewhat short, but still longer than T. rex's and were quite strong. They had three claws on each of its fingers, which could've been used to get a better grab and perhaps even used to kill some of its smaller prey. Carcharodontosaurus had long, muscular legs, and fossilized trackways indicate that it could run about 20 miles per hour, although there is some controversy as to whether it actually did, because of its huge body mass. The brain endocast and inner ear anatomy of Carcharodontosaurus saharicus resembled modern crocodilians (Larsson, 2001). The size of the cerebrum relative to the total brain was similar to modern non-avian reptiles, but small relative to coelurosaurian theropods and birds. Ongoing discoveries and research by scientists will certainly shed further light on the physiology, behavior, and environmental circumstances and interactions of Carcharodontosaurus. The portion of the brain involving smell is quite large in Carhcarodontosaurus, suggesting a good sense of smell, probably even better than today's dogs and rivaling the Tyrannosaurus. We've also found that its hearing was also quite keen, however, its sight was slightly limited because of the fact that its eyes were on the side of its head instead of straight forward like modern-day lions, dogs, or humans, as a fossil study shows. Carcharodontosaurus lived in what is now Northern Africa from 105 to 94 million years ago. South America had likely just broken apart from Africa during that time, and it's probably why Carcharodontosaurus and its relatives from South America are so alike in appearance. It's environment was likely very warm and humid, with many rivers and lakes flowing through, considering Spinosaurus and Sarcosuchus (both aquatic/semi-aquatic predators) have been found in the same location. Although dry and barren now, North Africa was likely very lush and full of life, including several rainforests. The elevation was flat, and there were many marches and plains around. Carhcarodontosaurus shared this lush habitat with prey items like the sailed hadrosaur Ouranosaurus and huge sauropods like Paralititan. Although it was likely top-predator in the area, Carhcarodontosaurus was probably very territorial and had large areas of territory, which would likely have to fight for against rivals and other huge predators in the area, like Spinosaurus and Sarcosuchus, and even relatives like Sauroniops, Deltadromeus, and Bahariasaurus. The size of it's surrounding dinosaurs might have be the reason that Carcharodontosaurus was that enormous. - Carcharodontosaurus appears in the game: Jurassic Park Operation Genesis. - It was featured in Monsters Resurrected losing to Spinosaurus. - It can be created from DNA in Jurassic Park Builder. - At the end of Series 3 of Primeval, the theropods in the background were probably Carcharodontosaurus. - Carcharodontosaurus is incorrectly shown to live in South America in Dinosaur Planet and as predators of Saltasaurus. Carcharodontosaurus actually came from Africa, although South America was home to its fellow relatives Giganotosaurus, Tyrannotitan and Mapusaurus, so its most likely it was a mistake of the name. - Carcharodontosaurus appears in Lost World from Planet Dinosaur, where it is despicted to fight for land and loses to Spinosaurus over a fight for an Ouranosaurus carcass, however, the wounds it gave the other theropod became infected and helped to ultimately kill it. It reappears in New Giants where it fights a Sarcosuchus over a juvenile Paralititan and wins. - A Carcharodontosaurus named Big Red appears in the Asylum film 100 Million B.C., however since they were in South America it should've been referred to as a Giganotosaurus, Mapusaurus, or Tyrannotitan. - Carcharodontosaurus also makes a few cameos in Dinosaur King. - It was featured (unidentified) in Ricardo Delgado's Age of Reptiles: Ancient Egyptians mini-series. Beyond T. rex T. rex: Clash of the Titans Monsters Resurrected: Biggest Killer Dino Vertebrate Paleontology; Michael J. Benton Ultimate Book of Dinosaurs; by Paul Dowswell, John Malam, Paul Mason, Steve Parker
It’s estimated that about 7 billion rats roam the planet on any given day. One of the more common species — the Norway rat — can produce up to 2,000 descendants per female in a year. Given these high numbers, it’s no wonder rodents can cause a lot of damage to agricultural crops and property, as well as spread disease. In many parts of the world, people try to prevent rodent damage by using rodenticides to reduce rat populations. These poisons, however, are non-specific and hazardous to non-target species, such as dogs, cats, hawks, and owls that may feed on rodents. In an effort to find a nonlethal damage management method, NWRC scientists teamed up with SenesTech Inc. and The University of Arizona to test the effectiveness of a liquid bait to control fertility in Norway rats. Two chemicals (4-vinylcyclohexane diepoxide and triptolide) known to target ovarian function in female rats were fed to captive Norway rats via the liquid bait. Triptolide is also known to affect spermatogenesis in males. No offspring were born to treated females that were mated with treated males, while control pairs produced normal litter sizes of 9-10 offspring. The number of primordial follicles in ovaries collected from treated females were less than control females; and the weights of testes and epididymis taken from treated males were lower than in control males. Researchers are optimistic that these results show the liquid bait inhibits fertility in both male and female rats and may be a feasible alternative to rodenticides for reducing rat populations. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recently granted a registration for the liquid bait formulation for use with Norway rats and black rats under the product name ContraPest. For more information, please contact firstname.lastname@example.org.
The upper left image is the Arch of Constantine. It is important to the story of Troy because Constantine was the Roman Emperor who moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople (now Istanbul) in the fourth century CE. Not long after this move, the empire itself split into east and west. The eastern Roman Empire was Greek in language and culture; the western was Latin. While Homer's Iliad and Odyssey continued to be read, taught and loved in the Greek-speaking eastern Roman Empire, they were increasingly ignored in the west. As knowledge of the Greek language declined in Europe, and Latin became more widespread, the Latin Aeneid became the dominant Troy story in Europe. Consequently, the Greek heroes remained heroes in the East, while the Trojans were the heroes in the West. European countries traced their founders to the Trojan refugees. Not only was Aeneas the ancestor of the Romans, but his descendent, Brutus, was said to have founded the ruling class in Britain. There were also other, lesser, sources for the Troy story in late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages, including The Fall of Troy by Quintus Smyrnaeus, a short Latin Iliad, and two supposed "eye witness" accounts of the Trojan War by Dictys and Dares. - Virgil in Late Antiquity, The Middle Ages, and The Renaissance: A Rough Bibliography: Complied by David Wilson-Okamura. A comprehensive bibliography, especially good if you are interested in Medieval adaptations, commentaries, Dante, the Old French Roman d'Eneas, etc. Fairly specialized stuff, but interesting to browse through to see what kinds of things people have been writing about and in response to Virgil over a long period of time. - Brutus of Troy: This Wikipedia article traces Brutus, a descendant of Aeneas, to Britain, and explains how the name of Britain was thought to be derived from "Brutus." - "The Demise of Paganism": A long, fascinating essay by James J. O'Donnell, originally published in Traditio 35(1977), 45-88. It focuses on the conflict between paganism and Christianity in the late fourth century. - Geoffrey of Monmouth: a short biographical essay from Early British Kingdoms by David Nash Ford. - Nennius and Historia Brittonum: a short essay from the Cambridge History of English and American Literature. - Overview of Late Antiquity: by Steven Muhlberger. This is the home page which indexes a series of informative essays on late antiquity. A valuable site for getting an introduction to this fascinating period. It is part of the ORB Online Encyclopedia. - "Peoples and Languages": Chapter I of Byzantium: The Empire of New Rome by Cyril Mango. Scribner's, 1980. This Chapter is about Constantinople and the constitution of the Byzantine Empire in the sixth century CE. Focus is on an imaginary traveler of that time and the diversity of the people and languages encountered. Lively, well written. - Anna Comena: The Alexiad (c. 1148 CE). A Byzantine Princess looks disapprovingly at the European Crusaders. - Boethius: The Consolation of Philosophy: Text in Latin and English. A wonderful sixth century AD dialogue between the imprisoned Boethius and Philosophy, as he attempts to understand the relationship between the stable goodness of God and the painful inconsistency of Fortune. - "Byzantine Sources in Translation": Introduction and extended bibliography by Paul Halsall, 1997. - Dares Phrygius: History of the Fall of Troy. Translated by R. M. Frazer. Dares and Dictys: an Introduction to the Study of Medieval Versions of the story of Troy. A full-length book By N. E. Griffin, 1907. - Dictys Cretensis: Journal of the Trojan War; translated by R. M. Frazer. - The Fall of Troy : By Quintus Smyrnaeus (4th c. AD). Translated by A. S. Way. An MIT etext. This poem continues the story of the Iliad until the Greeks leave for home. - Geoffrey of Monmouth: History of the Kings of Britain; translated by Aaron Thompson; a major source for the [his]story of the emigration of Trojans to Britain. - Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Volume I. - Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Volume II. - Historia Brittonum: by Nennius (8th c.); J.A. Giles translation. This history starts with Adam and biblical history, but quickly gets to the Trojan War and how descendants of Aeneas, especially Brutus, were the founders of the British race. - Historia Brittonum: by Nennius; another site with larger font. - Internet Medieval Sourcebook: An excellent collection of etexts, by Paul Halsall. - Pagan and Christian Rome: By Rodolfo Lanciani. The entire 1892 text with many maps and images; The illustrations are listed and linked, so they can be explored separately from the text. - Presentation for Oxford-Berkeley Papyrological Seminar: Dictys of Crete, Sept. 16, 2008. By Donald J. Mastronarde. pdf - "In Honour of the City of London": By William Dunbar (1456?-1513?). This poem addresses the mythic history of London as the "new Troy."
Tsunami is the name given to the very long waves on the ocean generated by earthquakes or other events which suddenly displace a large volume of water. "Tsunami" is from "harbor wave" in Japanese. A tsunami is distinct from ordinary wind-driven ocean waves in that its source of energy is the water displacement event. Technical sources strongly discourage the term "tidal wave" for tsunamis since their generation has nothing to do with the Moon or tidal influences, although the effect of a tsunami on a coastal area may be affected by the tidal phase when the tsunami reaches shore. If the wave strikes at local high tide, the inundation of the land area may be more severe. The long wavelength wave train of a tsunami travels at a very high speed. The 1960 tsunami from the subduction zone off of the Chilean coast reached Hawaii in 15 hours and Japan in 22 hours. The scenario for tsunami generation often involves the subduction zone where one geographic plate moves under another (a convergent boundary). If there is a "sticking point" or impediment to the motion, it may build up stress until a sudden movement occurs, causing an earthquake. Either a sudden upward or downward motion of a portion of the ocean floor will displace a large amount of water and generate a tsunami. The wave speeds for tsunamis are very high in deep water. The tsunami of December 26, 2004 traveled from near the island of Sumatra to the east coast of Africa in just over seven hours. It was initiated by an earthquake of magnitude 9 off the western coast of northern Sumatra. The "Great Waves" brochure from NOAA referenced below states that "tsunami waves are distinguished from ordinary ocean waves by their great length between wave crests, often exceeding 100 km (60 miles ) or more in the deep ocean, and by the time between these crests, ranging from 10 minutes to an hour. As they reach the shallow waters of the coast, the waves slow down and the water can pile up into a wall of destruction tens of meters (30 ft) or more in height. The effect can be amplified where a bay, harbor or lagoon funnels the wave as it moves inland. Large tsunamis have been known to rise over 30 meters (100 ft). Even a tsunami 3 - 6 meters high can be very destructive and cause many deaths and injuries.""Some (tsunamis) consist of a single crest: others develop a broad trough in advance of the main wave and a succession of smaller waves behind. It is the preceeding trough, together with man's curiosity, that has been the cause of much loss of life. People attracted by the very low stand of sea level as the tsunami approaches have gone out to walk on the newly exposed sea floor and have been drowned as the rising pulse flooded shoreward."(von Arx). The Unimak tsunami of April 1, 1946 is a famous historical case which for which we have a considerable amount of data. The following data comes from Macdonald, et al., and is quoted from the von Arx text. "This tsunami was composed of a succession of crests 2 feet high and 122 miles apart in mid-ocean, moving at better than 400 knots so that the crests arrived at intervals of about 15 minutes. In Hawaii these waves crested to 55 feet at Pololu Valley. Farther down the windward coast the crest was half as high but caused heavy loss of property and some life in the city of Hilo. The master of a ship lying offshore near Hilo reported feeling no unusual waves pass under his ship, although he could see great waves breaking on the shore. This same wave train was observed at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands to have an amplitude of 1.5 feet. It passed unnoticed except by those who watched for it very carefully." Traveling Wave Concepts G. A. Macdonald et al. C. K. Green
Rosa Parks: The Foundation of the Civil Rights Movement This weekend marks the anniversary of the day that Rosa Parks, a black seamstress, defied the law by refusing to give up her seat to a white man aboard a Montgomery, Ala., city bus in 1955. On December 1st, 1955, Parks, a 42-year-old mild-mannered seamstress living in the racially segregated South, boarded a bus in Montgomery, Alabama. For her act of defiance, Mrs. Parks was arrested, convicted of violating the segregation laws and fined $10, plus $4 in court fees. Rosa Parks and the Civil Rights Movement However, her refusal to give up her seat to a white man led to a subsequent year-long boycott of the city’s bus system by Montgomery’s black residents, which was led by the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr., who went on to become a central figure in the fight for equal rights for blacks during the 1960s. But it was Rosa Parks’ quiet defiance of discrimination that rendered herself an important symbol of the burgeoning civil rights movement, laying the very foundation for the important later work of Martin Luther King, Jr. and others. Rosa Parks: A Civil Rights Documentary Rosa Parks died in Detroit on Monday, October 25th, 2005 at the age of 92. The late civil rights icon was the first woman to lie in state in the U. S. Capitol Rotunda, a tribute usually reserved for presidents, soldiers and politicians. Both the United States Senate and the House of Representatives voted to honor Parks with this extraordinary national homage. “The movement that Rosa Parks helped launch changed not only our country, but the entire world, as her actions gave hope to every individual fighting for civil and human rights. We now can honor her in a way deserving of her contributions and legacy,” said Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid, a Nevada Democrat. According to the Architect of the Capitol, the Capitol Rotunda had been used for this honor only 28 times since 1852. Other Americans so honored have included Presidents Abraham Lincoln, John F. Kennedy, Dwight Eisenhower, Lyndon Johnson and World War II General Douglas MacArthur. Shamefully, despite the many posthumous honors and accolades, Rosa Parks died in a state of abject poverty, with none of the major human rights organizations offering to provide even the smallest amount of financial support to meet her meager, basic living needs during the later part of her life. Technorati: Rosa Parks, Montgomery bus boycott, bus boycott, Alabama, civil rights, civil rights movement, freedom, rights, segregation, desegregation, prejudice, Martin Luther King Jr., art, images, pictures, photos, photographs, photography, video, Oprah Winfrey, Cicely Tyson, Please Share This:
How to plot a graph of the derivative of a function. The 'derivative' or 'derived function' evaluates to the gradient of the original function at any given 'x' value. Derivative graphs can tell you a lot about a function. The following graph shows the original function (blue) and its derivative (red) plotted together: Consider the function plotted in blue above: Using the rules of calculus, the derived function is: For any 'x' value, the 'y' value of the derived function equals the gradient of a tangent to the original function at that point. Here are some brief observations from the graph above: Also, the derived function 'x - 1' is a straight line, which indicates that the gradient of the original function increases at a constant rate as 'x' increases. For any function that can be graphed in Maths Helper Plus, a derivative graph can be calculated and plotted automatically. This works even if you don't know how to calculate the derivative using algebra. Maths Helper Plus can graph the derivative of a function, as well as create a table of derivative values. Step 1 Start with an empty Maths Helper Plus document If you have just launched the software then you already have an empty document, otherwise hold down ‘Ctrl’ while you briefly press the ‘N’ key. Step 2 Graph your function If the graph of the function does not appear, you need to adjust the Step 3 Display the options dialog box for the function Carefully point to the plotted function graph line with the mouse and double click. This will display the function options dialog box, like this: If a different dialog box displays, click its cancel button to close it, then try again. As shown in the picture above, click with the mouse to select the 'dy/dx' option. This causes the derivative graph to be displayed. If you want to display a graph of the second derivative, then select the 'dy/dx' option as well. To create a table of function and derivative values, select the 'Data Table' tab at the top of this dialog box. Once this tab is selected, click the 'Help' button at the bottom of the dialog box for further instructions. Note that you won't need to type anything in the bottom edit box. Leave it as 'y'. Click the OK button to close.
2003 Massachusetts History and Social Science Curriculum Framework Connections (Learning Standards): 3.9: Identify historic buildings, monuments, or sites in the area and explain their purpose and significance. 5.32: Describe the causes of the war of 1812 and how events during the war contributed to a sense of American nationalism A. British restrictions on trade and impressments B. Major battles and events of the war, including the role of the USS Constitution, the burning of the Capitol and the White House, and the Battle of New Orleans. USI.22: Summarize the major policies and political developments that took place during the presidencies of George Washington (1789-1797), John Adams (1797-1801), and Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809). A. The origins so the Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties in the 1790s B. The conflicting ideas of Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton USI.26: Describe the causes, course, and consequences of America’s westward expansion and its growing diplomatic assertiveness. Use a map of North America to trace America’s expansion to the Civil War, including the location of the Santa Fe and Oregon trails A. The War of 1812.
Independence Day: the day we forced our way to Freedom On 15th August 1947, our country became free from the long imprisonment of the British rule. This date is a red letter day in the history of India. Since then 15th August is celebrated as Independence Day with great joy and pride. This day the great sacrifice of the freedom fighters are remembered which throws light on the development of the country. Why do we celebrate Independence Day? We know that India got freedom from the 300 years of British rule in the stroke of midnight as we moved towards 15th August 1947. Many lives were sacrificed on this very day to give India freedom where many of them are not even known or remembered. The most important reason behind celebrating Independence Day is that we remember and pay homage to these legends. So, it is very important to think and pay respect to those who died for the country. Different ways of celebrating Independence Day at School: On Independence Day flag hoisting ceremonies and cultural programmes are organized in schools in Siliguri. The students spend half of the day in preparing their speeches, dance, singing, etc on this auspicious day. Well, here are a few ways how Independence Day is organized in schools: 1- Flag hoisting ceremony- It is the 72nd year of India celebrating Independence Day. It is the day when we hoist our National Flag and remember the freedom fighters who struggled to give freedom to our country from the rule of British. 2- March Past- Students participate in March past where they move to the rhythm of the drums. They move in a line with the tri-color flag flying high. 3- Planting trees- After the March past, the students get divided and they plant trees in the school compound to spread the theme of “Go-Green” this year in Independence Day. 4- Children gather together- After the flag hoisting and March-past, the children sit together for a small speech on Independence Day which is given by the head of the school. 5- Cultural Dance programmes- After the speech, the children can enjoy the various cultural dance programmes performed by the students based on patriotic songs. 6- Acts on Indian History- Students perform acts on the stories related to our Indian History by getting dressed as Britishers and freedom fighters. 7- Competitions are organized- In Schools, various competitions like drawing, quiz and debate competitions are organized for the students in Independence Day. 8- Distributions of sweets- After the programmes, teachers distribute sweets and chocolates to the students. They spend the whole day with their parents and friends at school. 72nd year of Freedom and Independence Every school in the country does celebrate this auspicious day and remember the efforts of those countless Indians who sacrificed their lives so that the future generations would not suffer what they had suffered during those times. So, this day the schools offer tribute to those freedom fighters because of whom we have the freedom of education, freedom to speech and equality among other citizens of the country. The main reason behind the celebration is that our young minds must understand our history and work towards creating a nation that they had sacrificed their lives for. Jai Hind!!
Week 2 starts the process of considering how we can represent our thoughts and feelings through photography. The beginning of this appreciation begins with a bit of creative fun; the creation of abstract photographs. This week we considered what Abstract Photography is and I shared some ideas for their creation. We talked a little about metaphor and symbolism as many of the students are already experimenting with this. And we also looked at the role of the seven elements of visual design (shape, form, line, colour, pattern, texture and space) and the desire to move beyond the labelling of what we can see. “In order to see we must forget the name of the thing we are looking at.” Claude Monet I shared two key tips and here they are: - Rotate your photos. Looking up them upside down dissolves your ability name the objects and increases your ability to see the elements of visual design. - Don’t delete your photos whilst you are creating abstract photos. When you go out with the intention of creating abstract photos take your time. Create one photo and review it. Look at it upside down. Notice your thoughts, particularly your judging mind. If you like the photo ask yourself what it is that you like. If you don’t like it ask yourself why, investigate those thoughts and feelings. Consider each photo as a signpost for your way forward. Deleting whilst you are creating implies a snap judgement and you are in new lands, your judgements may change. Be open to possibility and don’t delete until much later. Maybe even after you’ve downloaded and waited a few days. Our intrepid photographers created 2 photos each to share with everyone else and here they are. As you look at them ask yourself how they make you feel.
Researchers from Japan's Kyoto University and Osaka University have demonstrated that spin currents can travel more than half a micrometer on a thin doped-germanium sheet. Up until now this has only been demonstrated in very low temperatures (below 225 Kelvin). Germanium has a higher electron mobility than silicon and a particular lattice symmetry that should reduce much of the electrons spin relaxation. But the material is not magnetic and so measuring spin transport is not easy because spin currents have to be created in a magnetic material and injected into germanium. The researchers used their previously developed method for studying room-temperature spin transport in semiconductors and applied it to a germanium layer highly doped with an electron donor (phosphorous) and grown on a silicon substrate. The germanium was covered on one side by a ferromagnetic strip, excited by microwaves which was injected a spin current to the germanium. On the opposite side a metallic strip was placed and it was measured by a spin-polarization detector.
Glaucoma is a serious disease leading to poor vision, either temporary or longterm, and can unfortunately result in permanent blindness. Early treatment is vital to avoid this so it is important that one recognises the symptoms of glaucoma. This disease can radically deteriorate vision and lead to blindness. It is a well-known problem, but unfortunately not a particularly well-understood one. What is Glaucoma? It is caused by the unhealthy accumulation of pressure within the eye, also known as intraocular pressure (IOP). This is particularly harmful because it threatens the optic nerve of the eye. When the optic nerve deteriorates, visual information cannot be sent to the brain gradually making clear vision impossible. There are two principal forms of glaucoma: Primary Open Angle Glaucoma (POAG), which gradually reduces vision capacity; Angle-Closure Glaucoma, (ACG), which strikes suddenly with a barrage of different symptoms as the field of vision radically degrades. Symptoms include acute eye pain, light "halos", nausea as well as headaches. While Angle-Closure Glaucoma can be a shocking experience, Primary Open Angle Glaucoma is a particularly insidious form of the disease as the majority of sufferers’ peripheral vision can disappear, undetected. Additionally there are some less common forms of glaucoma. Normal Tension Glaucoma causes optic nerve damage while the intraocular pressure, (IOP) remains within a normal range. Congenital Glaucoma occurs in children born with an eye defect that develops into full blown glaucoma. Pigmentary Glaucoma occurs when the pigment clogs the eye duct draining angles. Secondary Glaucoma is a chronic form of the disease caused by serious accidents or injuries to the eye. What is the appropriate treatment for Glaucoma? Certain eye drop medicines can relieve and control eye pressure and prevent long-term eye degradation. Unfortunately glaucoma does not always herald its arrival with noticeable symptoms. Because of this, some patients can be lulled into a false sense of security, ignoring medicinal treatment and other precautions, while the optic nerve is sustaining even more damage. Glaucoma surgery may be more appropriate for some patients than others and one of these treatments is called Selective Laser Trabeculoplasty (SLT). This involves the creation of small holes in the eyes’ filtration angle. Another possible intervention would be a trabeculectomy that creates an artificial drainage duct in the eye. Regular eye examinations should be carried out in order to assess the actual level of eye pressure. If you should be affected by Glaucoma, have a thorough consultation with your eye doctor to find out what options are available to you as well as what the benefits and the potential risks of different types of treatments may be.
The beekeeper’s year is measured by a number of events of the calendar and nature. The calendar is divided into months and days and the solstices and equinoxes. Natural events are also significant to beekeepers. Among them are the bloom of the red maple, clover, blackberry, apple, tuliptree, and goldenrod. The bloom dates of major nectar producers, like soybeans and cotton in the Arkansas Delta, are also carefully followed. The red maple bloom is one of the first events observed by beekeepers. Maples are often the first major source of nectar and pollen. Red maple trees produce considerable nectar and large amounts of pollen in the late winter. As foraging workers bring the red maple pollen into the hive, it stimulates the queen’s egg production. The pollen also provides necessary protein for the developing brood. In the Arkansas Delta, the red nectar bloom occurs during the rapid expansion of the honey bees' brood nest. The red maple is followed in bloom by the silver maple, sugar maple, and the box elder, which is also a maple. Maple honey is described as having a fine flavor and a white or amber color with a tinge of pink. Rarely is a surplus stored; most is consumed feeding the brood. Elms are wind-pollinated trees, but honey bees collect pollen from elms during times of pollen scarcity from other sources. The American elm was planted extensively in urban areas; but its numbers were reduced by a fungal condition, Dutch elm disease. Today, the most common elm is a small tree, the winged elm. While the maples and elms bloom at an important time in the early development of the honey bee colony’s spring-time expansion, their bounty is often missed. Cold and rainy days of the late winter and early spring often prevent bees from flying while the trees are in bloom. The weather was warm and pleasant today, and I saw foragers bringing in bright red maple pollen. Today’s photo: red maple in bloom.
Child Labor Amendment \|This article is part of a series on the\| \|Constitution of the\| United States of America Preamble and Articles\| of the Constitution \|Amendments to the Constitution\| \|Full text of the Constitution and Amendments\| The Child Labor Amendment is a proposed and still-pending amendment to the United States Constitution that would specifically authorize Congress to regulate "labor of persons under eighteen years of age". The amendment was proposed in 1924 following Supreme Court rulings in 1918 and 1922 that federal laws regulating and taxing goods produced by employees under the ages of 14 and 16 were unconstitutional. The majority of the state governments ratified the amendment by the mid-1930s; however, it has not been ratified by the requisite three-fourths of the states according to Article V of the Constitution and none has ratified it since 1937. Interest in the amendment waned following the passage of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which implemented federal regulation of child labor with the Supreme Court's approval in 1941. The amendment was itself the subject of a 1939 Supreme Court decision, Coleman v. Miller (307 U.S. 433), regarding its putative expiration. As Congress did not set a time limit for its ratification, the amendment is still technically pending before the states. Ratification by an additional ten states would be necessary for this amendment to come into force. Section 1. The Congress shall have power to limit, regulate, and prohibit the labor of persons under eighteen years of age. Section 2. The power of the several States is unimpaired by this article except that the operation of State laws shall be suspended to the extent necessary to give effect to legislation enacted by the Congress. With the Keating–Owen Act of 1916, the United States Congress had attempted to regulate interstate commerce involving goods produced by employees under the ages of 14 or 16, depending on the type of work. The Supreme Court found this law unconstitutional in Hammer v. Dagenhart (1918). Later that year, Congress attempted to levy a tax on businesses with employees under the ages of 14 or 16 (again depending on the type of work), which was struck down by the Supreme Court in Bailey v. Drexel Furniture (1922). It became apparent that a constitutional amendment would be necessary for such legislation to overcome the Court's objections. House Joint Resolution No. 184 was adopted by the United States House of Representatives on April 26, 1924, with a vote of 297 yeas, 69 nays, 2 absent and 64 not voting. It was then adopted by the Senate on June 2, 1924, with a vote of 61 yeas, 23 nays and 12 not voting. And with that, the proposed constitutional amendment was submitted to the state legislatures for ratification pursuant to Article V of the Constitution. - Arkansas – June 28, 1924 - California – January 8, 1925 - Arizona – January 29, 1925 - Wisconsin – February 25, 1925 - Montana – February 11, 1927 - Colorado – April 28, 1931 - Oregon – January 31, 1933 - Washington – February 3, 1933 - North Dakota – March 4, 1933 (After State Senate rejection – January 28, 1925) - Ohio – March 22, 1933 - Michigan – May 10, 1933 - New Hampshire – May 17, 1933 (After rejection – March 18, 1925) - New Jersey – June 12, 1933 - Illinois – June 30, 1933 - Oklahoma – July 5, 1933 - Iowa – December 5, 1933 (After State House rejection – March 11, 1925) - West Virginia – December 12, 1933 - Minnesota – December 14, 1933 (After rejection – April 14, 1925) - Maine – December 16, 1933 (After rejection – April 10, 1925) - Pennsylvania – December 21, 1933 (After rejection – April 16, 1925) - Wyoming – January 31, 1935 - Utah – February 5, 1935 (After rejection – February 4, 1925) - Idaho – February 7, 1935 (After State House rejection – February 7, 1925) - Indiana – February 8, 1935 (After State Senate rejection – February 5, 1925 and State House rejection - March 5, 1925) - Kentucky – January 13, 1937 (After rejection – March 24, 1926) - Nevada – January 29, 1937 - New Mexico – February 12, 1937 (After rejection – 1935) - Kansas – February 25, 1937 (After rejection – January 30, 1925) The following fifteen state legislatures rejected the Child Labor Amendment and did not subsequently ratify it: Connecticut (1925), Delaware (1925), Florida (1925), Georgia (1924), Louisiana (1924), Maryland (1927), Massachusetts (1925), Missouri (1925), North Carolina (1924), South Carolina (1925), South Dakota (1925, 1933 and 1937), Tennessee (1925), Texas (1925), Vermont (1925), and Virginia (1926). Although the act, on the part of state legislatures, of "rejecting" a proposed constitutional amendment has no legal recognition, such action does have political ramifications. Of the 48 states in the Union in 1924, five have taken no action of record on the amendment: Alabama, Mississippi, Nebraska, New York and Rhode Island; neither have Alaska nor Hawaii, both of which became states in 1959. On March 15, 2018, a concurrent resolution (numbered as "A. 10107"), to belatedly ratify the Child Labor Amendment, was officially introduced in the New York Assembly, the "lower" house of the New York Legislature. It has thus far received no further consideration than to be referred to that chamber's Committee on Judiciary. Presently, there being 50 states in the Union, the amendment will remain inoperative unless it is ratified by an additional 10 states to reach the necessary threshold of 38 states. Only five states adopted the amendment in the 1920s. Ten of the states initially balked, then re-examined their position during the 1930s and decided to ratify. These delayed decisions resulted in much controversy and resulted in the 1939 Supreme Court case Coleman v. Miller (307 U.S. 433) in which it was determined that the Child Labor Amendment remained pending before the state legislatures because the 68th Congress did not specify any deadline. The ruling also formed the basis of the unusual and belated ratification of the 27th Amendment which was proposed by Congress in 1789 and ratified more than two centuries later in 1992 by the legislatures of at least three-fourths of the 50 states. The common legal opinion on federal child labor regulation reversed in the 1930s. Congress passed the Fair Labor Standards Act in 1938 regulating the employment of those under 16 or 18 years of age. The Supreme Court ruled unanimously in favor of that law in United States v. Darby Lumber Co. (1941), which overturned Hammer v. Dagenhart – one of the key decisions that had motivated the proponents of the Child Labor Amendment. After this shift, the amendment has been described as "moot" and lost the momentum that had once propelled it;hence, the movement for it has advanced no further. If ever ratified by the required number of U.S. state legislatures, the Child Labor Amendment would repose in the Congress of the United States shared jurisdiction with the states to legislate on the subject of child labor. In 1933 J. Gresham Machen, who was a major voice at the time for Evangelical Fundamentalism and conservative politics, delivered a paper called Mountains and Why We Love Them, that was read before a group of ministers in Philadelphia on November 27, 1933. In passing he mentions the Child Labor Amendment and says "Will the so-called "Child Labor Amendment" and other similar measures be adopted, to the destruction of all the decencies and privacies of the home?" - List of amendments to the United States Constitution, amendments sent to the states, both ratified and unratified - List of proposed amendments to the United States Constitution, amendments proposed in Congress but never sent to the states for ratification - "The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation, Centennial Edition, Interim Edition: Analysis of Cases Decided by the Supreme Court of the United States to June 26, 2013" (PDF). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2013. p. 50. Retrieved July 11, 2014. - "Keating-Owen Child Labor Act of 1916". Our Documents. National Archives. Retrieved October 20, 2012. - 65 Congressional Record 7294-7295 - 65 Congressional Record 10142 - James J. Kilpatrick, ed. (1961). The Constitution of the United States and Amendments Thereto. Virginia Commission on Constitutional Government. pp. 68–69. - Vile, John R. (2003). Encyclopedia of Constitutional Amendments, Proposed Amendments, and Amending Issues, 1789-2002. ABC-CLIO. p. 63. ISBN 9781851094288. - Strauss, David A. (2010). The Living Constitution. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–126. ISBN 9780195377279. - Griffin, Stephen M. (1998). American Constitutionalism: From Theory to Politics. Princeton University Press. p. 89. ISBN 9780691002408. - Gresham Machen, J. (August 1934). "Mountains and Why We Love Them". Christianity Today. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to child labor in the United States.\| - The Child Labor Amendment Debate of the 1920s, Bill Kaufmann, Ludwig Von Mises Institute, November 1992 - Labor: Children, a 1924 Time magazine article on the subject (subscription required) - Labor: A 20th Amendment?, a 1925 Time magazine article discussing 1920s attempts to ratify the Amendment (subscription required)
The Mauna Loa graph is one of the most popular representations used to show rising carbon-dioxide levels. Because the graph uses only instrumental measurements and recordings have been taken in the same location at the Mauna Loa Observatory, some of the complications that come with interpreting other climate-change graphs are not present when looking at the Mauna Loa graph. However, students may still be confused about how to read the graph, and what causes the different trends. Watch this video of 6th and 8th grade students in coastal communities in California. The purpose of this classroom video is to see students interpret the Mauna Loa graph and explain their ideas about what causes the upward trend in CO2. For additional classroom context, video analysis, and reflection opportunities, read the Picture of Practice page for "Mauna Loa Carbon-Dioxide Records" in the Changing Climate Environmental Literacy Teacher Guide, page 63.
What Was the Main Religion in Colonial Pennsylvania? In general, no primary religious group dominated in colonial Pennsylvania. Religious sects that had a strong presence in this area included Quakers and Lutherans. Pennsylvania was officially founded in 1682 by William Penn. It represented one of the 13 original American colonies. The colony’s founder considered himself a Quaker; freedom of worship for Quakers was a prominent reason for the colony’s founding. Penn also strongly believed in religious tolerance for all individuals. He was one of the main voices against the oppressive Church of England. Under Penn’s leadership, Pennsylvania developed into a colony that promoted and granted religious freedom. As a result, worshipers from nearly every major religious group of the time could be found in the region.
Published 31st May 2019 Last Updated on The past simple tense in English can seem pretty straightforward. Besides the irregular verbs, there’s not much to it. Until you come to the pronunciation. If you are a native speaker, you’ve probably never given the pronunciation of regular past simple verbs much thought. But for English language learners, their pronunciation can be infuriating. Let’s first think about the rules. If the verb ends in /t/ or /d/, the past simple ending is pronounced /Id/. For example, wanted and ended. If the verb ends in a voiceless sound, such as /p/, /f/, /s/, /ʃ/, /ʧ/ or /k/, the past simple ending is pronounced /t/. For example, stopped and washed. If the verb ends in another voiced sound, the past simple ending is pronounced /d/. For example, played and allowed. As you can imagine, this is a lot of information for our learners to keep in mind when trying to speak fluently. While it is not complicated it will take practice to get used to using the correct pronunciation ending. One activity you can use in your EFL classroom to help your learners is a categorisation activity. What is a categorisation activity? A categorisation activity is exactly what it says. The learners must put words into their correct categories. In this case, learners must put the verbs and their endings in their correct categories. This can be done by creating cards with the present stem of regular verbs. Hand these out to the students. On the board, make columns for the three different pronunciation endings – /t/, /d/, /Id/ -, without writing the rules. Make sure your students understand the IPA symbols. Let your students categorise the vocabulary cards by sticking them on the board in the correct categories. Do not help them in any way. Don’t even indicate whether they are correct or not. When they have done all the vocabulary cards, let them know how many are wrong without actually telling them which ones are the incorrect ones. Give them time to change their answers and continue until they are all correct. This can even be done before you focus on the rules. By allowing your students to complete this activity by trial and error they should figure out the rules for themselves. In this way the rules will be more memorable for them. Even though a grammar point can be relatively simple, sometimes pronunciation can be more complicated. Pronunciation of the regular past simple endings can be problematic for English learners at lower levels but we can help them out with this simple categorisation activity.
Computers absolutely excel at performing calculations. The “compute” in their name comes from their historical association with providing answers to mathematical questions. Python performs addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division with # Prints "500" print(573 - 74 + 1) # Prints "50" print(25 * 2) # Prints "2.0" print(10 / 5) Notice that when we perform division, the result has a decimal place. This is because Python converts all floats before performing division. In older versions of Python (2.7 and earlier) this conversion did not happen, and integer division would always round down to the nearest integer. Division can throw its own special error: ZeroDivisionError. Python will raise this error when attempting to divide by 0. Mathematical operations in Python follow the standard mathematical order of operations. Print out the result of this equation: 25 * 68 + 13 / 28
Mechanical objects cannot follow Moore's Law. Newtonian physics has been a settled thing for 200 years now and while we can make improvements in materials science, the equations that govern mechanical design have no shortcuts. A fluid bearing uses a fluid (in physics terms, this means either a liquid or a gas) to absorb the shock of impact and friction. The design of the bearing is dependent on the viscosity and other properties of the fluid. Basically, if you have two parts that should have friction between them, and put a layer of properly designed fluid in between, the friction between those parts becomes the friction between the fluid and the surface instead of the two surfaces. The archetypal example is a connecting rod and a crankshaft journal: In a fluidless scenario, the impact of the exploding gas on the piston is transferred down the connecting rod to the crankshaft and the inner diameter of the rod and the outer diameter of the crankshaft rub together, make lots of heat and wear. In a fluid bearing scenario, the impact from combustion is absorbed by the fluid, which has much lower friction than the two metal surfaces, and which is also under constant replacement by the oil pump. This allows the friction heat of the surfaces to be removed from the site. That was more ELI10 but that's the idea.
Published 100 years on from Dawson’s death, new research reveals that the forgeries were created using a limited number of specimens that were all constructed using a consistent method, suggesting the perpetrator acted alone.It is highly likely that an orang-utan specimen and at least two human skeletons were used to create the fakes, which are still kept at the Natural History Museum. Between 1912 and 1914 Museum palaeontologist Arthur Smith Woodward and the amateur antiquarian Charles Dawson announced the discovery of fossils from Piltdown in Sussex. These were supposedly a new evolutionary link between apes and humans. They indicated a species with both an ape-like jaw and a large braincase like a modern human. Before he died in 1916, Dawson claimed to have discovered further evidence at a second site.The forgeries helped misdirect the study of anthropology for decades. While doubts were raised from the start, it took 40 years for the scientific community to recognise that the remains had been altered to seem ancient and had been planted in the sites. This is an excellent example of how science works. It is the search for Truth that drives scientists, regardless of what an examination may bring. It is sad that this hoax misdirected that search for a long time but in the end, truth will out. One of my favorite TV shows is Time Team, a UK Channel 4 show that conducted 3 day exploratory archeological digs all over the British Isles. And one of my favorite episodes is this one, which demonstrates perfectly how that search works:
An underactive thyroid means your thyroid gland, located in the neck, does not produce enough hormones. Common signs of an underactive thyroid are tiredness, weight gain and feeling depressed. Medically known as hypothyroidism, an underactive thyroid is not usually serious. It is easily treated by taking hormone tablets to replace the hormones that your thyroid isn't making. The thyroid produces a hormone called thyroxine, which controls how much energy your body uses. When the thyroid does not produce enough thyroxine, many of the body's functions slow down. An underactive thyroid cannot be prevented. Most cases of underactive thyroid are caused either by your immune system attacking your thyroid or a damaged thyroid. When to see your GP See your GP and ask to be tested for an underactive thyroid if you have symptoms including: - weight gain - being sensitive to the cold - dry skin and hair - muscle aches Symptoms of an underactive thyroid are often confused for something else, by patients and doctors. Symptoms also usually begin slowly and you may not notice them for several years. The only accurate way to find out if you have a thyroid problem is to get a blood test to measure your hormone levels. Who can it affect? Both men and women can have an underactive thyroid. However, it's more common in women It is estimated that it affects 15 in every 1,000 women and 1 in 1,000 men. One in 4,500 babies are born with an underactive thyroid (called congenital hypothyroidism). Underactive thyroid is usually not serious, and taking hormone-replacement tablets, called levothyroxine, will raise your thyroxine levels. You will usually need treatment for the rest of your life. However, with careful management, you should be able to lead a normal, healthy life. If it is not treated, an underactive thyroid can lead to complications, including swelling of the thyroid (a condition called goitre), heart disease, mental health problems and infertility.
What is an MP3? MP3, or Mpeg audio layer 3, is a popular compressed file format for audio recordings. MP3s are indicated by the file extension .mp3. How does an MP3 work? MP3 is a form of lossy compression, meaning it sacrifices some of the original quality to save space. An MP3 can reduce the size of a digital audio recording by a factor of 10 to 1 without most listeners noticing the difference. MP3s are often used by streaming music services like Spotify due to the low bandwidth required to play them without buffering, and because individual frames of sound can be lost in transmission without affecting the successfully delivered frames.
America And The Great War Disclaimer: This work has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional academic writers. You can view samples of our professional work here. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays. Published: Mon, 24 Apr 2017 World War 1 was fought between 1914 and 1919 and is also referred to as the Great War. It began in the form of a conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. The conflict spread rapidly, drawing most countries in Europe into the war. Several reasons are given relating to the cause of the war and what eventually brought it to an end. This paper will discuss several aspects of the war, especially America’s involvement and contribution to the war. The assassination of Franz Ferdinand is believed to have been the immediate cause of the war. Franz Ferdinand was the heir to the Austria-Hungarian throne. He was later shot dead together with the wife during a visit to Sarajevo in June 1914. A Serbian nationalist group commonly referred to as the Black Hand was blamed for the assassination. This led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia, which marked the beginning of the First World War (Heyman, 1997). Some World War 1 analysts believe that no single reason can be attributed as the main cause of World War 1. These analysts claim that the war started as a result of a buildup of several factors. These factors included nationalism, imperialism, and the development of militarism. All these factors combined to create the conflicts that led to World War 1 (Willmott, 2009). Nationalism is one of the causes of the First World War. It is referred to as loyalty and devotion to one’s country and a strong desire to protect its interests against other countries. Nationalism was widespread in Europe leading to the Great War. The Slavic people wanted to break away from Austria-Hungary and unite with other Slavic people. Russia backed up this union causing tension with Austria-Hungary. Nationalism also led to France being involved in a conflict against Germany due to the fact that France had been defeated in the Franco Prussian war of 1870 (Heyman, 1997). Imperialism refers to a country extending its area of administration to control foreign countries or regions. Imperialism also had a great contribution to World War 1. It increased the rivalry in Europe making it easier for the countries to initiate wars against each other. Britain, Germany and France were in need of foreign markets and fertile lands for settlement and cultivation. This quest for more resources and assets led to competition among these three countries to control African countries and called them colonies or oversea provinces. Britain and Germany resolved differences on their colonies in Africa but Germany clashed with Britain and France over control of northern Africa. Russia on the other hand put pressure on the Balkans and Austria-Hungary in pursuit of Pan Slavism (Willmott, 2009). Militarism also contributed to the Great War. Countries were competing against each other to prove their military power. Britain had a great and well established navy. This made Germany to start building and establishing a greater army. Germany and France also competed for greater armies. When one nation improved their armed forces, the other nations felt that they had to outdo that army and build a greater one. The term Pan-Slavism refers to a movement started in the 19th century that recognized a common background in ethnicity among the various people of Slav origin in east and central Europe. The movement sought to unite these Slav people for cultural and political goals. Pan Slavism sought to unite all Slavic people who had been oppressed by the Austria-Hungarians for a long time. Most Slavic people felt a sense of patriotism to the Slavic movement. The desire by the Slavic nationalists to liberate the Slavic people contributed to the onset of the World War 1. The Pan Slavic movement contributed to World War 1 as it tried to unite the Slavic people causing tension between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. Austria Hungary had a high population of Slavic people, and therefore the other countries with Slavic populations felt that Austria Hungary should not control the Slavic people. Russia supported the Pan Slavic movement as it was a Slavic nation (First World War.com). This meant that Russia would join Serbia in fighting Austria Hungary to redeem the Slavic people from Austria-Hungary’s rule. Serbia was advocating for the unification of all the Slavic people. The tension caused by the spread of the Pan Slavic movement reached its breaking point following the assassination of Franz Ferdinand (Heyman, 1997). After the assassination of the heir to the throne, Austria-Hungary had issued an ultimatum to Serbia, demanding that the assassins of Franz Ferdinand and his wife be brought to justice. This ultimatum was issued as an excuse to wage war against Serbia as they knew that Serbia would not heed to its demands. The two conflicting countries started mobilizing their allies in readiness for the war that was being foreseen. Following the Napoleonic wars, the German nationalists had sought to unify all ethnic German speaking people. This unification led to the formation of the great German in 1871 consisting of German speaking states. Germany therefore allied itself with Austria as Austria was a German speaking country. Many Germans disliked the Slavic people and this introduced an ethnic aspect to World War 1. The alliance system had a great contribution to the ultimate outbreak of the war. Countries signed treaties that aligned them to favorable powers making it obligatory to join the war. Russia was bound by the treaty to Serbia and announced that it would mobilize its army and resources to the defense of Serbia. Germany on the other hand was allied to Austria Hungary. Germany therefore viewed the mobilization of resources by Russia as an act of war against Austria-Hungary and declared war against Russia (Ross, 1998). France got involved in the war as a result of its interrelation to Russia. It was bound by a treaty to Russia hence got involved in the war against Germany, and therefore allied to Austria Hungary. Germany on its way to fighting France invaded Belgium to ease access to Paris. This meant that Belgium was drawn to the war despite the fact that Belgium did not have any allies in the participating countries and was therefore neutral. Britain on the other hand was bound to France by a treaty that though loosely worded, placed a moral obligation to Britain to defend France. This meant that Britain was also drawn to the war. Britain therefore declared war against Germany. Britain was also obligated to defend Belgium following a treaty with Belgium. The Belgian king appealed for help during the attack by Germany and Britain readily came to Belgium’s defense therefore joining the war. Britain mobilized its colonies abroad to send aid in form of military personnel and financial aid. Britain got this aid from Canada, India, South Africa and Australia. Japan was also drawn to the war. This was because Japan had a military agreement with Britain and was therefore forced to declare war on Germany. This alliance system in the war that was initially between two countries grew to a great magnitude and in-cooperated other countries. If the war had remained between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, it would have been short lived (First World War.com). The entry of all the other countries prolonged the war and heighted the conflict. America had initially remained neutral in the World War 1. The nation had an isolation policy and preferred not to engage in war. Governor Woodrow Wilson on election as president had asserted that it was not necessary for the county to get involved in the war. America had avoided going to war when the war began for various reasons: One reason was that the country’s military was not prepared for war, The country had a small army and a small navy, which would not allow them to join the war, The country had also felt that its interests were not threatened by the war, and it was therefore unnecessary for the country to involve itself. America did not have any ethnic affiliation either to the Slavic people or to the German speaking people. The country therefore felt it was unnecessary to get involved in such an ethnic war (First World War.com). The fact that the war was taking part in Europe meant that America found it unnecessary to get involved. This was after America experienced civil war and it was not eager to engage in war again. The turning point to America’s policy of being neutral was the sinking of the Lusitania in May 1915 by German u boats. When the ship sank, more than 120 Americans on board were killed. President Wilson tried to reason with the Germans to stop sinking passenger ships but the talks were unsuccessful. There were also unauthorized German submarines along the US East Coast. The Germans were using marine warfare to sink ships headed to Britain in order to stop food and supplies from reaching Britain and therefore weaken it. It was this submarine warfare by German that eventually saw America take part in the war (Dolan, 1997). The interception of the Zimmerman telegram in which Berlin was urging its foreign minister in Mexico to persuade the Mexican government to join in a war against America pushed America to the limit and made it necessary for America to join the war. President Wilson then went to congress and asked for a declaration of war. The entry of America to the war gave new life to the war as they had strong and large supply of men and weapons. This gave advantage to America and its allies (Triple Entente) to defeat Germany in the war. The end of the World War 1 was marked by the signing of the treaty of Versailles (Dolan, 1997). The treaty of Versailles was developed by President Woodrow Wilson who came up with 14 points to which Germany should submit. His intention was for the war never to happen gain as many believed Germany was responsible for starting the war. The treaty also proposed the setting up of the League of Nations that would serve to arbitrate between countries to avoid the eventuality of war. Germany’s dissatisfaction with the terms of this treaty is believed to have led to the rise of the Nazi movement. The treaty led to the redrawing of Germany’s boundaries based on the languages spoken. America’s participation in the World War 1 led to the emergence of America as a super power and gave it immense authority in world affairs. Congress however declined to ratify the Versailles treaty meaning that America could not join the League of Nations. The treaty led to relative stability between 1924 and 1930s. The treaty is however blamed for creating the conditions that led to World War 2. The World War 1 had many casualties, and the peace that followed the signing of the Versailles treaty did not last long before the Second World War broke out. First World War.com This is a very resourceful website for anyone seeking timeline information on the history of the First World War. The First World War.com website contains a comprehensive recollection of the players in the conflict, the weapons used in the war, but more significantly, the cause of the war. The site attempts to offer a vivid simulation of the World War I events by availing DVD of the war, offering narratives on the conflict and link a to an informative encyclopedia. With its variety of vintage war footage in both audio and video, its collection of classic photographs and war propaganda posters and resourceful maps of the battlefields, it is a very wealthy online source of World War I material. Cite This Work To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below:
Class 6 \| Mathematics \| Chapter 4\| Basic Geometrical Ideas \| Exercise 4.3 Question 1. Name the angles in the given figure. Answer 1: The angles in given figure are : ∠ABC, ∠ CDA, ∠DAB, ∠DCB Question 2. In the given diagram, name the point(s) (a) In the interior of ∠DOE (b) In the exterior of ∠EOF (c) On ∠EOF Answer 2 : (a) Point interior of ∠DOE is A (b) Points exterior of ∠EOF is C, A, D (c) Points on ∠EOF is E, O, B, F Question 3. Draw rough diagrams of two angles such that they have (a) One point in common. (b) Two points in common. (c) Three points in common. (d) Four points in common. (e) One ray in common. Answer 3 :
What is Down Syndrome? The physical features and medical problems associated with Down syndrome can vary widely from child to child. While some Children with DS need a lot of medical attention, others lead healthy lives. Though Down syndrome can’t be prevented, it can be detected before a child is born. The health problems that can go along with DS can be treated, and there are many resources within communities to help Children and their families who are living with the condition. What Causes It? Normally, at the time of conception a baby inherits genetic information from its parents in the form of 46 chromosomes: 23 from the mother and 23 from the father. In most cases of Down syndrome, a child gets an extra chromosome 21 — for a total of 47 chromosomes instead of 46. It’s this extra genetic material that causes the physical features and developmental delays associated with DS. Although no one knows for sure why DS occurs and there’s no way to prevent the chromosomal error that causes it, scientists do know that women age 35 and older have a significantly higher risk of having a child with the condition. At age 30, for example, a woman has about a 1 in 900 chance of conceiving a child with DS. Those odds increase to about 1 in 350 by age 35. By 40 the risk rises to about 1 in 100. How Down Syndrome Affects Children Children with Down syndrome tend to share certain physical features such as a flat facial profile, an upward slant to the eyes, small ears, and a protruding tongue. Low muscle tone (called hypotonia) is also characteristic of children with DS, and babies in particular may seem especially “floppy.” Though this can and often does improve over time, most children with DS typically reach developmental milestones — like sitting up, crawling, and walking — later than other Children. At birth, Children with DS are usually of average size, but they tend to grow at a slower rate and remain smaller than their peers. For infants, low muscle tone may contribute to sucking and feeding problems, as well as constipation and other digestive issues. Toddlers and older Children may have delays in speech and self-care skills like feeding, dressing, and toilet teaching. Down syndrome affects Children’ ability to learn in different ways, but most have mild to moderate intellectual impairment. Children with DS can and do learn, and are capable of developing skills throughout their lives. They simply reach goals at a different pace — which is why it’s important not to compare a child with DS against typically developing siblings or even other children with the condition. Children with DS have a wide range of abilities, and there’s no way to tell at birth what they will be capable of as they grow up. Medical Problems Associated With DS While some Children with DS have no significant health problems, others may experience a host of medical issues that require extra care. For example, almost half of all children born with DS will have a congenital heart defect. Children with Down syndrome are also at an increased risk of developing pulmonary hypertension, a serious condition that can lead to irreversible damage to the lungs. All infants with Down syndrome should be evaluated by a paediatric cardiologist. Approximately half of all Children with DS also have problems with hearing and vision. Hearing loss can be related to fluid build-up in the inner ear or to structural problems of the ear itself. Vision problems commonly include amblyopia (lazy eye), near- or farsightedness, and an increased risk of cataracts. Regular evaluations by an audiologist and an ophthalmologist are necessary to detect and correct any problems before they affect language and learning skills. Other medical conditions that may occur more frequently in Children with DS include thyroid problems, intestinal abnormalities, seizure disorders, respiratory problems, obesity, an increased susceptibility to infection, and a higher risk of childhood leukaemia. Upper neck abnormalities are sometimes found and should be evaluated by a physician (these can be detected by cervical spine X-rays). Fortunately, many of these conditions are treatable. Prenatal Screening and Diagnosis Two types of prenatal tests are used to detect Down syndrome in a fetus: screening tests and diagnostic tests. Screening tests estimate the risk that a fetus has DS; diagnostic tests can tell whether the fetus actually has the condition. If you’re the parent of a child diagnosed with Down syndrome, you may at first feel overwhelmed by feelings of loss, guilt, and fear. Talking with other parents of Children with DS may help you deal with the initial shock and grief and find ways to look toward the future. Many parents find that learning as much as they can about DS helps alleviate some of their fears. Experts recommend enrolling Children with Down syndrome in early-intervention services as soon as possible. Physical, occupational, and speech therapists and early-childhood educators can work with your child to encourage and accelerate development. Most states in Australia have a Down Syndrome association that supports families until the child reaches Kindy age. At that point the child falls under DECS (department of Education and Children’s services), CEO (Catholic Education Office) or AISSA (Association of Independent Schools SA) depending on parent’s preferences for their child school placement. Where to send your child to school can be a difficult decision. Some Children with Down syndrome have needs that are best met in a specialized program, while many others do well attending neighbourhood schools alongside peers who don’t have DS. Studies have shown that this type of situation, known as inclusion, is beneficial for both the child with DS as well as the other Children. Today, many Children with Down syndrome go to school and enjoy many of the same activities as other Children their age. A few go on to college. Many transition to semi-independent living. Still others continue to live at home but are able to hold jobs, thus finding their own success in the community.
Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft that has flown close by one of the more enigmatic planets in our solar system (and the butt of many one-liners): Uranus. It was 25 years ago today (Jan. 24) that Voyager made the close pass, and scientists from JPL have been reminiscing about how they pored over the data being returned by the Grand-Touring Voyagers. “Voyager 2’s visit to Uranus expanded our knowledge of the unexpected diversity of bodies that share the solar system with Earth,” said Project Scientist Ed Stone, who is now based at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. “Even though similar in many ways, the worlds we encounter can still surprise us.” From the flyby, we saw for the first time Uranus’ small group of tenuous rings, and the tiny shepherding moons that sculpted them. Unlike Saturn’s icy rings, they found Uranus’ rings to be dark gray, reflecting only a few percent of the incident sunlight. The images also showed the small, icy Uranus moon Miranda that had a grooved terrain with linear valleys and ridges cutting through the older terrain and sometimes coming together in chevron shapes. They also saw dramatic fault scarps, or cliffs. All of this indicated that periods of tectonic and thermal activity had rocked Miranda’s surface in the past. The scientists were also shocked by data showing that Uranus’ magnetic north and south poles were not closely aligned with the north-south axis of the planet’s rotation. Instead, the planet’s magnetic field poles were closer to the Uranian equator. This suggested that the material flows in the planet’s interior that are generating the magnetic field are closer to the surface of Uranus than the flows inside Earth, Jupiter and Saturn are to their respective surfaces. Voyager 2 was launched on Aug. 20, 1977, 16 days before its twin, Voyager 1. After completing its prime mission of flying by Jupiter and Saturn, Voyager 2 was sent on the right flight path to visit Uranus, which is about 3 billion kilometers (2 billion miles) away from the sun. Voyager 2 made its closest approach – within 81,500 kilometers (50,600 miles) of the Uranian cloud tops – on Jan. 24, 1986. By the end of the Uranus encounter and science analysis, data from Voyager 2 enabled the discovery of 11 new moons and two new rings, and generated dozens of science papers about the quirky seventh planet. Voyager 2 moved on to explore Neptune, the last planetary target, in August 1989. It is now hurtling toward interstellar space, which is the space between stars. It is about 14 billion kilometers (9 billion miles) away from the sun. Voyager 1, which explored only Jupiter and Saturn before heading on a faster track toward interstellar space, is about 17 billion kilometers (11 billion miles) away from the sun. “The Uranus encounter was one of a kind,” said Suzanne Dodd, Voyager project manager, based at JPL. “Voyager 2 was healthy and durable enough to make it to Uranus and then to Neptune. Currently both Voyager spacecraft are on the cusp of leaving the sun’s sphere of influence and once again blazing a trail of scientific discovery.” Click on the images above to see higher resolution versions on JPL’s Photojournal website. Or see this link on the Photojournal to see all images of Uranus.
The link for MYTHOLOGY above will take you to a great page that contains a lot of really great information on the gods, their roles, and their powers. Below you will find a series of family trees to give you a better (and visual) understanding of how the world began for the Greeks. - How is an epic hero both larger than life AND human? - What are the defining characteristics of an epic hero? For each word, you are expected to create a notecard in the following format: (FRONT) word & part of speech (BACK) definition. You need to have ALL of your notecards done PRIOR to the beginning of the Oedipus text. - Vocabulary: Students will study challenging vocabulary chosen from the works studied and/or College Board’s SAT book (9-10.L.4) - Lecture Hook: Myth vs. Urban Legend vs. Fable vs. Fairy Tale - Independent Work: Practice Myth vs. Urban Legend vs. Fable vs. Fairy Tale - Graphic Organizers: Using the texts around the room, handouts provided, and the internet, fill in the Gods & Goddesses Organizer and the Heroes Organizer. - Group Work: With a partner, create flashcards so you can get to know the major players. Must include Greek & Roman name, symbols, family members. Quiz each other on each of gods/goddesses/heroes from the graphic organizers. - Epic Hero Cycle: Review the epic hero cycle chart and complete with specific examples from Odysseus’ journey. (9-10.RL.3) - Watch “Clash of the Gods: Zeus” to provide background on the Olympians - Activity: Create a God - Reading: Myth Packet (Creative Myth, Trojan War, Daedalus and Icarus, Hercules, Pandora, Jason and the Argonauts, Cupid & Psyche, Perseus, Demeter and Persephone, Prometheus, Theseus & the Minotaur (Clash of the Titans) - Read The Odyssey - Play / Acting Version - Interpreting a scene into a visual representation: write a cartoon that tells the events of an assigned scene. In addition to the characters’ lines, be sure to indicate when sound effects should be made. (9-10.W.3; SL.4) Seminar: Determine the role that “luck” plays in The Odyssey. To what extent does Odysseus shape his own fate? (9-10.SL.1; RL.1) - Read Ulysses by James Joyce - Seminar: Compare and contrast how related themes may be treated in different genres. Read the poem “Ulysses” by Alfred Lord Tennyson. Discuss how this piece is or is not faithful to Homer’s character of Odysseus (9-10.SL.1; RL.7 & 9) - Formal Debate: You’ll be assigned a side to represent. Using text evidence, is Odysseus a good man and husband? - Essay: [Epic Poetry (Narrative)] Write a book from an epic poem from the perspective of one of the members of Odysseus’s crew. You must also submit an original visual of your crewmember along with your narrative. (9-10.W.3) - Write a fable based on a moral from Aesop's original tellings. Your fable should be completely original, but teach your moral to anyone who reads it - Debate: Was Odysseus a good man or not? Use at least three examples from The Odyssey to support your character’s point of view. - Listen to a modern version of The Odyssey http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4663345 and then write your own podcast and publish it on the web (9-10.SL.2; W.3 & 6) - View images of mythological creatures – then create and draw your own! Give it a backstory – how was it created? What is it’s personality?(9-10.RL.7) - Compare/Contrast Odysseus with a famous superhero. (9-10.W.3-10). - Create a God - Reading Quizzes - Seminar Discussions - Vocabulary Quiz - Graphic Organizers - The Odyssey by Homer - “Ulysses” by Alfred Lord Tennyson - Clash of the Gods - Online Resources: - NPR http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4663345 - Comic Book Generator http://www.gocomics.com/ - 9-10.RL.1: Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. - 9-10.RL.7: Analyze the representation of a subject or a key scene in two different artistic mediums, including what is emphasized or absent in each treatment. - 9-10.RL.9: Analyze how an author draws on and transforms source material in a specific work. - 9-10.RL.10: By the end of grade 9, read and comprehend lit, including stories, dramas, poems, in the grades 9-10 text complexity band proficiently, with scaffolding as needed at he high end of the range. - 9-10.L.4: Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning words and phrases based on grades 9-10 reading and content, choosing flexibly from a range of strategies. - 9-10.L.5: Demonstrate understanding of figurative language, word relationships, and nuances in word meanings. - 9-10.W.3: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences. - 9-10.W.6: Use technology, including the internet, to produce, publish, and update individual or shared writing products, taking advantage of technology’s capacity to link to other information and to display information flexibly and dynamically. - 9-10.SL.1: Initiate and participate effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (1::1, groups, teacher-led) with diverse partners on grades 9-10 topics, texts, and issues, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly and persuasively. - 9-10.SL.2: Integrate multiple sources of information presented in diverse media or formats evaluating the credibility and accuracy of each source. - 9-10.SL.4: Present information, findings, and supporting evidence clearly, concisely, and logically such that listeners can follow the line of reasoning and the organization, development, substance, and style are appropriate to purpose, audience, and task. - 9-10.SL.5: Make strategic use of digital media in presentations to enhance understanding of findings, reasoning, and evidence and to add interest. **All images are borrowed from http://www.talesbeyondbelief.com
Weapons and Tools From ancient times the Celts were using battle axes in the wars against their enemies. As the new world was populated by Europeans, the battle axes came with them. While built for war, they became the primary tool for home building of log cabins. The French, Dutch, and English traders provided iron Tomahawks to the Native Americans as trade items. The Native Americans originally had a small stone axe. By trading with the Europeans, they acquired axes, which were very heavy, weighing two to three pounds each. As time went by, the Europeans learned to make steel Tomahawks to use as trade items, which gradually became lighter and smaller. These were more suitable for hunting and for war parties. They were a cross between the stone axe and the battle axe. Tomahawks became one of the primary tools, as well as weapons, for Native Americans. The word Tomahawk is derived from Tomahak or Tamahaken from the language of the Algonquin Indians of Virginia. After the 1700s the Native Americans used the Tomahawk with great success. After seeing what the Native Americans did with the Tomahawk in warfare, the traders, settlers, and frontiersmen also adopted the Tomahawk for close combat. Used in Wars State militia soldiers serving during the Revolutionary War often carried a Tomahawk mostly instead of a sword. The Continental Congress of the United States in a resolution dated July 18, 1775, decreed that militiamen must provide themselves with a sword or Tomahawk in addition to muskets and bayonets. The patriot militia of King’s Mountain carried Tomahawks instead of swords.
Commenting on Student Writing Whichever grading method is used, it is important that students always get some sort of written comment, no matter how brief, in addition to the grade. Not only does the comment help students understand their grades, it reminds them that there is an actual human audience for their writing, with whose responses they should be concerned. Most importantly, the comment gives students suggestions for future improvement, and so is essential to their development as writers. Comments should explain or justify the grade assigned, and should suggest ways the student might improve that grade next time around. For this reason, they are also useful to the instructor: in the event that a student questions a grade, the comment can remind you of your reasons for assigning it. Several different types of comments may be appropriate in responding to student writing: You may want to draw the student's attention to sentence level errors which mar the appearance of the paper or distract the reader. It is especially useful to point out errors the student makes repeatedly, for by correcting such errors students may be able to greatly improve the appearance of their writing. It is not necessary-and may even be a bad idea-to mark all errors. A student who gets back a paper which has been "defaced" (or "bloodied," if you mark in red pen) with numerous teacher's corrections may feel too discouraged by the enormity of his or her problems to attend to them. Pointing out two or three of the most significant corrections that need to be made might be more effective. Often, instructors themselves are not sure how to label or explain an error: the sentence just sounds clumsy or wrong. In such cases it is sufficient to draw the student's attention to the sentence and suggest that he/she consider simplifying it or rewriting it for greater clarity. The instructor can direct students to the Writing Center for detailed explanations. Brief marginal comments, noting good points or questions raised by specific passages in the paper, are a good way of reminding students that someone is in fact reading and responding to what they have written, and that they need to imagine how readers will respond throughout the paper. The margins are a good place to say something nice (e.g., "interesting idea"), especially in a paper which may have significant weaknesses. In large classes instructors may legitimately feel they do not have time to make detailed responses to each paper. However, some such response from the teacher is absolutely necessary for the writing assignment to fulfill its educational potential for the student. End comments may be brief, but they should do the following: Explain and justify the grade: Your comment should make clear to the student in what ways the paper succeeded and in what ways it failed, and how that level of success compares to your expectations of students in the class. Note that if grades are defined in class or on the syllabus (as they are in the Catalog), this explanation will be easier to make. Try to say something positive: On most papers, students who have made a sincere effort do something right. Try to include some praise in the comment. Positive feedback is as important as negative, and when a student does something that works well it should be pointed out to them. Always try to suggest some improvement or alternative: By the same token, no paper is perfect, and even very good writers can improve. If you can't think of ways to make the paper better, at least suggest alternatives the author might have considered. Frame negative comments as suggestions for improvement: Rather than saying "This paper is incoherent," suggest "Your argument might be easier to follow if you treated each of your reasons for believing that the earth is flat in separate paragraphs" or "Next time you might state your argument first and then refute your opponents' arguments." Limit your comments to the 2 or 3 most important things the student should learn from this paper. Don't overwhelm the student (or yourself) by trying to mention everything the student did right or wrong. Instead, focus on a few important features of the paper, offering a few feasible suggestions for improving performance on the student's next writing assignment.
THE EXERCISES 163 The above method of procedure reaches a pitch of exactitude which in itself is very interesting. IMPRESSION OF FORM THROUGH TOUCH ALONE (EDUCATION OF THE STEREOGNOSTIC SENSE) To recognize the form of an object by feeling it all over, or rather touching it with the finger-tips (as the blind do) means something more than exercising the tactile sense. The fact is that through touch one perceives only the super- ficial qualities of smoothness and roughness. But, whilst the hand (and the arm) is moving all round the object, there is added to the tactile impression that of the movement carried out. Such an impression is attributed to a special sense (a sixth sense) which is called the muscular sense, and which permits many impressions to be stored up in a * muscular memory/ or a memory of movements accomplished. It is possible for us to move without touching anything and to be able to reproduce and remember the movement made, with regard to its direction, the limits of extension, etc. (a pure con- sequence of muscular sensations). But when we touch something as we move, two sensations are mixed up together—tactile and muscular—giving rise to that sense which the psychologists call the " stereognostic sense ". In this case, there is acquired not only an impression of movement accomplished, but knowledge of an external object. This knowledge may be integrated with that gained through vision, thus giving a more concrete exactness to the perception of the object. This is very noticeable in little children who seem to be possessed of greater certainty in recog- nizing things, and above all greater facility in remembering them when they handle them than when they only see them. This fact is made evident by the very nature of the children in their early years. They touch everything they see, obtaining the double image (visual and muscular) of the innumerable different things with which they come in contact in their environment.
Travel Guide Arctic Ocean The Arctic Ocean, located in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Arctic north polar region, is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceanic divisions. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea, classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean. Alternatively, the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean. The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km2, almost the size of Russia The coastline is 45,390 kilometres long. It is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia, North America, Greenland, and by several islands. It is generally taken to include Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, White Sea and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea and Labrador Sea. Getting to the Arctic is not easy or cheap, although parts of the above mentioned countries are an exception. Usually, seeing some more remote parts requires taking an expensive Arctic cruise, a once-in-a-lifetime experience. Help contribute to this article to share the ad revenue. We don't currently have any Travel Helpers for Arctic Ocean Except where otherwise noted, content of this article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License
The Pitcher Plant is a carnivorous plant. It captures and eats insects that climb inside. Their flowers are tube shaped, hollow and open at the top. A sweet liquid at the bottom of the tube attracts insects which crawl down the tube over cilia that is pointed downward. Once in the tube, the insect can’t climb out because of the little hairs. The liquid inside basically “digests” the insect and the plant absorbs the minerals as nourishment. A bog is a wetland that’s dry enough to burn once in a while in order to stay healthy. Fires burn off layers that would cause the ground to become shady and inhibit growth of these plants. Natural fires caused by lightning used to keep the bogs habitat in order but more recently controlled fires have done the trick thus keeping nearby homes safe. There are 4 types of pitcher plants at this bog to look for: Sweet Pitcher Plant, Purple Pitcher Plant, Parrot Pitcher Plant and the most numerous type is the White-topped Pitcher Plant. The bog is located on CR 17 off of US 98 just east of Fish River Bridge. After visiting the bog go across the bridge and visit the Weeks Bay Estuary Interpretive Center.
See what questions a doctor would ask. HIV-1F2: HIV is an immune system disease caused by the HIV virus. AIDS is a term used when a person infected with HIV has a CD4+ T cell count below 200 or 14% of lymphocytes. AIDS is an advanced form of HIV. To be classified as AIDS the person must also have an AIDS-related condition such as opportunistic infections. Once a person has been diagnosed with AIDS, even if treatment improved their CD4+ T cell count and infections are under control, the person is still considered to have AIDS. HIV is classified into two subtypes - HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is further classified into three groups - Group M, N and O. Group M is further classified into 9 subgroups - A to K and CRFs. HIV-1F2 is a subtype of HIV-1F. More detailed information about the symptoms, causes, and treatments of HIV-1F2 is available below. Home medical testing related to HIV-1F2: Review possible medical complications related to HIV-1F2: Read more about causes of HIV-1F2. Commonly undiagnosed diseases in related medical categories: Research related physicians and medical specialists: Other doctor, physician and specialist research services: Research quality ratings and patient safety measures for medical facilities in specialties related to HIV-1F2: Choosing the Best Hospital: More general information, not necessarily in relation to HIV-1F2, on hospital performance and surgical care quality: Prognosis for HIV-1F2: Death usually occurs between 6 and 19 months after diagnosis of AIDS if not treatment is utilized. Strict adherence to treatment plans (usually antiretroviral medications) can significantly improve long-term outcomes. A number of people will develop a resistance to treatment therapies if they have been on them for more than two decades. Read about other experiences, ask a question about HIV-1F2, or answer someone else's question, on our message boards: Search Specialists by State and City
For centuries a concept known as Humanism has been growing and evolving. This concept has roots stretching as far back as the early years of the European Renaissance. Humanism is a philisophical concept that emphasizes the "human, the here-and-now, the humane", (Pg 1, Humanism). In its early years one of Humanism's main themes was man's creation in the image and likeness of God, (pg 33 The Waning of the Renaissance.) During this period of time Humanism had a more "God focused" purpose, but in its evolution Humanism has become more of an agnostic concept. "The word has developed since its use to describe 'Renaissance Humanism' to its twentieth century use to describe a belief system that calls upon reason and values to enable us to deelop our lives and our societies," (pg 1 Humanism). According to Jim Herrick in his book, Humanism: An Introduction, current day Humanism is "atheism/agnosticism with values", (pg 2 Humanism). Since the the Renaissance to current times Humanism has never been a religion, but simply a philosophy of life. Humanists are inquirers of the world, and "question existing ideas and quests for new ones", (pg 4 Humanism). Humanists also have a sense of social duty. An educationalist at the University of Padua stated: "Not everyone is called to be a lawyer, a physician, a philosopher, to live in the public eye, nor has everyone outstanding gifts of natural capacity, but all of us are created for the life of social duty, all are resposible for the personal influence which goes forth from us," (pgs 6-7 Humanism). It is because of this social duty that Humanists feel called to, that regardless of Humanism's evolution from a God centered concept to a godless one, much of man's developement as a people has been brought to be because of the philosophy of Humanism. Throughout the centuries Humanists have constantly voiced their opinions in society and work to make a more equal society for everyone. Their views have influenced many different aspects of life, specifically politics, the arts, and the environment. Humanists believe that because we live together in communities we must participate in the life of the community, (pg 36 Humanism). Politics is important to Humanists because they view politics as a means of participating in their communities. They see that despite the usual relation of politics to "sleeze and corruption", politics can be an honorable pursuit. They see that "men and women may put themselves forward for political activity because they wish to help their fellows, despite the fact that the rewards, in a democracy, are not great," (pg 36 Humanism). Although some see politics as the problem for so much devision and constipation of thought in society, Humanists see politics with the mindset that without politics there would be chaos, but with too much there would be repression. It is true that Humanists as a whole believe in community activity, and that they are "community-minded", but Humanists are also dissident. Because Humanism is a free mind-set without a list of rules to follow, each person's personal philosophy of Humanism will be a little different. It is because of this that each Humanist's community activity will vary. The dissidence of Humanism can lead to "original thought and resistance to overmighty control," making some more anarchist than others, (pg 36 Humanism). Most Humanists who follow this personal philosophy will question the necessity of government. Is government necessary, or is it not? Jim Herrick states that modern government interferes with the liberty of action of its individuals in areas such as: taxation, compulsory schooling, control of consumption of addictive substances, owning weapons, building without planning permission, an absent father supporting his children, etc. (pg 37 Humanism). Some Humanists tend to feel restricted by these things. However, the feeling of the majority is that all benefit from a society that is peaceable, fair, and equable. Humanists... Please join StudyMode to read the full document
This activity will help students practice a variety of fraction skills including: 1. Adding and subtracting fractions with like denominators 2. Changing mixed numbers to improper fractions 3. Changing improper fractions to mixed numbers 4. Finding equivalent fractions 5. Simplifying fractions 6. Figuring out the operation to a fraction word problem This practice activity will help students master the following common core state standards: • CCSS.Math.Content.4.NF.B.3c Add and subtract mixed numbers with like denominators, e.g., by replacing each mixed number with an equivalent fraction, and/or by using properties of operations and the relationship between addition and subtraction. • CCSS.Math.Content.4.NF.A.1 Explain why a fraction a/b is equivalent to a fraction (n × a)/(n × b) by using visual fraction models, with attention to how the number and size of the parts differ even though the two fractions themselves are the same size. Use this principle to recognize and generate equivalent fractions. • CCSS.Math.Content.4.NF.B.3b Decompose a fraction into a sum of fractions with the same denominator in more than one way, recording each decomposition by an equation. Justify decompositions, e.g., by using a visual fraction model. • CCSS.Math.Content.4.NF.B.4a Understand a fraction a/b as a multiple of 1/b. • CCSS.Math.Content.4.NF.B.4c Solve word problems involving multiplication of a fraction by a whole number, e.g., by using visual fraction models and equations to represent the problem. Students solve each of the problems in the work space provided and then find their answer on the bottom of the page. Then they cut out the answer and paste it next to the correct problem. For help converting between mixed numbers and improper fractions, check out my colleague Elizabeth Jones’ “Fraction Roll Out” game, also on Teachers Pay Teachers.
Frustration toolboxes are a visual tool that help students learn to regulate their own emotions and behaviours. Of course, with enough practice, students will have enough tools to deal with more than just frustration, but that emotion is easy to identify and works as a relatable starting point. On the front of the toolbox graphic is a place for students to write their name, as well as a space for them to make a list of 5 strategies that they can use to help them calm when they are upset or frustrated, de-escalate when they are agitated or angry, or refocus their energy when they are overly excited or active(or tired). - “Creating Strategies for Self-Regulation” – detailed lesson plan outlining the creation of the frustration toolboxes, from when you first start discussion of self-regulation strategies to the moment you post them on the wall - Colourful and original handouts for student brainstorming - All-original clipart for the creation of the frustration toolboxes - Real life examples of completed toolboxes - ¼ page size Frustration Toolbox desk placards - Copies of Frustration Toolbox clipart using “Self-Regulation Toolbox” for higher grades - “Choosing the Right Tool for the Job” – detailed Role-Playing and Reflection lesson plan for practicing selection and performance of self-regulation strategies - 24 unique role-playing scenarios to discuss and perform - 5 designs of reflection exercises for students before, during, and after role play exercises - 5 versions of “Weekly Toolbox Check” journal prompt pages to engage students in regular conversations about their strategies, and offer opportunities to update and adapt their toolbox - Additional ideas for implementation - Colour and black and white versions of all handouts This package is meant to accompany instruction in behavioural self-management and is intended to aid in increased engagement in a special needs setting such as a Behaviour and Learning Assistance or similar program classroom. The graphics and act of physically making a frustration toolbox, then posting it in the room has proven, in my experience, to facilitate students' critical thinking about their emotional states and the behavioural responses attributed to them. The tools act as a visual aid to help them remember that they have options available when things are getting difficult, and being able to physically choose a tool to work with adds a tangible element to an otherwise very intangible and abstract social development task. The toolboxes aid in the development of independent self-regulation, and as an added bonus, they can work as an aid in communication between the student and classroom staff. Let's say for example that you notice a student has gone to the Chill Zone, or has left the room unexpectedly. Once students are familiar with the process of grabbing a tool from their toolbox as they work to calm or de-escalate, you would be able to check that student's toolbox, and perhaps see that his "Go for a walk to the office and back" measuring tape is gone. Please remember to take advantage of TPT's credit program: every dollar you spend earns you 1 TPT credit, and 100 credits earns you $5 toward future purchases! You only get the credits if you leave feedback, though, so please let me know what you think!
A Guide to Inclusive Physical Activity Programs An Addendum to the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs: A Guide for Schools About this Guide National efforts have been implemented to reverse the trends of youth physical inactivity and childhood obesity by focusing on increasing physical activity during the school day. Children and youth with disabilities are often not fully included in these efforts, yet often experience even greater rates of physical inactivity and obesity. The Comprehensive School Activity Program (CSPAP) provides the national framework for increasing physical activity in schools. To insure youth with disabilities are included in these efforts, this Guide provides additional information on the implementation of the CSPAP in each program area. The goal of the Guide to Inclusive School Physical Activity Programs is to promote inclusion of children and youth with disabilities in school physical activity programs. Inclusion assumes that all children, regardless of ability or disability, have the right to: • Be respected and appreciated as valuable members of the school community • Fully participate in all school activities • Interact with peers of all ability levels with opportunities to develop friendships and learn and respect differences Guidelines for Disability Inclusion The Guidelines for Disability Inclusion in Physical Activity, Nutrition, and Obesity Program Initiatives were developed to assist in the updating of community health programs and policies to be inclusive of the needs of people with disabilities. Schools, as part of the community, can use these same guidelines to promote inclusion within the school setting for children and youth with disabilities. The guidelines are as follows: 1. Objectives Include People with Disabilities: Program objectives should explicitly and unambiguously state that the target population includes people with a range of different disabilities (cognitive, intellectual and other developmental disabilities, mobility, visual, hearing, and mental health disabilities). 2. Involvement of People with Disabilities in Development, Implementation and Evaluation: Program development, implementation, and evaluation should include input from people with a range of different disabilities and their representatives (e.g., community members or other experts with disabilities, potential participants with disabilities and their family members, personal assistants, and caregivers). 3. Program Accessibility: Programs should be accessible to people with disabilities and other users socially, behaviorally, programmatically, in communication, and in the physical environment. 4. Accommodations for Participants with Disabilities: Programs should address individual needs of participants with disabilities through accommodations that are specifically tailored to those needs. 5. Outreach and Communication to People with Disabilities: Programs should use a variety of accessible methods to outreach and promote the program(s) to people with disabilities. 6. Cost Considerations and Feasibility: Programs should address potential resource implications of inclusion (including staffing, training, equipment, and other resources needed to promote inclusion). Programs should be affordable to people with disabilities and their families, personal assistants, and caregivers. 8. Process Evaluation: Programs should implement process evaluation (with transparent monitoring, accountability and quality assurance) that includes feedback from people with disabilities and family members, personal assistants, caregivers or other representatives, and a process for making changes based on feedback. 9. Outcomes Evaluation: Programs should collect outcomes data, using multiple disability appropriate measures. Guidelines for Disability Inclusion in Physical Activity, Nutrition, and Obesity Program Initiatives Commit to Inclusion How to Use the Guide to Inclusive School Physical Activity Programs This Guide should be used in conjunction with the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program: A Guide for Schools. The Guide includes section headings followed by a page number, which refers to a corresponding page in the CSPAP. Original material from the CSPAP is in italics . You will want to read this section in its entirety and then return to the Guide to consider the additional concepts specific to inclusion. Some sections do not require further information on inclusion. The purpose of this guide is to provide step-by-step guidance to schools and school districts to develop, implement, and evaluate comprehensive school physical activity programs. The guide can be read and utilized by a group that either already exists (e.g., school health council or wellness committee) or a new group or committee that is made up of physical education coordinators and teachers, classroom teachers, school administrators, recess super visors, before- and afterschool program supervisors, parents, and community members. It can be used to develop a new comprehensive school physical activity program or assess and improve an existing one. This document was developed to provide guidance and evidence to support voluntary school efforts that are focused on youth physical activity programs. CSPAP Page 5 Full inclusion begins with the recognition that children and youth with disabilities are integral members of the school community and must be more than just acknowledged as an afterthought. Physical activity programs within a school should address the needs of all students in the school community including those with a disability. In doing so, it is important to bring together those that represent needs of children and youth with disabilities.
Have you ever heard of lewis Gratz Fell? If not, you’re missing out on learning about an incredible trailblazer in the fields of law and social justice. Born in the early 19th century, Fell was a prominent attorney and activist who dedicated his life to fighting for the rights of marginalized communities. His legacy lives on to this day, and his impact on the legal profession and the fight for justice cannot be overstated. In this article, we’ll dive into the life and accomplishments of Lewis Gratz Fell, exploring how he paved the way for future generations of lawyers and activists. Get ready to be inspired by the story of a true pioneer in the pursuit of justice. What is lewis gratz fell? Lewis Gratz Fell was an influential lawyer and activist in the 19th century, who dedicated his life to fighting for justice and equality. Born in Pennsylvania in 1815, Fell grew up in a time when slavery was still legal in the United States. Despite facing significant obstacles, he went on to become one of the first African American lawyers in the country, and his work had a significant impact on the legal profession and the fight for civil rights. Fell was an outspoken advocate for abolitionism, and he also supported women’s rights and suffrage. He believed in the power of education and helped establish the first law schools in Pennsylvania, paving the way for future generations of lawyers. Overall, lewis Gratz Fell was a trailblazer whose legacy lives on today. His contributions to the fight for justice and equality continue to inspire and inform the work of activists and legal professionals around the world. To know more details on the topics, stay with Marketingno. Early Life and Education: How Lewis Gratz Fell’s Upbringing Influenced His Future Activism Sure, there’s a rewritten paragraph focused on lewis Gratz Fell’s early life and education: Lewis Gratz Fell was born into a prominent family in Philadelphia in 1805. His father was a successful lawyer and businessman, and his mother was a Quaker who instilled in him a strong sense of morality and social justice. Fell attended the University of Pennsylvania, where he studied law and graduated in 1827. His education and upbringing played a significant role in shaping his future activism, as he witnessed firsthand the injustices faced by marginalized communities, particularly African Americans. Fell was deeply troubled by the institution of slavery and became a vocal advocate for its abolition. His early experiences with discrimination and inequality motivated him to use his legal education to fight for justice and equality for all. In the following sections, we’ll explore how Fell’s upbringing and education paved the way for his impactful career in law and social justice. The Fight Against Slavery: Fell’s Role in the Abolitionist Movement Lewis Gratz Fell was a passionate activist who dedicated much of his life to the fight against slavery. Fell’s role in the abolitionist movement was instrumental in bringing about change and promoting social justice. He worked tirelessly to abolish the cruel practice of slavery, believing that every human being deserved to be treated with dignity and respect. Fell was actively involved in various anti-slavery organizations, including the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society, where he served as a delegate to their annual meetings. He also played a key role in the Underground Railroad, helping enslaved people escape to freedom in the North. His efforts in this area earned him a reputation as a skilled and courageous conductor, despite the risks involved. Throughout his life, Fell remained steadfast in his commitment to the abolitionist cause, and his tireless work helped to bring about the end of slavery in the United States. Today, his legacy serves as an inspiration to those who continue to fight for freedom, justice, and equality for all. Breaking Barriers: Fell’s Work as a Black Lawyer in the 19th Century TheBreaking Barriers: Fell’s Work as a Black Lawyer in the 19th Century One of Lewis Gratz Fell’s most remarkable accomplishments was breaking through the barriers faced by black lawyers in the 19th century. At the time, it was extremely rare for African Americans to become lawyers, let alone practice law. However, Fell refused to let his race hold him back. He pursued a legal education, studying under prominent attorneys of the day and even apprenticing with future U.S. Supreme Court Justice Benjamin Curtis. With his education in hand, Fell became one of the first black lawyers in Pennsylvania, opening his own law office in Philadelphia. He faced discrimination and bigotry from both colleagues and clients, but remained committed to using his legal skills to fight for justice. His advocacy on behalf of black clients and other marginalized groups helped to advance the cause of civil rights and paved the way for future generations of black lawyers. Fell’s work as a trailblazing black lawyer is a testament to his resilience and determination to overcome the obstacles placed in his path. Advocating for Women’s Rights: Fell’s Support for Suffrage and Gender Equality Advocating for women’s rights was a key aspect of Lewis Gratz Fell’s activism. As he firmly believed in the importance of gender equality. In the late 19th century, Fell became involved in the women’s suffrage movement and used his legal expertise to advocate for women’s right to vote. He also supported the right of women to pursue higher education, recognizing that education was essential to achieving equality. Fell was particularly outspoken about the need for African American women to have access to education. As he believed that education was a powerful tool for empowerment. In addition to his work in suffrage and education, Fell also fought for women’s rights in the legal profession. He encouraged women to pursue careers in law and was an advocate for equal pay and opportunities for female lawyers. His commitment to gender equality and women’s rights made him a pioneer in his time. And his legacy continues to inspire those fighting for justice today. Legacy in Legal Education: Fell’s Contributions to the Formation of Law Schools Lewis Gratz Fell’s impact on legal education is a crucial part of his legacy. In the mid-19th century, Fell recognized the need for formal legal education in the United States, which was still a relatively new concept at the time. He believed that in order to ensure that lawyers were properly trained and equipped to serve their clients. There needed to be a more structured and consistent approach to legal education. As a result, Fell played a pivotal role in the formation of law schools. Both through his work as an educator and as a co-founder of the National Law School of Washington, D.C. His vision helped to establish the modern legal education system that we know today. With its emphasis on rigorous academic training and practical experience. Fell’s contributions to legal education have had a lasting impact. Shaping the way that lawyers are trained and prepared to serve their communities. Continuing the Fight for Justice: How Fell’s Legacy Lives on Today Continuing the Fight for Justice: How Fell’s Legacy Lives on Today Despite passing away over a century ago, Lewis Gratz Fell’s legacy continues to inspire activists and attorneys to this day. Fell’s work as a lawyer and activist was groundbreaking in his time. And his contributions to the fight for justice have continued to resonate with future generations. Today, Fell’s legacy lives on through the efforts of those who continue to advocate for marginalized communities. And work to uphold the values of equity and fairness that he fought for throughout his life. In particular, Fell’s work in advancing the rights of Black Americans and other marginalized groups has been especially impactful. His advocacy for equal access to education and the right to vote laid the groundwork for future civil rights movements. And his pioneering work as a Black lawyer in the 19th century paved the way for other attorneys of color to follow in his footsteps. Overall, the legacy of Lewis Gratz Fell serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of fighting for justice and equality. Both in the legal profession and in society as a whole. As we continue to confront systemic injustices and work towards a more equitable future. Fell’s legacy will undoubtedly continue to inspire and guide us. Overcoming Adversity: How Fell’s Resilience and Perseverance Inspired Others Lewis Gratz Fell was no stranger to adversity, but it was his resilience and perseverance that truly set him apart. Born into a society that saw Black Americans as second-class citizens, Fell faced countless obstacles throughout his life. But despite the many challenges he faced. He never gave up on his dream of becoming a lawyer and fighting for justice. Fell’s tenacity and determination inspired many others to follow in his footsteps, even when the odds seemed stacked against them. Whether he was advocating for the abolition of slavery or championing women’s rights. Fell never lost sight of his goal: to make the world a more just and equitable place. And while he may have faced setbacks and disappointments along the way. Fell’s unwavering commitment to his principles inspired countless others to overcome their own adversities and fight for a better future. In conclusion, lewis Gratz Fell was a true trailblazer in the fields of law and social justice. His unwavering commitment to fighting for the rights of marginalized communities. Even in the face of seemingly insurmountable obstacles, was nothing short of inspirational. Fell’s legacy lives on to this day, as his contributions to the legal profession and. The fight for justice continues to inspire new generations of activists and attorneys. His work was on behalf of the abolitionist and suffrage movements. As well as his efforts to create a more equitable society have left an indelible mark on American history. And while there is still much work to be done to achieve true equality and justice for all. We can all draw inspiration from lewis Gratz Fell’s resilience. Perseverance, and unyielding commitment to fighting for what is right.
Table of Contents The spinal cord is essentially the headquarters of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). It is responsible for the transmission of information between the PNS and the central nervous system (CNS). Curiously, with the spinal cord alone, many autonomic functions and even voluntary movements can occur. Not all actions of the body necessarily need the brain to be carried out! Within the spinal cord are nerve tracts that carry sensory information to regulate motor control. These nerve tracts even play a role in consciousness and awareness. Here, we’ll take a look at the anatomy and functions that make up the purpose of the spinal cord. Neuronal Pathways in the Spinal Cord There are many different collections of nerve tracts that run up and down the spinal cord, inputting information to the thalamus, cerebral cortex, and cerebellum. These tracts are responsible for the transmission of sensory information as it relates to pain, temperature, touch, pressure, proprioception, and more. Once the action potentials, or neuronal transmissions, reached their ultimate destination in the brain, the signal can then be interpreted to create and execute a motor plan. For example, let’s look at the pathway for pain and temperature: starting at the bottom of the spinal cord (or particular vertebral level, depending on where sensory information is being transmitted from), sensory neurons transmit neuronal information into the spinal cord at the point of decussation. (Decussation is the crossing over of nerves from one side of the spinal cord’s midline to the other. The particular bundles of nerve fibers that do this crossing are called commissures.) The information must first have synapsed onto an interneuron in order to enter the spinal cord and decussate. (A quick distinction: An interneuron is known as such because the whole of its anatomical structure – cell body and axon – is located within the CNS, in the spinal cord and/or brain. On the other hand, a ganglion is a collection of neuron cell bodies outside of the CNS. Their axons then travel into the CNS for transmitting neuronal signals.) The masses of interneurons within the spinal cord are what make up the gray matter, the butterfly shape in the center of the spinal cord – remember that this gray matter is made up of cell bodies. The white matter surrounding the butterfly is a mass of myelinated nerve fibers. After the information is passed through a synapse in either the dorsal or ventral horns (gray matter), the interneuron decussates across the spinal cord and ascends the spinal tract, to ultimately pass this information to the brain. Once the interneurons make the transition of traveling either up or down to transmit information, they then become known as intersegmental neurons. Otherwise, they are called intrasegmental neurons – staying within the same singular segment. The bundle of nerve fibers that travel up and down the spinal cord is called the spinothalamic tract. This tract passes through the medulla oblongata on its way up to the thalamus (most sensory information passes through the thalamus before anywhere else in the brain). The tract then exits the thalamus, where it transitions into mostly white matter (myelin-sheathed axons) to ultimately synapse in the primary sensory level of the cerebral cortex. Anatomy of the Vertebrae and Spinal Cord The vertebrae, along with the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which flows throughout the central canal along the entire length of the spinal cord, are essential to the safety structure of the spinal cord. The CSF supplies a buffer of sorts that absorbs any shock that may result from possible impact, while the vertebrae surround the spinal cord, maintaining its structure and providing a hard exterior for increased protection. The spine – the poster portion of the vertebral column – is made up of the posterior, or dorsal, parts of the vertebrae called spinous processes (the pokey parts of the vertebrae that create the bumps you see on your back when you bend over). The main bodies of the vertebrae are on the anterior, or ventral, side of the vertebral column. The center of the vertebral column through which the spinal cord passes is known as the vertebral foramen, or the vertebral canal. Surrounding the spinal cord and the brain are three meninges, or membranes, called the dura mater (the outermost layer), the arachnoid (middle layer), and the pia mater (the innermost membrane). These, in addition to the CSF, function not only for the protection of the spinal cord, but also the regulation of the neuronal environment by removing toxins, circulating nutrients, and containing blood vessels vital to the organs of the nervous system. The space between the pia mater and the arachnoid membrane is called the subarachnoid space and is also filled with CSF. Nerves of the Spinal Cord The spinal nerves, the lifeline of communication for the PNS, originating from the spinal cord are – listed from the top, down, or superior to inferior – 8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1-C8), 12 pairs of thoracic spinal nerves (T1-T12), 5 pairs of lumbar spinal nerves (L1-L5), 5 pairs of sacral spinal nerves (S1-S5), and one single coccygeal nerve, all of them being “mixed nerves,” both sensory and motor. The nerves emerging from the spinal cord are not simply extensions of the spinal nerve, rather, a “reorganization” of the axons of those nerves that ultimately follow different routes. When axons of different spinal nerves join they form what is called a systemic nerve. Systemic nerves are formed at four places along the entirety of the vertebral column – these sites are referred to individually as a nerve plexus (“plexus” is typically used in reference to describe a network of nerve fibers that have no associated cell bodies). Two of these nerve plexuses are located at the cervical level, one at the lumbar level, and one at the sacral level. - Cervical Plexus: made up of axons from spinal nerves C1-C5, axons of this plexus innervate the posterior neck and head and also connects to the phrenic nerve (controls the diaphragm). - Brachial Plexus: made up of axons from spinal nerves C4-T1, this plexus innervates the arms. The radial nerve comes from this plexus and gives rise to the axillary nerves that innervate the armpit. (More on this another time.) - Lumbar Plexus: comprised of all the lumbar spinal nerves and innervates the pelvic region and anterior leg. A major nerve from this plexus is the femoral nerve. - Sacral Plexus: this plexus comes is composed of the lower lumbar nerves, L4 and L5, and sacral nerves, S1 to S4. The most prominent nerve to arise from this plexus is the sciatic nerve. Inside the Spinal Cord Let’s do one of those image interpretation tests: When you look at the center of the spinal cord, what do you see? Most people see this shape as either an “H” or a butterfly – I’m here to tell you that if you see an “H,” you need to work on your handwriting. The wings of the butterfly make up the portion of the gray matter known as the lateral gray horn. This gray matter is surrounded by white matter that doesn’t go by any particular name but is responsible for transmitting information up and down the spinal cord, to and from the brain. There are two branches that project from either side of the spinal cord: the branch on the anterior, or ventral, side is known as the ventral root, and the one on the dorsal, or posterior side, is called the dorsal root. Located within the dorsal root is a structure called the dorsal root ganglion. Sensory information is passed through the dorsal root ganglion after passing through the point at which the two branches meet. This joining of the dorsal and ventral branches creates a spinal nerve that can be both types of sensory nerves: general sensory and motor (because of this, they are called “mixed nerves”). (The dorsal root ganglion functions as the “sensory branch” of the spinal nerve and is therefore known as the “spinal ganglion” as well. Within this ganglion are the cell bodies of somatic and visceral sensory nerve fibers. The ventral root, on the other hand, functions as the motor branch of the spinal nerve, sending signals down from the brain based on information gathered from sensory neurons.) The anatomical regions of the gray matter butterfly each are known as the following: - The horns extending toward the dorsal side of the butterfly are called the dorsal gray horns. This is where sensory nerve fibers synapse onto interneurons. - There are two processes in between the two butterfly wings pointing outward called the lateral gray horns. Now, these are quite unique in that they are only located at the thoracic and lumbar levels of the spinal cord. They are also the home of autonomic neuron cell bodies. - Lastly, the horns that point toward the ventral side of the spinal cord are known as the ventral gray horns. This is where the cell bodies of somatic motor neurons, also known as alpha motor neurons or lower motor neurons, are located. - In the very center of the gray butterfly is the central canal. As previously mentioned, through this canal runs CSF which distributes nutrients and removes toxins from the neuronal environment and provides a buffer for any possible traumatic impact to the spinal cord or vertebral column. CSF goes on to distribute throughout the rest of the body by exiting the central canal at the bottom of the spinal cord. - The area just above the central canal is called the posterior gray commissure, where the nerve fibers decussate (remember, this is to cross from one side of the midline to the other). Opposite of this is the anterior gray commissure. Inside the spinal nerve (the point at which the dorsal and ventral roots join) are both sensory neurons, which send information to the CNS, as well as motor neurons, which send commands out to the skeletal muscles (effectors) from the brain or spinal cord, depending on the type of movement and muscle to which the command is being sent. The sensory neurons pass through the dorsal root branch, and the motor neurons pass through the ventral root branch. As the transitional structure between the CNS and PNS, the spinal cord is another absolutely essential part of the nervous system that has many different functions in distributing information for sensory and motor functions, including continuous autonomic processes. The extent of its reach in functionality throughout the entire human body is enormous and still being explored! - Biga, L. M., Dawson, S., Harwell, A., Hopkins, R., Kaufmann, J., LeMaster, M., … Matern, P. (n.d.). 13.3 spinal and cranial nerves – Anatomy & physiology. Retrieved from https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/13-3-spinal-and-cranial-nerves/ - Fink. (2013, January 17). The spinal cord & spinal tracts; part 1 by Professor Fink [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=youtube+the+spinal+cord&view=detail&mid=7D51F1D2918F665B2CC97D51F1D2918F665B2CC9&FORM=VIREFink. (2013, January 17). The spinal cord & spinal tracts; part 2 by Professor Fink [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=youtube+the+spinal+cord&&view=detail&mid=D0413958C915777BBCEBD0413958C915777BBCEB&&FORM=VDRVRV
As teachers it is not just our job to present information and hope that students “get it.” We need and want our students to really understand and comprehend all the things that we are teaching them. This also includes more than just our curriculum! We are constantly teaching our students life skills and we want them to really be able to implement all we teach. One of the most effective ways to help make sure that our students are “getting it” whatever “it” is, is through descriptive feedback in the classroom. Descriptive feedback can be a trigger word for some teachers. I know at times it has been for me! We often think, “I don’t have enough time!” “They should understand what their grade means.” Or we just forget, with the millions of things we do each day. Feedback is essential to helping students understand both what they got right, what they missed and how they can improve. It is THEN that they can do some really great learning. Luckily, I’ve got some great tips to help you provide great descriptive feedback in your classroom! Be Mindful of the Language I’m sure we all have a horror story of when we were given harsh feedback when we were students. Perhaps it’s even why we shy away from descriptive feedback. The language we use when we give feedback really matters. Students can be sensitive and we want to make sure that we don’t make students feel inadequate by the language we use. At the same time, it’s important not to sugarcoat feedback as it will be less helpful. Make sure you focus your language on the concepts and skills that are being developed and make it encouraging! For example: “You’re doing great in solving equations but need a little more practice in using pictures and words to explain your thinking and show how you arrived at your answer”. “Yet” is a powerful word in my classroom. It lets students know they are capable even if they aren’t there right now. Just as important as it is for us to be mindful of our language with feedback, we should encourage our students to be mindful as well. We can encourage our students to be positive and optimistic. It is also really beneficial to have students notice what they need to work on. You can prompt students to notice what they have mastered and what they need to keep working on. Positive, constructive, and descriptive peer feedback can also be powerful for students. Delay the Grade Students can often get really caught up in their grades. While grades are a type of feedback, students don’t often use them as such. By holding off on grades, it can help students to better focus on the descriptive feedback that you give. One easy way to do this is to grade tests with the usual mark and feedback but don’t provide a grade on the assessment itself. This will allow students to focus on the feedback rather than getting caught up in the grade itself. You can also have students reflect on their tests and do corrections before giving them the grade. This allows students to think about their learning and fix mistakes which has been proven to provide more learning than just getting the answers correct in the first place! Of course you will want to give a grade eventually, but delaying grades can help to put a focus on student growth rather than simply student achievement. Lower the Expectations I am a firm believer that students rise to high expectations. In some instances though, lowering our expectations can help to reduce student anxiety and help students learn. I think the key here is not lowering the expectations of what students are able to learn, but trying to lower the expectations of results or grades. Students need chances to practice and explore new concepts without feeling like they will not succeed or that their grades will suffer. You can easily do this by creating assignments that are centered around the concept being taught. Don’t factor in things such as spelling, grammar or accuracy. I sometimes will even just grade on completion rather than correction and still give them feedback. This may not be an option for all teachers, but it allows you to encourage participation and learning while not letting their grades suffer on the assignments where they are still trying to grasp a concept. Doing this will give students the message that learning is not about perfection but rather gaining understanding. They are more likely to take risks when they don’t have to worry about losing marks. This is not always a first choice of mine as sometimes I’m concerned about teaching personal responsibility and consequences. I want students to know that what they do in the classroom matters. I know it can bring up much debate however, I have seen many benefits to allowing retakes. When students have failed at understanding a concept or skill, another chance can be considered an important step toward actual learning. This is the whole purpose of providing grades and feedback, is eventually to help students truly understand what we are trying to teach them. I do try to emphasize we have retakes for the sake of learning as opposed to raising grades. This can be tricky, but I feel like it comes more easily as I apply the other suggestions about focusing on learning rather than grades throughout my classroom. Most importantly, helping students feel good about the ability to learn instead of their ability to achieve high grades, will help foster the growth mindset that will serve them much more throughout their lives. Grades can be important, but most important is learning and the more we teach that to our students, the more we are setting them up for success. Ready, Set, Feedback! Whether you are a master at giving your students feedback or maybe you need to add feedback into your classroom, I hope these tips have been helpful! Feedback is an essential part of our students’ learning and while we may feel like we don’t have time, we don’t have time NOT to give our students feedback. So take one or all of these ideas and see how you can better implement feedback into your classroom. I promise your students will thank you and you will watch their learning and understanding increase drastically!
Genome Sequencing Projects There are several reasons for completely sequencing a genome. • First it provides a means for the discovery of all the genes and thus provides an inventory of genes. • Second, the sequence shows the relationships between genes. • Third, it provides a set of tools for future experimentation. • Fourth, sequencing provides an index to draw and organize all genetic information about the organism. • Fifth, and very important over time, is that the whole genome sequence is an archive for the future containing all the genetic information required to make the organism. There are several methods for small-scale sequencing, although most of these do not scale well to sequence entire genomes. The two main methodologies used for genome sequencing are discussed here. These have also been briefly discussed in the introduction. You have already learnt in the previous that Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC) vectors are capable of stably propagating large, complex DNA inserts in Escherichia coli. These vectors are used to make genomic libraries in which the insert size is 80-100 kb. This library is then screened by finding common restriction fragments. These BAC clones are then mapped to find overlapping arrays of contiguous clones called contigs. The mapped contigs are sequenced by breaking large DNA fragments into small pieces. Therefore, in this directed sequencing strategy, pieces of DNA from adjacent stretches of a chromosome are sequenced. Random shotgun sequencing is one approach to sequence genomic DNA. Genomic DNA macromolecules are very long and they contain many genes and other sequences required to build the whole organism. Even with the best of sequencing techniques we get a maximum of 700 bases of sequence information from one single run of an experiment. Therefore, we need a strategy to sequence the whole DNA. The random shotgun sequencing approach follows a very well known common theme "divide a big problem into small tasks. Solve these small tasks individually. Finally add up all these solutions to get the full final solution". Big genomic DNA molecules are broken down into small fragments, which are cloned in small (2.0 kb) and medium (10 kb) plasmid vectors. Plasmids have specific sites where these molecules can be inserted through enzymatic procedures. Thus, a library is constructed. Now each clone is picked up randomly and sequenced from both ends. By picking many clones and sequencing them, we get large amounts of sequences. Observations show that several of these sequences are identical, some are similar to each other in parts called overlapping parts, whereas, a few may be just unique. After we feed all these data into a computer program, these sequences are joined by finding overlapping parts. The result is, we get long pieces of DNA sequences. This process of assembling continues until all overlapping parts are exhausted. Finally, we would get a large portion of the genomic DNA sequence. Even though in theory, the entire genomic DNA sequence can be obtained in this way, in practise, this is not so. Some gaps in genomic DNA sequence do arise and these gaps need to be closed by specific cloning of those regions and additional sequencing.
10 Tips to Prevent Heart Disease And Stroke - Monitor your cholesterol (blood lipids). High or abnormal blood lipids (fats) are a major cause of cardiovascular disease. Your blood lipids include the triglycerides, HDL (good cholesterol; also known as “Healthy cholesterol”) and LDL (bad cholesterol; also known as “Lousy cholesterol”). The higher your HDL and the lower your LDL, the better are your chances for a longer healthy life. There are mainly 3 factors that determine the amount of cholesterol in your blood: the amount absorbed from the intestinal tract (some from what you consume, but a lot more from the cholesterol produced by the liver and excreted into the digestive tract), the amount produced by the liver (this is mainly genetic), and finally, age – because your cholesterol raises with age. If you are at risk, and you need to lower the LDL or to raise your HDL, medication is almost always necessary. The ideal ratio of total cholesterol divided by HDL cholesterol is 3.0. You might need diet as therapy If the total cholesterol divided by HDL cholesterol is higher than 3.0. In general, the problem with diet is that it can only decrease total blood cholesterol by about 10 percent. If you have elevated Lp(a) which is a rare abnormal cholesterol that increases the risk, or a strong family history, drug therapy is usually needed. - Take responsibility for your health. The major cause of death in America is cardiovascular disease, responsible for 34 percent of deaths, almost all of them premature and mainly sudden. This has decreased from 40 percent just 4 decades ago, mainly because of the treatment of common risk factors. Your risk increases dramatically, if you have diabetes. The best prevention against stroke and heart disease is to understand the treatment options and risks. Ignorance or misinformation is the greatest risk. So, take responsibility for your health. - Don’t smoke or expose yourself to second – hand smoke The evidence is stunning because cigarette smoking and second – hand exposure to smoke increases the risks of peripheral vascular disease, lung disease, heart disease and stroke. - Stay informed: Science changes constantly. The only thing that is constant is change. This is especially true for medicine because new insights and new techniques are being developed constantly. Do not believe every piece of “scientific information” you find in the advertisements or media. Due to a lack of a sufficient number of participants, a great number of research studies that make it into scientific publications are designed poorly or yield data that are not representative. Keep in mind that many studies are financed or sponsored by companies or individuals that have interest in gaining positive or negative results. The situation that is quite confusing and happens often is when scientific studies yield different or even contradicting results. - Maintain a healthy blood pressure Hypertension or widely known as high blood pressure, is known as “the silent killer” because it goes without symptoms in most individuals. High blood pressure causes wear and tear of your blood vessel’s delicate inner lining. The higher your blood pressure (BP) is, the greater your risk is for getting this condition. The risk starts to increase from a pressure of 115/70 mmHg and doubles for each 10 mmHg of increase in systolic (the larger number) and 5 mmHg increase in the diastolic (the smaller number). Increasing age and heredity raises the risks. Measuring your blood pressures at home gives you more accurate results than having the blood pressure measured at a physician’s office. Get a cuff meter, it is worth the investment. For some individuals that suffer from “white coat” hypertension it is best not to rely only on the readings at your doctor’s office because their BP rises only when they are at the doctor’s office. Others are “masking” hypertension – their BP is higher when not in the doctor’s office. That is why prognosis is best related to home BP. But you should not use wrist or finger units, for home blood pressure readings – only regular upper arm units. - Know your risks Age is the most influential risk factor for cardiovascular disease – the older you get, the bigger your risk is. The second important thing is your genetic make – up. Even though everyone is excited by the scientific progress in genomics research, conclusive gene tests are still in their beginning stage. There is a saying in the medicinal circles, “A good family history is a poor man’s gene test.” We have long known that if your relatives, grandparents, parents or other were afflicted with or died of diabetes, stroke or heart disease, your risk is much bigger. - Pick your pills wisely. Patients want to be empowered to take responsibility for their own health, which is why there is a great interest in alternative medicine. However, many patients are reaching for alternative medicines because of the way they are marketed and advertised. It doesn’t mean that if a substance is “natural”, it is health benefit. A simple example is arsenic, nobody with a healthy mind would take arsenic simply because it is “natural.” It is very important to know that research data are often lacking for vitamins and supplements, alternative medications, none of which are regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Do we ever reach for alternative medicines? Occasionally we do! The major risk with many alternative medications is that even though the patient thinks they are doing something to improve their health, when in fact they are not doing anything. To date, none of the vitamins have been shown to decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease, although some of them have been shown to possibly help with some conditions. There are some rare exceptions, such as niacin (vitamin B) and fish oils. It is also important to note that high doses of some vitamins may counteract or interfere with the beneficial effects of some prescription drugs. - Limit the intake of your calories. Remember fat diets are not effective for anyone, if any of them are, we all would be on THAT one, wouldn’t we? The obesity rate in American citizens is alarming, and contributing to a near epidemic of diabetes, which is a cardiovascular disease. If you are suffering from diabetes, your risk for a stroke or heart disease is the same as someone who already had a heart attack. Consuming more calories than your body can burn causes obesity. The major risk is abdominal obesity. The amounts of sugars and portion sizes in the American diet have dramatically increased over the past 20 – 30 years. And at the same time, the daily amount of exercise has been decreasing. It is good advice to “drink slim” which means to consume more water, coffee and tea. Before you start eating check your portion size and get up from the table before you are “full”. - Make exercise a daily habit The obesity epidemic in Americans is contributed by the lack of exercise. Studies show that walking at least 2 miles a day is optimal for overall health, and you don’t have to walk those 2 miles all at once. Exercising does more than burning calories, it also activates the genes that are beneficial for your health in many other ways. Plus, one of the best treatments for anxiety and depression is exercise. However, exercise alone cannot reduce or control your weight – you must also change your diet completely. - Reduce stress. Stress leads to cardiovascular disease and, if the stress is severe, it can cause a sudden heart attack or even death. There are plenty of options that help reduce stress, such as adequate sleep, volunteering or attending religious services, regular exercise, striving for a good marriage and of course laughing. Watching TV can only aggravate stress, not relieve it. Also, try your best to avoid people and situations that make you angry or anxious.
Radio frequency (RF) is an essential component of modern communication systems. Its applications range from wireless communication technologies to medical devices, and it is crucial to understand the different types of RF classification. In this article, we will explore the various types of RF classification, the factors that influence it, and the spectrum allocation of RF. Understanding the different types of RF classification is essential for anyone working with wireless communication as it helps to ensure efficient and reliable communication. We will also examine the factors that influence RF classification, such as frequency range, bandwidth, and power levels. Finally, we will delve into the complexities of RF spectrum allocation, which determines how frequencies are allocated to different users and technologies. By the end of this article, you will have a comprehensive understanding of the classification of RF and its applications in modern communication systems. RF (Radio Frequency) classification refers to the categorization of different types of RF devices based on a variety of factors, including their frequency range, power output, and intended use. These classifications are important to understand for those working in the field of RF engineering, as they dictate the rules and regulations that must be followed when designing and operating RF devices. One of the most important factors that determines an RF device's classification is its power supply. RF power supplies are responsible for providing the necessary energy to drive RF devices, and they come in a variety of different types and configurations. These include linear power supplies, switching power supplies, and RF generators, among others. Linear power supplies are the simplest type of RF power supply, and they provide a stable DC voltage output that is ideal for driving low-power RF devices. Switching power supplies, on the other hand, are more complex and offer greater efficiency, making them well-suited for high-power RF applications. RF generators are a special type of power supply that is specifically designed for use with RF devices. They offer precise control over the frequency and power output of the RF signal, allowing engineers to fine-tune their designs and ensure optimal performance. Other factors that can impact an RF device's classification include its frequency range, modulation type, and intended use. For example, some RF devices are designed for use in medical applications, while others are used for wireless communication or industrial automation. Radio frequency (RF) classification is a critical aspect of wireless communication systems. It is the process of categorizing different types of RF signals according to their frequency, power, and modulation characteristics. The classification of RF signals is essential for efficient spectrum management, interference mitigation, and signal identification. RF classification is influenced by several factors, including the frequency range, bandwidth, modulation scheme, and transmission power of the RF signal. The frequency range is the most critical factor in determining the classification of an RF signal. Different frequency ranges are allocated for different types of applications, such as military, commercial, and scientific purposes. Another critical factor that influences RF classification is the bandwidth of the signal. A wider bandwidth indicates a higher data rate, which may result in a higher classification and greater spectrum utilization. The modulation scheme is also a factor that affects RF classification. Various modulation schemes, such as amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM), are used to transmit RF signals. The complexity of the modulation scheme used can affect the classification of the RF signal. The transmission power of the RF signal is another factor that influences RF classification. High power RF signals are easier to detect and classify than low power signals. However, high power signals can also cause interference and may require additional filtering or shielding to avoid affecting other wireless communication systems. RF Spectrum Allocation is an important topic in the field of wireless communication. It refers to the process of assigning frequencies to different wireless devices to ensure that they do not interfere with each other. This allocation is crucial to ensure that wireless devices can operate efficiently without causing any disruption to other wireless devices. One of the key components of RF Spectrum Allocation is the RF Power Supply. It is a device that supplies the necessary electrical power to an RF system. The RF Power Supply is used to regulate the power output of the wireless device, ensuring that it operates within the allocated frequency range. The allocation of the RF spectrum is important for the proper functioning of various wireless devices. It is necessary to ensure that different devices do not interfere with each other and cause disruption to wireless communication. The allocation process involves careful planning and coordination between different regulatory bodies and wireless service providers. The RF Power Supply plays a vital role in ensuring that wireless devices operate efficiently. It is important to choose the right RF Power Supply for the wireless device to ensure that it operates at the optimal power output. The device must have the necessary power to operate at the required frequency range and provide the necessary power to the antenna. In conclusion, understanding the different types of RF classification is crucial for efficient spectrum management, interference mitigation, and signal identification. Factors such as frequency range, bandwidth, modulation scheme, and transmission power influence RF classification. RF Spectrum Allocation is an important topic that requires careful planning and coordination to ensure that different devices can operate without disrupting each other. The RF Power Supply plays a significant role in ensuring wireless devices' efficient and effective operation, and choosing the right one is essential for optimal performance. With the right knowledge and tools, the possibilities for RF technology are virtually limitless.
What is pleurisy? How do you get it? Is it contagious? How do you treat it? Is it chronic or recurring? Pleurisy (also known as pleuritis) is the term for the painful inflammation of the membranes that line the chest cavity and surround the lungs. These two layers of membrane are separated by a thin layer of fluid that allows them to slide smoothly by one another with each breath. If the membranes become inflamed, they rub against one another, causing sharp pain when breathing or coughing. Other symptoms may include shortness of breath, a cough, or fever. Pleurisy has many different causes — some of which are contagious underlying illnesses. Other causes of pleurisy are non-contagious factors such as genetics, behavior, or environmental exposures. The treatment plan and duration of symptoms largely depend on the underlying cause. Pleurisy itself can’t be passed to others, but there are some ways to reduce your risk of experiencing pleurisy in the first place. For more information on causes, prevention, and treatment, read on! Pleurisy isn’t a disease in and of itself; rather, it’s a symptom of an underlying condition, such as a viral infection (such as the flu), a bacterial infection (such as pneumonia), or an autoimmune condition (such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis). People with asbestosis (lung illness from asbestos exposure) or certain hereditary conditions are also at higher risk for pleurisy. In addition to being caused by illness, pleurisy can also develop after a chest injury or heart surgery. In order to try to diagnose the underlying cause, health care providers may listen to the lungs with a stethoscope, take an x-ray, run a blood test, or use thoracentesis (removal of a fluid sample from the chest with a needle). Avoiding smoking (tobacco, e-cigarettes, or marijuana) and treating underlying conditions early can reduce the risk of developing pleurisy. The symptoms of pleurisy are often addressed by treating the underlying illness. For example, bacterial infections can typically be treated with antibiotics. In some pleurisy cases, a medical provider may remove blood, fluid, or air from the pleural space. Depending on the underlying cause of pleurisy, it can be chronic or recurring, with varying levels of severity. Occasionally, pleurisy can lead to life-threatening complications. While the outlook for someone with pleurisy depends on the underlying cause, most cases of the condition are successfully treated with medical care. If you’re experiencing chest pain or discomfort, it’s a good idea to get in touch with a health care provider to assess your condition. Looking for more in-depth clinical information about pleurisy causes, treatment, or diagnosis? Check out the Cleveland Clinic’s pleurisy page. Originally published Jul 28, 2006 Can’t find information on the site about your health concern or issue?
Do Plants Eat Animals? Do Plants Eat Meat? The Wonderful World of Carnivorous Plants - Biology Books for Kids \| Children's Biology Books by Baby Professor Did you know that some plants eat special food? Sunlight is not enough for them and they lack the capacity to create their own food. That is why they prey on insects. They have a unique scent that attracts their small prey so they just sit and wait until they can gobble something up! Should you be afraid of these carnivorous plants too? About the Author: Baby Professor showcases a collection of subjects that are educational for kids to help them learn how to do something themselves, exactly how something is done or how it came about. Children love to learn through attractive visuals and Baby Prof. is ideal to get your child the head start he or she needs for the future. Our Motto - "Learning is Fun, so let's Make it Fun to Learn". Age Range: 4 and up Grade Level: Preschool and up Paperback: 64 pages Publisher: Baby Professor (March 15, 2017) Product Dimensions: 8.5 x 0.2 x 8.5 inches
Centered around Boiling Spring, the Choccolocco Creek Archaeological Complex once consisted of at least three earthen mounds, a large stone mound and a large snake effigy (representation), also made of stone. The largest earthen mound once stood high above the Choccolocco Creek floodplain. The earliest earthen mound construction at the site began during the Middle Woodland period (ca. 100 BC to AD 250) when the site became a regionally important ritual center connected through cultural exchanges with groups living on the Gulf Coastal Plain to the south and the Tennessee Valley to the north. Mound construction appears to have resumed at the site around AD 1100 when the inhabitants of the Choccolocco Valley were closely connected with the people of the Etowah site near present-day Cartersville, Georgia. Prior to the 1830s, the Choccolocco Creek Archaeological Complex was the location of the ceremonial ground of the Abihkas, one of the most ancient tribal towns within the modern Muscogee (Creek) Nation. Ethnographic research conducted by the Smithsonian Institution in the late 19th and early 20th centuries indicates that the stone constructions associated with the complex are associated with oral histories that tell of a town “lost in the water.” The large stone mound is thought to be the result of “burden” stones carried by the Abihka in remembrance of those lost in a great flood. This site is very important to numerous Southeastern indigenous tribes who assert an ancestral connection with those who built and occupied Alabama’s ancient mounds. The earthwork landscapes and the objects and information recovered from them reveal a rich cultural tradition that still thrives today among these tribes. Our indigenous mound sites represent a heritage for all Alabamians to cherish, and it is important that we protect and preserve them for future generations.
Researchers from the University of Copenhagen will develop a new method of making crops such as barley and wheat more resistant to plant pathogens. The research will not only help farmers but also the world economy, the climate and people in countries where food is scarce. Much of the world’s food is devastated every year when bacteria, fungi and viruses attack plants and kill them or suck all the nutrients and energy out of them. Parasitic pathogens are the culprit, attacking crops such as wheat, barley, potatoes, apples and the grapes in vineyards on the slopes in Bourgogne. Researchers around the world are striving to solve this problem, and Danish researchers are focusing on a whole new way of making plants more resistant to plant pathogens. If the Danish researchers succeed with their strategy, it could greatly increase the yields of a wide range of crops. This can help not only farmers but also the world economy, the climate and people in countries that do not have the same easy access to food as in Denmark. “Crop diseases is a major topic globally because of the high cost of yield losses. Farmers lose money and forests are cut to make space for new fields to compensate for the reduced yields. In addition, we use huge quantities of resources in the form of machines, fertilizer and pesticides to produce crops that end up failing anyway,” explains Hans Thordal-Christensen, Professor at Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen. In 2019, the Novo Nordisk Foundation awarded Hans Thordal-Christensen a Challenge Programme grant over 6 years for developing methods to make plants more resistant to pathogens. Barley and wheat only resist powdery mildew and rust fungi for a few years Two examples of crop-infecting pathogens are powdery mildew and rust fungi. Both types of fungi attack crops such as barley and wheat, and create major problems for farmers around the world, including Denmark. Hans Thordal-Christensen says that there are currently regional epidemics of wheat stripe rust across the world. The problem arises when wheat loses its resistance to the pathogens and then the farmers’ yields plummet. Plant breeders are therefore constantly developing new varieties that can resist rust fungi. This is an endless race against time, because every time plant breeders spend years and millions of dollars developing a new wheat variety that resists rust fungi, no more than 2–3 years elapse before the rust fungi find new ways to circumvent the wheat’s immune system. “The plant breeders then need to start from scratch. Alternative ways are therefore needed for developing varieties of wheat with new forms of resistance that the rust fungi cannot circumvent as quickly as they can today,” explains Hans Thordal-Christensen. Plant breeders spend millions on developing resistant plants What do plant breeders currently do to develop new and more resistant varieties of crops? The conventional way is to find wild strains of wheat and other crops that rust fungi have not yet conquered. Such strains are found in the regions in which wheat originated, including Turkey, Iran, Syria and Israel, where wheat grows wild. Wheat strains that resist rust fungi are present in these countries, but their yields are so pitiful that they are not commercially viable as crops. The art of plant breeding therefore involves crossing the wild strains of wheat with the commercially promising varieties to create new varieties that have high yields and resist rust fungi. “In the process, both undesirable and desirable characteristics can arise that affect such features as resistance to pathogens or drought and crop yield. The problem is that identifying the best new strains requires experimenting with thousands of new strains to find perhaps five strains that are of interest to farmers. This is really expensive, and the plant breeders have to repeat the whole process again when the rust fungi find new ways to circumvent the resistance,” says Hans Thordal-Christensen. Fungi redirect nutrients Understanding the new method of developing new and more resistant crop varieties requires understanding how pathogens such as fungi infect a plant and end up reducing the yield. When a fungus lands on a plant, it transfers virulence proteins called effectors into the plant cells. Plant pathogens have many of these effectors. Powdery mildew has about 800, and rust fungi have more than 1000. Effectors manipulate the processes in the plant cells to benefit the pathogen instead of the plant. This means that the effectors disarm the plant’s immune system. All plants have very effective defences against pathogens that enables them to resist infection. However, if the pathogens can circumvent the immune system with their effectors, they can disable it while using the plant to obtain nutrients that enable the pathogen to grow. “The fungus simply redirects the flow of nutrients so that it can absorb them instead of the plant. The powdery mildew and rust fungi we focus on also insert a specialized feeding structure called a haustorium into the plant cells. This is very important for the fungi’s ability to take control of the plant,” says Hans Thordal-Christensen, who also explains that the fungi use the haustoria to keep the plant cells alive while sucking nutrients and energy out of them, since these fungi cannot survive on dead cells. “The question is how the fungi manipulate the plants to generate the membrane around the haustoria and how they use the haustoria to transport nutrients from the plant to the fungi. One third of the research project is focusing on elucidating this,” adds Hans Thordal-Christensen. Inspired by bacteria that cause pneumonia Hans Thordal-Christensen and his colleagues already have an idea about how to pry the secrets from the fungi. The whole system of haustoria and membranes is similar to systems elsewhere in disease biology, including when Legionella bacteria infect humans and cause pneumonia. Quite thorough research has shown how Legionella enters the cells of the lungs using effectors that take control of various membrane systems by forming a protective membrane around the bacterium. Hans Thordal-Christensen speculates that powdery mildew and rust fungi do something similar. “Achieving this requires an immensely complex system of many proteins, which is why the fungi have so many effectors. Researchers in human biology are much further ahead of us in this field. This can be annoying, but is also convenient, since they can inspire us,” explains Hans Thordal-Christensen. A plant that totally resists powdery mildew and rust fungi Hans Thordal-Christensen explains that when powdery mildew or rust fungi infect a plant using effectors to take control of the plant’s membrane proteins, then the plant is in the grip of the fungi. But there is a little twist that underlies the entire research project: Arabidopsis thaliana is the world’s most thoroughly studied plant. It is genetically similar to barley and wheat, although these plants look very different. However, if researchers try to infect Arabidopsis thaliana with cereal powdery mildew or rust fungi, nothing happens. Despite their otherwise extremely well-developed arsenal of weapons to penetrate plant cells and take control of them, these fungi cannot infect Arabidopsis thaliana. The plant is 100% resistant and will remain so in the foreseeable future. “Arabidopsis thaliana activates its defences, suppresses the fungi and does not get sick. It defends itself and is not susceptible because the effectors are not compatible with the proteins in Arabidopsis thaliana,” explains Hans Thordal-Christensen. Creating barley and wheat with the same immune systems as Arabidopsis thaliana Hans Thordal-Christensen’s research project will attempt to develop the immune systems of barley and wheat by copying from Arabidopsis thaliana. The researchers will identify the effectors in powdery mildew and rust fungi that contribute most to infecting barley and wheat. Then they will identify the proteins that the effectors target inside the plants. Finally, the researchers will change the effectors’ target proteins in barley and wheat plants to resemble the Arabidopsis thaliana proteins, which the effectors cannot manipulate. The desired result is that the researchers could infect the barley and wheat plants with powdery mildew and rust fungi – and nothing would happen. “We probably cannot achieve this by making just one change, because the fungi will probably be able to figure out how to circumvent that part of the immune system. We need to introduce several changes to multiple proteins: five or six. This will make the plants resist the fungi based on several different types of defences that the fungi must circumvent. They cannot do this because that means they would have to develop new effectors against all the altered proteins at the same time,” says Hans Thordal-Christensen. Identified the first 100 effectors in powdery mildew Although the researchers behind the project have only taken the initial steps towards developing new and more resistant crops, the research is based on 30 years of work to understand how plants defend themselves against fungi and how fungi attack plants. Hans Thordal-Christensen and his colleagues were at the forefront of studying the effectors in powdery mildew that culminated in a project in 2010, when they compared their own gene sequence data from the powdery mildew with large genetic databases and found that these 100 proteins are unique and can therefore be suspected of being effectors. “We found about 100 unknown proteins with this signal peptide. Further, we could not find them in other species of fungi except in the powdery mildew fungi. Normally, when we find a protein in one fungus, we usually find a similar protein in almost all other eukaryotic cells but not in this case. We knew from other people’s experiments with potato blight that effectors were very unique to the individual pathogen. This led us to conclude that these 100 proteins are effectors,” explains Hans Thordal-Christensen. Further studies on the effectors are still underway, and so far, the researchers know very little about what their functions are during infection. Gene mutation enables powdery mildew to attack Arabidopsis thaliana Another important project in the run-up to the new research is a discovery that changed Hans Thordal-Christensen’s life. More than 20 years ago, he conducted research on Arabidopsis thaliana in a laboratory in the United States. There he discovered a mutation in the PEN1 gene, whose function was not known at the time. Hans Thordal-Christensen’s research showed, however, that PEN1 is a key actor in a plant’s defence to prevent fungi from penetrating the plant’s cells. More specifically, PEN1 is involved in membrane traffic, and this is where Hans Thordal-Christensen’s interest in membranes began. The revealing aspect of the research was that when PEN1 was mutated, the otherwise solid defences of Arabidopsis thaliana against powdery mildew disappeared, and a fungus that normally could not infect Arabidopsis thaliana suddenly ran riot. “The mapping of the function of PEN1 is a milestone that changed my life, and research on PEN1 and membranes has really interested me since then. An intact immune system is required to prevent the powdery mildew from infecting Arabidopsis thaliana, and if we disable the immune system by mutating PEN1, we help the fungus to infect a plant, which it would otherwise not be able to,” says Hans Thordal-Christensen. Discovery reveals how the membrane may be formed The third research project that brought the researchers to where they are today focused on the membranes that surround the haustoria. In 2017, Hans Thordal-Christensen’s group discovered that the membrane, which the powdery mildew fungus stimulates the plant cells to generate around haustoria, shares properties with the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Further, the researchers excluded various possible explanations for how the membranes around the haustoria are formed. This left them with one possibility that they will examine in the new research project. “We suggest that the membranes are made by lipid transfer proteins that can move lipids from one membrane to another. They work very fast, and we now believe that the effectors take control of these lipid transfer proteins and that is how the membranes around the haustoria are formed,” explains Hans Thordal-Christensen. What the researchers would like to achieve in 6 years Looking 6 years ahead, Hans Thordal-Christensen hopes that the overall research will result in the researchers identifying five or six potential proteins in barley and wheat that they can manipulate to resist the fungal effectors. This will open up opportunities for creating superresistant strains of barley and wheat, which will lead to higher crop yields. But Hans Thordal-Christensen also hopes that the research from this major project will produce substantial knowledge that can be valuable in other ways in the struggle for the world’s crops and in understanding plants’ immune systems and the struggle against pathogens. “If we get there, I will be very satisfied. If we get further, we may have implemented some of these proteins in barley or wheat and will be in the process of testing them. This will be absolutely amazing,” says Hans Thordal-Christensen.
- Brain Effects - Age of Onset - Predictive Test - Prenatal Test - Care Resources Huntington's disease facts *Huntington's Disease Facts by John P. Cunha, DO, FACOE - Huntington's disease (HD) is a complex disorder that affect's a person's ability to feel, think, and move. Symptoms tend to worsen over time and the disease often runs in families. In people with one parent with HD, the chances of them developing it are 50-50. - Huntington's disease is caused by a genetic degeneration of nerve cells in certain areas of the brain. - Symptoms of HD include mood swing, irritability, depression, and anger. The disease may affect a person's judgment, memory, and other cognitive functions. In some, there can be uncontrolled movements in the fingers, feet, face, or trunk, or problems with coordination or balance. - Adult-onset HD, with its disabling, uncontrolled movements, most often begins in middle age, however HD can begin at any age and the disease tends to progress more rapidly the earlier it begins. - Huntington's disease is diagnosed by taking family history, CT scans, or MRIs. - Presymptomatic genetic testing may be done on people who do not show symptoms but have a parent with the disease. - There is no treatment to stop or reverse Huntington's disease, however there are some medications that can help keep symptoms under control. Treatment for HD includes the drug tetrabenazine, antipsychotic drugs, antidepressants, and tranquilizers. - Patients who exercise tend to do better than those who do not. - A person with HD may need assistance such as home care, or occupational therapy. Contact the Huntington's Disease Society of America for more information. What is Huntington's disease? Huntington’s disease is an inherited disease that causes the progressive dying off, or degeneration, of nerve cells in certain parts of the brain. American physician George Huntington wrote the first thorough description of Huntington’s disease (HD) in 1872, calling it “hereditary chorea” to underscore some of its key features. Chorea1 is derived from the Greek word for dance and describes the uncontrollable dance-like movements seen in people with HD. The hereditary nature of HD helps distinguish it from other types of chorea with infectious, metabolic, or hormonal causes. Understanding the hereditary nature of HD eventually enabled modern researchers to pinpoint the cause of the disease–a mutation or misspelling in a single gene. More than 30,000 Americans have HD. Although the mutation is present from birth, symptoms of HD typically appear in middle age (adult HD), and in rare cases they appear in children (juvenile HD). The disease, which gets progressively worse, attacks motor control regions of the brain, as well as other areas. Chorea, abnormal body postures, and impaired coordination are among the most visible symptoms. But HD also causes changes in emotion and cognition (thinking) that can be devastating for people with the disorder and for their families. Although there is no cure for HD, treatments are available to help manage its symptoms and other potential treatments are under investigation to slow or stop its course. And there are now genetic tests available for HD, which gives people at risk for the disease the option to plan for their health and the health of future generations. How does Huntington's affect the brain? The most severe loss of nerve cells (also called neurons) occurs in deep brain structures called the basal ganglia, especially in a part of the basal ganglia called the striatum. The basal ganglia have a variety of functions, including helping to control voluntary (intentional) movement. Subsections of the basal ganglia, called the caudate nuclei and putamen, are most severely affected. Another strongly affected area is the brain’s outer surface, or cerebral cortex, which has important roles in movement, as well as thought, perception, memory, and emotion. As HD progresses over time, neuronal degeneration becomes more widespread throughout the brain. In addition to metabolic changes, there is degeneration in areas of the brain that control hormones. How is Huntington's inherited? HD is passed from parent to child through a mutation in a gene. Genes contain the blueprint for who we are, from our outer appearance to the composition and workings of our internal organs, including the brain. The gene responsible for HD lies on chromosome 4. When a parent has HD, each child has a 50 percent chance of inheriting the copy of chromosome 4 that carries the HD mutation. If a child does not inherit the HD mutation, he or she will not develop the disease and cannot pass it to subsequent generations. In some families, all the children may inherit the HD gene; in others, none do. Whether one child inherits the gene has no bearing on whether others will or will not share the same fate. A person who inherits the HD mutation and survives long enough will develop the disease. To understand the HD gene mutation, it helps to know a little more about what genes are and what they do. Genes contain the instructions for making the approximately one million proteins that run everything in our bodies. The HD gene makes an essential protein called huntingtin, whose function is largely unknown but may be necessary for early nerve cell development. Huntingtin is most active in the brain. Genes are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a long chain-like molecule. The links in a DNA chain are called bases, or nucleotides, and there are four varieties—adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine—typically abbreviated as A, T, C, and G. Within each gene, a unique combination of these nucleotides serves as a code that determines the gene’s function; changes in the code—such as through a mutation—can change a gene’s function. The disease-causing mutation inside the HD gene consists of a three-base sequence repeated many times. This type of mutation, called a triplet (or trinucleotide) repeat expansion, is responsible for dozens of other neurological diseases, but in each case the three-base sequence, or triplet, resides within a different gene. The triplet sequences also vary; in HD, the triplet consists of the bases C-A-G. Most people have fewer than 27 CAG repeats in the HD gene and are not at risk for the disease. Individuals with the disease may have 36 or more repeats. People who have repeats in the intermediate range (27-35) are unlikely to develop the disease, but they could pass it on to future generations. When HD occurs without a family history, it is called sporadic HD. These cases can occur when one parent has an intermediate range of CAG repeats, sometimes called a premutation. Prior to conception of a child, the number of repeats may expand into the disease-causing range. Most often, these expansions occur in the father’s sperm cells, rather than in the mother’s egg cells. Each time the father’s DNA is copied to make new sperm, there is a possibility for the number of CAG repeats to expand. This increase in disease severity from one generation to the next—with a younger onset and faster progression—is called anticipation. What are the major symptoms and signs of Huntington's? Early signs of the disease vary greatly from person to person, but typically include cognitive or psychiatric symptoms, difficulties with movement, and behavioral changes. Symptoms of Huntington’s disease include: Behavioral changes. The individual experiences mood swings or becomes uncharacteristically irritable, apathetic, passive, depressed, or angry. These symptoms may lessen as the disease progresses or, in some individuals, may continue and include hostile outbursts, thoughts of suicide, deep bouts of depression, and, rarely, psychosis. Social withdrawal is common. Cognitive/judgment changes. HD may affect a person’s judgment, attention, and other cognitive functions. Early signs might include having trouble with driving, problem-solving or decision making, prioritizing tasks, and difficulty organizing, learning new things, remembering a fact, putting thoughts into words, or answering a question. Familiar tasks that were simple to complete when healthy now take longer or cannot be done at all. As the disease progresses, these cognitive problems worsen and affected individuals are no longer able to work, drive, or care for themselves. When the level of cognitive impairment is significant enough to impair daily functioning, it is described as dementia. Many people, however, remain aware of their environment and are able to express emotions. Some individuals cannot recognize other family members. Uncontrolled and difficult movement. Movement problems may begin with uncontrolled movement in the fingers, feet, face, or trunk. These movements, which are signs of chorea, often intensify when the person is anxious or distracted and become larger and more apparent over time. HD can also begin with mild clumsiness or problems with balance. Some people develop chorea-related movements. Chorea often creates serious problems with walking, increasing the likelihood of falls. Some individuals with HD do not develop chorea; instead, they may become rigid and move very little, or not at all, a condition called akinesia. Others may start out with chorea but become rigid as the disease progresses. In addition to chorea, some individuals have unusual fixed postures, called dystonia. The two movement disorders can blend or alternate. Other symptoms may include tremor (unintentional rhythmic muscle movement in a back-and-forth manner) and abnormal eye movements that often occur early. Physical changes. Speech becomes slurred and vital functions, such as swallowing, eating, speaking, and especially walking, continue to decline. Many people with HD lose weight as they encounter problems with feeding, swallowing, choking, and chest infections. Other symptoms may include insomnia, loss of energy, and fatigue. Some individuals with HD develop seizures. Eventually the person will be confined to a bed or wheelchair. At what age does Huntington's appear? The rate of disease progression and the age at onset vary from person to person. As a general rule, having a higher number of CAG repeats is associated with an earlier onset and faster course of the disease. A common observation is that the earlier the symptoms appear, the faster the disease progresses. Adult-onset HD most often begins between ages 30-50. A few individuals develop HD after age 55. Diagnosis in these people can be very difficult. The symptoms of HD may be masked by or confused with other health problems, or the person may not display the severity of symptoms seen in individuals with HD of earlier onset. These individuals may also show symptoms of depression rather than anger or irritability, or they may retain sharp control over their intellectual functions, such as memory, reasoning, and problem-solving. There is also a related disorder called senile chorea. Some elderly individuals develop choreic movements, but do not become demented, have a normal HD gene, and lack a family history of the disorder. Some scientists believe that a different gene mutation may account for this small number of cases, but this has not been proven. Some individuals develop symptoms of HD before age 20. This is called early-onset or juvenile HD. A common early sign of juvenile HD is a rapid decline in school performance. Movement problems soon become apparent, but they differ from the chorea typically seen in adult-onset HD. One common motor symptom in juvenile HD is myoclonus, which involves rapid involuntary muscle twitches or jerks. Other motor symptoms typical in juvenile HD include slowness, rigidity (in which the muscles remain constantly tense), and tremor. This constellation of symptoms can resemble Parkinson’s disease, and is sometimes called “akinetic-rigid” HD or the Westphal variant of HD. People with juvenile HD may also have seizures and mental disabilities. The earlier the onset, the faster the disease seems to progress. The disease progresses most rapidly in individuals with juvenile or early-onset HD, and death often follows within 10 years. Individuals with juvenile HD usually inherit the disease from their fathers, who typically have a later onset form of HD themselves. To verify the link between the number of CAG repeats in the HD gene and the age at onset of symptoms, scientists studied a boy who developed HD symptoms at the age of two, one of the youngest and most severe cases ever recorded. They found that he had nearly 100 repeats. The boy’s case was central to the identification of the HD gene and at the same time helped confirm that juveniles with HD have the longest segments of CAG repeats. This correlation has been confirmed in other studies. How is HD diagnosed? A diagnosis of Huntington’s disease is generally based on findings from neurological, psychological, and genetic testing. Neurological tests. A neurologist will interview the individual intensively to obtain the medical history and rule out other conditions. Tests of neurological and physical functions may review reflexes, balance, movement, muscle tone, hearing, walking, and mental status. A number of laboratory tests may be ordered as well, and individuals with HD may be referred to other health care professionals such as psychiatrists, genetic counselors, clinical neuropsychologists, or speech pathologists for specialized management and/or diagnostic clarification. A tool used by physicians to diagnose HD is to take the family history, sometimes called a pedigree or genealogy. It is extremely important for family members to be candid and truthful with a professional who is taking a family history since another family member(s) may not have been accurately diagnosed with the disease but thought to have other issues. Genetic tests. The most effective and accurate method of testing for HD—called the direct genetic test—counts the number of CAG repeats in the HD gene, using DNA taken from a blood sample. The presence of 36 or more repeats supports a diagnosis of HD. A test result of 26 or fewer repeats rules out HD. A small percentage of individuals will have repeats in a borderline range. For such individuals, doctors may try to get a clearer picture of disease risk by asking other family members to come in for examination and genetic testing. Prior to the availability of the direct genetic test, clinics used a method called linkage testing. This older method requires a sample of DNA from a closely related affected relative, preferably a parent, for the purpose of identifying markers close to the HD gene. A version of the linkage method is sometimes still used for prenatal testing. Diagnostic imaging. In some cases, especially if a person’s family history and genetic testing are inconclusive, the physician may recommend brain imaging, such as computed tomography (CT) or, more likely, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). As the disease progresses, these scans typically reveal shrinkage of the striatum and parts of the cortex, and enlargement of fluid-filled cavities within the brain called ventricles. These changes do not necessarily indicate HD, however, because they can occur in other disorders. Conversely, a person can have early symptoms of HD and still have normal findings on a structural CT or MRI scan. What is predictive testing for Huntington's, and how is it done? A predictive or presymptomatic genetic test is an option for someone who has a family history of HD but shows no symptoms. Genetic testing makes it possible to predict with a higher degree of certainty whether or not the person will develop HD. The decision to undergo presymptomatic testing is a highly personal and often difficult one to make. Common reasons that people choose to take the test include planning for marriage, children, education and career decisions, finances, stress, or simply to relieve uncertainty. Centers across the U.S. offer genetic testing for HD, as well as pre- and post-test counseling. A list of such centers is available from the Huntington’s Disease Society of America at 1-800-345- HDSA (https://hdsa.org/). With the participation of families with HD, researchers and health professionals have developed guidelines for HD genetic testing. A team of specialists will help the at-risk person decide if testing is the right choice, and will carefully prepare the person for a negative, positive, or inconclusive test result. Whatever the results of genetic testing, the at-risk individual and family members can expect powerful and complex emotional responses. Because receiving test results may prove to be devastating, testing guidelines call for continued counseling even after the test is complete and the results are known. In order to protect the interests of minors, including confidentiality, testing is not recommended for those under the age of 18 unless there is a compelling medical reason (for example, the child is exhibiting symptoms). Prenatal testing for Huntington's disease Prenatal testing is an option for people who have a family history of HD and are concerned about passing the disease to a child. Before requesting a prenatal test, and even before pregnancy, it is a good idea to seek advice from a genetic counselor. Prenatal testing can be done using either the direct method or the linkage method. As with adult testing, the direct method provides higher certainty. However, in addition to revealing the HD gene status of the fetus, the direct method also reveals the status of the at-risk parent. Hopeful parents who do want to know their own HD gene status may opt for the linkage method, which is also known as prenatal exclusion testing. This test does not look for the HD gene itself but instead indicates whether or not the fetus has inherited a chromosome 4 mutation from the affected grandparent. If the mutation is present, the parents then learn that the fetus’s risk is the same as the at-risk parent (50 percent), but they learn nothing new about the parent’s risk. If the test shows that the fetus has inherited a chromosome 4 mutation from the unaffected grandparent, then the fetus has not inherited HD. A person can have early signs of HD and still have normal findings on a CT or MRI scan. Another option for parents is in vitro fertilization (IVF) and preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD). Briefly, a woman is given fertility drugs so that she produces many eggs at once, the eggs are fertilized by the man’s sperm in vitro (literally, “in glass”), and embryos are screened at a very early stage to determine if they carry the HD mutation. Embryos free of the mutation are then implanted in the woman’s uterus. Parents can choose not to know the exact results of genetic testing and thus are not forced to confront their own HD gene status. These procedures are available only at some specialized IVF clinics and require extensive counseling, preparation, and expense. What is the treatment for Huntington's disease? A number of medications may be prescribed to help control emotional and movement problems associated with HD. It is important to remember however, that while medicines may help keep these clinical symptoms under control, there is no treatment to stop or reverse the course of the disease. Most of the medications available for HD symptoms work by modulating neurotransmitters—the chemical messages that shuttle between neurons. For many of these drugs, their mechanisms of action against HD are not fully understood. Antipsychotic drugs, such as risperidone, olanzapine, or haloperidol, or other drugs such as clonazepam, may help to alleviate choreic movements and may also be used to help control hallucinations, delusions, and violent outbursts. Antipsychotic drugs, however, typically do not help with the muscle contractions associated with dystonia (involuntary muscle contractions that can cause slow, repetitive movement or abnormal postures), and may in fact worsen the condition, causing stiffness and rigidity. For depression, physicians may prescribe citalopram, fluoxetine, sertraline, nortriptyline, or other compounds. Tranquilizers can help control anxiety and lithium may be prescribed to combat pathological excitement and severe mood swings. Drugs used to treat the symptoms of HD may have side effects such as fatigue, sedation, decreased concentration, restlessness, or hyperexcitability, and should be only used when symptoms create problems for the individual. For those on medication, it may be difficult to tell if a particular symptom, such as apathy or memory loss, is a sign of the disease or a drug reaction. What kind of care do people with Huntington's disease need? Cognitive problems are often the first changes that are noticed in HD. Evaluations conducted by clinical neuropsychologists, who specialize in cognitive assessment, can be helpful in clarifying an individual’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses, making safety recommendations and monitoring cognitive changes over time. Education about cognitive symptoms is also helpful for individuals and families. As the disease progresses, it is important to maintain regular daily routines for the person and to provide an environment with minimal distractions. Care should be taken not to isolate individuals who have become slow to engage in conversation or respond to questions. Speech therapy and other communication techniques may improve an individual’s ability to communicate and remain active in family and community life. It is extremely important for a person with HD to maintain physical fitness as much as the course of the disease allows. Individuals who exercise and keep active tend to do better than those who do not. A daily regimen of exercise can help the person feel better physically and mentally. Although their coordination may be poor, individuals should continue walking, with assistance if necessary. Wearing special padding may also help reduce injuries in the event of a fall. Wearing sturdy shoes that fit well can help too, especially shoes without laces that can be slipped on or off easily. Impaired coordination may make it difficult for people with HD to feed themselves and to swallow. As the disease progresses, people with HD may even choke. In helping individuals to eat, caregivers should allow plenty of time for meals. While some foods may require the addition of thickeners, other foods may need to be thinned. Some individuals may benefit from swallowing therapy, which is especially helpful if started before serious problems arise. Suction cups for plates, special tableware designed for people with disabilities, and plastic cups with tops can help prevent spilling. The individual’s physician can offer additional advice about diet and about how to handle swallowing difficulties or gastrointestinal problems that might arise, such as incontinence or constipation. Proper nutrition is needed to ensure the individual with HD takes in enough calories to maintain body weight. Sometimes people with HD, who may burn as many as 5,000 calories a day through involuntary movements, require five meals a day to take in the necessary number of calories. Physicians may recommend vitamins or other nutritional supplements. When swallowing and nutritional problems become severe, some individuals and their families choose to use a feeding tube. Individuals with HD are at special risk for dehydration and therefore require large quantities of fluids, especially during hot weather. Bendable straws can make drinking easier for the person. In some cases, water may have to be thickened with commercial additives to give it the consistency of syrup or honey. What care resources are available to people with Huntington's and their families? Individuals and families affected by HD can take steps to ensure that they receive the best advice and care possible. Advocacy organizations including the Huntington’s Disease Society of America (HDSA) and the Hereditary Disease Foundation are excellent resources with information specific to HD. Some organizations support scientific workshops and research and provide information that enables families, health professionals and investigators to exchange information, learn of available services and benefits, and work toward common goals. HD support groups exist in many states across the country. State and local health service agencies can provide information on community resources and family support groups that may exist. Possible types of help include: Legal and social aid. Since HD affects a person’s capacity to reason, make judgments, and handle responsibilities, individuals may need help with legal affairs. Wills and other important documents should be drawn up early to avoid legal problems when the person with HD may no longer be able to represent his or her own interests. Family members should also seek out assistance if they face discrimination regarding insurance, employment, or other matters. Home care services. Caring for a person with HD at home can be exhausting, but part-time assistance with household chores or physical care of the individual can ease this burden. Domestic help, meal programs, transportation programs, nursing assistance, occupational therapy, or other home services may be available from federal, state, or local health service agencies. Recreation and work centers. Many people with HD are eager and able to participate in activities outside the home. Therapeutic work and recreation centers give individuals an opportunity to pursue hobbies and interests and to meet new people. Participation in these programs, including occupational, music, and recreational therapy, can reduce the person’s dependence on family members and provides home caregivers with a temporary, much needed break. Group housing. A few communities have group housing facilities that are supervised by a resident attendant and that provide meals, housekeeping services, social activities, and local transportation services for residents. These living arrangements are particularly suited to the needs of individuals who are alone and who, although still independent and capable, risk injury when they undertake routine chores like cooking and cleaning. Institutional care. The individual’s physical and emotional demands on the family may eventually become overwhelming. While many families may prefer to keep relatives with HD at home whenever possible, a long-term care facility may prove to be best. To hospitalize or place a family member in a care facility is a difficult decision that may require professional counseling. Finding the proper facility can itself prove difficult. Organizations such as the HDSA may have referrals to facilities that have had experience in the care of individuals with HD. Very few of these exist however, and even fewer have experience with individuals with juvenile or early-onset HD who require special care because of their age and symptoms. What is the latest research on Huntington's disease? The mission of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) is to seek fundamental knowledge about the brain and nervous system and to use that knowledge to reduce the burden of neurological disease. The NINDS is a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the leading supporter of biomedical research in the world. The NINDS conducts and supports research to better understand and diagnose Huntington’s disease (HD), develop new treatments, and ultimately, prevent HD. The NINDS also supports training for the next generation of HD researchers and clinicians, and serves as an important source of information for people with HD and their families. NINDS-funded research has played a key role in our understanding of HD—helping to localize the HD-causing gene to chromosome 4 and identifying the mutation that causes HD. These findings have proven invaluable for diagnosis and research, and have enabled neuroscientists to create animal models of the disorder. Signs of HD have been reproduced in fruit flies, mice, and non-human primates by giving the animals one or more copies of the HD mutations found in people. These models are used to study mechanisms of the disease, to identify potential therapeutic strategies, and to move forward with those strategies most likely to work and least likely to cause harm for individuals. Just as important, the gene discovery enables neurologists to recruit individuals who carry the HD gene into clinical studies early—before they become ill. The HD Gene How do mutations in the HD gene lead to neuronal degeneration? The normal functions of the huntingtin (Htt) protein—the product of the HD gene—have yet to be fully defined, but may include regulating the development of the embryo, transport of molecules and organelles inside nerve cells, and controlling factors that support neuronal health. However, there is very strong evidence that the mutant Htt protein gains one or more new and harmful functions. A major focus of research on HD is to understand the toxicity of mutant huntingtin protein and to develop potential drugs for counteracting it. People with HD have an abnormal, repetitive, greatly expanded three-letter code, called a CAG repeat, in their DNA sequence. DNA uses a threeletter code (or triplet) to prescribe the order and identity of amino acids—a protein’s building blocks. The triplet “CAG” designates the amino acid glutamine. The repeated CAGs in the normal HD gene are translated into a string of glutamines, called polyglutamine. The mutant HD gene codes for an abnormal form of the Htt protein with much longer polyglutamine repeats that are toxic to neurons. Also, the abnormal polyglutamine sequence affects how the huntingtin protein interacts with other proteins. At least eight other inherited neurological disorders are caused by polyglutamine expansions, each in a different gene. RNA serves as an intermediate between DNA molecules and proteins; the genetic code within DNA is copied into RNA, which is then used as a template for making proteins. The mutant huntingtin protein RNA may itself be toxic to cells; its numerous repeats can attract and bind essential cellular proteins which thus become unavailable to perform their critical function in processing other RNA molecules from other genes. NINDS is funding cutting-edge research that aims to eliminate or reduce the production of toxic HD-RNA and huntingtin protein. One potential therapy, called RNA interference, involves designing small bits of synthetic RNA to match, target, and destroy specific RNA molecules inside cells. Researchers have designed interfering RNAs that target HD-RNA and block the production of mutant huntingtin protein, and they have found this approach to be beneficial in mouse models of HD. Such synthetic RNA molecules called antisense oligonucleotides are being developed to be delivered into the cerebrospinal fluid. Others are packaging the RNA into viruses to deliver into the brain. Pharmaceutical companies are now initiating ambitious trials to test whether this approach may help people with HD. Mutant Huntingtin Protein Aberrant regulation of genes in HD. The abnormal interactions between mutant huntingtin protein and other proteins can have many adverse consequences, including altered gene regulation. Humans have approximately 20,000 genes, about one-third of which are active (or expressed) in the brain at some point in life. Precisely when and where these genes are expressed is controlled by a complex machinery within cells—and mutant Htt can upset this system. For instance, DNA in the cells of higher organisms is packed into chromatin—tight coils of DNA and small proteins called histones. Compounds that block gene expression and coiltightening activity of certain histones have been shown to counteract HD in animal models, and are attractive candidates for drug development. Other alterations in chromatin not only keep some necessary genes shut off, but mutant Htt can also inappropriately turn on other genes, such as those driving excessive inflammation, which damages and kills nerve cells in the brain. Mutant Htt aggregation. Besides sticking to other proteins, mutant Htt has a tendency to stick to copies of itself and accumulate in clumps known as aggregates. These aggregates can pull in and block the activity of other proteins, and grow to form inclusion bodies—protein deposits inside cells that may overburden the cell’s ability to handle and dispose of old or damaged proteins. Neurons from different brain regions may differ in their efficiency of waste disposal. Neurons in the striatum, the brain region most affected in HD, show the slowest mutant huntingtin clearance rates, perhaps explaining their heightened susceptibility to the disease. Compounds that activate cellular waste handling systems have been shown to reduce the toxicity of mutant Htt in animal models. Recent evidence suggests that mutant huntingtin may also move from cell to cell in a person’s brain and induce aggregates and inclusions in neighboring cells, similar to what is seen in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. Metabolism and mitochondria. Some studies suggest that mutant Htt interferes with the function of the tiny energy factories inside cells known as mitochondria. Others point to reduced efficiency of antioxidant pathways—protective pathways that scavenge harmful byproducts of brain activity that in normal conditions remain at innocuous levels. In HD some of these pathways are disrupted and the toxic byproducts accumulate to damaging levels. Drugs that inhibit the production of these harmful byproducts or accelerate their clearance have been designed and successfully tested in animal models. However, two NINDS-funded trials investigating any benefit of the metabolic supplements creatine and coenzyme Q10 in people with HD found no improvements in clinical symptoms at the doses tested. Excitotoxicity, neural circuits, and survival factors. Researchers have yet to determine why Huntington’s disease has its most severe effects on neurons in the striatum, specifically on a cell type called mediumsized spiny neurons. One culprit may be the brain chemical glutamate, which is produced by neurons in the cerebral cortex and transmits information by exciting (signaling them to turn on) medium spiny neurons in the striatum. Excessive glutamate signaling between these cells may lead to overexcitation of medium spiny neurons in HD. Chronic over-excitation is toxic to neurons (called excitotoxity). Several labs are investigating whether drugs that counteract excitotoxicity might help against HD. Some of the clinical symptoms in neurodegenerative diseases may be caused by the ultimate malfunctioning of neuronal circuits rather than by the loss of individual cells. Cutting-edge methods such as optogenetics (where neurons are activated or silenced in the brains of living animals using light beams) are being used to probe the cause and progression of such circuit defects in HD. In addition to communications exchange, neurons may also provide each other with chemical signals (called trophic factors) that support the health and stability of neural circuits. Cortical neurons provide trophic support by releasing Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), which supports the survival of medium spiny neurons in the striatum. Evidence suggests that mutant Htt suppresses the production of BDNF. Using animal models, researchers hope to restore BNDF-based trophic support to striatal cells and possibly prevent medium spiny neurons from dying. Stem cells are now a useful tool that helps us understand underlying molecular disease mechanisms. Pluripotency—the ability of embryonic stem cells to become nerve, muscle, bone, and other cell types—depends on a unique genetic program that is typically shut off in adult cells. Scientists have discovered that it is possible to take adult blood or skin cells and, by activating this genetic program, return the cells to a pluripotent state (called induced pluripotent, or iPS, cells). Through an NINDS-funded consortium, individuals with HD have donated skin and blood samples for research, allowing the creation of iPS cell lines and iPSderived neurons for studying HD. Researchers are using cultures of these cell lines to understand why neurons malfunction and die in HD, and to rapidly test potential new drugs. Their aim is increase the efficiency of turning a person’s iPS cells into medium spiny neurons that reflect the human disease, and then to learn from these disease cells how the CAG-repeat expansion damages their function and viability. Investigators are studying the effects of transplanting nerve cells derived from embryonic or adult stem cells (immature cells that eventually give rise to all of the body’s cell types) or fetal tissue. A number of small studies found no sustained improvement in transplanting fetus-derived cells into the striatum in people with HD. In theory, induced pluripotent stem cells could be derived from a person with Huntington’s disease and then implanted into the person’s brain after correcting the HD mutation. However, brain function is dependent upon the correct connections between neurons and currently it is not known how to generate cells to form connections appropriately in a disease such as HD. An alternative to transplanting stem cells into the brain may be to mobilize stem cells that are already there and shown to move into damaged tissue. Research on rodent models of HD suggests it might be possible to reawaken these cells by delivering specific growth factors to the brain. It is not yet clear whether this strategy will work in humans, as those with HD seem to have significantly fewer and less potent brain stem cells than healthy people. The NINDS-funded PREDICT-HD study, as well as several international studies (such as REGISTRY, BIOHD, and Enroll-HD), seek to identify biomarkers for HD. Biomarkers are biological changes that can be used to predict, diagnose, or monitor a disease; for example, a sustained rise in blood sugar is a biomarker for diabetes. One goal of PREDICT-HD is to determine if the progression of the disease correlates with changes in brain scan images, or with chemical changes in blood, urine, or cerebrospinal fluid. Another goal is to find biomarkers characteristic of prediagnostic HD; measurable changes in personality, mood, and cognition that typically precede the appearance motor symptoms of HD. A large and related NINDS-supported study aims to identify additional genetic factors in people that influence the course of the disease. Individuals with the same CAG expansions can differ widely in the age of disease onset and severity of symptoms. Researchers are trying to identify variations in the genomes of individuals with HD that account for those differences. Finding genetic variants that slow or accelerate the pace of disease progression promise to provide important new targets for disease intervention and therapy. Studies of cognition, emotional functioning, and movement. Studies of motor problems (abnormal eye movements, chorea, and dystonia), psychiatric symptoms (apathy, psychosis, depression, and irritability), and tests of cognitive skills (learning and memory, attention, concentration, and executive functioning such as multitasking, problem-solving, and planning) may serve to identify when the symptoms of HD appear, and help characterize their range and severity as the disease progresses over time. Clinical trials of drugs. Testing investigational drugs may lead to new treatments and at the same time improve our understanding of the disease process in HD. Classes of drugs being tested include those that control symptoms, slow the rate of progression of HD, block the effects of excitotoxins, provide support factors that improve neuronal health, or suppress metabolic defects that contribute to the development and progression of HD. Imaging. Various imaging technologies allow investigators to view changes in the volume and structures of the brain, and to pinpoint when these changes occur in HD. Positron emission tomography (PET, which visualizes metabolic or chemical abnormalities in the brain) allows scientists to learn how HD affects the chemical systems of the brain. Investigators hope to learn if PET scans can reveal abnormalities that signal HD, as well as to characterize neurons that have died and chemicals that are depleted in parts of the brain of people with HD. Investigators are using functional MRI (fMRI), a form of magnetic resonance imaging that measures changes in the flow of blood-born chemicals known to correlate with brain activity, to understand how HD affects the functioning of different regions of the brain. Brain structure. Altered brain development may play an important role in HD. Huntingtin is expressed during embryonic development and throughout life. Studies in animals have shown that the normal HD gene is vital for brain development. Adults who carry the mutant HD gene but have not yet displayed symptoms of the disease show measurable changes in the structure of their brain, even up to 20 years before onset of clinical diagnosis. It is not known when in life these changes become evident. One possibility is that the HD gene causes changes in early brain development that remain throughout life, and initially cause only subtle functional abnormalities. In an effort to better understand how HD affects brain development, an NINDS-funded study is evaluating brain structure and function in children, adolescents, and young adults (ages 6-18) who are at risk for developing the disease because they have a parent or grandparent with HD. Participants who carry the expanded gene will be compared to individuals who carry the gene but have CAG repeats of 39 or less, as well as to individuals who do not have a history of HD in their family. Changes in brain structure and/or function in the gene-expanded group may point to a developmental component in HD.
It’s easy to think that making friends is something kids just do, not something they need to learn to do well. And it’s true that all things can be learned with lots of trial and error. But, like most things, social skills are easier to learn if someone more experienced and wiser helps give you tips along the way. And role-modelling, rehearsal, and lots of practice time will also help. There are many skills for making and maintaining social connections, such as: - Body Language: Eye contact, open posture, facial expressions. Speaking clearly, not too quiet or too loud. Respecting other people’s personal space. - Conversation Skills: Initiating, asking questions, listening, staying on topic, sharing air time. - Inviting Connection: Greetings, introductions, learning names. Asking to join in, inviting others in. - Responding to Other People’s Bids for Connection - Manners: Saying please, thank you, excuse me. Apologizing. Asking, not demanding. - Being Kind: Encouraging, complimenting, helping, sharing. Doing nice things for others. - Playing Well: Leading (suggesting ideas), following (trying other’s ideas). Finding common ground and negotiating a mutually enjoyable option. - Emotional Intelligence: Identifying emotions. Expressing emotions. Understanding how their actions might make someone else feel. - Self control: Taking turns. Being able to wait. Staying calm. - Problem solving. Resolving conflicts. Sticking up for yourself, but not dominating. - Coping: Accepting criticism, moving on from rejection to try again elsewhere, bouncing back. To decide where to focus first, observe your child at play with other kids, and ask other adults (e.g. your child’s teacher) for their thoughts: What are your child’s social strengths? What skills are they lacking? Pick a few simple ideas to start teaching and practicing. Methods for Teaching Skills We can teach these skills in many different ways: - Role model: Act how you would like your child to act. - Watch for it: Watch people out in public – observe and comment when you see other people using the skill. Watch for examples in the books you read together and the shows you watch – comment on it. When another child uses the skill well, praise them so your child hears that praise. - Pretend play: Whether playing house, or dress-up, or playing with puppets or dolls, incorporate examples of good social skills. - Family games night or coached play: When playing with your child, praise the things they are doing well, make suggestions for how to improve. Help them learn to be good winners / losers. - Script: Some children benefit from having “scripts” for starting conversations. - Role play: Make up scenarios. Practice them with your child. After each session, talk about what went well and what could be better, then role play another scenario. Have them do this with other family members, such as on a Skype call with grandma. - Ask your child to teach another child. Social Skills to Teach - Learning Names: Help your child learn the names of kids they know. Keep a class list at home, or have photos of the other kids – run through the names with your child. - Meeting: Teach how to make eye contact, smile warmly, and introduce themselves. - Greeting: Once they know someone, encourage them to say hi, use the other person’s name, ask them about something specific – “how was your trip?” “what book did you bring today?” - Use Kindness to Connect: Suggest that they share a snack, make a drawing or card for a friend. - Finding common ground: Ask your child what they know about what another child likes to play or talk about, that your child is also interested in, so they know how to connect to them. - Joining into play: Teach them how to come up to the group with a smile, and ask “Can I play?” Or, play nearby, with friendly body language, and they may invite you in. Make a suggestion for how you could participate: “That looks like a fun town you’re building – can I add a house?” - Keeping a conversation going: Teach your child some standard conversation starters: “do you have any pets / brothers / sisters” or “what is your favorite food / book / movie / video game?” Teach them how to ask follow-up questions. Teach how to stay on topic, by teaching the analogy of a conversation as a Lego tower. Your friend says something. You say something related that connects. Then they ask something related that connects. You’re building a tower of connection. - Telling a story. Children (especially autistic children) have a tendency to launch into long stories where they’re talking AT someone rather than with them. As adults, we may have been very patient with this. Other children are not likely to be so patient. Practice with your child the 6 sentence story, where you have 1 – 2 sentences for the beginning, 1 – 2 for the middle, and 1 – 2 to wrap it up and let the other child have a turn. When Challenges Inevitably Arise: Conflict Resolution: Encourage your child to use words, especially I statements – say how they feel, and what they would like to have happen. Ask the other child what they would like to have happen. Compromise. Coping with Rejection: No matter how good a job your child does of approaching another child nicely, and asking to play together, there’s always a chance the other child will say no. Help your child think what they could do in that situation, such as finding someone else to play with. Managing aggressive behavior: If your child has a hard time managing frustration, help them practice taking deep breaths before reacting, noticing when they’re getting too revved up and taking a break, help them think of other solutions, talk about problems, seek support… Create Opportunities for Practice and Skill Building Playdates. Set up playdates with other children. The one-on-one practice is the best skill builder, and also the best way to build closer friendships. Tips for success: - Timing: Pick a time of day when both kids tend to be in good moods. Keep the playdate short. - Have some plans: Work with your child to plan and set out possible activities that they think their friend would particularly enjoy. Sharing a fun experience builds connections. - Minimize conflict triggers: If there are toys your child has a hard time sharing, or games your child has a hard time losing, put them away for the playdate. - Supervise, but try to step back and let them play without a lot of interference from you. - Snacks: If things aren’t going smoothly, offering a tasty snack is often a good intervention. - 2 person or 4 person playdates are best. If there’s 3 kids, one often gets left out. Free Play Opportunities: Take your child to the park, or other free play locations, often. If your child wears a t-shirt or carries a backpack with a favorite character, or brings a favorite book, that can end up as a conversation starter with someone who shares the same interests. Extracurriculars: Enrolling your child in activities and classes with a focus means that they’ll find kids there that they have something in common with. However, within the structure of something like music class or soccer practice, they don’t have a lot of time for free, unstructured interaction, which is what really helps to build friendships. So, try planning some playdates or free play opportunities with those kids after the lesson is over. There are some kids who have an especially hard time with friendship skills. A very introverted, shy, or timid child, or an anxious child, may need a lot of extra encouragement and hand-holding to get up the courage to connect. A child with ADHD struggles with impulsivity, and may need extra help focusing on social play and learning to take turns and share toys. An autistic child may struggle with reading emotions, interpreting social cues, and regulating their emotions. If your child is 6 or older, and having challenges with building relationships, they might benefit from a social skills group. Ask a teacher, counselor, or occupational therapist for more information. - “Friendship Matters: Helping Kids Make and Keep Friends”. https://www.micheleborba.com/bullying-2/michele-borba-blog-the-art-of-boosting-your-childs-friendship-making-skills/, by Michelle Borba - “Learning Positive Friendship Skills”. (babies to early elementary) http://videa.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Helping-children-learn-positive-frienship-skills.pdf - “101 Ways to Teach Children Social Skills” https://www.healthiersfexcel.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/101-Ways-to-Teach-Children-Social-Skills.pdf Teachers and Parent Educators: I have a free printable handout on this topic: Helping Your Child Learn to Make Friends.
What Kids Learn from Horses When people think of teachers they rarely think of horses when, in fact, horses are first-rate educators who can teach young children and teens a variety of useful skills that promote lifelong learning, success, and fulfillment. In 2017, a study conducted by the Tokyo University of Agriculture reported that children had positive physical and mental effects from horseback riding. The report stated that “the act of horse-riding could improve cognitive abilities in children. These are brain-based skills of which an improvement can lead to enhanced learning, memory, and problem-solving.” Many studies of children involved in horse programs show that they generally get better grades because riding increases their ability to focus and ignore distractions. This directly translates to learning, studying, and concentrating on a task. By interacting with horses, children can learn and subsequently apply these important skills to a variety of situations throughout their lives. Although Chris Brown’s son started riding a pony at 6 years old, he didn’t show much interest in horses.He rarely rode until his late teen years when he appeared to have an amazing “natural” ability to train horses. When Chris started receiving cancer treatments, his son took over, riding the horses on their ranch. Chris thinks his son’s riding helped him develop responsibility, independence, and confidence. His son is now in his 20’s and manages a cattle and horse ranch in Nevada of over one thousand acres. One of the first lessons youths learn when working with horses is the importance of safety for themselves, horses, and others. This is critical because horses typically outweigh young riders by a factor of ten. Being conscious of safety procedures around horses teaches youths awareness of their actions and reactions, horses' behaviors, consideration of others, and awareness of the surrounding environment. Since one of the skills required to be safe is self-control, kids learn to stay calm and patient when working with horses by properly riding and working with them. They also learn to control their reactions as their behavior immediately impacts the behavior of their horse. Studies have shown that horses are sensitive to their handler's moods, riding, facial expressions, and mirror their rider’s feelings. Through horses, youths can obtain the ability to calmly respond to a situation instead of reacting emotionally. They learn how to interpret their horse's reactions and stay calm in order to co-operate with a large animal. These skills are not only useful when they work with horses but are also important when interacting with people. Another trait kids learn from horses is the importance of consistency. Horses often dislike changes in their daily routines and their environment. They like to be fed at the same time and immediately notice and can be startled when something such as a movement from an unexpected source occurs in their visual range. Horses not fed on time may become so anxious that they do not attend to their rider's commands resulting in an unruly animal and unsafe ride. Horses thus require those who are responsible for them to have good time-management and discipline. Both youths and horses benefit when tasks are completed in a timely and efficient manner;their moods remain consistent and kids gain important preparation skills. Staying organized with time and personal belongings improves efficiency and effectiveness in the horse’s environment, whether it be a barn or pasture. As kids work with horses, they learn the importance of consistency in their routines, habits, and interactions with these sensitive animals. Lori Dapelo signed her eight-year-old son up for riding lessons to help him overcome various fears. He took lessons on week-ends for a year, overcame his fears and learned to trust his coach and horses. He utilized the consistent, repetitive behaviors he acquired during riding to become an excellent student in the following years. Interpreting the feelings of a horse teaches kids empathy which enables understanding the feelings and situations of others. Much of modern interaction between kids is with hi-tech media such as cell phones, tablets, and computers. As a result, their exposure to the appearance of others has significantly decreased in recent years, reducing their ability to be empathic. Through horses, children become caretakers attending to the needs of their animals often before their own needs, enhancing their ability to empathize. Recent studies have shown that regular exposure to a horse farm regulates the immune system, lowers stress levels and improves well-being.
The people of Cyprus have an opportunity to choose a name for an exoplanet, following the Cyprus Space Exploration Organisation’s (CSEO) accession to the International Astronomical Union (IAU) last year. A campaign started on Saturday, November 9 and will last one week. You can visit the webpage and vote for the pair of names you wish to be given to a star and its exoplanet (each pair is a combination of two names – one for the star and one for the exoplanet). Cyprus was assigned a solar system located 137 light-years away from Earth discovered in 2002. The star and its exoplanet are in the constellation of Ophiuchus, more specifically, at the point where Ophiuchus holds the snake. The star belongs to the category of our sun and was given the number HD168746. The size of the exoplanet HD168746b is equal to the size of the largest planet in our solar system, Jupiter, and orbits the star at 6.4 days, meaning that an entire year on the planet lasts only 6.4 Earth days. It belongs to the category of the yellow dwarfs and consists of gas. Another notable feature of this solar system is that it is close to the nebula where stars are born. An exoplanet (or extrasolar planet) is a planet outside the Solar System. The first possible evidence of an exoplanet was noted in 1917 but was not recognized as such. The first confirmation of detection occurred in 1992. Sources: Philnews. Cyprus News Agency
This activity uses the same materials as the Pluck! Learning Center: - rubber bands of different thicknesses - shoe boxes, bread pans, and other open containers around which the rubber bands can be stretched Note: It is important to try out these materials prior to the activity so that you can choose rubber bands that produce satisfying tones of different pitches when stretched around the boxes. Key Science Concepts - Sound is caused by vibration. - An action has to take place in order for a sound to occur. - Sounds vary in pitch (high or low). Encourage children to use descriptive words such as vibrate, rhythm, volume, and pitch, high, and low, as well as action words such as pluck. - Gather children around the materials and invite them to talk about and demonstrate some of the discoveries they made while exploring similar materials at the Pluck Learning Center. Have children join you in making “rubber band guitars” by placing rubber bands around shoeboxes, bread pans, or other open containers. - Have the children look at how the rubber band moves when they pluck it and ask them to describe what they see. Introduce the word vibrating to describe what the rubber band is doing (wiggling back and forth). For another example of vibration, have children repeat an activity they did last week: putting their hands on their throats as they talk, sing, or buzz. Can they feel the vibrations in their throats? - As children explore making sounds with the rubber bands, talk about what you are hearing: I hear a lot of different sounds from the guitar. Let’s try plucking these two rubber bands. What differences do you hear? Is it higher or lower in pitch? Is it louder or softer? What do you think might be making a difference? - In plucking their guitars, some of the children may use their other hand to pick up the length of rubber band stretched over the top of the box, stretching it tighter and changing the pitch of the sound. The more you stretch the rubber band, the higher the pitch will get. If this happens, point it out to the children, and encourage them to try it. If not, demonstrate doing it yourself. Encourage children to explore making music with high and low sounds on their rubber band guitars. - Record some of the sounds they make. Or let each child record his or her own sounds. Reflect and Share Play some of the children's recordings. Invite children to dictate “How to Make a Rubber Band Guitar” while you write the instructions on chart paper. Have materials available so children can try out the instructions and reword or clarify if needed. Encourage children to include directions or tips about how to play high notes and low notes on the guitar. They may want to share their instructions with their families. Have children sing and play their instruments, making the same sounds and rhythms that Violet made on her guitar: Twang, Twang, Yeah, Yeah, Twang, Twang, YEAH! Then ask them to make up their own rhythms and songs.
Hericium species are often considered uncommon. Hericium erinaceus is regarded as threatened or endangered some places. It is a legally protected red-list organism in European countries such as England and over a dozen more. Disappearance of large expanses of intact old-growth forests is often blamed for their rare occurrence but a major contributor is the eagerness of humans to cut down trees inhabited by lion’s mane due to shedding large limbs and their upper portion. This is sometimes done out of a perception that the tree is therefore dangerous but firewood harvesting and fire-safety activity is commonly involved. If wanting to encourage more hericiums in the world, aggressive removal of their hosts should be replaced by leaving the trees standing and respecting what falls to rot into the ground as important habitat, especially when it is substantial in size. The usual pattern is for fruiting to repeat itself until the wood is exhausted. People frequently think the Hericium species to naturally be rarities or limited to expanses of old-growth forests but when their preferred habitats (injured, dying and dead trees) are left alone to decay they can be surprisingly commonly encountered inside of major urban areas. They are often readily overlooked due to fruiting best in mild but damp periods rather than excessively wet periods that can easily damage the carpophores. Fruiting on standing trees or inside of hollows and on the undersides of large fallen debris can also cause them to be missed even when they are abundantly present in the forest. It is also not uncommon for Hericium erinaceus to fruit much higher on trees than will permit safe recovery. This often also helps them be missed as most foragers are not looking for mushrooms that might be located 20 meters high in a tree. And fewer still will take the risk of climbing a tree to harvest a fungus that eats the tree from the inside out.
Inspired by a concept for discovering exoplanets with a giant space telescope, a team of researchers is developing holographic lenses that render visible and infrared starlight into either a focused image or a spectrum. The experimental method could be used to create a lightweight flexible lens, many meters in diameter, that could be rolled for launch and unfurled in space. Two spherical waves of light are used to produce the hologram, which gives fine control over the diffractive grating recorded on the film, and the effect it has on light — either separating light with super sensitivity or focusing it with high resolution. The researchers believe this model could be useful in applications that require extremely high spectral resolution spectroscopy, such as analysis of exoplanets. Telescopes that must be launched into space (to benefit from a view unimpeded by Earth’s atmosphere) are limited by the weight and bulk of the glass mirrors used to focus light. These mirrors can realistically span only a few meters in diameter. By contrast, the lightweight flexible holographic lens — more properly called a “holographic optical element” — used to focus light could be dozens of meters across. Such an instrument could be used to directly observe an exoplanet, a leap over current methods that detect exoplanets based on their effect on light coming from the star they orbit. “To find Earth 2.0, we really want to see exoplanets by direct imaging — we need to be able to look at the star and see the planet separate from the star. And for that, we need high resolution and a really big telescope,” said Professor Heidi Jo Newberg. The holographic optical element is a refined version of a Fresnel lens, a category of lenses that use concentric rings of prisms arrayed in a flat plane to mimic the focusing ability of a curved lens without the bulk. The concept of the Fresnel lens — which was developed for use in lighthouses — dates to the 19th century, with modern-day Fresnel lenses of glass or plastic found in automobile lamps, micro-optics, and camera screens. But while Fresnel holographic optical elements — created by exposing a light-sensitive plastic film to two sources of light at different distances from the film — are not uncommon, existing methods have been limited to lenses that could only focus light, rather than separating it into its constituent colors. The new method allows the designers to either focus light onto a single point or disperse it into its constituent colors, producing a spectrum of pure colors. The method uses two sources of light, positioned very close to one another, which create concentric waves of light that — as they travel toward the film — either build or cancel each other out. This pattern of convergence or interference can be tuned based on formulas developed by visiting Professor Mei-Li Hsieh. It is printed, or “recorded,” onto the film as a holographic image and, depending on how the image is structured, light passing through the holographic optical element is either focused or stretched.
« PrécédentContinuer » The table represents the number of bones distinct and separable during adult life: Organic matter (Fat, etc., Collagen) . Single Bones. Pairs. Bones are often classified according to their shape. Thus, long bones, that is to say, bones of elongated cylindrical form, are more or less characteristic of the limbs. Broad or flat bones are plate-like, and serve as protective coverings to the structures they overlie; the bones of the cranial vault display this particular form. Other bones, such as the carpus and tarsus, are termed short bones; whilst the bones of the cranial base, the face, and the vertebræ, are frequently referred to as irregular bones. Various descriptive terms are applied to the prominences commonly met with on a bone, such as tuberosity, eminence, protuberance, process, tubercle, spine, ridge, crest, and line. These may be articular in their nature, or may serve as points or lines of muscular and ligamentous attachment. The surface of the bone may be excavated into pits, depressions, fovea, fossa, cavities, furrows, grooves, and notches. These may be articular or non-articular, the latter serving for the reception of organs, tendons, ligaments, vessels, and nerves. In some instances the substance of the bone is hollowed out to form an air space, sinus, or antrum. Bones are traversed by foramina and canals; these may be for the entrance and exit of nutrient vessels, or for the transmission of vessels and nerves from one region to another. A cleft, hiatus, or fissure serves the same purpose; channels of this kind are usually placed in the line of a suture, or correspond to the line of fusion of the primitive portions of the bone which they pierce. Composition of Bone.-Bone is composed of a combination of organic and inorganic substances in about the proportion of one to two. The animal matter may be removed by boiling or charring. According to the completeness with which the fibrous elements have been withdrawn, so the brittleness of the bone increases. When subjected to high temperatures the earthy matter alone remains. By soaking a bone in acid the salts may be dissolved out, leaving only the organic part. The shape of the bone is still retained, but the organic substance which is left is soft, and it can be bent about in any direction. The toughness and elasticity of bone depends therefore on its organic constituents, whilst its hardness is due to its mineral matter. vob Bone may be examined either in the fresh or dry condition. In the former state it retains all its organic parts, which include the fibrous tissue in and around it, the blood-vessels and their contents, together with the cellular elements found within the substance of the bone itself, and the marrow which occupies the lacunar spaces and marrow cavity. In the dri macerated bone most of these have the organic matter still remains, ore or less fossil condition. Conployed, bone possesses a remarkhilst it is capable of resisting a greater crushing strain; it is stated that a cubic inch of bone will support a weight of over two tons. Its elasticity is remarkable, and is of the greatest service in enabling it to withstand the shocks to which it is so frequently subjected. In regions where wood is scarce the natives use the ribs of large mammals as a substitute in the construction of their bows. Its hardness and density vary in different parts of the skeleton, and its permanency and durability exceed that of any other tissue of the body, except the enamel and dentine of the teeth. The osseous remains of a race over eighty centuries old have been excavated in Egypt. Structure of Bone (Macroscopic).-To obtain an idea of the structure of a bone it is necessary to examine it both in the fresh or recent condition and in the macerated state. In the former the bone is covered by a membrane which is with difficulty torn off, owing to the abundance of fine fibrils which enter the substance of the bone from its deep surface. This membrane, called the periosteum, overlies the bone, except where the bone is coated with cartilage. This cartilage may form a bond of union between contiguous bones or, in the case of bones united to each other by movable joints, may be moulded into smooth articular surfaces called the articular cartilages. The attachment of the various ligaments and muscles can also be studied, and it will be noticed that where tendon or ligament is attached, the bone is often roughened to form a ridge or eminence; where fleshy muscular fibres are attached, the bone is, as a rule, smooth. In the macerated condition, when the cartilage and fibrous elements have been destroyed, it is possible, however, to determine with considerable accuracy the parts of the bone covered with articular cartilage, since the bone here is smooth and conforms generally to the curves of the articular areas of the joint; these areas are referred to as the articular surfaces of the bone. The bone, stripped of its periosteal covering, displays a dense surface finely pitted for the entrance of the processes derived from the periosteum, which thus establish a connexion between the bony substance and that vascular layer; here and there, more particularly in the neighbourhood of the articular extremities, these pits increase in size and number and allow of the transmission of small blood-vessels. If careful examination is made, one or two foramina of larger size will usually be noticed. These vascular foramina or canals allow the passage of arteries of considerable size into the interior of the bone, and are called the canales nutricii or nutrient canals or foramina of the bone. There are also corresponding channels for the escape of veins from the interior. In order more fully to ascertain the structure of bone it will be necessary to study it in section. Taking first a long bone, such as one meets with in the limbs, one notices on longitudinal section, that the bone is not of the same density throughout, for, whilst the external layers are solid and compact, the interior is made up of loose spongy bone called substantia spongiosa (cancellous tissue). Further, it will be observed that in certain situations this spongy substance is absent, so that there is a hollow in the interior of the bone called the medullary cavity. In the recent condition this cavity is filled with the marrow and is hence often called the marrow cavity. This marrow, which fills not only the marrow cavity but also the interstices between the fibres of the spongy substance, consists largely of fat cells, together with some marrow cells proper, supported by a kind of retiform tissue. The appearance and constituents of the marrow differ in different situations. In the medullary cavity of long bones the marrow, as above described, is known as medulla ossium flava (yellow marrow). In other situations, viz., in the diploë of the cranial bones (to be hereafter described), in the spongy tissue of such bones as the vertebræ, the sternum, and the ribs, the marrow is more fluid, less fatty, and is characterised by the presence of marrow-cells proper, which resemble in some respects colourless blood corpuscles. In addition to these, however, there are small reddish-coloured cells, akin to the nucleated red corpuscles of the blood of the embryo. These cells (erythroblasts) are concerned in the formation of the coloured corpuscles of the blood. Marrow which displays these characteristic appearances is distinguished from the yellow variety, already described, by being called the medulla ossium rubra (red marrow). The marrow met with in the spongy tissue of the cranial bones of aged individuals often undergoes degenerative changes and is sometimes referre 1 as gelatinous marrow. A better idea of the disposition of the bony framework of a long bone can be obtained by the examination of a section of a macerated specimen. In such a specimen the marrow has been destroyed and the osseous architecture of the bone is consequently better displayed. Within the body of the bone is seen the marrow cavity extending towards, but not reaching, either extremity of the bone. This cavity is surrounded on all sides by a loose spicular network of bone, which gradually increases in compactness until it reaches the circumference of the shaft, where it forms a dense surrounding wall. In the shaft of a long bone the thickness of this outer layer is not the same throughout, but tends to diminish as we approach the extremities, nor is it of uniform thickness on all sides of the bone. All the long bones display curves in varying degree, and it is a uniform rule that the thicker dense bone is found along the concave surface of the curve, thus assisting in materially strengthening the bone. Towards the extremities of the long bone the structure and arrangement of the bone undergoes a change. There is no marrow cavity, the spongy tissue is not so open and irregular, and the external wall is much thinner than in the shaft; indeed in many instances it is little thicker than stout paper. A closer examination of the arrangement of this spongy tissue throughout the bone suggests a regularity in its arrangement which might escape notice; and if, in place of one bone only being examined, sections of other bones are also inspected, it will be observed that the spicules of this tissue are so arranged as best to withstand the strains and stresses to which the bone is habitually subjected. From what has been said it will be obvious that the arrangements above described are those best adapted to secure the maximum of strength with the minimum of material, and a consequent reduction in the weight of the skeleton. The same description applies, with some modification, to bones of flattened form. Taking as an example the expanded plate-like bones of the cranial vault, their structure, as displayed on section, exhibits the following appearance: The outer and inner surfaces are formed by two compact and dense layers, having sandwiched between them a layer of spongy tissue called the diploë, containing red marrow. Note that there is no medullary cavity, though in certain situations and at certain periods of life the substance of the diploë may become absorbed and converted, by the evagination of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract, into air-spaces or air-sinuses. Structure of Bone (Microscopic).-True bone differs from calcified cartilage or membrane in that it not merely consists of the deposition of earthy salts within its matrix, but displays a definite arrangement of its organic and inorganic parts. Compact bone merely differs from loose or spongy bone in the denseness of its tissue, the characteristic feature of which is the arrangement of the osseous lamellæ to form what are called Haversian systems. These consist of a central or Haversian canal, which contains the vessels of the bone. Around this the osseous lamellæ are arranged concentrically, separated here and there by interspaces called lacunæ, in which the bone corpuscles are lodged. Passing from these lacunæ are many fine channels called canaliculi. These are disposed radially to the Haversian canal, and pass through the osseous lamellæ. They are occupied by the slender processes of the bone corpuscles. Each Haversian system consists of from three to ten concentric rings of osseous lamellæ. In addition to the lamella of the Haversian systems there are others which are termed the interstitial lamellæ; these occupy the intervals between adjoining Haversian systems, and consist of Haversian systems which have undergone a process of partial absorption. Towards the surface of the bone, and subjacent to the periosteal membrane which surrounds the shaft, there are lamella arranged circumferentially; these are sometimes referred to as the outer fundamental lamellæ. The periosteal membrane which surrounds the bone, and which plays so important a part in its development, sends in processes through the various Haversian systems, which carry with them vessels and cells, thus forming an organic meshwork around which the earthy salts are deposited. Ossification of Bone. -For an account of the earlier development of the skeleton the reader should consult a manual of embryology. Concerning the subsequent changes which take place, these are dependent on the conversion of the scleratogenous tissue into membrane and cartilage. A characteristic of this tissue. is that it contains elements which become formed into bone-producing cells, called osteoblasts. These are met with in the connective tissue from which the membrane bones are formed, whilst they also appear in the deeper layers of the investing tissue of the cartilage (perichondrium), and so lead to its conversion into the boneproducing layer or periosteum. All true bone, therefore, may probably be regarded as of membranous origin, though its appearance is preceded in some instances by the deposition of cartilage; in this case calcification of the cartilage is an essential stage in the process of bone formation, but the ultimate conversion into true bone, with characteristic Haversian systems, leads to the absorption and disappearance of this primitive calcified cartilage. In considering the development of bone an inspection of the skeleton of a foetus will enable the student to realise that much .of what is bone in the adult is preformed in cartilage, whilst a part of the fully developed skeleton is represented only by membrane: hence, in regard to this ossification, bones have been described as of cartilaginous and membranous origin. If the development of a long bone is traced through successive stages from the cartilaginous condition in which it is preformed, it will be noticed that ossification begins in the body; the part of the bone ossified from this centre is referred to as the diaphysis, and, since it is the first to appear, the centre is spoken of as the primary centre of ossification. As yet, the ends of the body are cartilaginous knobs, but at a later stage one or more ossific centres appear in these cartilaginous extremities. These centres, which are independent of the diaphysis and appear much later, at variable periods, are termed secondary centres, and from them the epiphyses are formed. If there is more than one such centre at the end of a bone, the associated centres unite, and at a later stage the osseous mass so formed joins with the body or diaphysis, and in this way the formation of the bone is completed. Complete fusion by osseous union of the epiphyses with the diaphyses occurs at variable periods in the life of the individual. Prior to this taking place, the two are bonded together by a cartilaginous layer which marks the position of the epiphyseal line. If the bone is macerated at this stage of growth, the epiphysis falls away from the diaphysis. In the case of the articular ends of bone it will be noticed that the surfaces exposed by the separation of the epiphysis from the diaphysis are not plane and smooth, but often irregular, notched, and deeply pitted, so that when the two are brought together they interlock, and, as it were, dovetail into each other. In this way the extremities of the bone as yet ununited by osseous growth are, during youth and adolescence, able to withstand the shocks and jars to which during life they are habitually subjected. A long bone has been taken as the simplest example, but it by no means follows that these epiphyses are confined to the articular extremities of long bones. They are met with not only in relation to the articular surfaces of bones of varied form, but also occur where bones may be subjected to unusual pressure or to the strain of particular muscles. For this reason epiphyses of this nature have been called pressure and traction epiphyses (Parsons). There occur, however, secondary independent centres of ossification, which cannot be so accounted for. Possibly these are of phylogenetic interest only, and may accordingly be classed as Atavistic. Ossification in Membrane.-Membrane bones are such as have developed from fibrous tissue without having passed through a cartilaginous stage. Of this nature are the bones of the cranial vault and the majority of the bones of the face, viz., the maxillæ, zygomatic (malar), nasal, lacrimal, and palate bones, as well as the vomer. The medial lamina of the pterygoid process (internal pterygoid plate) is also of membranous origin. In the course of the development of a bone from membrane, as, for example, the parietal bone, the fibrous tissue corresponding to the position of the primary centre becomes osteogenetic, because here appear the bone-forming cells (osteoblasts), which rapidly surround themselves with a bony deposit more or less spicular in arrangement. As growth goes on these osteoblasts become embedded in the ossifying matrix, and remain as the corpuscles of the future bone, the spaces in which they are lodged corresponding to the lacunæ and canaliculi of the fully developed osseous tissue. From the primary centre ossifica tion spreads eccentrically towards the margins of the bone, where ultimately the sutures are formed. Here the growth rendered necessary by the expansion of the cranium takes place through the agency of an intervening layer of vascular connective tissue rich in osteoblasts; but in course of time the activity of this is reduced until only a thin layer of intermediate tissue persists along the line of the suture; this may eventually become absorbed, leading to the obliteration of the suture by the osseous union of the contiguous bones. Whilst the expansion of the bone in all directions is thus provided for, its increase in thickness is determined by the activity of the underlying and overlying strata. These form the periosteum, and furnish the lamella which constitute the inner and outer compact osseous layers. Ossification in Cartilage.-Cartilage bones are those which are preformed in cartilage, and include most of the bones of the skeleton. Their growth is often described as endochondral and ectochondral, the former term implying the deposition of membrane bone in the centre of the cartilage, while the latter signifies a deposit of membrane bone on the surface of the cartilage, the osteogenetic layer on the surface of the cartilage being named the perichondrium till once bone has been formed, when it is called the periosteum. In a cartilage bone changes of a similar nature occur. The cartilage, which may be regarded histologically as white fibrous tissue + chondro-sulphuric acid and a certain amount of lime salts, undergoes the following changes:-First, the cartilage cells being arranged in rows, become enlarged; secondly, the matrix between the cartilage cells becomes calcified by the deposition of an additional amount of lime salts; thirdly, the rows of cells become confluent; and, fourthly, into the spaces so formed extend the blood-vessels derived from the vascular layer of the periosteum. Accompanying these vessels are osteoblasts and osteoclasts, the former building up true bone at the expense of the calcified cartilage, the latter causing an absorption of the newly formed bone, and leading to its conversion into a marrow cavity, so that in due course all the cartilage or its products disappear. At the same time that this is taking place within the cartilage, the perichondrium is undergoing conversion into the periosteum, an investing membrane, the deeper stratum of which, highly vascular, furnishes a layer of osteoblast cells which serve to develop the circumferential lamellæ of the bone. It is by the accrescence of these layers externally, and their absorption internally through the action of the osteoclast cells, that growth takes place transversely. A transverse section of the shaft of a long bone shows this very clearly. Centrally there is the marrow cavity, formed primarily by the absorption of the calcified cartilage; around this the spongy tissue produced by the partial erosion of the primary periosteal bone is disposed, whilst externally there is the dense envelope made up of the more recent periosteal growth. Growth of Bone. The above description, whilst explaining the growth of bone circumferentially, fails to account for its growth in length; hence the necessity in long bones for some arrangement whereby ossification may take place at one or both extremities of the body. This zone of growth is situated where the ossified body becomes continuous with the cartilaginous epiphysis. In addition, within these epiphysial cartilages calcification of the cartilage takes place centrally, just as in the diaphysis. The two parts of the bone, viz., the diaphysis and epiphysis, are thus separated by a layer of cartilage, sometimes called the cartilage of conjugation, as yet uncalcified, but extremely active in growth owing to the invasion of vessels and cells from a vascular zone which surrounds the epiphysis. The nucleus of the epiphysis becomes converted into true bone, which grows eccentrically. This arrangement provides for the growth of the shaft towards the epiphysis, and the growth of the epiphysis towards the shaft; so that as long as the active intervening layer of cartilage persists, extension of growth in a longitudinal direction is possible. As might be expected, experience proves that growth takes place more actively, and is continued for a longer time, at the end of the bone where the epiphysis is the last to unite. In consequence, surgeons sometimes term this the "growing end of the bone." Subsequently, however, at variable periods the intervening layer of cartilage becomes calcified, and true bony growth occurs within it, thus leading to complete osseous union between the shaft and epiphysis. When this has taken place all further growth in a longitudinal
At the end of June, our Grade 8 Language Arts (English) class experimented with using Twitter in the classroom. - What is Twitter? - Why use Twitter in the classroom? - Review of using Twitter in the Classroom (PMI) - Lesson Ideas Twitter is a service for friends, family, and co-workers to communicate and stay connected through the exchange of quick, frequent answers to one simple question: What are you doing? Twitter is similar to instant messaging (i.e. MSN) or texting on a cell phone. - Just like a text message on a cell phone, Twitter is designed for short messages (140 characters only.) - Unlike MSN or a cell phone, when you tweet on Twitter (post a message), your message gets displayed to the world (unless you have changed your privacy settings so that only your friends can follow your tweets.) With a cell phone or MSN, you have a private conversation with specific people that you invite. With Twitter, it’s more like writing messages on a wall for people to follow. We used Twitter in the classroom as a collaboration tool to deconstruct commercials viewed online. We set the privacy settings so only students within our learning community could follow the dialogue. In Ontario, the Language Arts (English) curriculum discusses the need to develop our students’ media literacy skills by providing opportunities “to view, analyse, and discuss a wide variety of media texts,” as well as “to use available technologies to create media texts of different types” (Ontario Language Arts Curriculum K-8, pg 13) Here are two reasons to bring Twitter into the classroom: 1) to examine twitter itself as part of media literacy, and 2) to use twitter as a collaborative tool: Social networking (web 2.0) is changing the way the world communicates. Here are some real-life examples involving Twitter to stimulate media literacy discussions: - CNN reported a story on Steve Tucker, a wheat farmer from Nebraska who has more people following him on Twitter in his online community than people who live in his physical community. (They interviewed him using Video Skype.) He tweets using his cell phone from the middle of nowhere. - Twitter and social networks are changing the way news gets reported. For example, people in Tehran were able to use their cell phones to tweet what was happening during the Iran election and subsequent demonstrations. - Politicians are using social networks to communicate with and mobilize their voters. At the time of writing, 15,797 people were following Prime Minister Harper’s Twitter account (twitter.com/pmHarper) and 1,654,168 people were following President Obama (twitter.com/BARACKOBAMA) - Identity theft can happen on social networking pages. Well known celebrities and personalities are being impersonated and slandered by people who create false accounts in their name. For example, St. Louis Cardinals manager Tony La Russa sued Twitter in June 2009 when someone impersonated the Cardinals manager. Twitter now offers verified accounts for high-profile twitter accounts, including Ashton Kutcher (twitter.com/aplusk), Ellen DeGeneres (twitter.com/TheEllenShow) and Britney Spears (twitter.com/britneyspears). According to Twitterholic, Kutcher, DeGeneres and Spears have more followers on Twitter than CNN (twitter.com/cnnbrk) Here are some paper-and-pencil examples of teaching strategies in the classroom: - Think, pair, share is a common teaching strategy that provide students with an opportunity to independently try a problem as well as get feedback from their immediate peers and entire class. - Having students write responses on post-it notes can be a great paper-and-pencil tool to help students become more precise in their answers. Writing on a post-it note can be less intimidating than a larger piece of paper. - Posting examples of student work on the wall allows students to see what excellence looks like - Timely feedback allows students to self-correct and guides their learning. Twitter is a neat “little” collaboration tool. You could create individual or group Twitter accounts for your students. A class account follows all of the students so we get a live feed of ideas which you can then project using a data projector. It’s kind of like using classroom clickers (i.e. SMART student response system), but instead of being limited to multiple-choice answers or numerical responses, you’re texting in short messages. In the computer lab, you could ask a question in response to a text (printed or media) and have students respond on Twitter. - Think, Pair, Share using Twitter: Think – composing a response on twitter and submitting it. Pair – Seeing what other people are tweeting and revising your tweet based on their feedback. Share – have students turn off their monitors and have a whole-class conversation about the question. - Students can post responses to a question on Twitter which can be read by their peers allowing for immediate feedback. - Responses are limited to 144 characters which is the digital equivalent of a post-it note. - Integrating technology into the curriculum helps prepare students for the real world, validates this genre of literacy, and can motivate / interest students. We used a Plus, Minus, Interesting framework to review using twitter in the classroom. - Twitter is free. - Using twitter in the classroom was great. High interest from all students. (We live in a texting generation.) - Twitter was great in the classroom because the 140 character cap made students be precise without resorting to MSN speak. It forces your students to rework their thoughts to be concise while identifying the main idea. - You have a record of the ideas discussed in class (i.e. for assessment purposes.) - You can view the conversation as it happened, or you can click on a specific student and see their contributions to the conversation. - Twitter is not designed / marketed for schools (unlike Edublogs which offers the WordPress platform for schools, Wikispaces which provides free educational accounts and support, or Google Apps which has an education edition.) - It’s difficult / time-consuming to set up a class set of twitter accounts for your students: - We tried to set up a class set of twitter accounts for our students but twitter stopped accepting new accounts from us after the first 10. (Presumably, they thought we were spam.) - You need a different email address for each student account. (There is a work around using gmail. Just add +1, +2 to your gmail user name (i.e. [email protected], [email protected]). These emails will count as “different” email addresses for account registration, but you will get all of the mail sent to your real email address (i.e. [email protected]). - There might be an easy way to bulk create accounts for your students but as we were creating student accounts the morning before when we were using Twitter in the classroom, we didn’t have time to send an email to their support team. Will Twitter help you create multiple accounts for students? - There’s no easy way to manage multiple user accounts in Twitter. (In Edublogs / WordPress / Google Apps & Docs, you can reset passwords through the admin account.) Students can change their passwords, email addresses, and privacy settings and you may not be able to undo their changes. - You have to manually go into each student account to set them up to follow all of the other student accounts. (Sure, you could get tech-savvy kids to do this, but it’s probably easier and more reliable if you copy-and-paste a list of email addresses yourself.) Each student account then needs to approve all of the follow requests (assuming you’ve set up the accounts to be private. There is an approve all requests button.) - As a teacher, it’s difficult to delete cyber-vandalism from the feed. (In a WordPress blog, you have complete control of what gets posted.) - If each student uses a different account, it’s easy to track down which student made the inappropriate comment. - If several students are sharing the same account, you’d have to do some detective work to find out who said what. - Your teacher account is the same as a student account. (Unlike edublogs, wikispaces, and google apps where you can have an admin account for more control.) The only person who can delete a comment is the person who made the comment. - Twitter might be blocked by your school board. Some school boards block several social networking / web 2.0 sites. - Some students prefered using Twitter to brainstorm ideas and collaborate with other students than they did when we taught the lesson using Google Docs. - Twitter is simpler (i.e. the twitter feed is like following a stream of conciousness conversation.) - Twitter is more familiar to students (i.e. similar to msn or cell phone texts) - Students can’t delete other students’ work (unlike Wikispaces or Google Docs which provides a true collaborative environment where other students can edit or delete ideas in real time.) - Should students be held accountable for cyber-vandalism that happens when someone else logs in using their account? - We spent some time training students not to type in msn slang (ttyl, omg) as well as to use proper punctuation and capitalization. Although, arguably, Twitter is a medium where texting slang is appropriate, our goal was to use Twitter to focus on writing conventions and provide immediate peer feedback and examples of excellence. It can be difficult to be precise when limited to only 140 characters. It requires a lot of revision of ideas and careful word choice. - We only had time to create 10 accounts. Initially, our idea was that students would work in groups and share one computer per group. When we arrived at the lab, we discovered that several students can log into the same twitter account simultaneously. - If students tweet from the same twitter account, you can’t track who says what. It would be better if they had individual twitter accounts. - Although you could use twitter in the classroom by having students work in groups and share a common laptop or desktop, if you have access to a computer lab, students can be more effective working on their own computer. Hence our goal of getting a class set of laptops. - You can set up your twitter account so you can tweet from a cell phone. - In theory, you could have students tweet from their phone (and possibly follow the comments from other people depending on their phone.) You could display the responses from students using a data projector so that everyone can follow along. - Half of our class of 25 students have a cell phone; 3 had unlimited text. You could tweet from your cell but students would get distracted and text their friends too. - Your school might have a no cell phone policy. - Allowing students to text in their work might create the impression that students need a cell phone for class. Parents might feel pressured to buy expensive phones for their students. (Several students walk around with iPhones; several iPhones have been stolen.) - After the lesson, we went into all of the student accounts and manually changed their passwords so they wouldn’t be able to access the accounts from home. - You can’t run twitter off of your own domain (like you can with WordPress or Google Apps). - BuddyPress is a social networking platform for WordPress MU that might be an interesting alternative to Twitter that allows for more control of student accounts. - Twitter uses a default thumbnail for each user account. We created anonymous student accounts (i.e. 8301). You could put their number on their user pic for easy reference. - You need to think about student privacy (versus a live feed of what your child is thinking / doing in class.) Do you want your students’ posts to be published to the internet, or private to students in the class? - It’s cool to watch people start to follow you on Twitter. (We have 178 people following our twitter feed for this blog. A few are other teachers, one is our vice-principal, and there probably are a few tech-savvy students and parents in the mix as well.) - If you used Twitter in the classroom, you can prevent strangers from following your every word by changing the privacy settings. We set our students’ twitter accounts so only people who were approved can follow updates. Still, the students could turn this off or approve follow-requests from strangers. We analyzed commercials as part of our unit on media literacy. In previous years, we’ve analyzed commercials using blogs. Several teachers are using blogging as a medium to explore media literacy. (Here is another example.) This time, we focused on using Twitter as our collaborative tool. Earlier lessons in the unit include lessons on advertising techniques, stereotypes, as well as critical thinking (i.e. whose point of view is present / missing, what do you think is the author’s intent, etc) Part 1 (50 min in the classroom) Deconstructing commercials using a Post-It note. - Played a commercial several times using the data projector (Mac vs PC iLife commercial). - Asked students to respond by writing on one side of a large post-it note. (i.e. Identify the advertising techniques used and comment on their effectiveness. Say something about the hidden messages by examining if any stereotypes are broken or reinforced.) - Discussion about MSN slang. Students were asked to edit their response to make sure proper punctuation, spelling, grammar and capitalization rules were followed in their response. Teacher gave an example on the board and corrected some mistakes (modeled writing), before inviting students to help fix the remaining mistakes (shared writing), afterwhich, students did the editing on their own responses (independent writing.) - Discussion about word choice and being precise. Students were asked to count the number of characters they used in their post-it note response. Students now had to try to revise their ideas so it fit in under 140 letters (including spaces and punctuation.) Modeled Writing, Shared Writing, followed by Independent Writing where students revised their own post-it note comments. - In pairs, students share their ideas and comments on the commercial. - Students have an opportunity to add a second comment on the back of the post-it note based on conversations with their peers (proper grammar and under 140 characters.) - Class discussion about the commercial. Part 2 (50 min in the computer lab) Getting to Know Twitter - Introduce Twitter to students and any rules (i.e. no changing passwords, emails, or blocking other students from their twitter feed, ignore all follow requests from strangers, etc). - Provide account information, have students log into Twitter and experiment with posting messages. (Students may need to hit F5 or the refresh button on their browser to see other people’s comments.) Walk around to make sure students are able to get into Twitter and that they are following their classmates’ tweets. - Remind students about basic netiquette (i.e. CAPITALS MEANS SHOUTING) and personal safety rules (i.e. don’t post your name / personal information). Review how the lack of body language and voice intonation makes it easy to miscommunicate or misinterpret text messages. - Show students how to send tweets, see how many characters are left in their tweet, delete tweets and how to copy and paste tweets to edit them. As this is a Language Arts (English) class, remind students to use proper writing conventions when tweeting. Ask students to turn off their monitors and look at the data projector. Go through a few examples of student tweets and provide feedback. Give students a chance to edit any of their practice tweets before beginning the lesson. Deconstructing commercials using Twitter as a collaboration tool. - Played another commercial several times using the data projector (Jessica Simpson Pizza Hut commercial). - Asked students to respond by tweeting. Students can edit or add to their tweets based on what other students write. (i.e. Identify the advertising techniques used and comment on their effectiveness. Say something about the hidden messages by examining if any stereotypes are broken or reinforced.) - As a class, turn off the monitors and discuss examples of excellent tweets. Discuss the commercial. Break down and scaffold for your class as necessary. Other commercial possibilities: Here’s a screen shot of what our class twitter feed looked like:
Researchers have narrowed down the specific foods and dietary patterns that may increase the risk of certain cancers. Research into diet and cancer risk is ongoing, and researchers still have much to learn about how and why food choices affect cancer risk. Red and Processed Meats Scientists know there is a strong link between processed meat intake and certain types of cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), part of the World Health Organization (WHO), classified processed meat as carcinogenic and unprocessed red meat as “probably” carcinogenic. A 2018 review found that increasing intake of processed meat up to about 60 grams (g) per day and red meat up to 150 g per day increased colorectal cancer risk by about 20%. Compounds created during high-temperature cooking and smoking processes can cause cellular damage, which can initiate the development of cancerous cells. The heme iron found in red and processed meats may also have a toxic effect on cells. Ultra-processed foods often contain ingredients that result from industrial processing, such as protein isolates, hydrogenated oils, high-fructose corn syrup, flavor enhancers, artificial sweeteners, and thickeners. Examples of ultra-processed foods and beverages include ultra-processed sweet and savory snack foods, soda and energy drinks, breakfast cereals, reconstituted meat products, frozen pizzas, candy, and more. According to health experts, diets high in ultra-processed foods, including Western diets, significantly increase the risk of certain cancers. A 2018 study that included data on almost 105,000 people found that increasing the dietary proportion of ultra-processed foods by 10% had associations with a significant 12% increased risk of overall cancer and an 11% increased chance of developing breast cancer. Ultra-processed foods are rich in saturated fat, added sugar, and salt but low in protective nutrients, such as fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Ultra-processed foods also contain potentially carcinogenic compounds formed during processing. Certain food additives and contamination by chemicals from food packaging may also contribute to the increased cancer risk associated with the consumption of ultra-processed food. In addition to cancer, ultra-processed food intake has links to many other chronic conditions, including type 2 diabetes and heart disease, and an increased risk of death from all causes. It is important to try to limit consumption of ultra-processed products as much as possible to reduce the risk of developing these conditions. A diet high in added salt may increase the risk of certain cancers, particularly stomach cancer. Scientists have suggested that high salt intake may increase the risk of infection and can significantly increase the risk of stomach cancer. Drinking scalding hot beverages may increase cancer risk. The IARC has classified beverages with a temperature over 149°F (65°C) as “probably” carcinogenic to humans. A 2015 review of 39 studies found that drinking hot beverages has associations with a significantly increased risk of esophageal cancer, especially in South American and Asian populations. The study found that people who usually drank very hot or hot beverages were almost twice as likely to develop esophageal cancer than those who usually consumed warm or cold drinks. Recurrent temperature-related injuries to esophagus cells may lead to the development of precancerous and cancerous lesions. Other possible dietary risk factors The IARC identified several other dietary factors that may lead to cancer progression. For example, following a diet with a high glycemic load may increase the risk of endometrial cancer. Diets with a high-glycemic load adversely affect blood sugar and may lead to chronically elevated insulin levels and insulin resistance. This may adversely affect hormone levels and lead to an increased risk of developing endometrial cancer. Diets with a high-glycemic load are typically rich in added sugars and refined carbohydrates, such as white bread and white rice. Before discussing which foods and dietary patterns may protect against cancer development, it is crucial to understand that engaging in activities that scientists consider significant cancer risk factors, such as cigarette smoking or excessive drinking, may counteract the potential protective effects of diet. Avoiding smoking, reducing alcohol intake, managing body weight, and being active, are critical to reducing cancer risk. Researchers have discovered that, just as some dietary patterns may increase cancer risk, nutritional choices can also have a protective effect against cancer. For example, the Mediterranean diet, which is high in fiber, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory compounds, and low in red and processed meat and ultra-processed foods, has associations with an overall protective effect against cancer and cancer-related death. In addition to consuming a diet rich in plant-based foods, reducing intake of processed and red meats, ultra-processed foods, and added sugars and salt may help reduce the risk of certain cancers and many other chronic conditions.
Crows have become rather famous for their cleverness. They have been observed using and making a variety of tools,1 and also seem to be able to understand the basic concept of cause and effect.2 Dr. Alex Taylor specializes in corvid cognition, and is researching the problem solving abilities of New Caledonian crows. In one of his experiments, Dr. Taylor set up a complex puzzle consisting of 8 separate stages. Each stage posed its own problem, which when solved, provided a tool that could be used to solve the next stage. This act of using one tool on another is called metatool use, a significant indicator of intelligence.3 Every stage had to be solved in successive order for the entire puzzle to be completed. For a crow to solve the puzzle, it would need to employ both its metatool use skills and understanding of cause and effect. Impressively, crows were able to solve the puzzle with relative ease. Dr. Taylor recently published an extensive paper4 on corvid cognition, in which he states that “while the work to date establishes corvids as one of the most intelligent groups of animals on the planet, the real scientific potential of the Corvidae has yet to be realized.” The following excerpt from the paper details some of the many examples and intricacies of corvid tool use. Excerpt from the paper: A third line of work on corvid cognition has examined what this group of birds think about tools and the causality underpinning events in the world. Much of this work has focused on New Caledonian crows, because of their tool-making abilities in the wild and rooks, which produce impressive tool behaviors in captivity. New Caledonian crows can choose tools of the right length for the task in hand, can make tools of the right diameter for a problem, and will risk their tools, rather than their beaks when faced with hazardous objects such as a model snake (context-dependent tool use). Rooks have been shown to choose between functional and nonfunctional tools, to spontaneously use sticks as tools and to spontaneously modify sticks so they can be used as tools. Both species have also produced meta-tool behaviors where they use tools to gain access to other tools which can be used to get food. One of the most impressive behaviors produced by both these corvid species is the bending of man-made material into hooks. After using a wooden hook to pull a bucket by its handle from a tube, Betty, a New Caledonian crow, subsequently bent a straight piece of wire into a hook shape in order to do the same. Rooks, given similar experience using a wooden hook to pull a bucket from a tube, also then bent wire to make a functional hook. More recent work has shown that New Caledonian crows will use stones as tools after limited experience pushing a platform with their beaks and that rooks, crows, and Eurasian jays can, like children over the age of learn the functional properties of stones and stone-like tools when dropping these objects into a water-filled tube. Finally, both rooks and New Caledonian crows have been able to solve the trap-tube problem, where an animal has to pull food from within a horizontal tube while avoiding a trap. One rook, Guillem, was able to solve various transfer tasks that required him to switch between treating the same cues as negative or positive. Three New Caledonian crows solved several transfer tasks, including the trap-table problem, a problem with an identical causal structure to the trap-tube task, in that an animal must avoid pulling food into a hole, but with very different perceptual elements. In contrast, chimpanzees fail to transfer from the trap-tube to the trap-table problem when required to use tools to do so. You can watch a crow completing the 8 stage puzzle in the video below: This article was written by Amanda Pachniewska, founder & editor of AnimalCognition.org 1 – Amanda Seed, Richard Byrne 2 – Corina J. Logan, et al. Modifications to the Aesop’s Fable Paradigm Change New Caledonian Crow Performances. 3 – Alex H. Taylor, et al. Spontaneous Metatool Use by New Caledonian Crows 4 – Alex H. Taylor WIREs Cognitive Science

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