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A change in how information is presented, or an alteration in how a test is administered (such as orally or in a different format) or test-taker is permitted to respond. Accommodations are made to take into account various learning and testing differences among students in order to provide equal opportunity to demonstrate knowledge or understanding. Changes in format are understood to not significantly alter what the test measures, the academic level of the test, or the performance criteria. Reasonable accommodations are mandated by the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. For further explanation: The National Center for Learning Disabilities provides this podcast which explains the difference between accommodations and modifications.
Salim Ali's fruit bat is one of the world's rarest bats (3) and is the only species in the genus Latidens. It is a medium-sized fruit bat, which lacks an external tail. The head is covered in blackish-brown fur which is paler at the base, the wing membrane and the long fur are light brown in colour, and the underparts are light grey-brown. The species was first collected in 1948 by a British naturalist called Angus Hutton, who mis-identified the specimen as the common short-nosed fruit bat. The specimen was re-examined later by Kitty Thonglongya who recognised it as a new species and named it in honour of the famous Indian ornithologist, Salim Ali in 1972 (4). Under the Indian Wildlife Protection Act all species of fruit bat are classified as pests and it is therefore legal to persecute them outside of protected reserves (5). Fruit bats are perceived as pests simply because they visit orchards, although they actually tend to feed on over-ripe fruit and do not pose a threat (3)(4)(6). In 1999 and 2000, research into the population status, distribution and conservation of this species was carried out by Dr G. Agoramoorthy of the SMGM Foundation (India) and Sun Yat-Sen University (Taiwan) (4). Forty-six individuals were captured during the study, most of which were located in a private coffee cardamon plantation. The results of this study are to be used to identify new conservation areas in the Western Ghats. During the study, public awareness of Salim Ali's fruit bat was raised through a number of initiatives including the production of a book called 'Facts on Bats: An Introduction to the Bats of Tamilnadu State' and the local field assistants were given training on fruit bats (5)(4). The Chiropterological Society of India was recently formed to increase communication and coordination of the effort to save India's bats (3). Embed this ARKive thumbnail link ("portlet") by copying and pasting the code below.
Table of Contents : Top Suggestions Sequencing Worksheet For 5th Graders : Sequencing Worksheet For 5th Graders Students will finish by selecting the correct sequence word to begin each of three sentences this worksheet supports fourth and fifth graders as they learn to identify and use time and sequence words Ideal for 3rd to 5th graders who enjoy working with math problems concepts sequence comparison in this introductory camp students will learn to create and edit worksheets use formulas and Harmonics such as the 5th which rotate in the opposite sequence as the fundamental are called negative sequence triplen harmonics 3rd and 9th shown in this table which don t rotate at all. 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The worksheet is an assortment of 4 intriguing pursuits that will enhance your kid's knowledge and abilities. The worksheets are offered in developmentally appropriate versions for kids of different ages. Adding and subtracting integers worksheets in many ranges including a number of choices for parentheses use. You can begin with the uppercase cursives and after that move forward with the lowercase cursives. Handwriting for kids will also be rather simple to develop in such a fashion. If you're an adult and wish to increase your handwriting, it can be accomplished. As a result, in the event that you really wish to enhance handwriting of your kid, hurry to explore the advantages of an intelligent learning tool now! Consider how you wish to compose your private faith statement. Sometimes letters have to be adjusted to fit in a particular space. When a letter does not have any verticals like a capital A or V, the very first diagonal stroke is regarded as the stem. 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Many readers are familiar with a number of solar proxies used to gauge the activity of the sun, the most familiar being sunspot counts and type. However they aren’t the only metric you can use to determine when one cycle ends and another begins. The Heliospheric Current Sheet sounds a bit like a “newsletter” and in a sense it is, because it can announce the true end of solar cycle 23. The heliospheric current sheet (HCS) is the surface within the Solar System where the polarity of the Sun’s magnetic field changes from north to south. This field extends throughout the Sun’s equatorial plane in the heliosphere.The shape of the current sheet results from the influence of the Sun’s rotating magnetic field on the plasma in the interplanetary medium (Solar Wind). A small electrical current flows within the sheet, about 10−10 A/m². The thickness of the current sheet is about 10,000 km. The underlying magnetic field is called the interplanetary magnetic field, and the resulting electric current forms part of the heliospheric current circuit. The heliospheric current sheet is also sometimes called the interplanetary current sheet. What the Heliospheric Current Sheet is telling us. David Archibald writes: One of the things that the now disbanded NASA Solar Cycle 24 Prediction Panel told us was that is that solar minimum is marked by a flat heliospheric current sheet. The heliospheric current sheet can be found here: http://wso.stanford.edu/gifs/Tilts.gif The site provides two data series – the classic and the radial, and notes that the radial may be possibly more accurate. Plotting up the radial data, the following chart is generated: The heliospheric current sheet, for the last three minima, has got down to 3°. The last reading was 8.7°. It has been declining at an average of 8.6° per annum. If it holds that rate, solar minimum will be in August 2009. If it holds to the orange bounding line, solar minimum could be as late as April 2010. The last reading on the classic series is 22.8° and this series got down to 10° on average in previous solar minima. At its decline rate, solar minimum will be in another 1.9 years, which is late 2010. To paraphrase a popular aphorism, Solar Cycle 23 isn’t over until the heliospheric current sheet has flattened, and it has a way to go yet.
Stalagmite in Santiago Cave A new paper reveals that changes in the temperature of the Atlantic Ocean quickly translate into climate change in western Amazonia. North Atlantic forcing of Amazonian precipitation during the last ice age is co-authored by Dr Will Gosling of The Open University with the Florida Institute of Technology, and appears in this week’s Nature Geoscience. The research details chemical analysis of stalagmites recovered from a cave in Ecuadorean Amazonia that provides a record of changes in rainfall for almost the last 100,000 years. The data shows that Amazonia remained wet for that entire period, although there were rapid changes to drought and wet events. These rapid changes in rainfall correlated closely with changes in sea-surface temperature in the North Atlantic Ocean. For much of that time, cool ocean conditions induced wet events, whereas a warm ocean induced drought in the Amazon. Professor Mark Bush, leader of the Florida Institute of Technology research group, said: “The exciting thing about the data is that it shows the quick response of the tropics to changes that took place in the Atlantic Ocean. A longstanding question in Amazonian ecology, the center of biodiversity, has been whether the ice ages were so dry that the area of rainforest contracted. The data suggests that Amazonia was as wet, or wetter, than present during the coldest period of the ice age." Another unusual finding was that the changes that occurred were more rapid than previously reported, and that the Amazonian climate became decoupled from that of the Atlantic Ocean and the adjacent Andes during the coldest time of the last ice age, from about 40,000 to 17,000 years ago. Dr Will Gosling, Lecturer in Earth Sciences at The Open University, said: “The reason for the more recent decoupling is not clear, but the data is of considerable importance. As we generate an understanding of the pace of past climate change, we can make more informed estimates of future changes.” The climatic future of Amazonia is uncertain, but some models suggest that because of drying, most of the rainforest will be reduced to shrubby grasslands by 2050-2080 AD. Although the paleoclimatic record featured droughts in the past, none were of sufficient intensity to cause a loss of forest cover but, as Professor Bush states: "as the Atlantic Ocean warms, drought is inevitable for Amazonia, probably occurring on a scale that has not been evident in at least the last 100,000 years." The research was funded by grants from the National Geographic Society (USA) and the National Science Foundation (USA), The Open University (UK) and the Natural Environment Research Council (UK).
Researchers at Stanford University have created a photovoltaic cell that’s built entirely of carbon structures. The carbon solar cell could be put into solutions and applied as a paint or ink to surfaces, resulting in multiple uses, like building-integrated or flexible photovoltaics. Since the cell is made entirely of carbon structures and avoids the use of costly other materials like gallium, Indium or silver, which is used in some photovoltaics, it could result in much cheaper, and easier to produce, photovoltaics. The cells were developed Stanford Professor of Chemical Engineering at Zhenan Bao and her team, which include co-lead authors, Stanford graduate student Michael Vosgueritchian and postdoctoral researcher Marc Ramuz. They published the results of their project in ACS Nano and have applied for a patent for the whole device. “The goal of this project was to develop carbon-based materials as transparent electrodes for solar cells. The reason for that is carbon-based materials are very abundant in nature and they have extraordinary light absorption properties,” Boa said. “The electrode materials used in solar cells are becoming more and more expensive. So there’s a great need to find replacement materials so the cost for producing solar cells can be significantly lowered.” The cell is comprised of a photoactive layer of carbon nanotubes and buckeyballs sandwiched between two electrodes, according to Stanford. Usually the electrodes are made of conductive metals like silver and indium tin oxide, but those materials are continuing to become more expensive, particularly as they’re being used in more and more electronics. In this device conventional electrodes were replaced with graphene nanotubes. Using carbon for the electrodes is unique. “They have extraordinary conductivity and at the same time they can be dispersed into solution so that we can potentially coat the materials onto surfaces,” Boa said. Such surfaces could include buildings or cars for onsite electric generation. “It’s already possible with the research we have carried out so far to make solar cells with these materials,” she said. Still the device isn’t ready for primetime anytime soon. It primarily absorbs near-infrared light. As such it’s converting less than 1 percent of light into electricity in lab tests. They’re experimenting with carbon nanostructures that respond to a wider range of light.
- Identify information found in dosing instructions on drug facts labels (when, how, and how often to take the medicine) - Explain the importance of reading and understanding dosing information - Understand why using proper dosing tools is important - Discuss possible consequences of not following dosing instructions - Describe what makes a location safe or unsafe for medicine storage - Identify potential consequences of unsafe medicine storage - Brainstorm ways students can talk to family members about safe medicine storage and safe disposal - Over-the-Counter Medicine Safety Classroom Poster printable - Pediatric medicine bottle filled with colored water - Dosing device that came with pediatric medicine - Adult medicine bottle filled with different-colored water - Dosing device that came with adult medicine - Kitchen spoons of different sizes - Responsible Medicine Dosing printable - Safe Medicine Storage printable - OTC Medicine Safety Answer Key printable - Paper and pen or pencil - Optional: Medicine Safety for Families Newsletter printable - Emphasize to students that they should never take medicine without the supervision of a parent or trusted adult. - Make copies of the printables for each student in your class. Step 1: Begin with a class discussion about the importance of using the right tools when measuring different things. Ask students: - If I wanted to measure how far it is from the school to my house, would I use a ruler? Why or why not? - What are some different ways that people make mistakes when measuring things out? Step 2: Encourage students to think about why accurate measurements are important. Ask: - When is it okay to get less-accurate measurements or even to estimate? - When is it important to get really accurate measurements? Why? Step 3: Ask students to think back to the previous lesson on Reading and Understanding the Drug Facts Label. - Do you remember which section of the label talks about how much medicine to take? Discuss different information contained in the Directions section of the Drug Facts label (amount of medicine to take, how often to take the medicine, and how to take it). If you deem it appropriate, display the Over-the-Counter Medicine Safety Classroom Poster printable. Explain that students are going to learn why reading and understanding dosing instructions is important, and why medicines should always be measured using the proper dosing devices under adult supervision. Step 4: Show students the different medicine bottles (filled with colored water) and measuring devices. Step 5: Read the dosing information for the pediatric medicine. Then try to measure out the correct dose using the dosing devices that are not meant for the pediatric medicine. Reflect on the results. Next, measure out the dose using the correct dosing device. Discuss with the class why using the correct device is important. Step 6: Repeat the activity with the adult medicine, but try to measure it out with devices that are too small for the correct dose. Reiterate the potential dangers of using the wrong device and why using the correct one is important. Step 7: Show students a medicine bottle that recommends a dose of 2 teaspoons of medicine. Then take out a handful of different-size household spoons, the kind that students might find in their kitchen drawers at home. Measure out 2 spoonfuls of “medicine” into any of the spoons, pouring the measured liquid into a dosing cup that has an accurate measurement for 2 teaspoons. Discuss the discrepancy with the class. Step 8: Distribute the Responsible Medicine Dosing printable. Have students complete the worksheet; this can either be done individually or you can lead the class and work through it together, discussing each example. Step 9: Talk about how measuring doses incorrectly (measuring out tablespoons instead of teaspoons, for example) can cause an overdose or underdose. Reinforce the importance of always communicating with a trusted adult before taking any medicine. Connect this discussion with a brief introduction to safe storage, which, when ignored, may lead to accidental ingestion and medicine poisoning. Step 10: Ask students to name the locations where medicines are stored in their households. Write answers on the board for students to refer to later. Common answers may include kitchen cabinet, bathroom cabinets, or parents’ or trusted adult’s bedroom. As students answer, ask for specifics. - Are the medicines in drawers or cabinets or on the countertop? - Are the medicines easy for young children to see or reach? Get students thinking about how easy it is for young children in the house to find medicine. Explain that medicines need to be kept out of reach and sight of their naturally curious younger brothers and sisters, or young visitors to their home. Step 11 Distribute the Safe Medicine Storage printable. Explain to students that they are looking at the inside of a home and it is their job to identify the medicine storage errors that could lead to accidental medicine poisoning. Step 12: Ask students how their families get rid of unused medicine. Common answers may include putting the medicine in the trash or flushing the medicine. Step 13: Explain to students that just as safe storage is important for keeping medicines away from people who shouldn’t have them, safe disposal is also important. Before throwing away OTC medicines, mix them with an unappealing substance (such as kitty litter or coffee grounds) and place them in a closed container (such as a sealed plastic bag). The FDA has additional guidelines for certain prescription medicines (like disposal by flushing or using the National Take-Back Initiative). The Poison Control Center (1-800-222-1222) can answer any questions you have about how to dispose of medicines. - Why do you think that the FDA has these guidelines for safe disposal of medicines? - What could happen if a medicine is not disposed of properly? Step 14: After the students have completed their Responsible Medicine Dosing printable, continue the discussion. - What did you learn about safe storage? - Is there anything from today’s discussion that might be important to mention at home? 1. Ask students to create a tool or advertisement to help people remember how to keep a home medicine-safe. Some possibilities include: - An idea for an app that can help families remember all of the ways to make a home medicine-safe. Research for the app idea may involve connecting with a local health expert (pharmacist, nurse, etc.) or an expert from an organization similar to Safe Kids via email for insight. - A jingle for the Poison Control Center’s purpose and phone number - A mnemonic device to remember the directions for safe medicine storage and disposal - A survey to distribute to families to determine how medicine-safe their home is - If you haven’t already, send home the Medicine Safety for Families Newsletter printable so students may continue the discussion at home. - Encourage students to discuss what they have learned about the Poison Help number, to post the number in a visible place in their homes, and to get family members to save the number in their mobile phones.
Andover Public Schools adopted a math curriculum called Math in Focus: Singapore Math in 2014. The adoption is the result of updated and more rigorous academic standards and extensive research in the best practices in math instruction. Math in Focus is used K – 8. Singapore Math is used to refer to the mathematics curriculum used in Singapore. Singapore has consistently scored at the top of the international mathematics comparisons. Its unique approach to teaching math, which focuses on problem solving, deep understanding and model drawing, has helped Singapore students excel. Math in Focus is the U.S. edition of Singapore’s most widely used program My Pals. It teaches the same content as traditional mathematics programs – just in a way that emphasizes math as thinking and multiple representations. One key strategy used in this math series is to present materials developmentally. Students will move from using concrete materials (counters and number cubes) to representations (visuals and pictures), and finally to abstract (numbers and algorithms). Our students will learn model drawing to become better problem solvers. Click on the grade levels to the left to access family-friendly information that relates to the Kindergarten to Grade 5 learning standards from the MA Curriculum Framework for Mathematics that incorporates the Common Core State Standards.
No map? It's no problem for monarch butterflies: Researchers find insects migrate using JUST an internal compass - The butterflies migrate without the internal map people thought they had - Use position of the sun and Earth's magnetic field to find wintering sites - Use landmarks such as the Rocky Mountains if they get blown off course North American monarch butterflies migrate across the continent without an internal map, according to new research. The butterflies travel from Canada and the United States to Mexico using basic orientation techniques and landmarks to find their way - as opposed to the internal maps they were previously though to use. Researchers from the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada, believe that the insects also use an ‘internal compass’ which enables them to navigate to their wintering sites using the position of the sun and the Earth’s magnetic field. North American monarch butterflies migrate across the continent without the internal map they were previously though to have MONARCH BUTTERFLIES: THE FACTS The butterflies are found in North America, New Zealand, Australia and parts of Western Europe. They have a wingspan of 8.9 to 10.2cm and are famous for their migration from Canada and the U.S. to Mexico and then back. They start their southward migration with the first frost and then return in spring. The length of the journey exceeds the lifespan of most butterflies - which is less than two months - so a full migration cycle involves a number of generations. They migrate south because they cannot withstand freezing temperatures and they return north because the larval food plants they need do not grow in their overwintering sites. The team analysed more than 50 years' worth of migration data in an attempt to learn how monarchs find their way to their wintering habitat in Mexico – a journey they make just part of during their lifetime. They discovered that when the butterflies are blown off course, they most likely use major geographic landmarks to help them get back on track. The researchers believe that this is necessary as the butterflies cannot detect longitudinal displacements so would otherwise get lost on the journey. To test whether monarchs could detect longitude displacements, the team, led by undergraduate student Rachael Derbyshire, examined the butterflies' flight patterns in a funnel on the University of Guelph campus. They then tested the same monarchs in Calgary. ‘The monarchs we tested in Guelph flew southwest, in the general direction of Mexico,’ said Ms Derbyshire. ‘When we tested them in Calgary, they flew in the same general direction as if they were in Ontario, suggesting that they did not know they had been displaced 2,500 kilometres.’ The team also studied data from monarchs tagged and recaptured throughout North America from 1952 to 2004, and found that migrating monarchs do not use an internal map to reach Mexico. The butterflies travel from Canada and the United States to Mexico using basic orientation techniques and landmarks to find their way To discovered whether monarchs can detect longitude displacements the team examined their flight patterns in a funnel (pictured) Instead, they use landmarks, such as coastlines and the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains.‘Given the challenge of this migratory journey and the fact that these insects are less than a gram, it is a remarkably simple system they used to travel thousands of kilometres to a site they have never seen,’ said Professor Ryan Norris. Despite the new findings, one question remains unanswered – monarch butterflies use the same sites in the highlands of central Mexico each year but no one knows exactly how they pinpoint these exact locations. Ms Derbyshire said: ‘One possibility we think is likely, and would need to be tested, is that they - like some other migratory animals - use smell to guide them to their final destination.’
A pile of old bones is just a pile of old bones … unless they’re located in Winchester Cathedral. Then they could belong to an ancient member of British royalty, since the cathedral was founded in 642 and used by the Anglo-Saxon kings of Wessex from that time until 1066 when William the Conqueror moved all things royal over to Westminster Abbey. Six elaborately painted wooden mortuary chests (caskets) containing 1300 bones were protected and preserved during the various destructions and reconstructions of that early period of Winchester Cathedral’s history, but the exact identity of who those bones belonged to – believed to be well over six individuals – has remained a mystery … until now. Biological anthropologists from the University of Bristol have painstakingly analyzed and radiocarbon-dated the remains and determined that they belong to at least 23 people – including the powerful Queen Emma, who was married to two kings and gave birth to two more. “Winchester Cathedral is a living monument to the heritage of England and is one of the most historically significant buildings in Britain. From the time of Alfred the Great until after the Norman Conquest, Winchester was England’s capital and the Cathedral was its royal chapel. Much of England’s early history was based here and twelve English kings are believed to be buried here – meaning that Winchester can lay claim to being the first Royal Mausoleum.” The announcement is part of the opening of the “Kings and Scribes: The Birth of a Nation” exhibition at Winchester Cathedral, which is the end result of a seven-year project detail its history and unlock the secrets of its many ancient artifacts and remains. While it was long believed that the six mortuary chest were from the dates inscribed on them and possibly contained the remains of pre-Conquest kings and bishops, there was no actual proof, and analysis was deemed to be nearly impossible since the chests had been opened many times and obviously contained many more than six individuals. “A major development in 2015 revealed that the bones were from the late Anglo-Saxon and early Norman periods, thanks to radiocarbon (C14) dating on selected fragments by the Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit at the University of Oxford. These findings confirmed that the bones date from the same periods as the names on the chests, which include eight kings, two bishops and one queen, rather than being the result of later activity within the Cathedral.” According to the exhibition website, that determination prompted the assembly of a team of biological anthropologists who carefully and meticulously catalogued the bones, identifying unique individuals and their sex, physical characteristics and age at death. That proved there were at least twenty-three partial skeletons in the caskets and, based on the exact time period determined along with the cathedral’s history of being the burial place for Wessex royalty, narrowed down the list of possible identities. Because only one was a female, it’ s highly likely that those are the remains of Queen Emma. Emma lived from 985 to March 6, 1052 and was a queen consort (married to a king) of England, Denmark and Norway. As the daughter of Richard I, Duke of Normandy, she was the descendant of Vikings and helped her first husband, Æthelred the Unready (at least the British are honest about their leaders) unite the English throne with the Normans, giving William the Conquerer, grandson of her brother Richard II, a claim to the throne. Emma was considered to be merely a figurehead during Æthelred’s reign from 1002–1016. When Æthelstan, Æthelred’s eldest son from his first marriage, died, Emma fought to have one of her sons designated as heir-apparent. However, Æthelred’s death in 1016 came just a year after Cnut, a Danish prince, invaded England. In order to maintain Anglo-Saxon control of London, Emma married Cnut, an act which historians believe saved the lives of her sons, one of whom who eventually became King Edward the Confessor. She also had a son with Cnut who became King Harthacnut and co-reigned for a time with Edward the Confessor. Encomium Emmae Reginae, an 11th-century Latin encomium in honor of Queen Emma that was most likely written by a monk of the time, shows that Emma was more influential during Cnut’s reign and was key in establishing the co-reign of her two sons. According to it and other records, after her death in 1052 Emma was interred alongside Cnut and Harthacnut in the old Winchester Cathedral, before being transferred to the new cathedral built after the Norman Conquest. During the English Civil War (1642–1651), all of the remains were disinterred and thrown onto the Cathedral floor, which explains why the six coffins that survived contained the remains of so many individuals. Is the female in the mortuary chests really Queen Emma? Professor Kate Robson Brown, who led the investigation, gives this answer: “We cannot be certain of the identity of each individual yet, but we are certain that this is a very special assemblage of bones.” Close enough to make this a very special and historic exhibition.
Where Does Your Food Come From? To see where your community’s food comes from, and to learn the social and economic advantages of buying local produce - Paper or index cards - Writing utensils - World map 30 minutes for preparation; 30–45 minutes for game - To start, ask the kids to go home or visit a local store with a piece of scrap paper and find a product that they might find in the community shop (e.g., soap, rice, canned tomatoes, cookies, milk powder, black bags). Ask them to write down or draw the product and its country of origin, according to the product label. - When the group reassembles with their information, have a world map set up on the wall or floor. Divide the participants into teams to consider each kid’s product, one by one, and ask where it comes from. If the opposing team’s participants can guess the product’s country of origin, they win a point and you will tape a card with the product described under the country on the map. Attach the string to the card, and tack the other end to your country. Now participants can see where the products came from and how far they had to travel to get to their community. - What does this activity show us exactly? (The percentage of foods and other products that are imported from somewhere else.) - Why is it important to eat locally? (It supports local farmers and craftspeople; it requires less fossil fuel use because transportation time is shorter; locally grown food is often fresher and more nutritious.) - If your product was not local, try to brainstorm some ways to replace the imported product, such as creating reusable bags made with old fabric versus buying new ones, eating locally grown vegetables, and using community-made soap. - Imagine you are running your household and it is you who decides what to buy. How can you talk with your store owners and encourage market vendors to have local products brought to the market to sell to people? This lesson plan is an activity from the Environmental Activities for Youth Clubs and Camps, a resource developed by the Peace Corps Office of Overseas Programming and Training (OPATS). It was contributed by Peace Corps/Togo.
The mystery behind the missing Malaysian Airlines flight MH370 is no more. Engineers working out of the British company, Inmarsat, have used a “groundbreaking but traditional mathematics-based process” to conclude that the plane landed in a remote region of the southern Indian Ocean. Plane wreckage has yet to be found to support this notion. Yesterday afternoon, the Malaysian Prime Minister, Najib Razak, announced in a press statement that the investigation was completed with a never-before-used analysis. However, few news articles are getting their hands dirty with the details of this mystery-solving method. From most of the articles you’ll get a sense that it has something to do with the Doppler effect, trigonometry, a satellite and a magical mathematical equation that ties everything together. But how do these elements coalesce into a single, coherent story? If you look at a general equation of the Doppler effect, you’ll notice that nowhere does it offer information about an object’s position in space. But you can still get an idea of an object’s location and direction of travel from the Doppler effect. If you have an object that emits a signal, like a train blowing its horn, the frequency of that signal depends on the speed and direction the object is traveling and also on the speed and direction of the instrument measuring the signal. Malaysian Airlines lost touch with Flight 370 on March 8. After that, the plane’s only form of communication was brief “pings” indicating that the plane was still operational. An Inmarsat satellite detected a handful of these electromagnetic signals, which turned out to be key to solving the mystery. The frequency of each signal would change as the plane moved with respect to the satellite. If the engineer’s knew the original frequency at which the plane emitted the pings, then they could determine the change in frequency and thus calculate the velocity of the plane with respect to the satellite. \|The frequency of the ripples that the car emits change as the car moves. If you were on the left, you would measure a higher frequency than the original frequency, and if you were on the right you would measure a lower frequency. Credit Charley Whisky.\| Velocity, alone, cannot tell you anything about position. But if you have a reference point in space with a known position, you can determine your target object’s position with respect to your reference point. Say the satellite and the plane were both at the same height above the Earth’s surface and the plane was flying in a straight line away from the satellite. This simplified version breaks the problem down into one dimension. If you knew the position and velocity of your satellite and you knew the velocity of the plane, you could easily map the plane’s position over time. Now consider the more realistic scenario that the satellite is many thousands of kilometers higher than the plane. You can still solve the position problem, but you are now dealing with a solution that requires some trigonometry in a three-dimensional space. And since the satellite is orbiting Earth and the plane is also moving, albeit at a different velocity, this becomes a very complex problem very quickly. \|Imagine the satellite sitting at the top of the sphere. Now, picture the plane flying across the surface. Notice the multiple angles and positions you would need to account for while attempting to model the plane's flight path. Credit: Peter Mercator.\| I imagine that most of data-crunching marathon the Inmarsat engineers took to determine the plane’s crash site to within 100 miles, was spent identifying how best to determine MH370’s final destination given the few data points available and testing that series of equations using known flight paths of other Malaysian flights. The single Inmarsat satellite that detected the plane’s pings measured the frequency of only eight pings in total. From that, engineers plotted the plane’s likely course across the Indian Ocean using a combination of the Doppler effect to calculate the plane’s velocity with respect to the satellite and trigonometry to then map the plane’s flight path and ultimately determine where it likely crashed after emptying its fuel tanks. The ten Inmarsat satellites orbiting Earth were built as part of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System and have never before been used for this type of mission, said Inmarsat Senior Vice President, Chris McLaughlin.
Object creation, use & lifetimes Technically, OOP is just about abstract data typing, inheritance, and polymorphism, but other issues can be at least as important. This section will cover these issues. One of the most important factors of objects is the way they are created and destroyed. Where is the data for an object and how is the lifetime of the object controlled? There are different philosophies at work here. C++ takes the approach that control of efficiency is the most important issue, so it gives the programmer a choice. For maximum run-time speed, the storage and lifetime can be determined while the program is being written, by placing the objects on the stack (these are sometimes called automatic or scoped variables) or in the static storage area. This places a priority on the speed of storage allocation and release, and control of these can be very valuable in some situations. However, you sacrifice flexibility because you must know the exact quantity, lifetime, and type of objects while you're writing the program. If you are trying to solve a more general problem such as computer-aided design, warehouse management, or air-traffic control, this is too restrictive. The second approach is to create objects dynamically in a pool of memory called the heap. In this approach, you don't know until run time how many objects you need, what their lifetime is, or what their exact type is. Those are determined at the spur of the moment while the program is running. If you need a new object, you simply make it on the heap at the point that you need it. Because the storage is managed dynamically, at run time, the amount of time required to allocate storage on the heap can be noticeably longer than the time to create storage on the stack. (Creating storage on the stack is often a single assembly instruction to move the stack pointer down and another to move it back up. The time to create heap storage depends on the design of the storage mechanism.) The dynamic approach makes the generally logical assumption that objects tend to be complicated, so the extra overhead of finding storage and releasing that storage will not have an important impact on the creation of an object. In addition, the greater flexibility is essential to solve the general programming problem. Java uses the second approach, exclusively. Every time you want to create an object, you use the new keyword to build a dynamic instance of that object. There's another issue, however, and that's the lifetime of an object. With languages that allow objects to be created on the stack, the compiler determines how long the object lasts and can automatically destroy it. However, if you create it on the heap the compiler has no knowledge of its lifetime. In a language like C++, you must determine programmatically when to destroy the object, which can lead to memory leaks if you dont do it correctly (and this is a common problem in C++ programs). Java provides a feature called a garbage collector that automatically discovers when an object is no longer in use and destroys it. A garbage collector is much more convenient because it reduces the number of issues that you must track and the code you must write. More important, the garbage collector provides a much higher level of insurance against the insidious problem of memory leaks (which has brought many a C++ project to its knees).
Central to the model of the evolution of the martian hydrosphere by Clifford and Parker is a permanent freezing of the planet at the end of the Noachian and recharge of the global groundwater system by basal melting of ice-rich polar deposits. Acquisition of MOLA data by Mars Global Surveyor provides a means of testing the model, since discharge of water onto the surface, after development of the cryosphere, is driven by the hydrostatic head created by the difference in elevation between the base of the polar-layered terrain and the discharge site. The new data show that, while most post- Noachian water-worn features are at a lower elevation than the base of the polar-layered terrains, as required by the model, there are exceptions. Prominent among these are possible lacustrine deposits within the canyons, tributaries to the canyons, and valleys on several volcanoes. These high-standing features can be reconciled with the model if volcanic melting of ice within the cryosphere is invoked as a source for water at high elevations. An alternative is that high pressures may have developed below the cryosphere as a result of water being trapped beneath the growing cryosphere and the impermeable basement. Yet another alternative is that, since the end of the Noachian, the groundwater system has been recharged by precipitation during occasional warm periods. Additional publication details Elevations of water-worn features on Mars: Implications for circulation of groundwater
Invertebrates share four common traits such as no backbone, are multi-cellular, have no cell walls and reproduce by two reproductive cells or gametes coming together to produce a new organism of their species. What are invertebrates? Very simply they are animals that do not develop a vertebrate column. In other words animals without backbones or spinal columns are called invertebrates. The term invertebrate represents a wide range of marine and land based animals in the world ranging from single cell protozoa up to the more commonly known insects and crustaceans (like moths and crabs) and including animals such as jellyfish and slugs. They make up around 95% of the animal world. This group includes multi-cellular organisms and mostly form a colony of individual cell that function as one. They have no cell walls and many have tissues; an exception to this is the sponge. Most of the invertebrates can move, and yet again the adult sponges remain an exception. You can slice line down one of these animals and you’d find that one side is the mirror image of the other; of course your line has to be straight – this is called symmetrical organization and many invertebrates follow it. Invertebrates reproduce sexually and are heterotrophs i.e. they feed on plants and animals. We’ve already established that invertebrates are spineless creatures; and while some of them float around where the water currents take them, some remain in one place all their lives, yet others crawl around the place on numerous legs. So, how do they defend themselves? Well. some invertebrates have a hard outer case called the exoskeleton. This exoskeleton, in most cases, is hard enough to protect them from predators and external force and keeps them from drying out. The invertebrates without the exoskeleton make use of other techniques. An example of this could be the jellyfish. Drifting around apparently aimless, this Cnidaria will sting the moment you get too close and it perceives danger. The sting in some cases may even be fatal. The invertebrates with legs will use them to flee. A grasshopper or fleas will leap to safety, butterflies and other winged insects will merely fly away, while a cockroach will just make a run for it and search for cover. Some little fellows like the click beetles with legs that are unable to carry it away fast enough from the perceived danger will merely just play dead. Bright colours are another defence mechanism. Some invertebrates flash a bright colour that says “Leave me alone! I taste bad” “don’t get to close or I’ll sting you” or “Go away! I’m poisonous” (sometimes even if they’re not). What are Sponges? Sponges are multi-cellular animals and have a porous body and channels so water can circulate. These are the nice guys who finished last and represent the least evolved group of the animal kingdom – they are the sponges! (Now you know why SpongeBob’s a little dim-witted). Glass Sponges are basket or cup shaped and pale in colour. Their spicules (small, hard bodies that serve as a skeleton) are composed of silica. Demosponges which account for more than 90% of all living sponges are vibrantly coloured and can grow to be the largest of all sponges. Their spicules are made of silica. These include your trusty bath sponge. Calcareous Sponges differ from the other two in that their skeletal spicules are composed of calcium carbonate. They have a rough texture, are only a few inches high and are generally dull in appearance. Sponges occur in rivers and streams from the rock pools to deep ocean floors and arctic seas to warm tropical marine seas where they are at their most stunning. They live in pineapples and have pet snails (no they don’t we were just checking if you’re still with us). They are 600 million years old and there are about 10,000 known species alive today. What are the characteristics of the sponges? Most sponges inhabit marine environments but a few species live in freshwater habitats. They are primitive multi-cellular animals that drive a unidirectional current of water through their body. They are filter feeders and reproduce sexually or asexually. Adult sponges are sessile animals i.e. attached by the base and live attached to hard rocky surfaces, shells, or submerged objects. The larvae are free-swimming creatures (planktonic). They have no digestive, circulatory or nervous system. They do not have organs and their cells are not organized into well-defined tissues. Neither do they have a fixed symmetry. What is Phylum Cnidaria and what does it include? This is a group of invertebrates that includes your common jellyfish, hydras, corals, sea anemones, sea pens, sea pansies, sea wasps and tiny freshwater hydras. This group has some 11,000 species to it that can be found exclusively in aquatic, mostly marine, environments. Their basic form is quite simple consisting of a single cavity for both digestion and circulation and a single opening through which food is ingested and waste is released. Bulimic girls must definitely know what this feels like. The members of this class are radically symmetrical with tentacles that encircle their mouth. What are the basic characteristics of Cnidaria? They are found in aquatic environments mostly marine Their bodies are multi-cellular, with few tissues and some organs. The body contains a single cavity and opening (mouth) for food intake and excretion. Reproduction is sexual or asexual. The larva stage is planktonic. They are carnivorous and feed on small crustaceans or otherwise filter feeders. Nervous system is simple and net-like. They are radically symmetrical. Their skeletons are made up of calcium carbonate or chiton and are minimal. There are two forms – Medusa, with the best example being the jelly fish, is a free swimming structure shaped like an umbrella (called a bell) with a gastro vascular cavity that has a fringe of tentacles that hang from the edge of the bell and a mouth opening on the underside of the bell. Polyp, in contrast is a sessile attached to the sea floor. It’s in the form of a cylindrical body stalk inside of which is the gastro vascular cavity and consists of a basal disk that attaches to a substrate, a mouth opening located on the top of the polyp, and numerous tentacles which radiate out from around the edge of the mouth opening. What are Echinoderms? Ok before you go bonkers just reading the name we advise you take a deep breath. The meaning of this tongue-twister is derived from the Greeks word “echinóderma” meaning “spiny skin” and includes starfish, sea urchins, brittle stars, sea daisies, sand dollars, sea cucumbers and many more. They are easily identified by their radical symmetry, vascular system and internal skeleton. There are about 6000 species of echinoderms alive today. They are simple animals, lacking a brain and complex sensing organ. Echinoderms are bottom dwelling; free moving creatures evolved from sessile ancestors and have a variety of feeding habits ranging for filter-feeding to scavenging and predation. Their diet includes fine particles in the water, detritus or other animals. They posses no excretory organs and have a poorly defined open circulatory system. They sport a 5-rayed symmetry, mostly radial, sometimes bilateral and are equipped with more than two cell layers, tissues and organs. Reproduction is normally sexual. What are Flatworms? No, this is not a piece of bacon that happened to fall upon and got uploaded to get your attention. It’s an example of a Platyhelminthes. Commonly known as flatworms this class contains about 20,000 species of soft-bodied, bilaterally symmetrical, invertebrate animals. The structure of the flatworms marks a major step in animal evolution. These invertebrates have three layers of tissues with organs and organelles and no internal cavity. It has a mouth but no anus and the nervous system consists of longitudinal fibres rather than a net. Many of them are parasitic in nature and survive in all major habitats feeding on animals and other smaller life forms. What are Mollusca? This class includes snails, slugs, chitons, squids, clams, oysters, limpets’, octopus and cuttlefish. There exist at the very least 50,000 living species today, and scientists are still counting. This makes them the second largest phylum of animals after the arthropods (we’re getting to that). Molluscs are characterised by soft bodies that have a “head” and a “foot” area. Many species also have a hard exoskeleton or protective shell made of chitin, proteins and calcium carbonate as in the shells of snails and clams or the plates of chitons. It’s difficult to generalize using a single representative species anatomical structure as these organisms are so varied in form. Hence the hypothetical “mollusc” has features like a mantle, shell, foot and visceral mass that are common to many species. What are the basic characteristics of Mollusca? Their bodies are bilaterally symmetrical (i.e. the left and right side are mirror images) with no cavities They have more than two cell layers, tissues and organs The body possesses a through gut with mouth and anus They have an open circulatory system with a heart and a pair of kidneys Reproduction is normally sexual Most molluscs are herbivorous, grazing on algae some feed on microscopic, filamentous algae, often using their radula as a 'rake' to comb up filaments from the sea floor. Others feed on macroscopic 'plants' such as kelp by ‘sitting’ on them, rasping the plant surface with its radula. They are able to adapt to most environments What are Arthropods? Arthropods are invertebrates having jointed limbs and a segmented body with an exoskeleton made of chitin. This group is made to accommodate over 1 million species today, with the most diverse group being, by far, the insects and including crustaceans, arachnids, sea spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs and a number of lesser-known groups. They make up the most species-rich group of animals and cover over three quarters of all known living and fossil organisms. They evolved more than 500 million years ago and are thriving. Arthropods mainly live on land, but aquatic species are pretty well known too. The members of this class feed on anything. What are the basic characteristics of Arthropods? Their bodies are bilaterally symmetrical (in most cases) with more than two cell layers, tissues and organs. The arthropod body is made-up of repeating units (pairs of legs, claws, or breathing structures) The exoskeleton is present in most cases and provides protection, prevents water loss, and provides support Jointed appendages enable the arthropods to move their legs, mouthparts, and claws despite the fact that their body is covered by a rigid exoskeleton Arthropods have many pairs of legs (3 to 400+), some arthropods have fewer or smaller limbs, others have larger, specialized limbs such as claws. Arthropods (in most cases) possess an open circulatory system with a simple heart, one or more arteries, and no veins. Which are the members of Phylum Annelids? What are they like? Don’t let the name baffle you; this class is just worms...segmented “super” worms! Annelids are considered a “super-phylum”. We imagine that’s a worm in a cape. However if we do introduce you to one, the first thing you’d probably say is, “Eeew! Get that thing away from me!” They include a group of invertebrates that includes earthworms, rag worms and leeches. There are over 17,000 species of segmented worms alive today. They are found in marine environments from tidal zones to hydrothermal vents, in freshwater, and in moist terrestrial environments. There exists no way we can possibly single them out, based on a single feature, from other invertebrate classes. But they do have a distinct combination of features; i.e. long bodies with segments that are divided on the outside by shallow ring-like constrictions (annuli) and internally by septa (partitions) at the same points, although in some species the septa are incomplete and in a few cases absent. They share a common gut, circulatory system and nervous system that are inter-dependent, although most of the segments contain the same sets of organs. Their bodies have an outer covering called a cuticle that is secreted by cells in the skin underneath. Closed circulatory systems have the blood make an entire circuit via blood vessels. Some other features are: Are bilaterally symmetrical and vermiform They have more than two cell layers, tissues and organs Body possesses a through gut with mouth and anus Body possesses 3 separate sections, a prosomium, a trunk and a pygidium Has no true respiratory organs Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic or hermaphroditic Feed a wide range of material and can survive in most environments What is the Phylum Ctenophora? These are a group of animals that live in the abundant marine waters world-wide and are commonly known as comb jellies. Their very similar to phylum cnidarians and most scientists chose to classify them under one phylum. However increasing research has brought out their differences which require them to be classified separately. Their most distinct feature is their “combs” (cilia) which they use for swimming, making them the largest animals that swim by means of cilia. The mass of jelly that makes up the body of a cnidarians has one layer of cells on the outside and another lining the internal cavity. In ctenophores these layers are two cells deep while those in cnidarians are only one cell deep. All ctenophores are predators and can eat ten times their own weight in a day preying on microscopic larvae, rotifers as well as the adults of small crustaceans; the exceptions are juveniles of two species, which live as parasites. What is the unique survival technique of the Scorpion? Fear of the dark... you have a constant fear that something’s always near... Well shine an ultra violet light on it already! ....if that “something” is glowing under the light it most probably is a Scorpion. Scientists are not quite sure why scorpions glow florescent under ultraviolet light. They are tough and are able to change their metabolic rate (the amount of energy expended in a given period), to as little as one-third the typical rate for arthropods. They do this when food is scarce and this amazing technique enables some species to live on a single insect per year and use little oxygen. And when food strolls round the corner the scorpion is able to spring quickly to the hunt, low metabolism and all – a gift many hibernating species wish they had. Remarkable survival techniques allow the scorpion to inhabit the world’s toughest environments. This means if you stored a scorpion in a refrigerator overnight he would still be able to thaw out and walk away in to the sun. Of the 2000 scorpion species only 30 or 40 have strong enough poison to kill a person. Different species have a variety of effective, custom-made venom based on the injector’s lifestyle and effectiveness against the species’ chosen prey. Scorpions typically eat insects, but their diet can be extremely variable. Commonly assumed to be desert dwellers, they are also found in Brazilian rainforests, British Columbia, North Carolina, and even the Himalayas. But there’s one thing that appears on the blank “Don’t leave home without it” list of this fascinating animal – Soil! They are burrowing animals, so in areas without loose soil like permafrost or heavy grasses, scorpions may not be able to survive. Yeah we hear you; there had to be something right! Where does the Black Widow Spider get its name from? The guy who named this little creature knew his Superheroes well! The Black Widow Spider is a name derived from “Black Widow” and “Spider-man” two famous Marvel comic characters. Ok, we’re not sure you bought that, but if you did, just letting you know we were goofing around. Black Widow spiders are notorious and branded with a coloured, hourglass-shaped mark on their abdomens and are found in temperate regions across the globe. The bite of this spider is venomous and is said to be about 15 times stronger than the rattlesnake’s. It is not fatal to humans and at most causes nausea, muscle aches and a paralysis of the diaphragm that can make breathing difficult. No serious damage is observed in most people. However the bites can be fatal to young children, the elderly or the infirm but this too is uncommon as the spider is not aggressive and bites only in self-defence. Insects and male black widow are not that lucky though. The females sometimes kill their companion after mating before releasing him. The Black Widows name is in fact the outcome of this gruesome mating ritual. Food preferences include flies, mosquitoes, beetles, caterpillars and grasshoppers which they catch using their web, thereafter covering their prey with silk once it has been trapped. The black widow then punctures its prey with fangs and administers digestive enzymes to the corpses. The enzymes and gnashing fangs proceed to liquefy the prey's bodies which they then go on and suck up. Which is the largest Mollusc on earth? How does it survive? I’ll just wait here!! ....said the Giant Clam And he had no other option. The Giant Clam gets only one chance to find a nice home. Once it fastens itself to a spot on a reef, there it sits for the rest of its life. It must get pretty boring living life at a standstill. These bottom-dwellers are the largest molluscs on earth, capable of reaching 4 feet in length and weighing more than 227kgs. They can be found in warm waters of the South Pacific and Indian Oceans. They reach their gargantuan sizes feeding on the sugars and proteins produced by billions of algae living in their tissues. It’s a give-and-take relationship here – the algae find a comfy home in the clam, with regular access to sunlight necessary for photosynthesis, with their fluted shells open and their multi-coloured mantles exposed, the giant clam basks in the sunlight by day. They also feed on passing plankton using siphons to draw in water. The adductor muscle of the giant clam is a major ingredient in many scrumptious delicacies. The giant clams have acquired a villainous and highly undeserved reputation of being man-eaters waiting to clamp down on unsuspecting swimmers and swallow them whole. This is very improbable, seeing as the adductor muscle moves way too slowly for the clam to catch a swimmer passing by and the clam would rather retreat into its shell than try sampling humans. What is a starfish? Is it really a fish? This one’s a real starfish These stars are Sea Stars! Many a scientist are trying to replace the name of our dearest Starfish with Sea Star and the reason for this is that the starfish is not a fish but in fact an echinoderm. So we decided to help them out. Moving on, the Sea star can be found be found in oceans (there are no fresh water sea stars) the world over and have around 2000 species known to mankind. The most common of them are the five-pointed arm variety, and incidentally that’s where they get their names. However there are sea stars with as many as 10, 20 or 40 arms. These invertebrates have no brains or blood and make do with filtered sea water for the latter; the former is not so easily substituted. They have bony, calcified skin that helps in keeping predators at bay. Their outstanding colours work as either camouflage or towards scaring off predators. The famed feature of the sea star is its ability to re-grow limbs and sometimes even entire bodies. This is possible because the sea star houses most of its vital organs in its arms. Though some need the central body to be intact in order to carry out the regeneration others can grow a brand new sea star just from a piece of severed limb. Another remarkable feature of the sea star is its ability to feed outside their bodies. They prise open clams or oysters using tiny suction-cupped tube feet and then with the help of the sac-like cardiac stomach, that emerges from their mouth and oozes into the shell, they encase the prey digesting it before withdrawing it back into the body. What is a common octopus? And what are its unique survival techniques? The master of escaping acts – Houdini! ...Or could it be....? The Common Octopus! Well for starters, handcuffing all eight arms is going to be quite tedious. This fascinating creature is truly the master of disappearing acts among the underwater invertebrates and uses a large collection of techniques to evade or thwart attackers. The most incredible form of defence applied by the common octopus is its ability to hide itself in plain sight. It does this by matching colours, patterns, and even textures of the surroundings; and this modification is instantaneous. How is that possible? Well they do this with a network of pigment cells and specialized muscles in its skin. If its predators only knew...the food they were hunting down was floating right in front of them, they wouldn’t just swim by. The frequently tricked fish include the dolphin, shark and eels. However if ever any of these hunters do look past the trickery, they are doused in a cloud of black ink that obscures their view, giving the octopus time to swim away. The black ink also contains a substance that dulls the predator's sense of smell, making the fleeing octopus harder to track. We bet Houdini wouldn’t be able to perform these next two acts the common octopus is so accomplished at – the ability to squeeze into ridiculously small cracks and crevices where predators can’t follow and the ability to lose an arm in order to escape a predator's grasp and re-grow it later with no permanent damage. It preys on crabs, crayfish, and mollusks, and will sometimes use their ink to disorient their victims before attacking. They also deliver a nasty bite with their beak-like jaws and their venomous saliva helps subdue prey. They are found in tropical and temperate oceans of the world and can grow to about 4.3 feet (1.3 meters) in length and weigh up to 22 pounds (10 kilograms). They are considered the most intelligent of all invertebrates.
To use all functions of this page, please activate cookies in your browser. With an accout for my.chemeurope.com you can always see everything at a glance – and you can configure your own website and individual newsletter. - My watch list - My saved searches - My saved topics - My newsletter Electron capture (sometimes called Inverse Beta Decay) is a decay mode for isotopes that will occur when there are too many protons in the nucleus of an atom and insufficient energy to emit a positron; however, it continues to be a viable decay mode for radioactive isotopes that can decay by positron emission. If the energy difference between the parent atom and the daughter atom is less than 1.022 MeV, positron emission is forbidden and electron capture is the sole decay mode. For example, Rubidium-83 will decay to Krypton-83 solely by electron capture (the energy difference is about 0.9 MeV). In this case, one of the orbital electrons, usually from the K or L electron shell (K-electron capture, also K-capture, or L-electron capture, L-capture), is captured by a proton in the nucleus, forming a neutron and a neutrino. Since the proton is changed to a neutron, the number of neutrons increases by 1, the number of protons decreases by 1, and the atomic mass number remains unchanged. By changing the number of protons, electron capture transforms the nuclide into a new element. The atom moves into an excited state with the inner shell missing an electron. When transiting to the ground state, the atom will emit an X-ray photon (a type of electromagnetic radiation) and/or Auger electrons. (Please note that it is one of the initial atom's own electrons that is captured, not a new, incoming electron as might be suggested by the way the above reactions are written.) Radioactive isotopes which decay by pure electron capture can, in theory, be inhibited from radioactive decay if they are fully ionized ("stripped" is sometimes used to describe such ions). It is hypothesized that such elements, if formed by the r-process in exploding supernovae, are ejected fully ionized and so do not undergo radioactive decay as long as they do not encounter electrons in outer space. Anomalies in elemental distributions are thought to be partly a result of this effect on electron capture. Chemical bonds can also affect the rate of electron capture to a small degree (generally less than 1%) depending on the proximity of electrons to the nucleus. Around the elements in the middle of the periodic table, isotopes that are lighter than stable isotopes of the same element tend to decay through electron capture, while isotopes heavier than the stable ones decay with a process called negative beta decay. A good example of this effect would be silver, as its light isotopes use electron capture and the heavier ones decay by negative beta emission. \|This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Electron_capture". A list of authors is available in Wikipedia.\|
Mark LeGros, who spent three years building the world’s first x-ray microscope dedicated to cell biology, greeted me at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) with a hearty handshake, effusive smile and an accent reminiscent of his New Zealand roots. I spent an hour in April talking with him about the challenges and rewards of creating a powerful, state-of-the art microscope which can capture a truer, more accurate picture of a whole cell and its nucleus, mitochondria and other tiny, essential cellular structures. I asked him to take me back to that moment in 2009 when he and the diverse team of researchers, including biologists, physicists, chemists and computer scientists, who comprise the National Center of X-ray Tomography at LBNL, powered up the microscope and waited anxiously for the first x-ray images of a yeast cell, the biological specimen they chose to test the capabilities of their new imaging tool. “I wasn’t sure exactly just how well this was gonna work out. But it turned out that it was beautiful…and everybody associated with the project was stunned with the degree of detail that it revealed about the internal structure of a cell and the chromatin, which is the genetic material of the cell,” he said. It’s important to note that this powerful device does not render obsolete other imaging techniques, including light microscopy and electron microscopy. For one thing, the cell sample is frozen to hold the structures in place and protect them from the x-rays which have much greater penetrating power than visible light because x-rays have shorter wavelengths than light rays. So it can’t capture dynamic activity of cells moving in real-time, unlike an optical or light microscope. Also, while the resolution possible with the x-ray microscope is five times greater than a light microscope, an electron microscope, which uses electrons to penetrate ultra-thin sections of cells, provides better resolution than the x-ray microscope. Nonetheless, unlike an electron microscope, the x-ray microscope allows scientists to image a whole cell in its native state, with the only preparation being the freezing of the cell sample. Also, many of the classic textbook images of cells that were taken with electron microscopes which required the cells to be dehydrated and stained with heavy metals to bind the electrons to the cell and generate a rather grainy image. Since a cell is 70% water, dehydration and staining can degrade delicate cellular structures and thus make it hard to accurately visualize them. In addition, the x-ray microscope uses the technique of tomography to faithfully reconstruct the volume of a cell in three dimensions, instead of a flat, 2-D image of it. Here, a sample of cells is placed in the microscope and rotated 360 degrees. While it rotates, x-rays illuminate the carbon and nitrogen present in all biological cells and black and white images then display the absorption of the x-rays by the organic material in every part of the cell. All of this happens in about 30 seconds. Computer software then allows the team to process, in a mere five to ten minutes, the individual x-ray images and reconstruct a 3-D portrait of the cell which is possible since the cell has been imaged from every conceivable angle, allowing not only the shapes of its structures to be seen but also the amount of biological material such as the DNA packed into the cell’s nucleus. This novel form of 3-D imaging is revealing new insight into the organization of the active genes – the euchromatin – and the silenced genes – the heterochromatin – in the nucleus. “So we can see now for the first time that the heterochromatin, or those silenced genes, are more crowded than the euchromatin regions. And we can actually quantify that and say that it’s 28% more crowded,” said Carolyn Larabell, a microbiologist and the Director of the National Center for X-ray Tomography. So why is it important to quantify the amount of active genes versus silenced genes in a cell’s nucleus? For one thing, in certain diseases like cancer, previously silenced genes become active and the nucleus grows larger. So perhaps this new level of insight can shed light on the progression of cancer and perhaps even offer an early tool for its onset, well before symptoms appear. A three-dimensional window into cells may also lead to the development of better designed and consequently, more effective drug treatments. “It’s important to see these structures in 3-D (because) you want to test drugs on cells to see if they’re having the effect that you think they are,” said Larabell. “If you get a single section, you have just a very thin window on what might be happening to that cell. (So) you want to see what’s happening throughout the entire cell,” she added. Whether it’s the life cycle of the deadly malaria parasite or the breakdown of sugars from plants in the production of biofuels, this exciting new imaging tool is providing a richer understanding of important biological processes. But as ingenious as this microscope is, it can’t compare to the ingenuity and complexity of the microscopic world of cells which we’ve strained to bring into lucid focus for hundreds of years, ever since Robert Hooke’s 17th-century descriptions of the tiny structures in a section of cork, which he likened to the modest chambers, or cells, of pious monks.
Reflux Disease, GERD & LPR Reflux is the backflow of stomach contents into the esophagus and even into the throat. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is an abnormal flow of stomach contents into the esophagus, and laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) is an abnormal flow of stomach and esophageal contents into the Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) GERD is the disease that most Americans think of as “reflux.” The most common symptoms are heartburn and regurgitation. More atypical symptoms, such as cough, may occur in the absence of heartburn or regurgitation symptoms. The esophagus is designed to resist injury from reflux, and GERD symptoms do not typically occur until there is excessive exposure of the esophagus to stomach contents (for example, more than 50 reflux episodes in a 24 hour period). This type of exposure can lead to esophageal erosions, strictures, Barrett’s esophagus and even cancer. While acid is one of the harmful components of reflux, a more important component to GERD is the digestive enzyme pepsin, which is only active in an acidic environment. The most effective reflux medications only control acid and do not actually prevent GERD from occurring. Even when the reflux is not acidic, it can still cause symptoms (sometimes called non-acid reflux). While lifestyle modifications are particularly important in the treatment of GERD, some people may choose to have an abdominal surgery. Laryngopharyngeal Reflux Disease (LPR) LPR may be present in up to 50% of people with voice problems. The voice box and throat are very susceptible to damage from acid and pepsin, and as few as three episodes a week can cause damage resulting in LPR. This explains why many people with LPR do not have the typical GERD symptoms of heartburn and regurgitation. Symptoms of LPR may include: - Globus (lump in the throat) More serious consequences of LPR stenosis, spasm of the vocal folds, granulomas and cancer. Acid production needs to be more tightly controlled for LPR than for GERD, so treatment is often very aggressive (sometimes double or triple the dosage of medication used for GERD). LPR symptoms may not start to improve until several months after treatment begins. LPR can be diagnosed based on laryngeal examination and symptoms. Sometimes a trial of reflux medication is used to make the diagnosis. 24-hour pH testing is often used to diagnose reflux Make an Appointment If you are suffering from reflux, GERD or LPR, call 716-WAKE or request an appointment online.
Slavery and Sugar Sugar planting, harvesting, and processing is tiring, hot, dangerous work and requires a large number of workers whose work habits must be intensely coordinated and controlled. From the very beginning of sugar cultivation in the New World, there were not enough European settlers to satisfy the labor requirements for profitable sugar plantations. Native Americans were enslaved to work on the earliest sugar plantations, especially in Brazil. Those who could, escaped from the fields, but many more died due to European diseases, such as smallpox and scarlet fever, and the harsh working conditions on the sugar plantations. A Catholic priest named Bartolomé de las Casas asked King Ferdinand of Spain to protect the Taino Indians of the Caribbean by importing African slaves instead. So, around 1505, enslaved Africans were first brought to the New World. For the next three and a half centuries, slaves of African origin provided most of the labor for the sugar industry in the Americas. A healthy, adult slave was expected to be able to plow, plant, and harvest five acres of sugar. Sugar planting was back-breaking work. Lines of slaves, men, women and children, moved across the fields, row by row, hand-planting thousands of seed-cane stems. Between 5,000 and 8,000 pieces had to be planted to produce one acre of sugar cane. Workdays in the fields typically lasted from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. with a noon-time break of perhaps two hours. During harvest, field slaves worked even longer hours, especially in Louisiana where workers raced against the weather to collect the harvest before the first frost and attacks by insects. Mature sugar cane's exterior skin is so hard that workers had to cut through the stem with cutlasses or machetes. They also had to stoop to cut the cane at ground level because the most sugary section of the cane is the lower stem. Harvesting cane was as backbreaking work as planting cane, and cuts from the sharp tools were common. Once the cane stalk was cut, slaves stripped any remaining leaves and stacked the cane. It then would be tied into bundles and loaded onto donkeys, wagons, or two-wheeled carts to be carried to the sugar mill. Throughout their work, overseers with whips supervised the field slaves. Once the harvest began, it was essential to process the cane immediately. Slaves ran the sugar mills, feeding the stalks between giant rollers. Up to a dozen boys and men typically worked around the clock to process sugar, working with the stench of rotting cane in intense heat. As machinery grew more complex, with conveyor belts, Rillieux's sugar processing evaporator and centrifuges, the slaves working the sugar houses became increasingly skilled mechanics. Yet, it was not unusual for slaves to be injured or crushed when trapped and pulled into the rollers as they fed stalks into the mill or tried to untangle stalks from flywheels and gears. Slaves also boiled the cane juice, ladling scum from the surface of the scalding liquid and then transferring it from kettle to kettle, reducing the syrup to crystals. Slaves routinely suffered burns during this process, often referred to as the "Jamaica Train," and the heat in the sugar houses was so intense that slaves were rotated out after four hours, their limbs swollen from the heat and humidity. Once the crystals formed, there was still heavy labor ahead. The harder the solid cakes of sugar were, the better the sugar quality, but the pieces had to broken up with shovels, picks and crowbars. Finally, sugar was shoveled into hogsheads (wooden barrels) and packed solidly before the barrel holes were plugged with a piece of sugarcane. The sugarcane plug helped to siphon out the remaining molasses from the sugar in the hogshead; the molasses dripped onto a floor angled so it would drain into a trough or cistern. Then, the slaves would scoop molasses into barrels by hand. By the 1850s, the expected yield from each slave's labor was five hogsheads of sugar and 250 gallons of molasses. During harvest, slaves worked day and night, especially in the mills and sugarhouses, so that there would be no bottlenecks in production. Shifts lasted up to 18 hours. Sugar production paused only as slaves cleaned out fireboxes or other equipment. Although some planters provided extra food and drink during the harvest and others encouraged competitions to boost production, sugar production was the result of coercion. Slaves in the sugar fields and mills were controlled by both the threat and use of deadly force. (source: http://www.slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_sugar.htm) Philip Morgan: The African Slave Trade, 1500-1800 from The Gilder Lehrman Institute on Vimeo.
The late 19th-century imperial surge of the United States greatly affected Latino Americans. The fourth volume of "e;"e;Latino-American History"e;"e;, "e;"e;Struggling to Become American: 1899-1940"e;"e;, covers Puerto Rican and Cuban immigration, along with Mexican migration, and spotlights Latinos who fought for the United States during World War I. Students will also find discussion about conditions on the U.S. homefront, where a great number of Latino laborers were recruited to work in the railway, steel, meatpacking, construction, and agriculture industries. The author also describes early Latino-American struggles for acceptance, equality, and fair treatment in the United States, particularly during the Great Depression. Struggling to Become American Facts On File, Incorporated
Some force and motion experiments include dropping two objects of different masses from the same height to demonstrate Newton’s law of acceleration, and the terminal velocity experiment to demonstrate the interaction of the effect of drag or resistance on acceleration. Two objects with different masses dropped from the same height reach the ground at the same time.Continue Reading Even though the heavier object has greater force pulling it toward the earth, the additional mass also resists acceleration to the same degree as its mass, so the objects fall at the same rate anywhere on earth. The terminal velocity experiment proves that a falling object reaches a maximum rate of acceleration as it falls due to resistance. The experiment entails dropping balls of different diameters through a viscous solution in a long cylinder marked at equal distances. Normally, gravity should cause a ball to accelerate as it nears the bottom. In other words, the ball should drop faster between the end markers than it does at the middle or starting markers. However, timing the ball at different markers reveals that it reaches a speed at which the time between segments becomes equal, or reaches its terminal velocity, the maximum speed it can attain. This effect occurs due to the force of drag, or resistance caused by the viscosity of the liquid counteracting the gravitational pull that causes the ball to fall. By dropping a larger object with the same weight, it is possible to demonstrate that the terminal velocity is not a function of mass, but of area. This is why a man wearing a parachute falls to the ground more slowly than a man without one.Learn more about Motion & Mechanics
Trends on the Periodic Table: Metals, Non-Metals, and Metalloids In this lab activity, students will be asked to observe and then test the properties of several different elements. In their observations they will be looking for the physical state, whether it is shiny or dull, and whether it appears malleable or brittle. For some of the elements they will also test the conductivity, malleability, and reactivity with dilute acid. From their data, they classify each element as a metal, a non-metal or a metalloid. There results will be color coded on a periodic table (e.g. Blue for metals, yellow for non-metals, and green for metalloids). They will use this to determine trends for metallic properties of the elements. 2. To discover the arrangement of metals, non-metals and metalloids on the periodic table. 3. To observe trends for the metallic properties of elements. Observation, classification and analysis skills will be developed. 1. Metals tend to be shiny, hard, malleable and good conductors of electricity. They are located on the left side of the periodic table. 2. Non-metals can be solids, liquids, or gases. If they are solid, they tend to be brittle. They are poor conductors. They are located on the right side of the periodic table. 3. Metalloids combine some of the properties of metals and not-metals and are located between them on the periodic table. Context for Use Resource Type: Activities:Classroom Activity Grade Level: High School (9-12) Description and Teaching Materials This is a copy of the student handout of the lab. It includes the materials in it. A copy is also attached in the documents. Periodic Table Lab: To investigate the properties of several elements on the periodic table and classify them as metals, non-metals or metalloids. In you lab notebook, draw the following table. Write each of the following properties under the appropriate heading. Write the whole property, not just the letter of the property. METALS NON-METALS METALLOIDS a. good conductor of heat b. poor conductor of heat (insulator) c. semi conductor d. shiny, high luster e. solids tend to be dull i. good conductor of electricity j. poor conductor of electricity For the observation stations you should prepare sealed test tubes containing the following elements: copper, silicon, magnesium, carbon, nickel, aluminum, zinc, sulfur, oxygen, lead, bismuth, silver, nitrogen, antimony, and hydrogen For the conductivity station, you should have plastic dishes with one piece of each element to be tested and micro-conductivity testers. For the malleability station, have one piece of each element per group along with paper towels and hammers. For the reactivity station, have one piece of each element per group, 9 test tubes, test tube rack and 1 M HCl. 1. In your lab notebook, draw a table like the one shown below. 2. Observe the appearance of each of the elements. Record physical state, color, luster and other observable characteristics. 3. Using the micro-conductivity tester, determine whether the elements conduct electricity. If you observe carefully, you might see that some are semi-conductors. 4. To determine which elements are malleable, place a single piece of the element on a paper towel, and gently tap it with a hammer. An element is brittle if it shatters when it is hit. An element is malleable if it flattens when it is tapped. 5. To test the reactivity with 1 M HCl, label 9 test tubes with the symbols for each element. Add 5 ml of the acid to each tube. Then add a small sample (approx 0.1 gram) of each element to the labeled tubes. Formation of bubbles of hydrogen is evidence that a reaction is occurring. (Note: not all reactions are vigorous, so watch closely) Element Appearance Conductivity Malleability Reactivity with HCL Non-metal Metal or Metalloid For the following elements, try to decide if they are a metal, non-metal or metalloid based on their appearance. Element Appearance Non-metal Metal or Metalloid On the blank periodic table, label the elements that we tested in lab. From your observations label them as metal, non-metal or metalloid. Color each group (metals, non-metals and metalloids) a different color. Analyze and conclude: Answer the following questions in your lab notebook. Use summary sentences. 1. Which elements displayed characteristics of metals? 2. Where are the metals located on the periodic table? 3. Which elements displayed characteristics of non-metals? 4. Where are the non-metals located on the periodic table? 5. Which elements displayed some characteristics of metals and some of non-metals? 6. Do metallic characteristics of elements seem to increase from left to right or right to left? 7. Do metallic characteristics seem to increase from top to bottom or bottom to top? Periodic Table lab- Student handout (Microsoft Word 48kB Aug24 07) Teaching Notes and Tips I am also going to try to have the students discover where metals, non-metals and metalloids are located on the periodic table.
Econometric Theory/Ordinary Least Squares (OLS)< Econometric Theory Ordinary Least Squares or OLS is one of the simplest (if you can call it so) methods of linear regression. The goal of OLS is to closely "fit" a function with the data. It does so by minimizing the sum of squared errors from the data. Why we Square Errors before SummingEdit We are not trying to minimize the sum of absolute errors, but rather the sum of squared errors. Let's take a brief look at our sweater story again. \|model\|\|data point\|\|error from line\| Notice that the Sum of Model A is and that the Sum of Model B is Both Models sum to 0 and both are great fits! NO!! So to account for the signs, whenever we sum errors, we square the terms first. These two models each have an intercept term , and a slope term (some textbooks use instead of and instead of , this is a much better approach once we move to multivariate formulas). We can represent an arbitrary single variable model with the formula: The y-values are related to the x-values given this formula. We use the subscript i to denote an observation. So is paired with , with , etc. The term is the error term, which is the difference between the effect of and the observed value of . Unfortunately, we don't know the values of or . We have to approximate them. We can do this by using the ordinary least squares method. The term "least squares" means that we are trying to minimize the sum of squares, or more specifically we are trying to minimize the squared error terms. Since there are two variables that we need to minimize with respect to ( and ), we have two equations: Call the solutions to these equations and . Solving we get: Where and . Computing these results can be left as an exercise. It is important to know that and are not the same as and because they are based on a single sample rather than the entire population. If you took a different sample, you would get different values for and . Let's call and the OLS estimators of and . One of the main goals of econometrics is to analyze the quality of these estimators and see under what conditions these are good estimators and under which conditions they are not. Once we have and , we can construct two more variables. The first is the fitted values, or estimates of y: The second is the estimates of the error terms, which we will call the residuals: These two variables will be important later on.
In this tutorial we will use a script to display arrays inside a <p> element with id="demo": The first line (in the script) creates an array named cars. The second line "finds" the element with id="demo", and "displays" the array in the "innerHTML" of it. Create an array, and assign values to it: Spaces and line breaks are not important. A declaration can span multiple lines: \|Never put a comma after the last element (like "BMW",). The effect is inconsistent across browsers.\| An array is a special variable, which can hold more than one value at a time. If you have a list of items (a list of car names, for example), storing the cars in single variables could look like this: However, what if you want to loop through the cars and find a specific one? And what if you had not 3 cars, but 300? The solution is an array! An array can hold many values under a single name, and you can access the values by referring to an index number. The following example also creates an Array, and assigns values to it: \|The two examples above do exactly the same. There is no need to use new For simplicity, readability and execution speed, use the first one (the array literal method). You refer to an array element by referring to the index number. This statement accesses the value of the first element in cars: This statement modifies the first element in cars: \| is the first element in an array. is the second. Array indexes start with 0.\| Because of this, you can have variables of different types in the same Array. You can have objects in an Array. You can have functions in an Array. You can have arrays in an Array: Arrays use numbers to access its "elements". In this example, person returns John: Objects use names to access its "members". In this example, person.firstName returns John: Array methods are covered in the next chapter. The length property of an array returns the length of an array (the number of array elements). \|The length property is always one more than the highest array index.\| The easiest way to add a new element to an array is to use the length property: Adding elements with high indexes can create undefined "holes" in an array: The best way to loop through an array, is using a "for" loop: Many programming languages support arrays with named indexes. Arrays with named indexes are called associative arrays (or hashes). \|Arrays are a special kind of objects, with numbered indexes.\| Use instead. These two different statements both create a new empty array named points: These two different statements both create a new array containing 6 numbers: The new keyword complicates your code and produces nasty side effects: What if I remove one of the elements? A common question is: How do I know if a variable is an array? To solve this problem you can create your own isArray() function: The function above always return true if the argument is an array. Or more precisely: it returns true if the object prototype of the argument is "[object array]".
Sunday, May 11, 2008 "Kepler is NASA's first mission capable of detecting Earth-size and smaller planets in the habitable zone of solar-like stars. The spacecraft is planned to be launched from Kennedy Space Center in February 2009. The spacecraft will be launched into orbit around the Sun, not the Earth, with an orbital period of 372 days. The spacecraft will slowly drift away from the Earth, such that in about 25 years it will be half an Earth orbit away, 300 million kilometers distant from the Earth, passing behind the Sun as viewed from Earth. When you submit your name, you may also chose to provide a message of 500 words or less of why you think the mission is important. A copy of the DVD with all of the names and messages will be given to the Smithsonian Institution’s National Air and Space Museum."
Background from OER Project Review Team Student Achievement Partners was founded by the lead writers of the Common Core State Standards. Student Achievement Partners reserves no right to intellectual property and all the content available on their site is assembled by and for educators and is freely available to everyone to use, modify and share. This is a lesson NOT unit level resource and that should be taken into account when looking at the review results. This is really a social studies topic. I think with the appropriate scaffolds any teacher could teach it, however, the text complexity is very high. The exact CCSS for writing is not specifically stated. There is an argumentative piece and an explanatory piece. For the length and complexity of the text, two different writing forms are very difficult to accomplish. The text complexity is extremely high. There are 28 academic vocabulary terms that need to be front loaded or require specific learning opportunities. Choose one. Argumentative---students can use a graphic organizer to gather claims and evidence as they read the text. Frontload the following words before reading the text, as these are in the TDQs: preservation, immortality, denounced, sacred, excavated. This resource is most appropriate for Social Studies teachers to help students build a knowledge-base they can carry over into an ELA class, where they can receive writing instruction and complete the writing assignment. The unit covers an engaging topic and includes dozens of text-dependent questions, running the range of depths of knowledge. The resource is Social Studies content-based, but provides no instruction for students toward ELA standards - generally referring students to a website to learn about thesis statements, prompting students to write an entire explanatory text with no instruction about organization, content or mechanics, aside from a very brief, isolate mention of sentence structure. Consider ELA as an entire content. Rather than assigning work, provide instruction on how to complete smaller portions of the task, ample opportunities to practice and self-evaluate, and extensive feedback throughout. In addition to using text-dependent questions, provide instruction on close reading strategies that are transferable. As the text for this unit is about ancient China it would be ideal in a humanities type class where one teacher teaches both ELA and Social Studies together. Students would thus get practice with some of the CCSS while using a text for Social Studies. Teachers with limited knowledge or resources available on ancient China would find use from this resource. Ideally, if a teacher had a strong writing background and had taught students writing from the CCSS he/she could make some adaptions to include more writing instruction in this unit. There are also some good text dependent questions teachers could use to help students practice answering those type of questions. This unit would be good for 6th grade Social Studies teachers too as it provides ways for students to practice using the CCSS, but in an historical context. The unit is about ancient China, which is often taught at the sixth grade level. The extension activities are worth looking at for every student and could help students work toward argumentative writing. Examples of text based questions Student writing example The instructions call for the students to compose a rough draft and complete a final copy with no mention of how it is graded. There are no links provided to the reading passage. There are not any instructions with the writing process portion of the unit. Provide a unit or a link to such sites as SBAC or PARCC on which teachers could use ideas on how to grade. Provide a link to the text in which the unit is based. The unit could include instructions relating to W.6.2 for teachers to use as students write multiple drafts of their essays. A teacher may want to complete the reading and text dependent questions and either disregard the writing portion of the unit, or change it to a short write. This would significantly shorten the unit if a teacher did not have enough time to complete the entire unit, which is suggested at seven 45 minute class periods. The unit provides opportunities for multiple readings of the anchor text (independently, whole class, and small group). It also provides some text dependent questions and tier II vocabulary to support student learning. The text provides an example essay that is useful to support student learning and can be used whole class or as a scaffold/differentiation for students of varying abilities. The resource would be best used by experienced teachers to see example text dependent questions and tier II vocabulary. To facilitate student learning in this unit would require that the teacher understands the progression of student learning and adds instruction to scaffold that learning. Also, an experienced teacher would need to embed the grammar and writing into the unit. The only writing instruction resource in the unit is two hyperlinks to college level thesis statement resources. How to organize, develop, revise, use evidence in writing is absent. Two graphic organizers, no direction on how to address vocabulary list that is provided. Balance of nonfiction and literary text absent. Provide multiple opportunities for short writing in varying text types so students can practice and receive feedback on using evidence, introducing a topic, etc. for the culminating activity. Create a rubric so students and teacher can formatively assess learning prior to the culminating activity. Provide opportunities to include literary text to create a blended and balanced literacy unit.
The main motivation for studying Earths global carbon cycle is to enable scientists to predict future levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. According to Steven C. Wofsy, an environmental scientist at Harvard University, the ability to predict carbon dioxide levels is important if Earth scientists are to answer fundamental questions like how much will global temperatures rise over time, and how will this affect other aspects of Earths climate? "Are those 2 billion tons of carbon missing permanently, or temporarily?" Wofsy asks. "Youre at a loss to predict if you dont know why the carbon is disappearing and if it will stay In a concerted effort to solve the mystery of the missing carbon, NASA led an interdisciplinary Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study (BOREAS) from 1994-97 that spanned two Canadian provinces. Wofsy, along with members of 85 other science teams from five nations, participated in the investigation. Their prime suspect was the boreal forest. Named after Boreas, Greek god of the north wind, boreal refers to the mostly evergreen forest that encircles the Earth at high northern latitudesbetween 43°N-65°Noccupying between 16 to 20 million square kilometers of the Earths land surface. Could this cold, mostly coniferous ecosystem be the culprit?
The 14th century was a tumultuous time in Great Britain: there were severely erratic weather patterns including an usually warm period, which led to a famine from 1315-1322, the Scottish were fighting for their independence in 1298-1328 and again from 1332-1357, and the Hundred Year war was being waged against France from 1337-1453. All of these factors led to migration, primarily into the city of London as it remained more stable than other rural areas. Using stable isotope analysis, archaeologists can track whether individuals were born in London or migrated in, which allows us to better interpret the latter population. Since cemeteries are often used over hundreds of years, it can be difficult to correlate specific problems or cultural processes to migration. Kendall et al. (2013) use the cemetery of East Smithfield in London to examine migration patterns since it avoids this issue, due to it being in use only from 1348-1350. This means that any individuals with aberrant strontium and oxygen isotope ratios can be presumed to be migrants within a least a decade. This allows us to make more valid statements about the potential social processes that led to their migration. It was thought that the normal range of humans during the medieval period was 10 to 20 miles. However, the researchers propose that given the pressures of war, famine and disease, the normal mobility habits of people may have changed. The loss of their workforce and general decline in health may have caused increased movement into the city. Migration may have even been promoted to gain soldiers for the wars. In the summer of 1348, the Black Plague hit Britain, and by the fall it had reached London. It spread quickly throughout the city leading to mass migration out and high mortality within. East Smithfield was purchased during this period as an emergency burial ground for plague victims. After two years it was closed to further burials due to the decline in plague deaths. There were both trenches and individual burials, all oriented east to west. A total of 195 individuals were recovered from the eastern side and 566 from the western. Preservation was fairly poor due to contamination, and it is thought that the cemetery may have held up to 2,400 individuals originally. The goal of this study was to examine mobility during the mid-14th century into London through the use of stable isotope analysis. Specifically investigating strontium and oxygen ratios. Strontium isotopes are derived from the underlying geology, so it is passed onto humans through food sources. Oxygen isotopes are tied to geographical climate zones through water. Combined they allow for a fairly accurate estimation of the origin of an individual. 30 individuals were selected for the sample, specifically using the teeth as these preserve better and are static in ratios following growth. The local range of isotope ratios was defined through comparison with other sites for what it considered the standard range of variation. London tends to have wide variation due to importing food rather than growing it locally. Further, all meat would be imported so comparison with animal bones, a traditional way of defining the local range, would not work in this case. Using the other sites as a baseline, the results showed that there were 8 outliers. Based on their ratios, 3 individuals appear to be migrants from the hinterlands, such as Norfolk. Each of these was a younger adult, so movement to the city may have been motivated by work. Famine is unlikely since it wasn’t as harsh in that area. One individual appears to have ratios concurrent with northern Scotland. 4 others had strontium levels consistent with London, but were outliers for oxygen, which places them on the Western coast likely. 2 of these are older individuals, and their presence may be due to famine in the region during that time. The origins and reasons for migration are only possible interpretations. Without increased study of isotope ratios and comparison with other sites, it will be difficult to determine exact location. Further, we can only posit that the cultural and environmental processes occurring were related to their choice to migrate to London. However, this study does show that some individuals found buried at East Smithfield were either born far from London or traveled far at some point early in their life. Regardless of their reasons for this, it does show that we need to reassess our assumptions about medieval mobility. Initially I had hoped this study would address mobility during the Middle Ages, and actually connect individuals to social processes that affect migration. While they were unable to specifically link migrants to events, they were able to address some lower levels questions. They show the assumptions regarding mobility must be re-examined, and add to knowledge about what the isotope ratio levels are for London populations. While they were unable to address the bigger cultural questions, they do create some interesting questions for the future and add to the body of current knowledge. Kendall, E., Montgomery, J., Evans, J., Stantis, C., & Mueller, V. (2013). Mobility, mortality, and the middle ages: Identification of migrant individuals in a 14th century black death cemetery population American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 150 (2), 210-222 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22194
and their complications. Women are particularly vulnerable to STDs because they are more biologically susceptible to certain sexually transmitted infections than men and are more likely to have asymptomatic infections that commonly result in delayed diagnosis and treatment. Active infection with STDs during pregnancy may result in a range of serious health problems among infected infants, including severe central nervous system damage and death. Adolescents are at greatest risk of STDs because they frequently have unprotected sexual intercourse, are biologically more susceptible to infection, and are likely to have social problems that significantly increase their risk. STDs are difficult public health problems because of the "hidden" nature of these diseases. The sociocultural taboos related to sexuality are a barrier to STD prevention efforts on a number of levels. Effective STD prevention efforts also are hampered by biological characteristics of STDs, societal problems, unbalanced mass media messages, lack of awareness, fragmentation of STD-related services, inadequate training of health care professionals, inadequate health insurance coverage and access to services, and insufficient investment in STD prevention. Although the barriers to STD prevention are formidable, STDs can be prevented by intervening at multiple points with behavioral, biomedical, and structural interventions on both individual and community levels. These and other effective interventions, however, are not being fully implemented or utilized. Because STDs are complex diseases that are associated with a variety of social issues and involve a wide spectrum of stakeholders in the community, a collaborative, multifaceted approach to STD prevention is essential. The committee concludes that an effective national system for STD prevention currently does not exist and, as a result, STDs are a severe health burden in the United States. Many components of the system need to be redesigned and improved through innovative approaches and closer collaborations. In addition, programs that address important gaps in the current fragmented system of services have not yet been designed and implemented. The committee's recommendations are outlined below and presented in complete detail in Chapter 6. In formulating a strategy to prevent STDs, the committee developed the following vision statement to guide its deliberations. An effective system of services and information that supports individuals, families, and communities in preventing STDs, including HIV infection, and ensures comprehensive, high-quality STD-related health services for all persons.
Gemstones might not seem so valuable if they literally rained from the sky, but that's thought to be a common weather pattern on ice giant planets. Now scientists at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory have seen it in action here on Earth, by making it rain diamonds in the lab. Our local ice giant planets, Uranus and Neptune, have long been thought to have the right conditions for diamond rain. Around a solid core sits a slushy layer of different ices – not just plain old water ice, but ammonia and methane ice as well. In this environment, extreme pressure would squeeze common elements like hydrogen and carbon into solid diamonds, which then fall like rain towards the planet's core. But this phenomenon has never been directly observed. Instead, the idea is usually the result of measurements of an exoplanet's mass and radius, which speak volumes about its composition. From there, astronomers can figure out how those elements interact, and characterize the planet accordingly. "With planets, the relationship between mass and radius can tell scientists quite a bit about the chemistry," says Dominik Kraus, lead author of the study. "And the chemistry that happens in the interior can provide additional information about some of the defining features of the planet. We can't go inside the planets and look at them, so these laboratory experiments complement satellite and telescope observations." To recreate such conditions in the lab, the team used polystyrene, a plastic compound made from methane, which is a key ingredient in the atmosphere of ice giants. Then, the researchers blasted the plastic with the world's most powerful x-ray laser, the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS), which sent strong shock waves rippling through the material in pairs. The first shock was small and slow, which allowed the second wave to overtake it. In the brief moment where the two shock waves overlap, the peak pressure crushed almost all the carbon atoms in the plastic down into tiny diamond structures, measuring only a few nanometers wide. Unfortunately, they're also extremely short-lived, surviving just fractions of a second. Because of this, other experiments attempting to recreate diamond rains haven't been able to see them directly, but in this case, the intense laser allowed x-ray snaps of the structures forming to be taken, and their size and composition measured. "For this experiment, we had LCLS, the brightest x-ray source in the world," says Siegfried Glenzer, co-author of the paper. "You need these intense, fast pulses of x-rays to unambiguously see the structure of these diamonds, because they are only formed in the laboratory for such a very short time." While the lab-made diamonds were tiny and short-lived, the researchers believe that those formed in the depths of Uranus and Neptune could become much bigger, potentially weighing millions of carats and lasting thousands of years, as they slowly sink through the planet's slushy mantle to form a thick diamond layer around the core. Along with improving our understanding of the composition of other planets, the research could have more practical applications back home. The team says creating nanodiamonds with lasers is a more efficient technique than the way they're currently made – using explosives – and the end result is a useful component in electronics and scientific equipment. The research was published in the journal Nature Astronomy. Want a cleaner, faster loading and ad free reading experience? Try New Atlas Plus. Learn more
by naturalists as equal units, formed of the same parts, having each a real individuality. The name Somites, which has been given them, shows the tendency to consider them as true elementary animals associated in colonies (Figs. 13 and 14). The power possessed by the segments of certain worms to individualize themselves and form new colonies is strong evidence in favor of this view. Polymorphism and the concentration of parts explain how a Peripatus or a Myriapod can become a spider or an insect, how different Crustacea arise from a common stem, how from another form of colony have arisen all the Annelida, It has been often said that Echinoderms, Star-fishes, Ophiurans, were only colonies united by the head (Fig. 15). They are, at least, all colonies, but of a special nature. Can we say as much of the Mollusca and Vertebrata, all the parts of which are so closely united, and which are the giants of creation? Are there simple forms of association which can explain the marvelous organization of these superior types of creation—as we have explained the Siphoniferæ, Coral Polyps, Echinoderms, and Arthropoda?
Energy will be the Next Scientific Grand Challenge. The past two decades have witnessed a dramatic increase in global energy consumption. While this need has been largely met by fossil fuels, the rapidly increasing global competition for this limited resource and the expectation that the Earth’s energy needs will double by 2050 and triple by the end of the century, has generated growing concern over future availability. Combine the above with the mounting evidence that carbon dioxide emissions are adversely affecting global climate, and it becomes increasingly clear that developing renewable carbon-neutral energy sources constitutes a grand challenge for the scientific community. The ultimate solution to the world’s need for renewable, environmentally-friendly energy is all around us. The sun provides about 10,000 times our current daily energy needs, but it will always be limited until two significant challenges are met. In the U.S. alone, a 10% solar efficient device would require a collection area of approximately 1.6×1011 square meters, roughly the land area of North Carolina, to meet the country's current power needs. Equally daunting is the fact that the sun goes down at night. To be practical, utilization of solar energy requires energy storage on massive scales, far greater than any available based on existing technology. Natural photosynthesis provides an inspiration and biomass a partial solution, but not for meeting the vast power density requirements of urban centers or industrial complexes. Useful working devices will require much higher efficiencies, lower cost, and simplicity of design and maintenance. The only practical approach at the required scale is "Artificial Photosynthesis" with "solar fuels" as the product. Solar fuels are high-energy molecules like carbohydrates or hydrogen with the energy of the sun stored in chemical bonds. Target reactions are water splitting into hydrogen and oxygen and light-driven reduction of CO2 to CO or other reduced forms of carbon. To address the challenges in creating a sustainable energy future, the UNC EFRC: Center for Solar Fuels, funded by the US Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences, was established in 2009 at one of the top five public research universities in the United States, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Led by a distinguished faculty, including members of the National Academy of Sciences, UNC EFRC leverages key discoveries made at UNC during the past 20 years and collaborations with other research institutions to assemble a critical mass of scientists working together on energy-related research. The research center is headquartered at UNC-CH in partnership with Duke University, North Carolina Central University, the University of Florida, Research Triangle Institute, Georgia Institute of Technology and the University of Colorado at Boulder. The UNC EFRC is conducting research on capturing sunlight to drive solar fuel reactions. The Center's efforts range from basic research on fundamental processes to integrating components into sub-systems and sub-systems into prototypical devices. The research utilizes a broad, multidisciplinary approach in a highly collaborative setting drawing on expertise across a broad range of disciplines in chemistry, physics, and materials sciences. The primary target is a Dye Sensitized Photoelectrosynthesis Cells (DSPEC) for solar fuels production as illustrated below. Several platforms are under investigation but the primary focus is on Dye Sensitized Photoelectrosynthesis Cells (DSPEC). This approach utilizes molecules and molecular assemblies for catalysis in photoelectrochemical configurations closely related to those used in Dye Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC). In contrast to a DSSC, where the target is creating a photopotential and photocurrent, the target of a DSPEC is production of a high energy fuel with oxygen as the co-product in the physically separated compartments of a photoelectrochemical cell. The UNC EFRC approach is distinctive based on the design and utilization of separate functional modules, maximizing their performance, and integrating them into device prototypes featuring both single and tandem photoelectrode configurations. Multiple themes have been developed in parallel — light absorption, excited state electron and energy transfer, electron and proton transfer driven by free energy gradients, and catalysis of water oxidation and water/CO2 reduction — with integration in photoelectrochemical cell configurations. In the modular approach the separate components are designed and tested for maximum performance and then integrated into the final DSPEC architecture. DSPEC research benefits from, and is enriched by, parallel research in electrocatalysis and Dye Sensitized Solar Cells. Hallmarks of Center research are: (1) Interfacial and solution reaction mechanisms for water oxidation and CO2 reduction; (2) Design and synthesis of molecular assemblies, polymers, and oligopeptides which combine light absorption, electron transfer, and catalysis; (3) Preparation, characterization, and stabilization of derivatized photoelectrocatalytic interfaces; (4) Application of theory and experiment to establish guiding principles for component design, integrated systems, and devices; (5) Development and characterization of nano-structured oxide materials, (6) Integration of components into device prototypes and device evaluation; (7) Augmentation of research findings and multidisciplinary strengths in research collaborations and research extensions with national laboratories, other EFRCs, and the Research Triangle Solar Fuels Institute. The latter has been a key partner, extending the research findings of the EFRC through the translation stage to device prototypes. To provide the basic research to enable a revolution in the collection and conversion of sunlight into storable solar fuels. We combine the best features of academic and translational research to study light/matter interactions and chemical processes for the efficient collection, transfer, and conversion of solar energy into chemical fuels. Arey Distinguished Professor of Chemistry Thomas Meyer has been awarded the 2012 Porter Medal. This distinction is awarded every two years to the scientist who, in the opinion of the European Photochemistry Association, the Inter-American Photochemistry Society, and the Asian and Oceanian Photochemistry Association, has contributed most to the science of photochemistry with particular emphasis on more physical aspects, reflecting George Porter's own interests.
Yellowstone is home to the largest concentration of mammals in the lower 48 states. In addition to having a diversity of small animals, Yellowstone is notable for its predator–prey complex of large mammals, including eight ungulate species (bighorn sheep, bison, elk, moose, mountain goats, mule deer, pronghorn, and white-tailed deer) and seven large predators (black bears, Canada lynx, coyotes, grizzly bears, mountain lions, wolverines, and wolves). The National Park Service’s goal is to maintain the ecological processes that sustain these mammals and their habitats while monitoring the changes taking place in their populations. Seasonal or migratory movements take many species across the park boundary where they are subject to different management policies and uses of land by humans. Understanding the links between climate change and these drivers will be critical to informing the ecology and management of Yellowstone’s wildlife in the years to come. - 67 different mammals live here, including many small mammals. - As of 2016, an estimated 690 grizzly bears live in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. - Black bears are common. - Gray wolves were restored in 1995. As of January 2016, 99 live primarily in the park. - Wolverine and lynx, which require large expanses of undisturbed habitat, live here. - Seven native ungulate species—elk, mule deer, bison, moose, bighorn sheep, pronghorn, and white-tailed deer—live here. - Nonnative mountain goats have colonized northern portions of the park. Carnivores (Order Carnivora) Carnivores all started out as meat-eaters, but many have evolved to be omnivores (consumers of plants and animals). Over a dozen carnivores can be found within the park. - 22–28 inches long, 13–25 pounds. - Short and stout; adapted to digging. - Light body with dark stripe down back and darker feet. Broad head forms a wedge. Sides of face are white with black patches, white stripe from nose extends towards back. - Prefers open areas like grasslands. - Adapted to eat ground squirrels, pocket gophers, and other small rodents; will also eat ground-nesting birds and their eggs. Average badger needs to eat about two ground squirrels or pocket gophers a day to maintain its weight. Digs burrows in pursuit of prey. - Adults preyed on by mountain lions, bears, and wolves. Coyotes and eagles will prey on young. - Mostly solitary except in mating season (summer and early fall). Have delayed implantation; active gestation starts around February. - Excavated dens are used for daytime resting sites, food storage, and giving birth. Typically have one entrance, marked by a mound of soil. May be inactive in their dens for up to a month in winter, but they are not true hibernators. - Mostly active at night. May live up to 14 years. The black bear (Ursus americanus) is the most common and widely distributed bear species in North America. However, the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem is one of the few areas south of Canada where black bears coexist with the grizzly bears. From 1910 to the 1960s, park managers allowed visitors to feed black bears along park roads, although the National Park Service officially frowned on this activity. During this time, along with Old Faithful, black bears became the symbol of Yellowstone for many people, and are still what some people think of when Yellowstone bears are mentioned. Since 1960, park staff have sought to deter bears from becoming conditioned to human foods. Number in Yellowstone Where to See Tower and Mammoth areas, most often. Size and Behavior - Males weigh 210–315 pounds, females weigh 135–200 pounds; adults stand about 3 feet at the shoulder. - May live 15–30 years. - Home range: male, 6–124 square miles, female, 2–45 square miles. - Can climb trees; are adapted to life in forest and along forest edges. - Food includes rodents, insects, elk calves, cutthroat trout, pine nuts, grasses, and other vegetation. - Mates in spring; gives birth the following winter to 1–3 cubs. - Considered true hibernators. - Have fair eyesight and an exceptional sense of smell. - Were fed by visitors from vehicles and, like grizzlies, used to be fed at dumps within the park. - As a result, bears lost fear of humans and pursued human food, which resulted in visitor injuries, property damage, and the need to destroy “problem bears.” Little is known about the black bear population in Yellowstone or whether it has been affected by the increase in grizzly bear numbers and distribution since the 1970s. Black bears are commonly observed in the park, especially on the northern range and in the Bechler area of the park. Black bears have few natural predators, although both cubs and adults are occasionally killed by their own kind or by the other large carnivores with which they compete for food—wolves, cougars, and grizzly bears. Vehicle collisions (average = 1 per year) and removals of nuisance bears (average = 1 every 5 years) are not common either. Most black bear mortality in the park is likely attributed to old age or other natural causes. Outside the park, some black bears are killed during state regulated hunting seasons. As their access to human foods has been reduced, human injuries from black bears in the park have decreased from an average of 45 per year during the 1930s–1960s to approximately one injury every five years since 1980. Black bears are occasionally radio-collared for management and scientific reasons, with the latter focusing on research on habitat selection and multi-carnivore interactions. In Yellowstone, about 50% of black bears are black in color; others are brown, blond, and cinnamon. Black bears eat almost anything, including grass, fruits, tree cambium, eggs, insects, fish, elk calves, and carrion. Their short, curved claws enable them to climb trees but do not allow them to dig for roots or ants as well as a grizzly bear can. The life cycle of black bears is similar to grizzly bears. Like grizzly bears, black bears spend most of their time during fall and early winter feeding during hyperphagia. In November, they locate or excavate a den on north-facing slopes between 5,800–8,600 feet (1,768–2,621 m), where they hibernate until late March. Males and females without cubs are solitary, except during the mating season, May to early July. They may mate with a number of individuals, but occasionally a pair stays together for the entire period. Both genders usually begin breeding at age four. Like grizzly bears, black bears also experience delayed implantation. Total gestation time is 200 to 220 days, but only during the last half of this period does fetal development occur. Birth occurs in mid-January to early February; the female becomes semiconscious during delivery. Usually two cubs are born. At birth, the cubs are blind, toothless, and almost hairless. After delivery the mother continues to sleep for another two months while the cubs nurse and sleep. The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem is one of the few areas south of Canada where black bears coexist with grizzly bears. Although grizzly bears in Yellowstone have been studied continuously for more than 50 years, very little research has been conducted on the park’s black bears since the 1960s. The last black bear study in YNP was completed during a period when black bear behavior was still influenced by the availability of human foods from garbage dumps, non-bear-proof garbage cans, and recreational hand feeding by park visitors along roadsides. Thus, there is a scarcity of current information available for park managers to use in making decisions on black bear management. In a current study, a combination of GPS-tracking camera collars and non-invasive DNA samples from hair snares will help biologists learn more about the black bears’ population size and density, predatory rates on elk, home range sizes, movements, food habits, and habitat use. Results from the data are still being analyzed, but some preliminary data have yielded insights. More black bear hair samples are being collected than was expected. GPS readings from tracking collars are showing male black bears to range farther than previously thought, and video from the collars has shown a new variety of food choices and behaviors. Yellowstone is home to two species of bears: grizzly bears and black bears. Of the two species, grizzly bears have a much smaller range across the United States. The grizzly bear is typically larger than the black bear and has a large muscle mass above its shoulders; a concave, rather than straight or convex, facial profile; and much more aggressive behavior. The grizzly bear is a subspecies of brown bear that once roamed large swaths of the mountains and prairies of the American West. Today, the grizzly bear remains in a few isolated locations in the lower 48 states, including Yellowstone.In coastal Alaska and Eurasia, the grizzly bear is known as the brown bear. Visitors should be aware that all bears are potentially dangerous. Park regulations require that people stay at least 100 yards (91 m) from bears (unless safely in your car as a bear moves by). Bears need your concern, not your food; it is against the law to feed any park wildlife, including bears. The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and northwest Montana are the only areas south of Canada that still have large grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) populations. Grizzly bears were federally listed in the lower 48 states as a threatened species in 1975 due to unsustainable levels of human-caused mortality, habitat loss, and significant habitat alteration. Grizzly bears may range over hundreds of square miles, and the potential for conflicts with human activities, especially when human food is present, makes the presence of a viable grizzly population a continuing challenge for its human neighbors in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Numbers in Yellowstone Approximately 150 with home ranges wholly or partially in the park. As of 2018, 712 estimated in greater Yellowstone. Where to See Dawn and dusk in the Hayden and Lamar valleys, on the north slopes of Mt. Washburn, and from Fishing Bridge to the East Entrance. Size and Behavior - Males weigh 200–700 pounds, females weigh 200–400 pounds; adults stand about 31⁄2 feet at the shoulder. - May live 15–30 years. - Grizzly bears are generally 11⁄2 to 2 times larger than black bears of the same sex and age class within the same geographic region, and they have longer, more curved claws. - Lifetime home range: male, 800–2,000 square miles, female, 300–550 square miles. - Agile; can run up to 40 mph. - Can climb trees, but curved claws and weight make this difficult. Can also swim and run up and downhill. - Adapted to life in forest and meadows. - Food includes rodents, insects, elk calves, cutthroat trout, roots, pine nuts, grasses, and large mammals. - Mate in spring, but implantation of embryos is delayed until fall; gives birth in the winter; to 1–3 cubs. - Considered super hibernators. A behavioral note: Are grizzly bears overly attracted to menstrual odors? The question whether menstruating women attract bears has not been completely answered. While there is no evidence that grizzly bears are overly attracted to menstrual odors more than any other odor and there is no statistical evidence that known bear attacks have been related to menstruation, certain precautions should be taken to reduce the risks of attack. The following precautions are recommended: - Use pre-moistened, unscented cleaning towelettes. - Use internal tampons instead of external pads. Do not bury tampons or pads (pack it in – pack it out). A bear may smell buried tampons or pads and dig them up. By providing bears a small food “reward,” this action may attract bears to other menstruating women. - Place all used tampons, pads, and towelettes in double zip-loc baggies and store them unavailable to bears, just as you would store food. This means hung at least 10 feet above the ground and 4 feet from the tree trunk. Tampons can be burned in a campfire, but remember that it takes a very hot fire and considerable time to completely burn them. Any charred remains must be removed from the fire pit and stored with your other garbage. - Many feminine products are heavily scented. Use only unscented or lightly scented items. Cosmetics, perfumes, and deodorants are unnecessary and may act as an attractant to bears. - The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service removed the grizzly bear population in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem from the federal threatened species list in June 2017. Read Grizzly Bears & the Endangered Species Act to learn more. - Scientists and managers believe the grizzly population is doing well. Grizzlies are raising cubs in nearly all portions of the greater Yellowstone area and dispersing into new habitat. Currently, they occupy 20,522 square miles in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. The estimated Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem grizzly bear population increased from 136 in 1975 to a peak of 757 (estimated) in 2014. The 2018 population estimate is 712 bears. The bears have gradually expanded their occupied habitat by more than 50%. As monitored by the Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team, the criteria used to determine whether the population within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem has recovered include estimated population size, distribution of females with cubs, and mortality rates. An estimated 150 grizzly bears occupy ranges that lie partly or entirely within Yellowstone. The number of females producing cubs in the park has remained relatively stable since 1996, suggesting that the park may be at or near ecological carrying capacity for grizzly bears. There were 69 known or probable grizzly bear mortalities in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem in 2018 (51 in the Designated Management Area), including 10 adult females, 21 adult males, and 14 dependent young. There was one known grizzly bear death inside the park: an adult female of unknown age was found near the Lamar River. Cause of death is unknown, but was likely intra-specific conflict. On August 23, 2018—for the first time in three years—a bear attack was reported in Yellowstone National Park. A family of four hikers from Washington state had a surprise encounter with an adult female grizzly bear on the Divide Trail. The sow charged out of the vegetation and knocked a 10-year-old boy to the ground. The child suffered an injured wrist, puncture wounds to the back and wounds around the buttocks. The parents successfully deployed bear spray and the bear left the scene. Further investigation determined that the female grizzly was defending at least one cub-of-the-year or yearling bear and no effort was made to search for them. Where are the bears? People who visited Yellowstone prior to the 1970s often remember seeing bears along roadsides and within developed areas of the park. Although observing these bears was very popular with park visitors, it was not good for people or bears. In 1970, the park initiated an intensive bear management program to return the grizzly and black bears to feeding on natural food sources and to reduce bear-caused human injuries and property damage. The measures included installing bear-proof garbage cans and closing garbage dumps in the park. Bears are still seen near roads and they may be seen occasionally in the wild. Grizzly bears are active primarily at dawn, dusk, and night. In spring, they may be seen around Yellowstone Lake, Fishing Bridge, Hayden and Lamar valleys, Swan Lake Flats, and the East Entrance. In mid-summer, they are most commonly seen in the meadows between Tower–Roosevelt and Canyon, and in the Hayden and Lamar valleys. Black bears are most active at dawn and dusk, and sometimes during the middle of the day. Look for black bears in open spaces within or near forested areas. Black bears are most commonly observed between Mammoth, Tower, and the Northeast Entrance. The grizzly bear’s color varies from blond to black, often with pale-tipped guard hairs. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, many grizzly bears have a light-brown girth band. However, the coloration of black and grizzly bears is so variable that it is not a reliable means of distinguishing the two species. Bears are generally solitary, although they may tolerate other bears when food is plentiful. Grizzlies have a social hierarchy in which adult male bears dominate the best habitats and food sources, generally followed by mature females with cubs, then by other single adult bears. Subadult bears, who are just learning to live on their own away from mother’s protection, are most likely to be living in poor-quality habitat or in areas nearer roads and developments. Thus, young adult bears are most vulnerable to danger from humans and other bears, and to being conditioned to human foods. Food-conditioned bears are removed from the wild population. Bears are generalist omnivores that can only poorly digest parts of plants. They typically forage for plants when they have the highest nutrient availability and digestibility. Although grizzly bears make substantial use of forested areas, they make more use of large, nonforested meadows and valleys than black bears. The longer, less curved claws and larger shoulder muscle mass of the grizzly bear makes it better suited to dig plants from the soil, and rodents from their caches. Grizzly bear food consumption is influenced by annual and seasonal variations in available foods. Over the course of a year, army cutworm moths, whitebark pine nuts, ungulates, and cutthroat trout are the highest-quality food items available. In total, grizzly bears in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem are known to consume at least 266 species of plant (67%), invertebrate (15%), mammal (11%), fish, and fungi. They will eat human food and garbage where they can get it. This is why managers emphasize that keeping human foods secure from bears increases the likelihood that humans and bears can peacefully coexist in greater Yellowstone. Bears spend most of their time feeding, especially during “hyperphagia,” the period in autumn when they may gain more than three pounds per day until they enter their dens to hibernate. In years and locations when whitebark pine nuts are available, they are the most important bear food from September through October. However, not all bears have access to whitebark pine nuts, and in the absence of this high-quality food, the bear’s omnivory lets them turn to different food sources. Fall foods also include pondweed root, sweet cicely root, grasses and sedges, bistort, yampa, strawberry, globe huckleberry, grouse whortleberry, buffaloberry, clover, horsetail, dandelion, ungulates (including carcasses), ants, false truffles, and army cutworm moths. From late March to early May, when they come out of hibernation, until mid May, a grizzly bear’s diet primarily consists of elk, bison, and other ungulates. These ungulates are primarily winter-killed carrion (already dead and decaying animals), and elk calves killed by predation. Grizzly bears dig up caches made by pocket gophers. Other items consumed during spring include grasses and sedges, dandelion, clover, spring-beauty, horsetail, and ants. When there is an abundance of whitebark seeds left from the previous fall, grizzly bears will feed on seeds that red squirrels have stored in middens. From June through August, grizzly bears consume thistle, biscuitroot, fireweed, and army cutworm moths in addition to grasses and sedges, dandelion, clover, spring-beauty, whitebark pine nuts, horsetail, and ants. Grizzly bears are rarely able to catch elk calves after mid-July. Starting around mid-summer, grizzly bears begin feeding on strawberry, globe huckleberry, grouse whortleberry, and buffaloberry. By late summer, false truffles, bistort, and yampa are included in the diet as grasses and others become less prominent. Bears’ annual denning behavior probably evolved in response to seasonal food shortages and cold weather. Bears hibernate during the winter months in most of the world. The length of denning depends on latitude, and varies from a few days or weeks in Mexico to six months or more in Alaska. Pregnant females tend to den earlier and longer than other bears. Grizzly bear females without cubs in Greater Yellowstone den on average for about five months. Grizzly bears will occasionally re-use a den in greater Yellowstone, especially those located in natural cavities like rock shelters. Dens created by digging, as opposed to natural cavities, usually cannot be reused because runoff causes them to collapse in the spring. Greater Yellowstone dens are typically dug in sandy soils and located on the mid to upper onethird of mildly steep slopes (30–60°) at 6,562–10,000 feet (2,000–3,048 m) in elevation. Grizzly bears often excavate dens at the base of a large tree on densely vegetated, north-facing slopes. This is desirable in greater Yellowstone because prevailing southwest winds accumulate snow on the northerly slopes and insulate dens from sub-zero temperatures. The excavation of a den is typically completed in 3–7 days, during which a bear may move up to one ton of material. The den includes an entrance, a short tunnel, and a chamber. To minimize heat loss, the den entrance and chamber is usually just large enough for the bear to squeeze through and settle; a smaller opening will be covered with snow more quickly than a large opening. After excavation is complete, the bear covers the chamber floor with bedding material such as spruce boughs or duff, depending on what is available at the den site. The bedding material has many air pockets that trap body heat. The body temperature of a hibernating bear, remains within 12°F (22°C) of their normal body temperature. This enables bears to react more quickly to danger than hibernators who have to warm up first. Because of their well-insulated pelts and their lower surface area-to-mass ratio compared to smaller hibernators, bears lose body heat more slowly, which enables them to cut their metabolic rate by 50–60%. Respiration in bears, normally 6–10 breaths per minute, decreases to 1 breath every 45 seconds during hibernation, and their heart rate drops from 40–50 beats per minute during the summer to 8–19 beats per minute during hibernation. Bears sometimes awaken and leave their dens during the winter, but they generally do not eat, drink, defecate, or urinate during hibernation. They live off of a layer of fat built up prior to hibernation. The urea produced from fat metabolism (which is fatal at high levels) is broken down, and the resulting nitrogen is used by the bear to build protein that allows it to maintain muscle mass and organ tissues. Bears may lose 15–30% of their body weight but increase lean body mass during hibernation. Bears emerge from their dens when temperatures warm up and food is available in the form of winter killed ungulates or early spring vegetation. Greater Yellowstone grizzly bears begin to emerge from their den in early February, and most bears have left their dens by early May. Males are likely to emerge before females. Most bears usually leave the vicinity of their dens within a week of emergence, while females with cubs typically remain within 1.86 miles (3 km) of their dens until late May. Grizzly Bears, Black Bears, and Wolves Grizzly bears are more aggressive than black bears, and more likely to rely on their size and aggressiveness to protect themselves and their cubs from predators and other perceived threats. Their evolution diverged from a common ancestor more than 3.5 million years ago, but their habitats only began to overlap about 13,000 years ago. Grizzly bears, black bears, and gray wolves have historically coexisted throughout a large portion of North America. The behavior of bears and wolves during interactions with each other are dependent upon many variables such as age, sex, reproductive status, prey availability, hunger, aggressiveness, numbers of animals, and previous experience in interacting with the other species. Most interactions between the species involve food, and they usually avoid each other. Few instances of bears and wolves killing each other have been documented. Wolves sometimes kill bears, but usually only cubs. Wolves prey on ungulates year-round. Bears feed on ungulates primarily as winter-killed carcasses, ungulate calves in spring, wolf-killed carcasses in spring through fall, and weakened or injured male ungulates during the fall rut. Bears may benefit from the presence of wolves by taking carcasses that wolves have killed, making carcasses more available to bears throughout the year. If a bear wants a wolf-killed animal, the wolves will try to defend it; wolves usually fail to chase the bear away, although female grizzlies with cubs are seldom successful in taking a wolf-kill. Number in Yellowstone Unknown, but generally widespread. Where to See - Rarely seen; most reports from rocky areas and near rivers. - Typical habitat: rocky areas, conifer forests. Size and Behavior - Adult: 15–30 pounds; 31–34 inches long. - Color ranges from red-brown fur with indistinct markings to light buff with dark spotting; short tail; ear tufts. - Distinguish from lynx: has several black rings that do not fully circle the tail; no black tip on tail, shorter ear tufts, smaller track (2 inches). - Solitary, active between sunset and sunrise. - Eats rabbits, hares, voles, mice, red squirrels, wrens, sparrows, grouse; may take deer and adult pronghorn. Historical information suggests lynx were present, but uncommon, in Yellowstone National Park during 1880 to 1980. The presence and distribution of lynx in the park was documented during 2001 to 2004, when several individuals were detected in the vicinity of Yellowstone Lake and the Central Plateau. A lynx was photographed in 2007 along the Gibbon River, and another lynx was observed near Indian Creek Campground in the northwestern portion of Yellowstone during 2010. Tracks of an individual were verified near the Northeast Entrance in 2014. Reliable detections of lynx continue to occur in surrounding National Forest System lands. Evidence suggests lynx successfully reproduce in the GYE, though production is limited. In 2000, the US Fish and Wildlife Service listed the lynx as “threatened” in the lower 48 states. Portions of the park and surrounding area is considered much of the critical habitat for the species in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Lynx habitat in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem is often naturally patchy due to natural fire frequency and generally limited to conifer forests above 7,700 feet where the distribution of its primary prey, snowshoe hare, is often insufficient to support lynx residency and reproduction. The lower quality habitat means home ranges in this ecosystem are larger than those farther north, with lynx traveling long distances between foraging sites. Number in Yellowstone - Few; 112 known observations Where to See - Very rarely seen. - Typical habitat: cold conifer forests. Size and Behavior - Adult: 16–35 pounds, 26–33 inches long. - Gray brown fur with white, buff, brown on throat and ruff; tufted ears; short tail; hind legs longer than front. - Distinguish from bobcat: black rings on tail are complete; tail tip solid black; longer ear tufts; larger track. - Wide paws with fur in and around pads; allows lynx to run across snow. - Track: 4–5 inches. - Solitary, diurnal and nocturnal. - Eats primarily snowshoe hares, especially in winter; also rodents, rabbits, birds, red squirrels, and other small mammals, particularly in summer. The cougar (Puma concolor), also known as mountain lion, is the one of the largest cats in North America and a top predator native to Greater Yellowstone. (The jaguar, which occurs in New Mexico and Arizona, is larger.) As part of predator removal campaigns in the early 1900’s, cougars and wolves were killed throughout the lower 48 states, including national parks. Wolves (Canis lupus) were eradicated and, although cougars were probably eliminated from Yellowstone, the species survived in the West because of its cryptic nature and preference for rocky, rugged territory where the cats are difficult to track. Eventually the survivors re-established themselves in Yellowstone in the early 1980’s, possibly making their way from wilderness areas in central Idaho. Number in Yellowstone Estimated 25–35 (across all age classes) on the northern range; others in park seasonally. Where to See Behavior and Size - Litters range from 2–3 kittens; 50% survive first year. - Adult males weigh 145–170 pounds; females weigh 85–120 pounds; length, including tail, 6.5–7.5 feet. - Average life span: males, 8–10 years; females, 12–14 years. Cougars living in areas where they are hunted have much shorter average life spans. - Preferred terrain: rocky breaks and forested areas that provide cover for hunting prey and for escape from competitors such as wolves and bears. - Prey primarily on elk and mule deer, plus smaller mammals, especially marmots. - Bears and wolves frequently displace cougars from their kills. - Male cougars may kill other male cougars within their territory. - Adult cougars and kittens have been killed by wolves. Interaction with Humans Very few documented confrontations between cougars and humans have occurred in Yellowstone. If a big cat is close by: Stay in a group; carry small children; make noise. Do not run, do not bend down to pick up sticks. Act dominant—stare in the cat’s eyes and show your teeth while making noise. Though seldom seen by the public, biologists estimate that 20-31 adult cougars reside year-round in the northern range (an average of 12-18 females and 8-13 males). These estimates are based on field surveys and statistical analyses conducted from 2014–2017. Biologists found higher estimates in the later years of the study. The numbers do not include kitten and sub-adult cougars which accompany a portion of the adult females each year. Monitoring efforts since 2017 suggest a stable population consistent with these estimates for previous years. While disease and starvation are occasional causes of cougar deaths, competition with other cougars or predators, and human hunting (during legal seasons outside protected areas) are the main causes of cougar mortality. Habitat fragmentation and loss are the main long-term threats to cougar populations across the western United States. Cougars live throughout the park in summer, but few people ever see them. The northern range of Yellowstone is prime habitat for cougars because snowfall is light and prey always available. Cougars follow their main prey as they move to higher elevations in summer and lower elevations in the winter. Adult male cougars are territorial and may kill other adult males in their home range. Male territories may overlap with several females. In non-hunted populations, such as in Yellowstone, the resident adult males living in an area the longest are the dominant males. These males sire most of the litters within a population; males not established in the same area have little opportunity for breeding. Although cougars may breed and have kittens at any time of year, most populations have a peak breeding and birthing season. In Yellowstone, males and females breed primarily from February through May. Males and females without kittens search for one another by moving throughout their home ranges and communicating through visual and scent markers called scrapes. A female’s scrape conveys her reproductive status. A male’s scrape advertises his presence to females and warns other males that an area is occupied. After breeding, the males leave the female. In Yellowstone, most kittens are born June through September. Female cougars den in a secure area with ample rock and/or vegetative cover. Kittens are about one pound at birth and gain about one pound per week for the first 8–10 weeks. During this time, they remain at the den while the mother makes short hunting trips and then returns to nurse her kittens. When the kittens are 8–10 weeks old, the female begins to hunt over a larger area. After making a kill, she moves the kittens to the kill. Before hunting again, she stashes the kittens. Kittens are rarely involved in killing until after their first year. Most kittens leave their area of birth at 14 to 18 months of age. Approximately 99% of young males disperse 50 to 400 miles; about 70–80% of young females disperse 20 to 150 miles. The remaining proportion of males and females establish living areas near where they were born. Therefore, most resident adult males in Yellowstone are immigrants from other areas, thus maintaining genetic variability across a wide geographic area. In Yellowstone, cougars prey upon elk (mostly calves) and deer. They stalk the animal then attack, aiming for the animal’s back and killing it with a bite to the base of the skull or the throat area. A cougar eats until full, then caches the carcass for later meals. Cougars spend an average of 3–4 days consuming an elk or deer and 4–5 days hunting for the next meal. Cougars catch other animals—including red squirrels, porcupines, marmots, grouse, and moose—if the opportunity arises. Cougars are solitary hunters who face competition for their kills from other large mammals. Even though a cached carcass is harder to detect, scavengers and competitors such as bears and wolves sometimes find it. In Yellowstone, black and grizzly bears will take over a cougar’s kill. Coyotes will try, but can be killed by the cougar instead. Wolves displace cougars from approximately 6% of their elk carcasses. Although cougars and wolves once co-existed across much of their historical range, ecological research on each species has often had to be conducted in the absence of the other. By assessing pre- and post-wolf reintroduction data, biologists can learn about the ecological relationships between the two species. As social animals, wolves use different hunting techniques than the solitary cougar, but the two species prey on similar animals. While prey is abundant this competition is of little concern, but, a decrease in prey abundance could lead to an increase in competition between these carnivores. In the early 1900s, cougars were killed as part of predator control in the park and likely eradicated along with wolves in the 1930s. However, cougars naturally recolonized by the early 1980s. From 1987 to 1996, the first cougar ecology study was conducted in Yellowstone National Park. The research documented population dynamics of cougars in the northern Yellowstone ecosystem inside and outside the park boundary, determined home ranges and habitat requirements, and assessed the role of cougars as a predator. Of the 88 cougars that were captured, 80 were radio-collared. From 1998 to 2006, the second phase of that research was conducted. Researchers monitored 83 radio-collared cougars, including 50 kittens in 24 litters. Between 1998 and 2005, researchers documented 473 known or probable cougar kills. Elk comprised 74%: 52% calves, 36% cows, 9% bulls, 3% unknown sex or age. Cougars killed about one elk or deer every 9.4 days and spent almost 4 days at each kill. The study also documented that wolves interfered with or scavenged more than 22% of the cougar-killed ungulates. The monitoring associated with this project has been completed and all of the radio-collars have been removed, but years of data are still being analyzed. New research is underway to evaluate population abundance, predation patterns, and competition with other carnivores. Very few cougar–human confrontations have occurred in Yellowstone. However, observations of cougars, particularly those close to areas of human use or residence, should be reported. Coyotes (Canis latrans) are intelligent and adaptable. They can be found throughout North and Central America, thriving in major urban areas as well as in remote wilderness. This adaptability helped coyotes resist widespread efforts early in the 1900s to exterminate them in the West, including Yellowstone National Park, where other mid-size and large carnivores such as cougars and wolves were eradicated. The coyote is a common predator in Greater Yellowstone, often seen traveling through open meadows and valleys. Number in Yellowstone Where to See Meadows, fields, other grasslands, and foraging for small mammals along roadways. Size and Behavior - Weigh 25–35 pounds, 16–20 inches high at the shoulder. - Average life span 6 years; up to 13 years in the park. - Home range: 3–15 square miles. - Primarily eat voles, mice, rabbits, other small animals, and carrion—and only the very young elk calves in the spring. - 4–8 pups are born in April in dens; emerge in May. - Like other predators, coyotes were often destroyed in the early part of the 1900s because they sometimes preyed on livestock. - Coyotes continued to thrive because their adaptability enabled them to compensate for the destruction efforts. - Elimination of wolves probably resulted in high coyote population densities; wolves’ absence opened a niche that coyotes could partially occupy in Yellowstone. Often mistaken for a wolf, the coyote is about one- third the wolf’s size with a slighter build. Its coat colors range from tan to buff, sometimes gray, and with some orange on its tail and ears. Males are slightly larger than females. During the 1900s, coyotes partially filled the niche left vacant after wolves were exterminated from the park. In Yellowstone, they lived in packs or family groups of up to seven animals. This social organization is characteristic of coyotes living in areas free from human hunting. With the reintroduction of wolves, Yellowstone coyotes have returned to a more typical social organization—pairs with pups. Coyotes, also known as “song dogs,” communicate with each other by a variety of long-range vocalizations. You may hear groups or lone animals howling, especially during dawn and dusk periods. Coyotes also mark with their scent (urine and feces) to communicate their location, breeding status, and territorial boundaries. Until 1995, coyotes faced few predators in Yellowstone other than cougars, who will kill coyotes feeding on cougar kills. After wolves were restored, however, dozens of coyote pups and adults were killed by wolves—primarily when feeding on other animals killed by wolves. On the northern range, the coyote population decreased as much as 50% after wolves were restored as a result of competition with wolves for food, attacks by wolves, and loss of territory to them. More recent trends in the Lamar Valley, however, indicate that the coyote population has increased. Comparisons of coyote population and behavioral data from before and after wolf restoration provide evidence of how the presence of wolves is changing ecological relationships on the northern range. A reduced coyote population could mean that smaller predators such as the native red fox, whose numbers were previously kept low by coyotes, will have less competition for small prey and their populations may increase. Coyotes and Humans Coyotes also face threats from humans. They quickly learn habits like roadside feeding. This may lead to aggressive behavior toward humans and can increase the risk of the coyote being hit by a vehicle. Several instances of coyote aggression toward humans have occurred here, including a few attacks. Park staff scare coyotes from visitor-use areas and becoming habituated to humans with cracker-shell rounds, bear pepper spray, or other negative stimuli. Animals that continue to pose a threat to them- selves or to humans are killed. Coyotes and other park wildlife are wild and potentially dangerous and should never be fed or approached. - Typical weasel shape: a very long body, short legs, pointed face, long tail. - 13–18 inches long, 4.8–11 ounces. - Fur is light brown above and buff to rusty orange below in summer; all white in winter, except for tail, which is black-tipped all year. - Males 40% larger than females. - Compare to marten and short-tailed weasel. - Found in forests, open grassy meadows and marshes, and near water. - Eat voles, pocket gophers, mice, ground and tree squirrels, rabbits; to a lesser degree birds, eggs, snakes, frogs, and insects. - Breed in early July and August; one litter of 6–9 young per year. - Solitary animals except during breeding and rearing of young. - 18–26 inches long, 1–3 pounds. - Weasel family; short limbs and long bushy tail; fur varies from light to dark brown or black; irregular, buffy to bright orange throat patch. - Smaller than a fisher; buffy or orange bib rather than white. - Compare to long-tailed weasel and short-tailed weasel. - Found in conifer forests with understory of fallen logs and stumps; will use riparian areas, meadows, forest edges and rocky alpine areas. - Eat primarily small mammals such as red- backed voles, red squirrels, snowshoe hares, flying squirrels, chipmunks, mice and shrews; also to a lesser extent birds and eggs, amphibians and reptiles, earthworms, insects, fruit, berries, and carrion. - Solitary except in breeding season (July and August); delayed implantation; 1–5 young born in mid-March to late April. - Active throughout the year; hunts mostly on the ground. - Rest or den in hollow trees or stumps, in ground burrows or rock piles, in excavations under tree roots. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) has been documented in Yellowstone since the 1880s. In relation to other canids in the park, red foxes are the smallest. Red foxes occur in several color phases, but they are usually distinguished from coyotes by their reddish yellow coat that is somewhat darker on the back and shoulders, with black “socks” on their lower legs. “Cross” phases of the red fox (a dark cross on their shoulders) have been reported a few times in recent years near Canyon and Lamar Valley. Also, a lighter-colored red fox has been seen at higher elevations. Three native subspecies exist at high elevations in the United States: the Sierra (V. v. necatar), Cascade (V. v. cascadensis), and Rocky (V. v. macroura) mountains and are collectively called mountain foxes. (Yellowstone’s fox is V. v. macroura.) Little is known about any of these subspecies. Most foxes in the lower 48 states, especially in the eastern and plains states, are a subspecies of fox from Europe introduced in the 1700s and 1800s for fox hunts and fur farms. The foxes that survived the hunt or escaped the fur farms proliferated and headed westward. Number in Yellowstone Unknown, but not nearly as numerous as coyotes. Where to See - Hayden and Pelican valleys, Canyon Village area. - Typical habitat: edges of sagebrush/ grassland and within forests. Size and Behavior - Adult males weigh 11–12 pounds; females weigh average 10 pounds. - Average 43 inches long. - Average life span: 3–7 years; up to 11 years in Yellowstone. - In northern range, home range averages 3.75 square miles, with males having slightly larger range than females. - Several color phases; usually red fur with white-tipped tail, dark legs; slender, long snout. - Barks; rarely howls or sings. - Distinguish from coyote by size, color, and bushier tail. - Solitary, in mated pairs, or with female from previous litter. - Prey: voles, mice, rabbits, birds, amphibians, other small animals. - Other food: carrion and some plants. - Killed by coyotes, wolves, mountain lions. Red foxes are more abundant than were previously thought in Yellowstone. The many miles of forest edge and extensive semi-open and canyon areas of the park seem to offer suitable habitat and food for foxes. They are widespread throughout the northern part of the park with somewhat patchy distribution elsewhere in the park. During the past century, especially within the past few decades, the number of fox sightings has significantly increased. This could be related to better documentation beginning in 1986. Wolves and coyotes are more closely related both genetically and physically than wolves and foxes. Wolves successfully competed with coyotes, causing a decline in the coyote population when they were reintroduced. This may have caused an increase in the number of fox sightings in core wolf areas such as the Lamar Valley. A research project conducted between 1994–1998 determined at least two subpopulations of foxes live in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. At about 7,000 feet in elevation, there seemed to be a dividing line with no geographical barriers separating these foxes. The genetic difference between these foxes was similar to mainland and island populations of foxes in Australia and their habitat use was different as well. In addition, their actual dimensions, such as ear length and hind foot length, were adapted to some degree for colder environments with deep snow and long winters. A yellowish or cream color most often occurs above 7,000 feet in areas such as Cooke City and the Beartooth Plateau and is being studied by researchers. Foxes are not often seen because they are nocturnal, usually forage alone, and travel along edges of meadows and forests. During winter, foxes may increase their activity around dawn and dusk, and even sometimes in broad daylight. In late April and May, when females are nursing kits at their dens, they are sometimes more visible during daylight hours, foraging busily to get enough food for their growing offspring. Recent research shows that red fox are more nocturnal than coyotes, and strongly prefer forested habitats, while coyotes tend to use sagebrush and open meadow areas. In this way, potential competition between fox and coyotes is minimized. Foxes do not seem to actively avoid coyotes during an average day, they just stick with forested habitat, sleep when coyotes are most active, and then forage opportunistically. Foxes will visit carcasses (like wolf kills) for the occasional big meal, especially during winter, but this is more rare than the scavenging coyotes that park visitors can expect to see on many days, especially during winter. Foxes can become habituated to humans usually due to being fed. In 1997, one fox was trapped and relocated three times from the Tower Fall parking area because visitors fed it human food. The fox was relocated between 10 and 60 miles away from Tower but it returned twice. Finally the fox came to Mammoth where it was fed again and as a result was killed by managers. While this story gives us interesting information about the homing instinct of fox, it also shows the importance of obeying rules to avoid inadvertently causing the death of one of Yellowstone’s animals. - 40–54 inches long, 10–30 pounds. - Sleek, cylindrical body; small head; tail nearly one third of the body and tapers to a point; feet webbed; claws short; fur is dark dense brown. - Ears and nostrils close when underwater; whiskers aid in locating prey. - Most aquatic member of weasel family; generally found near water. - Eat crayfish and fish; also frogs, turtles, sometimes young muskrats or beavers. - Active year-round. Mostly crepuscular but have been seen at all times of the day. - Breed in late March through April; one litter of two young per year. Females and offspring remain together until next litter; may temporarily join other family groups. - Can swim underwater up to 6 miles per hour and for 2–3 minutes at a time. - Not agile or fast on land unless they find snow or ice, then can move rapidly by alternating hops and slides; can reach speeds of 15 miles per hour. - May move long distances between water bodies. Short-tailed Weasel (Ermine) - 8–13 inches long, 2.1–7 ounces. - Typical weasel shape: very long body, short legs, pointed face, long tail. - Males about 40% larger than females. - Fur is light brown above and white below in summer; all white in winter except for tail, which is black-tipped all year. - Compare to long-tailed weasel and marten. - Eat voles, shrews, deer mice, rabbits, rats, chipmunks, grasshoppers, and frogs. - Found in willows and spruce forests. - Breed in early to mid-summer; 1 litter of 6–7 young per year. - Can leap repeatedly three times their length. - Will often move through and hunt in rodent burrows. A mid-size carnivore in the weasel family, the wolverine (Gulo gulo) is active throughout the year in cold, snowy environments to which it is well adapted. Its circumpolar distribution extends south to mountainous areas of the western United States, including the greater Yellowstone area where they use high-elevation islands of boreal (forest) and alpine (tundra) habitat. Wolverines have low reproductive rates, and their ability to disperse among these islands is critical to the population’s viability. Climate change models predict that by 2050, the spring snowpack needed for wolverine denning and hunting will be limited to portions of the southern Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada range, and greater Yellowstone, of which only the latter currently has a population. Wolverines are so rarely seen and inhabit such remote terrain at low densities that assessing population trends is difficult and sudden declines could go unnoticed for years. 2006–2009: seven documented in eastern Yellowstone and adjoining national forests (two females, five males). Size and Behavior - 8–47 inches long, 13–31 pounds. - Opportunistic eaters. Eat burrowing rodents, birds, eggs, beavers, squirrels, marmots, mice, and vegetation (including whitebark pine nuts); chiefly a scavenger in winter, but has also been known to take large prey such as deer, elk, and moose. - Active year-round, intermittently throughout the day. - Breed April to October; one litter of 2–4 young each year. Females give birth in dens excavated in snow. - Den in deep snow, under log jams, and uprooted trees in avalanche chutes. - Mostly solitary except when breeding. - In August 2014, the US Fish and Wildlife Service withdrew a proposal to list wolverines living in the lower 48 states as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act. - Due to uncertainty of the effects of climate change on wolverines and their habitat in the foreseeable future, plans to list the species are on hold. Commercial trapping and predator control efforts substantially reduced wolverine distribution in the lower 48 states by the 1930s. Some population recovery has occurred, but the species has not been documented recently in major portions of its historic range. In the Greater Yellowstone Area, wolverines have been studied using live traps, telemetry, and aerial surveys. A group sponsored by the Wildlife Conservation Society has documented ranges that extend into Yellowstone National Park along the northwest and southwest boundary. A second group, which included researchers from the National Park Service, the US Forest Service, and the Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, which surveyed the eastern part of the park and adjoin- ing national forest from 2006 to 2009, documented seven wolverines. The average annual range for the two monitored females was 172 mi2 (447 km2); for three males, 350 mi2 (908 km2). The other two males, both originally captured by the Wildlife Conservation Society, dispersed from west and south of the park: M557 established a home range north of the park in 2009; M556 became the first confirmed wolverine in Colorado in 90 years. But to create a breeding population there, he will need to find a female. Wolverine populations in the US Rockies are likely to be genetically interdependent. Even at full capacity, wolverine habitat in the Yellowstone area would support too few females to maintain viability without genetic exchange with peripheral populations. The rugged terrain that comprises a single wolverine home range often overlaps several land management jurisdictions. Collaborative conservation strategies developed across multiple states and jurisdictions are therefore necessary for the persistence of wolverines in the continental United States. In August 2014, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service withdrew a proposed rule to list the wolverine as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act in the contiguous United States. In spring of 2016, a US District court reinstated the proposal ruled that it shall be conferenced on as necessary until a final proposed. Climate change impacts on wolverine habitat, specifically the likelihood of declining habitat in high elevation snowpack for denning females, had been identified as a chief threat to this species. In Montana, which has the largest wolverine population of the lower 48 states, an annual quota of 5 wolverines were available for harvest by licensed trappers in recent years. Although wolf packs once roamed from the Arctic tundra to Mexico, loss of habitat and extermination programs led to their demise throughout most of the United States by early in the 1900s. In 1973, the US Fish and Wildlife Service listed the northern Rocky Mountain wolf (Canis lupus) as an endangered species and designated Greater Yellowstone as one of three recovery areas. From 1995 to 1997, 41 wild wolves from Canada and northwest Montana were released in Yellowstone National Park. As expected, wolves from the growing population dispersed to establish territories outside the park where they are less protected from human-caused mortalities. The park helps ensure the species’ long-term viability in Greater Yellowstone and has provided a place for research on how wolves may affect many aspects of the ecosystem. Wolves are highly social animals and live in packs. Worldwide, pack size will depend on the size and abundance of prey. In Yellowstone, average pack size is 10 individuals. The pack is a complex social family, with older members (often the alpha male and alpha female) and subordinates, each having individual personality traits and roles within the pack. Packs defend their territory from other, invading packs by howling and scent marking with urine. Wolves consume a wide variety of prey, large and small. They efficiently hunt large prey that other predators cannot usually kill. In Yellowstone, 90% of their winter prey is elk; 10–15% of their summer prey is deer. They also kill bison. Many other animals benefit from wolf kills. For example, when wolves kill an elk, ravens arrive almost immediately. Coyotes arrive soon after, waiting nearby until the wolves are sated. Bears will attempt to chase the wolves away, and are usually successful. Many other animals—from magpies to invertebrates—consume the remains. Changes in Their Prey From 1995 to 2000, in early winter, elk calves comprised 50% of wolf prey, and bull elk comprised 25%. That ratio reversed from 2001 to 2007, indicating changes in prey vulnerability and availability. The discovery of this change emphasizes the importance of long-term monitoring to understand predator-prey dynamics. Changes in wolf predation patterns and impacts on prey species like elk are inextricably linked to other factors, such as other predators, management of ungulates outside the park, and weather (e.g. drought, winter severity). Weather patterns influence forage quality and availability, ultimately impacting elk nutritional condition. Consequently, changes in prey selection and kill rates through time result from complex interactions among these factors. Current NPS research focusses on the relative factors driving wolf predation over the past two decades. - An estimated 528 wolves resided in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem as of 2015. - As of December 2018, there were 80 wolves in 9 packs. A biological count (April 1, 2019) was 61 wolves in 8 packs. - In general, wolf numbers have fluctuated between 83 and 108 wolves since 2009. Where to See - They inhabit most of the park; peak activity is at dawn and dusk. - The northern range of Yellowstone is one of the best places in the world to watch wolves. Size and Behavior - 26–36 inches tall at the shoulder, four to six feet long from nose to tail tip. - Males weigh 100–130 pounds, females weigh 80–110 pounds. - Home range within the park is 185–310 square miles (300– 500 km2); varies with pack size, food availability, and season. - Average lifespan in the park is four to five years. Average lifespan outside is two to three years. The oldest known wolf to live here was 12.5 years old. - Two main color variations exist in Yellowstone in approximately equal proportions: black and gray. - Prey primarily on hoofed animals. In Yellowstone, 90% of winter diet is elk; summer prey consist of more deer and smaller mammals. - Mate in February. - Give birth to average of five pups in April after a gestation period of 63 days. - Young emerge from den at 10–14 days; pack remains at the den for three to ten weeks unless disturbed. - Leading cause of death for wolves within the park is death by other wolves. - Leading cause of death for wolves outside the park is human-caused. Interesting Wolf Behavior Wolves kill each other and other carnivores, such as coyotes and cougars, usually because of territory disputes or competition for carcasses. In 2000, however, the subordinate female wolves of the Druid pack exhibited behavior never seen before: they killed their pack’s alpha female; then they carried her pups to a central den and raised them with their own litters. In the first years following wolf restoration, the population grew rapidly as the newly formed packs spread out to establish territories with sufficient prey. The wolves have expanded their population and range, and now are found throughout the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Disease periodically kills a number of pups and old adults. Outbreaks of canine distemper have occurred in 2005, 2008, and 2009. In 2005, distemper killed two-thirds of the pups within the park. Infectious canine hepatitis, canine parvovirus, and bordetella have also have been confirmed among Yellowstone wolves, but their effects on mortality are unknown. Sarcoptic mange, an infection caused by the mite Sarcoptes scabiei, reached epidemic proportions among wolves on the northern range in 2009. The mite is primarily transmitted through direct contact and burrows into the wolf’s skin. This process can initiate an extreme allergic reaction and cause the wolf to scratch the infected areas, which often results in hair loss and secondary infections. By the end of 2011, the epidemic had mostly subsided; however, the infection is still present at lower prevalences throughout the park. Wolf packs are highly territorial and communicate with neighboring packs by scent-marking and howl- ing. Occasionally, packs encounter each other, and these interactions are typically aggressive. Larger packs often defeat smaller groups, unless the small group has more old adult or adult male members. Sixty-five percent of collared wolves are ultimately killed by rival packs. The park’s wolf population has declined substantially since 2007, when the count was 171. Most of the decrease has been in packs on the northern range, where it has been attributed primarily to the decline in the elk population and available territory. Canine distemper and sarcoptic mange have also been factors in the population decline. Each year, park researchers capture a small proportion of wolves and fit them with radio tracking collars. These collars enable researchers to gather data on an individual, and also monitor the population as a whole to see how wolves are affecting other animals and plants within the park. Typically, at the end of each year, only 20% of the population is collared. Wolves in the Northern Rocky Mountains have met the US Fish and Wildlife Service’s criteria for a recovered wolf population since 2002. As of December 2015, the US Fish & Wildlife Service estimated about 1,704 wolves and 95 breeding pairs in the Northern Rocky Mountain Distinct Population Segment. The gray wolf was removed from the endangered species list in 2011 in Idaho and Montana. They were delisted in Wyoming in 2016, and that decision was upheld on appeal in April 2017. Wolves are hunted in Idaho and Montana under state hunting regulations. Your Safety in Wolf Country Wolves are not normally a danger to humans, unless humans habituate them by providing them with food. No wolf has attacked a human in Yellowstone, but a few attacks have occurred in other places. Like coyotes, wolves can quickly learn to associate campgrounds, picnic areas, and roads with food. This can lead to aggressive behavior toward humans. What You Can Do - Never feed a wolf or any other wildlife. Do not leave food or garbage outside unattended. Make sure the door is shut on a garbage can or dumpster after you deposit a bag of trash. - Treat wolves with the same respect you give any other wild animal. If you see a wolf, do not approach it. - Never leave small children unattended. - If you have a dog, keep it leashed. - If you are concerned about a wolf—it’s too close, not showing sufficient fear of humans, etc., do not run. Stop, stand tall, watch what the wolf is going to do. If it approaches, wave your arms, yell, flare your jacket, and if it continues, throw something at it or use bear pepper spray. Group up with other people, continue waving and yelling. - Report the presence of wolves near developed areas or any wolf behaving strangely. To date, eight wolves in Yellowstone National Park have become habituated to humans. Biologists successfully conducted aversive conditioning on some of them to discourage being close to humans, but two have had to be killed. Yellowstone is the only place in the United States where bison (Bison bison) have lived continuously since prehistoric times. Yellowstone bison are exceptional because they comprise the nation’s largest bison population on public land and are among the few bison herds that have not been hybridized through interbreeding with cattle. Unlike most other herds, this population has thousands of individuals that are allowed to roam relatively freely over the expansive landscape of Yellowstone National Park and some nearby areas of Montana. They also exhibit wild behavior like their ancient ancestors, congregating during the breeding season to compete for mates, as well as migration and exploration that result in the use of new habitat areas. These behaviors have enabled the successful restoration of a population that was on the brink of extinction just over a century ago. However, some Yellowstone bison are infected with brucellosis, a livestock disease that can be transmitted to wild bison and elk as well as cattle through contact with infected fetal tissue. To prevent conflicts with ranching and other activities outside the park, the National Park Service works with other federal, state, and tribal agencies to manage and develop policies for bison access to winter range outside the boundaries. Conservation of wild bison is one of the most heated and complex of Yellowstone’s resource issues. All of the interested parties bring their own wide-ranging values and objectives to the debate. Numbers in Yellowstone Estimated at 4,527 in August 2018. This includes two primary breeding herds: northern (3,337) and central (1,190). Where to See - Year-round: Hayden and Lamar valleys. - Summer: grasslands. - Winter: hydrothermal areas and along the Madison River. Blacktail Deer Plateau, Tower, and the Gardiner Basin. Size and Behavior - Male (bull) weighs up to 2,000 pounds, female (cow) weighs up to 1,000 pounds. - May live 12–15 years, a few live as long as 20 years. - Feed primarily on grasses and sedges. - Mate in late July through August; give birth to one calf in late April or May. - Can be aggressive, are agile, and can run up to 30 miles per hour. - Yellowstone is the only place in the lower 48 states to have a continuously free-ranging bison population since prehistoric times. - In the 1800s, market hunting and the US Army nearly caused the extinction of the bison. - By 1902, poachers reduced Yellowstone’s herd to about two dozen animals. - The US Army, who administered Yellowstone at the beginning of the 20th century, protected these bison from further poaching. - Bison from private herds were used to establish a herd in northern Yellowstone. - For decades, bison numbers were reduced due to belief that they, along with elk and pronghorn, were over-grazing the park. - By 1968, herd reductions of bison ceased. - Reductions began again in the 2000’s due to increasing numbers and litigation about migration into Montana. Bison are the largest land-dwelling mammal in North America. Males (2,000 lbs/900 kg) are larger than females (1,100 lbs/500 kg) and both are generally dark chocolate-brown in color, with long hair on their forelegs, head, and shoulders, but short, dense hair (1 in/3 cm) on their flanks and hindquarters. Calves of the year are born after 9 to 9-½ months of gestation. They are reddish-tan at birth and begin turning brown after 2-½ months. Both sexes have relatively short horns that curve upward, with male’s averaging slightly longer than those of adult females. All bison have a protruding shoulder hump. Large shoulder and neck muscles allow bison to swing their heads from side-to-side to clear snow from foraging patches, unlike other ungulates that scrape snow away with their front feet. Bison are agile, strong swimmers, and can run 35 miles per hour (55 kph). They can jump over objects about 5 feet (1.5 m) high and have excellent hearing, vision, and sense of smell. Bison are mostly active during the day and at dusk, but may be active through the night. They are social animals that often form herds, which appear to be directed by older females. Group sizes average about 20 bison during winter, but increase in summer to an average of about 200, with a maximum of about 1,000 during the breeding season (known as the rut) in July and August. Bison are sexually mature at age two. Although female bison may breed at these younger ages, older males (>7 years) participate in most of the breeding. During the rut mature males display their dominance by bellowing, wallowing, and engaging in fights with other bulls. The winners earn the right to mate with receptive females. Once a bull has found a female who is close to estrus, he will stay by her side until she is ready to mate. Then he moves on to another female. Following courtship, mature males separate and spend the rest of the year alone or in small groups. Group sizes decrease through autumn and into winter, reaching their lowest level of the year during March and April. Yellowstone bison feed primarily on grasses, sedges, and other grass-like plants (more than 90% of their diets) in open grassland and meadow communities throughout the year. They also eat forbs (weeds and herbaceous, broad-leafed plants) and browse (the leaves, stems, and twigs of woody plants) through the year, but those usually comprise less than 5% of the diet. They typically forage for 9 to 11 hours daily. Bison are ruminants with a multiple-chambered stomach that includes microorganisms such as bacteria and protozoa to enable them to effectively digest plant material. Bison alternate between eating and ruminating, which is regurgitating partially digested food and chewing it again, to allow microorganisms to further break down plant material into volatile fatty acids and other compounds. Their large digestive tract allows them to digest lower quality foods with greater efficiency than other ungulates such as cattle, deer, or elk. Interaction with Other Wildlife Wolves and grizzly bears are the only large predators of adult bison. However, predation currently has little effect on bison population trends. Bison usually face their attackers and defend themselves as a group, making them more difficult to kill than animals like elk that run from predators. The size of bison also plays a role in persuading predators to look for an easier meal. When they die, bison provide an important source of food for scavengers and other carnivores. Bison will rub against trees, rocks, or in dirt wallows in an attempt to get rid of insect pests. Birds such as the magpie perch on a bison to feed on insects in its coat. The cowbird will also follow close behind a bison, feeding on insects disturbed by its steps. Like most other ungulates of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, bison will move from their summer ranges to lower elevation as snow accumulates and dense snowpack develops. Most bison alter their diets somewhat during winter, feeding in lowland meadows with concentrated sedges and grasses compared to a more diverse diet during the rest of the year. Bison appear to select foraging areas during winter based more on plant abundance than quality, and then consume the most nutritious plants available. High densities of bison can deplete forage in high quality patches, resulting in subsequent use of areas with plants of lower diet quality. Bison in central Yellowstone frequently use thermally influenced areas near geysers, hot springs, fumaroles, and rivers with less snow during winter. Forested areas are used occasionally for shade or shelter, escape from insects and other disturbances, or to travel between foraging areas or seasonal ranges. Yellowstone bison historically occupied approximately 7,720 square miles (20,000 km2) in the headwaters of the Yellowstone and Madison rivers. Today, this range is restricted to primarily Yellowstone National Park and some adjacent areas of Montana. The bison population lives and breeds in the central and northern regions of the park. The northern breeding herd congregates in the Lamar Valley and on adjacent plateaus for the breeding season. During the remainder of the year, these bison use grasslands, wet meadows, and sage-steppe habitats in the Yellowstone River drainage, which extends 62 miles (100 km) between Cooke City and the Paradise Valley north of Gardiner, Montana. The northern range is drier and warmer than the rest of the park, and generally has shallower snow than in the interior of the park. The central breeding herd occupies the central plateau of the park, from the Pelican and Hayden valleys with a maximum elevation of 7,875 feet (2,400 m) in the east to the lower elevation and thermally influenced Madison headwaters area in the west. Winters are often severe, with deep snows and temperatures reaching -44°F (-42°C). This area contains a high proportion of moist meadows comprised of grasses, sedges, and willows, with upland grasses in drier areas. Bison from the central herd congregate in the Hayden Valley for breeding. Most of these bison move between the Madison, Firehole, Hayden, and Pelican valleys during the rest of the year. However, some bison travel to the northern portion of the park and mix with the northern herd before most return to the Hayden Valley for the subsequent breeding season. In addition, some females switched breeding ranges and successfully bred and reared young on their new range. Yellowstone has played a key role in the conservation of wild bison in North America. If fact, we’ve been so successful that we now face the challenge of helping to manage a rapidly growing population of migratory bison that frequently roam beyond our borders onto private land and land managed by other agencies. Read more about the history of bison management and the challenges of maintaining a wild, migratory population of bison in a modern landscape. Although widely distributed across the Rocky Mountains, bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) persist chiefly in small, fragmented populations that are vulnerable to sudden declines as a result of disease, habitat loss, and disruption of their migratory routes due to roads and other human activities. About 10 to 13 interbreeding bands of bighorn sheep occupy steep terrain in the upper Yellowstone River drainage, including habitat that extends more than 20 miles north of the park. These sheep provide visitor enjoyment as well as revenue to local economies through tourism, guiding, and sport hunting. Mount Everts receives the most concentrated use by bighorn sheep year-round. Number in Yellowstone 329 in the northern Yellowstone area in 2015 (163 counted inside the park). Where to See - Summer: slopes of Mount Washburn, along Dunraven Pass. - Year-round: Gardner Canyon between Mammoth and the North Entrance. - Also: On cliffs along the Yellowstone River opposite Calcite Springs; above Soda Butte; in backcountry of eastern Absarokas. Behavior and Size - Average life span: males, 9–12 years; females 10–14 years. - Adult male (ram): 174–319 pounds, including horns that can weigh 40 pounds. The horns of an adult ram can make up 8–12% of his total body weight. - Adult female (ewe): up to 130 pounds. - Horn growth is greatest during the summer and early in life. Female horns grow very little after 4–5 years, likely due to reproductive costs. - The horn size of bighorn sheep rams can influence dominance and rank, which affects social relationships within herds. - Older ram horns may be “broomed” or broken at the tip, which can take off 1–2 years of growth. - Mating season begins in November. - Ram skulls have two layers of bone above the brain that function as a shock absorber, an adaptation for the collision of head-on fighting that is used to establish dominance between rams of equal horn size, especially during mating. - One to two lambs born in May or June. - Feed primarily on grasses; forage on shrubby plants in fall and winter. - Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep, found in greater Yellowstone, differ from other currently recognized subspecies in the United States: Desert bighorn sheep, which is currently listed as an endangered species, Dall sheep found in Alaska and northwestern Canada, and Stone’s sheep, which are a subspecies of Dall sheep. - Early reports of large numbers of bighorn sheep in Yellowstone have led to speculation they were more numerous before the park was established. - A chlamydia (pinkeye) epidemic in 1981–1982 reduced the northern herd by 60%. Yellowstone provides summer range for an estimated 10,000–20,000 elk (Cervus canadensis) from 6–7 herds, most of which winter at lower elevations outside the park. These herds provide visitor enjoyment as well as revenue to local economies through hunting outside the park. As Yellowstone’s most abundant ungulate, elk comprise approximately 90% of winter wolf kills and are an important food for bears, mountain lions, and at least 12 scavenger species, including bald eagles and coyotes. Competition with elk can influence the diet, habitat selection, and demography of bighorn sheep, bison, moose, mule deer, and pronghorn. Elk browsing and nitrogen deposition can affect vegetative production, soil fertility, and plant diversity. Thus, changes in elk abundance over space and time can alter plant and animal communities in Yellowstone. Number in Yellowstone - Summer: 10,000–20,000 elk in 6–7 different herds. - Winter: <5,000 Where to See - Summer: Gibbon Meadows, Elk Park, and Lamar Valley. - Fall, during “rut” or mating season: northern range, including Mammoth Hot Springs; Madison River. - Winter: migrate north to the northern range and around Gardiner, Montana; <100 year-round along the Firehole and Madison rivers; south to the Jackson Hole Elk Refuge in Jackson, Wyoming. Size and Behavior - Male (bull) weighs about 700 pounds and is about 5 feet high at the shoulder; female (cow) weighs about 500 pounds and is slightly shorter; calf is about 30 pounds at birth. - Bulls have antlers, which begin growing in the spring and usually drop in March or April of the next year. - Feed on grasses, sedges, other herbs and shrubs, bark of aspen trees, conifer needles, burned bark, aquatic plants. - Mating season (rut) in September and October; single calves born in May to late June. Elk are the most abundant large mammal found in Yellowstone. European American settlers used the word “elk” to describe the animal, which is the word used in Europe for moose (causing great confusion for European visitors). The Shawnee word “wapiti,” which means “white deer” or “white-rumped deer,” is another name for elk. The North American elk is considered the same species as the red deer of Europe. Bull elk are one of the most photographed animals in Yellowstone, due to their huge antlers. Bull elk begin growing their first set of antlers when they are about one year old. Antler growth is triggered in spring by a combination of two factors: a depression of testosterone levels and lengthening daylight. The first result of this change is the casting or shedding of the previous year’s “rack.” Most bulls drop their antlers in March and April. New growth begins soon after. Growing antlers are covered with a thick, fuzzy coating of skin commonly referred to as “velvet.” Blood flowing in the skin deposits calcium that makes the antler. Usually around early August, further hormonal changes signal the end of antler growth, and the bull begins scraping the velvet off, polishing and sharpening the antlers in the process. The antler growing period is shortest for yearling bulls (about 90 days) and longest for healthy, mature bulls (about 140 days). Roughly 70% of the antler growth takes place in the last half of the period, when the antlers of a mature bull will grow two-thirds of an inch each day. The antlers of a typical, healthy bull are 55–60 inches long, just under six feet wide, and weigh about 30 pounds per pair. Bulls retain their antlers through the winter. When antlered, bulls usually settle disputes by wrestling with their antlers. When antlerless, they use their front hooves (as cows do), which is more likely to result in injury to one of the combatants. Because bulls spend the winter with other bulls or with gender-mixed herds, retaining antlers means fewer injuries sustained overall. Also, bulls with large antlers that are retained longer are at the top of elk social structure, allowing them preferential access to feeding sites and mates. Antlers are usually symmetrical and occur on males, or very occasionally females. - The average, healthy, mature bull has 6 tines on each antler, and is known in some parts of the US as a “six point” or “six by six.” - One-year-old bulls grow 10–20 inch spikes, sometimes forked. - Two-year-old bulls usually have slender antlers with 4 to 5 points. - Three-year-old bulls have thicker antlers. - Four-year-old and older bulls typically have 6 points; antlers are thicker and longer each year. - Eleven- or twelve-year old bulls often grow the heaviest antlers; after that age, the size of antlers generally diminishes. Moose in Yellowstone are one of four subspecies of moose (Alces alces shirasi) in North America, and are found in forested areas and willow flats from southeastern British Columbia to northern Colorado. They are better adapted to survival in deep snow than other ungulates in Greater Yellowstone. Except during the rut, moose are usually found alone or in small family groups. This behavior, and their use of habitat where they are often well concealed, impedes accurate estimates of population size and distribution. Number in Yellowstone - Fewer than 200 - Population has declined in last 40 years due to loss of old growth forests surrounding the park, hunting outside the park, burning of habitat, and predators. Where to See - Marshy areas of meadows, lake shores, and along rivers. Behavior and Size - Adult male (bull) weighs close to 1,000 pounds; female (cow) weighs up to 900 pounds; 5½ to 7½ feet at the shoulder. Young weigh 25–35 pounds at birth. - Usually alone or in small family groups. - Mating season peaks in late September and early October; one or two calves born in late May or June. - Lives up to 20 years. Moose are the largest members of the deer family in Yellowstone. Both sexes have long legs that enable them to wade into rivers and through deep snow, to swim, and to run fast. Despite its size, a moose can slip through the woods without a sound. Moose, especially cows with calves, are unpredictable and have chased people in the park. Both sexes are dark brown, often with tan legs and muzzle. Bulls can be distinguished from cows by their antlers. Adults of both sexes have “bells”—a pendulous dewlap of skin and hair that dangles from the throat and has no known function. In summer, moose eat aquatic plants like water lilies, duckweed, and burweed. But the principle staples of the moose diet are the leaves and twigs of the willow, followed by other woody browse species such as gooseberry and buffaloberry. An adult moose consumes approximately 10–12 pounds of food per day in the winter and approximately 22–26 pounds of food per day in the summer. Some moose that summer in the park migrate in winter to lower elevations west and south of Yellowstone where willow remains exposed above the snow. But many moose move to higher elevations (as high as 8,500 feet) to winter in mature stands of subalpine fir and Douglas-fir. Moose are solitary creatures for most of the year, except during the mating season or rut. During the rut, both bulls and cows are vocal: the cows may be heard grunting in search of a mate, and bulls challenge one another with low croaks before clashing with their antlers. The weaker animal usually gives up before any serious damage is done; occasionally the opponent’s antlers inflict a mortal wound. Bulls usually shed their antlers in late November or December, although young bulls may retain their antlers as late as March. Shedding their heavy antlers helps them conserve energy and promotes easier winter survival. In April or May, bulls begin to grow new antlers. Small bumps on each side of the forehead start to swell, then enlarge until they are knobs covered with a black fuzz (called velvet) and fed by blood that flows through a network of veins. Finally the knobs change into antlers and grow until August. The antlers are flat and palmate (shaped like a hand). Yearlings grow six to eight inch spikes; prime adult bulls usually grow the largest antlers—as wide as five feet from tip to tip. When the antler reach their full size, the bull rubs and polishes his antlers on small trees in preparation for the rut. Cows are pregnant through the winter; gestation is approximately eight months. When ready to give birth, the cow drives off any previous year’s offspring that may have wintered with her and seeks out a thicket in which to give birth. Descendants of mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) introduced in southern Montana mountains during the 1940s and 1950s established a population in the park in the 1990s and have reached a relatively high abundance in the northeastern and northwestern portions via the Absaroka and Gallatin mountain ranges. Investigations of paleontological, archeological, and historical records have not found evidence that the mountain goat is native to Greater Yellowstone. Many people consider the goats a charismatic component of the ecosystem, including those who value the challenge of hunting them outside the park. But the colonization has raised concerns about the goats’ effects on alpine habitats. Competition with high densities of mountain goats could also negatively affect bighorn sheep, whose range overlaps that of mountain goats. Number in Yellowstone 208 in and adjacent to Yellowstone. Where to See - Infrequently seen; northeastern and northwestern portions of the park in alpine habitat. - Winter: steep, south-facing slopes, windblown ridgetops; Spring: south- and west-facing cliffs; Summer: meadows, cliffs, ravines, and forests. Behavior and Size - Mature male (billy) weighs 300 or more pounds; female (nanny) weighs 150 pounds. - Young (kids) born in late May–June. - Females usually begin to breed at 2½ years. - Live in precipitous terrain. - Both sexes have horns; females curve less and are thinner and sometimes longer than males. Mountain goats live in alpine habitats. Studies of alpine vegetation in the northeast portion of the park during 2002 and 2003 suggest that ridge top vegetation cover is lower, and barren areas along alpine ridges are more prevalent in areas that have received relatively high goat use. Studies by Idaho State University and the National Park Service during 2008–2010 suggest goats are affecting the soil chemistry of sites they inhabit by increasing the availability of soil nitrogen through deposition of urine and feces. Soil rockiness may be increasing slightly over time at sites with high goat presence, but no largescale effects have been detected so far with respect to vegetation (species, community structure). Colonization of suitable habitats south of The Thunderer and along the eastern park boundary within the Absaroka Mountain Range appears to be occuring, with a larger number of groups with females and young observed on Saddle Mountain and on Castor and Pollux peaks during recent years. Mountain goats were not surveyed in 2016 due to poor flying conditions for survey aircraft. The mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), also called blacktail deer, is an exclusively western species commonly seen in open-brush country throughout the western states. Widely dispersed throughout Yellowstone National Park during the summer, mule deer migrate seasonally and most of the population winters outside of the park. The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem is home to both mule deer and white-tailed deer. The two deer species are differentiated by their antler shape, and tail size and appearance. Number in Yellowstone Summer: 1,850–1,900; winter: less than 400 Where to See Summer: throughout the park; Winter: North Entrance area. Size and Behavior - Male (buck): 150–250 pounds; female (doe): 100–175 pounds; 31⁄2 feet at the shoulder. - Summer coat: reddish; winter coat: gray-brown; white rump patch with black-tipped tail; brown patch on forehead; large ears. - Males grow antlers from April or May until August or September; shed them in late winter and spring. - Mating season (rut) in November and December; fawns born late May to early August. - Lives in brushy areas, coniferous forests, grasslands. - Bounding gait, when four feet leave the ground, enables it to move more quickly through shrubs and rock fields. - Eats shrubs, forbs, grasses; conifers in spring. - Predators include wolves, coyotes, cougars, and bears. All species of deer use their hearing, smell, and sight to detect predators such as coyotes, cougars, or wolves. They probably smell or hear the approaching predator first; then may raise their heads high and stare hard, rotating ears forward to hear better. If a deer hears or sees movement, it flees. The State of Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks surveys the northern range population outside the park. In 2016 an aerial survey detected 1,1,757 mule deer in the Gardiner Basin area. No surveys are conducted within the park. Since surveys began in 1986 we have observed an average of 66 mule deer (or 3% of the total count) in northern Yellowstone each year. While the relative distribution of mule deer across their winter range has remained similar over the last two decades, the population appears to cyclical increases and decreases. Mule deer populations may decline during severe winters, when deep snow and extremely cold temperatures make foraging difficult. Although researchers estimate that northern Yellowstone has a summer mule deer population of 1,850 to 1,900, fewer than several hundred stay in the park all winter. Unlike elk and bison, many of which remain in the park throughout the year, mule deer are preyed upon by wolves, coyotes, cougars, and bears in the park mostly in the summer. Because of the mule deer’s seasonal distribution, the relative scarcity of white-tailed deer, and the abundance of elk, which are the main prey of wolves, wolf recovery in Yellowstone is believed to have had little effect on deer populations and recruitment. Although the primary causes of deer mortality are winter kill and predation, mule deer and white-tailed deer outside the park are subject to state-regulated harvesting in the fall. Because of their scarcity, little is known about the white-tailed deer that inhabit the northern range, and the population within the park is not monitored. The North American pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) is the surviving member of a group of animals that evolved in North America during the past 20 million years. It is not a true antelope, which is found in Africa and southeast Asia. The use of the term “antelope” seems to have originated when the first written description of the animal was made during the 1804–1806 Lewis and Clark Expedition. Number in Yellowstone 466 in in February, 2016 (highest count since 1992, which had 536) Where to See - Summer: Lamar Valley; some may be near the North Entrance near Gardiner, Montana. - Winter: between the North Entrance and Reese Creek. Behavior and Size - Male (buck) weighs 100–125 pounds; female (doe) weighs 90–110 pounds; adult length is 45–55 inches and height is 35–40 inches at shoulder. - Average life span: 7–10 years. - Young (fawns) born in late May–June. - Live in grasslands. - Can run for sustained sprints of 45–50 mph. - Eat sagebrush and other shrubs, forbs, some grasses. - Both sexes have horns; males are pronged. - Prior to European American settlement of the West, pronghorn population estimated to be 35 million. - Early in the 1800s, pronghorn were abundant in river valleys radiating from Yellowstone; settlement and hunting reduced their range and numbers. - Park management also culled pronghorn during the first half of the 1900s due to overgrazing concerns. - Pronghorn are a species of special concern in the park. - This small population could face extirpation from random catastrophic events such as a severe winter or disease outbreak. The pronghorn has true horns, similar to bison and bighorn sheep. The horns are made of modified, fused hair that grows over permanent bony cores, but they differ from those of other horned animals in two major ways: the sheaths are shed and grown every year and they are pronged. (A number of other horned mammals occasionally shed their horns, but not annually.) Adult males typically have 10–16 inch horns that are curved at the tips. About 70% of the females also have horns, but they average 1–2 inches long and are not pronged. The males usually shed the horny sheaths in November or December and begin growing the next year’s set in February or March. The horns reach maximum development in August or September. Females shed and regrow their horns at various times. Pronghorn are easy to distinguish from the park’s other ungulates. Their deer-like bodies are reddish- tan on the back and white underneath, with a large white rump patch. Their eyes are very large, which provides a large field of vision. Males also have a black cheek patch. Females that bred the previous fall commonly deliver a set of twins in May or June. The newborn fawns are a uniform grayish-brown and weigh 6–9 pounds. They can walk within 30 minutes of birth and are capable of outrunning a human in a couple of days. The young normally stay hidden in the vegetation while the mother grazes close by. After the fawns turn three weeks old they begin to follow the females as they forage. Several females and their youngsters join together in nursery herds along with yearling females. Pronghorn form groups most likely for increased protection against predators. When one individual detects danger, it flares its white rump patch, signaling the others to flee. The pronghorn is adapted well for outrunning its enemies—its oversized windpipe and heart allow large amounts of oxygen and blood to be carried to and from its unusually large lungs. Pronghorn can sustain sprints of 45–50 mph. Such speed, together with keen vision, make the adults difficult prey for any natural predator. Fawns, however, can be caught by coyotes, bobcats, wolves, bears, and golden eagles. The pronghorn breeding season begins mid-September and extends through early October. During the rut the older males “defend” groups of females (called a harem). They warn any intruding males with loud snorts and wheezing coughs. If this behavior does not scare off the opponent, a fight may erupt. The contenders slowly approach one another until their horns meet, then they twist and shove each other. Eventually, the weaker individual will retreat. Although the fights may be bloody, fatalities are rare. The most important winter foods are shrubs like sagebrush and rabbitbrush; they eat succulent forbs during spring and summer. They can eat lichens and plants like locoweed, lupine, and poisonvetch that are toxic to some ungulates. Their large liver (proportionately, almost twice the size of a domestic sheep’s liver) may be able to remove plant toxins from the blood stream. Grasses appear to be the least-used food item, but may be eaten during early spring when the young and tender shoots are especially nutritious. During winter, pronghorn form mixed-sex and- age herds. In spring, they split into smaller bands of females, bachelor groups of males between 1–5 years old, and solitary older males. The small nursery and bachelor herds may forage within home ranges of 1,000 to 3,000 acres while solitary males roam smaller territories (60 to 1,000 acres in size). Pronghorn, including three-fourths of the individuals in Yellowstone, migrate between different winter and summer ranges to more fully utilize forage within broad geographic areas. During the early part of the 1800s, pronghorns ranked second only to bison in numbers, with an estimated 35 million throughout the West. The herds were soon decimated by conversion of rangeland to cropland, professional hunters who sold the meat, and ranchers who believed that pronghorns were competing with livestock for forage. Today, due to transplant programs and careful management, pronghorns roam the sagebrush prairies in herds totaling nearly 500 thousand animals. The pronghorn’s population fluctuations on the northern range show the effects of management interventions as well as natural shifts in forage availability, competition with elk, and predation. Efforts to keep pronghorn in the park with fences and winter feeding reduced their abundance and use of migratory routes by the 1920s, and about 1,200 pronghorn were removed from 1947 to 1967 to address perceived sagebrush degradation. Although hunting has not been allowed north of the park since the 1970s, complaints about crop depredation led to the removal of about 190 pronghorn on private land from 1985 to 2002. The reason for the sudden population decline in the early 1990s remains unclear, but fawn survival is low due to coyote predation, and development of private land north of the park has reduced available winter range. The pronghorn winter range in the park is former agricultural land infested with nonnative vegetation of low nutritional quality. Recent evidence of migration and dispersal into Paradise Valley and mixing with pronghorn herds outside the park should improve the long-term viability of the Yellowstone population. Research continues to search for answers to the population decline. This small population is susceptible to extirpation from random catastrophic events such as a severe winter or disease outbreak. Although the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is the most common deer species throughout North America, it has never been abundant in Yellowstone. This may be due to habitat and elevation constraints on the northern range or competition from other ungulates that are better suited to park habitat. White-tailed deer and mule deer are differentiated by their antler shape, and tail size and appearance. Number in Yellowstone Scarce, not monitored. Where to See Along streams and rivers in the northern range. Size and Behavior - Adults 150–250 pounds; 31⁄2 feet at the shoulder. - Summer coat: red-brown; winter coat: gray-brown; throat and inside ears with whitish patches; belly, inner thighs, and underside of tail white. - Waves tail like a white flag when fleeing. - Males grow antlers from May until August; shed them in early to late spring. - Mating season (rut) peaks in November; fawns born usually in late May or June. - Eats shrubs, forbs, grasses; conifers in spring. - Predators include wolves, coyotes, cougars, and bears. In addition to the big game mammals found in Yellowstone National Park there are many species of rodents, Hares, Rabbits, Pika and Bats. Rodents are a vital part of the ecosystems in Yellowstone, serving as a major food source for many of the park’s predators. All rodents have a pair of incisors in their upper and lower jaws with a large gap between the incisors and the molars. The incisors continue to grow throughout their lives, so they continually wear them down through chewing. These include beavers, squirrels, chipmonk, montane vole, gopher and marmot.
In the words of a contemporary journalist, “A man at a carnival might be allowed to be flapper—only he would wear a dress; a woman at a carnival might be allowed to be flapper—only she would wear a blouse, an ill-fitting skirt and a flapper hat and a coat of the little yellow things. No man could wear dress or skirt and hat all at once. Flappers have a lot of freedom.” It is clear, then, that flappers’ freedom was primarily an expression of the freedom to wear one’s best clothing, without fear of arrest. This means that flappers could show their individuality in whatever way they chose to wear it. It also means that flappers could express their individuality while still maintaining their right to freedom. In an interview before her death, a flapper friend called Nina Loughry, “The most free woman in America.” While free expression was a basic tenet of the American Revolution, particularly as applied to American citizens, it was not always so. Although it was often thought that “freedom” was an important part of the original concept of liberty enshrined in our Constitution, it was not always so. In 1776, for example, it was a misdemeanor for a New York citizen to wear a shirt to church. In 1784, for example, in response to the American Revolution, Massachusetts law explicitly stated that individuals could not wear clothing expressing their religious views to protect their religious beliefs. However, in many states, including New York and Massachusetts, there was a growing movement for more freedom in one’s choice and display of clothing. By the late 1780s, the French Revolution, the onset of war, the increasing sophistication of military uniforms, and many other factors made this movement seem more like an inevitability than a sudden transformation. In fact, in 1768, one of the leading women and flapper artists, Emma Beeton, began working in New York City to create flapper costume designs for military use. Her clothing designs ranged from the “narrow” to the “wide-shouldered,” which included the iconic “candy stripe,” inspired by the stripes worn by women at the time. The “Wide Shouldered” version that Beeton created was actually considered a failure and she spent the rest of her life trying again to find another design that would suit both military and civilian needs. She died in 1801. Flambergabbers’ freedom to express themselves is not a given, however etsy roaring 20s dress, flapper dress plus size, red flapper costume, black and white gatsby dress, loose fitting flapper dress
Vaccines are an important part of staying healthy with diabetes. Staying healthy with diabetes involves more than just the daily management of your blood sugar. People living with diabetes can sometimes face a higher risk of acute illness and complications, including preventable illnesses, which makes vaccine recommendations in this group especially important. Even slightly elevated blood glucose levels can increase your risk of infection, so recovering from an illness can be a longer, more difficult process for people with diabetes. Physical stress from the infection can also contribute to spikes in blood sugar. For all of these reasons, it’s essential for people with diabetes to stay up-to-date on these recommended vaccines. Even when carefully managed, flu can be dangerous for people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. According to the CDC, the flu shot has a long-established safety record for individuals living with diabetes and can help to prevent or minimize the impact of the flu and flu-related complications. For the best protection, try to schedule a flu shot before the end of October so that antibodies have time to develop before flu season is in full swing. People living with either type 1 or type 2 diabetes may be at a higher risk of contracting pneumonia, particularly as a complication of flu. The pneumococcal vaccine can help prevent pneumonia, meningitis, and bacteremia, and your doctor or Rite Aid Pharmacist can advise you on the best time to get it. Shingles is caused by the varicella-zoster virus and in many cases can lead to a painful rash and nerve pain, with side effects including fever, headache, chills, and upset stomach. In a more severe form, the virus may affect the eyes and could cause vision loss. Vaccination is the only way to reduce your risk of developing shingles. Daily diabetes management requires blood testing, and if the equipment used in the tests is irresponsibly maintained or shared it can lead to contact with viruses. This means that people living with type 1 and type 2 diabetes are often at a higher risk of Hepatitis B. The Hepatitis B virus is 50 to 100 times more infectious than HIV, making it very easy to transmit. Most people receive a pertussis or whooping cough vaccination as a baby and a booster shot called DTaP as a child. The shot for teens and adults, which also helps protect against tetanus and diphtheria, is called the Tdap and is recommended by the CDC for those with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. Staying informed and organized is one of the best ways to maintain your health. Work with your doctor or Rite Aid Pharmacist to discuss which vaccines may be right for you and create a schedule for the ones you're due to receive. Even if you have a busy schedule, it's important to take the time to prioritize your health. Print and fill out your consent forms ahead of time and stop by your local Rite Aid today. By Samantha Markovitz, NBC-HWC Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Flu and People with Diabetes American Diabetes Association, Flu and Pneumonia Shots Rite Aid, Shingles Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Diabetes and Hepatitis B Vaccination Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Pertussis Vaccination These articles are not a substitute for medical advice, and are not intended to treat or cure any disease. Advances in medicine may cause this information to become outdated, invalid, or subject to debate. Professional opinions and interpretations of scientific literature may vary. Consult your healthcare professional before making changes to your diet, exercise, or medication regime.
Scientists Waltz Closer to Using Spintronics in Computing Aiming to use electron spins for storing, transporting and processing information, researchers have revealed the first-ever direct mapping of the formation of a persistent spin helix in a semiconductor. Until now, it was unclear whether or not electron spins possessed the capability to preserve the encoded information long enough before rotating. Unveiled in the peer-reviewed journal Nature Physics, scientists from IBM Research and the Solid State Physics Laboratory at ETH Zurich demonstrated that synchronizing electrons extends the spin lifetime of the electron by 30 times to 1.1 nanoseconds — the same time it takes for an existing 1 GHz processor to cycle. Today’s computing technology encodes and processes data by the electrical charge of electrons. However, this technique is limited as the semiconductor dimensions continue to shrink to the point where the flow of electrons can no longer be controlled. Spintronics could surmount this approaching impasse by harnessing the spin of electrons instead of their charge. This new understanding in spintronics not only gives scientists unprecedented control over the magnetic movements inside devices, but also opens new possibilities for creating more energy-efficient electronics. The spintronics waltz A previously unknown aspect of physics, the scientists observed how electron spins move tens of micrometers in a semiconductor with their orientations synchronously rotating along the path, similar to a couple dancing the waltz, the famous Viennese ballroom dance where couples rotate. Dr. Gian Salis of the Physics of Nanoscale Systems research group at IBM Research?Zurich explains, “If all couples start with the women facing north, after a while the rotating pairs are oriented in different directions. We can now lock the rotation speed of the dancers to the direction they move. This results in a perfect choreography where all the women in a certain area face the same direction. This control and ability to manipulate and observe the spin is an important step in the development of spin-based transistors that are electrically programmable.” How it works IBM scientists used ultra short laser pulses to monitor the evolution of thousands of electron spins that were created simultaneously in a very small spot. Atypically, where such spins would randomly rotate and quickly loose their orientation, for the first time, the scientists could observe how these spins arrange neatly into a regular stripe-like pattern, the so-called persistent spin helix. The concept of locking the spin rotation was originally proposed in theory back in 2003 and, since that time, some experiments even have found indications of such locking. However, until now, it had never been directly observed. IBM scientists imaged the synchronous ‘waltz’ of the electron spins by using a time-resolved scanning microscope technique. The synchronization of the electron spin rotation made it possible to observe the spins’ travel for more than 10 micrometers or one-hundredth of a millimeter, increasing the possibility to use the spin for processing logical operations, both fast and energy-efficiently. The reason for the synchronous spin motion is a carefully engineered spin-orbit interaction, a physical mechanism that couples the spin with the motion of the electron. The semiconductor material called gallium arsenide (GaAs) was produced by scientists at ETH Zurich who are known as world-experts in growing ultra-clean and atomically precise semiconductor structures. GaAs is a III/V semiconductor commonly used in the manufacture of devices, such as integrated circuits, infrared light-emitting diodes and highly efficient solar cells. Transferring spin electronics from the laboratory to the market still remains a major challenge. Spintronics research takes place at very low temperatures at which electron spins interact minimally with the environment. In the case of this particular research IBM scientists worked at 40 Kelvin (-233 C, -387 F). This work was financially supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation through National Center of Competence in Research (NCCR) Nanoscale Sciences and NCCR Quantum Science and Technology. The scientific paper entitled “Direct mapping of the formation of a persistent spin helix” by M.P. Walser, C. Reichl, W. Wegscheider and G. Salis was published online in Nature Physics, DOI 10.1038/NPHYS2383 (12 August 2012).
Guest post by Lacie Martin from Raise Them Well What is a Learning Disability? Learning disabilities are areas of inefficiency in brain function that affect its ability to receive, process, analyze, or store certain information, making it difficult for a student to learn. There are various types of learning disabilities including dyslexia, ADHD, dyscalculia, dysgraphia and sensory processing deficits. Signs a child may have a learning disability include a limited attention span, poor memory, trouble following directions, poor coordination, disorganization, and troubles when it comes to the basics of reading, writing, or math. Teachers may notice students with learning disorders: - Respond inappropriately to questions - Are easily distractible and restless - Have difficulty listening and remembering - Do not adjust well to change in lessons - Place letters or numbers in incorrect sequence - Reverses letters or numbers - Are difficult to discipline - Have troubles when it comes to sounding out words - Cannot tell right from left - Perform differently from day to day - Complains of dizziness or headaches during lessons How an Arts Education Helps Children with Learning Disabilities While children with learning disabilities may struggle with certain subjects more than other children with the right educational and emotional support, they are just as likely to grow up to be successful and happy. One way parents and teachers can encourage kids with learning disabilities is by incorporating the arts into their schooling in some way. The arts empower children and give them a way to express themselves when they struggle to do so in other areas of their education. Getting involved in the arts can help instill focus in children that suffer from learning disabilities like ADHD that makes it difficult to pay attention. Succeeding in the arts also builds up their self-esteem, which can benefit them in other aspects of their education. When they see themselves as successful learners in one area, it’s easier for children to see themselves as successful in others. Additionally, you could also teach other kids around the neighborhood and help them discover their love of the arts. And if you want to take teaching to the next level, you could turn it into a business! Of course, when starting a business, you’ll need to make sure you have a business plan to help guide you and a thorough understanding of how to start a business. What are ‘the arts?’ Asking “What is art?” opens up the floor for an endless philosophical debate. For the sake of brevity, when we talk about the arts, we use it as a term to encompass all the means of expression that utilize a combination of skill and imagination to create an experience that can be shared with other people. These experiences come in the forms of dance, drawings, literature, film, music, paintings, photography, sculpture and theater. - Whether your child wants to play instruments such as a cello or flute, incorporating music into their education has many benefits. Music therapy helps fine-tune listening and responding abilities. It encourages interactive play and spontaneous imagination. It also improves social skills including taking turns, waiting, listening and eye contact. Furthermore, reading music can help children with dyscalculia develop math skills. - Children can explore the visual arts through painting, drawing, sculpture, collage, calligraphy, graphic design and more. Working with the visual arts can help develop motor skills that make it easier for children with dysgraphia to refine their handwriting. Visual arts can also help children communicate their thoughts and feelings about stories they have read or heard as a way to improve reading comprehension. - Children with ADHD learn how to control their bodies and channel their energy into something more productive when they take dance classes. Dance therapy also helps improve memory and overall cognitive function. Plus, physical activity is a great way to promote feelings of well-being in children struggling in school. Learning disabilities make it difficult for bright kids to succeed in certain areas of their education. With the right support, children with learning disabilities can grow up to be as happy and successful as children without them. One way to support your child with a learning disability is by implementing the arts into their education. From music lessons to dance, the arts can help children with various problems stemming from their disorders.
Class 1G have been looking at many different types of liquid as part of our early science work. The pupils have been exploring the difference between drinking liquid, cleaning liquid and liquids that we might use for cooking. We have introduced Class 1G to the idea of density – some liquids may be heavier than others. We have demonstrated this scientific fact by mixing milk and honey, and oil and water. We have also been keen for Class 1G to look at how we can change the colour of liquid using food colouring. We asked each class member to experiment by adding some different colours to a small dish of milk. We then added more than one colour to observe how we can keep on changing the colour of a liquid. Other techniques such as blowing on the liquid to help to mix it were also explored. A large focus for this learning has been safety. We want the pupils to understand the difference between liquids that we might drink, and liquids that we use to help with household cleaning. We asked the pupils to think of how we can recognise the differences, and what we should do if we are unsure. You can watch a short video featuring our food colour mixing above.
The Planet Earth is divided into regions known as continents. Some continents, such as Africa, Antarctica, and Australia, are distinct and separate, with clear demarcations and boundaries. However, continents such as South America and North America and Asia and Europe often come into question whenever they are mentioned, mainly because of their geography and geopolitical history. Europe and Asia form one large continental area known as Eurasia. The Eurasia continent sits almost entirely on the Eurasian plate, except for Arabian and Indian subcontinents and some areas near the Chersky Range. The Eurasian plate indicates clearly that there is no geologic boundary between Asia and Europe. Origin And Meaning Of The Name The name “Eurasia” is derived from two words, “Eur” from Europe and “asia” from Asia. Europe and Asia are the two continents making up the larger continental area of Eurasia. In ancient times, the area, now considered Eurasia, was one large continuous landmass, extending from the shores of the Pacific Ocean to those of the Atlantic Ocean. The region was divided into two areas; eastern and western regions, with the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara as the border between them. Later, the Greeks named the western portion as Europe and the eastern as Asia. The name “Europe” was derived from the name of a Greek mythological princess known as “Europa.” Geographers such as Strabo used the name Europe to refer to the region below the Balkan Mountains. Also, the name “Asia” was derived from a Greek mythological woman, known as “Asia,” who was one of the daughters of Tethys and Oceanus. The Eurasian Geopolitical Concept Eurasia is a highly contested and debated term, with different perceptions and meanings. However, it has two broad meanings; geopolitical and geographical meanings. Geographically, Eurasia is a place, location, or space occupied by the continents of Asia and Europe. That is, all European and Asian territories are referred to as Eurasia. Geopolitically, the term is more complicated and complex, with deferring views and perceptions, often contradictory and conflicting. However, the Eurasian concept was first used in imperial Russia, before being adopted for wider use. Geopolitically, the term “Eurasia” is rooted in various classical concepts and theories, particularly “pivot” and “heartland” concepts fronted by Sir Hartford Mackinder. He referred to the large area east of the Urals as “Pivot” and argued that whoever will control this huge landmass will have control over global politics. Russian Eurasianism concept is still very much alive and powerful, with the main aim being integrating with other countries considered to be part of Eurasia. In Turkey, Eurasia is restricted to areas inhabited by the Turkic people, such as modern-day Turkey, parts of Central Asia, the former USSR region, and the Balkans. For Kazakhstan, Eurasia is a term used to describe the country’s location. Geographically, the landlocked country of Kazakhstan is located in continental Asia, with less than 10% of the territory extending into Europe. However, geopolitically, it is one of the Eurasian states. Thus, it considers itself as a “bridge” between the two continents. But, Kazakhstan Eurasianism is also an ideology whose focus is on building unity, solidarity, and peace among people. The word “Eurasia” or Eurasian” also appears in the names of numerous institutions, including the Eurasian Bank, Eurasian Media Forum, L. N. Gumilev Eurasian National University, and Eurasian Cultural Foundation. Eurasia can be defined as a region comprising the continents of Europe and Asia. It is a region in the Eastern and Northern Hemisphere, extending from the Atlantic Ocean, with Spain and Portugal on the west, to the Bering Strait in Russia. The region is bordered to the east by the Pacific Ocean, west by the Atlantic Ocean, north by the Arctic Ocean, and south by the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, and Africa. Eurasia spans over 55 million square kilometers or approximately 36% of the Earth’s land area. The northern portion comprises Norway, Finland, and Russia, while countries on the southern border include India, Israel, Spain, Yemen, and Malaysia. The region also includes the islands associated with the Eurasian plate, such as Japan, Sicily, Malaysian islands, Crete, the Philippines, and maybe Indonesia. Eurasia and Africa are connected by the Suez Canal. The canal is an artificial waterway connecting the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea and dividing Asia from Africa. The two landmasses sometimes combine to form one large continental area known as Afro-Eurasia. Eurasia is estimated to have formed 375-325 million years ago, following the merging of Laurentia with the Baltica, Kazakhstani, and Siberia geological regions. The concept of Asia and Europe, as distinct continents, was introduced by the Greeks during antiquity. The border between the two continents was defined as the Sea of Marmara, the Black Sea, and their associated straits. However, the Caucasus and the Ural Mountains are considered the modern boundaries between the two continents. The Eurasian region has been the site of several civilizations, including those of the Indus Valley, Mesopotamia, and China. Numerous fierce historical battles were also fought in the continental region, including the Greco-Persian War, Russo-Persian War, and Roman-Parthian War. As of 2012, the Eurasia region comprised 92 sovereign countries, of which 44 are European countries and 48 are Asian countries. Thus, the continental area accounts for close to half of the world’s sovereign countries. Eurasia was first occupied about 125,000 years ago. As of 2019, the region has an estimated population of 5.4 billion (about 71% of the world’s total population). The region's population includes 746 million people in Europe and 4.6 billion people in Asia. Seven of the world’s ten most populated countries are within the Eurasia area, with China and India accounting for about 52% of the region’s population. Regional Alliances And Cooperation Different Eurasian countries have come together to form several common markets, including ASEAN Economic Community, Eurasian Economic Space, Gulf Cooperation Council, and other international organizations. Since 1996, most European and Asian counties have been holding consultative meetings every two years know Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM). Other alliances and organizations in the region are the Eurasian Union, Russia-EU Common Space, and the Commonwealth of Independent States.
Name the forces acting on a plastic bucket containing water held above ground level in your hand. Discuss why the forces acting on the bucket do not bring a change in its state of motion. Forces acting on the bucket are - Muscular force - Gravitational force Muscular force is used to hold the bucket containing the water and gravitational force is pulling the water down. Here, both muscular force and gravitational force are equal. Therefore, there is no change in state of motion of bucket.
What is metastatic cancer? Cancer has many nasty features that make it one of the most difficult and complicated diseases to treat and cure. It doesn’t sit still- it is constantly growing, changing and moving. In simple terms, metastatic disease is cancer that has spread from the original tumour to another location in the body and set up shop. Metastases (commonly called “mets”) may not go very far and just form another tumour within the initial affected tissue, or they can travel great distances to different organs. Mets can be discovered at the same time as original diagnosis, or can remain undetected for months, or even years. If cancer reoccurs in a patient previously treated, it is most likely a met. How do metastases spread? Although most cells are normally immobile, cancer cells can “turn on” a set of genes that exist in all cells, which allows them to move around and travel to new locations in the body. This set of genes exists because some normal cells have to be able to migrate when needed. For example, if you were to cut yourself, skin cells must replicate and travel to the cut site to heal the wound. Immune cells also move freely around the body looking to respond to danger, such as bacteria and viruses. Metastases are an example of a type of cell, specifically cancer cells, hijacking normal cellular processes for their own benefit. When these migrating cells move away from the initial tumour they may not travel too far to form a second tumour near the original. By definition, though, this is enough to be called a metastatic tumor. However, what this really indicates is that these cancer cells have acquired the ability to spread, and it is this behaviour that signals the possibility that they have spread to more distant locations in the body. Metastasizing cells travel in the blood stream or lymphatic system (a series of vessels that immune cells use to travel across the body), and use these systems as highways to access any location in the body. Some types of cancer prefer to travel to particular locations: breast cancer often relies on calcium for its growth, so it often spreads to the bones, which are full of calcium ions. Also, it is common for skin cancers to metastasize to the brain since skin and brain cells have a common origin during development. We can think of cancer cells as the “seed”, but they also need to be in the right “soil” for a met to take root. This highlights an important point- since mets are so dependent on particular signals found in their new location, this is weakness that can be exploited. So as you can see, it is no small feat for cancer cells to metastasize! Cancer cells must break away from the original tumour, find their way to either the blood or lymph vessels, travel to another site in the body and survive well enough to start growing in an entirely new environment. All this while evading the body’s immune system. Some of these properties are reminiscent of cancer stem cells, as metastasizing cells do not proliferate, can lie dormant for long periods of time, and are capable of creating a new tumour. Scientists want to study and understand exactly how these cells are capable of these tasks to prevent, help detect and treat cancer cells that have metastasized. How is metastatic cancer treated? How do we study it? Metastatic cancer is still named after the original, or primary cancer. For example, breast cancer cells that have spread to the lung are called metastatic breast cancer, not lung cancer. This means that these cancer cells share common features with the original tumour, such as how they look (morphology) as well as genetic and molecular features allowing chemotherapeutics that a patient is taking for the original tumour to also have some effect on the metastasizing cells and slow their growth. Similar to treating the original tumour, mets are targeted by surgery and radiation to slow their growth and spread, but also present their own challenges. One major hurdle in studying metastases, is that, by definition, they are only found and diagnosed after they have metastasized, which is often at later stages of the disease. This makes it difficult to study the processes of how they form; mets start from very small numbers of cells- and in theory even a single cell can give rise to a metastatic tumor. Finding one cell within trillions of normal cells is nearly impossible. To get around this problem, some research groups label cancer cells with fluorescent markers before injecting them into mice. Over time, mice develop cancer, or a tumor, in an initial tissue. The researchers then wait and watch for some cells to metastasize to different locations in the body. Since these mets now “glow in the dark”, they literally shine like beacons to researchers, allowing them to be found and studied at a genetic level. One of the most powerful aspects of these sorts of studies is that it is very tightly controlled. The exact properties of the starting cells are known, allowing researchers to more easily pinpoint the precise genetic changes that took place for metastasis to occur! What is interesting, is that when you compare a patient’s mets at a genetic level, it doesn’t matter if they started in the breast, prostate or lung: they are actually more similar to each other, than to the cancer cells found at their tissue of origin. Although this can complicate therapy since these metastatic cells have evolved or adapted, having this core similarity is encouraging from a therapeutic perspective based on the idea that drugs can be developed to target all of a patient’s mets, no matter if they’re in bone or lung. Some of the latest therapies designed to target metastasizing cells are a branch of immunotherapy. These strategies “rewire” or enhance a patient’s own immune system to target and destroy cancer cells. One advantage unique to immunotherapy is that immune cells can move around the entire body and chase down metastasizing cells, no matter where they are located Finally, let’s remember that cancer metastasis is a complicated process with many steps. This is good news! Researchers can devise therapies targeting any one of these steps. It is likely that treatments will one day include destroying the “seed” or cancer cells, and tainting the “soil” or environment in order to contain and prevent mets. Although metastatic cancer poses a significant challenge to the research community and patients alike, it is just another roadblock, or hurdle, to overcome. Each and every day, we get one step closer. This article was written by Mike Pryszlak. Mike is currently completing the third year of his PhD at the University of Toronto. He studies how normal stem cell genes are changed in cancer stem cells. To learn more about Mike and his research check out our members page.
3 Multiplication Printable – Multiplication worksheets are a powerful technique to assist kids in training their multiplication skills. The multiplication tables that kids find out form the basic base where various other innovative and modern methods are trained in later levels. Multiplication performs a really crucial function in increasing arithmetic and science marks in colleges. It may be regarded as a fantastic device to boost children’s skills at this stage, when basic understanding remains to be restricted. Multiplication worksheet for kids instructs multiplication through a combination of computations. Printable Multiplication Worksheets For Practice Grade 4 6 Uploaded by admin on Sunday, April 18th, 2021 in category Worksheets. See also Two Step Word Problem Cards That Support 2 0A 1 Multi from Worksheets Topic. Here we have another worksheet Printable Multiplication Table Up To 20 featured under Printable Multiplication Worksheets For Practice Grade 4 6. We hope you enjoyed it and if you want to download the worksheets in high quality, simply right click the worksheets file and choose "Save As". Thanks for reading Printable Multiplication Worksheets For Practice Grade 4 6.
Question-Answer Method of Teaching Question answer teaching strategy is an old strategy also known as “Socratic Method of teaching”. It was developed by the famous philosopher Socrates. According to Parke, “the question is the key to all educative activity above the habit-skill level. It strategy is focused on to achieve the cognitive objectives and bringing knowledge to the conscious level. It has the following principle: - Theory of unfoldment, all knowledge is within the child, teacher cannot teach any ting from outside - The knowledge can be emitted by linking the questions with his answers Steps of Question-Answer Method - To prepare questions and arrange them in a logical sequence - To present the questions in such a way that curiosity arises among the learners - To ask new questions by linking with the learners response Advantages & Disadvantages of Question-Answer Method of Teaching - While asking questions, the teacher keeps in mind the abilities, needs and interest of the learner. - It involves the learners’ participation towards the subject matter and in teaching acts. - It helps in achieving cognitive objectives and bringing knowledge at conscious level. - Classroom verbal interaction is encouraged - It is a useful strategy at all the levels of education - It is difficult to prepare good questions, and arrange them logically. - The whole content-matter cannot be taught by this strategy - The teacher wants the structured answers from the learners. There is no freedom for imaginative answers. - Instead of using it independently, this teaching strategy should be supplemented by lecture and demonstration method of teaching. - The teacher should be skilled in framing proper questions and language of the questions should be clear and unambiguous. - The teacher should distribute the questions to the whole class evenly.
You’re about to send your child into Kindergarten and The Benefits of Climbing25 October 2017 Your kids have a ton of energy, and finding ways to channel that energy in ways that can be good for them is sometimes difficult. Once your child is between the ages 4 and 5, outdoor activities can get more interesting, particularly if you teach them to climb. Here are a few of the benefits linked to climbing, and how it can provide them with important skills: - Climbing teaches critical problem-solving and decision-making skills. Finding the best path on a climb is like putting together a puzzle. Each move requires a decision making process, and is a great way for your child to learn to solve problems, think for herself, and make smart decisions. - Climbing can help your child overcome common fears and teaches her the ability to adapt and overcome difficult situations. Encouraging her to leave her comfort zone and confront their fears will impart bravery and help her overcome nerves. - Climbing promotes healthy life choices. Climbing requires agility, flexibility, endurance, and strength. It requires eating well and drinking water. - Climbing is an adventure sport that can be learned in a relatively low risk and highly controlled environment. Climbing might seem extreme to you, but it is very low risk when done in a controlled environment. - Climbing teaches discipline and focus. It’s impossible to multi-task when you’re climbing, so it is a great way to develop her focus. - Climbing is a great lesson in humility. Her character will be stronger, as climbing consists of falling and getting up again, until she reaches the top. This exercises her self-confidence and teaches her to persevere in the face of failure.
To multiply polynomials, first, multiply each term in one polynomial by each term in the other polynomial using distributive law. Then, simplify the resulting polynomial by adding or subtracting the like terms. It should be noted that the resulting degree after multiplying two polynomials will be always more than the degree of the individual polynomials. How to Multiply Polynomials? Follow the below-given steps for multiplying polynomials: - Step 1: Place the two polynomials in a line. For example, for two polynomials, (6x−3y) and (2x+5y), write as: (6x−3y)×(2x+5y) - Step 2: Use distributive law and separate the first polynomial. ⇒ (6x−3y)×(2x+5y) = [6x × (2x+5y)] − [3y × (2x+5y)] - Step 3: Multiply the monomials from the first polynomial with each term of the second polynomial. ⇒ [6x × (2x+5y)] − [3y × (2x+5y)] = (12x2+30xy) − (6yx+15y2) - Step 4: Simplify the resultant polynomial, if possible. ⇒ (12x2+30xy) − (6yx+15y2) = 12x2+24xy−15y2 Points to Note: When multiplying polynomials, the following pointers should be kept in mind: - Distributive Law of multiplication is used twice when 2 polynomials are multiplied. - Look for the like terms and combine them. This may reduce the expected number of terms in the product. - Preferably, write the terms in the decreasing order of their exponent. - Be very careful with the signs when you open the brackets. Resultant Degree after Multiplying Polynomials For two polynomials equations, P and Q, the degree after multiplication will always be higher than the degree of P or Q. The degree of the resulting polynomial will be the summation of the degree of P and Q. Degree (P × Q) = Degree(P) + Degree(Q) Topics Related to Polynomial Multiplication \|Remainder Theorem And Polynomials\|\|Algebraic Expressions\| \|Polynomials Worksheets\|\|Zeros Of polynomial\| \|Polynomial Class 9 Notes − Chapter 2\|\|Polynomial Class 10 Notes: Chapter 2\| \|Polynomial Functions\|\|Degree of a Polynomials\| Types of Polynomial Multiplication: It is known that there are different types of polynomial based on its degree like linear, binomial, quadratic, trinomial, etc. The steps to multiply polynomials is same for all the types. Here, two types of multiplication of polynomials are explained in detail. - Multiplication of Binomial by a Binomial - Multiplication of a Binomial by a Trinomial Multiplying Binomial by a Binomial When a binomial is multiplied with a binomial, the distributive law of multiplication is followed. We know that Binomial have 2 terms. Multiplying two binomials give the result having a maximum of 4 terms (only in case when we don’t have like terms). In case of like terms, the total number of terms is reduced. According to the commutative law of multiplication, terms like ab and ba gives the same result. Thus they can be written in both the forms. For example, 5×6 = 6×5 = 30 Now, Consider two binomials given as (a+b) and (m+n). Multiplying them we have, ⇒ a×(m+n)+b×(m+n) (Distributive law of multiplication) ⇒ (am+an)+(bm+bn) (Distributive law of multiplication) \|(a + b) × (m + n) = am + an + bm + bn\| Example 1: Find the result of multiplication of two polynomials (6x +3y) and (2x+ 5y). ⇒6x×(2x+5y)−3y×(2x+5y) (Distributive law of multiplication) ⇒(12x2+30xy)−(6yx+15y2) (Distributive law of multiplication) ⇒12x2+30xy−6xy−15y2 (as xy = yx) Let us take up an example. Say, you are required to multiply a binomial (5y + 3z) with another binomial (7y − 15z). Let us see how it is done. (5y + 3z) × (7y − 15z) = 5y × (7y − 15z) + 3z × (7y − 15z) (Distributive law of multiplication) = (5y × 7y) − (5y × 15z) + (3z × 7y) − (3z × 15z) (Distributive law of multiplication) = 35y2 − 75yz + 21zy − 45z2 = 35y2 − 75yz + 21yz − 45z2 As, (yz = zy) (5y + 3z) × (7y − 15z) = 35y2 −54yz − 45z2 Multiplying Binomial with a Trinomial When multiplying polynomials, that is, a binomial by a trinomial, we follow the distributive law of multiplication. Thus, 2 × 3 = 6 terms are expected to be in the product. Let us take up an example. (a2 − 2a) × (a + 2b − 3c) = a2 × (a + 2b − 3c) − 2a × (a + 2b − 3c) (Distributive law of multiplication) = (a2 × a) + (a2 × 2b) + (a2 × −3c) − (2a × a) − (2a × 2b) − (2a × −3c) (Distributive law of multiplication) = a3 + 2a2b − 3a2c − 2a2 − 4ab + 6ac Now, by rearranging the terms, (a2 − 2a) × (a + 2b − 3c) = a3 − 2a2 + 2a2b − 3a2c− 4ab + 6ac
This article was written for Forbes by Kirk Sorensen, a nuclear technologist who operates the site energyfromthorium.com, where he has posted some insightful explanations of what happened at Fukushima-Daiichi and thoughts on the future of nuclear power. In the mid-afternoon on Friday, March 11 the seismic sensors at the Fukushima-Daiichi nuclear power plant in the Fukushima Prefecture of Japan registered the earliest indications of the largest earthquake in modern Japanese history. They executed a preprogrammed response and began to drive all of the long control rods into the three reactors that were currently operating at the site. The control rods caused each generation of fission to produce fewer neutrons and fewer fission reactions. In three minutes the reactors were making 10% of their rated power from fission; in six minutes they were making 1%, and within by ten minutes nuclear fission as a source of heat had ended in the first three units at Fukushima Daiichi. It would never begin again. Each fission reaction splits the nucleus of an atom of uranium-235 or plutonium-239 into two smaller atoms and releases a great deal of energy. The energy release from nuclear fission is roughly a million times greater per unit weight than fossil fuels, which is why nuclear fission is such a compelling long term energy source. The two "fission products" that result are highly radioactive but decay towards stability very quickly. There are about 80 different sequences of decay that fission products can follow, and roughly a quarter reach a completely non-radioactive state within a day. Within a month, about three-quarters are stable, and within a year about 80%. But in the first few hours after a nuclear reactor shuts down these fission products are producing significant amounts of heat and unlike fission, this heat generation can't be turned off. It has to run its course to completion. Therefore, managing what is called "decay heat" is one of the most important aspects of operating a nuclear reactor safely. To remove the heat, today's reactors have an abundance of safety systems, all of which have the same mission—keep removing decay heat from the nuclear fuel. As the reactors at Fukushima-Daiichi cooled down, the tsunami hit. The tsunami destroyed the diesel generators that provide power to drive the pumps that circulate the water coolant through the reactor that removes decay heat. Without an active removal of decay heat, the reactor was adding heat to the water faster than it was taking it out, and the temperature was rising. Because this was a reactor that operated on water that was already at its boiling point, this also meant that the pressure inside the reactor was rising as well. The reactors at Fukushima-Daiichi are called boiling-water reactors (BWRs) and were manufactured by General Electric. They have a primary and a secondary containment structure, both made from thick reinforced concrete, to protect against the release of radioactive materials. Inside the primary containment are two vessels called a "drywell" and a "wetwell". The drywell is a large steel pressure vessel that looks like a giant upside-down pear and holds the reactor and primary pumps, and the wetwell is a large toroidal vessel that looks like a donut. The wetwell is connected to the drywell by a number of wide pipes. Both the drywell and the wetwell are surrounded by a secondary containment vessel (or shield building) also built from reinforced concrete about a meter thick. This rectangular secondary containment building is the structure that most people have seen in pictures of the reactor. At the top of the secondary containment building is a steel frame structure with "blowout" panels that holds the crane used to remove solid nuclear fuel during fueling and refueling. The designers of the reactors at Fukushima-Daiichi had anticipated situations where pressure was rising in the core. So long as power was available, pumps would circulate hot fluid from the reactor to the wetwell where it would be condensed. Heat removal could continue indefinitely in this way. But it all relied on a power source, and power had been lost due to the tsunami's destruction of the diesel generators. The water in the reactor is susceptible to damage from radiation, causing it to split into its components, hydrogen and oxygen. Normally, circulation would channel the hydrogen and oxygen to a recombiner where they would be restored back to water, but in the hours after the reactors were shut down, hydrogen was accumulating and separating in the wetwell and reached a point where it was vented into the sparse steel-frame structure at the top of the reactor building. It was only a matter of time before the hydrogen reached a level where it would detonate, and one after another, the first unit, then the third unit, and finally the second unit, suffered hydrogen explosions that blew off the steel panels and left the top of the reactor building exposed. The reactor vessels remained intact as did the reinforced concrete containment buildings, but each reactor building lost its hat due to the hydrogen explosions. Initially there was hope of saving the reactors to generate power again after the crisis had passed. But as that hope faded and the need to remove the steadily-decreasing decay heat remained, operators at Fukushima-Daiichi took measures that would cool the reactors but would ruin them for future operation, such as the decision to try to cool the reactors with seawater. It will be necessary for some time to actively cool the reactors while the decay heat continues to decrease, but within a few months it will be possible to depressurize the reactors and assess their internal states. There may have been some melting and damage to the fuel—it is not known at this time. What is known is that this is a situation very different than Chernobyl or Three Mile Island. There was no operator error involved at Fukushima-Daiichi, and each reactor was successfully shut down within moments of detecting the quake. The situation has evolved slowly but in a manner that was not anticipated by designers who had not assumed that electrical power to run emergency pumps would be unavailable for days after the shutdown. They built an impressive array of redundant pumps and power generating equipment to preclude against this problem. Unfortunately, the tsunami destroyed it. There are some characteristics of a nuclear fission reactor that will be common to every nuclear fission reactor. They will always have to contend with decay heat. They will always have to produce heat at high temperatures to generate electricity. But they do not have to use coolant fluids like water that must operate at high pressures in order to achieve high temperatures. Other fluids like fluoride salts can operate at high temperatures but at safer, lower pressures. Fluoride salts, unlike water, are impervious to radiation damage and don't evolve hydrogen gas which can lead to an explosion. Solid nuclear fuel like that used at Fukushima-Daiichi can melt and release radioactive materials if not cooled consistently during shutdown. Fluoride salts can carry fuel in chemically-stable forms that can be passively cooled without pumps driven by emergency power generation. A reactor based on this technology would avoid the extreme situation that was encountered at Fukushima-Daiichi. It may be in our best interest to pursue them in building the next generation of nuclear power plants.
Several studies emphasize the importance of having diverse leaders, racially and by gender, for the development of nations. The variety in experiences and viewpoints fosters the opening of ideas, breaks routines, and motivates those who are in minority – even if they are usually a majority as in the case of women. Training for leadership begins early: within families and at school. Progress in the education of girls has been remarkable in recent decades but often not enough to give rise to successful female leaders. The problem is that it is not enough for these girls to go to school, as they still remain subject to cultural pressure that does not allow them to reach their full potential. The classic example is that girls should not choose mathematical or scientific disciplines, but humanities – to be better prepared for becoming mothers and support the studies of their children, or because there are allegedly genetic differences that make boys more likely to study mathematics, and girls more likely to study literature. Recent studies suggest that gender differences in characteristics such as competitiveness are not innate, but the product of cultural differences. Work by Professor John List of the University of Chicago and co-authors compared a patriarchal tribe in India, where men occupy most positions of power, with a matriarchal tribe in Tanzania, where leadership positions are typically assumed by women. And the results show that in the matriarchal tribe of Tanzania, women are much more competitive than men, while the opposite is observed in the patriarchal tribe. Based on this evidence, it seems that female leadership can have strong transformative effects. In moderate doses, it may indeed contribute to achieve a gender equilibrium that not only promotes equality, but also the productivity and growth of enterprises and of the overall economy. The important question is then how to find women who are good leaders. And the answer seems to be that increasing the number of women in leadership positions is the way to follow. In another study, by Professor Esther Duflo of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and co-authors, it is shown that having more women in leadership positions in companies directly affects the choices that girls make in school: when there are examples of female leaders, the girls come to believe that they can be the leaders of the future and aspire to be them. These leadership aspirations are sufficient for there to be more prepared women to help society in taking leadership positions. Mozambique is a case of hope on several fronts. Hope begins with the celebration of the Day of the Mozambican Woman. This celebration not only explicitly recognizes the key role that women have played in the Mozambican society, but also serves to motivate women in Mozambique to take important positions, and the girls to prepare themselves for women leadership. And indeed, Mozambican politics and businesses have had more women in leadership positions than many so-called developed countries in the Western world – like the United States or France, who have never had a female president or prime minister, unlike Mozambique. Female leadership is thus an instrument for sustainable development that needs to be deepened in most of the world, but in practice it seems rather within reach for the Mozambican people – and indeed more so than for other societies, even more developed ones. Written by Cátia Batista – published in Exame – Moçambique, March 2016 edition.
In this activity, students practice creating words with prefixes and suffixes using context clues. Here’s how the activity works: Using the Prefix and Suffix Puzzles: Students match up two puzzle pieces to form words. Students then read the sentences. They select the best word that will fit into the blank space of the sentence from the words that were made by joining together the puzzle pieces. A “Student Response Sheet” is provided for students to write answers. This is a great activity for a learning center, for morning review, or for differentiated instruction. Also, students do not have to read The Wonderful Wizard of Oz to enjoy using this activity cards. Click here to get the game. Common Core Skills Language Arts Skill ~ Context Clues Language Arts Skill ~ Prefixes and Suffixes If you discover your students need practice going over definitions of roots, check out these four FREE foldable graphic organizers. You will find these foldable graphic organizers in the July 6 – August 10, 2015 Monday Blog Posts. Follow these links to see the entire book unit:
Although largely preventable, dental caries (cavities) is the most common chronic disease in children in the United States: it is 4 times more common than early childhood obesity, 5 times as common as asthma, 7 times as common as hay fever and 20 times more common than diabetes. Over fifty-three million people live with untreated tooth decay in their permanent teeth. What is Tooth Decay? Tooth decay is caused by a bacterial infection. This bacteria is transmissible from parent to child, among siblings or anyone sharing food and drink. The bacteria colonize the mouth and with the formation of plaques, adhere to the teeth. Plaque is the byproduct of food which forms the soft, sticky film on our teeth. This advanced bacterial plaque breaks down sugars and produces lactic acids, which cause tooth decay, a process of demineralization or loss of tooth structure. As a result, the tooth weakens and eventually forms a hole and breaks through the tooth which is known as a “cavity”. Besides brushing, flossing and proper oral hygiene, the three best prevention measures we have against cavity formation are sealants, fluoride, and balanced healthy nutrition. Sealants are thin plastic coatings that are painted on the chewing surfaces of teeth, protecting the pits and fissures on back teeth that are hard to clean with a toothbrush and are a high risk for decay. Sealants effectively inhibit the colonization of bacteria on the chewing aspects of teeth. The American Dental Association recommends children have sealants on their permanent molars,“6 year molars”, “12 year molars”, and any teeth presenting with deep pits and grooves. If a child under 6 already has a high rate of cavities, sometimes sealants are indicated on baby teeth as well, to protect the permanent teeth underneath. Teenagers and young adults who are prone to decay may also benefit from sealants. Brushing teeth is of limited benefit without the use of fluoride toothpaste. Fluoride benefits children and adults of all ages, and comes in the form of fluoridated tap water, toothpaste, mouth rinse, and professionally applied gel and varnish. Professionally applied fluoride is generally recommended for prevention, or moderate to high cavity-risk patients. Fluoride works by binding to the tooth and creating a crystal like barrier on the teeth that is much harder than enamel or outside layer of the tooth. The remineralization effect of fluoride is of prime importance, because it results in a reversal of the early tooth deterioration process and it gives rise to an enamel surface that is more resistant to decay and bacterial acid attacks. Meaning fluoride is a mineral that can not only prevent tooth decay from progressing; It can even reverse, or stop, early tooth decay. Saliva and Nutrition Your child’s diet is important in preventing cavities. Remember, every time we eat or drink something that contains sugar or starch, the bacteria in our mouth use the sugar and starch to produce acids. These acids begin to eat away at the tooth’s enamel. Our saliva is designed to help fight off this acid attack by washing away food/bacteria, buffering the drop in the pH after we eat, preventing demineralization, and enhancing remineralization of the teeth. But if we eat too frequently throughout the day, especially foods and drinks containing sugar and starches, the repeated acid attacks will eventually cause the tooth to lose minerals and eventually develop an imbalance creating a perfect environment for cavities to grow. Limiting between-meal snacks and beverages (besides water) will reduce the incidence of this and give the teeth a chance to repair themselves. We know growing kids love to eat, so when sending them to school try to avoid snacks that have added sugar, are sticky or high in carbohydrates. Examples of these snacks are raisins, fruit snacks, bagels, muffins, granola bars, dried fruit with added sugar, applesauce, cereal, cookies, crackers and chips, Don’t forget about drinks too, one of the biggest factors in cavity prevention is frequency. Steadily sipping on soda, juices, Gatorade, sports drinks, and even flavored water throughout the day can alter the pH in the mouth and increase the risk for cavities. Snacks we recommend are; meats and cheese, cottage cheese, eggs, low sugar yogurt, fresh fruit, fresh veggies, nuts, hummus, avocado, olives. A healthy balanced diet is key, and treats are okay on occasion! However, it’s important to remember, as your kids get tired during after the school day, the most important time for brushing is before bedtime, because less salivation occurs during sleep! - U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Oral health in America: a report of the Surgeon General. http://www.nidcr.nih.gov/DataStatistics/SurgeonGeneral/Report/ExecutiveSummary.htm. Updated March 7, 2014. Accessed August 22, 2016. - BA, Thornton-Evan G, Xianfen L, Iafolla TJ. Dental caries and sealant prevalence in children and adolescents in the United States, 2011-2012. - http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db191.pdf. Published March 2015. NCHS Data Brief. Accessed August 22, 2016. - Roberts-Thomson KF, Spencer AJ. Public knowledge of the prevention of dental decay and gum diseases. Aust Dent J. 1999;44(4):253-258. - Prabhakar AR, Dodawad R, Os R. Evaluation of flow Rate, pH, buffering capacity, calcium, total protein and total antioxidant levels of saliva in caries free and caries active children—an in vivo study. Int J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2009;2(1):9-12. - Azarpazhooh A, Main PA. Pit and fissure sealants in the prevention of dental caries in children and adolescents: a systematic review. J Can Dent Assoc. 2008;74(2):171-177.
A further 18 Earth-sized exoplanets have been spotted, hidden in NASA Kepler data, at least one of which could well support life researchers say. New algorithms were applied to data gathered by the Kepler Space Telescope, unlocking fresh discoveries despite the spacecraft itself being retired in 2018. Kepler’s mission was deceptively simple. Launched in early 2009, the orbiting space telescope was to look out at the Milky Way and potentially catch sight of so-called exoplanets similar in size to Earth. These planets outside of our Solar System could be the best candidates for supporting the development of life, particularly when they are in the so-called habitable zone in relation to their star. Though operating for almost three times as long as the mission originally intended, by October 2018 the reaction control system that powered Kepler had run out of fuel. During its lifespan it had monitored the brightness of roughly 150,000 main sequence stars at a time, generating a huge quantity of data. Over the course of nine years and seven months, Kepler watched for exoplanet possibilities around more than half a million stars. Actually identifying an exoplanet is more difficult than you might expect, though, especially considering the distances involved. The methodology behind the processing of Kepler’s data was to watch out for localized dimming. That’s the result of an exoplanet crossing in front of its star, and thus momentarily reducing the amount of light that the space telescope’s instrumentation would observe. It’s refinement of the algorithms used to process that data set which has led to this new discovery. Scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research (MPS), the Georg August University of Göttingen, and the Sonneberg Observatory re-analyzed portions of Kepler data, putting into play a new and more sensitive method they had developed. This 18 new exoplanets, they suggest, could be the first of more than 100 candidates teased out of the existing data. The refined algorithm takes into account the realities of light dimming when a planet moves in front of a star. Blunter methods look for sudden drops in brightness, but that ignores transitions in light depending on where in relation to the star the potential exoplanet is. According to Dr René Heller, from MPS, “a stellar disk appears slightly darker at the edge than in the center. When a planet moves in front of a star, it therefore initially blocks less starlight than at the mid-time of the transit. The maximum dimming of the star occurs in the center of the transit just before the star becomes gradually brighter again.” After applying the new algorithm to a cache of 517 star data from the second phase of Kepler’s mission, the researchers were able to identify typically smaller exoplanets missed by the first pass of processing. Of the eighteen, just one is in the habitable zone. Dubbed EPIC 201497682.03, it’s not only Earth-sized but is just the right distance from its red dwarf star to potentially lead to liquid water being found on the surface. There are still plenty of “what-ifs” to be addressed, however a follow-up to Kepler is in the pipeline. The PLATO mission is due to launch in 2026, a European Space Agency project that will also go hunting for multi-planet systems around Sun-like stars. The researchers say that their new algorithms could not only be used to continue reassessing existing Kepler data, but turned to new PLATO findings as the hunt for possible alien life – or planets that one day could even support mankind – continues.
On International Women's Day in 2013, Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Councilheld Celebrating Womanhood: Menstrual Hygiene Management, a unique event that brought together a wide and deep range of participants to focus on issues related to menstruation. The event provided a chance to forge new connections and to make the "unspeakable" topic speakable. As the report describes, menstruation is still a taboo issue and has been neglected within WASH and in the field of human rights, but research and promising approaches and partnerships are already underway. - 71% of girls and women surveyed had no idea what was happening to them when they began to bleed. Teachers rarely teach menstrual hygiene, and even many junior doctors are not properly trained in it. - Only 12% of girls and women have access to commercial sanitary products. Infections from using unsanitary rags for menstrual cloths are common. - Sanitary products are disposed of wherever girls and women can do so secretly and easily -- usually the nearest open defecation field, river, or garbage dump. - Menstrual hygiene is an issue of girl-child health, education, business, income generation, and sustainability. This case needs to be clearly made in order for it to receive greater attention and funding. - More large-scale studies, information sharing, and collaboration are needed to improve the research landscape for menstrual hygiene.
Spondyloarthritis, a type of inflammatory arthritis, is characterized by inflammation of joints as well as entheses (the area where the ligaments attach to bones). There are six different types of spondyloarthritis: - Ankylosing spondylitis. This is the most common type of spondyloarthritis and is characterized by Inflammation in the spine and/or pelvis. It gradually starts before the age of 45 and improves with activity. Joint stiffness in the morning lasts at least 30 minutes. Over time, sections of the spine can become fused. - Psoriatic arthritis. Patients with psoriatic arthritis have pain and swelling in the small joints of the hands and feet. - Enteropathic arthritis. This is a form of spondyloarthritis that is associated with the development of an autoimmune disease called inflammatory bowel disease. Symptoms of enteropathic arthritis include chronic diarrhea, abdominal pain, weight loss, and blood in feces. - Reactive arthritis. This is caused by an infection in the intestine or urinary tract, which occurs before inflammation of joints. Reactive arthritis causes inflammation and pain in the joints, as well other organs such as skin, eyes, bladder, genitals, and mucus membranes. - Undifferentiated spondyloarthritis. This type of arthritis includes people that have symptoms and features that are consistent with spondyloarthritis, but don’t fit into other categories. - Juvenile spondyloarthritis. This type of arthritis has features consistent with spondyloarthritis and develops in children and adolescents. While all diseases under the category of spondyloarthritis are unique in their disease characteristics, the commonality across these diseases is that they all involve inflammation of the axial skeleton (spine and sacroiliac joints) which is different from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Patients with spondyloarthritis demonstrate disease involvement primarily of the spine. However, some forms of spondyloarthritis can also affect the peripheral joints, such as those in the hands, feet, arms and legs. Spondyloarthritis usually begins in people that are between the ages of 17 and 45. Systemic inflammation is a primary feature of spondyloarthritis and helps distinguish spondyloarthritis from other types of arthritis, such as osteoarthritis. Patients with spondyloarthritis are seronegative, which basically means that certain antibodies that are commonly associated with rheumatoid arthritis and other rheumatic diseases are not present in the person’s blood stream. Causes of spondyloarthritis Most cases of spondyloarthritis can be attributed to genetics. In fact, researchers have identified up to 30 different genes that can cause the development of ankylosing spondylitis, the major one being a gene called HLA-B27. Interestingly, almost all people of Caucasian decent that have ankylosing spondylitis tend to carry this gene. Furthermore, people with HLA-B27 are also more likely to have enteropathic arthritis. Other than genetics, other causes that contribute to the development of this disease are unknown. Symptoms of spondyloarthritis The most common symptom of spondyloarthritis is inflammatory back pain. Additionally, patients can develop pain and inflammation in the pelvis, neck, intestine, eyes, heels, and other large joints. There are two different patterns of symptoms that characterize patients with spondyloathritis: - For the majority of patients, the disease manifests predominantly as low back pain. If left untreated, the disease progresses to involve the spine. Eventually, patients will experience a fusion of the vertebrae, which limits the spine’s mobility. - For a minority of patients, the disease manifests as swelling of the arms and legs. This type of spondyloathritis is known as peripheral spondyloarthritis. Other symptoms that can occur across all patients with spondyloathritis include: - Joint inflammation that comes and goes - Pain and redness of the eye - Inflammation of heart valve - Inflammation of the intestine Diagnosis: How do doctors diagnose spondyloarthritis? Physicians diagnose patients with spondyloarthritis based on the results of their medical history and physical exam. Other tests may also be ordered to confirm a diagnosis of spondyloarthritis: - Imaging tests can be used to confirm a diagnosis if physicians suspect that a patient has spondyloarthritis. For example, physicians can order the patient to undergo X-rays of sacroiliac joints, which are a pair of joints in the pelvis that undergo changes called sacroiliitis in cases of spondyloarthritis. Often, these changes may not show up on an X-ray, in which case an MRI can be ordered. - Genetic tests to look for one of up to 30 different genetic contributors to the development of spondyloarthritis. Most often, a test for presence of the HLA-B27 gene is ordered. However, just because you have the gene doesn’t mean you have or will develop spondyloarthritis. These are the medical treatments that are commonly prescribed to patients with spondyloarthritis: - Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen or aspirin, are effective at relieving pain and inflammation. - Corticosteroids. Injections of corticosteroids directly into the joint or membrane into the area of the joint affected can help provide quick relief. - Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs). These are prescribed when neither NSAIDs nor corticosteroids provide enough relief. DMARDs are used to relieve symptoms and prevent joint damage. In particular, DMARDs are effective for patients who have arthritis that affects the joints and arms of legs. - Tumor necrosis alpha (TNF-alpha) blockers. These are a class of drugs that are effective at treating arthritis of both the spine and joints in the arms and legs. However, patients who take these drugs are at a higher risk for serious infections. - Antibiotics can be useful for treatment of reactive arthritis. - Surgery can be used for when inflammation destroys the cartilage in the hips. Surgeries for this type of problem can include a replacing a hip with a prosthesis, which is called a total hip replacement.
Songs are useful for pronunciation and getting the rhythm of English. They provide vocabulary and useful expressions, as well as examples of everyday language. Combining physical movements with singing can make learning very effective for younger learners. In this programme, we hear teachers discussing how to find suitable songs for their students. They talk about accessing music online, but also using traditional songs and using our students as a resource. Download the teacher support worksheet below to help you use songs effectively in your classroom.
The following formula allows one to find the powers of a binomial. It is known as the binomial theorem. The number of terms is n + 1. The coefficients are combinatorial numbers corresponding to the nth row of Pascal's triangle. In the development of the binomial, the exponents of a are decreasing, one by one, from n to zero; and the exponents of b are increasing, one by one, from zero to n, therefore, the sum of the exponents of a and b in each term is equal to n. In the case that one of the terms of the binomial is negative, alternate the positive and negative signs. Calculation of the Term which Occupies the Place k 1. Find the fifth term of the development . 2.Find the fourth term of the development is: 3.Find the eighth term of the development 4.Find the fifth term of the development . 5.Find the independent term of the development . The exponent of a with the independent term is 0, therefore, take only the literal part and equal it to a0.
Have your kids learn to identify these 7 examples of weather with this simple 8 pg coloring booklet of half pages decode-able reader. It is provided in both English and Spanish for bilingual classrooms. Its easy to assemble. Just run it back to back, cut down the middle, gather together and staple. The kids will read for themselves about the weather in English or Spanish. Use this activity as an independent activity for your weather lesson.
A few weeks back, in our article Biggest Drop in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions, we promised to take a look at the implications of a new study that calculated the impact on the earth’s greenhouse effect from the extraction and use of natural gas produced from deep underground shale beds (through a process known as hydraulic fracturing, or “fracking”). The study was conducted by a research team from Cornell University led by Dr. Robert Howarth, and its conclusions were quite surprising: “Compared to coal, the [greenhouse gas] footprint of shale gas is at least 20% greater and perhaps more than twice as great on the 20-year horizon and is comparable when compared over 100 years.” The reason that this is surprising (and has a lot of people talking) is that natural gas has long been considered the most “climate friendly” of all the fossil fuels and a potential “bridge” to a low carbon future. The Howarth et al. study now threatens natural gas’s most favored status (at least among climate change-fearing types). As Knappenberger explains, Howarth et al. focus on “fugitive” methane emissions that accidentally escape directly into the atmosphere during the initial stages of the establishing the shale gas wells. As methane is a very powerful greenhouse gas (having some 20 to 100 times the impact of an equal amount of carbon dioxide depending on the period time being assessed), fugitive methane emissions will act to offset the carbon dioxide savings attained when burning the well’s natural gas to produce energy rather than using coal (Figure 1). Figure 1. Comparison of greenhouse gas emissions from shale gas with low and high estimates of fugitive methane emissions, conventional natural gas with low and high estimates of fugitive methane emissions, surface-mined coal, deep-mined coal, and diesel oil. Top panel (a) is for a 20-year time horizon, and bottom panel (b) is for a 100-year time horizon. Estimates include direct emissions of CO2 during combustion (blue bars), indirect emissions of CO2 necessary to develop and use the energy source (red bars), and fugitive emissions of methane, converted to equivalent value of CO2 (pink bars). Emissions are normalized to the quantity of energy released at the time of combustion. (Source: Howarth et al., 2011). But, Howarth et al.’s results are derived from few (somewhat shaky) actual observations and sweeping extrapolations there from. And it critics are many. In his Master Resource posting, Knappenberger summarizes the criticisms this way: Complaints have surfaced, among others, as to the true global warming potential of methane (Howarth et al. use values that are somewhat larger than reported by the IPCC), the reliability of the little actual data from fracking operations on which the conclusions were based, and whether the “fugitive” methane from the drilling operations actually escapes directly to the atmosphere or whether it is flared at the site (this turns out to make a big difference because if the methane is flared (i.e. burned), CO2 is released to the atmosphere rather than methane). And, on top of this, since fugitive methane is lost profit, there should be financial incentives to keep it to a minimum (and improvements are anticipated as the fracking methodology matures). And if the market is deemed unsuccessful at reducing the direct methane loss, then in theory regulations could be applied. The bottom line, according to Knappenberger? At the very least, the Howarth et al. study has started the natural gas climate bridge swaying a la Gallopin’ Gertie. Whether or not it suffers the same fate as Gertie and crumbles into the abyss only to be rebuilt with a different foundation and design, or whether it manages to stabilize itself and serve as a major pathway to a low(er) carbon future remains to be seen. In any case, the Howarth et al. study should act to slow early rumblings of a civil war within the fossil fuel family while a more thorough examination of the potential climate impact of the full life-cycle of fossil fuels and their production methods are undertaken. Be sure the check out the full post Natural Gas: A Better “Climate” Fossil Fuel? for more background and further details including the pros and cons of fracking and how the various fossil fuels stack up in terms of carbon dioxide emitted per BTU of energy produced. Howarth, R. W., R. Santoro, and A. Ingraffea, 2011. Methane and greenhouse-gas footprint of natural gas from shale formations. Climatic Change, DOI 10.1007/s10584-011-0061-5, http://www.springerlink.com/content/e384226wr4160653/
back to Birding Articles» Hummingbird Facts... You Never Knew! It's the time of year when the magnificent hummingbirds begin their long journey north to enjoy the spring and summer months in North America. Let's celebrate the hummingbirds by learning more about them. Here is a list of interesting hummingbird facts to brush up on before they make their to your area! - Hummingbirds have tongues that are grooved like the shape of a "W". - Hummingbirds have tiny hairs on the tips of their tongues to help them lap up nectar… similar to a cat. - A hummingbird's bill is longer in proportion to its body, as compared to other birds. - Hummingbirds have no sense of smell, but can hear better than humans. - Hummingbirds are attracted to all bright colors, although red is most prominently associated with these tiny birds. - Hummingbirds see in ultraviolet light and they can see further than a human. - Hummingbirds have a great memory – they remember every flower & feeder they've been to, and how long it will take a flower to refill. - The hummingbird brain is 4.2% of its body weight – this is the largest, in proportion, of the wild bird group. - Hummingbirds are the only birds that can fly like a helicopter… up, down, sideways, front, and back! - Hummingbirds are the second largest family of birds with a total of 332 species. - Hummingbirds have weak feet – they mainly use them just for perching. - When food is scarce and they are fatigued, hummingbirds go into a hibernation-like state (also known as torpor) to conserve energy. - A hummingbird's heart beats up to 1,260 times per minute. - Hummingbirds do not mate for life. - A baby hummingbird is roughly the size of a penny and is unable to fly. - The average life span of a hummingbird is 5 years, but they have been known to live for more than 10. - Hummingbirds fly at an average of 25-30 miles per hour, and are able to dive up to 50 miles per hour. - Some hummingbirds will travel over 2,000 miles twice a year during their migration. Now you can track the hummingbirds during their migration with our Interactive Hummingbird Migration Map. Check out the map and submit a photo of the hummingbirds you see in your backyard. Plus see trends of where they're going, and how long it takes to get there - even see last years migration through our archives. Go to our migration map now » Check out our store and find a large variety of all types of hummingbird feeders that are perfect for helping the hummingbirds during their long migration.See our hummingbird feeders now » back to Birding Articles» Birdfeeders.com is your leading online source for hummingbird feeders, bird baths and bird houses. We offer the broadest and deepest selection of quality bird products to make your bird watching experience even more enjoyable!
image by U.S. Army (lic)More recently, ADHD researchers have directed their attention to the cerebellum. Studies indicate the cerebellums of children with ADHD are notably smaller than their non-ADHD peers. The cerebellum is a brain region that plays a significant role in sensory perception and motor function. As such, a smaller cerebellum might account for ADHD symptoms such as impulsivity, and the tendency to act without thinking. A smaller brain may impair executive functioning. This is a term psychologists use to refer to higher-order thinking skills, such as the ability to organize information; to sustain attention; and to choose an appropriate course of action. Many professionals suspect that impaired executive functioning can account for many ADHD symptoms. Other research suggests there may be a subset of children with ADHD who have larger frontal lobes than average. These children seem to have predominately hyperactive behavior. Research also suggests that ADHD may affect the basal ganglia connection to the frontal lobe. The basal ganglia are brain structures that help to coordinate motor control, cognition, emotions, and learning. These preliminary findings seem to indicate that not only are there brain differences between people with ADHD and those without the disorder; but, there may also be brain differences among the three ADHD subtypes. LINK More research is needed to determine whether there are truly biological differences in structure and function between different ADHD subtypes. It is important to note we do not know if these brain differences are the cause of ADHD symptoms. These differences could be a cause, a consequence, or of no consequence. At this point, we can merely observe differences and speculate plausible explanations based on what we do know. Continuing with brain differences, some researchers have found that children with lesser amounts of gray matter have a harder time paying attention. Gray matter is a connective tissue in the brain. It facilitates communication within the brain. Several studies indicate that ADHD individuals have less gray matter. This suggests a possible link between brain structure and ADHD behaviors. In addition to differences in brain structures, differences in brain activity can also be found. Brain activity can be measured by imaging technology such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). During tasks that require careful attention and impulse control, individuals with ADHD show decreased activity in the striatum and the prefrontal cortex. These parts of the brain modulate movement, decision-making, and response to rewarding or unpleasant situations. These findings might account for the non-traditional learning styles in people with ADHD. Although brain imaging techniques are useful for research, they are not currently used to diagnose ADHD. These types of studies provide helpful clues about the causes of this disorder. Someday research may determine the precise cause of ADHD. Until then, we can merely observe these differences and theorize causal relationships to ADHD symptoms. It is also important to note that these brain differences do not affect intelligence or other types of abilities. People with ADHD can be very smart, creative, athletic, and social. They can also be hopeful and optimistic; or, they can be depressed and discouraged. Thus, ADHD does not define a person. The unique brain differences described here reflect a genetic process that affects a specific set of tendencies and behaviors. It does not affect the entire range of a person's skills and abilities.
The Linux permission system isn't complex. It uses three attributes for three different permission positions. Knowing how read, write and execute works on files is important. These same permissions are used for directories too which provides the ability to enter directories, create new files and list directory contents. - [Instructor] Standard Linux permissions support three different modes, read, write, and execute. These three modes provide different functionality for files and directories. For files, read access means the user can open and read the contents of a file. When a user has write access to a file, they can write or modify the contents. When a user has execute permissions on a file, it means that the file can be run as an application. Commands like LS and applications like Firefox would have their execute bit set. What happens when a command is executed, is it's loaded into memory and run until told to stop. These same three modes act differently on a directory. If a user has read access to a directory, it means they can list the contents of the directory, which includes the metadata about the files and directories in it. If a user doesn't have read access, and they type in LS inside the directory, you'll see a lot of question marks where the metadata should be. If a user has write access to a directory, it allows them to write to the directory. Writing to the directory means creating new files in it. Execute permissions on a directory are a bit at odd. You're not going to run a directory like you would a command. Execute permissions means that you can enter or traverse the directory. - Getting file attributes and extended attributes - Creating and copying files and directories - Moving and renaming files and directories - Creating links to files and directories - Reviewing standard Linux permissions - Setting permissions using numeric method and symbolic method - Reading and setting ACLs - Managing default ACLs
\|This article does not cite any references or sources. (August 2007)\| This technique was used by the Romans from about the 6th century BC, and over time the precision and accuracy of the block cutting improved. The technique continued to be used throughout the age of the Roman Empire, even after the introduction of mortar, and was often used in addition to other techniques. The type of stone, the size of the blocks, and the way the blocks were put together can all be used to help archeologists date structures that display the technique. In early usage (often called the "Etruscan way"), the joints between the block introduce discontinuities, making the blocks uneven. Examples of such construction can be found in reservoirs, basements, terrace walls, and temple podiums in Etruscan cities and Rome. Subsequently (the "Greek way"), the blocks would be placed in one of two rotations. "Stretchers" would be placed so the longer side was on the face of the wall, and "headers" would be placed so the shorter side was on the face of the wall, and would thus extend further back into the wall thickness. Various patterns could be produced by changing how the blocks were placed, and it was common to strengthen the wall by ensuring that the joints between blocks were centered over the blocks in the row below. With the introduction of Roman concrete, continuous outer walls were often constructed, with some blocks laid as headers in order to attach to the inner wall. Tile or marble can be found cemented to such walls, but this was less common for those structures that were particularly load-bearing, such as arches and pillars used for bridges and aqueducts.
What Is It? Glomerulonephritis is a disease of the kidneys in which there is inflammation of the filtering units, called glomeruli. This inflammation can cause protein and red blood cells to leak into the urine while toxins normally removed by the kidney are retained in the body. Kidney failure develops when the kidney becomes less effective at filtering out waste products, water and salt from the blood. There are many types and causes of glomerulonephritis. These include: Prior infection: For example, after a streptococcal infection (such as strep throat), kidney failure may develop with associated problems of high blood pressure, dark urine, and swelling in the legs. Glomerulonephritis following streptococcal bacterial infection is among the most common types of post-infectious disease, especially among children. Autoimmune: With conditions such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or blood vessel inflammation (vasculitis), the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue. When the kidney's filtering system is the target, glomerulonephritis may develop. Antibody-mediated: The most common type is called IgA nephropathy. While this can be associated with liver disease, celiac disease or HIV infection, many cases are of unknown cause. Immunoglobulin A, an antibody that normally helps fight off infection, is deposited in the kidney, leading to hematuria (blood in the urine) but less commonly more serious problems. Membranous glomerulonephritis: This condition may develop as part of lupus or on its own. The hallmark of this type of kidney disease is the leakage of protein into the urine. Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis: This condition may be diagnosed when there is kidney inflammation and loss of kidney function over weeks to months. Triggers include infections, autoimmune disease, and certain types of antibody-mediated kidney disease. Idiopathic: When glomerulonephritis develops for no apparent reason it is called "idiopathic." It's possible that an undetected or undiagnosed infection or a hereditary cause led to kidney inflammation and damage. If glomerulonephritis is mild, it may not cause any symptoms. In that case, the disease may be discovered only if protein or blood is found in the urine during a routine test. In other people, the first clue can be the development of high blood pressure. If symptoms appear, they can include swelling around the feet, ankles, lower legs, and eyes, reduced urination and dark urine (due to the presence of red blood cells in the urine). High levels of protein in the urine can cause the urine to appear foamy. If severely elevated blood pressure develops, some people will have headaches (although most people with high blood pressure have no symptoms and most headaches are unrelated to blood pressure). Fatigue, nausea and tremulousness are other common symptoms of kidney failure due to glomerulonephritis. In severe cases, confusion or coma may develop. Your doctor will ask you about symptoms of a prior infection, family history, or symptoms of conditions that can affect the kidneys. For example, joint pain and rash are the most common symptoms of lupus. Your doctor will ask how often you are urinating, how much urine you are producing and the color of the urine. To check for a history of swelling, your doctor may ask whether you've noticed puffiness around your eyes, unusual tightness in your shoes or waistband or a feeling of heaviness in your legs or ankles. During your physical examination, your doctor will measure your blood pressure, weigh you to check for weight gain resulting from water retention, and check for swelling in your legs or elsewhere. A complete physical examination is important to look for evidence of other organ involvement such as arthritis or rash. To confirm the diagnosis of glomerulonephritis, your doctor will evaluate your kidney function through blood tests and an analysis of the urine (called a urinalysis) that detects blood, protein or signs of infection. You also may need specialized blood testing to check for specific autoimmune disease. A kidney biopsy, in which a tiny piece of kidney tissue is removed and examined in a laboratory, is the most helpful test when glomerulonephritis is suspected. How long glomerulonephritis lasts depends on its cause and on the severity of kidney damage. When glomerulonephritis follows an infection, the problem usually goes away within weeks to months. In other cases, glomerulonephritis becomes a chronic (long-lasting) condition that lasts for years and eventually can lead to kidney failure. To prevent glomerulonephritis following an infection, the infection must be treated promptly. Most forms of glomerulonephritis cannot be prevented. Once kidney disease, such as glomerulonephritis is present, avoiding certain medications (such as ibuprofen, naproxen or other anti-inflammatory drugs) can prevent sudden worsening. Complications of kidney disease, such as anemia and bone problems, may be prevented or minimized by appropriate monitoring and timely medical treatment. When glomerulonephritis is caused by an infection, the first step in treatment is to eliminate the infection. If bacteria caused the infection, antibiotics may be given. However, children who develop the disease following a streptococcal infection often recover without any specific treatment. When glomerulonephritis has slowed the amount of urine a person is producing, he or she may be given medications called diuretics, which help the body to rid itself of excess water and salt by producing more urine. More severe forms of the disease are treated with medications to control high blood pressure, as well as changes in diet to reduce the work of the kidneys. Some people with severe glomerulonephritis may be treated with medications called immunosuppressive drugs, which decrease the activity of the immune system. Such medications include azathioprine (Imuran), corticosteroids (Prednisone, Methylprednisolone), cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan), rituximab (Rituxan) or mycophenolate mofetil (CellCept). Plasma exchange, a procedure during which substances thought to cause inflammation and kidney damage are removed from the blood, can be helpful in certain types of autoimmune or antibody-mediated glomerulonephritis. When glomerulonephritis progresses to severe, irreversible renal failure, treatment options include dialysis or a kidney transplant. When To Call A Professional Call your doctor if you or your child is putting out less urine then normal or if urine looks bloody or abnormally dark. Also call your doctor if you notice unusual swelling, particularly around the eyes or in the legs or feet. If you have a history of a kidney problem and you develop any of these symptoms, you should seek medical assistance without delay. Children with glomerulonephritis usually recover completely if their illness is mild or if it develops following a strep infection. Although adults often have a poorer outlook, some recover completely. More severe forms of the disease may eventually lead to kidney failure, which may ultimately require lifelong treatment with dialysis or a kidney transplant. Learn more about Glomerulonephritis Drugs associated with: Related encyclopedia articles National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disorders Office of Communications and Public Liaison Building 31, Room 9A04 Center Drive, MSC 2560 Bethesda, MD 20892-2560 Phone: (301) 496-3583 Fax: (301) 496-7422 American Foundation for Urologic Disease 1000 Corporate Blvd., Suite 410 Linthicum, MD 21090 Phone: (410) 689-3990 Toll-Free: (800) 828-7866 Fax: (410) 689-3998 American Association of Kidney Patients 3505 E. Frontage Rd., Suite 315 Tampa, FL 33607
If Charles Darwin had wandered up the side of the Volcan Wolf volcano on the island of Isabela when he visited the Galapagos in 1835, he might have spotted what is now known as the rosada (or pink) iguana. Then again, probably not. It was first reported by some park rangers in 1986. The distinctively colored iguana has never been found anywhere else. The rosada iguana was recognized as a member of the Conolophus genus of land iguanas (there are two known species in the Galapagos), but how it fit into the evolution of the Galapagos land iguanas remained a question. A yellow iguana also lives on the volcano; could they be the same species? Now a new genetic analysis of the land iguanas, published by PNAS this week, reveals that the rosada is its own species and one that diverged from the other two about 5.7 million years ago. This was a period before all of the Galapagos Islands had formed, and, strangely, well before the volcano that is now the rosada’s home had formed. The researchers warn that the new not-yet-scientifically-named species is so rare that it already meets the criteria to be labeled “critically endangered.”
What is an IR Sensor? Principles of Operation We have already discussed how a light sensor works. IR Sensors work by using a specific light sensor to detect a select light wavelength in the Infra-Red (IR) spectrum. By using an LED which produces light at the same wavelength as what the sensor is looking for, you can look at the intensity of the received light. When an object is close to the sensor, the light from the LED bounces off the object and into the light sensor. This results in a large jump in the intensity, which we already know can be detected using a threshold. Since the sensor works by looking for reflected light, it is possible to have a sensor that can return the value of the reflected light. This type of sensor can then be used to measure how "bright" the object is. This is useful for tasks like line tracking.
Chapter 13: Prejudice and Intergroup Relations ABCs of Intergroup Relationships: Prejudice, Discrimination and Stereotypes Prejudice is a negative attitude or feeling towards an individual based solely on that individuals membership in a certain group. It illustrates racism, which is prejudiced attitudes towards a certain race. Today racism is more subtle than it was, and it takes the form of aversive racism, which is simultaneously holding egalitarian values and negative (aversive or unpleasant) feelings towards minorities. Prejudice often leads to discrimination, which is the unequal treatment of different people based on the groups or categories to which they belong. Stereotypes are beliefs that associate groups of people with certain traits. These are difficult to change, because people tend to throw exceptions to the rule into a separate category, called a subtype. ABCs = the Affective component is prejudice, the Behavioural component is discrimination, and the Cognitive component is stereotyping. Categorizations allows us to more easily make sense of the world. Social categorization is the process of sorting people into groups on the basis of characteristics they have in common (eg: race, gender, age, religion, sexual orientation). A big difference in sorting people and things is the level of emotional involvement: when sorting people into heterosexual, bisexual or homosexual, for example, you belong to one category so you feel emotionally attached to it. But someone sorting fruits into apples and oranges would not feel the same way. Outgroup members are people who belong to a different group or category than we do. Ingroup members are people who belong to the same group or category as we do. Most people assume that outgroup members are more similar to each other than ingroup members are. This is a false assumption known as the outgroup homogeneity bias. People even see people of outgroups as looking the same! When it comes to witnesses, you can identify ingroup members better than outgroup members. But when it comes to angry outgroup members, then they are easier to identify. This is because it is important to keep track of dangerous people. The bias is easily explained by the fact that we do not have as much exposure to outgroup members as we do to ingroup members. Common Prejudices and Targets Most come from external characteristics that are readily visible. The most widely discussed prejudices are racism, followed by sexism. Arabs and Muslims: o Prejudice and discrimination has increased since September 11th. o Bushman and Bonacci experiment: Participants were given a questionnaire to assess their bias against Arabs and Muslims. Then they were accidentally sent an email either addressed to an Arab or to an English person. The email either said that the person won a scholarship and had to respond in 48 hours, or did not win one. Those who had a bias against arabs were 12% less likely to forward the email to the right person if the intended recipient was arab, as long as the email said that the student had won the scholarship. Those who had a bias against arabs were 19% more likely to return to lost email to an arab if the email said they did not win the scholarship. Those with no biases returned the emails with no bias. o Research has shown that the more people watch the news, the more prejudiced they are about Arabs and Muslims. People who are overweight: o Many people openly admit and act upon their prejudice against obese o Stigma by association: there is a negative stigma, for example, on someone sitting beside an obese person. This is the rejection of those who associate with stigmatized others. o Anti-gay prejudices are very strong, even if being gay is not something that o This is also a prejudice that people are more likely to openly admit to. o Homophobia: excessive fear of gay people or gay behaviour. o Angry prejudice: An experiment shows that homophobics administered shocks more freely to a homosexual than to a heterosexual, especially after being made to watch a homosexual erotic tape. o Homosexual prejudices are more common among men than women, even though men are more likely to be homosexual or to take part in homosexual acts. Men are women are also more intolerant of homosexual behaviour in their own gender. Stigmas: characteristics of individuals that are considered socially unacceptable (overweight, mentally ill, sickness, poverty, physical blemishes). 1. Prejudice is to discrimination as ______ is to _______. a. Affect, behaviour b. Affect, cognition c. Cognition, affect d. Cognition, behaviour 2. Becca is a store clerk. While she is shopping at another store in her day off she runs into a very rude store clerk and a very rude executive. Becca will probably conclude _____.a. Most store clerks and managers tend to be rude b. Most store clerks but not necessarily managers tend to be rude c. Most managers but not necessarily store clerks tend to be rude d. Neither most store clerks nor most managers tend to be rude 3. The second leading cause of preventable death in the USA is ____. b. Diet and activity level d. Toxic Agents 4. Compared to nonhomophobics, homophobics are _____ aggressive toward homosexual targets and are _____ aggressive toward heterosexual targets. a. More, less b. More, equally c. Less, less d. More, more Why Prejudice Exists One theory is that is comes from culture/learned through socialization. However some may also be natural, and we must exert effort to override them. Prejudices are also found all over Ingroup favouritism is the preferential treatment of, or more favourable attitudes towards, people in ones own group. Tajfel wanted to do an experiment where he started at an arbitrary group with no prejudices and worked his way up, adding differences to see
It takes all kinds of numbers to make mathematics. One kind is the rather artistic group of numbers - they are called irrational. They are artistic because they appear in all kinds of ways in art, and some of these ways you can investigate in the worksheets that are attached to this page. To start understanding how the irrational numbers differ from other numbers, we will first talk about rational numbers. A number is said to be rational if it can be written as a ratio of any two whole numbers (integers). So any number you can write as is rational as long as both p and q are integers. A rational number is any number that you can write as a fraction. Irrational numbers have some common features - their decimals go on for ever, and there is no pattern in the decimal part of these numbers. So - although they all have infinitely many decimal places, there is no pattern in the way these appear. For example, 1/3 is a rational number although if you want to express it as a decimal you will get a reoccurring decimal. But that is beside the point: it doesn't matter if the decimal that you get from a fraction is reoccurring or not; as long as you can write that number as a fraction the number is not irrational. So it follows that the numbers that cannot be written as fractions of two integers are irrational numbers. Some are more irrational than others, but that is another story... Here are some examples of irrational numbers: Click on some of the numbers above to see pages linke to them. There is no use in trying to see whether a number is irrational by using a calculator. Your calculator will not tell you whether the number is a never-ending non-reoccurring decimal. Your calculator will simply give you the answer to the number of decimal places that it can cope with. Can you guess which of the mentioned irrational numbers is used in the construction of the pentagram? Golden Rectangle can be constructed using the number Which you can use to construct a logarithmic spiral To learn how to do this, you can download Fibonacci worksheet no.3. This is the way to construct the - to learn about all the steps of this construction, go to Irrationals worksheet.
Describe in words the graph of each of these curves below. Include in your description the shape, along with other possible relevant information such as length, width, and center points. a. Y = 3X2 b. (X-1)2 + (Y-8)2 = 16 c. (X+2)2 + (Y-4)2 = 36 d. Y = X2 - X First, learn how to represent exponentiation, that is, how to show something is being raised to a power when writing an equation. The symbol ^ is used, as illustrated in my red editing above. Originally Posted by LisaAnn_86 Now, do you realise that: 1. is the standard equation for a parabola. Do you know what a parabola looks like and what important features its graph has? 2. is the standard equation for a circle. Do you know what important features the graph of a circle has? If the answer to any of my questions is no, then you need to go back to your class notes and textbook and do some serious revision. If you answered yes to all of my questions, then I really don't understand what your problem is. Are you havng trouble finding the important features? If so, then please state clearly what it is you can't find.
Algebra, typically taught as a one-year course in middle or high school or a half-year course during college, is an essential stepping stone to more advanced mathematics, such as geometry, trigonometry, statistics and calculus. Depending on the specific curriculum, a myriad of topics could be covered, but the four most principle among them consist of simplifying expressions, solving equations, factoring and graphing. At the heart of algebra is the concept of the variable, a symbol -- normally a letter -- representing an unknown numeric value. Working with expressions is usually the first of the four major topics covered in an algebra course. An algebraic expression is a mathematical phrase that contains one or more terms and may include a mixture of numbers, variables and operating symbols, but no equal signs. Expressions are presented to the learner in forms that require simplification, which is completed via a particular method or variety of methods depending on the individual problem. Such methods can entail multiplication, division, combining like terms or applying the distributive property, for example. As crawling is to walking, simplifying expressions is the means to an end -- that is, learning how to simplify expressions enables students to solve equations. An equation is a mathematical statement of equality; it entails two expressions linked by an equals sign. Like expressions, equations possess differing forms. The goal of the solution process is to isolate the variable or variables, accomplished via assorted methods. Students initially practice the equation-solving process on basic single-step linear equations and then build upon this foundation to solve more complicated equations, including multi-step linear equations, systems of linear equations and equations involving proportions, radicals and absolute values. The equation-solving process framework also applies to solving inequalities. Factoring to Solve Quadratics The factoring process is first used to simplify special types of expressions known as quadratics, and later employed to solve quadratic equations and inequalities. Quadratics consist of up to three terms, at least one of which contains a variable that is an exponent, a number raised to the second power. The basic process of factoring quadratics essentially entails finding two numbers that when added produce the coefficient of the term whose variable is raised to the first power, and when multiplied produce the constant term, which is the one that has no variable. However, more complex quadratics necessitate a lengthier factoring process. Quadratic equations typically produce two solutions, although sometimes they may produce just one solution or no solutions at all. Graphing in algebra is done on the Cartesian -- or coordinate -- plane, a two-dimensional grid consisting of a horizontal number line and a vertical number line intersecting each other at a right angle. The process of graphing functions -- equations whose solutions depend on their input values -- takes the first three algebraic processes a step further, displaying a visual representation of solved problems. Even when completed with the aid of technology, the graphing process still requires the ability to solve various sorts of equations. Most curricula intersperse lessons on graphing with lessons on solving the particular types of equations that generate their particular types of graphs. For instance, students typically learn how to graph linear functions shortly after learning how to solve linear equations, whereas the graphing of quadratic, or parabolic, functions is taught several months later. - Hemera Technologies/AbleStock.com/Getty Images
Some people do not produce enough tears to keep the front surface of the eye lubricated and comfortable. This condition is known as dry eye. It is the most common cause of eye irritation and failure to wear contact lenses comfortably. What is going on in the body? Tears are secreted by nearby glands and have several purposes. They act to keep the front surface of the eye lubricated and moist. They also keep the surface smooth so that light enters the eye through a suitable surface for clear vision. The tears also contain antibacterial substances that protect against infection. Without enough tears, irritation or even damage to the front of the eye may occur. What are the causes and risks of the condition? The risk of dry eye increases with age. This is because tear production normally decreases with age. Dry eye is also more common in women, especially after menopause. Occasionally, dry eye can be caused by: - autoimmune diseases. These are disorders in which a person's immune system attacks his or her body for no apparent reason. For example, in a condition called Sjogren syndrome, people get dry eyes, a dry mouth, and arthritis. - medications such as diuretics or "water pills." Antihistamines, such as diphenhydramine, sleeping pills, medications for nerves, and pain relievers can also cause dry eye. - neurologic disorders, such as Lou Gherig's disease, also called amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In these conditions, the nerves that cause the glands to secrete tears are not working. - damage or scarring of the front of the eye or the glands that make tears. - eyelid problems, such as lids that cannot close properly. - cancers, such as blood cancer, although this is rare. - the environment. For example, when the humidity is very low, people may notice their eyes feel dry. Other causes are also possible. In the vast majority of cases, the cause for dry eye cannot be found. What can be done to prevent the condition? Avoidance of dry environments can prevent some cases. Many cases cannot be prevented, but can be treated. Those who tend to get dry eye can use lubricating drops to avoid further episodes. How is the condition diagnosed? A eye care professional can usually diagnose dry eye by examining the eyes. There are painless methods of measuring tear production. For example, a small paper strip can be placed over the lower eyelid for about 5 minutes to measure the eye's ability to make tears. Another test involves placing a drop of stain in the eye to look for a particular pattern of staining on the surface of the eye. Long Term Effects What are the long-term effects of the condition? Left untreated, dry eye can cause irritation and inflammation of the front of the eye. It may result in blurred vision which is cleared by repetitive blinking. Serious long-term effects are unusual in the US, but more common in underdeveloped countries. What are the risks to others? A dry eye is not contagious and poses no risk to others. What are the treatments for the condition? Treatment is directed at the cause, if one can be found. For example, medications may need to be stopped or changed. If the cause cannot be corrected, treatment is planned to relieve symptoms and prevent damage to the eye. Artificial tears, in the form of drops, are the most common treatment. These can be bought without a prescription. These drops may need to be used often during the day because they only help moisten the eye for 1 to 2 hours at a time. The drops come in several different levels of thickness, or viscosity. Some people find that the thicker ones work better for them than the more watery forms. Artificial tears can be used as often as needed, once or twice a day, or even several times an hour. If a person needs to use artificial tears more than every 2 hours, preservative-free brands are advised. People with extremely dry eyes may find that drops are not enough. They can use lubricating ointments in their eyes. These ointments are usually used at bedtime since they last longer through the night than a drop would and may impair vision while in the eye. Another treatment is to conserve the tears. An eye doctor may insert plugs into the small openings on the eyelids that drain into the nose. Normally tears drain through these openings into the nose and then down the back of the throat. If this channel is plugged, the few tears one does make can stay on the surface of the eye longer, which may help lessen symptoms. The small openings can even be closed permanently with surgery if needed. If conservative methods fail, the topical use of cyclosporine drops may help. These drops address the inflammatory causes of decreased tearing. However, they sting, must be used twice a day, and it takes six to eight weeks to notice improvement. Long term maintenance is usually needed, Using a humidifier to keep more moisture in the air can lessen evaporation of tears. Placing a pan of water on the radiator at night, especially during the winter, can also help keep room air moist. People with dry eye should avoid anything that may cause more dryness, such as an overly warm room, smoke, hair dryers, or wind. The treatment of dry eye involves a long-term commitment. It should be understood that the condition is not likely to be cured, but it can be managed. It is rare for this condition to cause permanent visual loss. Dry eye is usually a matter of the comfort of the eye and possibly a temporary blurring of vision. What are the side effects of the treatments? Some artificial tears have preservatives that can cause side effects in people with dry eye. These include burning, itching, and allergic reactions. There are preservative-free artificial tears that those individuals can use. If surgery is done, there is a very small risk of infection or reaction to any pain medicine used. What happens after treatment for the condition? If treatment is successful, no further treatment is needed. In many cases, however, people need ongoing treatment for quite some time. How is the condition monitored? Affected people can generally monitor their symptoms at home. In severe cases, regular eye exams may be needed to monitor for eye damage.
Always use specific historical examples to support your arguments. In your opinion, was the Cold War inevitable? If not, was the United States or the USSR more to blame? Although both Truman and Stalin helped increase tensions in Europe and East Asia in the years immediately following World War II, the Cold War itself was likely inevitable. The alliance that had formed between the United States and the USSR during World War II was not strong enough to overcome the past decades of suspicion and unease between the two nations. Moreover, as both leaders sought to achieve their postwar security objectives, which were often mutually exclusive, neither was willing to compromise. The United States and the USSR had always generally disliked and distrusted each other, despite the fact that they were allies against Germany and Japan during the war. Americans had hated and feared Communism ever since it had appeared in the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 and had refused to recognize the new Soviet government, especially after Bolshevik leaders promoted the destruction of capitalism. During World War II, Roosevelt and British prime minister Winston Churchill delayed their decision to open a second front, which would have distracted the Nazis and taken pressure off the Red Army entrenched at Stalingrad. Stalin resented this delay, just as he resented the fact that the United States and Great Britain refused to share their nuclear weapons research with the Soviet Union. After the war, Truman’s decision to give Great Britain relief loans while denying similar requests from the USSR only added to the resentment. Another major factor contributing to the Cold War was the fact that the United States and USSR were the only two powers to escape World War II relatively unharmed. Whereas other major world powers such as Great Britain, France, Italy, and Germany lay in ruins, the Soviet Union and the United States still had manufacturing and military capabilities. The world had been a multipolar one before the war but was bipolar afterward, and this new order implicitly pitted the already distrustful and ideologically opposed United States and Soviet Union against each other. Perhaps most important, both powers had conflicting security goals that neither wanted to concede. The USSR, which had already been invaded twice in the first half of the twentieth century, wanted to set up friendly governments throughout Eastern Europe to create a buffer between Moscow and Germany. In addition to exacting enormous war reparations, Stalin wanted to dismantle German factories to keep Germany weak and dependent. Truman, conversely, believed that rebuilding, reindustrializing, and democratizing Europe was the key to preventing another world war. With neither side willing to compromise on these conflicting ideologies and postwar plans, tension between the United States and the USSR was inevitable. Why has the Korean War often been called America’s “forgotten war”? What purpose did the war serve, and what impact did it have? The Korean War has often been called America’s “forgotten war” because the United States made no significant territorial or political gains during the war. Despite the fact that tens of thousands of Americans died, the war both began and ended with the Korean Peninsula divided at the 38th parallel. Nevertheless, the Korean War helped define the Cold War, established a precedent for keeping peripheral wars limited, and boosted defense spending that contributed to the postwar economic boom in the United States. Despite the loss of life, the Korean War faded from national memory, perhaps because the three-year conflict ended without any territorial or political gains. Although General Douglas MacArthur captured nearly the entire Korean Peninsula after his brilliant Inchon landing, his tactical miscalculation at the Yalu River brought China into the war and forced United Nations troops back down to the 38th parallel, where they had started. Both sides became entrenched there, each preventing the other from making any headway. As a result, neither side could claim victory when cease-fire negotiations began in 1953. The 38th parallel remained one of the “hottest” Cold War borders in the world, almost as if the war had never really ended. The Korean War was an important conflict, however, because it set the tone for the entire Cold War. In expanding the draft and sending more than 3 million U.S. troops to Korea, Truman demonstrated to the USSR his commitment to containing Communism at almost any cost. This demonstration of massive U.S. military force in East Asia forced the Soviets to rethink postwar policy in Eastern Europe and the rest of Asia. Truman also set a precedent during the war of avoiding the use of nuclear weapons, despite the fact that MacArthur advocated using them against North Koreans and the Chinese. Although the American public vilified Truman for this decision and for firing his insubordinate general, the decision proved to be prudent. The president knew that using nuclear weapons would only drag the Soviet Union and China fully into the conflict, which would destabilize Europe and initiate a third world war—one that might even lead to all-out nuclear war. By refusing to use nuclear weapons, Truman kept the war confined to the Korean Peninsula. The decision would later have an enormous impact on future presidents making similar decisions in Vietnam. Truman’s actions in Korea therefore demonstrated not only American resolve to contain Communism but also a desire to keep the Cold War from devolving into an open war. The Korean War also boosted American military spending, as a result of a memorandum issued by the National Security Council, known as NSC-68. The memo recommended that Congress quadruple military and defense spending in order to contain the Soviet Union. As a result, the percentage of Congress’s annual budget spent on defense soared throughout the following years, hovering at roughly 50 percent under the Eisenhower administration. Government investment in war factories kept employment high and money flowing into the economy between 1950 and 1970, contributing significantly to the prosperous economic boom. Was the United States, the USSR, or Cuba more to blame for the Cuban missile crisis? What impact did the crisis have on U.S.-Soviet relations? Because the United States attempted repeatedly to assassinate or overthrow Fidel Castro in the early 1960s, the blame for the resulting Cuban missile crisis falls squarely on American shoulders. Had it not been for Khrushchev’s ultimate willingness to back down and end the crisis, the United States and the USSR might actually have ended up in the nuclear war that the world feared. The United States tried repeatedly to topple Castro after he seized power in a popularly supported revolution in Cuba in 1959. Americans disliked the Castro regime because it threatened U.S. economic interests in the country. When the United States withdrew its financial support from Castro’s government, Castro turned to the Soviet Union for assistance. In order to prevent Cuba’s Communist influence from spreading throughout Latin America, Kennedy launched the Alliance for Progress, a program that awarded Latin American countries millions of dollars in U.S. aid to tackle poverty. Kennedy took more direct action when he authorized the arming and training of 1,200 anti-Castro Cuban exiles to invade the island, in the hopes that the invasion would cause a massive public uprising that would ultimately depose Castro. The plan for this Bay of Pigs invasion failed, however, when Kennedy decided not to involve American military forces and withheld the air support he had previously promised the exiles. As a result, the Cuban army killed or captured all of the exiles, and the invasion attempt was an embarrassment for the U.S. government. Although Kennedy accepted full responsibility for the Bay of Pigs failure, he continued to authorize unsuccessful CIA-led assassination attempts against Castro. Not surprisingly, Castro turned to the Soviet Union for support, and in 1962, U.S. intelligence officials discovered that the Soviet Union had placed nuclear missiles in Cuba. Kennedy sent a naval blockade to circle the island, despite Cuban and Soviet protests, and refused to back down, even at the risk of nuclear war. The crisis ended only when Khrushchev himself agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for an end to the blockade. This sacrifice cost him his position as head of the Soviet Communist Party but saved the world from the prospect of nuclear war between the superpowers. The crisis had a significant impact on U.S.-Soviet relations, as both sides worked to improve their relationship in order to prevent another potentially catastrophic situation from arising. A Moscow-Washington “hotline,” for example, was installed so that the Soviet premier and American president could speak to each other personally should another crisis occur. Kennedy also changed his rhetoric by asking Americans to think more kindly of the Russians rather than see them as enemies. He also pushed the USSR into signing the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, a symbolic but nonetheless significant step that helped pave the way for détente in the 1970s. Suggested Essay Topics 1. How did George Kennan’s containment doctrine change during the Truman, Eisenhower and Kennedy administrations? Which president was the most successful in containing Communism? 2. What were the causes of the American economic boom in the 1950s? How did prosperity affect the nation socially, politically, and economically? 3. Why were Americans so terrified of Communist infiltration after World War II? What impact did the Red hunts of the late 1940s and early 1950s have on American politics and society? 4. What impact did the Korean War have on American foreign policy? 5. Why was the launch of Sputnik I in 1957 so significant? What did its launch mean for Americans? Cause and effect essay on the cold warBreak out create cold war was the ascent to become quite simple, 1-3. 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This activity from NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory introduces students to the scientific understanding of the greenhouse effect and the carbon cycle. The activity leads them through several interactive tasks to investigate recent trends in atmospheric carbon dioxide. Students analyze scientific data and use scientific reasoning to determine the causes responsible for these recent trends. By studying carbon cycle science in a visual and interactive manner, students can learn firsthand about the reasons behind our changing climate. In this hands-on engineering activity, students build a tabletop wind turbine. Students get acquainted with the basics of wind energy and power production by fabricating and testing various blade designs for table-top windmills, constructed from one-inch PVC pipe and balsa wood (or recycled materials). The activity includes lots of good media and Web resources supporting the science content. In this hands-on lesson, students measure the effect of distance and inclination on the amount of heat felt by an object and apply this experiment to building an understanding of seasonality. In Part 1, the students set up two thermometers at different distances from a light bulb and record their temperatures to determine how distance from a heat source affects temperature. In Part 2, students construct a device designed to measure the temperature as a function of viewing angle toward the Sun by placing a thermometer inside a black construction paper sleeve, and placing the device at different angles toward the Sun. They then explain how distance and inclination affect heat and identify situations where these concepts apply, such as the seasons on Earth and the NASA Mercury MESSENGER mission. This activity is a greenhouse-effect-in-a-bottle experiment. The lesson includes readings from NEED.org and an inquiry lab measuring the effect of carbon dioxide and temperature change in an enclosed environment. This lesson explores the chemistry of some of the gases that affect Earth's climate. It is the 3rd in a series of 9 lessons from an online module entitled 'Visualizing and Understanding the Science of Climate Change'. In this Earth Exploration Toolbook chapter, students select, explore, and analyze satellite imagery. They do so in the context of a case study of the origins of atmospheric carbon monoxide and aerosols, tiny solid airborne particles such as smoke from forest fires and dust from desert wind storms. They use the software tool ImageJ to animate a year of monthly images of aerosol data and then compare the animation to one created for monthly images of carbon monoxide data. Students select, explore, and analyze satellite imagery using NASA Earth Observatory (NEO) satellite data and NEO Image Composite Explorer (ICE) tool to investigate seasonal and geographic patterns and variations in concentration of CO and aerosols in the atmosphere. In this activity, students develop an understanding of the relationship between natural phenomena, weather, and climate change: the study known as phenology. In addition, they learn how cultural events are tied to the timing of seasonal events. Students brainstorm annual natural phenomena that are tied to seasonal weather changes. Next, they receive information regarding the Japanese springtime festival of Hanami, celebrating the appearance of cherry blossoms. Students plot and interpret average bloom date data from over the past 1100 years. In this activity, students act as water molecules and travel through parts of the water cycle (ocean, atmosphere, clouds, glaciers, snow, rivers, lakes, ground, aquifer). Students use a diagram of the hydrologic cycle to draw the pathway they traveled.
Sea turtles are migratory marine reptiles whose ancestors have inhabited earth's oceans since the late Triassic Period (about 205 million years before present). All species of sea turtles face extinction, mostly due to human causes. Five species can be found in Georgia's marine waters, with loggerheads being most abundant, and all five species are protected under the federal Endangered Species Act. By virtue of a temperate climate and protected dunes suitable for nesting activities, Georgia's barrier island beaches host an average of 1,000 sea turtle nests per year. Georgia's sea turtle conservation programs are a collaborative effort among private, state, federal, and international projects. The main threats to sea turtles in Georgia are the destruction of their nests and eggs and offshore mortalities associated with commercial longline fishing or shrimping activities. Because they live near the ocean's surface, sea turtles in one region are affected by threats occurring elsewhere, such as poaching, loss of habitat due to development, and marine pollution. Loggerhead, Caretta caretta: Georgia's most common nesting sea turtle; found in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans and the Mediterranean Sea. Leatherback, Dermochelys coriacea: Global distribution, perhaps the most widely distributed reptile on the planet; tolerates colder waters. They are the largest of all sea turtles and can reach nearly six feet in length. Green, Chelonia mydas: Occasionally found in Georgia waters; found primarily in tropical zones of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. Kemp's Ridley, Lepidochelys kempii: Found primarily in the Gulf of Mexico, though juveniles are found in the Atlantic Ocean during warm months. Hawksbill, Eretmochelys imbricata: Found mostly in tropical waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans; rarely sighted in Georgia, but two carcasses were found in 1998. Except for their incubation period, male sea turtles spend their entire lives swimming and floating at sea. Females come ashore only to nest. Due to this "invisibility," many aspects of sea turtle life cycles remain unknown. Mating usually occurs offshore in shallow waters. A pregnant female will lumber ashore at night to lay her clutch of eggs, depositing them in a cavity dug with her hind feet. Clutch size can range from 80 to more than 100 eggs, and a single pregnant loggerhead female can lay an average of four nests per season. Assuming that no predators consume the eggs, tiny hatchlings struggle out of their sandy nests after fifty to eighty days. Population Little Cumberland and Blackbeard islands in 1964 and 1965 respectively, predating the official federal listing in 1973 under the Endangered Species Act. By 1989 all Georgia barrier islands except three had monitoring and protection. The severity of threats against the dramatically dwindling sea turtle populations has galvanized conservation in Georgia. In an effort to standardize data collection and conservation procedures, barrier-island managers along the Georgia coast enacted the Georgia Loggerhead Recovery and Habitat Protection Plan in 1994. In 2007 the Georgia Sea Turtle Center, which provides veterinary care to and public education programs about sea turtles, opened on Jekyll Island. The main threats to Georgia sea turtles are nest predation by hogs, raccoons, and dogs, and drowning as bycatch in longline and shrimping nets. To avoid nest predation, researchers in the past would relocate nests to protected hatchery areas. However, it has been observed that temperature In 2008 the University of Georgia's Marine Extension Program, the Georgia Sea Turtle Center, and the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources collaborated in a project to increase sea turtle survival, working together to tag turtles for research and collect blood samples for testing. According to these researchers, the population of the sea turtles increased by 3 percent between 2000 and 2008. If you find a turtle carcass, witness nesting behavior, or observe someone injuring or killing these protected animals, contact the local Department of Natural Resources office. These ancient animals, whose life cycles and ecological functions are still so little known, are fascinating manifestations of our earth's rich biodiversity. Media Gallery: Sea Turtles
Heterochromia is an anatomic condition present in some human beings and animals consisting in eyes irises having different colors. What does define the iris color? Eyes color is a characteristic that generally comes from genetic inheritance and whose determination is basically due to the amount and distribution of melanin in the iris. It is common for newborns to have an iris color that looks like a blueish grey. It isn’t until 6 to 10 months of age when the eye color is defined for good, because, before that moment, cells that generate melanin are yet to mature. Types of heterochromia There are several types of heterochromia. Some are rare in human beings, while other types are more frequent. They can be classified as follows. ACCORDING TO ITS LOCALIZATION - Heterochromia iridium or complete heterochromia. It is described as the condition for which one iris has different color to the other iris. It is rare in human beings. - Heterochromia iridis or partial heterochromia. The person has two different colors within one iris. This last case is much more frequent and may occur in the form of central heterochromia (an iris has a ring of one color and the rest of the iris another), or sectorial heterochromia (heterochromia does not have the form of a ring, but instead it affects only a non-ring-shaped section of the iris, as we can see in the following picture). ACCORDING TO THE MOMENT OF ONSET - Congenital heterochromia. It is present from the moment the eye reaches its final coloring. - Acquired heterochromia. It may appear later in life, due to an injury or to other underlying conditions. Causes originating such colorings may be very diverse, although in most of the cases, it is a congenital disorder, which means that people affected are born with this condition, which isn’t really relevant, as it does not imply any vision alteration whatsoever. In such cases, the difference of color between the two eyes or within the same eye does not change, and ocular function is normal. However, heterochromia may have other different causes. - Idiopathic iris heterochromia. It is already present at birth and does not have any pathological cause. Ocular function is completely normal, as it is not associated with any ocular diseases. - Pathological and congenital iris heterochromia. It is present from birth and it is due to the existence of an underlying congenital disease, such as neurofibromatosis, Waardenburg syndrome or Claude-Bernard-Horne congenital syndrome. Heterochromia may also be due to diseases or injuries suffered throughout life. Therefore, if changes in iris coloring are observed, it is important to go to the ophthalmologist in order to examine the case and determine whether there is an underlying condition. Some factors that may cause acquired heterochromia are: - Siderosis and hemosiderosis. These are iron depositions on the iris. They cause an alteration in normal coloring and usually occur as a consequence of a trauma or injury. - Glaucoma and some drugs to treat it. Glaucoma and excessive use of eye drops to treat it may lead to an iris coloring alteration. - Fuch’s heterochromic iridocyclitis. This eye’s anterior chamber inflammation is one of the most common causes of iris coloring alteration. - Uveitis or ocular inflammation. - Melanomas or ocular tumors, consisting in an excessive proliferation of cells responsible for synthesizing melanin, melanocytes. - Other rare diseases Incidence and famous cases Despite the low incidence of heterochromia, there are several famous cases, such as those of actresses Kate Bosworth, Mila Kunis, Alice Eve and Jane Seymour, and those of actors Henry Cavill (Superman) and Benedict Cumberbath (Sherlock). The famous case of David Bowie, whose eyes looked different, was, however, due to a different size in eye pupils (anisocoria), caused by a palsy of the nerve responsible for dilating and contracting the pupil. One of his eye pupils was always dilated, which made the iris of that eye look at a first glance as if it was darker than the other.
CP affects the part of the brain that controls muscle movements. The majority of children with cerebral palsy are born with it, although it may not be detected until months or years later. The early signs of cerebral palsy usually appear before a child reaches 3 years of age. The most common are a lack of muscle coordination when performing voluntary movements (ataxia); stiff or tight muscles and exaggerated reflexes (spasticity); walking with one foot or leg dragging; walking on the toes, a crouched gait, or a "scissored" gait; and muscle tone that is either too stiff or too floppy. Other neurological symptoms that commonly occur in individuals with CP include seizures, hearing loss and impaired vision, bladder and bowel control issues, and pain and abnormal sensations. A small number of children have CP as the result of brain damage in the first few months or years of life, brain infections such as bacterial meningitis or viral encephalitis, or head injury from a motor vehicle accident, a fall, or child abuse. The disorder isn't progressive, meaning that the brain damage typically doesn't get worse over time. Risk factors associated with CP do not cause the disorder but can increase a child's chance of being born with the disorder.CP is not hereditary. Causes and Risk Factors Cerebral palsy is caused by damage to the fetal or infant brain. It occurs when there is neurological damage before, during, or within five years of birth that prevents the brain from developing properly. Damage to the parts of the brain that control motor function causes children with CP to struggle with posture, balance and movement. Although this disability affects muscle movement, it isn't caused by problems with the actual muscles or nerves-it is strictly caused by developmental brain damage. Common Causes of Cerebralstrongalsy: Bacterial and viral infections. Bleeding in the brain (hemorrhaging). A lack of oxygen to the brain before, during or after birth (asphyxia). Prenatal exposure to drugs and alcohol, mercury poisoning from fish and toxoplasmosis. Head injuries sustained during birth or in the first few years of infancy.
A Variety of Foods for Picky Eaters (C 1037-16)Download PDF Eat a Variety of Foods: Encourage your family to stay healthy by eating a variety of foods. Many young children have strong preferences for some foods, and refuse to try others. There are many things you can do to encourage your child to eat a variety of foods. Allow your child to choose between two options. For example, ask, "Which would you like for dinner, spinach or broccoli?" Provide One Meal for Everyone Make the same meal for the whole family instead of making a special meal for your child. This encourages your child to try eating what was prepared. Involve Your Child in the Kitchen When children help prepare a meal, they are more likely to want to taste it. Helping in the kitchen also builds math and science skills, confidence, and responsibility. Some children need to experience a food many times before they are willing to eat it. *United States Department of Agriculture. (2011). MyPlate: Picky Eating. Retrieved from www.choosemyplate.gov/preschoolers/picky-eaters.html Family Fun Activity: Food Finder Use this easy activity to help your child learn. What You Need: - Grocery store What To Do: - Next time you go to the grocery store, invite your child to come with you - Explain that he or she will be the "Food Finder" at the store - Allow your child to choose one new fruit or vegetable for the family to try at dinner - Serve your child's choice at the next meal - When your child chooses the new food, he or she is more likely to try it This is publication 16 out of 24 in the Eat Healthy, Be Active: Keeping Children Healthy at Home and School series. For more information visit www.eathealthybeactive.net
In the world of robotics, researchers are going soft – in their designs at least. Soft robots have some advantages over their more rigid brethren but till now, they've not been able to do much other than wriggle around. An advance from UC San Diego has changed that by creating a bot with a firm body and soft legs that can wander over difficult ground like sand or pebbles. Soft robots hold promise because, unlike bots that are made from hard plastics and metal, they can bump into things – including humans – and not cause any damage. This makes them ideal for use in factories, hospitals or even at home as companion robots. Soft robots are also good at squishing through tough spaces and getting around in water, so they could be used as investigators in factories or repair bots for city infrastructure. But before soft robots become more of a reality, they'll need better locomotion skills. So far we've seen a chemically powered octopus-based bot that can wiggle its arms, a nearly invisible underwater robot that can catch and release fish, and wriggly caterpillar-like soft bot that uses light to move. But none of these can really get around all that well on solid ground. The UCSD robot, which incorporates a mix of hard and soft robotics inspired by nature changes that, leading the researchers to claim that it's the first robot with soft legs that can navigate difficult terrain. "Previous work (PDF) has used molding techniques to make relatively simple soft actuated leg designs that use air pressure to bend in one direction and use elastic energy stored in the limbs to return to the original shape," Dylan Drotman, told New Atlas. Drotman is a Ph.D. student at the Jacobs School of Engineering at UC San Diego who led the effort to design the legs and the robot's control systems. "The result is a robot that mostly shuffles its feet along the ground," he added. "Our new soft quadruped is capable of lifting its limbs, allowing it to clear obstacles, which has not been done before. We achieved this using multi-material 3D printing to rapidly fabricate complex 3D designs." The high-end Connex 3 3D printer was used to create the bot, especially its game-changing soft legs. "We focused on the design of soft actuated legs to achieve the complex motions needed to navigate over rough terrain," Drotman told us. "Walking on land is a challenge for soft organisms, which is why the octopus prefers to move in water. Similarly, for robots, there is a trade-off between the 'softness' of the body and its ability to apply forces or lift its weight against gravity. In this work, we chose to focus on completely soft legs, which adapt to terrain and can squeeze through tight spaces." The legs, which are attached to the rigid body in a "X" configuration, feature a series of hollow chambers that were 3D-printed from a rubbery material. As they chambers are inflated, the legs move. Timing, pressure and the order in which the chambers are inflated all play into how the bot walks and had to be precisely calculated. The robot can walk at speeds of up to 20 mm (.8 in) per second. Right now the robot is still connected to a series of tubes, an air pump and an open-source circuit board, but the researchers are working to miniaturize the components so the bot can walk untethered. They will present their work at the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation from May 29 to June 3 in Singapore. The video below shows the robot in action. Source: UC San Diego
Thanks in part to STEM education initiatives and the tech boom, coding in the classroom has become more ubiquitous. Computer programming tasks students to persistently work to solve problems by thinking logically. What’s more, learning how to code is a desired 21st century career skill. There are several digital games designed for kids as young as 5 that turn coding into a fun activity, such as Kodable and Scratch Jr. But some game designers are going further back to programming’s fundamentals by creating physical games that can’t be found in any app store. One tabletop game is Code Monkey Island. It features sequencing and looping statements printed on playable cards. In effect, the cards are the language; choosing correct conditional statements correctly can leads to victory. Another board game that captured imaginations, and major crowdfunding on Kickstarter, is Robot Turtles, which teaches basic coding concepts to preschoolers. Unlike other children’s games (think: Candyland, Chutes and Ladders), the mechanic of play does not rely on luck. All cards are face up and the players work together cooperatively to win. A child can build cognitive skills by playing Robot Turtles because when a child plays, or “programs,” a card, he or she is applying logic, according to Bill Ritchie, CEO of ThinkFun, which published the game. “Robot Turtles is a great example of what coding means for a preschooler,” Ritchie explained. “It is about sequencing instruction by instruction, and then being able to recognize the consequences. It’s a mental framework that is appropriate for a preschooler.” In other words, Robot Turtles helps growing minds think about thinking. Why Teach Coding? Teaching children how to code is not new; it dates back to the 1970s and 1980s. Most notable, perhaps, are the initiatives from MIT professor Seymour Papert. His MIT lab helped bring the Logo language into schools. In Logo, users programmed a graphical turtle on a computer’s screen. This exemplified Papert’s notion of constructionism, the learning theory that can be summed up as “learn by making.” Although the Logo language may seem crude by today’s standards, its powerful ideas still resonate. Programming a computer meant that the learner created his or her own working system. Students were learning how to think. In fact, the Logo initiative lives on — it evolved to the visual, interlocking brick language today called Scratch, which was followed up with Scratch Jr. Setting up the Game To start the game, the adult (parent or teacher) — known as the “Turtle Mover” — places the Robot Turtle Card at the start square and then places the Jewel Card (the goal of the turtle’s quest) elsewhere on the board. The Turtle Mover is the only one allowed to move the turtle. He or she also provides feedback by making beeping sounds. The child — or “Turtle Master” — then selects forward, left or right directional playing cards, which serve as commands to advance the turtle to the jewel. When a child wins — or “levels up” — in Robot Turtles, additional challenges “unlock.” Obstacles include stone and ice walls, as well as wooden crates. More complex game cards include Function Frogs, which can be “coded” to repeat a series of programmed instructions. In essence, the adult is the computer to the child programmer. Solving Problems Together Entrepreneur Dan Shapiro invented Robot Turtles because he grew frustrated whenever he played board games, along with his two young children. “One of the things that led to Robot Turtles was because [children’s] games give parents an unfair advantage,” Shapiro said. “Either the parent wins over and over again or they end up throwing the match. Part of the inspiration for Robot Turtles was to create a game where parents and kids could come to it at their own level; the parents do one thing and the kids do a different thing.” Meaningful social cooperation between parent and child superseded Shapiro’s desire to teach coding skills. “The interaction would be something really magical,” he continued. “It [Robot Turtles’ creation] didn’t come about because I wanted to teach kids to program; it came about because I wanted a fun way for kids and parents to interact.” Any programmer will tell you that coding a computer is more than entering lines of instructions. When a programmer clicks “run,” the results may fail. The next step is “debugging” — the often painstaking process of error-checking code. Debugging until a solution is found is similar to the 21st century competency of design thinking: trial and error based on a challenge. In Robot Turtles, when the child gives an adult a “wrong” card — for example, a move that takes the turtle off of the game’s board — an opportunity to learn emerges. Ritchie explained, “If a child puts down a bad set of cards, then the parent has an obligation to allow the child to own the responsibility. The child then has to make the decision to debug and to change.” Rather than correcting a child’s mistake, the adult is instructed to simply make a beeping sound. The child Turtle Master can then tap on the “Bug Card,” a round card adorned with a ladybug. After announcing “Debug,” the child can adjust his or her set of commands. Here, failure becomes iteration. “If you ask me the one thing I want my kids to feel about learning, it is that you cannot be afraid to try things and see what happens,” Shapiro said. “It was crucial for me to build that [debugging] into the game — more than the skill of learning about computers. The ability to undo the last move — with no penalty or loss of points — where you just try something and then try again, really gets into the heart of the educational mission of the game. It’s not about learning how to program. It’s about learning how to learn.”
Autism is a complex neurological disorder of human beings which include different impairments in social and communicative study. It is mainly caused due to connections of the nerve cells in the brain being different than in an average human. However, that does not always result in a derogatory condition. Indeed, it has been observed that while most autistic people have an inability to communicate properly with the society, their non-verbal and cognitive skills are far higher than any average person. These include various fields like drawing, music or their capability to learn new things. Autism can be recognized in the first three years of any child’s life. No two persons in autism have the same behavioural pattern. That is what makes autism so difficult to control. Autism can be classified into various forms including the Autistic Disorder, the most common form of autism. This is characterized by inability to communicate verbally and performance of repetitive behaviours. In Asperger’s Syndrome, people are characterized by often high non-verbal test IQ, but possession of limited interest in society. For girls, Rett Syndrome is the most common form. These girls start normally, but by 1 to 4 years, they develop signs of autism. Pervasive Development Disorder (or PDD) is used for children who do not fit into any known categories. Along with these, another term common in context to autism is Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, used to classify children who develop normally for 2 years but regress after that. The Genetics of Autism Autistic children can be taught to behave normally with people by repetitive advices on how to interact properly. It has been found that autism is more common in identical twins who share the same genetic blueprint than in fraternal ones. The concordance rate in monozygotic twins is between 60 -90%. This means that monozygotic twin studies, autism appeared in both twins in 60-90% of cases. Autism is undoubtedly connected to genetics at some level, however as recent studies have found out, 20 of the normal genes found might be involved. Various genetic tests are under way to determine the exact mutations responsible for the condition and scientists have identified several genetic abnormalities in autistic people. Dealing with all variations of such a large number of combinations is highly time consuming and hence, the exact cause of autism has not been determined yet. Two genes identified and linked to the condition are Engrailed 2 (EN2) and the Serotonin Transporter. EN2 abnormalities are linked and believed to cause structural changes in the cerebellum, a part of the brain related to motor skills and cognition. Genetic DNA testing and analysis of the human genome has classified 98% of our DNA as “junk DNA”. Whilst the term is misleading because of the connotations of the word “junk”, we simply do not know what purpose junk DNA serves. - Autism is often seen alongside fragile X syndrome, a condition caused by abnormalities on the X chromosome affecting males more than females and often resulting in mental retardation. - Although rare, autism also sometimes manifests itself in individuals suffering from tuberous schelorsis. Studies have pointed that parents with schizophrenia are more susceptible to autistic children, and the chances of autistic children having a new pair of genes missing, as compared to their parents, is huge. Flu or fever for more than a week during pregnancy can also double the chances of bearing autistic children. Though no fixed treatments for autism exist, early treatment of diagnosed children have often proven to be helpful.
NASA 3D Printer Big news this past month for the future of NASA’s space missions: The first 3-D printer rocket engine injector has been approved as part of a major evaluation. Why is this a monumental milestone? Some may recall the 1970 Apollo 13 space mission to the moon, in which the crew, under an unfortunate series of events, was forced to create a makeshift device that could join a cube-shaped command module canister to the lunar module’s cylindrical canister-sockets. With a 3-D printer in space, astronauts in future missions will not have to jerry-rig a device with duct tape, a flight manual, a plastic bag, or a towel like the Apollo 13 crew did. In the future, the use of a 3-D printer in space could grant astronauts the ability to print mission critical parts. Not only is this potentially a crucial part of space survival, but it cuts cost by 70% by reducing the time it takes to build rocket engine injectors. It seems that 3-D printing and prototyping have evolved from visual reference tools, to now very usable, potentially life-saving tools. In another case, earlier this year, The University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute reported a new experimental project in which 3,000 vehicles had Vehicle Awareness Devices installed to warn drivers of others’ speeds in the case of a potential accident. Each vehicle has four cameras, which are mounted by 3-D prototypes made of ABS plastic. The experimental project could save a number of lives each year if successful. In a past blog post, we discussed a custom-made, 3-D printed arm cast that is designed to help in the recovery of broken bones. If 3-D printing can be applied to people’s health, vehicles, and even space travel, one can only imagine… what will the future of 3-D prints offer us?
Brain metastasis is cancer that started in another part of the body and spread to the brain. It’s sometimes called secondary brain cancer or a metastatic brain tumour. Brain metastasis is not the same as cancer that starts in the brain (called primary brain cancer). Brain metastases are much more common than primary brain cancer. Some kinds of cancer are more likely to spread to the brain than others. The most common types of cancer that spread to the brain are: Cancer can spread to any part of the brain. The most common site of brain metastases is the cerebrum, which is the largest and top part of the brain. Less often, cancer spreads to the cerebellum and brain stem. Sometimes there is only a single brain tumour, but most people develop many brain metastases. Cancer can also spread to the meningesmeningesThe membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord.. This is called leptomeningeal metastasis or meningeal carcinomatosis. The symptoms of brain metastases vary depending on which part of the brain is affected. Other health conditions can cause the same symptoms as brain metastases. See your doctor if you have these symptoms. The most common symptom of brain metastasis is headache. Headaches may be caused by a tumour pressing on the brain, swelling (called edemaedemaSwelling caused by an abnormal buildup of fluid in the body.), bleeding or hydrocephalus. Other signs and symptoms of brain metastases include: - nausea and vomiting - weakness or numbness in parts of the body, such as the face, arms or legs - problems with memory and confusion - changes in behaviour and personality - problems with balance and coordination - loss of bladder or bowel control (called incontinence) - problems with speech - problems with swallowing The following tests may be used to diagnose brain metastases. Many of the same tests can help your healthcare team plan treatment and monitor brain metastases. Health history and physical exam Your health history is a record of your symptoms, risk factors and all the medical events and problems you have had in the past. In taking a health history, your doctor will ask questions about a personal history of symptoms that suggest brain metastases. A physical exam allows your doctor to look for any signs of brain metastases. During a physical exam, your doctor may test your reflexes and check the feeling and strength you have in your arms and legs. The doctor may also look into your eyes using a special tool with a light (called ophthalmoscope) to see if the nerve at the back of the eye is swollen. Find out more about physical exam. Blood tests are usually done to check your general health and find out how some organs are working. The blood tests done during diagnosis include a complete blood count (CBC), an electrolyte panel and liver function tests. Find out more about blood tests. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) MRI is an imaging test used to check for tumours in the brain. It is usually the first test done to check the reason for symptoms like headaches and seizures. It can identify the number, location and size of metastases. Find out more about MRI. Computed tomography (CT) scan If an MRI can’t be done, a CT scan is used to check for tumours in the brain. An MRI can’t be used when there are certain metal devices inside the body, like a pacemaker. Find out more about CT scan. A biopsy is the removal of cells or tissues so they can be examined under a microscope. If you have a history of cancer, doctors can often diagnose brain metastasis based on the results of imaging tests so a biopsy isn’t usually needed. A biopsy may be done after imaging tests if you have never had cancer, or if the doctor thinks that there might not really be brain metastases. If you need to have a brain biopsy, you are usually referred to a neurosurgeon. The neurosurgeon decides which type of biopsy will be best for your situation. An excisional biopsy or stereotactic biopsystereotactic biopsyA procedure that uses a 3-dimensional scanning machine ( ultrasound, CT scan or MRI) to find the precise location of a tumour and remove a sample for examination under a microscope. may be used. Find out more about biopsy. If brain metastases are found before the primary cancer is diagnosed, the doctor may order tests to find out where the cancer started. Other tests may also be used to check for metastatic cancer in other parts of the body. These tests may include: If you have brain metastases, your healthcare team will create a treatment plan just for you. It will be based on your needs and usually includes a combination of different treatments. Treatments can control and slow the growth of brain metastases, but the metastases usually don’t go away completely. They can also manage or prevent problems caused by brain metastases. These are sometimes called supportive therapies. When deciding which treatments and supportive therapies to offer for brain metastases, your healthcare team will consider: - where the cancer started - your symptoms - how well you can do daily activities (called performance status) - how many metastases are in the brain and their size - where the metastases are within the brain and spinal cord - if you have metastases in other parts of the body - the prognosis - your personal preferences You may be offered the following treatments and supportive therapies for brain metastases. Corticosteroids are medicines used to reduce swelling and pressure in and around the brain. They are often the first supportive therapy given to manage symptoms of brain metastases such as headaches and neurologic problems. Corticosteroids can be used alone or along with other treatments like radiation therapy and surgery. They are given intravenously (through a needle into a vein) or orally (as a pill by mouth). The most common corticosteroid used for brain metastases is dexamethasone (Decadron). It is usually given at least twice a day until symptoms are relieved. Then the dose of dexamethasone is slowly lowered to prevent long-term side effects. Side effects of corticosteroids will depend mainly on the dose and the length of treatment. Common side effects of corticosteroids, including dexamethasone, are sleep problems, increased appetite, fluid buildup in the legs, arms or face, weight gain, high blood sugar levels, infection, mood changes and skin problems like rash or acne. External beam radiation therapy is a common treatment for brain metastasis. It can be given to the whole brain or to very specific areas of the brain. Radiation therapy can be used alone or in combination with other treatments such as surgery. Dexamethasone is usually given before and after radiation therapy. Whole-brain radiation therapy (WBRT) is standard treatment when there are many metastases in the brain. External beam radiation therapy is used for WBRT. Radiation is directed through the scalp and skull to the entire brain. WBRT may be given before or after surgery is done to remove a single metastasis. How long WBRT is used depends on the number of metastases, how severe symptoms are, other treatments given and other factors. It is usually given once a day for 5 or 10 days. Stereotactic radiation therapy may be used when there are 1–3 small brain metastases. This is a type of external beam radiation that delivers one high dose of radiation to a very specific area of the brain. It avoids treating healthy brain tissue around the tumour with radiation. How many sessions of stereotactic radiation therapy are used depends on the size, location and number of metastases being treated, as well as other factors. Side effects of radiation therapy will depend mainly on the type of radiation therapy, the area of the brain being treated and the length of treatment. Common side effects of radiation therapy to the brain are hair loss, fatigue and memory problems. Surgery is a standard treatment when there is one brain metastasis, it can be safely removed and the primary cancer is controlled or stable. Sometimes surgery will be done to remove more than one tumour if there are only a few tumours or they are close together. Whole-brain radiation therapy is often done after surgery. The type of surgery done for brain metastasis is called a craniotomy. The neurosurgeontemporarily removes part of the skull so they can reach the brain and remove the metastasis. Side effects of surgery will depend mainly on the location of brain metastases. They include bleeding, swelling of the brain and seizures. Anticonvulsants are medicines used to control seizures. They are also called antiseizure or anti-epileptic drugs. People with brain metastases who have seizures at diagnosis or develop seizures during treatment are usually started on anticonvulsants. They are most often given over a long period of time. Anticonvulsants are not given to people with brain metastases who have never had a seizure. The type of anticonvulsant used depends on the type of seizures, how often they happen, how long they last, and other medicines being used. Some anticonvulsants interact with other medicines, which changes the levels of the drugs in the body. Anticonvulsants are usually given orally (as a pill by mouth). Some may be given intravenously (through a needle into a vein). Anticonvulsants used for brain metastases include: - phenytoin (Dilantin) - carbamazepine (Tegretol) - valproic acid (Depakene, Epival) - oxcarbazepine (Trileptal) - levetiracetam (Keppra) - phenobarbital sodium Side effects of anticonvulsants will depend mainly on the type and dose of the drug. Some side effects of these drugs are nausea and vomiting, skin problems (such as a rash), sleepiness, dizziness, problems with memory, problems with speech and liver damage. Chemotherapy may be used to treat brain metastases, but it’s not a common treatment. It’s usually offered after all other treatments have been tried and is usually given along with other treatments, such as radiation therapy. Doctors also only use chemotherapy to treat brain metastases when they know that the primary cancer is likely to respond to chemotherapy. For example, brain metastases from testicular germ cell tumours are often treated with chemotherapy. Chemotherapy uses drugs that circulate throughout the body and destroy cancer cells. The drugs, dose and schedule will vary for each person. The type of chemotherapy drug or combination of drugs used depends on where the cancer started and if the drugs can cross the blood-brain barrier. This barrier prevents toxic substances, like chemotherapy drugs, from entering the brain and spinal cord. Many chemotherapy drugs can’t cross the blood-brain barrier in large enough doses to treat brain metastases. Side effects of chemotherapy will depend mainly on the type of drug, the dose and how it’s given. Common side effects of many chemotherapy drugs include low blood cell counts (called bone marrow suppression), nausea and vomiting, mouth problems and bowel problems. Targeted therapy uses drugs that find and attach to specific substances (such as proteins) on the surface of or inside cancer cells. These substances help send signals that tell cells to grow or divide. The targeted therapy drugs block the substances to stop or slow the growth and spread of cancer cells. Targeted therapy may be used to control the growth of brain metastases from some types of cancer. Some examples are: - lapatinib (Tykerb) is given with a chemotherapy drug called capecitabine (Xeloda) for HER2-positive breast cancer - dabrafenib (Tafinlar) is used for melanoma - gefitinib (Iressa) is used for non–small cell lung cancer Side effects of targeted therapy depend mainly on the type and dose of the drug. Common side effects of many targeted therapy drugs include flu-like symptoms and fatigue. Most side effects go away on their own or can be treated. Tell your healthcare team if you have these side effects or others you think might be from targeted therapy. Find out more about targeted therapy. A diagnosis of brain metastases can often cause a great amount of fear and anxiety. A person with brain metastases may have concerns about the following. Brain metastases often cause problems with the body’s functions and movements. The type of neurological problems that happen depend on the part of the brain affected. These problems may include: - difficulty walking - muscle weakness - poor balance and coordination - loss of memory and concentration - changes in mood and behaviour - problems with speech, swallowing or vision Neurological problems can lead to stress and worry about losing your sense of self and your independence. Some treatments and supportive therapies can help manage and control neurological problems. Your healthcare team, including an occupational therapist and social worker, can also support you to cope with any neurological problems. A diagnosis of advanced cancer can lead to questions about survival. There is no way of knowing exactly how long someone will live with brain metastases. It depends on many factors, including the type of cancer, the number of tumours in the brain and the treatments used. Survival with brain metastases is often measured in months, but some people can survive for several years. Some people may live much longer than expected, while others may die sooner than expected. The best person to talk to about survival is the doctor. The doctor may be able to estimate survival based on what they know about a person and the type of cancer, but it’s not an exact science. Find out more about living with advanced cancer. Facing the financial burden of cancer The Canadian Cancer Society provides helpful information about government income programs, financial resources and other resources available to families struggling to make sense of the personal financial burden they face.
Presentation on theme: "Kensuke’s Kingdom by Michael Morpurgo Literacy unit of work."— Presentation transcript: Kensuke’s Kingdom by Michael Morpurgo Literacy unit of work Lesson 1 Learning Objective: Discussing issues arising from a text and presenting balanced arguments. Success Criteria: I can discuss the idea of “sailing around the world“ with classmates and write a balanced argument about it. Michael’s father decides that the family will sail around the world together. Do you think that it would be a good idea for your family to do something like this? Complete the chart with your reasons FOR and AGAINST. Use the writing frame below to plan and write a balanced argument on sailing around the world. SAILING AROUND THE WORLD I am not sure that sailing around the world with my family would be a good thing because... On the other hand... However... One good thing about it would be... Nevertheless... Another point of view is... In conclusion... When you have written your plan, check your spelling and punctuation very carefully, Lesson 2 Learning Objective: Identifying unfamiliar words and describing their meaning. Success Criteria: I can find words that I don’t understand, look them up in the dictionary and write a sentence to show I understand them and can spell them. L.O. To identify unfamiliar words and describe their meaning. In Chapter 1 of Kensuke’s Kingdom the author, Michael Morpurgo, uses some challenging words. 1. Using a dictionary look up the meaning of the following words and write them in a table like the one below. 2. Then write a sentence using the word to show that you understand how to use it. Lesson 3 Learning Objective: Reading texts carefully silently. Success Criteria: I can read and understand chapter 3 of Kensuke’s Kingdom by myself. Shared Reading 1. Why has Michael decided now to tell his story? 2. Who are the members of Michael’s family? 3. What do the family do together on the weekends? Can you describe how it makes them feel? 4. Why do the family stop sailing? 5. What is the atmosphere like in the house? 6. What happened to Michael’s best friend? 7. What happens to Michael’s father and why? 8. What do you think happens next? 9. Describe the father when they meet up again. What sort of mood is he in? QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER 3 1. When Michael and his family first set sail, how many miles a day do they want to do? 2. How many miles a day do they actually do? 3. What game do Michael’s parents play? 4. What do they eat? 5. What creatures do they see off the coast of Africa? 6. In November they went to Brazil. Where did they stop? 7. What did Michael do in Brazil? 8. What did they do on Christmas Day? 9. Describe, in your own words, the incident with Stella Artois. Lesson 4 Learning Objective: To use evidence from the text effectively. Success Criteria: By finding and understanding specific detail in chapter 4, I can draw and label and detailed picture of the island. L.O. To use evidence from the text effectively. Carefully read the description of the island Michael is living on (page 53) and then draw and label it. IDEAS: Lesson 5 Learning Objective: Identify and use strategies to make writing more interesting. Success Criteria: I can recognise techniques that make writing descriptive and I can write a descriptive account of a scary situation. Starter: What would you take with you on a journey like this? What if you could only take 10 items? List your items and reasons for these choices. Write about a time in your life when you have been really frightened. A shadow under the trees moved and came lumbering out into the sunlight towards us. A monkey, a giant monkey. Not a gibbon at all. It moved slowly on all fours, and was brown, ginger-brown. An orang-utan, I was sure of it. He sat down just a few feet from me and considered me. I dared not move. When he’d seen enough, he scratched his neck casually, turned and made his way on all fours slowly back into the forest. I was sitting under the trees when I saw them standing there, watching us. What were these strange creatures? They did not move, so I slowly went towards them and sat down close by to examine the two creatures. One was standing upright. He looked like a monkey, but did not have any fur. The other had four legs and a long face. I looked at them for a while, but they did not more or make a sound. What strange creatures. I decided to return to my friends in the forest. Lesson 6 Learning Objective: Rewriting texts from a different perspective. Success Criteria: Using imagination and description to re-write a part of the book from the perspective of an orang-utan. Read through the extracts describing the actions of the orang-utans - re-write the events from their perspective. What were they thinking? Why were they acting the way they were? L.O. To re-write text from another perspective. p.66 A shadow under the trees moved and came lumbering out into the sunlight towards us. A monkey, a giant monkey. Not a gibbon at all. It moved slowly on all fours, and was brown, ginger-brown. An orang-utan, I was sure of it. He sat down just a few feet from me and considered me. I dared not move. When he’d seen enough, he scratched his neck casually, turned and made his way on all fours slowly back into the forest. L.O. To re-write text from another perspective. p.88 I was heaving a massive branch on to the pile when I felt a sudden shadow come over me. An orang-utan was looking down at me from the rock above - I could not be sure it was the same one as before. He was on all fours, his great shoulders hunched, his head lowered, eyeing me slightly sideways. I dared not move. It was a stand-off, just as it had been before down on the beach. He sat back and looked at me with mild interest for a while. Then he looked away, scratched his face nonchalantly and sloped off, stopping once to glance back at me over his shoulder before moving on into the shadow of the trees and away. Lesson 7 Learning Objective: Communicating without words. Success Criteria: I can identify some of the emotions expressed in chapter five. AngryHappyAfraidHungryNervous WorriedShyCuriousExcitedUnhappy CalmUncomfort- able RelaxedConfidentAnnoyed Chapter 5: Questions 1. How does Stella react towards Kensuke? 2. What does Kensuke suggest to Michael about the way they share the island? 3. Kensuke leaves food and water for Michael and Stella every morning. What does it mean? What sort of person do you think Michael is? Choose SIX of the words in the box below, and write a sentence for each. brave cowardly lonely determined happy sad confused clever sensible angry foolish naughty 6 sentences: I think Michael is.................... because...................................................... Lesson 9 Learning Objective: Using research skills to check for evidence. Success Criteria: I can research two articles on the internet, decide if they are true or false and note down key facts. Do you think these articles are true? Research them article on the internet! Lesson 10 Learning Objective: Asking precise questions. Success Criteria: I can make a questionnaire about chapter eight for another team to answer. Lesson 11 Learning Objective: Sorting information from a text. Success Criteria: Complete a timeline about Kensuke’s life. Chapter 8: Questions to think about 1. Why does Michael feel that he has to hide his message in the coke bottle? 2. What were Kensuke’s hopes for the future? 3. What has been lost now, between Michael and Kensuke? L.O. To complete a timeline using information from the text. Complete a time line of Kensuke’s life, from his birth in Japan until he is in the boat with Michael telling his story; include all the significant events. Birth in Japan Lessons 12 and 13 Learning Objective: Finish reading novel and discuss certain aspects of the final two chapters. Success Criteria: I have read Michal Morpurgo’s novel: Kensuke’s Kingdom, am able to summarize it and discuss the main points. 1. Describe the atmosphere between Michael and Kensuke at the beginning of the chapter. 2. What is it that makes Kensuke change his mind about Michael staying on the island? 3. What developments in the world does Michael describe to Kensuke? Chapter 9 - Questions to think about 1. Describe the rain on the island, and the effect it has on Michael and Kensuke. 2. What happened to the binoculars? 3. How do Michael and Kensuke save the orang-utans from the poachers? 4. What do the poachers do on the island? 5. What were they doing when Kensuke spotted the sail? 6. What does Michael see that makes him realise it’s the Peggy Sue? 7. What are Kensuke’s reasons for staying behind? 8. Do you think that Kensuke has made the right decision? Explain your views. Chapter 10 - Questions to think about L.O. To use evidence from the text effectively. 1. List three things Kensuke teaches Michael. 2. Describe a typical day for Michael and Kensuke. 3. How do you think Michael now feels about Kensuke, and why? 4. Carefully read pages 101-102, and then draw a plan of Kensuke’s cave in your book. Think about what you have read and label your picture with some quotes.
Recall that the quantum mechanical model of the atom yields wave functions and corresponding energies called orbitals that each describe a specific pattern of electron density, meaning each orbital has a specific shape and energy. There are three quantum numbers that are used to describe an orbital: - principal quantum number, n, can be any positive integral (1,2,3, etc.) As n increases, so does the size of the orbital and its energy, meaning that the electrons are less tightly bound to the nucleus. - azimuthal quantum number, l, can have any value from 0 to (n-1). This defines the shape of the orbital. Zero defines the s orbital, 1 defines the p orbital, 2 defines the d orbital, and 3 defines the f orbital. - magnetic quantum number, ml, can have any value from -l to +l, including zero. This number describes the orientation of the orbital in space. In general, in conjunction with n and l it is used to identify a single orbital, which holds two electrons. The total number of ml for each l tells you how many orbitals are found in general subshell. For example, an l value of 1 designates the p orbital, and gives ml values of -1, 0 and 1. This tells us that there are three total orbitals in one p shell, which can hold six electrons. Note: The collection of orbitals with the same n value is referred to as a shell . The collection of orbitals with the same n and l values is referred to as a subshell The inclusion of a fourth quantum number allows us to designate specific electrons. The spin quantum number, ms, can have a value of -1/2 or +1/2, indicating the two opposite directions that an electron can spin. This brings up an important concept known as the Pauli Exclusion Principle: no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. As we've said, each orbital has a specific energy. To be more specific, in a multi-electron atom, energy increases as the value (n+l) increases. For orbitals with the same (n+l) values, the lower energy orbitals have the lower n values. This means that orbitals with the same n increase in energy as l increases - so the 2s orbital (l=0) is lower in energy than the 2p (l=1). All orbitals of a given subshell have the same energy; in other words, these orbitals are degenerate. Real-World Application of Energy Levels The concept of energy levels helps explain something that you encounter everyday but probably don't even think about - light! When an atom is excited, meaning there is an input of energy, electrons may be "bumped up" to higher energy levels. When the electron(s) then return to their lower energy state, they must release that energy difference between the higher and lower levels. This energy is given off in the form of photons. Depending on the amount of energy, the photons may have wavelengths that are in the visible light spectrum, meaning that we can see them. This phenomenon proves to us that electrons do reside in distinct energy levels and orbitals. An atom's electron configuration is the way in which its electrons are distributed among its various orbitals. An atom's ground state configuration, is where the electrons are in the lowest possible energy states. The Pauli Exclusion Principle tells us that not all the electrons can be found in that 1s orbital (even though it's lowest in energy), so instead the orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy (see energy levels above) with no more than two electrons per orbital.This is known as Aufbau's Principle. Another important concept is Hund's Rule, which states that for degenerate orbitals (such as the three of the 2p subshell, for example) the lowest energy configuration is achieved when the number of electrons with the same spin (or parallel spins) is maximized. This guarantees that electrons will occupy different orbitals (until the number in the subshell requires pairing), and minimizes electron-electron repulsions. Let's take a look at the chart below of electron diagrams of some of the lighter elements: Notice the electron configurations are reported in two different ways. The format on the right is known as an orbital diagram, where each orbital is represented by a box and each arrow represents an electron. Take a look at carbon's configuration. Notice that this adheres to Hund's Rule - instead of having its two 2p electrons paired in a single orbital or in two different orbitals with opposite spins, they have parallel spins occupying different orbitals. This provides the lowest energy configuration. The format on the left is the written electron configuration. This is written according to the filling order, which goes from lowest energy orbital to highest. Refer back to the Energy Level section above to review this trend. We can also write electron configurations in a condensed form. The noble gases each have completely filled outer shells, with the stable octet of electrons. The next element following a noble gas marks the beginning of a new period on the table with an electron in a new shell, and so we can abbreviate the core electrons (or the electrons of the noble gas configuration) to write a condensed electron configuration. Expanded for Sodium: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 Condensed: [Ne] 3s1 So how does the periodic table help? The periodic table is designed so that elements with the same valence electron configurations are in the same columns, or groups. Notice that all Group 2 elements have 2 valence electrons, giving a full s orbital, for example. So, the periodic table is the best resource for the order in which orbitals are filled. After all, it was designed with just that in mind. To come up with an element's electron configuration, simply start from hydrogen and go from left to right writing the corresponding subshells and filling them with electrons appropriately until you reach that element. Let's go through an example.Write the electron configuration for bromine. First, identify where bromine is on the periodic table. Bromine is in Group 17, Period 4. Then start from hydrogen and write down the orbitals as you move across the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5 Notice that there are only 5 electrons in that last subshell. Bromine is the fifth element in that 4p block, meaning it has only 5 electrons occupying that subshell.We could also write the condensed electron configuration. [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5 4s was the beginning of a new period, so the rest of the electrons could be represented by the noble gas configuration of argon.
“So, what should I read to improve my Chinese?” he asked as I looked disapprovingly at his book. Zach* had come to Shanghai as part of an exchange program to study business and Chinese. With no previous Chinese skills, he studied hard and quickly worked through the basics of the language. After a few months, I invited him over for a nice home cooked meal and to see how he was doing. He excitedly showed me his recently purchased copy of Jack Welch’s autobiography… in Chinese. He opened it to show me his progress; I saw how the margins were covered with pinyin and every other word had underlining with a definition scribbled beside it. He had been at it for a week and was pleased that he had struggled through two pages and “learned” a lot of new characters. Zach was not the first to have done this and certainly will not be the last. So what level should he read at? I’ll begin with a couple points about language learning that virtually all language researchers agree upon. - We need enough repetition to learn new words: Our brains do not learn things all in one instance and we quickly forget many things we learn, especially recent knowledge. We tend to pick up complex things like language in small incremental pieces rather than in whole chunks. For example, we know that it takes 10-30 or even 50 or more meetings of an average word before it is truly learned. Once we understand the meaning, there must be enough exposure to the word in different contexts before we understand how it is used. Basically, a learner must have enough exposure to the language before it is learned and can be used. - We need comprehensible input: Learners can learn new words from listening or reading IF the language is comprehensible. This “input” can be listening or reading, but it must be at a level that the learner can understand for learning to take place. For example, we speak to a three year-old child much differently than we would to a college professor. To a child, we speak in a way that can be understood while gradually introducing new words and ideas. If we spoke to a child in the same way as a college professor, they would understand little of what is said and learn at a much slower pace. The same principle is applicable to learning a second language: the input (language) must be at a comprehensible level. Keeping these two points in mind (enough repetition, comprehensible input), the experts at the Extensive Reading Foundation have put together this handy chart to help you determine your appropriate reading level. If you are reading at a 98-100% comprehension level you are reading at an “Extensive” level. At this level, you able to read at a faster pace without stopping every few words to look up a definition. Because you are reading quickly, you encounter more new words in a shorter period of time although there are less new words per page. You get enough repetition that is needed to build fluency in the words you know while at the same time learning new words. Grammar patterns begin to click and reading becomes easier. By reading at this level, you are able to appreciate the story in the foreign language and it turns into something enjoyable. Many people feel that it ceases to become study and turns learning into something fun. If you are reading between 90% and 98% comprehension, this is an “Intensive Reading” level, also known as “Study Reading”. Most learners are familiar with this type of reading commonly found in textbooks in the form of short articles introducing many new vocab words. At this level, you know enough of the words in the book to understand what is going on most of the time but still need to frequently stop and look up many words. Although there are more new words per page, research has shown that learners are less likely to retain the words because there is not enough repetition and reading at a slower pace results in reading less words. Below 90% comprehension (one unknown word in 10), reading becomes frustrating and slow. I think we’ve all be here at one time or another. You have to stop every few words to look up a character, slowly limping along as you grind through the sentence. By the time you’ve read the sentence, you go back to read it again but have already forgotten most of the words you studied. Since you can’t remember what you’ve read, you instead try to remember the meaning in English. 30 minutes later, you’ve made it through a couple paragraphs and you don’t even remember what you read before. Reading at this level is less effective. While you encounter a lot of new words, you don’t have anywhere near sufficient repetition needed to truly learn the words and comprehension suffers badly. Most people find this to be a de-motivating task. The Right Level It’s clear that Extensive Reading meets two basic language learning fundamentals: provides enough repetition at a high level of comprehension. Intensive reading has it’s time and place, however learners reading at the Extensive reading “sweet spot” can start to experience significant improvement similar to my own experience. You should match your books to your reading level. Graded Readers are helpful because they provide reading materials that can be matched to a learners level. If you want to know if a book is at your level, open it up and have a look: if there are 3-5 unknown words on the page, it may be at your level, however at 10-20 or more unknown words, you’ll want to work towards this level or start with easier books. The eventual goal of every learner should be to progress towards Actual Readers (native level books such as the Jack Welch autobiography) but only when they can read it with a high level of understanding. As for Zach, I extolled the virtues of Extensive Reading. I loaned him a low level Chinese graded reader to rescue him from the clutches of Reading Pain. It was still a bit above his level, but he had a much better experience working through easier text. He managed to learn a lot more…even if he dabbled in that Jack Welch book from time to time. *Name has been changed to protect the innocent
Ancient tuyas hold climate clues By Summit Voice FRISCO —In what must have been incredible displays of fire and ice, ancient volcanoes once erupted under massive glacial ice sheets, leaving deposits that could help paleoclimatologists unravel some ice age puzzles. In a recent study, University of British Columbia researchers surveyed those deposits at the Kima’ Kho tuya, which erupted under an ice sheet about 1.8 million years ago. Their findings suggest that he ancient regional ice sheet through which the volcano erupted was twice as thick as previously estimated. “At Kima’Kho, we were able to map a passage zone in pyroclastic deposits left by the earliest explosive phase of eruption, allowing for more accurate forensic recovery of paleo-lake levels through time and better estimates of paleo-ice thicknesses,” says UBC volcanologist James K Russell, lead author on the paper published this week in Nature Communications. Subglacial eruptions generate distinctive deposits indicating whether they were deposited below or above the waterline of the englacial lakes–much like the rings left on the inside of a bath tub. The transitions from subaqueous from subaerial deposits are called passage zones and define the high stands of englacial lakes. The depth and volume of water in these ephemeral lakes, in turn, gives researchers an accurate measure of the minimum palaeo-ice thicknesses at the time of eruption. “Applying the same technique to other subglacial volcanos will provide new constraints on paleoclimate models that consider the extents and timing of planetary glaciations, Russell said.” While relatively rare globally, tuyas are common throughout Iceland, British Columbia, Oregon, and beneath the Antarctic ice-sheets. Kima’Kho tuya forms a high relief structure covering 28 square kilometres rising 1,946 metres above sea level on the Kawdy Plateau near Dease Lake. The plateau hosts six other tuyas. “We hope our discovery encourages more researchers to seek out pyroclastic passage zones,” says Lucy Porritt, a Marie Curie Research Fellow at UBC and University of Bristol. “With more detailed mapping of glaciovolcanic sequences, and the recognition of the importance of these often abrupt changes in depositional environment, our understanding of glaciovolcanic eruptions and the hazards they pose can only be advanced.”
Answers are coming from an area of science called biomechanics. This approach applies principles of physics and engineering to biological movement; it lets scientists study animals--including humans--as if they were machines. Not all dinosaurs were big, but the biggest ones outweighed anything that ever walked on Earth. And exactly how they walked on Earth has puzzled the curious for nearly 200 years. Big animals alive today have a lot in common. They are heavy. They have few predators. And they tend to move slowly. But have big animals always behaved this way? The bigger an animal gets, the harder its muscles must work just to support its weight. As a result, enormously large animals, including T. rex, have more trouble getting around than you might imagine. Current research suggests that T. rex would have moved at the rough equivalent of 11 to 16 kilometers (seven to ten miles) per hour. This is much slower than many previous estimates, and it's certainly less speedy than most Hollywood versions of the great Cretaceous carnivore. Young animals are smaller than grown ones: that's one way we tell them apart. But the age at which juveniles achieve full size varies from species to species.
There are many birds that nest in trees but also quite a few that use hollow cavities in trees for nests. Some excavate their nests from the soft rotten wood. Other birds and mammals depend on tree cavities that are already excavated by other animals or other natural processes. Due to logging practices of the past, there are not many of the large, old, dead trees that offer this type of habitat. Forest protection rules now require timber harvesters to leave some large trees and snags as habitat. Still, that may not be enough in some areas because it can take decades for natural processes to turn trees into useful homes for birds and animals that nest and shelter in tree cavities. Dead trees and snags are effective for nesting sites, but they don’t last as long as living trees with slow-moving decay or rot. Forest disease specialists have been working with wildlife biologists and foresters to figure out a solution. One they’ve come up with is to inoculate living trees with wood-rotting fungi. This can quickly and reliably create long-lasting internal decay in living trees without killing them. Here’s how they figured it out Several years ago, forest health specialists collected heart-rot fungi from forested sites around Washington and Oregon, and grew it on hemlock dowels. Then tree climbers drilled holes high in the trunks of selected trees, inserted one fungus-infected-dowel per hole and capped it with a short piece of plastic pipe to prevent the hole from closing over. In 2010, they returned – now 7 to 14 years after the inoculation – to cut down some of the treated trees to see if there was any decay, measure its extent, and see if wildlife was using the sites. You can view the results in the U.S. Forest Service report ‘Seven- to 14-Year Effects of Artificially Inoculating Living Conifers to Promote Stem Decay and Subsequent Wildlife Use in Oregon and Washington Forests.’ Although wildlife was not yet observed using the inoculation sites, these treatments did result in successful colonization by heart rot fungi and development of internal decay. The group described many important observations, including: - The recommendation to drill three holes at each inoculation site in order to create a larger volume of decayed wood more quickly - Fomitopsis cajanderi (common term – rose colored conk) appeared to cause the most decay in Douglas-fir in Western Washington - Fomitopsis officinalis (common term – quinine fungus) was most effective for inoculating several tree species in Eastern Washington - Fast growing trees may not be good candidates for this treatment because they produce such thick layers of hard, sound wood outside the internally decayed area that it would likely be difficult for a bird or animal to excavate and reach the decayed area. Learn more about this and other issues that DNR studies about forest health on DNR’s Forest Health Program web page. \|Follow DNR on:\|
Deciding when to spray is more than just numbers Research by U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) scientists focused on a major threat to cotton in the Southwestern United States could soon help growers cut back on insecticide use. Growers in the Southwest often spray insecticides to control western tarnished plant bugs (Lygus hesperus). But before they do, they will walk through their fields waving hand-held nets and count the number of L. hesperus they capture. They decide to spray based on capture thresholds that vary from one region to the next. Studies by USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists Dale Spurgeon and W. Rodney Cooper show that these "sweepnet" survey results can be misinterpreted, and that important factors in determining when to spray-such as the age of the insects and the growth stage of the cotton-are often overlooked. Spurgeon is based at the U.S. Arid-Land Agricultural Research Center in Maricopa, Ariz. and Cooper is with the Yakima Agricultural Research Laboratory in Wapato, Wash. They conducted the research at a former ARS research site in Shafter, Calif. ARS is USDA's principal intramural scientific research agency. In one study, the researchers videotaped L. hesperus feeding on cotton in a laboratory and released others to feed on cotton plants in a greenhouse to assess the feeding habits and damage levels caused by two types of nymphs (3rd and 5th instars) and pre-reproductive adults. Results, published in Environmental Entomology (October 2013), showed that the older 5th instar nymphs caused significantly more damage than the younger nymphs and older adults. The results show the importance of determining the life stages of the lygus infesting the cotton, not just the total numbers. In another study, they marked adult L. hesperus and periodically released them into rows of upland and pima cotton over two growing seasons. They collected as many of the marked insects as possible the day after each release, along with any wild L. hesperus attracted to the cotton. Releasing and re-collecting marked insects allowed them to check on the effectiveness of the collection efforts, which followed standard sweepnet protocols. Insects caught in the nets were dissected to determine their ages. Results, published in the Journal of Entomological Science (July 2013), showed that in both species of cotton, captured populations were dominated by mature adults that cause less damage. As cotton plants grew, collection efforts also became less efficient because larger and leafier plants offered the insects more foliage for "hiding out." The research also showed that in pima cotton, the more damage-inducing younger adults preferred to feed on the ends of the plant branches, which are substantially shielded by foliage. That makes them harder to capture and more likely to be undercounted than older adults. This wasn't an issue in upland cotton because it has a more open architecture. Taken together, the results suggest that L. hesperus sampling methods should be re-evaluated and that growers may need to adopt different methods for different types of cotton. Self-contained hydraulic system with power cables (hydraulic). Tandem Henschen axles (hydraulic). Hydraulic fenders. Manual or hydraulic tilt. 6,500-gallon tank. - Are you in favor of a federal labeling standard for food that might contain genetically modified ingredients? - Commentary: Barking up the wrong tree - Water allocation for most drought-stricken Calif. farms to end - Look at how the rice scheme made Thailand unstable - Larson Electronics offers 150 Watt LED high bay light fixture - Growth Points: Big data is about to get even bigger R&R Minuteman Blend System R&R Manufacturing Inc.
Erythroblastosis fetalis, AKA Haemolytic disease of the newborn, occurs when the mother's immune system starts attacking her own fetus's blood. This is rare, and is becoming more rare as modern medicine progresses. However it can be deadly to the fetus, and failing that it can lead to permanent brain damage and other disorders. Erythroblastosis fetalis can result from two separate causes: Rh incompatibility disease: Red blood cells have various antigens (identifying proteins) on their surface. One of the most telling of these proteins is the rh antigen. Blood can be divided into two groups, rh positive (rh+), and rh negative (rh-). It is not a bad thing to have either of these blood types, but if the mother has rh- blood and the baby has rh+ blood (inherited from the father), the mother's immune system may start producing antibodies that will attack the baby's blood cells. It is worth noting here that if the mother is rh+ and the fetus rh-, there will be no problem, as the rh- blood doesn't have an antigen that the rh+ blood does not, and there is nothing for the mother's immune system to react too. When the antibodies attack the red blood cells, they cause anemia and kernicterus, which can lead excess bilirubin collecting in the brain, leading to deafness, speech problems, cerebral palsy, and other forms of brain damage. It often also leads to heart failure and death. It is common for untreated rh incompatibility disease to cause miscarriages and stillbirths, although in the developed world there are few cases that are left untreated. ABO incompatibility disease: Just as there are differing rh factors, there are other antigens that appear on the surface of blood cells. The most famous of these you've heard of as blood types: A, B, O, and AB. Type O blood doesn't have antigens, while the others do. Thus if the mother has type O blood, and the fetus has type A or B blood inherited from the father, the mother's body may make antibodies to attack the baby's blood. While ABO incompatibility disease works in essentially the same way as rh incompatibility disease, ABO disease is much milder in its effects, and much less damaging to the baby. Other than jaundice and postpartum anemia, the baby is usually fine. Thus, when talking about erythroblastosis fetalis, people are usually referring to only rh incompatibility unless otherwise stated. Usually the placenta is a sufficient barrier to keep the baby's and the mother's blood from mixing. But while blood does not usually pass the placental barrier, antibodies may. If the blood never mixes, the mother will never form the antibodies to attack the rh+ blood. But the mother may be exposed to rh+ blood through a blood transfusion, from trauma to the womb, or there may simply be minor 'leakage' across the placenta. There may also be contact with the baby's blood during birth; if this happens then her next rh+ baby may have problems. It is common practice to give pregnant mothers a blood test, and if they are type O, and especially if they are rh-, the father should get a blood test too. If the father is rh+, or if the father is unknown, the mother is tested for antibodies against the rh factor. If the baby is at risk the mother may be given drugs to block the production of the antibodies, or undergo plasma exchange to remove the harmful antibodies. The baby may be given blood transfusions. When the fetus is viable, labor may be induced. These measures, along with the fact that most of the population is rh+, and thus never faces this problem, keep deaths from erythroblastosis fetalis from being a big problem in the developed world. But it is still very important that you go to see a doctor when you are pregnant, and get all of the suggested tests done. It is also important to realize that the second and later pregnancies are likely to have much greater complications than the first pregnancy, because once the antibodies are present in the blood they do not leave, and the mother's body is ready to attack the fetuses blood right from the start, even if symptoms were never evident during the first pregnancy. You may be wondering, what is this 'erythroblastosis'? What does "the abnormal presence of erythroblasts in the blood" have to do with the conditions I've just described? The connection is a little vague. When the fetus starts losing red blood cells, its body reacts by producing more erythroblasts, in an attempt to make more red blood cells. Reticulocytosis also results, as more immature blood cells (reticulocytes) are produced. The diagnosis of erythroblastosis is used as a benchmark of sorts to determine how serious the disease is; a high level of erythroblasts indicate that the disease is becoming severe enough to be an important threat.
Discipline is often thought of as something we do to a child when they do something that we do not want them to do. In this sense, punishment and discipline can become confused and the opportunity present in discipline is lost or misguided. The root of the word discipline is disciple. Disciple refers to someone who is a student or follower, one who is essentially being taught by someone who is wise. Discipline is the art of teaching with wisdom. One function and role of a parent is to teach. We are always teaching children through example about what it is to be human, whether considered wise or unwise. In moments when a parent feels the child has done something inappropriate, something that deems correction or guidance, the art of discipline is what determines the outcome for both the parent and child. Parents can feel various ways when a child does something they would prefer the child not do. Some parents feel clear about discipline in such occurrences. Some parents feel doubt, frustration, anger and sadness about how to properly teach the child to live amongst society’s expectations while honoring the child’s need to be a unique and innovative contributor to the same society. There are only a few ways that a parent or caregiver can respond to a child in moments of question or in need of discipline. These methods first take place within the mind of the parent and lead to the actual interaction between parent and child. To help clarify the differences between various approaches, they are outlined here in the three common categories of punishment, permissiveness, and discipline. Punishment and permissiveness can have similar underlying qualities of dis-empowerment for the child and parent, but permissiveness can also be a bridge from punishment to discipline at times when a parent is learning new techniques for teaching. Seeks to impose a negative experience in the child in response to something a child has done so the child feels bad and will not repeat the action or to make the child pay for their actions, in spiritual terms believes a child has a sinful or otherwise harmful nature that must be taught out, primary experience is parental power/authority over child. - Tell the child no, to stop engaging in the action, moving to shame, anger or punishment to stop the action if necessary. - Verbally shame the child, make him wrong for the action through verbal or non-verbal communication, words, ideas. - React in anger, blame and punish the child for the parent’s experience of anger, embarrassment, etc. in relation to the behavior. - Punish the child through withdraw of love, remove child from the situation and put child in a place without access to a loving parent/caregiver. - Punish the child through false abandonment, pretend to or actually leave the child. - Punish the child through physical means, switching, spanking, slapping, hitting or otherwise inflicting pain on/harming the body of the child. - Punish the child through other means with the intention of making the child feel bad for what she has done. - Force the child to apologize and/or do something else before she is permitted to interact with others, receive love. - Threaten the child in some way if the child does not obey. Seeks to allow the child to be autonomous and free of punishment, but may lack conscious teaching, often a mutual parent-child search and exploration of inner and outer power/strength/value/worth. - Withdraw emotionally from the child, numb out, while not providing guidance for desired/appropriate behavior. - Ignore the behavior and the child, hope or trust that the behavior will go away without attention. - Allow the child to continue the behavior/not provide guidance while knowing it is socially unaccepted, potentially harmful to another in any form or dis-empowering for the child to not be aware of its social impact. - Explain away the behavior based on a child’s development, personality, what he had to eat or not eat that day, other characteristics of the situation and the child, without providing guidance to the child. (The explanation may be pertinent but does not negate the need for guidance in the particular situation). - Blame another for the way the child is without providing guidance to the child. - Refrain from teaching the child anything when inside the parent there is a gnawing sense that the child could benefit from some loving guidance. Seeks to clearly and respectfully guide the child with love and create a space for the child to become self-aware and self-teaching, primary experience is power/strength/value/worth with the child, in spiritual terms believes a child’s inherent nature of goodness, being a child of Creation, simply needs nurturing. - Accept the behavior is occurring/has occurred, love the child first from the heart and guide towards an appropriate behavior. - Trust the child truly wants to get along and cooperate even when behavior speaks otherwise. - Notice the behavior that requires a response, this varies from parent to parent and situation to situation and changes over time. Focus on the opposite of the undesired behavior – the behavior that is wanted and communicate that to the child. Alex is hitting his sister. Mom’s response, demonstrating what she is saying in her body language, “Alex, people not for hurting. Please be gentle with your sister.” - Ask the child to choose differently, with a specific choice or two highlighted. “Sara, telling me to give you the cookie right now feels/is demanding. I like to be asked. Can you please ask in another way/try a different approach?” - Model the behavior wanted in and out of the situation. The child pulls the dogs hair and the parent gently strokes the dog while placing a hand over the child’s hand to guide the child in stroking the dog also. “Opal likes to be pet gently.” - Acknowledge that some children (and parents) need space when intense emotions such as frustration, anger or sadness arise. They also need unconditional love and acceptance available. Remove a child gently from the situation and stay in a safe space with the child while feeling whatever comes up for the parent while not taking action from anger, cry if necessary. - Tune into what example you are setting as a parent in the moment. Adjust accordingly if you want to set a different example. - See the child as a mirror. What could your child be reflecting emotionally for you? As you work on healing emotional upset within you through deep breathing and acknowledgment the guidance you need to provide to your child becomes more clear. - From a place of neutral observation ask your child how he feels about what he has done. Ask if he feels sorry, what choice he may make next time or if he has any ideas for how to work the situation out. Kids are brilliant and often respond well to being asked in this way when emotions are through being intense. - Encourage the child to trust him/herself, to check inside for the answer to a situation, to make choices/decisions and learn from the results. - Encourage the child to observe how he feels and how others feel in response to her actions. Encourage a balance of integrity and dignity with self and others. - Guide child in recognizing problems and brain storming solutions – alone and with others to develop self-reliance, problem solving skills and resilience. - Model and share how to meet emotions responsibly through emotion coaching. - Trust children are always learning and each behavior “mishap” is simply a perfect opportunity for parent and child to learn together. - Recognize that repetition is part of the process. Each parent must define a sense of discipline. The decision must factor in whether or not the short and long-term results of a particular discipline method determine how a parent will teach. While punishment may create a short-term result of obedience, it stems from a fear based relationship with the parent that has been shown in research to promote aggressiveness and long-term harm in ways that cannot always be detected initially. Discipline may take longer with more repetition and stems from a trust based relationship with the parent that leads to long term self-awareness and confidence. Teaching methods vary from parent to parent based on several factors including personality, past experience, awareness of choices. The basis for teaching does create results in the lives of everyone involved and can benefit from being thoughtfully considered. Discipline honors the innate worth of everyone involved. Teaching with wisdom releases old held patterns of shaming, harm and other negative outcomes while focusing on behavior that is appropriate and allowing the child to be the unique being she is here to be. Children who are guided in this way have the potential to greatly impact society in a positive manner. Children are continually calling parents forward to the deep truths of life. Parents have the opportunity in each new moment to examine the ways of thinking and behavior that co-create the experiences they have with their children and choose differently when necessary. Embracing discipline not as a tool of control, but instead as an opportunity to strengthen our relationships allows us and our children to blossom and spread love beyond expectations throughout the world. Are you struggling as a parent? If so, I’d like to share something with you: a story and some hope.
CHAPTER 19:ENOLATE ANIONS:NOTES THIS UNIT DEALS WITH BOTH ENOLS AND ENOLATES. THE DISCUSSION OF ENOLS IS IN YOUR TEXT IN CH. 16 ON PP.577-582. WE HAVE SEEN THAT THE REACTIVITY OF CARBONYLCOMPOUNDS (ALDEHYDES AND KETONES) OFTEN FOCUSES UPON ADDITION TO THE CARBONYL GROUP.HOWEVER, THE PRESENCE OF THIS CARBONYL GROUP CAN ALSO HIGHLY ACTIVATE NEARBY CARBON-HYDROGEN BONDS (CALLED ALPHA HYDROGENS) TO UNDERGO VARIOUS SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS. THESE ARE THE REACTIONS WHICH WE WILL FOCUS ON INTHIS UNIT. ENOLS ARE ISOMERS OF ALDEHYDES OR KETONES IN WHICH ONE ALPHA HYDROGEN HAS BEEN REMOVED AND PLACED ON THE OXYGEN ATOM OF THE CARBONYL GROUP. THE MOLECULE HAS A C=C AND AN -OH GROUP, SO IT IS CALLED AN ENE/OL, I.E., AN ENOL.ENOLS CAN BE FORMED ONLY FROM CARBONYL COMPOUNDS WHICH HAVE ALPHA HYDROGENS. THEY CAN BE FORMED BY ACID OR BASE CATALYSIS, AND ONCE FORMED ARE HIGHLY REACTIVE TOWARD ELECTROPHILES, LIKE BROMINE. MECHANISM OF ACID CATALYZED ENOLIZATION . The process of enol formation is called "enolization". It requires either acid or base catalysis. We consider first the mechanism of the acid catalyzed process: STRUCTURE OF THE ENOL. The C=C of an enol is very electron rich, because of the hydroxyl substituent, which can donate an electron pair via the resonance structure shown below. It is therefore quite nucleophilic, even more so than the typical C=C. It therefore reacts very rapidly with electrophiles, such as bromine, to result in overall substitution of Br for H at the alpha carbon atom. The mechanism for acid catalyzed bromination is given below: DL/PC Structure of the Enol RELATIVE STABILITY OF THE ENOL AND KETO TAUTOMERS. Isomers which differ only in shifting a hydrogen from one atom to another are often called tautomers. Enols and their corresponding keto isomers are tautomers. The keto tautomer is typically much more stable than the enol form, with K's of about 10 to the -5th power. You should know that this is essentially because the C=O double bond is much more stable than the C=C double bond. FORMATION OF BOTH THE ENOL AND ENOLATE UNDER BASIC CONDITIONS. The formation of an enol under base catalysis involves the intermediate formation of an enolate, the conjugate base of the carbonyl compound. So we will first consider the formation of an enolate, beginning with the dissociation of a carbonyl compound in aqueous solution to give its conjugate base (that is, we consider the acidity of the carbonyl compound). Acidity of Carbonyl Compounds. In aqueous solution, an aldehyde or ketone which has an alpha type hydrogen can lose it to water, giving hydronium ion and the conjugate base of the carbonyl compound, which is called an enolate. This C-H bond is significantly less acidic than the O-H bond of an alcohol and much less acidic than the O-H bond of a carboxylic acid. The pK's are typically about 19-20. Nevertheless, they are outstandingly acidic for H's bond to carbon. The reason for this is the strong resonance stabilization of the enolate, which has both carbanion and alkoxide character (see the resonance structures above). Both resonance structures are comparably stable, so that the resonance stabilization is large. Although the C=C double bond of the alkoxide structure is less stable than the C=O of the carbanion structure, the former has negative charge on oxygen, which is better than having the negative charge on carbon. Base Catalyzed Enolate Formation. The mechanism for enolate formation in aqueous base is shown above: This reaction is fast, but the equilibrium is somewhat unfavorable (the pKa of water is ca. 16, while that of the ketone is ca.19-20. However, there is easily enough enolate present to observe efficient reactions since it (the enolate) is a powerful nucleophile. The Equilibrium between Ketone and Enolate in Aqueous Base: How to calculate the position of the equilibrium using a qualitative criterion and a quantitative criterion; Quantitative generation of the enolate.(Important) Further, stronger bases can be used to drive the equilibrium to completion. such as base would be an amide base (LDA, lithium diisopropylamide, the conjugate base of an amine (pK 38, i.e., about same as ammonia) . Amide ion (NH2 anion) is basic enough, but it is also nucleophilic enough to add to the carbonyl carbon, irreversibly. Instead, the more hindered amide base LDA is used preferentially. Base Catalyzed Formation of the Enol. When the enolate is formed, it can abstract a proton at either oxygen or carbon, both being positions of partial negative charge. Protonation at oxygen gives the enol, which protonation of carbon yields back the keto form. Thus, the enolate is the conjugate base of both the keto and enol forms. any time the enolate is formed in water or a hydroxylic solvent, it will be in equilibrium with both the enol and the ketone. Relative Amounts of Enolate and Enol. Both the enolate and enol are minor components in equilibrium with the ketone or aldehyde at netural pH. Since the K for enol formation is larger, there is much more enol than enolate (see the K values for acid dissociation vs. enol formation). However, in the presence of strong base, the enol equilibrium is unaffected, but the amount of enolate increases. So the amount of enolate may easily exceed that of the enol in basic solutions. In acidic solutions, there will be very little enolate (it will be protonated to give the enol and keto forms, the neutral forms). Bromination of the Enol (Acid Catalyzed Bromination). Both the enol and the enolate provide an opportunity to effect substitution reactions at the carbon alpha to (attached to) the carbonyl carbon, assuming that at least one hydrogen atom is attached to this carbon (an alpha hydrogen), thus permitting enol and enolate formation. In acidic solution, essentially only the enol is present. Nevertheless, the C=C of the enol is nucleophilic and reactive toward electrophiles, especially reactive electrophiles like bromine.The mechanism of this reaction is shown below. Note that the "carbocation" intermediate, which is involved in this electrophilic reaction is actually the conjugate acid of the product, which is an alpha bromoketone or aldehyde. That is, there are two major resonance structures, and the ion has both carbocation character and oxonium character.The mechanism shown below assumes that the enol has been formed by the acid catalyzed mechanism already discussed. Mechanism of the Reaction of Bromine with an Enol In Acidic Solution, Enol Formation is Rate Determining! The subsequent reaction of the enol with bromine is very fast, so that the enol is prevented from returning to the keto form. Details of the Mechanism of Acid Catalyzed Bromination of Carbonyl Compounds. Mechanism of Base Promoted Bromination of Carbonyl Compounds. THE ALDOL ADDITION REACTION. The overall reaction and its mechanism are illustrated for the simplest aldehyde which undergoes the reaction, ethanal (acetaldehyde). [Incidentally, why does methanal note undergo the reaction?] The special importance of the reaction is that it forms a new C-C bond. It does this, in basic solution,by using the enolate as a nucleophile which adds to the electrophilic carbonyl carbon. The slow step is the addition to the carbonyl group, as usual. The product is both an aldehyde and an alcohol (-ol), therefore it was called an "aldol". The IUPAC name in this particular case is 3-hydroxybutanal.Incidentally, the reaction also proceeds in acidic solution, using the enol as the nucleophile and the conjugate acid of the aldehyde as a stronger electrophile. Mechanism of the aldol addition: RELATIVE REACTIVITIES OF THE ENOLATE, ENOL, AND A SIMPLE ALKENE. Recall that even simple alkenes are relatively nucleophilic (they react with electrophiles via the pi bond). The enol is more so because the -OH substituent donates electrons to the pi bond (see resonance structures for the enol, above). In other words, the enol has some carbanion character at the carbon beta to the hydroxyl group. The enolate, being negatively charged , is even more nucleophilic than the enol (please see scheme 18.7). In terms of resonance structures, the second resonance structure of the enol has charge separation and is a relatively minor contributor. In the enolate, neither structure has charge separation and both structures are relatively close together in energy. One structure has the stronger C=O bond, but the other has negative charge on oxygen rather than carbon. THE ALDOL ADDITION MORE GENERALLY. It is important to note that an unbranched aldehyde, even a simple one like propanal, gives a branched aldol, because the enolate or enol always is formed at the alpha position to the carbonyl group. The branching therefore occurs alpha to the aldehyde functional group, not alpha to the hydroxyl group of the aldol. You should be able to predict the structure of an aldol product from any aldehyde or ketone. As you would expect, the aldol reaction works better with aldehydes than with ketones, because the equilibrium is less favorable for ketones (recall the greater thermodynamic stability of the ketone carbonyl). We will see how this problem can be resolved. THE ALDOL CONDENSATION REACTION. The somewhat greater difficulty with which ketones are converted to their corresponding aldol products can be partially circumvented by carrying out the reaction as an aldol condensation reaction. In this reaction, in which the conditions are essentially the same as for the aldol addition, except that the reaction is warmed to RT or above, the initially formed aldol product is dehydrated to give an alpha,beta unsaturated carbonyl compound. Mechanism of the Aldol Condensation RESONANCE STRUCTURES FOR THE ENONE THE INTRAMOLECULAR ALDOL CONDENSATION. If two carbonyl groups are present in the same molecule, the aldol condensation can be carried out intramolecularly, one carbonyl group providing the source of the enolate and the other providing the carbonyl function. In most cases only the more stable 5 and 6 memebered rings are formed. See the Scheme below for one example. Sketch of the Intramolecular aldol mechanism: THE CROSSED ALDOL REACTION. For a reaction of broader scope, it would be nice to be able to use two different carbonyl compounds in the aldol, since two different roles (enolate and carbonyl) are involved. However, if one does this in the most naieve way, as shown below, four different compounds can result, and generally will if both compounds have the ability to fulfill both roles. The Four Products from a crossed aldol reaction between ethanal and propanal There are two requirements for this procedure to be effective: THE DIRECTED ALDOL REACTION: A MORE GENERAL SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS OF THE NARROW SCOPE OF THE CROSSED ALDOL REACTION IS THE DIRECTED ALDOL.
Dengue who? Dengue is another virus wreaking havoc across the tropics but it isn’t grabbing headlines in the same way that malaria and Zika do. Yet it might be the key to bringing mosquito-borne diseases under control. Symptoms of dengue infection include fever, headaches and vomiting and can in extreme cases develop in fatal dengue haemorrhagic fever. Dengue fever affects an estimated 100 million people worldwide each year, yet it isn’t nearly as well publicised as other diseases, possibly due to a limited effect on Western communities. However, research into dengue might help us hit the jackpot in the hunt for ways to bring Zika under control. Both viruses are transmitted by the mosquito Aedes aegypti. Researchers have infected this mosquito with a species of bacteria called Wolbachia, and it is this which may hold the key to defeating dengue, Zika and the like. Wolbachia is a symbiont, which means it will not cause disease to its insect host, allowing it to survive on infection. When introduced into the mosquito, Wolbachia reduces its ability to transmit dengue virus. A project has launched in Australia to harness this effect of Wolbachia. Called ‘Eliminate Dengue’, the programme involves releasing mosquitos that contain Wolbachia to spread the symbiont with the aim of reducing disease spread. What makes this project brilliant is the involvement of the communities affected by the virus. So called ‘mozzie boxes’ are distributed to willing residents of Cairns and Townsville, who only need to add water and food to the mosquito eggs and wait for them to hatch in a cool, shaded place. Even school children are getting involved. These ‘Wolbachia Warriors’ are also growing Wolbachia-infected mosquitos. So what about Zika? As they are transmitted by the same species of mosquito, there‘s no reason why this technique can’t be applied to Zika. The Eliminate Dengue programme is now being rolled out across more densely populated areas like Indonesia, but all initial signs are promising. So it could be goodbye Zika soon if Wolbachia comes up trumps. For more information, visit eliminatedengue.com. Images courtesy of Eliminate Dengue.
The Museum of HP Calculators The American astronauts calculated critical course-correction maneuvers on their HP-65 programmable hand-held during the rendezvous of the U.S. and Russian spacecraft. Twenty-four minutes before the rendezvous in space, when the Apollo and Soyuz were 12 miles apart, the American astronauts corrected their course to place their spacecraft into the same orbit as the Russian craft. Twelve minutes later, they made a second positioning maneuver just prior to braking, and coasted in to linkup. In both cases, the Apollo astronauts made the course-correction calculations on their HP-65. Had the on-board computer failed, the spacecraft not being in communication with ground stations at the time, the HP-65 would have been the only way to make all the critical calculations. Using complex programs of nearly 1000 steps written by NASA scientists and pre-recorded on magnetic program cards, the astronauts made the calculations automatically, quickly, and with ten-digit accuracy. The HP-65 also served as a backup for Apollo's on-board computer for two earlier maneuvers. Its answers provided a confidence-boosting double-check on the coelliptic (85 mile) maneuver, and the terminal phase initiation (22 mile) maneuver, which placed Apollo on an intercept trajectory with the Russian craft. Periodically throughout their joint mission, the Apollo astronauts also used the HP-65 to calculate how to point a high-gain antenna precisely at an orbiting satellite to assure the best possible ground communications. The first fully programmable hand-held calculator, the HP-65 automatically steps through lengthy or repetitive calculations. This advanced instrument relieves the user of the need to remember and execute the correct sequence of keystrokes, using programs recorded 100 steps at a time on tiny magnetic cards. Each program consists of any combination of the calculator's 51 key-stroke functions with branching, logical comparison, and conditional skip instructions.
[We’re sorry, but this section is currently under construction] Many of the data tables we make in class will be arranged vertically. - Vertical data tables should have their headings placed in the first row of the table. - When using a vertical data table, you will typically place the manipulated (or independent) variable in the far left column. The responding (or dependent) variable(s) come next. - Here is an example of a simple vertical data table… OTHER HELPFUL TIPS WHEN MAKING VERTICAL DATA TABLES - If your data table is drawn by hand then the lines of your table must be drawn with a ruler. - IMPORTANT: The column or row headings should be exactly the same as the x- and y-axis labels that you place on your graph(s). - Try not to split a data table from one page to the next. If you must do this, make sure that you have headings for all of the columns. - Always center the data in the cells of the table. If you have decimal points in your data, be sure to align those in the cells too. - If you collected data expressed with decimal points, the data within a single column should be to the same number of decimal places, for example, 1.23; 1.20, 1.00, 1.85. - Never use commas (“,”) as your decimal points. Always use a ‘full stop’ or period (“.”). - When needed, don’t forget to include the proper SI units (e.g., “meters,” “minutes,” “grams,” etc.) in the column or row headings. Never include the units with the numeric values within the data table. DATA TABLE TITLES - The titles of your data tables should be concise and informative. - Be sure to start the title of your data tables with a number, for example, “Table 1” and “Table 2”. These numbers should match the numbers that you use for your graphs, for example, “Graph 1” should be made from the data found in “Table 1.”
SRxA’s Word on Health was interested to read that researchers in the Life Sciences Institute at the University of Michigan have overturned a long-held belief that whitening of skeletal muscle in diabetes is harmful. Instead, they found that the white muscle that increases with resistance training, age and diabetes actually helps to keep blood sugar in check. The insights identified in the study may point the way to potential drug targets for obesity and metabolic disease. “We wanted to figure out the relationship between muscle types and body metabolism, how the muscles were made, and also what kind of influence they have on diseases like type 2 diabetes,” said Jiandie Lin, Life Sciences Institute faculty member. Much like poultry has light and dark meat, mammals have a range of muscles: red, white and those in between. Red muscle, which gets its color in part from mitochondria, prevails in people who engage in endurance training, such as marathon runners. White muscle dominates in the bodies of weightlifters and sprinters – people who require short, intense bursts of energy. When you exercise, nerves signal your muscles to contract, and the muscle needs energy. In response to a signal to lift a heavy weight, white muscles use glycogen to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – energy the cells can use to complete the task. While this process can produce a lot of power for a short time, the glycogen fuel soon depletes. However, if the brain tells the muscle to run a slow and steady long-distance race, the mitochondria in red muscles primarily use fat oxidation instead of glycogen breakdown to generate ATP. The supply of energy lasts much longer but doesn’t provide the burst of strength that comes from glycolysis. People with diabetes see whitening of the mix of muscle. “For a long time, the red-to-white shift was thought to make muscle less responsive to insulin, a hormone that lowers blood sugar,” Lin said. “But this idea is far from proven. You lose red muscle when you age or develop diabetes, but is that really the culprit?” To find out, the team set out to find a protein that drives the formation of white muscle. They identified a list of candidate proteins that were prevalent in white muscle but not in red. Further studies led the team to focus on a protein called BAF60c, a sort of “zip code” mechanism that tells the cells when and how to express certain genes. The Lin team made a transgenic mouse model to increase BAF60c only in the skeletal muscle. One of the first things they noticed was that mice with more BAF60c had muscles that looked paler. “That was a good hint that we were going in the white-muscle direction,” said lead author Zhuo-xian Meng, a research fellow in Lin’s lab. They used electron microscopy to see the abundance of mitochondria within the muscle, and confirmed that muscle from BAF60c transgenic mice had less mitochondria than the normal controls. “We saw predicted changes in molecular markers, but the ultimate test would be seeing how the mouse could run,” Lin said. Using mouse treadmills, they compared the endurance of BAF60c mice to a control group of normal mice, and found that the BAF60c transgenic mice could only run about 60% of the time that the control group could before tiring. “White muscle uses glycogen, and the transgenic mice depleted their muscles’ supplies of glycogen very quickly,” Lin said. After some follow-up experiments to figure out exactly which molecules were controlled by BAF60c, Lin and his team were confident that they had identified major players responsible for promoting white muscle formation. Now that they knew how to make more white muscle in animals, they wanted to determine whether white muscle was a deleterious or an adaptive characteristic of diabetes. The team induced obesity in mice by feeding them a “Super Size Me” mouse diet. On a high-fat diet, a mouse will double its body weight in two to three months. They found that obese mice with BAF60c transgene were much better at controlling blood glucose. “The results are a bit of a surprise to many people,” Lin said. “It really points to the complexity in thinking about muscle metabolism and diabetes.” In humans, resistance training promotes the growth of white muscle and helps in lowering blood glucose. If future studies in humans determine that the BAF60c pathway is indeed the way in which cells form white muscle and in turn optimize metabolic function, the finding could lead to researching the pathway as a drug target. “We know that this molecular pathway also works in human cells. The real challenge is to find a way to target these factors,” Lin said. Until we know for sure SRxA’s Word on Health recommends a healthy mix of running and weight training.
Biology 442 - Human Genetics Genome, DNA, Chromosomes & Gene Structure On June 23, 2000, there was an announcement that the first draft of the human book of life had been revealed. The resulting sequence is approximately 3.12 billion bases long and includes more than 99.9% of the human genome. Some scientists had organized a "gene pool" where, for $1, you could record a prediction of how many human genes there would be. The best guesses ranged from 30,000 to 120,000. It is now believed that there are approximately 22,000 protein coding genes..only one-third to one-fourth as many as we once believed and only twice as many as those in Caenorhabditis elegans, a nematode (round worm). The "final edition" of the Human Genome was completed in 2003, the year of the 50th anniversary of Watson and Crick's revelation of the structure of DNA in 1953. However, even though the Human Genome Project was completed a decade ago, exactly how many genes are in the human genome is still a mystery. Genes are not in a linear sequence as was once thought. Protein coding is in "exons" and these exons can be separated by DNA sequences that don't code for proteins. Some proteins can be put together by "mix and match" so that exons can be used to produce a multiplicity of different proteins. Many of the are DNA sequences which do not code for proteins play important and critical roles in the regulation and expression of other genes. We are only beginning to understand how genes and their products interact to produce the whole organism and how it functions. But we have come a long way in a rather short span of time! The Human Genome Project General Aspects of the Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project, an international effort to map all the human chromosomes and also chromosomes of other organisms, began in 1990 and was projected to be completed in 2003 but was completed three years ahead of schedule partially because of the entry of Craig Venter in 1998. The Human Genome Project began as a publicly funded, international consortium of scientists led by Francis Collins. The funding came primarily from the National Institutes of Health and the Department of Energy and also from a British charity, the Wellcome Trust. Then in 1998, Craig Venter (who had been at NIH) announced that his new company, Celera, could do the job faster and cheaper. And he did. While much work remained to fill in the gaps, this was an amazing accomplishment and it was done in an amazingly short number of years. Leroy Hood, a key player in the elucidation of the human genome, predicts that within 5 years we will be able to sequence each persons genome within a few hours for a reasonable cost. He foresees an era of Systems Biology whereby we will be able to prevent disease by knowledge of each person's unique genome and our accumulated knowledge of how genes are regulated and how the protein products interact within the cell. A whole new field of nanotechnology is underway and will lead to a new era in medicine which personalizes health care. Since genes encode proteins, an essential ingredient of this new systems approach to health, is knowledge of the proteome, the constellation of all proteins in a cell. The understanding of gene regulation, interactions of proteins, and environmental influences are currently areas of intense research. Based on the knowledge of each person's unique genome along with the knowledge of how our proteins function, we will be able to predict what diseases each person is predisposed to and it will be possible to administer personalized "medicines" that will prevent the disorder. and Some History It took 100 years from the time the German scientist Friedrich Miescher first isolated nucleic acids from pus in 1869 (white blood cells) taken from bandages, for scientists to realize nucleic acids were the genetic material. Avery, MacLeod and McCarty using bacteria (1944) and Hershey and Chase (1952) using bacteriophage, provided evidence that DNA was the genetic material. Watson and Crick in 1953 received the Nobel Prize for providing the model of the structure of DNA showing how replication, coding and mutation could be explained on the basis of their structure. And 50 years later, the entire human genome has been sequenced! One scientist has compared this accomplishment to the 1543 publication of the first book on human anatomy. Even though that book identified almost every part of the human body, today we are still struggling to understand how many of the parts work and how they interact. So the party has only begun! The 1970's and 80's was a time of intense gene mapping and later gene sequencing especially after the development of recombinant DNA techniques. All of this led up to the Human Genome Project. In 2001, with 90% of the genome sequenced, there was a major progress report (see photo at the beginning of this page. The gaps were filled in in time for the 50th anniversary of Watson and Crick's discovery of the structure of the DNA double helix model. At that time 99% of the gene containing regions had been sequenced to an accuracy of 99.999%. Everyone was very surprised when it was revealed that the Human Genome contained only 25-35,000 genes....only about twice as many as some insects and worms! Only a very small amount of our DNA is responsible for the differences among humans, indeed among all organisms. The genome is approximately 99.9% the same between individuals of all nationalities and backgrounds. Over 50% of the human genome shows a high degree of sequence similarity to genes in other organisms. Not only is there no correlation with the amount of DNA and the complexity of the organism, most of our DNA is said to be "junk" DNA. What is meant by "junk" is that it does not code for proteins...the molecules that control all chemical reactions and form most intra and extra cellular structures. We know some of the functions of this non-coding DNA and undoubtedly we will continue to find out more about its function as time goes on. Only 1% of our DNA codes for proteins. The vast majority of our DNA is non-protein-coding, and repetitive DNA sequences account for at least 50% of the non coding DNA. The genome contains approximately 20,000-25,000 protein coding genes. Many human genes are capable of making more than one protein, allowing human cells to make perhaps 80,000-100,000 proteins from only 20,000-25,000 It is amazing to note that DNA was only found to be the genetic material in 1944 when Avery, MacLeod and McCarty discovered that DNA isolated from encapsulated pneumococci could be used to restore the capsule making ability to mutant pneumococci not able to make a capsule. No other molecule (not protein, RNA, carbohydrates) from the encapsulated bacteria could restore this ability. In only a few more years in 1950 Watson and Crick announced that they had uncovered the DNA as a double stranded helix. Their model could explain coding, mutation, and replication. It was not very long before the entire set of 64 codons and their corresponding amino acids Similarities between groups of organisms Many genes and gene alignments have been found to be common among organisms. In spite of the variation in chromosome number there are a number of genetic and physical linkages between single-copy genes that are remarkably conserved amid a background of very rapidly evolving repetitive DNA sequences. The term "orthologs" refers to similar genes in different species that encode proteins with the same function. They originated from the same gene in a common ancestor. "Paralogs" are genes/loci that are homologous to other genes in the same species. They are, likely to have originated from a common ancestral gene, for example, the alpha and beta globin genes. In many cases these conserved genes and regions can be identified in humans. There is now a classification system based on orthologous relationships between genes which appears to be a natural framework for comparative genomics and should facilitate both functional annotation of genomes and large-scale evolutionary studies Obviously, the genes of more closely related species are more similar. Human DNA is 99.9% identical between individuals. We share genes and gene alignments closely with the other primates, the chimpanzees, orangutans, and gorillas, but we also share genes with bacteria and yeast as well as other more primitive organisms. Evolution is a tinkerer, the same basic material is used over and modified for new cellular functions. Genomes of many other "model" organisms have been and are being sequenced including bacteria, yeast, roundworms, fruit flies, fish, mice, dog, and more. They are important because we can do sophisticated genetic studies on them that we cannot ethically do with humans such as specific matings, and inserting or removing genes. Important genes are highly conserved from species to species. Over 50% of the human genome shows a high degree of sequence similarity to genes in other organisms. Genes with sequence similarity are called homologs (orthologs and paralogs are types of homologous genes). For example, the "obese" (OB) gene which produces the protein, leptin, that affects brain cells to suppress appetite and stimulate metabolism of food was first discovered in mice. Mice deficient in leptin The results of comparative genomics are proving to be interesting in the elucidation of gene evolution and the similarities and differences among organisms. We share about 96% of our genes with chimpanzees, 80% with mice, 75% with dogs, 50% with the fruit fly, Drosophila, 40% with roundworms (nematodes) and 30% with yeast. We even have about 100 genes in common with many bacteria. This is all evidence of our evolutionary past. Those genes we have in common with other organisms must be very important. Mutated genes in humans also cause disease in fruit flies. Of the mutated genes in 289 human disease conditions 61% are found in the fruit fly. They include genes involved in prostate cancer, pancreatic cancer, cardiac disease, cystic fibrosis, leukemia and others. What defines us genetically is the complexity of how our genes are used and how these genes interact with one another to carry out the myriad of functions and give us the unique characteristics of humans. New discoveries occur on a daily basis....keep your ears and eyes open! Browse a Genome There are coding and non coding sequences in nuclear DNA. Twenty-five to thirty percent of our genome is unique or single copy DNA that includes the genes that code for proteins. "Real" genes that code for proteins have both coding (exons, start and stop codons) and non coding DNA regions (promoters, introns, RNA processing signals). We know that many of these non coding regions are functionally necessary. The coding regions of genes are only a small proportion of the single copy DNA sequences since eukaryotic genes have introns and other non coding regions. There are also non coding regions between genes. Much of the non coding DNA is highly or moderately repetitive. Repetitive DNA can be dispersed or tandemly arranged. For much of this DNA the functions have not been completely established. It is often called "satellite DNA" because when centrifuged in a density gradient this DNA forms bands separate from the bulk of genomic DNA. There are three satellite bands (although only one shows up on the figure below). One is classic satellite DNA (100-6500 bp repeats), minisatellite DNA (20-100 bp repeats), and microsatellite DNA (CA)n repeats (n=2-10 bp) Cesium chloride density gradient showing the main band of DNA and the satellite (repetitive) DNA One type of repetitive DNA codes for rRNA and tRNA which form gene clusters. The rRNA genes in humans are found tandemly arranged on the p arms of the five D and G groups chromosomes (13, 14, 15, 21, 22). These regions are referred to as the NOR or nucleolar organizing regions and they form the nucleolus of the interphase cell. The nucleolus has a fibrous portion which is open rDNA being transcribed into rRNA and a granular region where ribosomes are being assembled (the ribosomal proteins are made in the cytoplasm and must be transported back into the nucleus). ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN GENOME Pseudogenes are related to functional genes but are no longer capable of being transcribed or translated. One type of pseudogene arose from duplications of genes which then acquired mutations rendering them untranscribable or untranslatable. These pseudogenes cannot be transcribed or translated due to the accumulation of fatal errors such as a nonsense mutations or mutations in the promoter. Another type of pseudogene is referred to as a retro pseudogene because it arose by reinsertion of a cDNA made by a reverse transcriptase using an mRNA template. This type contains no introns and no promoter region since these sequences were spliced out of the original RNA transcript. Without a promoter, they cannot be transcribed. Two thirds of the repetitive non coding DNA sequences is in more complex repeated sequences dispersed or scattered throughout the genome. These can be further divided into short and long interspersed sequences, SINES and LINES. They are mobile elements within our genome. LINES are up to 7000 bp in length and represent about 4% of our total human genome. LINES contain a transposable element which makes an RNA coding for reverse transcriptase. The transcriptase can make cDNA from RNA which can reintegrate into another site. LINES are found in the dark G bands of banded chromosomes. G bands are rich in AT and, therefore, less CpG islands (CpG islands are common in "housekeeping gene" promoters), and have fewer genes. (The Y chromosome has more LINES than the X and the X has more than the autosomes. There is less meiotic recombination where there are LINE elements. SINES are shorter interspersed elements 90 to 500 bp in length. One well known SINE is the Alu sequence which is about 300 bp in length. Alu sequences are unique to humans (and some apes), this is the most frequent human SINE (approximately 5 x 105 copies, 3 - 6% of the total human genome). These SINES are named for the restriction enzyme, Alu, which cuts at AGCT, commonly found in the repeat. Alu is named for the bacterium, Arthrobacter luteus, from which the restriction enzyme comes. SINES can be found in introns, exons and extragenic sequences These transposable elements can be a source of mutation. For example, in some hemophilia A patients there is an insertion of an L1 sequence into an exon. A patient with NF1 (neurofibromatosis type 1) contained an inactivating Alu in the normal allele. These repetitive sequences can play a role in rearrangements and gene duplication (e.g., beta globin genes). Repetitive sequences are commonly found near sites of deletions LTR (long terminal repeat) retro transposons make up a large fraction of the typical mammalian genome. They comprise about 8% of the human genome. On account of their abundance, LTR retro transposons are believed to hold major significance for genome structure and function. Long terminal repeats (LTR's) are, as the name suggests, long repeating sequences of DNA several hundred nucleotides long found at either side of pro viral DNA. LTR's are believed to play some role in the integration of viral DNA into the host genome, as they are found on retroviruses and transposons. Mitochondrial DNA is a single double stranded circular molecule. There are several copies in each mitochondrion and there are many mitochondria in each of your cells. Mitochondria originated by endosymbiosis of a prokaryotic cell early in the evolution of eukaryotic cells. Mitochondrial DNA is similar to prokaryotic DNA. There are no histones or any other protein associated with mt DNA. The genes contain no introns. Because it is in a highly oxidizing environment it has a much higher rate of mutations than nuclear DNA. The genes in mt DNA code for mitochondrial ribosomes and transfer RNAs. Some genes code for polypeptide subunits of the electron transport chain common to all mitochondria. It relies on nuclear gene products for replication and NON PROTEIN CODING DNA REPETITIVE DNA ~ 50% OF OUR DNA Genes may be unique sequences or belong to a gene family such as the globins, actins, myosins, histones, tubulins that are repetitive. Gene families refer to genes with similar DNA sequences which arose through duplication of an ancestral gene followed by generations of mutations. Gene families may be close to one another in clusters or they may be dispersed, they may form a cluster on the same chromosome or they may be located on different chromosomes. Hemoglobin is a tetramer composed of four peptide chains, two alpha and two beta globins. The alpha globin gene cluster is on human chromosome 16 and the related beta globin cluster is on chromosome 11. Examples of gene families include rDNAs, tDNAs, the histone genes, P450 enzyme superfamily, hemoglobin genes, actin genes. Pseudogenes may be part of a gene cluster or family. These gene duplicates are now evolutionary Paralogs are the result of a gene duplication event arising after speciation. Genes in two species that have directly evolved from a single gene in the last common ancestor are called orthologs. The classic macro satellite DNA has repeats of 100 to 6500 bp. This category includes tandemly repeated satellite DNA from the centromeric repeats (171 bp) unique to each chromosome and the telomeric repeats. The centromeric repeats are referred to as alpha satellite DNA and each chromosome has its unique sequence. Therefore, it is possible to make DNA probes specific to each of our 24 different chromosomes. When a fluorescent label is added to the probe, it is possible to count the number of each type of chromosome even in an interphase cell. Therefore, it is possible to check for trisomies in interphase amniotic fluid cells prior to culturing them for karyotyping. Another type of tandemly repetitive DNA is referred to as mini satellite sequences or VNTRs (variable number of tandem repeats). They are composed of 20 to 100 bp repeats. The third type of tandemly repetitive DNA is referred to as micro satellite sequences or STRs (short tandem repeats) composed of 2 to 10 bp repeats. Since the number of repeats in micro and mini satellites are highly variable (polymorphic) they are very useful in gene mapping and DNA profiling for paternity testing, forensic testing, confirmation of relatedness and dead body identification. Both VNTRs and STRs are polymorphisms in non coding regions and are inherited in a codominant pattern. They are formed by mutations which add or subtract the number of repeats. Most individuals in the population are heterozygous at each of these loci. There is hyper variable mini satellite DNA preferentially close to telomeres which can cause misalignment which results in deletion and duplication mutations. Essential Conserved Non Coding DNA Sequences Many DNA sequences that do not code for proteins are nevertheless essential and their sequence must be conserved in order for them to serve their function. These DNA sequences include promoter sites that bind RNA polymerases, regulatory elements (enhancers, silencers, and locus control regions LCRs) that bind regulatory proteins, the origin of replication sites that bind the DNA replication complex, the centromeric DNA, the telomere DNA, and many others. The definition of a gene has evolved over time. It is no longer a "bead" on a string nor is it merely a sequence of bases that codes for amino acids in a single polypeptide chain. While the Beadle and Tatum model of "one gene, one enzyme" is enticingly simple, we have had to move on to acknowledge that genes are far more complex. There are both coding and non coding regions or untranslated regions (UTRs) in the DNA associated with genes. The non coding regions, as mentioned earlier, include promoters, transcriptional regulatory sequences, introns and polyadenylation signals. Post transcriptional processes that modify the initial RNA transcript usually include 5' cap addition, 3' poly A addition, splicing out of introns and sometimes, alternative splicing of introns to form different mRNAs from the same gene. Introns are spliced out of transcribed RNA by a large RNA protein complex, the spliceosome. Post translational cleavage of proteins, while rare, can also occur as in the case of insulin and some hormones. The use of alternative promoters is common and is used to generate cell type specific mRNAs. These alternative promoters may be found within introns of the gene. The human dystrophin (DMD) gene which has more than 79 exons has at least eight different alternative promoters! In humans, the vast majority of genes are transcribed individually and, in these cases, the terms gene and transcription unit are essentially equivalent. The usual linear order at a gene site is: regulatory element(s) (where enhancers or suppressors bind); promoter region (where the RNA polymerase complex binds); transcription start site (in 5' UTR) including CAP site; ATG, translation initiation codon; exon(s) (variable number); introns (between exons, 5'GT and 3'AG, variable number); 5' UTR consisting of a translation stop codon (TAA, TGA, or TAG); AATAAA polyadenylation signal; and the site for addition of poly A tail. Some genes have alternate splice sites so that several different proteins can be produced from the multiple mRNAs that are produced from the same gene. Regulatory genes code for transcription factors. These proteins may interact directly with DNA or with other transcription factors to work as a complex. The purpose is to control gene expression....to turn genes on or off or control the rate of mRNA production. The DNA binding proteins often have similar DNA binding domains within them. ORIGIN OF REPLICATION COMPLEX (ORC) AND REPLICATION COMPLEX DNA binding motifs in regulatory proteins 3 alpha helices forming an L shape DNA is unwound with a widened shallow minor groove The bound SRY causes a 80o bend Binds to specific sequence of bases A/TAACAAT/A 3-D NMR picture of SRY bound to DN Exon skipping and splicing of mRNA to make more than one protein from a single gene The ability to make more than one gene product (polypeptide) from a single gene explains in part how we can have many more gene products than only the number of genes sequenced in the Human Genome project. Above is an illustration of how the CGRP gene can make three different products. Of course the genes that code for antibodies have long been known to "cut and paste" to form the very large number of immunoglobins that we are capable of making. Some genes do not code for proteins The genes that code for ribosomal RNAs and for the transfer RNAs are not translated. Also the XIST (X inactivation specific transcript) gene codes for an RNA that does not code for a protein. It makes an RNA that interacts with the X chromosome sequences that are inactivated in the second X chromosome of the female. There are three different RNA polymerases, Pol I that transcribes ribosomal RNA genes, Pol II that transcribes protein coding genes and snRNA, and Pol III that transcribes tRNAs. They each have specific promoter regions to which they bind to begin transcription. Pol III has a promoter site within the tRNA gene. The classical view of a gene has been greatly altered. We now know that a single region of DNA can be transcribed in a variety of ways to produce many different RNAs. some coding for proteins and others constituting regulatory RNAs. We have known for some time that protein coding regions can overlap and that they can be read in both directions. DNA sequences can produce a variety RNA transcripts used for multiple functions. A new conception of the genome shifts the focus from genes to transcripts.....away from the protein coding regions to the variety of functional RNA transcripts...only some of which are mRNAs and includes the new classes of functional RNAs as they are discovered. It is intersting to note that many mutations in DNA that are correlated with diseases (breast, prostate, and lung cancers, autism, schizophrenia) have been found to be in regions of DNA that do not code for proteins. At this time the specific function of many of these DNA regions is unknown. Formerly known as "Junk" DNA The biggest surprise of decoding the human genome was how few protein coding genes it contained. A surprisingly large amount of DNA has been found to not code for proteins. This "extra" DNA had been thought to be nonfunctional and was initially called "junk DNA." Simpler organisms have less of this "junk" DNA. It is now thought that this "non-coding" or "junk" DNA plays an important role in gene regulation and the increasing complexity We now know that 98% of the genome is transcribed into RNAs and scientists are recognizing that the non-coding RNAs are playing important roles in just about everything the cell does. These RNAs include snRNAs (short nuclear), snoRNAs (short nucleolar)...both of which are located within the nucleus. There are miRNAs (microRNAs), siRNAs (short interfering RNAs) which can modify the activity of protein-coding genes. So in addition to the regulatory proteins known to influence the activity of other genes, we now know that there are many different RNAs that play a regulatory role. In fact, in recent years scientists have been studying an extended family of "non coding" RNA transcripts that play crucial roles in cellular information control determining what proteins are made, their conformation and where or when they are made. They are also emerging as key to how the human brain functions. Highlights from the Human Genome Project 1. The human genome consists of ~3.1 billion base pairs; 2.85 billion have been fully sequenced 2. The genome is ~99.9% the same between individuals of all nationalities 3. Less than 2% of the genome codes for genes 4. The vast majority of our DNA is non-protein-coding, and repetitive DNA sequences account for at least 50% of the non coding DNA 5. The genome contains ~ 20000-25000 protein coding genes. 6. Many human genes are capable of making more than one protein, allowing human cells to make perhaps 80000 to 100000 proteins from only 20000-25000 7. Functions for over half of all human genes are unknown 8. Chromosome 1 contains the highest number of genes. The Y chromosome contains the fewest genes 9. Over 50% of the human genome shows a high degree of sequence similarity to genes in other organisms 10. Thousands of human disease genes have been identified and mapped to their chromosomal locations Search for the Genetic Material Genome Project Information Site Chromosomes (colored bodies) had been seen in the light microscope in the nineteenth century and had been identified as units of heredity. However, not until 1956 was the correct number of 46 for the human chromosomes known. It was a serendipitous laboratory accident using hypotonic saline which swelled the cells thereby allowing the chromosomes to separate sufficiently to get an accurate count. At first the chromosomes were only identified by relative length and the position of their centromeres. By these criteria, they were separated into 7 groups, A, B, C, D, E, F, G plus the X and Y sex chromosomes. Then in the 1960's staining techniques which produced banding was introduced. This G-banding (Giemsa) made the identification of each chromosome much easier and it also allowed us to see more subtle chromosome structural changes. While the basis of G-banding is still not known, we do know that the darker bands are AT rich, contain fewer genes, and replicate late in the S phase of the cell cycle while the lighter bands are GC rich, are gene rich, and replicate early in the S phase. In 1971 at a conference in Paris, scientists got together to draw up a system of numbering of the bands and sub bands. The result is the Paris Conference ideogram. In making the assignments, however, they did make one mistake. Chromosome 22 has more DNA than chromosome 21 and thus the numbers should have been reversed. Since an extra chromosome 21 was already associated with Down syndrome, there was a decision not to change the Paris Conference ideogram. HUMAN AND CHIMPANZEE CHROMOSOMES AND BANDING PATTERNS ARE VERY SIMILA In humans, all of our 3 billion base pairs and approximately 30,000 genes are compacted and packaged into 23 pairs of chromosomes and 24 linkage groups. In most animals and plants that reproduce sexually, chromosomes come in pairs with one member of each pair from each of the two parents. Each eukaryotic chromosome is composed of a single molecule of double stranded DNA, 5 different histones, and some other non histone proteins. The basic eukaryotic chromosome structure consists of DNA wrapped around the evolutionarily conserved histones. There are five types of histones: H1, H2A, H2B, H3 and H4. Approximately two turns of DNA wrap around an octamer composed of two molecules each of H2A, H2B, H3 and H4. Histone H1 binds in the region where the DNA enters and exits the nucleosome, presumably stabilizing the DNA at this point. The histones contain a large number of basic amino acids (lysine and arginine) which carry a positive charge and which dampen the negative charge on the DNA molecule (PO4=). Each nucleosome unit includes approximately 200 base pairs of DNA, with about 146 of them wrapped around the octamer of histones. Although nucleosomes must be opened before transcription can occur, the number of bases in a nucleosomes is many less than required for a gene. Because they are essential to the structure of chromosomes, histones must be replicated along with the DNA during the S period of the cell cycle. Centromeres are specialized regions within chromosomes that play a critical role in the accurate segregation of duplicated chromosomes during cell division. They are the site of kinetochore attachment necessary for spindle attachment. Centromere nucleosomes contain an alternative histone, CenH3, which is thought to define centromere identity and participate in mitotic mechanics. A biochemical and biophysical analysis of centromere nucleosomes in Drosophila nuclei revealed that CenH3 appears in a heterotypic tetrameric half-sized nucleosome, with one copy each of CenH3, H2A, H2B, and H4. These tetramers protect less DNA [~120 base pairs (bp)] than the typical octomers (~150 bp) and do not seem to form as regular higher-order structures as the octomer, yielding longer and more variable DNA linker lengths. This looser chromatin conformation, embedded within heterochromatin, may be critical for tethering the kinetochore to the centromere. (Dalal et al, PLoS Biol. 5, e218 (2007). Cells use various chemical modifications to histones to alternatively expose or sequester genes, thus turning them on or off. There is a general correlation between patterns of histone "decoration" and gene activity. In particular, parts of chromosomes in which histones are covered with acetyl groups tend to have transcriptionally active genes. Deacetylated histones tend to harbor inactive genes. DNA near methylated histones is generally shut down. Each histone has a "tail," a flexible string of amino acids extending from the DNA-wrapped nucleosome. Acetyl and methyl groups tend to attach to particular amino acids in the tails. The "tails" have evolutionary conserved sequences, implying they are important. The cell is known to have histone acetylases and deacetylases which are implicated in turning genes on and off. New histone-tail decorations beyond methylation and acetylation have now been identified. Sugars or small proteins including ubiquitin can also mark histones. Some scientists believe that modified histone tails act as sites for the binding of other proteins that influence the accessibility of DNA for gene activity. One such protein is heterochromatin protein1, a molecule known to mediate the silencing of genes. It binds to the amino acid lysine on the tail of histone H3 only if methyl groups adorn the lysine. Histone methylation, unlike acetylation, appears to be stable and transferred during mitosis. Since methylation is less transient, it appears to be more involved in the long-term setting of the cell's genome (in differentiated cells) while acetyl groups frequently hop on and off histone tails. Phosphate groups attached to several amino acids on the tail of H3 indicate the cell is dividing while a phosphate group on a particular serine on the tail of H2B signals that the cell is about to commit suicide (apoptosis). Late in spermatogenesis cysteine-rich protamines replace the histones. They allow a higher degree of compaction of the DNA in the sperm. A functional eukaryotic chromosome must contain the following 1. a centromere which contains satellite DNA unique to each chromosome and the kinetochore which is a protein structure to which the spindle 2. a telomere at each end of the chromosome contains tandem repeats of TTAGGG (3 - 20 kb) a special repetitive DNA necessary to prevent shortening of the chromosome through the numerous rounds of replication. There is hyper variable mini satellite DNA preferentially close to telomeres; and 3. origins of replication, consensus DNA sequences which bind the various proteins and enzymes required for replication. Each chromosome contains only a single molecule of double stranded DNA. Homologous chromosomes are the pairs of chromosomes received one from each parent. They contain different genes (alleles) for the same traits in the same linear order. Chromatids are exact replicas of one chromosome and they are synthesized during the S period of the cell cycle. They are connected to one another at the centromere region until they separate at anaphase when the centromere region DNA gene occupies a specific locus (plural, loci). The locus is the gene's "address." Genes at the same locus on homologous chromosomes are called alleles (short for allelomorphs). Alleles are alternative forms of a gene otherwise known in the population as polymorphisms. They arise by mutations. As a budding human geneticist it is important for you to understand that the only genetic disorders that can be detected by looking at chromosomes (karyotyping) are abnormalities involving changes in the number or structure of chromosomes. These include disorders such as trisomy 21, Down Syndrome, and structural rearrangements such as translocations, additions, and deletions. Some microdeletions can be detected by a procedure known as FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization). Single gene defects cannot be detected by karyotyping an individual. Even after a gene has been identified for a genetic disorder we may not be able to tell if a person or fetus has a mutation in that gene. An example of this is Marfan Syndrome which is often due to a new spontaneous mutation which can occur randomly anywhere within the fibrillin gene. Detection of genetic disorders is possible only when the (common) mutations within the responsible gene have been identified. It is possible to detect the sickle cell mutation because one single base change causes the disorder. Although sequencing of genes to find mutations is becoming more common it is still expensive and it may not be possible to distinguish a normal polymorphism from a harmful mutation. We will discuss this allelic heterogeneity frequently as we proceed with the course. In eukaryotes, the most abundant covalent modification of DNA is methylation of cytosine residues at carbon 5 of the pyrimidine ring. This modification occurs primarily in the context of a simple sequence (5'-CG-3') called CpG islands and affects both strands of DNA. CpG methylation serves to increase the coding capacity of the genome—in essence, methylated carbon 5 serves as a 'fifth base' in DNA. Regions of the genome with high levels of methylated CpG di nucleotides include the inactive X chromosome in female mammals, imprinted genes and transposons and their relics, all of which are associated with stable transcriptional repression. How does the cell read this information? Additionally, as CpG methylation is strongly associated with regions of the genome subject to stable transcriptional repression, how do cells convert the information embedded in cytosine methylation into a functional state? An association between the methyl CpG binding protein MeCP2 and human Brahma (Brm), an ATPase subunit of the human SWI/SNF complex involved in chromatin remodeling has been identified. These findings establish a link between DNA methylation and chromatin structure and provide a new perspective on the mechanism of methylation-dependent The information provided by CpG methylation in eukaryotic cells is interpreted, in most cases, by a conserved family of proteins that can interact specifically with methylated CpG di nucleotides. This methyl CpG binding domain (MBD) family of proteins is present in most eukaryotic organisms (a notable exception being yeast, which do not methylate DNA), and its interaction with methylated DNA has been rigorously characterized. GENE REGULATION OF HISTONES DNA in eukaryotes is packaged into nucleosomes which consist of DNA wrapped around histone proteins. Covalent modification of histones plays a critical regulatory role in controlling transcription, replication, and repair. Different histone modifications are recognized by different protein modules found in regulatory complexes with different, even antagonistic
20.7: Muscle Contraction In skeletal muscles, acetylcholine is released by nerve terminals at the motor end plate—the point of synaptic communication between motor neurons and muscle fibers. Binding of acetylcholine to its receptors on the sarcolemma allows entry of sodium ions into the cell and triggers an action potential in the muscle cell. Thus, electrical signals from the brain are transmitted to the muscle. Subsequently, the enzyme acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine to prevent excessive muscle stimulation. Individuals with the disorder myasthenia gravis, develop antibodies against the acetylcholine receptor. This prevents transmission of electrical signals between the motor neuron and muscle fiber and impairs skeletal muscle contraction. Myasthenia gravis is treated using drugs that inhibit acetylcholinesterase (allowing more opportunities for the neurotransmitter to stimulate the remaining receptors) or suppress the immune system (preventing the formation of antibodies). Smooth Muscle Contraction Unlike skeletal muscles, smooth muscles present in the walls of internal organs are innervated by the autonomic nervous system and undergo involuntary contractions. Contraction is mediated by the interaction between two filament proteins—actin and myosin. The interaction of actin and myosin is closely linked to intracellular calcium concentration. In response to neurotransmitter or hormone signals or stretching of the muscle, extracellular calcium enters the cell through calcium channels on the sarcolemma or is released intracellularly from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Inside the cell, calcium binds to the regulatory protein calmodulin. The calcium-calmodulin complex then activates the enzyme myosin light chain kinase, which phosphorylates myosin and allows it to interact with actin, causing the muscle to contract.
Big brown bats are medium brown in color, with darker facial features and ears. Their small ears and eyes sit upon a blunt face. This bat can be seen in urban and suburban environments of mixed agricultural use. As generalists, the species can be at home among timberline meadows to lowland deserts, and abundant in deciduous forest areas. Big brown bats will roost in artificial structures, including buildings, bridges, and bat houses. When selecting for hibernation roosts, this species can tolerate hibernating in areas that experience very cold temperatures. Big brown bats have a preference for munching on beetles but will eat a variety of insects. Females can consume up to their body weight in insects in a single night. In the west half of this species' range, females have been found to produce a single pup (baby bat), whereas twins are more frequent in the east. Information used to populate this page was obtained from the following sources: National Atlas of the United States. (2011). North American Bat Ranges, 1830-2008. National Atlas of the United States. Available at: http://purl.stanford.edu/pz329xp4277. Taylor, M. 2019. Bats: an illustrated guide to all species. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books.
The overall function or role of the federal government The U.S. Constitution was framed at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia and signed on September 17, 1787, and ratified by the nine states by June 21, 1788. A system of Federal government came into existence in 1789. The federal form of government is derived from the strength of the union of states. A federal government diverges from that of confederation where central authority acts directly upon states as well as upon individuals. Sovereignty is bifurcated between central government [federal] and state. The federal government is entrusted with key powers as regard external affairs, coinage, commerce, military, etc. At the same juncture, retention of jurisdiction over local events is attuned with the federal setup and makes recognition for local sentiments. One of the major disadvantages of a federal form of government is the division of power since the urge for unity among the federal states may clash with their urge for autonomy. The allocation of power between federal and state governments is usually achieved through a written constitution. In America, the roles and jurisdictions of states have been well defined and the roles of the federal government are also clearly demarcated to administer the nation smoothly. The American constitution describes the limitations of the federal government and safeguards the natural rights of the citizens. (The Columbia Encyclopedia N/A). The structure of the government like Federalism, the Presidential system, etc The executive branch of the U.S.A is headed by the President and the Supreme Court of the U.S.A. is represented as the supreme authority for the judiciary and the Congress represented the supreme authority of the legislative branch and is further subdivided into two parts as Senate and the House of Representatives. All the states were awarded the right to control certain areas within their borders and could exercise such rights as long as they do not hinder the rights of other states or the federal government. [Barlow, J, et al, 1988] The relationship between the states is also explained in the constitution. For instance, if a criminal escapes to New York after having committed a crime in California, if he has been detained in New York, he has to be returned to California where he committed a crime if California requested it. Constitution also explains the Supremacy and ratification of the constitution, National debts, Federal-state relations, how an amendment to the constitution is to be carried out. [L.Wells et al, 10]. The way in which the federal government does or does not guarantee civil rights and liberties. The specialty of the American constitution is that the founding fathers of the constitution stipulated that amendments to the constitution can be made either as add-ons or changes to the original text. Thus, the founding fathers of the constitution regarded the Bill of right’s concept mainly to safeguard and preserve the rights of the future citizens of the U.S.A. It is the bill of rights that usher freedom of speech, freedom of religion, right to self-defense, etc. An American citizen should owe to the founding fathers of the constitution for granting everyone rights that are irretrievable The foundation of the American constitution is very strong and has not undergone many changes since it was introduced. The constitution is a great invention because of its contemporary usage and is still in its original form. The American constitution describes the limitations of the federal government and safeguards the natural rights of the citizens. Bill of rights offers the right to speech, right to profess any religion, right to bear arms, safeguarding against irrational search and seizures, right to due process and equal protection, etc. Bill of Rights was altered by the amendments to the American constitution through the initial ten amendments and it guaranteed important rights to every citizen. Abraham Lincoln had suspended the constitutional rights many times during the civil war which denied fundamental rights such as the approach to court with Habeas Corpus petition. Likewise, during Red Scare in 1919, civil rights were suspended due to series of terrorist bombings. It is a misfortune that an act like the USA Patriot Act has been enacted in America which offers sweeping powers to the American government which has undermined and bypassed the role of the Courts in major areas like attorney-client rights, eavesdropping, and arresting any suspect without a court order. The intent of the American constitution is that no one branch should be entrusted with exclusive power and there should be enough checks and balances among branches of government. However, taking into account the vast changes in the global scenario, the bill of rights should be amended to suit the changing climate like economic globalization, advancement in health care, development in intellectual property rights, and new crimes like terrorism. Further, the amendment should be made on the right to bear arms to restrict scrupulous shooting in public places, to curb the power of the government to authorize unreasonable searches and seizures and to impose a ban on the death penalty. To me, Thomas Jefferson is correct that American the Constitution should be rewritten every few years to represent the generation’s values. It is to be remembered when the Constitution was written, the Framers had no way of knowing what challenges the future may bring like human cloning, abortion, death penalty, gun control, etc. Due to globalization and change in the economy, it is the need of the hour for the Americans to introduce serious changes in the bill of rights and in the American constitution to tailor the same to make fit for our current times. (Marien 56). \|U.S Constitution then\|\|U.S Constitution now\| \|1. States were empowered to frame their own rules for age for voting and other qualifications\|\|14thAmendment empowers all men of 21 to be eligible to vote. 15thAmendment ensured that voting for all races. The 19thConstitutional amendment granted voting rights for women. 26thAmendment has lowered the voting age to 18 for all elections.\| \|2. Congress vested with vast powers\|\|The first eight amendments limit the power of Congress and Congress cannot intrude with the Bill of rights.\| \|3. Bill of rights grants certain rights like no one can be arrested without a warrant. Further, an accused should be allowed to engage a counsel before deposing anything. Police should inform the accused of his basic rights before getting any written statement from him which is known as ‘Miranda rights.’\|\|USA Patriot Act has been enacted in America which offers sweeping powers to the American government which has undermined and bypassed the role of the Courts in major areas like attorney-client rights, eavesdropping, and arresting any suspect without a court order\| \|4. The main intention of the constitution framers is to accord the role of Commander-in-Chief to President of U.S.A. is to sanction power to President to prevent or initiate attacks against, or by the United States. Thus, the President of America has been assigned with responsibility for leading the armed forces of the U.S.A. in case of any emergency.\|\|There are checks and balances under the American constitution that restrict the President’s power to wage war without the approval of Congress. A special Act is known as “The War Powers Act of 1973 ” was enacted to address the issue especially limiting the U.S. President’s power to wage war. The main aim of the Act is to engage the President and Congress in the decision-making process which may ultimately force the United States into hostilities. Without the concrete Congressional approval, the President of the United States lacks the power to wage war beyond 60 days.\| \|5. The foundation of the American constitution is very strong and has not undergone many changes since it was introduced. The constitution is a great invention because of its contemporary usage and is still in its original form.\|\|George Washington, founding father of the American constitution, christened the constitution as ‘supreme law of the land’ since no law may be enacted that challenges its basic principles. The innovations that the founding fathers of the constitution introduced amendments to the constitution that can be made either as add-ons or changes to the original text. Thus, the founding fathers of the constitution regarded the Bill of right’s concept mainly to safeguard and preserve the rights of the future citizens of the U.S.A. It is the bill of rights that usher freedom of speech, freedom of religion, right to self-defense, etc. An American citizen should owe to the founding fathers of the constitution for granting everyone rights that are irretrievable and can be taken as advantageous on a daily basis.\| Federal Government.” The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed. 2007. L.Wells, Michael, and Thomas A. Eaton. Constitutional Remedies: A Reference Guide to the United States Constitution. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002. Marien, Michael. “A New Bill of Rights for Americans: The Futurist. 2008: 56+.
The title of this chapter, "Drawing with Brushes" is shorthand for applying brush strokes to paths. You'll have more fun, be more productive, and be less frustrated if you take a moment to appreciate the difference. Envision a graphic artist a hundred years ago choosing from a set of feather pens. Or, for a more modern example, imagine a painter with an array of paintbrushes. Now forget that image and read on. For all practical purposes, drawing a path and applying a brush stroke are generally two distinct processes in digital design, particularly in Illustrator. Remember that the heart of Illustrator is the ability to define vector paths, usually using the Pen or Pencil tool. The paths can have an almost infinite variety of fills, stroke properties, and other effects. Among these effects is an amazing variety of brushlike stroke attributes. You can select a brush from Illustrator's Brushes palette and "paint" with it, using a mouse or drawing tablet. The advantage is that you can draw a path and apply stroke attributes all at once. The disadvantage is that you have to manage both drawing and strokes simultaneously. You'll learn how later in this chapter. However, for most of the techniques in this chapter the assumption is that you have drawn your path, and are now ready to apply brush stroke attributes to that path. #25 Applying or Drawing with Brushes As noted in the introduction to this chapter, there are two ways to use the Paintbrush tool. You can draw with the brushes, or you can apply them to existing strokes. Drawing with the Paintbrush tool is similar to drawing with the Pencil tool. The main difference is that drawing with the Paintbrush tool applies the selected brush stroke to a path as you draw ( Figure 25a ). Figure 25a Selecting the Paintbrush tool in the toolbox. To draw a brush stroke in one step, select the Paintbrush tool. In the Brushes palette, choose a brush stroke. Then draw as you would with the Pencil tool ( Figure 25b ). Figure 25b Drawing a path with the Paintbrush tool and a brush selected. You can apply a brush pattern to a stroke by selecting the stroke and clicking on a brush in the Brushes palette. This works for strokes that already have a brush applied; selecting a brush in the Brushes palette changes the applied stroke. The Brushes palette has four icons on the bottom ( Figure 25c ). Figure 25c The Brushes palette. To remove a brush stroke from a selected path, click the Remove Brush Stroke icon at the bottom of the Brushes palette menu ( Figure 25d ). Figure 25d brushesremoving brush stroke from pathpathsremoving brush stroke fromremovingRemoving a brush stroke. The Options of Selected Object button opens a different set of options for each type of brush. The New Brush icon allows you to define a custom brush. Both options will be explored in the remaining techniques in this chapter, which discuss the four types of brushes. The Delete Brush icon is not used to remove a brush from a stroke; it deletes the brush from the palette.
There are several different types of tumours that can occur in the adrenal gland. They can develop in either the outer part of the gland (the cortex) or the inner part of the gland (the medulla). Tumours can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer). Benign tumours of the cortex are called adrenocortical adenomas, and malignant tumours are called adrenocortical carcinomas (ACC). Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is often known simply as adrenal cancer and affects 1-2 people per million per year, making it a rare form of cancer. ACC in adults tends to occur in people in their 50s and 60s and is more common in women than in men. Most ACC’s are sporadic (meaning that they do not run in families), but they may sometimes be part of a congenital (present at birth) and/or familial (passed down in families) condition. What are the Adrenal Glands? The body has two walnut-sized adrenal glands, one above each of the kidneys (‘ad-renal’ means ‘next to the kidney’). Even though the glands are small they are important as they produce several hormones (the body’s chemical messengers) that are important for life. The adrenal medulla (the inner area of the adrenal gland) makes a number of hormones called catecholamines, mainly adrenaline and noradrenaline. These hormones help the body to maintain blood pressure and deal with sudden stress or threats. The adrenal cortex (outer area of the gland) makes hormones called steroids, mainly cortisol (also known as glucocorticoid) and aldosterone (also known as mineralocorticoid). These steroids help the body to maintain blood pressure as well as salt and sugar levels. Cortisol is also an important messenger in our bodies’ response to stress and illness. What is Cancer? The body is made up of hundreds of millions of living cells. Normal body cells grow, divide, and die in an orderly way. During the early years of a person’s life, normal cells divide faster to allow the person to grow. After the person becomes an adult, most cells divide only to replace worn out, damaged, or dying cells. Cancer begins when cells in a part of the body start to grow out of control. There are many kinds of cancer, but they all start because of this out-of-control growth of abnormal cells. Cancer cell growth is different from normal cell growth. Instead of dying, cancer cells keep on growing and form new cancer cells. These cancer cells can grow into (invade) other tissues, something that normal cells cannot do. Being able to grow out of control and invade other tissues is what makes a cell a cancer cell. Carcinoma is the medical term used to describe tumours that are cancerous and malignant (having the ability to spread and invade other tissue). In most cases the cancer cells form a tumour. Tumours can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer). When cancer cells from solid tumours get into the bloodstream or lymph vessels, they can travel to other parts of the body. There they begin to grow and form new tumours that replace normal tissue. This process is called metastasis. No matter where a cancer may spread, it is always named for the place where it started. For instance, breast cancer that has spread to the liver is still called breast cancer, not liver cancer. Likewise, prostate cancer that has spread to the bone is called metastatic prostate cancer, not bone cancer. Different types of cancer can behave very differently. For example, lung cancer and breast cancer are very different diseases. They grow at different rates and respond to different treatments. That is why people with cancer need treatment that is aimed at their own kind of cancer. Throughout this website, where we use the term ‘tumour’, we are talking about a malignant growth within the adrenal gland, known as Adrenocorticol Carcinoma or ACC for short. For more detailed information on all aspects of ACC, download our free patient information book.
Consequences of the Columbian Exchange Complete and submit this assignment by the due date to receive full credit. (50 points) 1. Write an essay on one unintended consequence of the Columbian Exchange. To begin, read the examples of actions and consequences below, and note how each consequence was intended or unintended. Some European sailors and conquistadors have smallpox. Sailors come in contact with Native Americans, who contract the disease and die after infecting their relatives and neighbors, who continue to spread the disease. Unintended: Europeans did not intentionally infect Native Americans with diseases. Europeans bring rice and wheat with them and plant the crops in the New World. Rice and wheat become important crops in many parts of North America. Intended: Europeans intended to grow rice and wheat in the New World to supplement the native crops. Europeans take potatoes from the New World back to Europe. Potatoes become an important crop, so much so that some European countries begin to depend on them as their main food source. Both: Intended: Europeans intended to grow potatoes in Europe to supplement the native crops. Unintended: Some European countries became overly dependent on the potato as a food source. Affluent Europeans buy sugar from merchants in European cities. Millions of people in Africa are kidnapped by African slave traders and sold to European sugar cane planters in the Caribbean. Unintended: The demand for sugar in Europe became so great that sugar cane growers needed more workers to tend crops. They expanded the slave trade that had started in Africa and brought slaves to the Americas to tend the crops. Spanish conquistadors bring horses with them to the New World. Some horses escape. Native Americans catch the horses and learn to ride and train them. They become expert horsemen. Unintended: At first Native Americans were afraid of horses, but they soon saw their value and learned to use them to their benefit. Europeans bring cattle with them to the New World. Cattle ranches become a profitable business and beef becomes a major American food source. Intended: Europeans intended to raise cattle in the New World to supplement native sources of meat. Conduct Research, Choose a Topic, and Write a Thesis Statement Conduct some online exploration to find more consequences of the Columbian Exchange, and decide whether they are intended or unintended. Choose one unintended consequence that you found or one of the examples listed above and do in-depth research on it. Gather details such as locations or countries, key people, populations involved, and ways in which the unintended consequence can be seen many years or even centuries later. Then, write the consequence in the form of a question, such as, “How did the introduction of the horse to the New World change the lives of Native Americans?” Use the question to formulate a thesis statement for your essay. The thesis should answer the question. Using the sample question above, the thesis would be, “Plains Indians domesticated horses from Europe. They became famous for their skill in hunting and fighting from horseback.” Write your thesis statement in one or two clear sentences. Thesis Statement: Write Your Essay Write an essay that supports your thesis statement. Include details such as locations or countries, key people, populations involved, and ways in which the unintended consequence can be seen many years or even centuries later. The Columbian Exchange started when Christopher Columbus went on his first voyage to the Americas in 1492 and at that time the people from both hemispheres were interested in new products and suffered from new diseases. The biggest impact in that time was the start of new agriculture crops in each hemisphere. An unintended negative impact of the Columbian Exchange was disease. Before Christopher Columbus went back home from the New World, there were things that the world didn’t have that the Americas had like potatoes. No one grew potatoes outside the Americas, but after a few centuries it became one of Europe’s main foods. Potatoes were also a very important ingredient to make Russian Vodka. Russian Vodka became Russia’s main export. Chocolate became popular in Europe as well. Portuguese transported maize and peanuts to Africa. It was easier to grow them there, especially in Southern Africa. The growing of these crops increased the population in the region. Europe also brought livestock to the Americas which is huge impact. The Spanish people introduced horses to the Americas and it was important to the Americas because it created a nomadic lifestyle for many native tribes. Cattle was introduced by Europeans which helped the Americas to raise livestock on land that was hard to farm on. An unintended negative impact of the Columbian Exchange was disease. European people carried germs which they were pretty much immune to but the people in the Americas weren’t immune to these germs which destroyed most of the population. Around 70% of South Americans were gone. Small pox was also brought from Europe to the Native Americans which caused many to die.

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